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Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent Atre fiimis d des taux de reduction diffirents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reproduit en un seul clichA, il est filmA d partir de Tangle supArieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en has, en prenant le nombre d'images nAcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 / I fe' / V I THE TREASURY OF HISTORY; BEiira A HISTORY OF THE WORLD : OOXFEISINO A GENEEAL IIISTOKY, BOTH. AXCIENT AND MODEKN, ALL THE PRINCIPAL NATIONS OF THE GLOBE, THEIB RISE, PROGRKSH, I'RESENI CONDITION, ETC. BY SAMUEL MAUNDER, AUTHOR OF "the TREASDRY OF KNOWLKDOK," " BIOQRATHICAL TRBASDRY," ETC. TO WRICn IS ADDED, A COMPLETE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES TO THE PRESENT TIME, INCLUDINO €^ rntc Wm luitl; ^Inm, Cnlifnniin, rtr. EDITED BY JOHN INMAN, ESQ. THK WHOLE EMBELLISHED WITH NtlMEKOlS ENOIiAVIXliS, (lioME OF WHICH ARE BEAUTIFULLV Cnl.oltKI)) IIEI'IIESENTINO BATTLE SrENES, VIEWS OF CITIES THE CnySTAI, PALACE, FI.A09 OF THE DIFFEIiENT NATIONB, ' CORONATIONS, PROCESSIONS, COSTUMES, ETC. ETC. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY HENRY BILL. 1852. Entered according to Act of CongresB, in the year 1861, Bt Henat Bni., In Uio Clerk's ^ce of the District Court for the Southern District of New Tork. INTRODUCTION TO THE AMERICM EDITION. . r ear 18B1. District of New York. The republication of this valuable work has been undertaken partly on account of the high favour with which it has been received in Eng- land, but chiefly in consideration of its intrinsic value, arising from the felicitous adaptation of the plan to a want that has been long and gen- erally felt, and from the judgment and fidelity manifested in its execution. The idea of giving in a single work, of no very formidable dimensions, and at a price which brings it within the reach of very moderate circum- stances, a sufficient outline of the world's whole history, and similar out- lines of the history of every nation, is so obviously judicious and appro- priate as to require no eulogium. Every person who cares at all for the acquisition of useful knowledge, must desire to possess such a general knowledge of past events, not only in his own country but in all coun- tries, as shall enable him to understand the perpetually recurring allu- sions that are found in almost any course of general reading; because for want of such understanding there is always a serious diminution both of pleasure and profit, even in the perusal of such works as are designed chiefly for amusement. For instance, most of Sir Walter Scott's novels are founded upon history, and abound with references to historical events and personages, a want of some acquaintance with which detracts se- riously from the interest and delight they s'f ho wel? quc.'.ified to awaken and so of most other works belonging tie better class of what is called light literature. But the difficulty has -een to obtain this genera, knowledge without going through many books, requiring a greater ex- penditure of time and money than most persons are able or willing to afford ; and to obviate such difficulty has been the purpose of Mr. Maun- der. His plan has the merit of completeness, and is undoubtedly the best that could have been desired. He gives first a general sketch of ancient and modern history — a rapid and comprehensive bird's-eye view, as it were, of the rise and progress of nations, the most important incidents of tlieir career, and their relations to each other; and after this he takes up I lie nations separately, furnisliing a concise digest of all that it is im- portiiiit or desirable to know concerning each, and thus affording a sort of key to the changes and events that were more briefly indicated, rather t>y their results than by their incidents, in the general sketch or outline. A s^t^p % /■ *,■ < .^.' / ■ v. T» INTRODUCTION. 'I'tius the salient points of history are broufl;ht within a manageable com- pass, and an excellent foundation is laid for more thorough and extensive reading in reference to any portion of the world or any epoch of which a complete knowledge may be desired. In the execution of this plan the author has been very successful. His notices of historical events, though brief, are lucid and satisfactory ; and he traces the connection of effect and cause with singular acuintii and generally with most commendable freedom from partiality or bias ; thus supplying a very good idea of the philosophy of history as well as of the facts which history records. Upon the portion devoted to American History particular attention has been bestowed in this edition, in order to supply a deficiency which has long been felt regarding the events which have transpired since the war of the Revolution. While most historians have deemed that the reader and student need to be particularly well informed with respect to every engagement which has occurred in our struggle for liberty, they have almost entirely over- looked the equally important measures and events which have transpired in cabinet and in council. To remedy this neglect has been aimed at in this history, and consequently the editor has contented himself with a recapitulation of the battles of the Revolution, which wHl be found suffi- ciently minute for the general reader, and devoted himself more fully to an account of the political history of the nation since the close of the war, thus supplying a narrative, which, though long wanted, has never yet been given in a connected an'I distinct form. In a word, the work will be found invaluable to the general reader, and a very useful help to the studep* i f i 4' > .1 ' i9^M^ CONTENTS OF VOL. I. ^9 PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS, Historical, Cbbonolooical, and Okoobaphical Tbb OiTiaioNS or Histobt .... General Histobt of Modern Eurofc CimoNOLoaT ....... Geoqrafrical Sketch or the World ■ . Divisions or the Earth .... 19 21 31 38 39 80 INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE SKETCH OP GENERAL HISTORY. CHAPTER I.— Of the Origin of the Worid, and the FrimitiTe Condition of Mankind 83 CHAFTEB II.— From the Delage to the Settlement of the Jews in Canaan . 35 CHAPTER in. — The Fabulous and Heroic Ages, x^, the institation of the Olympic Games 37 CHAPTER IV.— From the institution of the Olympic Games, to the death of Cyrus 3S CHAPTER V. — From the erection of the Persian Empire, to the divinon of the Grecian Empire after the Death of Alexander . . . .40 CH .irr* ,R VI.— From the Wars of Rome and Carthage, to the Birth of Christ 41 CHAPTER VII. — From the beginning of the Christian era, to the appearance of Mahomet 49 CHAPTER VIII. — From the rise of Mahomet, to the commencement of the Crusades 45 CHAPTER IX.— From the first Crusade, to the Death of Saladin . . . 48 CHAPTER X.— From the Death of Saladin, to the end of the Crusades . . 82 CHAPTER XI.— From the time of Genghis Khan, to that of Tamerlane . 54 CHAPTER XII.— From the time of Tamerlane, to the Sixteenth Century . 65 CHAPTER XIII.— The Reformation, and progress of events during the Siz> teecth Century 55 Vi CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIV. — From tno commencement of the S: venteenth Centniy, to the Peace of Westphalia ... 59 CHAPTEB XV.— From the Civil War in England, to the Peace of Ryswick . 61 CHAPTEB XVI.— Commencement of the Eighteenth Century, to the Peace of Utraoht .64 CHAPTEB XVIL— The Age of Charles XII. of Sweden, and Peter the Great of BoMia 68 CHAPTEB XVIII.— The Affairs of Europe, from the establishment of the Hanoverian Succession in England, to the year 1740 .... 7 CHAPTEB XIX.— From the accession of the Empress Theresa, of Austria, to the Peace of Aiz-la-Chapelle 72 CHAPTEB XX. — Progress of events during the Seven Years' War in Europe, America, and the East Indies 75 CHAPTEB XXL— From the conclusion of the Seven Years' War, to the final partition of Poland 79 CHAPTEB XXII. — From the commencement of the American War, to the recognition of the Independence of the United States . . .81 CHAPTER XXIII.— From the commencement of the French Berolntin!!, to the death of Bobespierre 83 CHAPTEB XXLV.— From the establishment of the French Directorv to the Peace of Amiens 85 CHAPTEB XXV.— From the recommencement of Hostilities, to the treaty of Tilsit 88 i- CHAPTEB XXVI. — The French Invasion of Spain, and subsequent Peninsu- lar War 89 CHAPTEB XXVII.— From, the Invasion of Bussia by the French, to the res- toration of the Bourbon^ 90 CHAPTEB XXVIII.— From the return of Bonaparte from Elba, to the Gen- eral Peace , 93 EUBOPE— ASIA— AFBICA— AMEBICA ... 95 A SERIES OF SEPARATE HISTORIES. THE HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. BRITISH AND ROMAX PERIOD. CHAPTEB 1. — The British and Boman Period, to the Subjugation of the Is- land by the Saxons ... THB HEPTARCRT. CHAPTEB n.— The Heptarchy, or the seven Kingdoms of the Saxons in 97 Britain . itr » .q^ 64 72 79 . 82 a . 85 )f . 88 a- . 89 . 00 m- . 92 9f U7 CONTBNT& CHAPTER III.— The Heptarchy (continued) CHAPTER IV.— The Heptarchy (concluded) m 1.N0LQ-S AXOil iciiia*. CHAPTER v.— The Anglo-Saxons after the Diaiolution of the Heptarchy.— Reigns of Egbert, Ethel wolf, and Ethelbald CHAPTER VI.— The reigns of Ethelbert and Etheked .... CHAPTER VII.— The reign of Alfred the Great ...... CHAPTER VIII.— History of the Anglo-Saxons, from the Death of Alfred the Great to the reign of Edward the Martyr CHAPTER IX.— From the accession of Edward the Martyr to the death of Canute •••••.» CHAPTER X — The reigns of Harold and Hardicanute .... CHAPTER XI.— The reign of Edward the Confessor . . . . CHAPTER XII.— The reign of Harold the Second NORMAN LINK. CHAPTER XIII.— The reign of William I., usually styled "Willlun the Con- queror" k CHAPTER XIV.— The reign of William I. (continued) .... CHAPTER XT.- The reign of WiJliam II CHAPTER XVI.— The reign of Henry I CHAPTER XVII.— The reign of Stephen ons in iir FLANTAOSNSTS. CHAPTER XVITI.— The reign nf Henry II. ; preceded by Observations on the right a\ the English to territory in Franca CHAPTER XIX.— The reign of Henry II. (continued) CHAPTER XX.— The reign of Henry U. (concluded) CHAPTER XXL— The reign of Richard I. . . CHAPTER XXII.— The reign of John . CHAPTER XXIII.— The reign of Henry IIL CHAPTER XXIV.— The reign of Edward I. CHAPTER XXV.— Tlie reign of Edward II. CHAPTER XXVI.— The reign of Edward IIL . CHAPTER XXVn.— The reign of Richard IL . HOUSE 07 LANOASTIE. CHAPTER XXVIIL— The reign of Henry IV. . CHAPTER XXIX.— The reign of Henry V. CHAPTER XXX.— The reign of Henry VL iss 129 134 14« 195 197 163 167 175 185 192 202 209 219 229 234 241 265 278 896 307 326 342 349 359 f^ CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXXI.— The reign of Henry VI. (continued) CHAPTEB XXXU.— The reign of Henry VI. (concluded) BOVSI or TORK. CHAPTER XXXra.— The reign of Edward IV. . CHAPTER XXXIV.— The reign of Edward V. . CHAPTER XXXV.— The reign of Richaid HI. . H0V8K or TUDOB. CHAPTER XXXVI.— The reign of Henry VII. . CHAPTER XXXVII.— The reign of Henry VII. (continued) CHAPTER XXXVm.— The reign of Henry VII. (concluded) CHAPTER XXXIX.— The reign of Henry VIII. . CHAPTER XL.— The reign of Henry VIII. (continued) CHAPTER XLI.— The reign of Henry VIII. (concluded) CHAPTER XLII.— The reign of Edward VI. CHAPTER XLIII.— The reign of Edward VI. (concluded) CHAPTER XLIV.— The reign of Mary CHAPTER XL v.— The reign of Mary (concluded) CHAPTER XLVL-Tho reign of Elizabeth , CHAPTER XLVII.— The reign of Elizabeth (concluded) H0D8I or STDART. CHAPTEB XLVni.— The reign of James I. CHAPTER XLIX.— The reign of James I. (concluded) CHAPTER L.— The reign of Charles I. CHAPTER LI.— The reign of Charles I. (continned) CHAPTER LII.— The reign of Charles I. (concluded) TRK COMMOHWIALTH. CHAPTER LIIL— The Commonwoalth HOOSB or ITVART. CHAPTER LIV.— The rnign of Charles IL CHAPTER LV.— The reign of Jamos II. CHAPTER LVI.— The reign of Willinm IIL CHAPTER LVII.— The reign of Anne HOUSE or aRDNIWIOIt CHAPTER . 'III.— The Reign of George \. CHAPTER LI X. -The reign of Oeorgw H. 870 S81 39* 405 419 . 4M . 434 , 431 . 431 . 443 . 453 . 470 . 479 . 485 . 498 . 609 . 538 847 558 567 573 586 . 598 605 616 633 638 684 640 m S81 an 405 , 419 . 4W . 424 , 43S . 431 . 443 . 453 . 470 . 4T9 . 485 . 498 . 509 . 538 . 547 . 558 . 567 . 572 . 586 , . 598 . 605 . . 616 , . 623 . 698 coNTEirrs. u CHAPTER LX.— The reign of George III C52 CHAPTER LXI.— The Reign of George HI. (continued) .... 669 CHAPTER LXII.— The reign of George HI. (continued) . . . .086 CHAPTER LXni.— The reign of George m. (the Regency) . . 702 CHAPTER LXIV.— The reign of George IV. U CHAPTER LXV.— The reign of William IV. 738 CHAPTER LXVI— The reign of Victoria 7i» 2 4 634 640 ) )) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. V O L U M K I. To faca pag« Landing of Julius C^sar 100 iioADICEA IIAKANGUI.VG THK BlUTISII TrIBES 105 York, from the Ancient Ramparts 174 Death of Prince William and his Sister 201 Hubert and Prince Arthur 251 Earl Varenne defending} the Title to his Estates.. . 280 Queen Phii.ipi'a inierceuino for the Burgesses of Calais 320 Death of Wat Tyler 329 Murder of the Princes in the Tower 411 Trial op Quee.n Catherine 452 Trial of Lambert before Henry VIH., in Westminster Hall 466 Queen Elizabeth 509 Surrender of Mary Queen of Scots at Carherry Hill., 524 Loch Levin Castle '. 525 Charles L and Armor Bearer 567 Trial of Charles I 586 Cromwell dissolvino the Lono Parliament 59S Defeat of the Dutch Fleet by Blake ... 600 Dea I'll OF Ueneiial Wolfe . 651 I PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. HrSTORICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL, AND GEOGRAPHICAL. To faca page 100 105 174 201 251 ».. . 280 Calais 320 329 .. 411 .. 452 INSTCR . . . 4f)6 ... 509 iiLL.. 524 ... 525 ... 667 . . 686 . . 59S ... 600 . 651 "It is not without reason," says llollin, "that History has always been considered as the light of ages, the depository of events, the raitlifui evidence of trnth, the source of prudence and good counsel, and the rule or conduct and manners. Confined witiiout it to the boinids of the age and country wherein we live, and shut up witiiin the narrow circle of such brantfhes of knowledge as are peculiar to us, and the limits of our own private reflections, we continue in a kind of infancy, which leaves us strangers to the rest of the world, and profoundly ignunint of all that has preceded, or even now surrounds us. What is the small number of years that make up the lonjfest lile, or what the extent of country which we are able to progress or travel over, but an imperceptible point in comparison to the vast regions of the universe, and the long series of ages which have succeeded one another since the creation of the world 1 And yet all we are capable of knowing must be limited to this imperceptible point, unless we call in the study of History to our assistance, which opens to us every age and every country, keeps up a correspondence between us and the great men of antiquity, sets all their actions, all their achievements, vir- tues and faults before our eyes ; and, by t'le prudent reflections it either presents, or gives us an opportunity of making, soon teaches us to be wise before our time, and is in a maimer far superior to all the lessons of the gre!itest masters. • • • It is History which Axes the seal of im mortality upon actions truly great, and sets a mark of infamy on vices which no after age can ever obliterate. It is by History that mistaken merit and oppressed virtue, appeal to the incorruptible tribunal of pos- terity, whit-li renders them the justice their own age has sometimes refused them, and without respect of persons, and the fear of a power which sub- sists no more, condemns the unjust abuse of authority with inexorable rigour. • • • • Thus History, when it is well taught, becomes a ttchool of morality for all mankind. It condemns vice, throws off the mask from fulse virtues, lays open popular • rrors and prejudices, dispels the delusive clinrms of riches, and all the vain pomp which dazzles the imagination, and shews, by a thousand examples, that are more availing than all reiisiinint;s whatsoever, that nothing is great and commendable but honour and probity." The foregoing exordium is as just as it is elo- quent — as apposite as it is roniplcie. It has been very truly remarked, that the love of fame, and a desire to communicate inforniation, have influenced men in almost every iige and every nation, to leave behiinl them simic memorials u( their existence, actions and di8cov<'ries. In the earliest ages of the world, the mode oi conveying to i ■ed strength under Henry VII., and became, from time to time, mor(3 powerful under his successors, the Tudors, by its policy and its commerce, and particularly so during the reign of queen Elizabeth. After the death of Elizabeth, James VI., king of Scotland, ascended the English throne, and took the title of James I., king of Great Britain; but neither himself, nor his successors, possessed the genius or the activity of that celebrated princess. Italy was divided into many small states. Tuscany, Parma and Pla- centia, heretofore cities of the kingdom of Italy, were raised to the dig- nity of dukedoms. The princes of Florence encouraged tiie progress of the arts and sciences by honours and rewards. Venice was less consid- erable for its commerce than formerly ; the discovery of the compass en- abling other nations to partake with the Venetians in the profits arising from navigation. G( noa also experienced a considerable diminution of commerce from the same cause. The seven United Provinces, viz. Holland, &c. threw off the Spanish yoke, and became free ; while the Swiss, in the centre of their rocky fastnesses, formed governments for the protection of their liberty. Denmark, under the kings of the house of Oldenburg, now began to make a figure among the powers of Europe. The Swedes threw off the Danish yoke, and elected Guslavus Vasa for their king, who redeem- ed the lustre of the nation. Gustavus Adolpiius added considerably to its power by his valour and his victories. Russia also ns-sumed a new face. I wan Basilowitz delivered his country from tiie Tartarian yoke. Iwan Basilowitz II. extended the empire. The house of Romanof as- cended the throne, and commenced those grand sciiemes which the genius and perseverance of Peter the Great afterwards executed. Poland flourished under the Jagellon race of princes ; but these becom- mg extinct, foreigners were introduced to tiie throne. Hungary and Bo- hemia, after having had kings of different nations fell to the house of Austria. The Ottoman empire augmented its grandeur and power under Soly- man 11. After his death, tlie goverinnunt falling into the hands of indo- lent and cfTeininate princes, became considerably v.'eakened, and the un- bridled power of the Janissaries now arrived at its highest pitch. SEVENTH PERIOD. — (1618 — 17] 4,) The political system of Europe experienced a change at the com- uicncement of this period. France extended its territory, and becain*. w PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS, »ery powerrti under Louis XIV. ; but tlie wars carried on by this pnnce agHiiist Spain, Holland, and the empire, exhausted the resources of tlie kingdom. Germany presented some interesting clianges. Leopold established a nintii electorate in favour of the house of Hanover. Augustus, elector of Saxony, was elected king of Poland; an-! George, elector of Hanover, ascended the throne of Great Britain. Prussia was erected into a king- dom under Frederic, the third elector of Brandenburg, who took the title of Frederic \. Spain lost power under the latter princes of Austria, and was dismem- bered by the " succession" war, which terminated in favour of the house of Bourhon. Alphonsus VI., king of Portugal, was deposed and the kingdom de- clared independent of Spain by the peace of Lisbon. In England, Charles I. was beheaded, and the monarchy abolished. Oliver Cromwell was declared protector of the Conintonwealih, which lasted but a short time after his death. The Stuart family were estab- lished again on the throne. James II. abdicated. V\ illlam, sladlholder of the United Provinces, was elected king, and secured the succession of the house of Hanover at the death of Anne. Italy underwent an almost entire change by the peace of Utrecht; the house of Austria was put in possession of its most fertile countries. At the same time the house of Savoy, profiting both by tlie war and the peace, increased its possessions in Italy, and thereby raised its influence in Europe. The United Provinces increased in riches and power: their indepen- dence was secured by the peace of Westphalia; but they engiiged in wars whii'h drained them of their treasures, without augmeniing their power. The republics of Switzerland and of Venice ai)peared to he of less con- sequence among the European slates than heretofore ; but the former eon- timiod to be liappy in its mountains; the latter tranquil among its lakes. Sweden, whose power was prodigious under Charles X. and Charles XII., lost much of its grandeur after the defeat of the latter prince at Fultowa. Russia became almost on a sudden enlightened and powerful, under the auspices of Peter the Great. Poland, uufortiuiate under .lolui Ca.siuiir, was made respectable under John Sobieski. Hungary was desolated by continual intestine war, and deluged with the blood of its own inhabitants. The Ottoman eiripire continued weak under princes incapable of gov- erning, who placed the sceptre in the hands of ministers altogether as weak and incapable as themselves. EIGHTH PERion. — (1714—178!).) This period was replete in negotiation, in treaties, and in wars. The balance of power, intended systematically to produce pi'rpctual peace, had, on the contrary, been the means of exciting coiitlnn;il war. The peace of Utrecht, siyned by almost all the powers of Europe, failed to re(;oncile the emperor and the king of Spain. Philip V. counnenced war. The English and Dutch procured the treaty of Vienna, in 1731. which i)Ul an end to that calamity ; but a lu^w war commenced on the e 'ection of a king (if Poland. France declared war aj^ainst the empenir, which termi- nated by the peace of Vienna. The dcatii of Charles VI., l?-!!*, produced a new war, more important than the former was, and of longer duration. Fr;ince look the part of the electorof Bavaria, as a ccmipeiilor for imperial dignity against the house of Austria. Tlie success of the arms of the Frt'iicli and Bavarians, induced the (]ueeii of Hungary to dciacli tiie kiny of Prussia fniin the alliance. The defcclioii of Ibis jiriin'c clian^ed llie ♦ace of alTairs; and llie subsequent victories of niitrshal Saxe obliged the M13T011ICAL, CHIIONOLOGICAL AND OEOGHAPHICAL. SW beH'iBereiit powers to conclude the peace of Aix-lc-Chapelle, which al- furdod bill a short Crilin to ciisuiiguiiied Europe. Tlie houses of Bourbon and Austria, so long enemies and rivals, now united their eflforls to main- tain the balance of power. But the English and French soon found pre- text for new disagreements, and war was again declared. The king of Prussia took pari with the Eiii,'li8h, and the kingof Spain with the French. This war terminated much in I'avour of the English, and peace was con- cluded ill 1763. In Italy the houses of Austria and Bourbon had the prin- cipal sway. Savoy, assisted by England, augmented its power: the island of Sardinia was given in exchange for Sicily. Cliarles Emanuel III. joined a small part of the Milanese to this territory, and Corsica be- came a province to France. In Holland, William IV., prince of Orange, was declared sladtlioldcr of the Seven United Provinces. Sweden, after the death of Charles XII., underwent an entire change : the house of Holslein-Eulin asceivled the throne. Gusiavus III., the second kingof tliis family, seized upon the liberties of his people, and be- •;:inie a despot. In Kuissia the four princesses who had held the sceptre since tiie death of Peter tlie Great, rendered the empire worthy of the fireat genius who may be sly' id its founder. Poland was dismembered 't by its three powerful neighbours, Russia, Austria and Prussia. ■P.^ Prussia, which had not ceased to aggrandize itself since the elector of %i Brandenburg received the title of king, was raised to the height of grandeur V »nd power under the wise government of that celebrated hero and philo- I sopher, Frederic II. ••'y In Turkey, Aclimet III. was obliged to surrender his crown to his -i nephew, Moliammed V. Mustapha III. espoused the cause of the Poles ^i against the Russians, and sustained great losses. His successor, Acliinet IV. |)iit an end to this unfortunate war by a peace, to gain which he made great sacrifices. Tilt) English colonies in America revolted from the mother country, threw off its yoke, and declared themselves independent. France, Spain and Holland, declared in their fav«)iir ; when after a war of eight years, it was terminated by in 1783 by a peace, whereby they were acknowledged as an independent nation. NINTH PERIOD. — (1789 — 1815.) This period was ushered in by one of the greatest revolutions that evei happened in Eiiro[)e, or the world. The French, so long habituated to despotism, threw off,as it were in a moment, the yoke imposed upon them and their forefathers for many ages. Their king, Louis XVI., apparently joined in the effort, but at length, wanting firmness for so trying an occa- sion, prevaricated, and attempted to fly ; he was seized, tried, iniqiiitously condemned and executed. His queen, Antoinette of Austria, suffered also under the giiillDtine. The powers of Europe, headed by the emperor and the king of P^n^^.siil, coalesced together to crush the revolutionary spirit of France. Great Britain, Spain, Russia, H(dland, Sardinia, Naples, the Pope, and a variety of inferior powers, joined the confederacy : to this was added a powerful parly in the interior, and the flames of civil war spread far and wide. Massacre, rapine and horror, stalked through the land : iiolwitlistHiKling which, the Convention formed a ironstitutioii, levied numerous armies, and conquered Holland, the Netherlands, and all the country west of the |{liine. Italy submitted also to the Gallic republi- cans ; and Germany was penetrated to its centre. Several changes look [)lacH in the government Buonaparte conquered Egypt: and, in his absence, France lost great |:rtvt of his conquests in Italy. He returned, and assuming the government under the title of first consul, reconquered Italy. Soon after, he established the Italian repub- lic ; was liinuelf constituted president; aud made peace with England. M!. ^ : I «t PUKLIMlNAliy OBSEUVAIIONS, which lasted but a short time. A new war cori' and mineral. The second, or Civil Geography, includes the various n aions of the earth, as divided into empires, kingdoms, republics, provinces, &c., and the origin, language, religion, government, political power, commerce, education and manners and customs of those nations. The form of the earth is very nearly spherical ; the polar axis being only about 38 miles shorter than the equatorial ; and as the diameter is nearly 8000 miles, so slight a difference in a globular body would be im perceptible. In the study of Geography, maps and globes are indispensable ; but, owing to their form, globes give a better idea of the relative sizes and sit- uations of countries than can be learned from maps. The earth has an annual and a diurnal motion ; it moves completely round the sun in about 365 days, 6 hours; and turns comfletely round, as if on an axis or spindle, from west to east, in about 34 hours: an imag- inary line, therefore, passing through its centre, is called ts Axit. The extremities of the axis are called Pules — North and South — the one near est to the country we inhabit being the North Pole. A line drawn round a globe is obviously a circle; and as various circles are described on artificial globes, for reasons hereafter mentioned, we speak of them as though they were really so delineated on the earth'* surface. The principal circles on the globe are the Equator, the i^cliptic, the Tropic of Cancer, the Tropic of Capricorn, and the Arctic ar.vl Antarctic circles. All circles are considered as divisible into 3G0 equal narts, called degrees; each degree into 60 minutes, and each minute into fO seconds: H degree is thus marked ", a minute thus', and a second 'hus ": so that 28^ 52' 36" means 28 degrees, 52 minutes, 36 seconds. And as a whole circle contains 3G0 degrees, a semi-circle (or half a circle) will con tain 180°, and a quadrant (or quarter of a circle) 90°. That circle on the surface of the globe which is everywhere equally di8> iant from each pole, is called the Equator; and it divides the elobe into two equal parts or Hemispheres, the Northern and Southern. The appel- lation Equator, or Equinoctiid {noctes (cquantur), is given to it, because, when the sun, through the annual motion of the earth, is seen in this cir- cle, the days and nignts are equal in every part of the world. The Ecliptic is so called, because, all eclipses rf the sun or moon can so Paia.lMINARY OBSKRVATION* only take place when the moon is in or near thai circle. This circle ik described on the terrestrial globe solely for the purpose of performing a greater number of problems. The Tropics are two parallels to the equator, drawn through the eclip- tic, at those points where the ecliptic is at the greatest distance from the equator; which is about 33° 30' from the equator, on either side. When the sun is opposite to one of the tropics, those people who are as far from the corresponding pole as the tropic is from the equator, see the sun for more than twenty-four hours. This is the case with every part nearer to the poles, but never with any part farther from them. To point out this peculiarity, a circle is described on the globe, 234° from each pole One of these Pu!ar Circlet is called the Arctic, the other the Antarctic ; sig- nifying the north, and that which is opposite to the north. The Zones (so called from a Greek word signifying belts or girdles) de- note those spaces between the several principal circles before described. Thus between the poles and polar circles are the two frigid zones, be- tween the two frigid zones and the tropics are the two temperate zones, and between the two tropics the torrid zone ; deriving these appellations from the temperature of the atmosphere. The Latitude of a place is its distance froin the equator. It is measureti by the number of degrees, &c., in the arc of the meridian, between the place and the equator; and is called North or SuufA, according as the place is north or south of the equator. Limptude is the distance of any place from a given spot, generally the capilalof the country, measured in a direction east or west, either along the equator or any circle parallel t'j it. The Kiiglish measure their Ion- giiudeeast and W(>st of Greenwich, the French east and west of Paris, &c Mcrtdians, or circles of longili'iles, are so called from meridtcs, or mid- day; bcciiiise, as the earth makes one coinplele revolution n)und its own axis in tweiuy-fonr hours, every part of its surface must Ln the course of that time he directly opposi'.t! to the sun. The sun, therefore, st that point, will appear at its greacest altitude, or, in other words, it will be mid'day or noon. Divisions or thk KiiRTii. It was usual until the present century to speak of the great divisions of the Karth as the Four Quarlrrs of the World, viz; Kurope, Asia, .M'rica, and America. Hnt a more scientific distribution has since been oenerally adopted; and the chief terrestrial divisions of the earth's surface are now thus enumerated : Europe, Asia, Africa, North atid South Amcrtca, Australia, and Poli/nesia. Of these, Kurojie, Asia, and Africa, form the lOartern Hemisphere, (or the Old World); and America the Western Hemisphere, which, frotn its not being known to Kur()i)eaiis till iIk; close of the 15tb oentury, is called the Ni^w World. Australia includes that extensive re- gion called New-Holland, together with New-Zealand and adjacent isles; and Polynesia comprehends tht? ninnerous groups of volcanic and corallne islands m the Pacinc Ocean, exteniliiig eastward to the Philippine Islands and from New-Guuiea to the coast of America. The Orean occupies about two thirds of thc! earth's surface; and its waters are conslanlly encroaching upon the land in some places, and re- ceding from it in others. To this cause may he atliiltiiled the formation of many islands in diffrrent parts of the worid. The greatest depth of the oceai' which has been ascertained, i-* aliont 000 fathoms; its mean depth is estimated at about 800 fathoms. Near the tropics it. is extremely suit, but the Silliness considerahlv diminishes towards the jioles. This immense expanse of water is divided into siualler oceans or seas, giilfs, buys, Ac., Innilcd partly by real, partly l)y ima^iniary boniidari(^s The l'ii<]lic Oceuii, which covers nearly one third of the eiirth's surface •1 HISTORICAL, CHRONOLOGICAL, AND GEOGRAPHICAL. 31 inns of A '.Vic 11. iiprally now alralin, •liirtcrn plHTO, 15lli ivo rn- islcs ; iraline Isismds md !t» ml ro- n-'ition »r (lift (l('|)ih Halt, aricm rfac» and is about 10,000 miles in breadth, lies between the eastern coast of Asia and Australia, and the western coast of America. The AUaiUic Ocean lies between Europe and Africa on tlie east, and America on the west. The Pacific and Atlantic Oceans are each distinguished into North and South. The Indian Ocean is bounded by Asia, Africa, and Auslraha. 'I'he Arctic or Frozen Ocean, lies to the north of Europe, Asia, and part of America. The Southern Ocean lies south of all the continents. In this condensed Work which we now submit to the public, it will not be expccied that the manifold uses and advantages of a knowledge of His- tory could be discussed, or that many facts and reasonings which might elucidate obscure or controverted passages could be brought forward; but we trust it will generally be found that the materials we have made use of have been derived from the must accurate sources of historical infor- mation ; that while a great mass of matter has been brought together, it may, at the same time, appear, that judgment and circumspection have been used in proportion to the importance and difficulty of the task; and, moreover, that truth and impartiality have been regarded beyond all other considerations. Upon events which have recently occurred, or are in progress at the present moment, we know that different opinions will pre- vail and therefore, in relating such transactions, an honest and fearless regard for truth and the good of society is the bounden duty of every one who presumes to narrate them. Hy this golden rule we have endeavoured to abide, and humbly hope we have suci^icded. Tiie idea of iiiakliig the Tkeasuhv uk Historv extend toanother volume was at first entertained; and, in truth, no small portion of it was prepared under an iinprcssion that such was inevitable. If, therefore, it should appeal that some of the Histories have not due space allotted to them, tins fact is offered as our most valid reason for sucli apparent inequality : but it is by no means inteiiiied as an excuse for the luiigtii of the History of England; for it is almost impossible to speak of any great events which have occur- red among civilized nations — especially within the last century — that do not, directly or indirectly, bear on Uritish interests, and which consequent- ly, come within our province to notice. It seems, however, that a few words of an explanatory or apologetio nature are still necccssary. To be brief, then: — A uniform method ol spelling foreign proper names has not always been rigidly adhered to; or, it may be, sucii names are spelt difTfieiitly in other works. For instance, we have written Genghis-Khan, as the most usual orthography ; but we have found it elsewhere written Zmgis Khan, Cinfris Khan, and Jenghis Khan. The name of Mahomel, or Mohammed, is wrilien both ways, and each has its advocates, though modern custom, we tiiiiik, is in favour of the latter method. Many others niiglil, of course, be mentioned; but in none arc so many variations to be found as in the Chinese names. It may also happen that the transactions of one ronntry may appear to he given more fully than necessary in the history of another; and iice i..isa. The necessity of avnidiiig needless repetitions, in a work so condcnsiid, and the desire at the same tiini: to omit noiliing of iin[,ortance, must plc.idour excuse for such faults, while the too frequiMil absence of a vigorous or elegant stylo of ciMiiposition, may be llioii<;lit to require a siiniiar apology. We are, indeed, fully sensible that, wiiii all our cans many iinperl'cctiona will be founil, and ilial we must rely rhn'lly iipmi llie camloiir and lilieraiity )f that public, wiiosc kind 8ii|)pi>r'. ami encoiiragement on former occasions )ve !iave felt and gratefully acknowledged. I J %-#^ '■.7; THK TREASURY OF HISTORY INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE SKETCH or G E i^ E U A 1. ins T 11 Y. I t 1 I ('HAl'TEU I. THE ANTEDIIXVIAN WORLD. Histonv, beyoiii] all other siiulifis. is calculalnd to enliitlitf-n the jiidj^- mciiit itiid cnhiiBi! th(; uiulei-stiiiidint;. Every pnge eonveys some usei'iil lesson, every sentence has its moral; and its range is as boundless as its nmtter is various. It is accordingly adinitied, as an indispulahh! iixioin, that there is no species of lilcrary composition to which liie lacnliies of the mind can he more laiidalily directed, or from which more useful infor- mation may lie deriviMJ. While it imparts to us a knowlcdjfe of man m his social relations, and thereby enaliius lis to divest ourselves of many errors and prejudices, it lends to strengihen our abhorrence of vice, and creates an honourable ambition for the attaiimient of true greatnes^ iiiid solid glory. Nay, if considered as a mere sourct? of rational aiiiusctneiit, History will still be found inliiiitely superior to the exlravajirant fictions af romance, or ihi! distorted pictures of living manners; for by the /lahit- ual perusal of these, however polished their style or i|uaint their humour, the midlect is IVeqiteiitly debilitated, and the luMri too often c(irrii()ted. In all the re( prds (d' ancient history there is a mixture of p()eij<-ai fable ; nor is it wholly to thi! historian's immaturity of reason, or to the general supersliljoii that prevailed in remote ages, that wv are to ascribe this pre- dilection for niiU'vellous and wild narralion. It has with great truth been 8;iid that the lirsl transactions of men, were bidd and exiravagant— tiieir nmbitlon being morii to astonish their fellow-creatiircs by the v.islness of their designs, and the difnciilties Ihey <'ould overcome, llniii by any ra tioiial and extensive jilaii of public utiiily. Moilern history, liow(!ver, claiiiiN our more |)arlicul;ir reg:ird. In that is described tliosi- actions iiiid events which have a necessary connection Willi the limes in which \\v. live, and winch liave a direct' influence upon the goveriinieiit and cotii'tjtulioii of our c siilisequently exterminated by the Jews. As Sloses givi's no account of the life and death of Japliet, Noah's eldest son, he is presumed not to have been present at tlie coiifnsioii of ISabcl , but that Ins sex en sons were afterwards heads of nations tliert! is good reason to believe. Their names were Cionier, Magog, Madai, Javan. Ju- lial, Meslii ill, and Tiras. (Jonier, a<'cordiiig to Josephus, was the father of the (lonierilts or Celies, viz., of all tiie nations who inlialiiled the northern purls of Fnrope, under the names of (Jaiils, (^inibrians, Ctolhs, tiv., and will) also migrated into S|)aiii, where they were called (\'llibe- riaiis. I'riiin Magog, Meshecli, ami Jubal, proceeded the Scythians, Sar- niatians, and Tariiirs; from Madai, Javan, and Tiras, the Medes, lonians (treeks, and Thracians. It is evident lli.it the monarchicid forms of government begun early, Minrod, one of the soii-t of Ciisli, having been made king of nabylon, while the rest are supposed to have |j|aiited difleri'iit p:iils of Araliia The sacred liiHiorian says " Nimrod hi'gan to be a miglity one in the earlh — a mii.'hiy liniiier before the I,ord." He is said to ha\e Iniili sevi'ra. .-.iiies, but wlnii he began his reign, bow long he reigned, and who were m OUTLINE SKETCH OP GENERAL HISTORY. 37 Ins successors, \v»! arc not informed. The Jews suppose him to be the SMino with Ainraphei, the ivingof Shiuar, who, with his three confederates, were defeated by Abram. Some have imagined iiini to be the same with Di'his, and the founder of the Babylonish empire; others with Ninus, the foiiiuier of llie Assyrian. Nineveh, afterwards the capital of the Assyrian PMipire, was built by Assluir, who also founded two other cities, called |{is(!ii and Iiehobot\ of the situation of which we are now ignorant. AljoMt tiic same time various other kingdoms sprung up in different parts of the world Thus we read, in the sacred vonime, of the kings of Egypt, (j(!rar, Sodom and Gomorrah, &c., in the time of Abraham; and it is but reasonable to suppose that the nations over which they reigned had for some time e.xisleii : for, as the learned and pious Bossuet remarks, " we see laws establishing, manners polishing, and empires forming. Mankind, by degrees, gets out of ignorance: experience instructs it : and arts are invented or improved. As men multiply, the earth is moi-e closely peo- pled ; mountains and precipices are passed; first rivers, then seas, are crossed ; and new habitations established. The earth, which at the begin- ning was one immense forest, takes anotlier form: the woods cut (tr)wn make room for fields, pastures, hamlets, towns and cities. They had at (ir.st to encounter wild beasts; and in this way the first heroes signalized tluMnselves. Thus originated the invention of arms, which men turned al'K'rwards against their fellow creatures." The first considerable national revolution on record is the migration of the Israelites out of I'-gypt, and their establishment in the land of Canaan. This event was attended with a terrible catastrophe to the Egyptians. The settlement of the Jews in the land of Canaan is supposed to have happened about 1491 b.c. For nearly 'JOO years after this period we find no ■luthentic account of any other nations than those menlioned in Scripture. i CHAPTER III. TIIK FAIIULOUS AND IIKKOIC AUtS, TO THE INSTITUTION OK THE OLVMl'IC GAMES. \Vk now perceive, in profane history, the dawn of what is called the heroji' age; in ■.vhieli historical facts, though still tinetm-ed with the mar- vellous, begin to assume something like the appearance of truth. Egypt is seen grailually recovering from tlie weakness induced by the visitation of the d(!slroying angel, and the memorable disaster of the Red Sea, by which her nobility and the flower of her army had been euL'ulfed. (Jreece rapidly emerges from obscurity, and makes oilier nations feel the effects oftliat enterprising and martial spu'it for which her sons were afterwards 80 renowned. Various migrations take place in Egypt and Asia, and make settlements in ilifferent [larls of Europe. Thus was civilization greatly extended; for by the concurrent testimony of all writers it appears, that while the deseeiidaiits of Shem and Hani, who peopled the east and south, were estaiiliKJiing (lowerfid kingdoms, and innkiii!; great advanei's in the Useful arts, the posterity of Jiiphel, wiio settled in the west ami north, by degri'CF h;id sunk into a stale of barbarism. To the Egyptiin colonists, therefore, were they indebted for their laws and religious mysteries; and tliey also excited among them a lasle for science and llic arts, while the Phmniciaiis tauiiht them writing, iiavio.iiion mul cummeree. The Creeks were now growing great and formnlahle. ami their actions liiiil an imiiii'iise iiitliii nee on the destinies of other nations. About llSt yenrs ii.c. Iliey disliiiLMiislied themselves by their expeditiims auiiinst Trov, city of Phryiria .Minor; wliiili, alter a siige often years they (iluudered mil' iiiinit. tineas, ;i Trojan prince, esca[ied with a ' nail liiiiid of lii« m OUTLINE SKETCH OF QENEllAL HISTORY. 1! \ foiintrymt n liilo Italy ; and from ihem the origin of the Roman empire may li<^ iriK'i'il. Al llu! jM'riod »e are now speaking of we find liie Lydians, MyHiiinK, iiml >*m\w oilirr nations of Asia Minor, first mentioned in history. Thoni{h we necessarily omit, in this brief outline, a nuilliiude of icnpor- tniil InMisiiclidiis whieh are reeorded in the Bible, the reader must not ioHit Ri){ht of llie fact that the sacred volume is full of historical interest . mid we Kimll have frequent occasion to refer to the actions of "God's clioBi'ii piMiple" as we describe events mentioned by profane writers. For the pt'CNcnl it In sulReient to state, liiat about 1050 years before the birth of (fliriNl, tlie kiu>rdom of Judea, inider king David, approached its utmost extent of power ; that in the glorious reign of his sou, the wise and peace- ful SotonKiii, which followed, that stupendous and costly edifice, " the tcniple of (iod," was completed, and its dedication soleintuzed with extra- ordiniiry piety niui miignificence; that the revolt of the ten tribes took pliu'c in the rclfin of Rehoboani, the son and successor of Solomon, by which ,l('rti!<)d<'m wtis rendered a more easy prey to the Kgyptian king, culled in Sciiplure, iShishak, atid supposed to be the great Sesostiis, whose itceiJN make rii c(Mis|iicuons a figure in lh«! history of his country. After llie liipfte of inmlher century, we learn that Zera, an Ethiopian, invaded Jiiilea with an army com|iosed of a million of infantry and tiirce hundred ehariotK, but was defeated with great slaughter by Asa, whose troops aiiiounli'il to about half that uninber. By tliis time the Syrians had be- eiMiic II iiowerful people; and, taking advantage of the rivalry which ex- JHlcd lii'twern the kingdoms of Isr.iel and.lu(lah, aimed at the subjugation of bolli. 'Phi' Syri.in empire was. however, eventually destroyed by the \HMyrmiiN. taidi'r Tiulath I'ilesar, in 710 a c. ; as was also the kuigdcnn of Sinniiria by Siialinancser his snecehsor, in 721 ; and such of the people as CHCiiped ilealli, were carried captives into Media, Persia, &c. Wlnb' tlie ri'soiirces of the mighty nations of the Ivisl were expended in elVcctiiig their nuilual dcsliuriion, the fouiidalions of some powerful empires were laid in the West, which were destined, in prm-ess of time, to (»iibjni,nite Mild give laws to the eastern world. About eight centuries be- lore the ('liiisliiin era the city of Carlhiigc, in Africa, was founded by a Tyriiin coloi;y. and became the capital of a powerful republic, which eon- tiniii'd 7'M years, iliiringthc greater part of which tnne il.ssiii|is traversed the Meditcrr.niean and even tin; Atlantic, whereby it was enabled to mo- iin|ioli/,e,n'< it were, the commerce of the whole world. In Kurope a very inipiMlant ri'Vii|iiii(Mi took (iljice abdiit 000 n.c, namely the invasion and cniii|iieiia, his victorious arms were now direcied against the eoutitrics which houndid Persia; and having reduced Hyreaiua, Uactria, and several oilier independent kingdoms, he entered India and subdued all the ualioiis 1(1 the river Ilypliasis, oiu; of tin; braiiciics of the Indus, At length the p.iiience of bis troops became exhausted ; they saw that the ambition i\< llieir leader was honiulless, and icfnsed to gratii'y liis |)assion for ui!i\eisal ciuujucst by proceeding farther, lie died at Babylon in tlio 1 OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENKUAL IlISTOilY. 41 year 323 bc, li'iiviii>>: llie affairs of his vast empire in a most unseltJei) state, and not even naming liis successor. In tliti western world, at this period, great kingdoms were evolvint; from obscurity, and events of tlie iiigliest importance succeeding eacli other wiili unexampled rapidity. The first object that hcie claims our ailenlion is the establishment and rapid growth of tlie Roman repubJic. In 509 B.C. Tarquin, the last king of Rome, was expelled, and the govern- ment entrusted to two magistrates, annually ehicted, called consuls. Thus the republic proceeded, thougli amid perpetual jealousies and contentions, till it reached its higliest pitch of power and grandeur, by the successive conquest of Italy aiid her isles, Spain, Macedonia, Cartilage, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Gaul, Britain ami Kgypt. It was, neveriheless. exposed to the greatest danger from tiie ambiiion of individuals : the civil wars of Marius and Sylla, and the conspiracy of Uatiline, shook, it.s very centre; and by the contention arising out of the rivalry of Julius Ciesar and Poin- pey, it was ultimately overt lirown. On the death of Alexander the Great, four new empires immediately, as it were, sprung up. He had left behind him a large and victorious army, commanded by generals who, bred in tlie same school, were not ess ambitious of sovereign rule than their master. Cassander, the son of Antipaler, seized Macedonia and Greece; Aiitigomis, Asia Minor; Se- leucus marked' out for his share Uabylon and the eastern provinces; and Fioleniy, Kgypl and the western ones. Furious wars soon succeeded this division of Alexander's wide-spread empire ; and several provinces, taking advantage of the general confusion, shook off the .Macedonian yoke alto- gether. Thus were formed the kingd(jms of Pontus, Uitiiyiiia, Pergamus, Armenia, and Cappadocia. Antigonus was defeated and killed by Se- leucus at the battle of Jpsus, 301 b.c, and the greater part of his domi- nions fell to the lot of the conqueror. The two most powerful and per- manent empires were, in fact, Syria, founded by Selcucus, and I'Jgypl by Ptolemy Sotcr. But there was also another empire at that time existing which demands our notice. The Parthians, originally a iribe nf Scythians wlio had wandered from their own country, at length set I led in the neigh- bourhood of Hyrcania, and were successively tributary to the Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes and Persians. The country in which lliey settled obtained from them the name of Parthia; and when Alexander invaded Asia, they submitted, with the other dependencies of the Persian empire. After the death of the .Macedonian coiupicror, Parthia was siibjcet, first to Eumcnes, then to Antigonus, and finally to the kings of Syria and B.ibylon. In the reign of Antioclius Tlieos, the rapacity and crimes of A^ithocles, the Syrian governor, roused the spirit of the Parlliians; and. under Ar- saces, a man of great military talents, they ex|)elled their oppressors, and laid the foundation of an eiii|)ire whicii ultimately e.\l(!Miii'd over Asia, b.c 2.50. The Syrians atlempleil in vain to recover this province. A race of able and vigilant princes, who assumed the surnaiiK! of ArruciJici'rinn thu founder of tht^ir kingdom, not only ballled their ell'orts, but so inereased in power, that while they lielil eighteen tributary liingdnnis. between the Caspian and Arabian seas, they even for a time disputed wiih the itomaiis the empire ol the world. CHAPTER VI. FROM niK WARS OK IIOMK .\M) rVRTMACK, TO TO eir.'rii of christ. Tnr Romans, who for more than five hundred years h.id bei'ii consiiintly victorious, met with an oppoiuMit in Hanriibal, conm mili'r of tin' Caiilia- ii;inian forces, whose consummate generalship fur .> iinie turned (he tide (2 OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENERAL HISTORY. I < i I nf fort inc, nnd, niiiking Italy the battle-field, he <,'HlliMitIy opposed on their native soil the liiirdy veterans of Rome. I.oiiir and doiilitfiil were llie.:e eaiiyniiiiary contests ; but in the end the Cnrthajfinian armies were recalled into Africa, which the Romans had invaded, and he who, at ihebaiiUMif rniniiv, had struck the Roman legions wilh terror, was totally defeated at Zama; by which the second Pnnic war was concluded, in the year 183 b.c. In fortv years from that date the fate of Carthage was iilliniaiely decided. The llonians having; declared war against it a third lime, used all their energies for accomplishing its final destrnction. The city was long and fiercely assailed: tlie genius of the yoimgcT Scipio at length triumphed over !he desperate valnur of thebesieged ; and Carthage, once mistressof the sea and ilie most formidable rival of Rome, was reduced to ashes, and for ever biottcd from the list of independent nations. During tlie contentions between Rome and (Carthage, a confederacy was formed by tluf stales of (ireece, under tlie name of the Achnean League, which soon eclipsed, in splendid achievcmenis and power, both Athens ind Sparta. Weary of the tyranny of the Macedonians, the Oreciau gtaies had entered into this compact for recovering their liberties ; but having imprudently given the Romans an opportuniiy of intermedding in tlieir affairs, they were eventually reduced lo a Roman province, under the name of Acliaia. This celebrated league was begun about ihe year ♦jei DC. and continued formidabl.! for mor*^ than l.^O years, under officers called Prietors, of whom Aratus and Pliiiopfpnieii were the most lenowned. About this period we read of the direful oppression of the Jews by An- tiochus i;piphaiies. After their return from the Babyhmish (;apiivily,they coniiiiued in subjection to the Persians till the time of Alexander; and subsequently, as the fortune of either Kgypt or Syria happened to prevail, they were under its dominion. On the subjugation o( l''gypt by Antiochus •■^piphiiiies, the .lews being treated wilh great severity by him, they natu- rally, but imprudently, expressed their joy on hearing a re[)ort of his death; and it was not long bef(M-e the enraged monarch took the fiercest vengeance on them. He marched at the head of a powerful army, took Jerusalem by slorin in 170 b.c, and committed the most bonid cruelties on the inhaliitants. Their religion was for a while abolished, their altars defih'd, and every iiu'iu'uity oflercd to the people that tyranny and hate could suggest. An imagi' of Jupiter Olympius was erected in Ihe hcdy place, and unclean beasts were sacrificed on the altar of burnt ofi^'rings. Rut the Jews s()o;i rallied ; and uu'ler Maltatbias the true woisliip was reslctred in most of the cities of Judea : the temple was piirificij by Judas Maccalnens, lf)'5 n.c. ; and a long series of wars ensued between the Syriiiis am! the Jews, in which the latter gained many signal advanlapfcs. About l.'iO years hcfore the birth of Christ the principal einpiies and stales of l!ie world may be thus enumerated. In Asia were Ihe empires of Syria, India and Parthia — iMch of them powerful and extensive — with .\rabii, Poiitiis, Armenia, and some oilier countries of less importance. In Africa wen; the; kingiioms of KgypI, Ktliiopia, N'uinidia, M.iiiritania, ind Octiilia; the last named three, now that (7arlhiige was destroyed, ap- pearing to the eyes of the ambitious Romans as llieir easy prey. In Eu- rope ibcrc were none able to oppose the Roman legions, save tlie fjauls anil snine of tlie nations inhabiting Spain It was not long, thiTefore, lifter the conquest of (~"artliage and Corinth that the finnl siilijiig .lion of •Spain was rcsidvcd (Ml ; for all the posscssi(>iis which the, (^arlba.^inians held in that country had already fiUen into tlu^ hands of llie victorious rtomaiis. They accordinsly began by attacking the laisiianians ; but this brave peiple, under the coiidiict of V'irialiis, a leader whose skill, valour, and prudence eininenily f|ualifii'd him for his post. Imig bid defi- ance lo the Kninau arms: in the field he was not lo he subdued : and ho at last mot his death from the hands of assassins hired by his treacherous ■M 'H- OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENERAL IIISTOaY. 43 4i enemy. The Romans now, in tlie wantonness of their power, scrupled nol to use Ihe biisesl unil most corrupt means for reducing the wiiulo country; and tliougli many tribes bravely maintained their iuilcpendence for years, Spain ullnnutely became a Uomau province. But all-povverlul ns Rome bad now become, her cavil and pulaicat condition was far from enviable. Hi,-r conquests in (ireece and Asia broujjht luxury, cruelty, and creneral corruption in their train; and those heroic virtues for which in ihe early days of the republic she was renowned, iiad totally disappeared. We nmst, however, reserve for its proper place an account of the civil cumuiolions, proscriptions, and assassinations which followed ; and pass onward in our brief recital uf sucli events us peculiarly appertain to gen- eral history. Attains, king of Pergamus, had left all his goods and treasures, by will to the Roman people ; upon which his kingdom was speedily converted into a Roman province, under the name of Asia Proper. iNext followed the conquest of the Ualearic Isles (now called Majorca, Minorca and I visa); Numidia was soon ufierwards reduced ; but the subjugation of Maurituiua and (jululia was for a time delayed. While Rome was approachnig her zenith, the decline of the Syrian empire was apparent. 'I'he civil dissensions between the two brothers, Auliochus Ciry|)hus and Antiochus Cyzicenus, gave an opportunity for the cities of Tyre, Sidon, Ptolemais and Gaza, to declare their indepen- dence ; while the .lews not only rccovorcd their liberty, but e.vt(;nued their dominions as far as in the days of Solomon. About the year 83 b.c., Tigranes, king of Armenia, became master of Syria, but the Romans soon wrested It from him, and added it to the immensely extensive possessions of the republic. Kgypt, wliicli h'ld hitherto maintained its proper station, tell after the battle of Actlum, and, like its predecessors, was reduced to a Roman pro- vince about the year 30 b.c. Rome mnsi no longer be regarded as a re- fiublic ; and its change from that form of government to an empire may )e looked upon as advantageous to those nations who were still free, for the inordinate desire of conquest which had hitherto marked the Roman character, for a time seemed to be lulled, and during the reign of .\ugustus the tempi'' of Janus was thrice closed — a ceremony coeval with the origin of the siaie, to denote that it was at peace with the whole worlil. This pacilii; prince died in the /fith year of his age, and in the 4otli year of his rciffi), A.u. 14; his empire exteiidiiiif, in Kurope, to the ocean, the Rhine and the Danube; in Asia, to ihe Euphrates; and in Africa, to Ethiopia ami the sandy deserts. It was in this memorable reign, in the year of Rome 7ii that Jesus Christ was born, and ilie holy religion of which he was the I'ouiuler. persecuted and despised thougii it was at first,* gradualLv spread over the Roman world. CHAPTER VII. FROM THE BEOINMNO OF THK CUBISTIAN ERA, TO THE APPEARANCE OP MOHAMMED. In the year 07 a. d. the memoralile war with the Jews commenced, which, though ii lasted but three ye.irs, ended in the total destruction of their city and nation, after eiiduiing all the horrors of war carried ll()W(>ll 111 his footstpps. Tlie (Icc'liiie of impcri;il Rome was, however, f;isl approueliiiig, for ulthmigli Aiiloniiiiis, suriianied the Pious, obiiiiiied the reyard of his siilijei-ts and the respect of fortMgners, living in peaee during the whole of his reign, yet sciirceiy had Mureus Aiirelius Aiitouiiuis succeeded to the tli rone, be- fore the ijiermanic tribes united, as in the time of Mririus, and poured in their warlike hordes upon Italy; and, while they grew more and more formidable, famine and pestilence ravaged many of the Roman provinces A.D. 180. From this time repeated incursions of hardy adventurers from the north of Europe, under various names, I0(d< place, but thouLrh often beaten, they renewed their attempts with a degree of courage and perseverance that required all the energy and superior discipline of the Roman legions to overcome. From the death of Aurelius to the reign of Dicxdesian, many of the Roman emperors were mere sensualists ; there were, however, some splendid exceptions, and by the warlike genius of such the incur- sions of the barbarians were from time to time arrested. The Romans had also for a long period met with a most powerful adversary in the Persians, and when, in 2fi0, the emperor Valerian was defeated and taken prisoner by them, the empire seemed to be hastening to utter and irreme- diable destruction. Wliih; Gallienns, the son of V^ilerian, and his associate in power was revelling in luxury at Rome, numerous claimants of the im- perial dignity arose in the dllTerent provinces. These were designated the "thirty tyrants," (though tlK'ir numbers did not exceed twenty, and there was no good reason for designating them tyrants). Their dominion was, however, not of long duration, and on the death of (lallienus he was succeeded by Claudius, wlio had tlu; merit of deliverins Italy from the (lOths. After him came Aurellan, who introduced order into the state, restored internal tranquillity, and defeated his enemies both in Kurope and Asia. Under 'I'acitns, Prolnis aiul Cams, the empire was in a measure restored to its former lustre; but the barbarians still pressed onward; iuid when the government fell into the hands of Dioelesian, he changed its form, sharing the imperial dignity with Maximinian, to whom lu^ com- mitted the VVest, while he ruled in the Knst. In this manner was the gov- ernnii nt administered till the (l;iys of t^onstantine, who in A.n. .130 re- inoveil the imperial seat to Hyziuilnini, wliicli he named (Miiistanlliiople, became :i convirl to Cliristiaiiiiy, and p\u ;in end to one of tin- most vim lent persecutions against its professors Uiat ever dlsirraced the world. 'I'lie iiniiu'dlate successors of ("!onst;intiiii' did little 'o uphold the l?oiiian power, and Julian, who asceinled the throne in .1(il, renounced Christianity ;iud opi'iily professed the ancient religion, but he was both too pidilic and too hinnane to |)ersecute his Christian siilijects. We find, however, that the decline of the empire was everywhere visible. After his death its iii- leriKil corruption lunl weakness coniinned to increase ; Unit strict discipline which had formerly n'Uilered the Koman legions invincible, v(daxeil, and while corruption and Injusiice renilereil the government odious at hoHie, jtR fnmlier towns were attacked and its distant provinces o •errui> by Ik'ree and nueivilized hordes issuing from tin' north, e;ist and wesi. It is ;it this piriod that we read of Alaric, lln? Visigoth, who [ilnndereil Rome, A.n. lOli; of (Jeiiseric, tile powerful king of the \ inidals ; and of \tidi, the lluii, emphatically teinied " tie- scourge of (lod." In fact, the Scytliians, Siiruiallans, fiotlis, Huns, Vandals, and otln r barlianuis natiinis, watched all occasions to break into il, and though sonii' of the emperors In-avely withst 1 their attacks, no efforts could finally stem the ruthless torrent which kept pouring in on all sides. .\t length the lleruli, a people wlu; niigralr'il from the shores of Ihi- H.iltic, and had grown formiilable as they priK'cedi'd sonlhwirds, app( ared in Italy. They were headed by llic Valiant Odoace-, and being joined by other tribes, (|uickly became innslerA 1 fl OUTLINI'; .-KliTCll Ob' QliNKttAL HISTORY 45 A. II. Illl I, llic I'lhiiiiis, iilclmd llinivcly I tcirri'nt |l<" wIk; li\s llii-y Ihy llu' Inaalork of It ilv, and the city uf Uome itself surrendered to their victorious uruis, A.D. 176. 'I'he fall of the western empire was thus ('onsummiited, but the Romans still niainiained tlieir sway at C'onstantinoiJie. The eastern empirt", ill fact, at tiiis time comprehended all Asia Minor and Syria, Etiypt and Greece ; but neither its domestic nianagement nor its military prowess gHve hopes of a leiiglhened doi'iiuion. Luxury, elTeminacy, and supersti- tion sapped its vitals; continued wars wiih tlie Persians, Uuljrarians, and other barbarous nations, exhausted its strength ; and a similar fate to that of th(! western empire appeared to await it at no very distant period. Still, as we follow tl.e stream of history, we shall find that it not only survived the wreck forseveral centuries, but at times displayed an enerijy and pciwer worthy of the Koman name. Revolutions succeeded one another among the savage conquerors of the West with fearful rapidity. The Henili under Odoacer were driven out by the Goths under Theodoric. The Goths were expelled by the Romans under their able general Helisarius, but while he was absent quelling an insurrection in Africa, they regained their footing, and again took posses- sion of Rome. 'I'lie Franks next invaded Italy, and made themselves masters of ih.! province of Venetia, but at lasi the superior fortune of the emperor Justinian (ircvailcd, and iht; (idllis.were finally subdued by his pro-consul Narses, A. D .55'J. From that time till the year 5(i8, Narses governed Italy with great prudence and success, as a province of the eastern empire, but having incurred tiie emperor's displeasure, Longinus was appointed to succeed him, and was invested with abscdute power. He assumed the lille of exarch, and resided at Riiveima, whence his gov- ernment was called the exarchate of Raveiina, and having placed in each city of Italy a governor, whom lui disliiiguished with the title of duke, he abolished the name of senate and coiisnls at Rome. But while he was estabiisliing liiis new !-overeigiiiy, a great portiim of Italy was overrun by the Iiombards. In sliort, we lind that they steadily marched on from I'an- iioiiia, accom|ianied by an army of Saxon allies, and w ,re not long before they became masters of all Italy, with the exception of Rome, Ravenna, and some of the eastern seaeoast. A warlike nation called l''ranks, who were divided into severnl tribes, Mad been gradually rising into importance, and quitting the banks of tlu! Lower Rhine, they li'id made lliemsi'lvcs masters of no iiiconsideralile part of (iranl. A wailike ami ambitious chief among Ihcm, namc(i Clovis, un- dertook the coiKjiiest of llie wh(d(! country, and having defeated and killed his powcifnl rival, Marie, king of t\w Gotli«, he possessed himself of all the cod to become the founder of a new religion. A.n- (>3'J. This forms a marked epoch in ehro nology, and is designated the Hegira, or Klighl of Mohamined. He at (iist eiuleavoiired by the force of his persuasive eloquence alone to make pro- selytes, but finding himself ere long at the head of many thousand war- like followers who acknowledged that "there was but (Uie (Jod, and that Mohammed was his prophet," he took advantage of Iheir eiitliiisiasm, and proceeded in the work of conquest. With a celerity truly siiiprising, the 'iriiiies of the prophet and his successors overran Syria, I'alcsline, Persia. Miikharia and India. On the west their empire soon e.Mi'iidcd over l''gypt, Harbary, Spain, Sicily, Ac. Hut Mohammed who died in the fi.3d year of Ills age, did not secure the succession, or give any directions concerning It, and the eonseqiienee was that the ndipliale was seized by many usurpers, dissensions broke out among the " true believers," and in the course of time this great empire, like the others whirh we have noticed, declined in importance. The relijiion, however, still exisl.«, and the tem- poral power of those who profess it is by no mciuis IrilliiiL''. While this extraordinary revoliiiioii was gciiig on in the East, and the Arabian nrniR were con(]ucring *• in the name of (iod and the prophet," the western nations as zealously upheld the doctrines promulgated by the pope. From the days of (.'onstantiiie llie Uoinaii poiitifTs had been gradii- iiily extending their power, temporal as well as spiritual, and at ihe period (d which we are now speaking, not only was their sacerdotal dominion liruily esiablished, but liieir political inihience was often excited for or against those princes of surriuinding stales as best suited the interests o( ilii' cliiircli. \Vlien, ill 7'JI), l.iiiiprand, king of the Lombards, bad taken llled the exarch, Ihe pope undertook to restore him. and Ins rcsloralion was accordingly speedily efTccied, The aulhoriiy of the Hvzaniine emperors in Kome, was, tndeed. little more than nominal, and the interference of the popes in the temporal cimcerns of the diffe-enl Kiii'o|)ean monarcliie.4 was of the most obnoxious and intolerable kind. We have seen that the reduction of (Jaiil was effected by (Movis, (he Frank, who is styled the founder of the French monarchy. That kiiiij- doin, It may be observed was subsequriitly divided inio several pelly sove. rcigiilies, and while the princes weakened each other by then eontcsls, the nobles increased in power, leavinij their kings little mon* than the hliadow of royalty. .At length they gave themselves up to a life of indo- lence and ease, and iiliaiidoned ibi reins of government to officers called inii\ors of tlie palace, nf whom the most eelelir.iled were Cli.irlcs Martel, and Ills son I'epiu the I. title, who deposed ('hilderic, and became the founder of the ('arlovingian or second royal race of Fr.ince. Of the princes of tins race we shall here only spe ik of Carolns Magnus, after wards called ('iLirlcmagne, on account of the extent of Ins eoiii|uests, liiit reitoraliuii of the wciileru otnpirL', uiid thu 8|i|eiuiuur uf hia rcisn. Vor) :» '^ i m I OUTLINE SKUTCH 01'" GENERAL HISTORY. 47 I sonn after liis accMssidii to tlie tlironi!, the Saxons, who liad long been tiilmlnri('» to I'rmici-, revoltud, aucl biiivdy anil ohstni.iti'ly coniendud for llicii- I'rffdoin. hill ihfy were at list ()hh(j;(:(l to submit. In 774, aflir the reduction of P.ivi^, and the capiur' of Uiilicr, thi; last king of the FiOin- bards, Chirleinagiit! repaired lo Milan and was thine crowned king of Italy. From this liiiie he was eng.iged in an almost ui)cea«ing warfare ii<>'aiiist the Moors in Spain, the Saxons ami Huns in Uermaiiy, the party of the easti'rn eiU|)i'ror in Italy, and the Normans, who infested liis niari- tiiiie provinces. Having sub> almost ill of Asia and Africa which has ever been known lo I'airopi'a.is, China and Japan excejited. The eastern lioman empire was niduced lo Greece, Asia Minor, ami the provinces adjoining Italy. And the empire of the west, under Chai'lema>riie, conipreheiided France, Germany, and the grealcr part of lt;ily. 'I'he son and successor of Charlemagne was Louis 1., at wliosi^ deaili the resloied eiipire of the west was divided, in ri40, among ins four sons : Ijolharius was emperor ; I'epin king ol' Aipiilain; Iiouis II. king of (iermaiiy; and ('harlcs II. surname I the Ij.iid, king of France: a division that proved the sonri'eof (lerpelual coiiltMitioiis. 'I'lia French retained the imperial title under ei<>'ht sovereigns, till !)I.>, when liOliis III. the lasl king of (lennany of the race of (/hailemagne, dying without III lie issue, liis coa in-law, Coiiiad, count of Frannnnia, wag eleiMed cniperorof (Jerniiny. Tims the empire passed lo the (ieinians, and became elective, Ity the siifTiages of the princes, lords, and deputies of cities, who assumed till! title of electors. During the period we have been describing, the union of the Aiiglo- •Saxoii kingdoms was effceti^d by lOgherl, the king of Wessi'X, a.o. 8'J7. The pirates of Scandinavia, too, about this lime heiran to make tlii'ir up< pearance in large fleets, and spread devastation on the shores of I'ranco anil other kingilonis of continental Kniope. In Kngland, where they were called Danes, lliese Northmen harrassi'd the coast in a similar manner. Mild, though frequently repulseil, in the course of time they had the satis- faction of seeing monarchs of their own nation sealed on the throne of Kimland. The Saxon race was. however, restored in lOll, in the person of lalward siirnamed ihe Confessor, who, dying willioiil issue, llominateil VVi|liai;» duke of Normandy, lo be his smccSMir. Here we may just re- mark, that the predatory iribfs of Norihmen, of wlioiii we have heforo spoken, at utrerenl limes overran and ravaircil most countries of lOnrope, .mil a party .aving I'lilered France, under their leader Hollo, Cli iries the Simple ceded lo lliem, in !>I-', the province of Neiisina. On this occasion Kolhi emiiraced Cliristiaiiily, chaiiued Ins name to Kiibinl, and that of his duchy lo Normandy. From linn was William Ihe Compii'ror ilescended. At no period of the hir lory of the winid do ue find it in a more coiil'iiseii and disiracti'd Mate, tli;iii at the epiidi lo wliii h we lii.ve now .irriveil. It appears, imb rd, liki^ oiii> vast battle lii Id Our attention, however, is prii.cipally aiiracteil by (he pi'epomler.iling inllnence of (term iiiv, in the west, the ileclme of ihe lt\/.aiiliiie empire, and the increase of that of the Turks, III Ihe e.ist ; lb,- divisions amoim llie Sariciiis of Spam, anil lltuir Hubjugatiuii by those of Africa. Civiluaiioii was takiny u rctro|(adu la OUTLIWn SKETCH OF GENERAL HISTORY. course; and while the feudal system and the spiritof chivalry, assisted by tvie papal superstiilons, were rivetting the chains of liarbirisiii in (nie pari of the world, the conqnesis and spoliations of (he Tnrks, like lliose of the Goths and Huns before noticed, were fast ohliteralin^r the faint traces of human science and learning that remained in the other. At last the Cm sades (thouy;h they must ever be deplored as the wretched olVsprinsf of en thusiasm and niissfinded zeal), by din'Cting the attention of Kuropeans to one particular ohjcci, tnad(! them in some measure suspend ihe slaufjhter of one another, and were the means of extricating Christendom from J stale of political bondage. lit CHAPTER IX FROM TUE FIRST CRUSADE, TO Tin! DEATH OF 8ALADIN. The world, as we have seen, was at this lime diviilcd into two prnnd reliffimis parties, namely, the Christians and M.ihaiumedans, each of whom affected to ref^ard the small lerritctry of Palestine, which tliey called the Moly Land, as an invaluable acquisition. 'I'he origin of the crusades may therefore be atlriliuicd to a superstitions veneration for the places where our Saviour had lived and performed his miracles, which annually l)roii|;lit »ast inimbnrs of pilijrims from all parts of (Jhrislendom to visit the city of Jerusalem, and those particular spots in its vicinity which had been rendereil cs|)eci.illy meniorablc by his iireacbiiig-, siifierings, and death. Altliou>ih the Saracens, under Omar, their second caliph, had taken .(eru- <;ilcm, and e(Mii|ncre(i I'alestine, in the 7th century, they allowed llie pil U'rims to continue to visit their favourite haunts on payment of a small Iri hiile. In inn.'), however, l\u'. Turks wrested the holy city, as it was styled from the Saracens; and, bein«' nsonndeil with cfMiiplaints against the inlidcl possessors of I'alesliiie, who profaned tin" holy places, and so crmdly treated Ihe devotees, Kuropc was at the time full of enthusiastic warriors, who wanted but little stimu- lus to lead tlieiii to the field of glory ; and popirit of the tniies, that a violent ,'iiid tiiiniilluiMis declaration of w.ir \.ur%- I'orlh fnunall siiles ; and the assembled iniiltitnde de vol eel thelMselves el eei fully to a service tli.it they believed to he iiieritorions in the si :ht of Heavei Tlio 7.e»|iins l»eter next visileil thu eliief eilicn mid sioveroigm* of Clu-i i OUTLINE SKETCH OP GENERAL HISTOUY. HUdil'H'Ill aIkIIII till' iiiiril \V!is ill t)i(? :iriiig a siiciessioii of alino.st two hiiiidrcd years, uid ended in ver» sir lults. In 1-JOl, the town of Acre, or I'loli* I. — 4 50 OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENERAL HISTORY. m mais, in wliieli the descendants of Godfrey still maintained tlie regal title, was plundered by the sultan of I'^Kypti and the Ciiristians were driven out of Syria. Tiiree monastic and military orders, theHospitallers, the Templars, and Teuionic knights, were iMstituted at Jerusalem, to prolc'ci the pilgrims from the attacks of the Turks. In this age the sacred was so confounded with the profane, that it was thought the virtues and austerities of the monk iiiight be united with tite warlike qualities and passions of the sol- dier. The new orders, loaded with wealth and particular privileges, in a short time became greedy, licentious, and insolent warriors, eneuiies of one another, and by tiieir mutual hatred weakened the cause of IHirisiian- iiy. What liappened before in Kurope was likewise seen in Asia: every lord wanted to erect a sovereign power; principalities were subdivided intofeifs; discord prevailed, and the Turks would soon have destroyed them, if iliey had not likewise been divided among themselves. The Christian empire in the Kast extended at this period from the bor- ders of Kgypt to Armenia ; but it was encotnpassed by powerful enemies, and its population, though brave, was by no means considerable. The Turks had already taken I'Messa, and there was great reason to be appre- hensive for the fate of Jerusalem, when I'lugenms III., fifty years after the beginning of tlie crusades, was solicited by deputies from the lOast to re- new lliem. This time the monk St. liernard took upon himself iheoflico of its (rhief advocate;. He is represented as running from town to town, and though ignorant of the language of the country, yet making the people fol- low iiim, and performing iiu nberless minn'his. He accordingly every- where g liiK^d an iulluence, o: whic'h there had been no parallel ; yet his success could scarcely keep pace with his zealous wishes. Under the humble habit of a monk, Uernard enjoyed a greater respect than was paid to the most powerful princes : he was as (doquenl as he was enthusiastic, and obtained an unbounded influpiKfc over the minds of the people. The emperor Conrad, who first listened to him with a resolution to oppose those dangerous emigrations, concluded with enrolling himself. Neither conlil Louis VII., king of !•" ranee, resist the appeal of the orator. The people abandoned their habitations in crowds; the nobles solil their lands and laid tlu; price at his feet; and nearly a million of men solicited to be enrolled among the champions of (Mirisiianity. ' It is said that each of the armies had 70,000 "nun at arms :" these consisted of the nobility, who were heavy armed, and followed by a much more uuineroiis body of light cavalry. The number of infantry was inimcnse. 'J'lie emperor CJonrad was the first that set out : lu; was the brother-in-law of IManucl Comenim, at that lime reigning in (Joiistantinoph! ; but the (Jreeks, it is said, appre- hensive that similar excesses W(uild be committed by the eriisKiers as in the former <'.\pediiioii, furnished them with treacherous guides, which led to their destruction ; his army was almost annihilaled ; upon which he fled to Antioch, made a pilgrimage! to Jerusalem, and returned to ICurope with a mere handful of men. Louis met with similar disasters, and fol- lowed tin; exainpit! of Conrad; .so that when they were, eompelled to withilraw, they left the Holy l.and in a much weaker cimdition lliaii they had fiiunil it. ICxpediiions so ill |)laiiiied and ill eoiidueted, served only to animato the Turks to the destruction of tin; Christians of Jerusalem, and to show them the little (Mdiciilty there would be in expelling them. Noradin, whom tlicy ehosc! for their leader, proinotcd this desifin, and Saladin, his Buecessor, completed iIk; work. The latter, aficr having nsyrped Syriii, trminphed over the Persians, conquered Kgypt, and made himself master of iloiiiiiiioiis that j'Xlended to itu' (Jxiis, returned by sea, in order to *trip the lairopeans of the places they still retained. Damascus, Aleppo, mid Acre, opened their gules to the conqueror, who, after having artfully f I OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENERAL HISTORY. 51 ?al title, fw iveii out M ^m, lars, and m pilgrims m foundrd ■^ s of the ^ the sol- M ;cs, ill a M billies o( •w iirisliiiii- ''^ ,i; every M ibdividcd M (istroycd 'M 'M the bor- 0. eneniies, 1 le. The be appre- i after the ist to ra- the office town, and ii'ople fol- ly every- ; yet his Under the 1 was paid thiisiaslic, .pie. Tlie to oppose . Neither lor. Tlie licir lands itfd to be aciiof the )ilily, who )(ly of light ror Conrad t'oineinii', iaid, appre- iders as in , whitdi led which he to Kurope rs, and fol- inipc lied to n than they to animato mil to show Noradin, Siihulin, his ipcd Syrii, isidf master in order to iiH, Aleppo, 'ing urlfully Jrawn the Christian army into narrow defiles, where he eomnianded the passes, obliged them to surrender, with Lusiirnaii. tlieir king ; a. n. 1187. He then niareiied towards .lerusaleni, whieh, being in a manner defence, less, was easily taken ; and thus he destroyed for ever the little kmudom wiiieh had not subsisted a eeiituiy, and for the aeqnisilioii of whieh by the Christians so much interest had been excited, and so much blood had been shed. Tlie news of the loss of the Holy Land spread consternation in Europe. Urban HI., wlio had exerted all his inlhicncc, spiritnal and temporal, to prevent th.tt misfortune, died of grief soon after the fatal news reached his ear. The Christian princes suspended their quarrels, and the desire of recovering .lerusaleni produced a third crusade; a. d. 118'J. This was infinitely better planned llian the lornier ones, and gave the most splen- did hopes. Three princes of distinguished merit, who would have ex- cited the admiration of aii^' age, were the leaders of this expedition. Frederic I., surnamed IJarbarossa, om; of tiie most distinguished em- perors that ever governed Germany, advanced by land, at the head of 150,000 men. Philip-Augustns, king of France, also conducted iliither a large and well-appointed army; while Iticiiard Coeur-de-Lion, king of England, the hero of this crusade, set out with his nobles and the H.)vver of his troops. Isaac Angelus, the emperor of (^onstaniinople, looking upon the crusaders as intrii.h'rs, had formed an alliance with Saladin and the sultan of leoninm; but Frederic trininphed over the obsta(!les which were opposed to him, and though he found hostile .irmies everywhere on his mart ,.c)i >4 ii ■uUTLINR SKETCH OF GENKRAt, HtSTOHV. a3 Uod of mercy, Innocent resumed his project of conquering the Holy Land ; but he could not persuade the emperor to join iu the design, be- cause his throne was too much disturbed ; nor the kings of France and Kuglaiid, as ihey were too deeply engaged in their mutual quarrels. An- drew, king of Hungary, and John de Brienne, titular sovereign of Jeru- salem, commanded this crusade, and Cardinal Julien, legate of^the pope, accompanied them. As the Christian leaders perceived that Egypt was the support of the Turks of Palestine, they formed a new plan of attack and directed their first operations against that kingdom. In this thej were successful. The enemy, after having sustained several severe de- feats, ainindoned tiif flat couritry to the Christians, and took refuge in the mountains. The generals, sensible of the great danger of marching in a country to which they were strangers, thought it necessary to secure the heights, and reconnoitre the places through which they were to pass, be- fore they proceeded any farther. The cardinal, consulting only the dic- tates of impetuous ardour, treated their prudence as timidity, and declared for pursuing the barbarians immediately. Finding the two kings opposed his opinion, he assumed the style of a superior, showed them the pope's order, and, being supported by the knights of St. John and the Templars obliged them to pay a blind obedience to his will. The army, thus gov- erned by this ecclesiastic, daily committed new blunders, and at length was hemmed in between two branches of the Nile. The Saracens then opened their sluices, and were preparing to drown the Christians, whc tliouglit themselves happy to preserve their lives, by supplicating the mercy of the enemy, and being allowed to return to Europe, though cov- ered with disgrace. The crusades seemed now to be at an end ; for the dire misfortunes which attended these distant expeditions had quite extinguished the zeal of Christian warriors, and the ferment which pervaded all Europe would not allow sovereigns, however martial or ambitious, to leave their re- spective countries- But there was yet another struggle to be made for the possession of the Holy Land, the relation of whi(;h, although it car- ries us too far forward in our attempt at chronological order in this outline of general history, must be given here. Louis IX., of France, better known by the name of St. Louis, having recovered from a dangerous illness made a vow to take the cross, and, with all the zeal of one who was de- sirous to signalise iiimself in the places that had been sprinkled with the blood of his Redeemer, he invited his people to follow his example, and effect the deliverance of Palestine from the power of the infidels. His con- sort, Margaret of Provence, marched at his side, in order to share his dangers ; his brothers and the principal nobility of the kingdom, accom- panied by him. Nor was the French monarch left to contend with the enemy singh^-lmnded. Piince Edward, the valiant son of the king of England, followed with a large train of English noblemen. Having ar- rived on the coast of Egypt, the army made good their landing, and marched for DamieUa, \. o. 1216. Margaret led the troops in person, and the city was carried by storm. The intrepid conduct of the leaders, and the success which had hitherto crowned their arms, seemed to shov that the decisive monnMit was now at hand when the subjection of Egypt was to secure the conquest of Jiidea. But a sudden and dreadful pestilence which raged in the ('hristian camp, a dearth of provisions, and the im- prudent ardour of the count of Artois, who was surrounded by the enemy, and perished with the flower of the nobility, gave a most unhappy turn to its prosper(uis commpncement. Louis was attac^ked near Massoura, and, notwithstatiding his horric behaviour, his army sustained a signal dis- comfiture, and he himseif w:is made prisoner: a. n. 1350. Such was the fate of (he last crusade for the recovery of Palestine. 54 OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENERAL HISTORY. St CHAPTER XI. fROM THE TIME OF GENGHIS KHAN, TO THAT OF TAMERLANU. While the crusaders were figlitinw in the western piut of Asia, the na- tions of the more easterly part were threatened with extermination by Genghis Khan, the greatest as well as the most sanguinary conqueror that ever existed. The rapidity of his conquests seemed to einulate those of Alexander; but the cruellies he committed were altogether unparalleled The Moguls, or Mongols, over whom this tyrant assumed the sovereign ty, were a people of Eastern Tartary, divided, as at the present day, into various petty governments, but acknowledging a subjection to one sover- eign, whom they called Vang-Khan, or the Great Khan. Temujin, after- wards Genghis Khan, one of the minor princes, had been unjustly deprived of his inheritance at the age of thirteen, and could not recover it till twenty- seven years after, a. d. 1201, when he totally reduced the rebels, and caused seventy of their chiefs to be thrown into as many cauldrons of boiling wa- ter. Ill 1202 he defeated and killed Vang-Klian himself (known to Ku- ropeans by the name of Prester John of Asia) ; and possessing himself of his vast dominions, became thenceforward irresistible. In 1206 he was (icclared king of the Moguls and Tartars, and took upon liim the title ol (ienghis Khan, or the great Khan of Khans. This was followed by the re- duction of the kingdoms of Haya in China, Tangut, Kilay, 'I'lnkestan, Ka- razim, or the kingdom of Gazna, Great Bukharia, Persia, and part of In- dia: all ofwiiich vast regions he conquered in twenty-six years. It is computed that upwards of fourteen millions of human beings were butcher- ed by him during the last twenty-two years of his reign, and that his con- quests extended eighteen hundred leagues from east to west, and a thous- and from south to north. He died in 1227. One of his sons subdued In- dia ;another, after crossing the Wolga. devastated Russia, Huncsary, Poland, and Bohemia; while a third advanced into Syria, and conquered all the niartime provinces of the Turkish empire. The caliphate of Bagdad, and the power of the Turks in that quarter, were finally destroyed by this sud- den revolution. In the meantime the Mamelukes, a body of militia form- ed by the sultan of Cairo, expelled the Turkish conquerors, and seized tlit throne of Kgypt. The vast empire of Genghis Khan, however, had the fate of all others . being too extensive to bo governed by any one of ordinary capacity, it split into a multitude of small kingdoms as before; but they allowniid al- legiance to the house of Genghis Khan till the timeof Timur Bck, or Ta- merlane. The Turks at this time, urged forward by the inundation of Tar tars who poured in from the Kast, were forced upon the remains of tht Greek empire ; and at the time of Tamerlane they liad almost confiued this once mighty empire within the w.ills of Constantinophs We must now again cast our (!yes upon the transactions of Kurope. After the death of Frederic II. the empire of Germany fell a prey to anarchy. An interregnum took place on the death of the emperor Richard, in 1271, which continued two years, and comph^ted the destru(;tion of the impi'rial do- main. The trilKitary nations, Denmark, Poland am Hungary, absolutely shook off the yoke ; each of them taking possessioii of what lay most con- venient for them ; freeing themselves from quitrents and every obligation by which they thouelit themselves under restraint; and leaving nothing to the emperors but their paternal ir.herilance. Formerly taxes were paid to the emperor by the imperial cilii-s ; from which they endeavoured to free themselves, by taking advantage of the anari^hy that prevailed at this time, and assumed the title of/rfeci'ip.*, to dislinguish them from a gr> at number uf imperial cities which tlicy ailmitled into their body ; aud thus the Han m OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENERAL HISTORY. 55 ■natic leajriie was formed. At length they grew tired of aiianthy: and Gregory 9. having threatened to mime an emperor if they did not, they elcirtcd l{o(l()lph, count of Ilapsbiirg, the descendant of an old count of Al- s;ir;(! ; from which election, humble as it was, the lustre of the House of Aiisiriii is derived. The new emperor was seated on the throne with noth- iMjr hut an empty title to support the dignity; he had neither troops nor money: he was in suhjeetion to the clergy ; surrounded by vassals more pow('rful that) himself, and in the inid.st of an enthusiastic people who were ripe for sedition and anarchy. His fir.st care th(;refore was to conciliate the affi'ctions of the people, and by that means he happily appeased the spirit of faction. He also studied how to increase his (ioininions, so as to make them respectable ; with this view, he artfully blended the idea of glory and the right of the empire v ith his own interest; and having united the forces of the Gi.'rmanic body against Oitocar, king of Bohemia, that prince was compelled to yield Austria to the conqueror, who also obtained Suahia: so that he was enabled to leave his son Albert in possession of a rich and powerful state. From the time of llodolphof Hapsburgthe timazing power of the popes began to decline. The form of government remained the s.ime in Ger- many; but it was materially altered in England and France, where the middling classes (»f soiMCty had obtained a voice in the assemblies of each nation. The manners of the lower classes of sociiity were still rii le and barbarous in the extreme; but those of the nobility exhibited a singular mix- ture of devotion, gallantry, and valour, in whicdioriginatiMl the several or- ders of kiiigliiliDol, such as the order of the garter in Kngland, and the golden fleeci! in Spain, of St. Michael in France, of Christ in Piu'tugal. &c. To this siriinge eoinbinaliim of religimi with war and with love, may be traced the origin of judicnal combats, jousts and tournaments, and that spirit of chivalry which pervaded all the upper classes of society. Paint- ini>', sciil[)lure, and archif'cture, arose in Italy through the exertions of the fugitive Greeks. The arts of piinting and engraving wc^re also enlightening the world ; and the science of navigation, and coiiseqiiently geography, were much advanced by the discovery of the mariner's compass. CHAPTFRXII. FROM THE TIME OF TAMERLANE, TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. We now revert to the East. In (."Joa Tamerlane invaded Buldiaria, which he reduced in five years. Proceeding from coMi|iiest to ('onquest, he successively subdued Persia, Armenia, Georgia, Kar.izim, and a great part of Tartary. He then turned his course westward, and having subju- gated all the countries to the Euphrates, next poured his hordes over the fertile plains of liulia, plundering Delhi, and pursuing the living Indians to the banks of the Ganges. The cities of \sia Minor then felt his power; and among his crueltie.nnay be numbered a general massacre of the in- habitants of Bagdad. In 1.393 he invaded and rnses, Hussites fee, were sup presscil . aiui. according to all appearance, they had no reason to fear an opposii 11)11 to their auihority. Yet. in a short time after, a totally unfore- seen event produced a singular change in the religious and political state of F'liropc; this was the opposition of [iUtherto thedoctrkiies ofilie church of Rome, iir the bngisiaing of what is commonly called t/ie Reformation, The puhlinty with w»iii-h the sale of indulgences was carried oii underthe sanction of Lcfi \'.. excited Ihe indignation of Martin Luther, an Augus- tine monk and professor of theology at Witlemberg, in Saxony. Kmbold- encd by the attention which he g.iined, not only from the people but from some of their rulers, he pushed his inquiries .;:!'' attacks from one doc- trine to another, till he at length shook the firmest fotiiKiaiionn .::;: which the wealth and power of the church were established. Leo, therefore, finding ilicre was no hopes of recdaiming so incorrigible a heretic, issued a seiiteiK-e of excomniiinication, a. d. 15'-'(»: hut he was screened from its effects by the friendship of the elector of S.ixony. On the election of Charles V. to the imperial throne of Germany, bis first act was the assem- bling a diet at Worms, to check the progress of Lutherinisin. In the pro- gress of Ins arduous work, laither had the assistance of several learned men, anionu' whom were Zninijlius, Melancthcm, CJarlostadius, &c, ; iiiid there was the greatest probability that the papal Iheran'liy would have been overtnrned, at least in the north of lOurope, had it not been for the ODpusilion of the emperor Charles V., who was also king of S{iaiD. Uu OtJTLINK SKETCH OF GENEKAL HISTOIIY. 57 •v- m m Aw Heath of Frederic, his brother John siiecectlcd to the elcotorale ol Saxony, by whose order Luther and Melanclhoii drew up u body of lawa relating to the form of ecclesiastical governincnl, the mode of public wor- ship, &c., wiiich was proclaimed by heralds throughout the Saxon doniin ions; this example was inunediately followed by all the princes and states of Germany who had renounced the papal supremacy. In a diet held at Spires, in 15-J!J, the edict of Worms was confirmed ; upon wliii:h a soliiiiii vroUsl was entered against tliis decree by the elector of Saxony and ollu^r reformers ; from which circumstance they obtained the name of Pbo- rESTANTs,— an appelation subsequently applied to all who dissented from the doctrines of the Romish church. In the same year the elector of Saxony ordered Luther and other eminent divines to coniinit the chief article of their religion to writing, which they did ; and, farther to eluci- date them, Melanctlioii drew up the celebrated " Confession of Augsburg," which, being subscribed by the princes who protested, was delivered to the emperor in the diet assembled in that city, in 1530. From this time to the death of Luther, in 1510, various negotiations were employed and schemes proposed, under pretence of settling religious disputes. While these transactions occupied the public attention in Germany, the principles of the reformers were making a rapid progress in most other countries of Kuropc: in some they were encouraged by the governing powers, while in others they were discountenanced, and their advocates subjected to cruel persecutions. The Turks were now nuMiaciiig Hungary, and Charles V. thought it prudent to forget his differences with the proteslant princes and their sub- jects, for the sake of engaging them to assist him against the general en- emy ; but on the approach of ilie emperor at the head of 100,000 men. al- though the army of Solyman was at least double that number, the latter retired ; and Charles returned to Spain, and engaged in an expedition to Tunis, against the famous corsair Uarbarossa, whom he deposed from his assumed sovrrc iirnty. A loiitr ■Mill o-stinate war had been carried on between the rival sove- reign .H Germany and France ; and the former, at the head of 50,000 men, invatied the southern provinces, while two other armies were ordered to ent«T Picardy and Champaigne. Francis laid waste the country, and for- tifi«"(l (lis towns; so that after the lapse of a few months, disease and fa- miiii so reduced the army of the emperor, that he was glad to retreat, and a tiMce was effected at Nice, uiidi* the mediation of the po|)p, ad. 1538. Charles had also to quell a serious insurrc(!tioii in Ghent, and endeavoured ill vain to arrange the religious affairs ol Germany ai the diet of Ratisbon. The progress of the Turks, who had become masters of nearly the whole of Hungary, and his desire to embark in an expedition against Algiers, in- duced hitn to make concessions to the protestants, from whom he expect- ed assistance. The conquest of Altrier.s was a favourite object of Charles; and in spite of the remonstrances of Dov liie famous (Jenoese admiral, he set sail in the most unfavourable sea^'ii of the year, and landed in Af- rica; the result of which w;is, that the greatest part of the armament was destroyed by tempests: a.d. 1511. 'i'wc ;'''sirc of Ciiarles V. to humble tl ■ protestant princes, and to ex- tend his own p((«i r, f.M^'.iiv.'."'.! '■> mmiif.^i itself in every act. At length, being wholly free from domestic wars, he entered ^'raiiuc , hi:t '.\:?. g:'!!""* defence of the duke of Guise compelled him to raise the seige of Metz, with the loss of 30,000 men. In the following year he had some success in the Low Countries ; but the Austrians were unfortunate in Hungary, (n Germany tlw; religiou>i peace was finally concluded, by what is called the "recess of Augsburg." It wvs during the progress of this treaty that Charles V., to the great astonishment of all Europe, resigned the imperiiil and Spanisti crowns, and retired to spend the remainder of his life at the 58 OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENERAL HISTORY. monastery of St. Just, in Spain, where he died, three years al'tor, aged 68. A. D. loGtj. Charles was succeeded by his son Philip, and no monarcli ever ascended a throne under {rreater advantages. The Spanish arms were everywhere 8ni;cessfnl, and the rival nations appearing unanimous in their desire for repose after a series of devastating wars, peace was re-established be- tween France and Spain, which included in it, as allies on the one side or the other, nearly all the other states of Europe. At this time Klizabeth filled the throne of England, and Protestantism had there nut merely gained the ascendency, but it was established as the religi(m of ilic state. In France aL(j the reformed religion was making considerable progress; but its membci-s, who in that country were called Huguenots, met with the fiercest opposition, from the courts of France and Spain, who joined in a "holy league," and a rancorous civil war raged for several years in many of the Frencli provinces. 'I'he duUeof Anjou com- manded the Catholics ; the Protestants were led by Coligni and the prince of CcMide. At length u hollow truce was made the prelude to one of the most atrocious acts that st'iin the page of history — the savage and indis- criminate ina-siicrc of the Huguenots throughout France, on llie eve of St. Banliolomew (Aug. '-M, 157'J). The aci'ouut of this diabolical deed, by winch (iO.OOO persons met with a treacherous death, was ri'ceived in Rome a-id Spain with testacy ; and public thanksgivings were ofTered up in their chiu'ches for an event, which, it was erroneously supposed, would go far towards the extirpation of a most extensive and fornudable heresy. About this period a serious insurrection of the Moors in Spain broke out and a most sanguinary war ensued, which raged with great violern-e in the soutliern provinces; but tin; insurgents were at length (|uelle(l. ami public traiuiuillity restored. It was init long, liowever, befor(^ tin; revolt of the Dutch took place, which ended in their final emancipation from thi; Span- ish yoke, in 157i>. But of all the preparations that were made for war and conquest, none equalled that of Philip's " invincible armada,'' which he fondly hoped would css, in a furious attack on the intrenchinents of the Imperialists at Niireinbcrg, and hearing that tlK^ir gi'iieral, Wallenstein, had soon after removed his camp to Liiizen, he i)ro- cccded thither to give him battle. The Imperial army greatly outniiin- licrcd the Swedes and their allies, ami from daybreak till night the con- flict was sustiined with uinbited viijonr; but though the victory was nobly gar.ed by the Swedes, their gallant kiiiiX had fallen in tlie middle of the fight, covi red with renown, and siiicendy dcploicd by his brave and faiilifnl soldiers: a. d Itil'J. Hmh the king of Sweden anil ilie court of France hail been alirmeil at the union of ihe wlndc powi r of th:r- many, lu the hands of a ruler who assumed the t(me of a universal sov- ereign ; and the etlleacy of ii good military system, directed bv the ener- getic genius of a single leader, was never more ciniuuntly displ.iycd than uii this occasion. Th(! war was still continncil with various sui'ccns; but the weight of it fell on till- Swedes, the German princes liavinu, after Ihe iatal Imtlla of Norilliiigen, III Ki.ll, deserted them. In the fiillowing year, however the troupe of France simiillaiieiMisly attacked the Austrian monaThy nt every acce«»sili|c point, in order to prevent the for- es of the latter f'oii autinn wiili deemve effect in nny quarter. In 10^7 the emperor Ferut OUTLINK SKETCH OF GENERAL HISToaY. 61 iiand died, and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand III., who pursued the poliry of his father; but though lliere was coiisideruble disunion among the confederates, the great events of the war were generally in their favour. It would be iuconsislent, however, with the sketchy out- line we are penning, to enter into further details of this memorable war, and, perh ips, limited as our space is, we may have been already too dif- fuse. We will, therefore, pass at once to the celebrated Pcare of West- phalia, which was signed at Munster on the 24th Oct.. 1G4H. It was con- cluded under the mediation of the pope and the Venetians, between the emperor Ferdinand 111., Philip III., kmg of Spain, and the princes of the empire who belonged to their party, on one side, and Louis XIV., Chris- tina, queen of Sweden, the states-general of the United Provinces, and those princes of the empire, mosily Protestants, who were in alliance with this French and Swedes, on the other. By this celebrated treaty all differences were arrnuired between the belligerents, except France and Spain, who continued in hostilities for eleven years afterwards; but it re- slon^d tranquillity to northern Kurope and Gurntany, and became a fun- damental law of the empire, while Holland and Switzerland acquired a simultaneous recognition and guarantee. I CHAPTER XV. FROM THE CIVIL WAn IN ENOI.AN'D, TO TIIK PKACE OF RTSWICK. At this period England was convulsed by civil war. During the pros- perous age of Klizah(.'th, the commons had greatly increased in opulence, and, without regard to the resources of her successors, she had alienated many of the crown estates; .lames was prodigal towards his favourites, and Charles fell into difTicultics in consequence of the disordered state ol his financial affairs. Ho was magnanimous, amiable, and learned, but de- ficient in steadfast exertion, and in the dignity and vigour necessary to the situation in which he stood. His ideas of the royal prerogative were extravntrant; hut he often showed a timidity and irresolution on the appearance of op|)iislllon from liis Parliament, which emboldened them to carry tliclr opposllion to the must unwarrantable lengths. In order to raise supplies without the authority of Parliament, the king exacted the customs iiiid levied an arbitrary tax on ships; many ft.'i|dal privileges and ancient abuses were exercised with iiu'reascd severity; contril)ulion8 and loans, called voluntary, were ex.acteil by force; the forms of law were disregarded by the court of stiir-clianiber ; l''ny;lislimen were s\il)jected to loiin imprisonments and exorbitan; fines, and their rights treated with con- tcmiit. Froin the <. The high church ' i k into misery ; Ihi- ancient nobil- ity wen: basely degraded ; the whidc ( iiiHiliulion fell into riiiiis; n " sol- I'liin mockerv," misrullcil tlie king's i nl, took place, and Charles finally perishiMJ hy ilic nxe of the executioner, a. n. l(il!t. His death was soon followed by tlie usurpation of Croiuwt II, an ineorriL'ible tyrant, iletested Mt hoinu and feared ubruad, but who had nut long left Iliu Bcciie of his C2 outline; sketch op general ptstory. restles? amhilion, before the nation, weary of tynmiiy and hypocrisy, re- stored the son of their mnrdnred sovereign to the throne; a. d. KJGO. From the pi^ace of VVe.stph:iiiii until the death of Ferdinand III , in 1()57, Gi'rniany remained nudislurbed, when considerable ferment pre- vailed in llie Dirt, rcspeuting the elt^ction of his snccessor. The choice ,"f the electors, iiowever, liavii:nr fallen on his son Leopold, he immediate- ly contracted an alliance with Poland and Denmark, against Sweden, and a numerous army of Aiistriaiis entered Pomerania, but failing in their ohjei;t, peace was quickly restored. Ho next turned his arms against the Turks, who had invaded Transylvania, and gave them a signal overthrow. In this situ iiion of aflTairs the youthful an I aml)itious Louis XIV,, king of France, disturbed the peace of the empire by an attack upon tiie Nelh- erla-ids, wliii'li In; claimed in right of his qu(!en, sister of Philip IV., the latL Aing of Spain. In a secn^l treaty, Louis and Leopold had divided the Spainsli mitnarchy; to the former was givrn the Netherlands, and to the latter Spain, aft(!r the demise of Charles II., the reigning monarch. Having prcpan-d ample means, the king and Turenne (Mitcred Flanders, and iinnii'iliately reiluced Cliarlcroi, Toiirnay, Donay, and Lille. Such rapid success alarmed the other F.iiropcan powers, who feai'('d that an- other camp lign would make him master of the Low tvoinitrics, and a triple alliance was formed between Kiiglanc!, Hi. Hand, autl Swudcii, witli a view of setting bminds to his ainl)ilion, am! of ('ompidlinj!: ^^pain to ac- cedt; to certain prescribed con iitiims. A treaty was, accDnliiigly, iiego- tiated at .\i.v-la-Cliapelle, by which L(»uis was allowed to retain tlie tnwiis lie had taken; and these he secured by entrusting their fortifications to the celebrated Vaubaii, and by garrisoning them with his best troops; A. D. IC,M. Louis now saw that his desirriis on the Netherlands could not be carrif^l into (dTect without the co-operation of Fiiiuland; but believing that tlio profligate court of (^iiarh s II. w is open ti) corriiplioii, h'- easily siicceeil- ed, through the medium of ('liarles's sifter, llenrietla, the diicliess of Or- leans, in prevailing on I'.e prodigal king of Kngland to coii'diule a secrei tre.ity with him, in wliich it was acrreed that ('liarles should receive i largi; pension from Louis, and aid liiin in snbdniiig the United Provinces 'riu, caliiiiel (d" Versailles hiving also succeeded in detaching SwediiP from the tripli' alliance, both monarchs, uiider tiio most frivohnis pro tences, ilecl.ired wai airainst the States, a. n. lii7J. Witlioiit tin" shadow of a pretext, Louis scizeil the diii'hy of Lorr.iiiie, an(| ('liarles maile i base and iinsnecessfnl attempt to capture tin' Diitcii Smyrna llect, cvel^ wiiih^ tlie tre itv lietweeii the two countries evisted. The power that was thus coiifederaKMl against Holland, it was inipossihlc, to witiisiand. The combined lliets of France aiiil lOnjI ind amoniited to more than I'O siil, and tlie French army on the frontiers consisleil of I'JO.onn men. The latter, in the lirst instance, hore down all opp isilion, liiit on tin; i.'oininanil of the Dutch army being given to the yoiiiiy prince of Orange, William HI., the spirits and energy of the nation revived, and botli the govern- ment and the peopli" were! united in their deteriiiinalKm, rattier than siib- inil to disL'r.ieefiil terms, to abandon their country, and eniiL'ralc in a body to their colonies in till? Fast Indies. Meanwhile Ilieir llei'ts under Van Troinp and De Ituyter enifaged the eoinl(inc(l l''reiicli ami Kiiglish fleets under Prince Rupert, in three hard-foiialit but iiidei'isive ariimis ; the em- peror and the elector of llrandenbnrir joined the Dutch cause ; and Charles II., distressed for want of money, and alarmed by the (liseoiilent of his own siibjeets, lirst coindiided a separate peaci- with llidland, and then oll'ercil his mediation towards bringing about a reconciliation of the other I'oiiieiidinu p irties, Louis at the head of one of his armies cmiipiered Framdie-rompK^ in (he iikxt (.anipaiyii; while Turuiinu was successful oil the side of (ier- lil I 'I 4 OUThl.N'K SKETCH OF GENERAL HiSTOllY 63 many; but disafracnd his trophies by the devasirition itrul ruin (if the Pi- latiiiatc. Ill l(i75, iio was killed by a raiinon-ball; and the Kreiich army was fonred to rccniss the Rhine. They were sncressfiii, however, in the ensuing campaign; and tlieir fleet defeated De Iluyter, ;ifier a series of obslinale t'lijrauemonls ofT Sicily, in one of which he was slain. In 1677, another cainpaiiji' was opened, which proved still more favourable to the Frencdi. Val<'iicieiines, Cambray, and St. Omcr wer '■ taken ; inars^hal De- Luxeinboiiro defeated the princ^e of Oraii'jje, and st 'cral important ad- vantages were (rained by the rreiKih. At leiitrth the Dutch became anx- ious for |)i'acc, and signed the treaty of Mineguen, in 1()78. Louis ciiipioycd tins interval of peace in strens'thening his frontiers, and in makinir preparations for fresh conquests. He then treacherously made hiinself master of Strashurg, and some other places in Flanders. By th(!S(! aggressions the flames of war were nearlv rekindled ; but the treaty of Itatisbon prevented the continuance of hostilities, and left tho Freiieb in possessimi of Luxembourg, Sirasbnrg, and the fort of Khel. At this time (11)83) the imperial arms were occiifiied in opposing the Turks, who, having invaded Hniiu;ary, and marched towards Vienna, that city was on the point of being carried by assault, when the cele- brated .liiiin Sobieski, king of Poland, came to its relief at the head of a numerous army. This revived the contidence of the besieged, and their assailants wen? repulsed ; while the main body, which iiavar having been teriniiiated, a league was formed at Augshurjr, between the princes of (Jermaiiy, to resist the further en- (Toaehmenis of tln^ French king. To tliis league Spain, Holland, Sweden, and Denmark, acceded ; and Louis liavieg underiaken to restore ,1 lines II. who had lately been dethroned by Will am, prince of Orange, England joiiKMi the alliance. We mast hrw brieily allude to the revolution whi"!i had placed the prince of Oranije on the throne of Fiiuland. Jaini's H. brother of liie facetious bill nniiriiii'ipled Charles H. was a /eidoiis pros(d\ti^ of tho Uoniaii Citliolie faith, and coiinccied with tin.' order (d the .lesuits. One part of the nation was enthusiastic. illy attached to freedinn, and another was cliiellv inspired by the hatred of the papal cciemoiiics ; but all •greed that tho king had no just or (roiislitulional power to djctuto to .h« 04 OUTLINE SKETCH OP GENKaAL HISTORY. I.' i ■ ! nation in matters of religion. James had offended many of tJic nobles , and they, instead of snccnmbing to the man they despised, addressed themselves lo the stadlholder, who was his nephew and successor, and the presuinpiive heir to the tlirone. At this juncture tlio queen of England bore a son; an evt it vvhich produced different effects on the hopes of the catholics and proiestaiUs. The stadtholdrr, in;movable in all conliiigences, was confirmed in his resolution of rescuing England from the tyranny by which it was now oppressed; but he kept his own secret, and preserved his usual character of tranquillity, reserve, and im- penetrability. Many of the English nobility repaired to the Flasfue, where William lamented their situation ; and, with great secrecy, fitted out an arm unent that was to effect the deliverance of th(! English nation from popery and despotism. Tliough the king of France had sent James infor.natiou of the proceedings of the prince of Orange, the infatuated king could not be persuaded of his danger until the expedition was on (he point of sailing. At length the slailtholder landed in Torbay; and the unfortunate monarch, finding the situation of his aff.iirs desperate; hastily quitted the English shores, and sougiit an asylum in France. A convention was tlien sunmioui'd, llie throne declared vacant, and the prince and princess of Orange, as " King William III. and Queen Mary," were proclaimed king and queen of England. This was followed by the passing of the " Uill of Rights" and the " Act of Settle meat," by which the future liberties of the people were secured. At the head of liie league of Aug.sburg was the Emperor Leopold ; but Louis, not daunted by the number of the confederates, assembled two large armies ni Flanders; seat another to oppose the Spaniards in Catalo- nia; while a fourth was employed as a barrier on the German frontier, and ravaged the palatinate uiih fire and sword ; driving the wretched victims of his barbarous policy from their burning houses by thousands, to perish with cold and hunger on the frozen ground. In the next cam- paign his troops archieved several important victories, and tlie French fleet defeated the combined fleets of l''ngland and llollanii off Beachy- head, a.d. U)90. Thus the war continued for the three following years, exhausting the resources of every party engaged in it, without any im- portant change taking place, or any decisive advantage being gained by either that was likely lo produce a cessation of hostilities. With all the military glory that France had acquired, her conquests were unproductive of any solid advantage; her finances were in a sinking state ; her agri- culture and coininerce were laugiiishiiio ; iind the country was threatened \vitl- •'"» horrors of famine, arising from a failure of the crops and the scarcity of haiids '.o cultivate the soil. All parties, indeed, were now grown weary oi" a war in which nothing permanent was effected, and in which the l^lood ai'.d treasure of t he combatants continued to lie profusely and useless i^xpeiided. .Vccordiiigly, in 1007, negotiations were commen- ced, under the mediation of the youthful Charles XII., king of Sweden, and a treaty concluded at liyswick, by which Louis made great conces- sions, restoring to Spain the principal places he had wrested from her; but the reiiiiiiciation of the Spanish suec(!ssi(| iiio iitteniioii of the European powers, and ke|)t on llu alert thoHe princes who were claimants of the crown. The cundidutoi OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENERAL HISTORY. 66 M on tli( .aiididalof were Lonis XIV., the Emperor Leopold, and the elector of Uavaria; !•" it was iiiiiiiifestly to tlie interest of those who wished to pn^serve the balance of power ia Europe that the choice should fall on the latter ; but he was unable to contend with his rivals. A secret treaty of partition was therefore signed by France, England, and Holland, by which it was agreed that Spain, America, and the Netherlands, should be given to the electoral prince of Bavaria; Naples, Sicily, and the Italian states, to th« dauphin, and the duchy of Milan to the emperor's second son, the arch- duke Charles. This treaty coming to the knowledge of the king of Spain, he was naturally indignant that his possessions should thus be dis- posed of during his life ; and he immediately made a will in favour of the electoral prince. This well suited the views of England and Holland; but the iniention was scarcely made known, when the favoured prince died suddenly, not without suspicion of having been poisoned. The prince's death revived the apprehensions of England and Holland, and they entered into a new treaty of partition. But the king of Spain be- queathed the whole of his dominions to the duke of Anjou, second son of the dauphin, who was universally acknowledged by the nation after the death of Charles, who died in 1701 ; and the young king was crowned under the title of Philip V, The emperor Leopold being determined to support the claims of his son, war innnediately commenced, and an army was sent into Italy, where he met with great success. Prince Eugene having- expelled the French from the Mil;inese, a grand alliance was formed between Ger- many, F 'and, and ilolland. The avowed objecis of this alliance were "to pr re satisfaction to his imperial majesty in the cas^e of the Spanis,. succession ; obtain secin'ity to the English and Dutch for their dominions and commerce ; prevent the union of the monarchies of France and Spain ; and hinder the French from possessing the Spanish dominions in Anierica." James II., the exiled king of England, died at St. Germain's in France, on the 7th of September, 1701; and was succeeded in his ncnninal titles by his son, James HI., better known by the appellation of the Pretender, VVith more magnanimity than prudence, Louis XIV. recognised his right to the throne his fathcT had abdicated, which could not be considered in any other light than that of an insult to VVJlliiim and ilie English nation; and the parliament strained every nerve to avenge the indignity offered to the monarch of their choice; but before the actual coinnien(;e- ment of hostilities, William met with his death, occasioned by a fall from his horse, a.u. 170v,>. Anne, scetnid daughter of James II., and wife of George, prince of Denmark, immediately ascended the vacant throne ; and, (ic'clarnig her resolulidii to adhere to the grand alliaiK'c, war was declared by the three powers against France, on the same day, at L(nidon, the Hague, and Vienna. Her reign proved a series of hanlcs and of triumphs. Being resolved to (uirHUC tlu! plans of her jiredecessor, she entrusted the com- mand of ihe artny to the earl of IMarllioroiigli, who obtainei! considerable success'is in Flanders; while the combiniHl English and Diiieh lleeta captured the galleons, laden with liie treasures of .Spanish Ameriira, which were lying in Vigo bay, under the protection of a French lleet. Meanwhile, the French had the advantage in Italy and yMsac; but in Flanders the genius of Marlborough (now raised to a dukedom) contin- ued to be an overmatch for the generals opposed to him. Having secured nis ciniquests in that country, he resolved to march into (M'rniany, to the aid of the emperor, who had to conlend with the Hungarian insurgents as well as the French and Ilavarians. He accordingly crossed the Hhine, and meeting prnice Eugene at Mondlesheim, a juneliini was agreed on and ell'eeted with the Imperialists under the duke of Baden; and, thus L — 5 s« OUTLINE SKETCH OP GENERAL HI8T0RY. uiiilfld, tlipy ndvniiped to the Danube. The rival armies each amounted t(i iiltoill ((((,000 men. The French and Bavarians were posted on a hill tiflftr tho viilnnc of Blenheim, on the Danube; but tliough their position WiiH W{?ll chddRn, their line was weakened by detachments, which Marl- borouifh pfrcciviiifr, he charged through, and a signal victory was the rddiill. The French commander, Tallard, was made prisoner, and 30,000 of thn French and Bavarian troops were killed, wounded, and taken ; wliilfi tlifl \i>»n of tlie allies amounted to 5,000 killed, and 7,000 wounded : A.D, 1704. Hv this brilliant victory the emperor was liberaied from all diiligor; llic! Hungarian insurgents were dispersed; and the discomfited Brmy of Friince hastily sought shelter within their own frontiers. In SlXiiil Hiiil !t;.ly the advantage was on the side of the French ; but the Victory of Hlcnhrim not only compensated for other failures, but it Srently raised the Kiiglish character for military prowess, and animated 1(1 (MMirii^ic of th(! allies. A 111011(1 other great exploits of the war was the capture of Gibraltar by Ad- mlriil Nir (Icorj^c Rooke and the prince of Hesse. This fortress, which had hittwrlo Itren deemed impregnable, has ever since continued in possession of tlin l'lii|j|iHh, who have defeated every attempt ujade by the Spaniards for itM recovery. In the following vear (1705), the emperor Leopold died, and was sno- Cf^i'ded by his son .loseph. In Italy the French obt:iined some consider- able (\dviu)laBe» ; while m Spain nearly all Valencia and the province of ('iititlonia oiminitted to Charles III. The hopes and fears of the belliger- iints were thus kept alive by the various successes and defeats they oxperienced. I.ouis appeared to act with even more than his usual ardour : he Nciil an army into (icrmany, who drove the Imperinlists before them; while his Italian army besieged Turin, and Marshal Villeroy was ordered to act on the o(Tei\sive in Flanders. This general, with a superior force, ^iive Itallle III MarU)orough at Ramillies, and was defeated, with a loss of 7000 killed, (ionn prisoners, and a vast quantity of artillery and ammunition. All Hrabaiit, and nearly ill Spanish Flanders, submitteil to the cotujuerors. The allicM, under Prince Kiigene, were also successful in Italy; while, in Npftin, Philip was forced for a time to abandon his capital to the united forces of the Mnglish and Portuguese. Louis was so disheartened by these reverses that he proposed peace on very advantagcdus terms; but the (lilies. Instigated by the duke of Marlborough and Prince F.ugene, reject- ed It, alllidiigh the objects of the grand alliance might at that time have been giiined without the further (effusion nfblood.^ Thus refused, I.ouis oiiee more exerted all his energies. His troops having been compelled to evacunte Italy, he sent an additional force into Spain, where the dnkeof Ber- wick (a natural sonof James 11.) gained a brilliant and decisive victory at AI- lliiin//! over the confederates, who were commanded by the earl of Oalway mid till' murtpiis de las Mlnas ; while the duke of Orleans reduced Valencia, nnd the cities of F.erida and Saragossa. The victory of Almanza restored the llonrlion cause in Spain ; and Marshal Villars, at the In^ad of the French •rmy in Cermany, laid the duchy of VVirtemberg under contriinition Tlie general result of the war hitherto had miserably (lisa[)pointcd the F.nglisli ; Miirlliorough felt that a mon? hiilliant campaign was necessary to render liim and his party popular, lie therefore c-,)ssed the Scheldt, •lid came up with the French army, under Vendome, at dudenarde. They were ^lrnle;iv posted ; but the British cavalry broke throngli the enemy's lines nl the ((rst charge; and though the approach of night favouri'd the re- tri'iil of the French, they were p'.;t to a total rout, and !)0(I0 prisoners fell into the IhiikN of the Fniilish. Shortly after, I. isle was forced to surren- der , mill Hlient and Bruges, which had been taken by Vendome, were re- taken. AliiMit the same time the islands of Sardinia and Minorca surren ilered to the KngliHh fleet, and the pope was compelled to acknowledge the •relidukn L'harlus as the lawful king of Spain : a. d. 1708 OUTLINE SKETCH OP GENERAL HISTORY. 0T 1 The treasury of Louis being greatly exhausted, and his councils dis- traded, he again expressed his willingness to make every reasonable con- cession for the alt;iininent of peace, offering even to abandon the whole of the Spanish monarchy to the archduke ; but his proffers being rejected, except on terms incompatible with national safety or personal honour, the French king, trusting to the affection and patriotism of his people, called upon them to rise in defence of the monarchy, and in support of their hum- ble and aged king. His appeal was patriotically responded to. Kvery nerve was strained to raise a large army, and the salvation of France was confided to Marshal Villars. The allied army was formed on the plains of Lisle; the French covered Douay and Arras. Eugene and Marlbo- rough invested Mons. Villars encamped wiihin a league of it, at Mal- plaquet. Klated with past success, the confederates attacked him in his mlrenohments: the contest was obstinate and bloody: and though tiie al- lies remained masters of the field, their loss amounted to about 15,000 men ; while that of the French, who retreated, was not less than 10,000, (Sept. 11. 1709). Louis again sued for peace ; and conferences were opened at (iiMtrnydenburg early in the following spring : but the alliesstill insisting upon the same conditions, the French monarch again rejected them with firmness. The war continued, and with it the successes of tike allies in Flanders and in Spain, where the archduke again obtained possession of Madrid. But the nobility remaining faithful to Philip, and fresh succours arriving from France, the duke of Vendome compelled the alli(!s to retire towards Catalonia, whither they marched in two bodies. The English gemiral. Stanhope, who commanded the rear division, was surrounded at Drigluiegi., and forced to surrender, with 5000 men; and though the jjrincipal division, led by Staremberg, compelled Vendome to retieat, and continued their march in safety, they were unable to check the victorious progress of Philip's arms. The expenses of a war so wholly unproductive to England had by thii time exhausted tlie patience of the nation ; and a change had taken plac« in the Uritish cabinet that was nnfavouruhle to Marlborough and his designs Through the death of the emperor Joseph, which had just occvirred, the archduke Charles succeeded to the imperial dignity, thus giving a new turn to the politics of the sovereigns of Europe, who were in alliance to prevent the union of the Spanish and German crowns : a great obstacle to the restoration of peace was therefore removed. Hostilities however con- tinued, but with 80 little energy, that no event of importance occurred du- ring the whole campaign. At length the English and French plenipoten- tiaries concurring in the same desire for peace, preliminaries were signed between England and France, at London, Dec. 1712. The following year a congress was held at Utrecht for the general pacification of Europe ; and a ji^finite treaty of peace was signed on the 31st of March, 171.3, by the plenipotentiaries of all the belligerant powers, except those of the empe- ror and the king of Spain. It was stipulated that Philip should renounce all title to the crown of France, and the duke of Berri and Orleans to tl-at of Spain; that if Philip should die without male issue, the duke of Savoy should succeed to the throne of Spain ; that the Spanish Netherlands, Naples, Milan, and the Spanish territories on the Tuscan coast should be Becurecl to Austria ; that the Khiiie should be tin; boundary between France and Germany ; and that England was to retain Gibraltar and Minorca. In the following year the emperor signed the treaty of Rastadl, the condi- tions of which were less favourable to him than those offered at Utrecht; and jMjilip V. acceding to it sinne time after, Enro|)e once more enjoyed tranquillity. Shortly after liaviim thus extrie;ited himself frcnn all his diffi- culties, the long and eventful reign of Louis XIV. was terminated by hi« death, and his great trrandson, Louis XV. ^ing a minor, the duke of Orleaii. was made regent of France. «8 OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENERAL HISTORY. CHAPTER XVII. THE AGf. or CHARLES XII. OK SWEDKN, AND PETER TH3 GREAT OF RUSSIA. TuofGH we have confined our attention to the wars wliich occupied tlio noulh and west of Kiiroi)e at the latter end of t!ie 17th century, we must not overlook the events that took place in the north and east, through the nvalry ;ind ambition of two of the most extraordinary characters that ever wielded the weapons of war, or controlled the fate oi' empires: these men were Charles XIL.of Sweden, and Peter the Great, of Russia. It is here necessary to retrace onr steps for a few years. In ICfil the people of Denmark, disgusted with the tyranny of their nobles, solemnly surrendcreil their liberties to the king; and f'rederic, almost without any effort of his own, became an absolute monarch. His successor, Christian v., made war on Charles XI., of Sweden, who defended himself with great ability, and, dying in 1697, left his erown to his son, the valiant and enter- prising Charles XII. During the reign of Alexis, Russia began to emerge from the barbarism into wliich it had been plungsd by the Mongolian invasion and the civil wars occasioned by a long course of tyranny on the pari of its ruhjrs. His son Theodore pursued an enlightened policy, reforming the laws encour aging the arts, and introducing the manners and customs of more civilized nations. At his death he bequeathed the crown to his younger brother, Peter, in preference to his imbecile brother Ivan, who was several years his senior. Through the intrigues of their ambitions sister Sophia, a re- bellion broke out ; and owing to the incapacity of ono brother and the youth of the other, she continued to exercise the whole sovereign power. BcMiig accused, however, of plotting the destruction of her youngest bro- ther, she was immediately arrested and imprisoned; and Ivan having re- tired into private life, Peter became sole and undisputed master of the Russian empire, which was destined through his efforts, to acquire event ually an eminent rank among the leading powers of Europe. Endowed with an ardent thirst for knowledge, gifted wiih the most per- severing courage, and animated by (ho hope of civilizing his nation, Peter I., deservedly surnamed the Great, exhibited to the world the unusual spec- tacle of a sovereign descending awhile from the throne for the purpose ol rendering himself more worthy of the crown. Having regulated the internal affairs of Russia, Peter left Moscow, and visiKid Erance, Holland, and England incngmlo; investigating their laws, studying their arts, sciences, and manufactures, and everywhere engaging the most skilful artists and me- chanics to follow him into Russia. Hut his desires did not end there, ho wish ed also to become a conqueror. He accordingly, in 1700, entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, for the purpose of stripping \\w. youth- ful Charles XH. of the whole, or of a part of his dominions. Nothing dis- mayed, the heroic Swede entered into an alliance with Holland and Eng- land, laiil siege to (/Openhagen and compelled the Danish governmiMit to sue for peace. 'I'he Russians had in the meanlimi! besieged Narva with 80.0(10 men. Put (Jharle.s having thus ('rushed one of his enemies, in the short spatre of three wei.'ks, immediately mandied to the relief of Narva, where, with oniy 10.000 men he forced the Russian entrenchments, killed 18,000 and took 30,000 prisoners, with all their artillery, baggage, and I'limunition. Peter being prepared for n-verses, coolly observed, " I Riiew that the Swedes would beat us, but they will teach us to become con(|U(!rors in our turn." Having wintered at Narva, in the following year Charles defeated the Poles arid Saxons on the Diina, and overrun Iiivonia, (^ourlaud, and Li- thuania. Elated with his successes, he formed the project of dcthroninK S OUTLINE SKKTCH OV GKNERAL HISTORY. 69 Augustus, king of Poland. Oombiniiig policy with the terror of his arms, he eiitcred VV;irsa\v, aiihl, through tiie iutrigues of the primate of Poland, he obtained tlie deposition of AiigHstus, and the election of his irienil, the young palatine Sianislmis Leczinski, a.d. 1704. Though Peter had lieen unable to afford his ally Augustus mueh assistance, he had not been inac- tive. Narva, so recently ihn scene of his discomfiture, he took by storm, and sent iui army of Cd.OOO men into Polanrl. The Swedish king, how- . ever, drove them out of the country, and, at the head of a noble and vic- torious army, he marched onward with the avowed intention of dethroning his most formidable enemy, the czar of Russia. Peter endeavoured to avert the storm by sending proposals of peace, which being haughtily re- jected, he retreated beyond the Dnieper, and sought to impede the progress of the Swedes towards Moscow, by breaking up the roads, and laying waste the surrounding country, (.'harles, after having endured great pri- vations, and being urged by Muzeppa, hetman or chief of the Cossacks, who offered to join him with 30,000 men and supply him with provisions, penetrated into the Ukraine. He reached the place of rendezvous, but the vigilance of Pi-ler had rendered the designs of the heiman abortive, and he now appeared rather as a fugitive, attended with a few liundred followers than as a potent ally. The Swedish army had still greater disappointments to meet with. No supplies were provided, and General Lcweiihanpt, who had been ordered to join th(! king with 15,000 men from Livonia, had been forced into three engagements with the Russians, and his ariny was reduced to 4000. Uraving these misfortunes, Charles continued the campaign, though in the depth of winter. In the midst of a wild and barren country, with an army almost destitute of food and clothing, and perishing with cold, he madly resolved to proceed. At length he laid siege to Pultowa, a fortified city on the frontiers of the Ukraine, which was vigorously defended. His army vvas now reduced to 30,000 men, and he waii snfl^(M-ing from a wound which lie had received while viewing the works. The czar, at the head of 70,000 men, advanced to the relief of Pultowa, and Charles, cirried in a litter, set out with the main body of his army to give him battle. At first the impetuosity of the Swedes made the Russians give way, but Charles had no cannon and the czar's artillery made dreadful havoi! in the Swedish lines. Notwithstanding the desperate valour of the troops, the irretrievable ruin of the Swedes was soon effected; 8000 were killed, 6000 taken prisoners, and 12,000 fugitives were forced to surrender on the banks of the Dneiper from want of boats to cross the river. The Swedish army was thus wholly destroyed Charles, and about three luiiidred men, escaped witli much difficulty lo Bender, a Turkish town in Bessa- rabia. wli(!re he was hospitably received, and where he remained inact.ve during several years, buoyed up with the hope that the Ottoman Porte would espcnise his cause, and declare against the czar of Russia. In one fatal day (Charles had lost the fruits of nine years' victories, and the shat- tered remnant of that army of veterans, before whom the bravest troops of other countries quailed, were transported by the victorious czar to colonize the wild and inhospitable deserts of Siberia. Hut th(! inflexible king of Sweden had not even yet abandoned all hope of humbling the power of his hated rival. At length, in 1711, war was declared against Russia by the Porte, and the vizier Baltagi Mehemet nil- vaiiced towards the Dannbe at the head of 200,000 nun. By this immense force the Ihi.ssian army on the banks of the Prnih was closely surrounded and reduced to a state of starvation. At this critical juncture, the czarina Catharine, who a<'companied Iier husband, sent a private message lo the vizier and procured a cessati ui of hostilities preparatory to o[)eihng nego- tiations, which were s[)ced'ly followed by a treaty of peace. (Miarlefl, wlio had calculated oa the total destruction of the czar, felt liiglilv in< TO OUTLINE SKETCH OP GENERAL HISTORY. censed at this disappointment of riis mnst ardent hopes, and eventually procured the dismissal of the vizier. His successor, however, still less favourable to the views of the royal warrior, persuaded the sultan, Achmet III., to signify his wish that Charles should leave the Ottoman empire. But he resolved to remain, and the Porte had recourse to compulsory mea- sures. His house was invested by Turkish troops, and after a fierce de- fence on the part of himself and his few attendants, he was taken and con- veyed as a prisoner to Adrianople. The enemies of Sweden were, in the mean time, prosecuting their suc- cessful career. Stanislaus, whom Charles had placed on the throne of Poland, had been compelled to yield it to Augustus, and the Swedish frontiers were threatened on every side. General Steinbock, after having gained a brilliant victory over the Danes and Saxons at Gadebusch, and burnt Altona, was besieged iiiTonningen, and forced to surrender with the whole of his army. Housed at this intelligence, the king of Sweden left Turkey, and after traversing Germany without any attendant, arrived safely at Stralsun.l, the capital of Swedish Pomerania. At the opening of the next campaign, [a.d. 1715] Stralsund was besieged by the Prussians, Danes and Saxons, and though obstinately defended by the king, was forced to capitulate, while he narrowly escaped in a small vessel to his native shores. All Europe now considered that his last effort had been made, when it was suddenly announced that he had invaded Norway. He had found in his new minister. Baron de Goertz, a man who encouraged his most, extravagant projects, and who was as bold in the cabinet as his master was undaunted in the field. Taking advantage of a coolness that existed between Russia and the other enemies of Sweden, Goertz proposed that Peter and Charles should unite in strict amity, and dictate the law to Europe. A part of this daring plnn was the restoration of the Stuarts to the throne of England. But while tlie negotiations were in progress, Charles invaded Norway a second time, and laid siege to Frederickshall, but while there a cannon-ball terminated his eventful life, and his sister Ulrica ascended the throne, a.d. 1718. By tlie peace which Peter signed with Sweden, he obtained the valua- ble provinces of Carelia, Ingrain, Esthovia, and Livonia. On this glorious occasion he exchanged the title of czar for that of emperor and autocrat of all the Russias, which was recognized by every European power. One year after (a.d. 1735) this truly extraordinary man died, in the 53(1 year of his age. and the 43d of a glorious and useful reign. Peter the Great must be considered as the real founder of the power of the Russian em- pire, but while history records of him many noble, humane, and generous actions, he is not exempt from the charge of gross barbarity, particularly in his early years. He must not, however, be jndged according to the standard of civilized society, but as an absolute monarch, bent on the exaltation of a people whose manners were rude and barbarous. Catharine I. who had been crowned empress the preceding year, took quiet possession of the throne, and faithfully pursued the plairs of her illus- trious husband for the improvement of Russia ; obtaining the love of her subjects by the mildness of her rule and the truly patriotic zeal she evinced for their welfare. She died in the second year of her reign, and left the crown to Peter H., son of the unfortunate Alexis, and the regen(;y to prince MenzicwfT, who was afterwards disgraced and banished to Siberia. After a short and peaceable reign Peter IF. died, and with him ended the male line of the family of Komanof a d. 1730. 1 I OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENEHAL HISTOUY. n I 1 I CHAPTER XVIII. THE AFPAIIU or EDROPK, FROM TIIK ESTABLISHMENT OF THE HANOIERIAR SUCCESSION m ENGLAND, TO THE YEAR 1740. Arrived at a period of coniparaiive repose, we may now take a retro- spective glance at the affairs of Great Britain. In 1707, Scolh.\id and England hnd been luiited under this appellation, and the act of union in- troduced equal rights, liberties, commercial , rrangements, and a parlia- ment common to both nations. During the hie of William III. theprotes' lant succession had been decided by act of parliament, in fpvour of the countess palatine Sophia, duchess of Hanover, wife of the first electoral sovereign of that territory and mother of George I. This pis'icess died a short time before queen Aime, and George I., upon that event, took the oath of succession, by which he engaged to obse. ve and mi^i.itain the i ..vs and liberties of Britain, not to engage that kingdom even in defei i^e wars on account of his electorate, and to employ no other than !h :\jh ministers and privy counsellors in the administration of governmeu,. As George I. in a great measure owed his succession to the crown to the Whig party, he openly avowed himself their frieu" u- ■■] patron, and they were no sooner in office than they used their pov, er ti crush their political adversaries the Tories. One of the first acts af hia reigti was the iQ^peachtnent of theduke ofOrmond, and the lords Oxford and Uoling- brokS. Oxford was committed to the Tower, but Boliiigbroke and Or- mond made their escape to the continent. The evident partiality of the monarch for the Whigs, and their vindictive proceedings, ^ave great um- brage to many persons, and roused the anger of all who were favourable to the Stuart dynasty. These feelings more especially prevailed in the Highlands of Scotland, and a plan was formed for a ge.;eral insurrection in favour of the Pretender, whom they proclaimed under the title of James III. By the authority of the prince the earl of Mar had raised his standard, and the clans quickly crowded to it, so that he was soon at the head of 9,000 men, including several noblemen and other persons of distinction. But their plans were prematurely formed, and their want of unanimity in conducting the necessary operations proved fatal to the cause in which they were embarked. They were attacked and completely routed by the royal forces at Preston Pans, a.d. 1716. The Pretender and the earl of Mar effected their est^ape, but most of ; c insurgent chiefs and officers were doomed to suffer death as traitc-r. '■ iie rebellion beingr thus sup. pressed, an act was passed for making p<>;:ianicnts sepienniali instead of triennial. We now return to the affairs of Spain and other continental states. We have seen that the death of the emperor and the accession of the arch- duke Charles to the imperial throuu, left Philip V. undisputed master of Spain and of its colonies. His fivs! queen being dead, he married Elizabeth Farnese. heiress of Parma, Tuscany, and Placeiitia, a woman of mascu- line spirit, who, having a powerful influence over the mind of her husband, and being herself directed by the daring cardinal Alberoni, his prime min- ister, indulged in the prospect of recovering those possessions which had been wrested from Spain, and confirmed by the peace of Utrecht. The Bchemes of Alberoni, in fact, went much farther; by the aid of Charles XII. of Sweden, and Peter I. of Russia, he designed to change the poll- tical condition of Europe ; he desired to restore the Stuarts to the throne of England, to deprive the duke of Orleans of the regency of France, and to prevent the interference of the emperor by engaging the Turks to assail his dominions. These ambitious projects were defeated by whai was termed the " quadruple alliance" (a.d. 1716) between Austria, France, 72 oijTlink skktcii of (jkneral history. England and HoUmid. The court of Spain for a time resisted this yiow- erful confoderacy, but its disasters both by laud and S(!a, couipelled Philip to accede to the lernis which were ofTered him, and Alheroui was dis- missed, A.D. 17:20. A private treaty was afterwards concluded between the kinjf of Spain and the oniperor, and another, foi the express purpose of coiuiteracting it, was concluded between England, France, Holland, Prussia, Denmark and Sweden. This led to a short war between F.ng- land and Spam : the English sent a fleet to tlie West Indies to block up the galleons in Pnno-Uelio, and the Spaniards made an unsuccessful at- tack upon Gibraltar. Neither party having gained by the rupture, the mediation of France was accepted, and a treaty was concluded at Seville, by which all the conditions of the quadruple alliance were ratified and confirmed. One of its articles provuling that Don Carlos, sou of the queen of Spain, should succeed to Parma and Placentia, the Spanish troops now took formal possession of those territories. It was also agreed that the "pragmatic sanction," or law by which the emperor secured the succes.sion of the Austrian dominions to his female heirs, in failure of mal(> issue, should be guaranteed by the contracting powers. George I., king of England, died in 17'J7, hut his death made no chango in the pidilics of the cabinet, Sir Robert Walpole continunig at the head of affairs afler the accession of George !I. Some few years previous to the deatii of his father, the nalioii had experienced much loss and con- fusion by the failure of the "South-Sia scheme," a commercial specula- tion on so extensive a scale that il bad well-nigh produced a national bankriiplcy. it was a close imitation of the celebrated " Mississippi scheme," which had a short time before involved in ruin thousands of our (Jallic neisjli'iours. The pacific disposition of Cardinal Flenry, prime minister of Fiance, and the no less pacific views of \Val|)ule, for nearly twenty years secured the happiness and peace of both coiiniries. But the puynacious spirit of the people, and the rememliraiicc of old griev'>nccs on liolh sides, led to new altercations witii the Spaniards, which were greatly aggravat(!d by their altackiiig the English ein|il()yed in culling ingwood in the bay ol Campeai'liy. .\ war was the consefpience, and FrMuei' became the ally of Spain, AD. 17.1l>. .\ small force being sent to t!ie West Inilies, under Adnural X'ernoii, the iin|)ortant city of Porto-Uello was caiilurcd, which success induced lh(! Enj>lis!i to send out oilier arinameiiis npoii a larger scale. One of these, under Coniinodore .Anson, sailed i<'. the South Seas, and after eneomilering severe st(uins, by wliiidi Ins force was much diml- nisheil. lie ravaircd the coasts of Ciuli and Peru, and eveuluatly captured the ricli galleon annuidly iKumd IViiin .\ca|Milco to Manilla. The olhor ex'iediiion Masdireeied ayaiiist Cartliancna liiit it jiroveil most disastrous, owing to the misininagcment and disjui' 's o( llie coininandeis, and to the unlie.iMhiness of the climate, not less than l.'),0()0 troops having fallen victims to disease. ■-'fit M M CHAl'TER \IX. r«OM TIIK A(rKSSiON OF TIIK. KMI'HK.ss TIIK.IIKHA, OK AUSTRIA, TO THr. l-rACK OK AIX-].A-KLLK. \Vk now return to the stair of atfiirsin northern Eiiro|ie. On thedeatli of the einpeiiir, ("liarlis VI., his daiinhler, Maria Theresi, by virtue of the pra;.nii:i|ii' sanction, took possesxion of Ins hereditary doinininns, Init shft finiiid sill was not likely to reliiin |ieaceable possessiim of them. Tho kin(« of Poland. Prince and Spiin, exiiibded llnir nspcclive (laiins to the \. liole Austrian succession, and Frederic the (Ireat, km;; of Pnisaiu OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENEHAL HISTORY. 73 if tint hill sh(» TIk! IIMIH tU who nad just KsceiKled his throne, looking only to the aggranclizemfi'it of his dominiiiiis, joined her enemies in tlie hope of obtiiininy: ;i share ol the spoil. At the head of a well-appointed army he entered Silesia, .ook Bresiaii, its capital, and soon conquered the province, and ni onier •• re- tain his a('(iui:s purpose of elevalinij Charles Alljcrt, elector of Havaria, to the imperial dignity. Under the command of the prince, assisted by the marshals Belleisle and Broglio, the united armies einered Upper .\nslria, took Lintz and menaced Vieima. Maria Theresa being compelled to abandon her capital, fled to Hungary, and having convened llie slates, she appeared before the assem- bly with her infant son in her arms, and made such an eloquent appeal that the nobles with one accord swore to defend her cause till death. "Moriamnr pro HKOE nostro Maria Theresa." Nor were these nn^re idle words; her [)atrioiic subjiM ^ rushed to arms, and, to th(' asttmishment of her enemies a large Hungarian army, under the command of Prince CI tries of Lorraine, marciied to the relief of Vienna, and the elector was obliged to raise the siege. A suDsidy was at tlie same time voted to her by the British parliament, and the war assumed a more favourabh; aspect. The .Austrians took Munich, afier di'feating the B^ivarians at Meniberg, and the prince of Lorraine expclli'd the Prussians and Saxons from Mo- ravia. The elector, however, had the gratification, on retiring into Bo- hemia, to take the city of Prague, and having been crowned king of Bo- hemia, he proce(?(!ed to Frankfort where he was chosen emperor under the name of Clinrles VI L, ad. 17Ii. 'I'he king of Prussia having obtained a brilliant victory over the Aus- trians at C/.arslau, took iniinedialc advantage of his position, and signed a separate treaty w'ith the queen of Mungary, who ceded to him Lower Silesia and (il.itz, on condition of his remaining neutral during li>'r contest with the other powers. 'I'he conduct of Frederic gave just cause of of. fence to the court of France, f{ Fngland had ariivid in the allied camp, and the French commander. Marshal de Noaillcs, having cut off llicir nupplie the (lestriictioii of the British and Austrian army was aniicipated, eiilior by being cut to (licces if iliey attempted a retreat, or by their surrender. They coiiimciiceil their retreat, and, foriunately for llicm, the ufood gener- alship of Noailb's who had taken posscssnui (if Delliiciien m their Iront, was counterai'ted by the rashness of liis in phew, the coniil de (irauiinont, who advanced into a small plain to giv(! the allies battle; but the inipelu- ■l»ily of Ihe l''rench tnaips was met by the resolute and steady courago of the allies, which obtained for iheiii the victory of Dcitingeii. Tim marshal retreated, but the allies, owing to the irrei olutiim of (ieorgo II., •ibtamed no farther advantHge. The iMiiuhiy and amliiiions conduct of (lie omprr^s, wlio avowed hrr inlenlion of keeping Bavaria, gave ureal offfcnce to several of the (ieriimu 74 OUTLINE SKETCH OF UKNERAL HISTORY. :i princes, and France, Prussia, and Die elector palatine, united to cheek tne (rro wing power of Austria. The French arms were victorious ui Flanders; the king of Prussia, who had invaded Bohemia, was defeated with great loss, and forced to make a precipitate retreat into Silesia, a.d. 1744. Not long after this the death of the elector of Bavaria removed all reasonable grounds for the continuance of hostilities, his son having renounced all claims to the imperial throne, while Maria Theresa agreed to put him in possession of his hereditary dominions. During the campaign of 1745 the Imperialists lost Parma, Placentia and Milan. In Flanders a large French army, under Marshal Saxe, invested Tournay, while the allies, under the duke of Cumberland, though greatly inferior in numbers, marched to its relief. The king of France and the dauphin were i>' the French camp, and their troops were strongly posted behind the village of Fontenoy. The British infantry displayed the most undaunted valour, carrying everything before them ; but they were ill supported by their German and Dutch allies, whose indecision or want of courage lost the day. The capture of Tournay, Ghent, Ostend, and Ou- denarde by the French, was the immediate consequence of this important victory. la England the fatal battle of Fontenoy disappointed the expectations of the pi'ople, and produced great irritation in the public mind, while it at the same time revived the hopes of the Jacobites, who thought it a fortu- nate time to attempt the restoration of the Stuart family. Charles Kd- waril, the young Pretender, accordingly landed in Scotland, where his manly person and engaging manners won the hearts of the Highlanders, who were everywhere ready to give him a hearty welcome and join his standard. Tl-.us supported by the F4ighland chiefs and their clans, he took possession of Dunkeld, Perth, Dundee, and Hdinburgh. Having pro- claimed his father, he marched against Sir John Cope, the royal coui- mander,over whom he obtaiuci' a victory at Preston Pans. After receiv- ing some reinforcements he cr< - 'd the Hnglish border, took Carlisle and Laiicaster, and marched boldly i^^i to Derby. But being disappointed in his hopes of powerful assistanc; from the Fhiglish Jacobites, he took the advice of the majority of his oflicers and retraced his ((tejjs. On his re- turn to Sioiland his forces were considerably augmented, and, receiving a supply of money from Spain, he prepared to renew the contest with spirit. But though he was at first successful, by taking the town of Stir- ling, and (i('f(Mtiiig the troops sent against him at Falkirk, the approach of a larger army, commanded by the duke of Cumberland, shod comjielled the prince to retreat to the north. On reaching ('ulloden Moor, near In- verness, lie re.iolvt'd lo make a stand. As usual, the Highlanders made u furious onset, but their desperate charge was received by a close and gall- ing (ire of musketry and artillery, winch in a very short time proveil de- cisive, (living up all for lost, (Jharles Kdw.ird desired his partizans to jisfierse, and became himself a wretched and proscribed fugilivt*, in the hourly dread of falling into the hands of his merciless pursuers, who, after their victory, with liiMullike barbarity, laid waste theeonntry wiih tire and sword. Alter wamleriiig in the Higlilaiuls for several months, and reeeiv- iiig numerous proofs of tin- fidelity of his unfortunate adherents, whom the reward of X'''l, and Nanuir were captured ; and the Kaiigniiiiiry battle of Koucoux ended th(^ campaign. In Italy, tin- arms (if France ami her allies were not eijually successful ; and after a series ol battles in (lennany and the Low CounlneN, in which the lortune of war was pretty e(|uidly lialaneed, eonferi'iices wereopeiieil at Ai\-la-('liapelle, and («relimiiianes of peace signed; a. i>. 174H. The basis of ilns treaty was tint ^Tn J OUTLINE 3KKTCH OF GENERAL HISTORY 76 restitution oPhU places taken duriiitt tlx' war, and a mutual release of pris- oners. Frederic of Prussia was guranteed in ilie possession of Silesia and Glatz; the Hanoverian succession to the English throne was recognised and the cause of the Pretender abandoned. We brought our notice of Russia down to the death of Peter II., ::' 1730. When that occurred, a council of the nobles placed on the throne Anne Iwannowa, daughter of Ivan, Peter's eldest brother, who soon broke through the restrictions imposed upon her at her accession. She restored to Persia the provinces that had been conquered by Peter the Great; and terminated a glorious war againstTurkey, in conjuctiun with Austria, by sur- rendering every place taken during the contest . a.d. 1735. She is accused of being attached to male favourites, the principal of whom was a man of obHcure birth, named John Biren, who was elected duke of Courland, and who governed the empire with all the despotism of an autocrat. Pre viously to her death, Anne had bequeathed the throne to the infant Ivan, and appointed IJiren regent; but the latter enjoyed his high dignity only twenty-two days, wlien he was arrested and sent into exile in Siberia, Russia has ever been noted for cabals, intrigues, and revolutions. Thesol- diery had been induced to espouse the cause of Klizabeth, daughter of Peter the great. Anne was arrested and imprisoned; the infant emperor was „onfined in the fortress of Schusselburg ; and Elizabeth was iinmedi- ately proclaimed empress of ail the Kussias. This princess concluded an advantajfcous peace with Sweden ; and lent her [xiwerful assistance to Maria '1 lieresa, in her war with the king of Prussia, for whom Elizabeth felt a violent personal enmity. CHAPTER XX. PROORKSS or EVKNT9 DURING TIIK SKVEf* YKARS' WAR IN EUROPK, AMEH- ICA, AND THK FAST INDIKS. DiiRiNo the period we have been d:'scribing, in which the west and the north of Kurope resounded with the crifs of distress or tin? shouts of vic- tory, the throne of Hiiulosian was filled by Mahmoud Sh.ili, a voluptuous prince: who, in order to avoid becoming the object of personal halrtd, coiilidcd all public business to the iiobirs and his ministers : these officers offended or neglected the subahdar of iheDeccan, who invited Nadir Shah to invade the East Indies. In 173^1 the Persian warrior uuirihcd uito that coimtry at the head of an army inured to war and g-eedy of plunder, and defeated with ease the innumerable but disorderly troops of the mogul. The crown and sceptre of Mahmoud lay at the feet of his conijueror. Delhi, his capital, was taken; every individual whosrappearance rendered it proliaulcthat he was acquainted with concealed treasures, was subjected to the mo>t horrid tortures ; and it is asserted that 100,000 jicrsons were massacred in one day! He plundered the country of upwards of thirty millions sterling, and extended the bounds of his empire to the banks of the Indus. After commiliing the must revolting acts ofcrueliv, ho was apsassinated by his own officers, who placed his nephew, Adil Shah, on the vaeaiii throne ; a. d. 1T47. We will now take a view of European interrsis in that distant region. Ainoiigother stipulations in the treaty of Ai.v-la-Chapelle, it was agrted that the English settlcuM'iil of Madras, which during the war of the sue- cession hail been taken from the English by the French, should he restor- ed, Dnpleix, the French governor of Pondicherry, had long fiought an opportiimiy for adding to the dominions of his countrymen in India; and the contniual disputes of the native nrinees favoured his schemes, inas- much as the interference of tlie French was generally solicited by one of the parlits, who remunerated their European allies by fresh conccBsinnn # 76 of OUTLINE SKETCH OE GENERAL HISTORY. rally ed'ihe jealc territory on every such occasion. This natura of their Knglish rivals, who adopted a similar line of policy; so that whenever there was a rupture between the native princes, they each found al'ies in the Kuropeim settlers. A fierce contention arose for the nabob- jiiipofthe Carnatic. The French supported the claims of Chunda Sahib; the English being applied to by Mohammed Ali, son of the 1-ite nabob of Arcot, espoused his cause : a. d. 1751. It was at this time that Mr. Clive (afterwards lord Clive) appeared in the capacity of a military leader. He had bi;en originally in the civil service of the East India Company; but he now exchanged the pen for the sword, and soon proved himself more than a match for all the talents which were brought into play against him. With a small force he took Arcot ; and he afterwards successfully defended it against Chundah Sahib, who besieged it with a numerous army. Many brilliant victories followed on the side of the English and their allies. The Rajah of Tanjore, and other independent chiefs joined them. The French lost most of their ac(|iiisitioiis : Mohammed All's claim was ac- knowledged ; and a treaty was entered into between the French and En- glish, thai neither party should in future interfere with the affairs of the native princes. Time proved how useless was such a stipulation. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle was not of long duration. France and England were still at war in the East indies, and their differences in re- spect to the boinidaries of their respective colonies in North .America still remained for adiuslnipnt. Another war in Europe was the inevitable con- sequence ; and irom the term of its duration it obtained the name of " the seven years' war." England united with Prussia ; and an alliance between the emperor, France, Uussia, Sweden, and Saxony, was immediately con- cluded: A. D. 17')tl. The coniinenceinent of the cain|)aign had a discoura- ging aspect for the king of Prussia ; the Russians were advancing through Lithuaiiiii, a Swedish army occupied his attention in Poinerania, and the united forces of the French and Imperialists were advancing through Ger- many. With his cliaracterislic boldness, Frederic anticipated the attack of his numerous foes, and invaded both Sa.xony and IJohemia ; making himself master of Dresden, routing the Austrians at Lowesitz, and com- pelling 17,000 Saxons to lay down their ains at Parma. In the ensuing campaign the inarsh;il d'Estrecs crossed the Rhine, with 80,000 men, to invade Hanover. The Hanoverians and H<;ssiaiis, under the coiniiiaiid of the diike of Cumberland, were driven out, and the French became masters of the electorate. Uiiawed by the formidable prepara- timisof his enemies, Frederic again asHuincil tlin offensive, and penetrated into Rolieinia ; but a victory olitaincd at Koliii, by the Austrian general Daiin, coiiiprlleil liiin to retreat h isiily into his domiuioiiB, which W(!ri; now threatened in every direction. The Fr( ich had rapidly advanced upon Magdeburg ;liie victorious Russians threatened the norlh of Silesia, while the Aiislrians had attacked the soutli and even penetrated to llerlin, where tliev levied liciivy contribuiinns ; and the prince of Itninswick He- vcrn had didtvereil U[) Hreslan. In thiseinergency, Frederiir c(Mild scarce- ly expect lo ai'(juire any further fiine; but, with his ("•cusiomed energy, he hasteni'i! to Dresden, assembled an army, and with half the nninberof his French and (■crinan opponents, vjiive them battle at the villageof Ros- bai'li, an I ohtaincd over them a most brilliant victory. Ills loss amount- ed lo only five tnindreii men, while that of the enemy was tniu^ tliDusand, in killed, wounded, iniil prisoners. In four weeks after ho obtained the far more i'liportant victory"!' Mssa, and recovered liresiaii. Dunni; Iliecam|)ai:in of 17r>^i, ilie Prnssian monarch recovered Schweid- nitz,ini, while the Frcnidi settlements im the Afric.in coast were reduced. The island of Gaudaloupe, in the VVe.st Indies, was also taken by the Emjlish. ("rown Point and Ticondcroga wertMidiniuered by (Jcneral Am- herst, and Sir NViliium .lohiisou gained jiossession of the importatU for- tress of NiaKara. The Freiudi, thus attacked on every side, were umdile to with.stand the (lower and enthiisiisni of tlieir enemies: and General Wolfe, who was to I:, ;•■" been assisted in his attack on Quebec by Amherst, fitidinglhat the latter general was unable to (. tie rip, li of ' Tontivi!?!. I js noble or soldierlike. He had bnii morla iy ivouuiicd ; Mid he v-;'., ..> sooner apprised of his daitn^r ihr.i! he Lxclai'ind, "so much the heurr: I shall II t live to witness f.he surrender of Qui.t 'C." The eonr)plete subjugation of tilt' Oanadas qiiirkly followt"!. And, amiJst the exploits of Ins army and i:' Portuguese, and though aeveral towns at first fell into the hands of the S|K\niards, the British and native troops displayed a decided superiority tln'Mighout the campaign, and compelled them to evacuate the kingdom with c("iisiderable loss. In Germany, Prince Ferdinand and the marquis of Granby not only protected Hanover, but re- covered the greater part of Hesse. At the saint? time Frederic experienced an unexpected stroke of good fortune. The empress Klizabelli of Russia died, and l»cter HI., who had long adiuiied the heroic king, and who had never forgotten that the inlluence of Frederic had especially contributed to the foundation of his Mopes and qreatness, had no soonc^r ascended the throne than he made peace with him, ind restcired all the conquests of the Russians. From that lime the king was not only enabled lo concen- trate his whole force against the Austrians, but was supported by Peter, who concluded an alliance with him, and despatched to his aid a corps of 20,000 men. The reisin of Peter HI., was, however, of very brief dura- tion; and Gatharinc H., although sli(! confirmed the peace, recalled the anxjiiary Russians from the F'russian army. Meanwhile the Kiiglish were extending their conquests in the West In- dies, 'i'hey took llavannah and Manilla from the Spaniards, with Marti- nique, St. I.iicie, (irenada, and St. Vincent. iVom the French. Tired of a war which threatened the w hole o( their colonies with riiiu, !!;*■ cabinets of France and Spain were glad to find that llic liritish iniiester was ecjual- ly anxious to bring the war to a close. Peace, wliic! 'as now the uni- versal object of desire to all parlies, was concluded at Versailles, on the 10th of February, 17(iH, between (ireat Hrilain, France, and Spain, and five days later, ai Hiibertsbiirg in Saxony, beiwei i Anstriaand Prussia. This memorable contest, which had reijujred siieii an ''xtraordinary expendi- ture of bliiod and freasnr*? — a war in which the half of Furope had been in arms against lOiiglaiid and Prussia — was concluded .villi »careeiy any al- teration III the territorial arrangeiuents of (iermany, and without proilii- cine any great or lasting benefit to "ither of the bell'igeranis, so tar, ai (east aj. their iiileresis in F.urop(> were ciii;ceni( d. Hut in the Fast and West Inihes, as well as in America, it had added greatly to the colonial poMses- flions of Great liritian. t i OUTLINE SKETCH OP GENERAL HISTORY 79 H> CHAPTER XXI. fROM THR CONCLUSION OF THE SEVEN VKARS POLAND. WAR TO THE FINAL PARTITION Of The " seven years' war," the principal features of which we have griv- ^n, left most of the contending powers in a stale of great exiiansiion ; but .lone had been more affected hy it than France, While that country, how- ever, was dcciining, Russia, under the Empress Catharine If., was rapidly acquiring a preponderating influence among the nations of Europe; and no opportunity of adding to her already extensive territories were ever neglected. On ^he death of Augustus III., king of Poland, the diet assem- bled at Warsaw to choose a successor. Catharine espoused the cause of Stanislaus Poiiiatowrky ; and as the discuscions were not conducted with the temper which ought to characterize deliberative assemblies, the pru- dent empress, us a friend and neighbour, sent a body of iroops thither to keep the peace. This had the desired effect, and Stanislaus ascended the throne. Hut Poland had long been agitated by disputes, both religious and political, and the new sovereign was unable to control the elements of discord by which he was surrminded. The animosity which existed between ilie Catholics and the Dissidents, as the dissenting sects were called, had risen to a height incom[)atible with the safety of the kingdom. The Dissidents, who had been much oppressed by the Catholics, claimed an equality of rights, which being refused, they appealed to forei/'ii pow- ers for protection ; those of the (Jreek church to the empress of Russia, and the Lutherans to the kings of Prussia and Denmark. A civil war now arose in all its horrors, and its miseries were greatly aggravated hy the insolence and brutality of the Russian troops which Catharine had sent to the aid of the Dissidents. The Catholic nobles formed a confede- racy for ihc maintenance cf their privileges and tiieir religion ; but it was useless to coniend against the overwhelming forces brought against them. Cracow, where they for a hmg time held out against famine and pesti- lence, was at length taken by storm, and the unhappy fugitives were pur- sued beyond the Turkish frontiers. The protection which the confederates received in Turkey, and mutual jomplainis concerning the incursions of the wmndering hordes of Tartars «nd Cossacks, hud, some years before, furnished a pretence for war be- tween the Porte and the Russians. It was impossible that Mustapha III. could any hniifer contemplate with indifference the transactions which took place in- Poland ; not only was the security of his northern provinces endangered, but he felt justly indignant at the violation of his domii'^ons. He accordingly remonstrated with the einpre.ss ; and she speciously re- plied, that having been ri'(incsted to send a few troops to the assistaiu-o of her unhappy ntighboiir, in order to (]tiell some internal commotions, she cmilil nn refuse. Hut a body of Russians having afterwards burned the Turkish town of Halla, am) put all its inhabitants to death, war was declared, and the Kuropeiiii and Asiaiii! doirinicnis of the Porte sunuiioned to arm.s. Wliih! all tl;(! odicers who wcr'"' to compose the suite of the grand vizier were prcpari' g at (\)nstintiiioi)le for their departure, the mul- tifarious Ionics of militia assembled liiemseives out of Asia, and covered the IJdsphorus and llellcspimt with numerous transports. On the other hand, the (liirerenl iiati<)ns (composing the extensive empire of iIk^ autocrat of all the Russias, iiiokI of wlmni were hut a few degrees removed from barbarism, put themselves in iDotinn, ai.d a body of troops, sclect'd from among the corjis ilisfiersed over Pohiiid, was assembled on the siije of ibo Ukraine. The capitation tax of the Russian empire was raised, ui'l a war cuiilribuiiun of 20 pur cent, levied on uU salaries. Large armies on both / r)0 OUTLINE SKETCH OP GENEllAL HISTOHY. »iil(!N ndviini'i'il ii(;;iiiist the Danube ; and in ilic spring of 17()9 tlmTuikisn Ntiin.liiril U'iiN (liMphiycil .11 tliu fruiili;n's uF lliisaiii, where the Ottoman troi»|m riMinnilli'd Irijjhtfiii liivagts, and drove ihi; enemy across the Uneis- li!l' 1 th'-y, however, suUered a severe ih'feat at Choczun, and a more de- t'lHJvo hhnv WII9 soon after slrncl; by the Russians, vviio twice def(;ated the TiH'kinh lleet, and at ienjriii bmnt fifteen of their ships of tlie line in the biiv id' ( 'henmu. Mraiitime, the Uiissiaii hind for(;es were equally success- fill; Ihi; (Jirand Olloman army was totally overthrown near the i'ruth,aiul lllti ciiplme u( Dender. Ismail, and other places, (juiekly followed. (irecec, long aeeuslomed to suhjeetion, was but ill-provided with troops, uiid till! inliahilaiils pursued their own affairs unmolested; but wliea they nioi'ived iiilidli"eiu-e of the enli rprise of the Russians — a Christian peo- Iilit of Ihe (iieek ehiirch — to deliver llie (ireeks from the yoke of the Oar iiil'iaiiH, the love of liberty was rekindled in many of their hearts. All Idieoiiiii, II113 plains of Argos, Arcadia, and a [lart of Achaia, rose in iiisiir- nielioii, and upared none of tiieir former rulers. 'I'iie 'i'nrks, in the inean- tlllie, eroNHcd Ihe islhniiis in order to relieve Patra, and the pasha of Uos- lllii, with ;)ll.lM)(l men, advanced with litile resistance into the ancient Mes- Bi'lie; at Modoii Ihe (Jret^ks were defeated with great loss, and it was cvi- ihtiit that Ihejr hope of r(!gainiiig their freedom was a delusive one. At llie end ol Ihe eampaigii tlie plague broke out at Yassy, and spread to Mofii'ow, Vr'here It earned off !J0,0()O persons, at the rale of nearly 1000 vieliiiiN (hilly. 'I'liii < 'rimea was seized by tlie Russians, and the grand vizier was forced In ritlienl iiilo IhiMmis ; the .laiiizaries rose, put their aga to death, and set (Ire lo their eaiiip. 'I'lie I'orle in the meantiini' was delivered from ,\ii Hey, the Muypliaii p.l^«lla, who f(dl in battle against his brother-in-law, Moliuin- llli'd, I'liirope hail lakeii a mine lively iiiieresl in his adventures, bei iiiise he iippeiired lo he elevated above naliiiii il prejudices; but hi.s fault emi- HiHled III Ins inaiiilesling Ins contcMiipt lor those errins tco .Nirly, and in on ih'i'ided a maimer. 'I'lie Russians at len<>lli erossed ihe Daiiiihe, and llie .hiiii/iaiieH n.ive way. They were twice coinpelh'd lo ahaiidon the NK'Uii of Sili-lria, and ihey lost a great part of their artillery near Varna. Hut 11 reveme of fortune was nigh; for not long afier, Hassan Pasha, a mini of ureal euiirage and iiitelligenee, ly birth a Persian, and who was inuli in till' favour of ihe sultan, swore t'. it not a Russian shoulil pass the iiuliimii il n|iiino.\ on the 'I'mkish .side of the Damibe — and he laitlifuUy lim word. 1iiNlii|iha III. died in 1774, and was siieeeeded by his brother, .\bd-ul- Ijitllind, Dili neither llu- sultan nor his peopli; appean.'d inclined to prus- (Ufllle Ihe war. Ahmil the same lime, Pugatidieff, the (."ossack, at the liead of iiiiiiv wailike liordes, broke into open rebellion; and this coii- viiieeiM ',ilh,iriiie lliat peace was not less desirable for Russia than for the I'mli . A Ireaiy was accordiniily entered into, by which the latter ceded a loiiHideriible portion of teriiiory to the empress, together wilh II riuhl lo the free naviualion of the Hlack ( Stanislaus li.ivnig been made by the tnrbuleni llllil hiKoled nobles, it served as a prele.M for the empress of Russia first lo ni'IhI an army iiilo tlii! country, and alierwanls, 111 ciminnetion with I'rilHHHi anil AuHiria, lo plan its dis'membeiineiit. lOaeli parly to tlie coin- pael had some old pretended elainis to uige in hrdialf of the robbery, and UN I lie other 1 1 at 1011.4 of Kurope were not in a condition to wage; war against the pinverliil Irio, their ineiliatorial iiiterferenee woiilil have been inetTec- tlial. A lliel was called to give a I'olonr to the iransaclion, and a major- lly of voliH III ing secured, the arinn's of the spmlers severally took pos- ^I'HHion ol Ihe diMliii'ls which hail been previously parcidled out ; ■.i".,l lit- lln tnie reimiiiied of I'olaiid— iade|)eiidijnl Poland — but its language ant •In aiiinei A. tJ lT7;i. kepi Ml OUTLINE HKlCTCll OF UENKIIAL HIciTOUY. Bl CHAPTER XXII. FBl> Ilia COMMENCEMENT OF THE AMERICAN WAR, TO THE RKCOCNiriON Of THE INDEPENDENCE Of" THE UNITED STATES. To describe, with clironologiciil order, even a limited portion of the inoinenioiis events of the period to whicii we are now appniaching, would be impossible in an outline sketcii of general history. We shall tiiere- fore coiiliMit ourselves with merely alluding to some of the leading fea- tures wliicli present themselves, and then enter upon our series of sepa- rate histories. The first great event, then, which in this place demands our attention, 18 llie American war. Our notice of it, as a matter of course, will be most brief and cursory. Among the earliest settlers in Ncn'ih America, were many who eniigriilcd from (iieat Britain on account of civil or re- ligions persecution— men, who, being of republican principles, and jeal- ous of the smallest encroachments of their rights, naturally instilled those principles into the minds of their children, and thus laid the fciuiidation of that spirit of resistance to arbitrary acts of power, which kiiulUtd the flames of war between the mother country and the colonies, and ended in the establishment of a powerful republic. The consliiulion of the Amer- icHii colonies bore the original iininess of liberty. Under the protection of Great Britain, North America stood in fear of no foreign enemy, and llie consciousness of her native strength was alri^ady too great to |)ern)it her to feel much apprehension even oi her mother counliy. Religion was everywhere free from restraint, agriculture was held in honour, and peace and order were protected Pt;a'iist the attempts of parties, and wild and lawless men. The people, uke the country they inh.'l'i'c' Mopen'td to be ill the full vigour of yc tli; ardent, iiKlependent, and capable ot astdiiishing exertions when ar used by ihe stimulus of the passions. Ill /'(Jo a stamp-duty on va.ious articles was imposed by the British parlianieni on the colonists, oi I on their remonstratiiig, the act w'as soon after refiealed. Subsequentlv u duty was laid on tea; this was resisted, and at Boston the tea was thinwii into the sea. Coeri^ive measures were then tried, and in 1775 a civil war began. In the following year the Ameiicans issued their Decl:, ration of Ini'cpendeni'e. Many battles were fought, but nothing very decisive took |.i a;c till the year 1777, when Gen. Burgoyne, the British commander, was surrounded at Saratoga, and com- pelled to surrender, with about 4000 men. With a blind infatuation, little dreaming of the danger of espousing primnph's professedly republiciin, and with no other view, indeed, than that uf h'iMibling a powerful neighbour, France now entered the lists as the ally of the Americans, and Spain no less blindly followed the exam- ple. But Kiighiiid had augmented the iiumbtr of her tr of the Dutch possessions in South America and the West Indies were taken from them. Meantime the war in AmiTUja, as Well as on its coasts, was carried on with increased vigour, the rreiich 'i2 OUTLINE SKETCH OP OlSNERAL HISTORY. exerting themselves not as mere partisans in ;he cause, but as principals It was evident that, allhaugli the war might be long protracted, the recov- ery of the North Anujr can colonies was not likely to be acconiplislied , and as the English had been several limes oul-sreneralled, and the last loss on their part eonsis.ed of 6000 men at Yorkown, under (^rnwallis, who had been compelled to surrender to a powerful eombinfed French and American army commanded by Washington, England began to thmk •eriously of making up tlie quarrel with her rebellious sons. During the latter part of the war, Admiral Rodney gave the French fleet, commanded by Count de Grasse, a memorable defeat in the West Indies, while General Elliot showed the French and Spaniards how futile were their attempts against Gibraltar. In short, great as were the dis- advantages with which the English had to contend, the energies and re- sources of the nation were still equal to the task of suceesslully coping with its enemies in Europe, while in the vast empire of British India fresh laurels were continually gathered, and the French were there dis- possessed of all their stittlements. On the 20th of Jamiary, 1783, the independence of the United States was formally acknowledged by England, and George VVastiington, the man who had led the amiies and directed the councils of America, wan chosen president. CEIAPTER XXITI. FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE FKKNCi! RlVOLUTlON, TO THE DEATH or RUBESPIERKE. The most eventful period of modern history now bursts upon our view In the course of the ages tha'. have passed successively before us, we have witnessed sudden revolutions, long and sanguinary contests, and the transfer of some province or city from one sovereign to another at the teriniiiaiion of a war. These have been ordinary events. We have also marked the gradual rise and fall of empires, the suhjiigaiion of king- doms, and the annihilation of dynasties ; but they bear im comparison to that terrific era of aiiarciiy and blood, designated " the French Revolu- tion." The history of that frightful period will be elsewhere related ; we Shall not hen' attempt to describe its causes, or notice the rise of that ntupendmis military despotism which so long threatened to bend the whole civilized world under its iron sceptre. The apologists of the French revolution tell us that it was owing to the excesses of an expen- sive and dissipated court; to the existence of an immense slanilnig army in the time of peace; to the terrors of the Basiile; to teltres de cachet (or mandates issued for the apprehension of suspected individuals), and to a general system of espionage, which rendered no man safe. Others as- Bcribe it partly to the "spirit of freedtmi" imbibed by the French soldiers during the American war; but, still more, to the general dilfnsion of po- litical pliilosopliical, and infidel writimis, which, replete with sarcasm and wit, wer< s()cierors nf Russia and Austria, the king of Naples, and the Porte united with Kngland tr» cliei'k their a'nbitions designs. The year 179:) presented a continued scene of active warfare. The Neapolitans, who I'.ad invaded the koman territory, were not onlv driven hack, but the whide kingdom of Niples siihnittcd ti> the Freiii-h, and '.he king was comp'-lletl to seek refuge in Sicily. The French armies also took possession of Ti.'scany and Piedmont; but the op-rations of the allies weri' conducted with vigour and success. The archduke Clnrles routed the French iiuijer .fourdan in the hard fonijlit Intiles of Ostracli and Stockacdi; and the Aiislro-Unssian army obtamcil a decisive victory sit f^issano, ami drove ilie enemy oi >tilan and (iciioa. The arms uf the republic were eijiially unfortiinit" in oilier parts. Turin, ' 'essandria, and M iiitn.i were tikcn; and the French under .loiiherl and .loreaii, were totallv routed al Novi. .Switzerland afierivards b"camo the |irincipa! scene of action ; and there also tlii! army of Sow irrof w.ts HUcccssful ; bill another Itissiin arinv, commanded by Ivoraskolf. was nilnked and def''aled by M issena, .iiid /nrich taken by slorin. In ll.ilv, however, sui'cess still alteililed the allies. The French were e\pell»r| rrom \apluH and Ruino, and ihu papal chair was suoii after otrcuniod t>y Pius VU. OUTLINE SKETCH ( F GENEBAL HISTORY JIIU^II \><1IIIU1 »a>7ll9 U\ll'll«lLt> LIIIJ ^WUill^V. tllllJ (WtlVltV \Jl kJli Sidney Smilli rcsisleil the rcpeiUcd assiiulis of llic h'lt'iicli duriiijf a sieije ofsixly-niiK! days: iiiKi Biioitiiparto, tiioiigluit the Iwid of 1J,0II0 vcleraM" was coiii|)l(H(ly foiled in all his alteiiipts, and was obliged to relrt'itl ii j Kgypt. lie was afterwards successful in severul eneoniilers wiili ihe Turks, particularly at Aljoukir; but, foreseeing thai the expedition would ulliinately prove disastrous, he conlided the couiniaud to (ieneral Kleber, and secretly returned to France. Uuonaparte's invasion of lOgypt was con- sidered as pieparalory to au uilenipt on India, where, at the vt^y time, the Briiisharnis were crowned with great success — Seringapatani having been taken, and our (urinidable enemy, TippooiSaib, being found amung the slain. Discord ami anarchy reigned thnnighout France, under the weak, yet arbitrary adniinisiraiion of the directory ; anil the sudden appearance of Buonaparte was the signal for a new revolution in that governnxMit Al uuuiiii)iaiie Wits iiie signal lor . IMOt. nuriin! the follow lug year Hnonaparl(> n'cinenl of Ins family, Huonf.pirle formed the " confederalion of Ihe liliine," Ihe name given ii> Ihosi' states wdiine rulers renounced the ancient laws of Ihe empire. The eonlinne.l encroachmeiiis of France now ronsi'd the k g of I'liissia, who riisbed |ireeipiialely in'o a war, and imprn lenlly staked his fortni.e on the rhaiice of one battle. Tins w.is the celebrated battle of Jena, liert I lO.UlMI OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENERAL HISTOIIY. 8fl Mrtissians and Saxons conlendcd with 150,000 of the French, and were Jefeafd and clostdy pursued. Ucrlin fell into the hands of the victors, anri the Prussian general, Uiucher, after a brave resistance, was forced to capitulate. I'rince Hohenloe and his ariuy surrendered at I'renlzlau. Silesia was overrun by the French, who peniitrated into Poland, and exci- ted the Poles to assert their in(le|)ehdence. The Russians, who were now advancing', met and defeated tiie French at Pullusk ; and, notwithstand- nig the cond)ined efforts of Murat, Ijasnes, and Ney, they were also suc- cessful at (ioloinyn. In the insolence of [xivver. Napoleon, at Berlin, is- sued his famous decrees, prohibiting'all conimereial nitercoiirso with the Urilisli isles, and conmianding tiu; confiscation of every article of Uritish manufacture, which scheme of exclusion he dignified with the name of the " continental system." The grand Hussian army under Denningsen, enrountered a superior French force near Fylau, where a sanguine but indecisive conflict en- sued. IJanlzic surrendered to Lefevre ; and a complele victory being gained by the French at Friediand, it was shorily followed by the irealy of Tdsit. The Russians and Prussians submitted to all the innieriui's demands of N'apcdeou ; but (iustavus, king of Sweden, alone refused to treat wiih him, or to recognize his imperial dignity. Tluj Danes having yielded to the influence of France, an expedition was sent thither by H'.fjlaud, for the [lurpose of preventing the l)anish fleet from falling into tiie hands of the French. Copenlingeii surrendered after a f<'w days' siege, and the sliips andiiaval stores were delivered Id the Fn- glish. Tins act of atfgression was resented by the emperor of Kus^ia, who dechired war agamst Fiigland. Among other rem irkal>le events of this year, weri! the de()arture of the prmce regent of Porlugal and his conn to the Urazil^;, the conquest of Portugal by the French, and the erection of Saxony mlo a kingdom. CH.\PTK(l XX VV TUK FllKNCII INVAHIOM OK SP.\IN, AM) 81111s. KNT PKNINSULAR WAIl. What open force could not effect, was cai.icd by intrigue nnd treach- ery. Napoleon having invited Charles I V.,kmg of Spain, to a eoufercnoe at llayoune, sei/.e(l his (urson, compelled him to abdicate, and triiusrerred ihe crown to Joseph llnonaparte, whose place at Nap'.i'.-' was so(mi after oc- cupied by Mm-al, .Napoletin's < "Ik r m-law. Spain was fil'ed with French troiips, and no lliiglisb, not being well sn, orled by the .SiiaiiiardM, were eoinprlled to retreat. At ('oi'iiina» sevi^re battle wim toiiglit, and Kir John Muoro was inurtallv S'UUIldl:d oo OUTLINE 8KETCH OF OKNEllAL HISTORY. fiil Hi ' ■IS Austn;i having dccl.iivd war iiy;aiiist France, Napoleon entered tlie field, repulsed the Ansirians at Kckiniihl, and took possession of Viciuia. Tlio dH liduke (Miarles gave liiui battle near Essling, wli i li was desperately contested, and terminated in favour of the Austrians ; but stum after, at Wagrani, the Ftench {jained an important victory. The brave 'J'yrolese in ihis campaign made the most heroic efforts against the Frencli; but the patriot lioHer was taken and sliot. A most UMsuccessfnl expedition was undertaken by the English against Antwerp. It was composed of nearly 40 JOO men; great numbers of whom were swept of by a pestilential fever while in possession of the island of Walcheren; and ti.e remainder ri;urne(l without effecting any Useful object. In oilier parts the Kiiglish were more successful, huvmg taken Cayi nnc, Martinicjue, and three of the Ionian islands. In 'I'urkcy tiie sultan Seliin hah patriots sostainet' some severe defeats, and (ieroiia was taken by them. Marshals Junoi and Ney commenred the ensuing lanipaign wilii the capture of Astorif and ( iiidad iiodrigo. while Masseiia entered Portugal, anil took Aineida At Biisiit'ii Lord WellnigtiMi defeated liiiii, and reaching the iinpregiiabli lines of 'rovres Vcdras, he look up a I'ttrnng positum, from w Inch the French could not dislodge him, and M.is.seiia soon afterwards commenced a dis astrmis retreat. 'l"he campaign of l>*\ 1 was distinguished by ii series of battler,, in which the eoiiteiiding arinit s displayed gnat bravcv, but without any decided advantige to either HI the fiid. Among tliu r ill whicii the allies were most siKcessful, were Hidajoz, Albeura. and llarrosa. The year IrtU was alFo memiH-ahle as the perivxt wjien the Sn.iiiish American colonies began to renounce their allcgianee to Spam, ami struggle for indepeiidiniee. In HP.' the events of the war assiimeil .i new eiimplr.\ioii. .\ change had taken jilaee in the govifiiinenl of Spam, and more earnestness and eturgy was displayrd m its cjuiieils. Lord W ('lliiiglon cou'dieneed with the capture of < 'tiidx ! Kodrigo and lladajix ihen advancing 'iilo S|iain, he gained a decis've vioory over Marmoiit near >i»lam-d lu riise the iteigf of (,^adiz, and evacuate liranadu, (^or< 'lova, Suville, &c. rHAPTK.R XWH li ' I ■ t : r»OM TUK IMVASIO.I OF Bf i a npitJ re»n-w i#f th»>*»* pxlrnordinnry ncpiteii in (he Nortli «■•:!. li rneiud tlif AttcntMiii of all Kunpc, and lillf(l cveiy breast WKll MtkMius exi(< i'l«(.i(iii Till' i inperor At^sa'idi'r fi'li hnn»elf liiiniilia- ti'd, uiA ins cuuiti«ruii bv Uiat ri|{t a formldabli' aliack on Dresden, though lhe\ falliH! in their object of tal iiig the eily li\ a itni/i-dr mam: but the veteran lijuclx-r dcfeate'd the enemy at Kalzbach, and thereby deliv- ered Silesia. V.Kidaniine wna Ix'aten at Cniin, and Ney at .lulterbock. It was now resolved ihat the wh(di' of the allied armies slioiild make 9 tiiinullaiieons elTorl to I'nish the common enemy. The forces of Napole- on were eoncentr.ited at I.eipsic, and (here it was that the allies attacked and totally ilefeated him. The sanguinary liilile raged fri)m dawn of day till night ; both sides sntVered immense loss, but that of the Freiii'li was by far the greatest. Coiisuliiii'j his own |)rrsunal safely, as in liiri retreat from Russia, Huonapiirle hastily reached I'ari- , whiU? the French garii- cons which occupied the Sixon and Prussian fortresses were idiandoned to their fate. The victory of laepsic ;ir )used every nation yet in albanco wilh Frince to throw otT the oppressor's yoke. Among the number wa« Holland, whose Inhabitants expelled the Fn nch, and recalled the (irilico of()ran«e. The Riissian campaign and the war that now raired in fJer- many, had proved bonclicuil to lliu 8^)uni8li cause, b) withdriiwin<( ludiiv >2 OUTLINE SKETCH OF GENERAL HISTORY. of Napoleon's experienced generals and veteran troops. Lord Wellington crossed the Douro, and rnarchiuj^ northwards CHme up with the French army, commanded by Marshal Jourdan, at Vittoria, where he obtanied a decisive victory, Jnue 21, 1813. The nicmotable seige of St. Sebasstian, nnd the defeat of Marshal Soult, to wiiose skill the ta.sk of defending tiie frontiers of France was confided, were the other most proinmunt events of the campaign ; and France was soon after entere"en dissatis- fied with the Uritish or:' i f d to his throne. An act of amnesty Was passed, from which a few oi Napoleon's most strenuous supporters were excliuled, whilst Ney and Labedoyere were shot. By th(^ terms of the treaty entered into between France and the allied powers, it was agreed that sixteen of the frontier fortresses of France should be garrisoned by the allies for five years, and that 1.50,000 allied troops, under the duke of Weilinglon, should he maintained in that king- dom for the same space of time. The following arraiiirements were also concluded at the congress of Vienna; Prussia was enriciied by t!ie annex- ation of a portion of Saxony, and recovered Lusatia; Russia received a large part of Poland; the Venetian territories were given to Austria; Genoa was assigned to the king of Sardinia ; the papal dor.iinions were restored; while the I'nited Provinces and the Netherlands were formed iiilo a kiiiL'dom for tlie prince of Orange. ICngland restored lo the Dutch some of ilie colonies she had taken from tliep;, and various minor cliaiiL'es also took place. A confederation was then entered into by the sovereign .•itales of (iermany for nnitnal defence and the prevention ot' inleriial war, and. to crown the whole, the emperors of Russia and Austria, with the king of Prussia, boiinrl themselves by a solemn compact, called the Holy Alliance, tlie |)rofes«ed oliject of which was to preserve the p(>;icc of Eu- rope, and to maintain the principles of Christianity in their respective domiiiioiis. Having brought our "Outline Sketch of (>eiieral History" down to a period so nioincnious, we shall leave all sul)>.e(|neiit events for narration m the Hisldrics of separate countries which follow. In the brief and cur- sory Inirii.'uii iiiMi we have given, the reader has had a rapid view of t!ie rise and fill of empires, the excesses of despotic povvfr, and somf of the .ounlless eviK atti iiilant on a state of anarchy. Sidl if must be remem- bered that ill this slight sketch we have only pioi.erred the wnv. As we proceed. It will be our aim more fully to d(> elope the moliv(», wliiie wc describe the actions, of those rer|ioiiKihle individuals in who^e hands the destinies its, conveniences, :ind luxuries of all. To the commerce of Kurope, in f ' (, tliere appears to be rii> limits; its traders are to be seen in every country, luid every sea is lilled wiih its ships. Moieover, as the seat oi^arl and scieiK'e, as .lie region where civi- lization is in active progress, and where Cln'istiiiiiity is extending its be- nign iinhieiu-e far and wide, lOurope Indeed maintains a prou i eminence, and, jndgMiy from present appcarani:es, its inhabitants bid fnw at no dis- tant day lo extend their dominions, already vast, by colonizing and giving laws to nations now scarcely emerging from barbarism. ASIA. The general history of this division of the world carries nsback to the creation. The cradle of cnir first .'arents, and the portion of the earth where the most slnpendcnis acts of iivine pnwer and wisdom have been displayed, Asi;i presents a most inlcicsting subject for the contemplative mind. It was here that the world before the flood, as far as we know, was eiincentered. It was here that the antediluvian patriaridis settled, and spread abroad the families (>f the earth. After the Hood, Asia was the heart of life, the source of all that fiopuhition which has sinc(! covered the gl<)l)e with its myriads of iniialiil;nits. The present race of Asi;ilics is deduced from the Hebrews, the Indinis, and the Tartars. I; is fo'.eign to Oiir purpose to follow the se'ieu ;i '^-e various tribes of population, whieli, 96 PRESENT CONDITION OF THE WORLD. from the great fountnin, overspread the earth, and especially Europe !■• deed, the wlu.le of I'hiiope, however elevated in the se^de of reason an< A SERIES OF SI TE HISTORIES. THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. The propriety of commencuig our series of separate histories with England must, we think, be obvious to every reader. Its rank in the scale of nations ; its unrivalled com- merco and extensive foreign possessions ; its naval and military prowess ; and the intel- ligence, enlerprizc, and industry of its inhabitants — fully entitle it to the honor of prece- dence. Uutthisis not all ; the love of our country excites in us a laudable curiosity to inquire into the conduct and condition of our ancestors, and to become acquainted with tlie memorable events of their history ; while our reverence for the glorious Constitution by which our most valuable privileges are secured, prompts us in nn especial manner to trace its rise and progress, and thoroughly to ascertain upon what foundation onr political and religious liberties are based. " If nn Englishman," sold the great Frederic of Prussio, ■' has no knowledge of those kings that Riled the throne of Persia, if his memory is not em- barrassed with that infinite number of popes that ruled the church, we are reaily to excuse him 1 but wo shall hardly have the same indulgence for him, if he is a stranger to the origin of parliaments, to the customs of bis country and to the diSerent lines of kings who have reigned in EoglaQd." CHAPTER I. THE BRITISH AND ROMAN PERIOD — TO TIIK SUBJUGATION OP THE ISLAND BV THE SAXONS. Tkb rule laid down by the celebrated historian, David Huine, for his treatment of early British history, is so reasonable, so obviously the only rule by which the historian can avoid disfi;ing nioie to Roman than to British story. We shall hasten through the obscure iinJ uniuieresting period of Saxon annals, and shall reserve a more full narration tor those times when the truth is both so well ascertained and so complete as to proinis'j entertainment and in struction to the reader." That Britain, liite Gaul, was originaliy inhabited by a tribe of theCeltae, IS as welt ascertained as sucli a remote fact can be with respect to a peo- ple destitute of letters; iaiiguafre, nianners, government (such as it was), and religion, all tend to show ther common origin. But the Uritons, from their insular situation, retained their full rudeness and their primitive man- ners and customs long after the Gauls, from their intercourse with the in> iiabitants of other parts of the continent, had considerably improved in both respects. The British people were divided into many kingdoms or tribes ; and though each tribe had a monarch, each monarchy was principally founded upon physical force, and of course greatly tempered by it. For despotism, indeed, there was but little opportunity, whatever the inclination of the king. War was the principal occupation of tribe against tribe, and hunt- ing at once the chief amusement; and, next to the feeding of Hocks and herds, the most important means of subsistence. Wandering hither and thither in search of pasture for their cattle, these wild tribes were perpet- ually coming into collision wiih each other; and so frequent and fierce were their wars, that but for the interference of the Druids — in this respect a body of men as useful as in many other respects they were mischievous — their mutual rancour would have proceeded well-nigh to mutual annihila- tion. Though we have stated the Britons to have been free from kingly des- potism — though, in fact, the king was only the first freeman of a iribe of freemen, there yet was a despotism, and a terrible one, for both king and people — the despotism of the Druids. The Druids were the priests of the Uritons; and they were also their teachers, their lawgivers and their inngistrates; and the peculiar tenets which were iiu^nlcated upon the British from their earliest childhood, were such as to render the Druid priests omnipotent, as far as the term can be applied to men and man's at- tributes. He who dared to ofii'iid the Druid priest in any one of his multi- farious oflices, lost all pca(te in tiiis world, even if his life were spared; he was exiuiiiimunicated, utterly and hopelessly ; shunned by his fellow- men, who dared neither to aid nor to soothe him, he could but retire to the deepest solitudes of the forest, battle for his precarious existence with the forest brutes, and perish like them, obscure and unregarded. Nor was the pang with which he closed his eyes forever upon this world mitigated by any bright and cheering hope in a future life. The ineteinpsycTiosia had been a part of his belief from infancy, and he who died under the fear- ful ban of the Druidsdied in the assured and terrible conviction that he would live for(!ver under successive forms, each more obscene and contemptible or more hated, persecuted, and tortured, than that which had preceded it. Willi such means of upliolding their power over a rude people, it will easily be believed that ihe Druids had little trouble in ruling both king and subjects. And, detestable as were their cruel sacrifices of human victims, this exc(!eding power over the mini's of the people was so far valuable, that it supplied the want of more leg timate power to prevent wild courage proceeding to frenzied ferocity, and .o prevent war from being prosei vtud to the extent of extermination. Humanity can never fail to regret the miseries and the crimes that characterize wars, or o delesi the injustiiie and Ihe insolence of Ihe feeling wliiih prompts the stniiig to trample upon the weak, and thu wealthy In |iluiider the poor. But, while we neiressarily look with iheie feelings upon invision and war in the uL'siract, we must not close our eyes THE TRKASURY OF HISTORY. to tlie fact, that the sufferings, however great, of a barbarous people inva- ded ami overrun by a civilized people, are but temporary, and are follow- ed and more than couuterbalauteci by a permanent deliverance from the squalid miseries and the mental darkness by which savage life is every, where chiiracterized. The poet may tune liis harmonious lay to the Wiw of those primeval ages, '■ When wild in woods the noble savage ran ;" But the sterner pen of history, informed by the actual experience of the voyager, must give no such flattering picture of barbarism. Whether in the prairies of America, or in the wild bush of New- Holland, we find the savage invariably miserable and a mere animal ; superior to the other an- imals in conformiition, but, alas! even more subject to disease and famine than they are. We may sympathize with the terror which the poor sav age feels when civilized man invades his haunts, and we have every right kto demand that conquests be effected with the least possible cruelty ; but \ve£till must admit that it may become a great and enduring mercy to the coifffuered. •Britain, whose fleets are upon every sea, and upon whose conquests and possessions the sun, literally, never sets, was the home of numerous tribes of mere savages long after the mighty name of Rome was heard with awe or admiration, with love or hale, in every civilized nation of the earth. Dwelling in wattled huts of the meanest construction, most of these tribes shifted their habitations from phue to place as new pastures became necessnry for their cattle ; but some tribes wer"^ stationiiry and practised agricidture, which, though of the rudest kind, served to improve their sub- sistence. Julius C.Tsnr, the renowned Roman, having overrun Oanl at ihc head o( his irresistible legions, had his attention attracted to Britain b. c. .55. He dntermiued to conquer it, and it is to his invasion that vvc primarily owe our present splendour and importance. From his own history of his Gal- lic wars it is that we chiefly derive our knowledge of the state of Britain; ard it is on his authority that we describe its rude and poor condition. Tne conquest of such a coimtry could have nothmg but the love of con- quest for Its motive ; but to a Roman, and, above all, to a C.csar, that mo- tive was sufticieni to incite to the utmost enterprise, and to reconcilt-. lo the utmost danger and the utmost suffering. Not far from the present site of the town of Deal, in Kent, C-esLr made a descent upon Britain. The savage appearance of the natives, and the fierce reception they at first gave to their invaders, struck a temporary ter- ror even into the hearts of the veteran soldiers of Rome. But the cheek was only momentary. A standard-bearer lenped upon the inhospitable shore, and the legionaries followed their eagle. Ciesar advanced some distance into the country ; but every mile of progress was made under the harrassing attacks of the natives, whose (lesnllory mode? of warfare, and their Intimate ae.qualnlancu with the wild country, made them formidable In spite of their want of discipline and the rude nature of their anus. But the steady perseverance and serried ranks of the Uoman.s enabled them still to adviince ; and they giilned so much advantage, that when (;a's.ir deemed it nececsiiry to return to his wlntei qiiarlers in (Jaiil, he was able lo e.v tort promises of a (Msaeeahlo reception when he should think proper lo re- turn, and received I ostages for tiielr fidelity. He withdrew accordingly, and the Britons, ignorant, and, like all barbarous people, incapable of look- ing forwiird to disiunt consequences, llanrantly failed to perform their eii- ffHgeiiicn'.s. Disoliedience was what the Koman power would not 'it that tune have brooked from a pa iple far more civilized and powerful that the Brit' ^^.' lUO THE TREASURY OJJ" HISTORY. 3n8, and Caesar early in the ensuing^ summer again made his appearance on the coaot or Kent, On this oi^casion he Tiiund a more regular and or ganized Ton^e awaiting liim; several powerful tribes having laid asidi their domestic and petty diflferences, and united themselves under Cassi belaunus, a brave man, and so superior to the majority of the British king» that he was possessed of their general respect and confidence. But mere valour could avnil little against the soldiery of Rome, inured to hardships rather enjoying than fearing danger, thoroughly disciplined, and led bv at consummate a soldier as Julius Caesar. The Britons, acordingly, harrasS' ed him in his march, and disturbed his camp with frequent night-alarms, but whenever they came (o actual battle they were ever defeated, and with dreadful loss. This time Coisar made his way far into the country, cross- ed the Thames in face of the enemy, and in despite of the precaution they had taken to stake the bed of the river, detroyed the capital of Cassibel- aunus, and establiished askingoftheTrinobantesa chieftain, or petty king, named Maiidubratius, who, chiefly in disgust of some ill treatment, real or imagined, which he had suffered at the hands of his fellow-countrymen^^ had allied himself with the Romans. ^ But though Caesar was thus far successful, the wild nature of the coim try and the nomadic habits of the people prevented him from achieving anything more than a nominal conquest of the island. He was obliged to content himself, once more, with the promises which the islanders the more readily made him, because they never intended to fulfil them, and he again Icit the island, never to return to it; for the domestic troubles of Rome, greatly caused by his own ambition and daring genius, left nei- ther him nor the Roman people any leisure to attend to a poor and re- mote island. His successor, the great Augustus, was wisely of opinion that it rather behoved Rome to preserve order in her already vast empire, than to extend its bounds. Tiberius was of the same opinion ; and Cal- igula, flighty and fickle, if not absolutely mad, though he made a demon Btratlon of completing the work which Caesar had begun, seized no spoik more valuable than cockle-siielis, inflicted only a fright upon the Britons, and gave Rome nothing for the vast expense of his c -ic expedition, save materials for many a merry pasquinade and hear* h. For nearly a century after the first descent of Cae .e Britons en- joyed peace unbroken, save by their own petty disputes, dut in the reign 01*^ the emperor (Maudius, a. d, 43. the design of coiiqiiering the island of Britain was again revived, and Plautius, a veteran general, landed and fairly established himself and his legionaries in the coutitry. As soon as he received tidings of the success and position of his general, Claudius himself came over; and the Cantii, the 'iegiii, the Trinobantes, and other tribes of the south-eastern part of the island, made their formal submis- sion to him, and this time, probably, witli something like sincerity, as they had experienced the power of the Roman arms, and the superiority of the Roman discipline. The more iidand Briums, however, were still fiercely determined to maintain their liberty and preserve their territory; and several tribes of them, united under the command of Caractacus, a man of courage and of conduct superior to what could be anticipated in a mere barbarian, made a stout resistance to all attempts of the Romans to extend their progress and power; a. o. 50. Indignant that mere barbarians should even ill a slight degree limit the flight of the destroying eagle, the Ro- mans now sent over reinforcements under the command of Osloriiis Sca- pula, whose vigorous conduct soon changed the face of affairs. He beat the Britons fai-iher and farther back at every encounter, and penetrated into the country of the Slluri-s (now forming part of South Wales), and here in a general engagement he completely routed them and took u vant numlicr of p luiiers, among whom was the brave Caractacus. THK TH.KA3URY OF HISTORY. 101 re- This bravo though unfortunate prince was sent to Rome. Arrived in that mighty city, he was scarcely more astonished at the vast wealth and grandeur which it contained, than at the cupidity, of the possessors of such a city, and their strange desire to deprive a p';cple so poor as the Britons of their wild liberty and wattled huts. It is to the honour of the Romans of that day, that Caractacus was treated with a generosity which was at once equal to his merits, and in strong contrast with the treat- ment which Rome usually reserved for defeated kings who had dared to oppose her. And this generosity of the Romans to Caractacus individ- ually, is the more creditable and the more remarkable, because his cap- ture by no means prevented his compatriots from continuing the strug- gle. Though always distressed, and often decisively worsted, the Britons still fought bravely on for every acre of their fatherland ; and as they improved in their style of fighting, even in consequence of the defeats they received, Britain was still considered a battle-field worthy of the presence of tlie best officers and hardiest vetenuis of Rome. Irritated at the comparatively slow progress of their arms against so poor and rude a people, tlie Romans now gave the chief command of their troops in Britain to Suetonius Paulinus, a man of equal courage and conduct, and notdd even among that warlike race for unwavering sternness. This general perceived the true cause of the British perti- nacity of resistance in the face of so many decisive defeats and severe chastisements. That cause, the only one, probably, which could so long have kept such rude people united and firm under misfortune, was the religious influence of the Druids, whose terrible anger had more terror for their deluded followers than even the warlike prowess and strange arms of the Romans. Suetonius, then, determined to strike at the very root of British obstinacy ; and as the little isle of Anglesey, then called Mona, was the chief resort ( 'the Druids, he proceeded to attack it, right- ly judging that by making a lirrible example of the chief seat of their religion and their priests, he should strike more terror into the refractory Britons than by defeating them in a hundred desultory battles. His land- nig was not eflTected without considerable difficulty ; for here the naturally brave Britons fought under the very eyes of their powerful and dreaded priests, and with the double motive of desire to win their praise, and terror of incurring an anger which ti.e'y believed to be potent in the fu- ture world as in this. Urged by such considerations, the Britons fought with unexampled ftiry and determination, and the priests and priestesses mmgled in the ranks, shrieking st-ange curses upon the invaders, waving flaming torches, and presenting so unearthly and startling an appearance that many of the Roman soldiers, who would have looked (^oolly upon certain death, were struck with a superstitious awe, and half imagined that they were actually engaged in personal warfare with the tittelar de- mons of their mortal foes. But Suetonius was as disdainful of super- stitious terrors as of actual danger, and his exhortations and example in- spired his men to exertions that speedily put the ill-armed and undiscip- lined Britons to flight. The worst crime of which the Druids were guilty, was that of ofTering to their gods human sacrifices. Even in time of peace, victims selected by the Druids, either in actual malice or in mere wanton recklessness, fed the devouring flames. But it was more especially in war time that these truly h(»rrible sacrifices were frequent, antl the victims numerous. Con- fident in their hope of defeating the Romans by force, and the terrors of their superstition, the Druids of Mona on this occasion had promised their cruel di'ities a plenteous sacrifice. The fires were prepared— but they who were to have been the ministering priests became the victims; for Suetonius, as cruel as those against wwiom he fought, burned the captive Druids at their own altars. Having wreaked this cruel vengeance, and THE TBEASURY OF HISTORY uut down or burned the dense groves in which the Druids had tor ages perfornied the dark rites of their mysterious religion, he left Anglesey and returned into Uritnin, confident that the blow he had thus struck at the most veneniled seat of the Briiish faith would so shake tlie courage and confidence of its votaries, that he would have for the future only a series uf easy triumphs. But his absence from the main island might have been of more disparagement to his cause tiian his feats at M(ma had been to its advantage. Profiting by their brief freedom from his pres- ence, the scattered tribes of the Britons had reunited themselves, and un der a leader, who, though a woman, was formidable both by natural char- acter and sinimeful provocation. Boadicea, widow of the king of the Iceni, having offended a Roman tribune by the spirit with which she upheld her own and her subject's rights, was treated with a shameful brutality, amply sufficient to have maddened a far feebler spirit. She herself was scourged in the presence of the Roman soldiers, amid their insulting jeers, and her three daughters, scarcely arrived at the age of womanhood, were subjected to still more brutal outrage. Haughty and fierce of spirit even beyond the wont of her race, Boadicea vowed tint the outrages to which she had been subjected should be amply avenged in lioman blood; and the temporary alisence of Suetonius from Britain was so well employed by her, that he found on his arrival from Moiia that she was at the head of an immense army, which had already reduced to utter ruin several of the Roman settlements. The safety of London, which was already a place of considerable importance, was his first care; but though he marched thither with all possible rapidity, he was not able to save it from the flames to which Boadicea had dnonied it, and all those of its inhabitants who were not fortunate enough to make a timely escape. Nor was the Roman discomfiture confined to London or its nei<,'lil)<>urhood. Successful in various directions, the Uritoiis were as unsparing as successful ; and it is anirmed — though the luniiber has always appeared to us to he very greatly exMga;erated— that of Romans and the various strangers who had a(;('ompained or followed them to Britain, no f(>wer than 70,000 perished in this determined and sanguinary endeavoiirof the Britons to drive the invaders from their shores. Kveii allowing somewhat for the error or exaggeration of early historians, it is certain that the loss inflicted upon the Romans and their adherents by Boadicea, was immense. But the return of Siietmiins inspired his coun- trymen with new spirit, and the tide of lortiine soon left the native island- ers. Pluslied with iiiimerous successes, and win'ked up to a frenzy of enthusiasm even by the cruel use which they h'nl made of their success, they eollei'ted all their forces for one final and mighty effort. Suetonius and Boadicea in person commanded tlieir respective forces. 'I'lie latter liarnngued her troops with great spirit; the former contented himself with making his arrangements with consnmmnte art, well knowing that his legionaries required no exhortation to strike hard and home at an enemy that had put the Ron>ai) eagle to flight, and make earth drink deep of the prinid Roman blood. The battle was obstinate and terrible ; but once again the marvellous superiority of (liscipline over mere numbers and courage, however vast the one or enthusiastic the other, was striking- ly displayed. 'I'hc dense masses of the Britons were pierced and broken ' e Roman phalanx ; the defeat became a rout — tin; rout a massacre. by Boadicea escapcMl from the field by the swiftness of the h(n-8es of her own chariot : but despairing of ever again being able to make head against the detested invaders of her c(nnitry, anil preferring death to falling again into the hands of those who had so mercilessly nialireated ooili herself and her ilaughters, she swallowed a potent poison, mid when i vertaken by till! pursuing soldiers, waft beyond their malice, being then in the agonies of death. THE, TRKASURY OF HISTOttlf. 103 Though Seutonius had achievt'd great successes in Britian. he had done •o only at llie expense of such extraordinary htsses and cruelty on both sides, that Nero recalled him from his government, apparently under the impression that his excessive sternness and severity unfitted him for a TOst in which it was not merely necessary to know how to combat the resisting, but also how to conciliate the conquered. Two or three other generals were briefly entrusted with this difRi;nlt and delicate post, which they filled with credit to themselves and the Roman name; but it was the goctd fariune of Vespasian, through the prowess and judijnient of his fa mous general, Julius Agricola, completely to subdue Britain to the Roman dominion. A consummate soldier, Julius Agricola was no Icps consummate as a civil governor; and while he led his victorious legi(ms against the ISritons, driving farther and farther backwards to the bleak rocks and forests of Caledonia ihiise who did not perish in the field, or were too proud to do homage to their conqueror, he showed himself admirably fitted for the pecuhar duties to which he had been appointed, by the skill with which he made kindness and liberality to the submissive go hand in hand with stern severity to those who still dared to resist the Roman arms. Having followed the more obstinate of the Britons from post to post, !Uid defeated their collected force under Galgacus in a pitched battle, he erected a chaia of forts between the Frith of Forth and that of Clyde, and thus divided the northern retreat of the hostile Britons from the southern parts, that now formed a great and settled Roman province. In this province the British inhabitants were by this time but little in clined to give any farther trouble to their all powerful conquerors, of whose warlike prowess they had seen too many proofs to give ihem even a faint hope of successful resistance. Moreover, Agricola skilfully and assiduously availed himself of their peaceable disposition to instruct them in the Roman tongue, as well as in the Roman habits and arts. His efforts in this direction were as successful as his former exertions to put down resistance had been ; and both London and the smaller places soon negan to wear a busy and civilized aspect. The skill with which the Ro- mans incorporated with themselves even the rudest and most intractable people, when they had once by their conquering prowess fairly got fooling among them, was to the full as astonishing and admirable as that prowess itself. The Romans from time to time strengthened the northern fortifi- cations of Britain, and thus prevented any inroad from the still untamed hordes native to Scotland or sheltered there ; and the southern Britons were so fully contented with their situation, and became so perfectly in- corporated with their conquerors, and initialed into their habits and feel- ings, that the only disturbances we read of in Britain during a long series of years arose, not from insurgent attempts on the part of the Britons, but from the turbulence of the Roman soldiers, or from the ambition of some Roman governor, \Vho, made presuming by holding high state and author- ity in 80 distant a province, was induced to assume the purple and claim the empire. The wonderful improvement made in the condition of Britain by the residence of the Romans was at length brought to a period. The barbaric hosts of the north were now pressing so fiercely and so terribly upon Rome herself, that the old and hnig sacred rule of the Roman senate, never to contract the liiuiis of the empire by abaiuloni:ig a colony once planted, was obliged to be disregarded. The outlying legions were wanted for the defence of the very heart of the empire ; and the insular situation of Brit- ain, and its very slight consequence with respect to wealth, naturally pointed it out as a cidoiiy to be earliest and with the least regret abandonea. Scarcely had the Roman legions disparted when the Uritons were assailed hv the Ficis and Scuts. The chain of northern forts was strong and ad- Il I lot THE TREASI/RY OF HISTORY. iTiirably planned, but hardy and warlike defenders were no less necessary, and the Britons had so long been ac<;ii»tonied to look for all military ser- vice to the veterans who had dwelt among them, that they had lost much of their ancient valour, and were no match for the fierce barbarians whose bodies were as little enervated by luxury as their minds were un- tamed by any approach to letters or politeness. An appeal to liome, where an interest in Britam was not yet wholly lost in the more pressing instincts of self-preservation, was answered by the immediate despatch of a legion, which drove away the barbarians The departure of the Romans was immediately followed by a new incur sion ; aid was again sent from Rome, and the enemy again was driven back. But the situation of the Roman empire was now so critical, that even a single legion could no longer be spared from home defence, and the Romans, having put the northern fortifications into repair, exhorted the Britons to defend themselves with perseverance and valour, and took their final leave of them in the year 44iS, after having been masters of the island, and exerted their civilizing influence upon its inhabitants, for very nearly four centuries. It had been well for the Britons if they had not been in the habit of re lying 80 implicitly upon the Romans for defence. Now that Rome left them thus suddenly and completely to their own mastery, they were in precisely the worst possible stage of transition to fit them for a struggle with their more barbarous northern neighbonis ; they had lost much of the fierce and headlong valour of barbarians, without acquiring the art and discipline of civilized warriors, and they liad just so nui<:h of wealth and luxury as sufTu-cd to tempt cupidity. Many of their boldest and most vig- orous youth had cither been incorporated in the Roman soldiery, or had fallen in support of (irutian and Constantinc in their ill-fated pretensions to the impori'il throne. The northern barbarians, ever on the watch, soon became aware that the Roman legion, before which their untrained hosts had been compelled to give way, had departed ; and they forthwith assent bled in vast numbers and again assailed the northern fortifications. To men so long unaccustomed as the Britons were to self-defence, the very consciousness of having to rt ly wholly upon their own valour and pru- dence, had an appalling and bewildering elTect. They made but a feeble and disorderly rcsisiance, were speedily beaten from their forls, and then fled onward in panic, leaving the country as they passed through it lo the mercy of the savage invaders. The behavior of these was precisely what might have been expected ; the sword and the torch marked their foot- steps, hamlet and town were razed and ruined, and the blackness of deso latioii was seen in the fields whicrh had lately been covered with the wealth of harvest. Beaten at every point at which they attempted to make head against their enemies, and Kccing in the terrible rage with which they were pursued and harassed, no prospect but that of utter and irredeemable ruin, the unfortunate Britons sent an embassy to Rome to iniplore aid once more. Their missive, which was entitled The Gruans of the Unions, graphically paints tiieir situation and their feelings. "The barbarians" said this missive, "on the one hand, chase us into the sea, the sea on th" other hand throws us back upon the barbarians; and we have only the hard choice lift us of perishing by the sword ov by the waves." But Altila, that terrible Scuiirjfe of God, as he profanely boasted him self, was now pushing Roini^ herself to mortal extremity ; and had Britain hevn even rich aiiil important, not a legion could have been prudently spared at this crisis for its defence. Being poor and insignificant, it ol vourse could not for an instant claim the attention of those who wcro combating for the safety of the empire, and who had already begun to des- pair of it. When the llritoiis found that they were indeed fiifally aban- doned by Pome, they lost all heart, deserted even their 8tron{{C8t points r' ' ';! -i;'!'"!.!' '' litl'ii'feliPi iliii '. ,, 'i ■; , 4WW !'i'^;:b'il|' m I ::!;* ■'■■I li'iiJ-^ii'- THK THEASUttY OF HISTORY. lUti of defence, and fled to the concealment of their hills and forests, leaving their houses and property to the mercy of their enemies. These, in their profusion and in the wantonness of their destruction, soon drew upon themselves the panoth pra'sed air' exalted him, he em(>liatically warned him against allowing himself to be seduced into a too great ela- tion on account of his good work; and, as Augustin manireRtcd some desire to exert his authority over the spiritual concerns of (>aul, the pope cautioned him ngaiiml nny such interference, and expressly iiifonned liirn that he was to consider the bishops of that country wholly beyond his jurisdiction. Strange contradictions in human reasoning and conduct? We have the humble missionary dehorting a newly coivverled pagan from persecution; a pope, the visible head of ilii- whole f'hristiaii world, and the presumed infallible expounder of ('hrislian docirines, strongly and expressly exhorting him to it ; and anon we have the ainliitloiis anil des- potic patron of furciblu pruselytisiii witeljr and reasoiiably interposing I THE TREASURY OP HISTORY. Ill riis authority and Uiivicte tu prevent the recently so humble missionary rroiii maivuiir sliipwrcck of Ins character Hud usetulness, by an unbecum- tng iinil uiijiislirnibie indulgence in the soaring ambition so suddenly and strongly awakened by the gift of a 111 tie briel anihonty ! It was not only in tiie influence that Oertha had in tiie conversion ol tlie Saxon subjects of her husband to Christianity that shd was service- able to tiieni, though compared to that service all others were of compar- atively small value. But even in a worldly point of view her marrriage to I'Ulit'lbert was of real and very important benefit to his subjects. For her intimate connection with France led to an intercourse between that nation and K.ngland, which not merely tended to increase the wealth, in- genuity, and commercial enterprise of the latter, but also to soften and polish their as yet rude and semi-barbarous manners. The conversion of the Saxons to Chrisiianily had even a more extensive influence in these respects, by bringing the people acquainted with the arts and the luxuries 'if Italy. Stormy at its commencement, the reign of Elhelbert was subsequently peaceable and prosperous, and it left traces and seed of good, of which the (English are even to this day reaping the benefit. Ucsides the share he had in converting his subjects to Christianity, and in encouraging them to devote themselves to commerce and the useful arls, he was the first Saxon monarch who gave his people written laws; and these laws, making due allowance for the age and for the condition of the people for whose government they were proniulged, show him to have been, even if regarded only in his civil capacity, an extremely wise man and a lover of peace and justice. After a long and useful reign of fifty years, Elhel- bert died in the year CIG, and was succeeded by his son Eadbald. History but too fre(|uently shows us the power of worldly passions in perverting reliuions faith. Durmg the lifetime of his father, Ladbald had professed the Chiistiaii religiini; but when he became king he abandoned It and r(!turncd to the gross errors of paganism, because the latter aU lowed the indulgence of an incestuous passi zeal for what they consider to be a righteous and iMi|iorlaiit work, will descend to pious j'raiids to accomplish thai lor wlii<-h the plain truth would not under the circumstances siillu'e. L^mrciilius was no excefitioii to this .■.oiiiiixHi rul(^ StM'king an ini(>rvlt'w with the king, he threw ofT hia upper garments, and exhibited his body covered with woiiihIs and hruisei to BiKtli an extent as denoted the most savage ill-treatmiMil. The king, though evil passion had led him formally to atijiire (.'hristianity. was not prepared to sue, unmoved, such proof of brutality and irrevcreiico having lis THE THKA8URY OF HISTORY. been shown to the chief teacher of his abandoned creed ; and he eagerly and indignanily demanded who had dared thus to Ill-treat a personage so eminent. LHurentius, in reply, assured him tliat his wounds had been inflicted not by living hands, but by ihosc of St Peter himself, who had appeared to him in a vision, and hud thus chastised him for his intended desertion of a flock upon which his departure would inevitably draw down eternal perdition. The result of this bold and gross invention showed how much more powerful over gross and ignorant minds are the coarsest fables of superstition, than the sublimest truths or the most aflfecrtionate urgings of genuine religion. To the latter, Eadbaid had been contemptuously deaf; to the former, he on the instant sai.-rificed his in cestuous passion and the object of it. Divorcing himself from her, he returned to the Christian pale ; and his people, obedient in good as in evil, returned with him. The reign of Eadbalii, apart from this apostacy and re-conversion, was not remarkable. The power which his father had es- tablished, and the prestige of his father's remembered ability and great ness. enabled him to reign peaceably without the exertion, probably with out the possession, of any very remarkable ability of his own. After a reign of twenty-five years, he died in 640, leaving two sons, Erminfrid and Ercombert. Erconibert, though the younger brother, succeeded his father. He reigned for twenty-four years. This reign, too, was on the whole peace- able, though he showed" great zeal in nxtting out the n'maiiis of idolatry from among his people. He was sincerely and zealously attached to the churcli, and he it was who first of the S»,xon monarchs enforced upon his •ubjccts the observance of the fast of Lent. Ercombert died in Gfi4, and Avas succeeded by his son Egbert. This |)rince, sensible that his father had wrongfull^^obtained the throne, and fearing that factions might be found in favour of the heirs of his father's elder brother, put those two princes to death — an act of barbarous policy which would probably have caused his character to dGS<;eiid to us in mitch darker and moro hateful colours, but that his zeal in enahliiig Dunnina his sister, to found a monastery in the Isle of Ely caused him to find fa vour in the eyes of the monkish historians, who were ever far too ready to allow apparent friendliness to the temporal prosperity of the church to outweigh even the most flagrant and hateful sins against the doctrines taught by the church. It is nevertheless true that, apart from his horrible and mercil'^ss treat- ment of his cousins, this prince displayed a character so mild and thoiighl- ful as makes his commission of that crin»e doubly remiirkablc ai((l lamen- table. His rule was moderate, though firm, and during his shorf reign of only nine years he seems to have embraced every opporlimi'y of en- couraging and udvnncing learning. He died in 67.'1, and was s'icceedetl by his brother Lothaire ; so that his cruel murder of his nephcwi did nut prove successful in securing the throne to his son. Lothaire associated with himself in the government his son Hichard, and every thing seemed to proinist; the usurpers a long anil proiperout reign. Hut Edric, the son of Egbert, uniippalled by the double power and abilitv which thus barred him from the throne, took shelter iit tho court of Edilwalch, king of Su.ssex. That prince heartily espoused his cause, and furnished him with troops; and after a reign of eleven years, Lothaire was slain in battle, a.d. HBt, and his son Jliclmrd escaped tu Italy, where he (!i(!d in comparative ol)scuriiy. Edric did not long enjoy the throne. His reign, which presents no- thing worthy of record, was barely two years. He died in WCi, and wu succeeded by his son Widred. The violence and usurpation which had recently taken place in the kingdom produced tlie usual effect, disunion among the nubility ; and iliiU TUK TllEASUKY OP HISTORY. 113 disunion, as is also usiuiUy the case, invited the attack of external en- emies. Accordingly, VVidred had hardly ascended the throne when his kingdom was invaded by Cedwalla, king of VVesscx, and iiis brother Mollo. But though the invaders did vast daniajfe to the kingdom of Kent, their appearance had the good effect of putting an end to domestic disunion, and VVidred was able to assemble a powerfull force for the de- fence of his throne. In a severe battle which was fought against the in- vaders, Mollo was slain; and Widred so ably availed himself of the op- portunity afforded to him by this event, that his reign extended to the long term of thirty-two years. At his death, in 718, he left the kingdom to his family; but at the death of his third successor, Alric, who died in 794, all pretence, even, to a legitimate order of succession to the throne was abandoned. To wish was to strive, to conquer was to have right; and whether it were a powerful noble or an illegitimate connection of the royal family, every pretender who could maintain his claim by force o( arms seemed to consider himself fully entitled to strike for tlie vacant throne. This aniirchical condition of the kingdom, and tiie weakness and disorder which were necessarily produced by such frequent civil war, paved the way to the utter antiihilution of Kent as a sep.irate kingdom, which annihilation was accomplished by Egbert, king of Wessex, about the year 820. Richard, {leroufl power at the jcd his years, aped to in the and that CHAPTER III. THK HF.PTARCHV (CONTINUED). The kingdom of Northumberland first made a consideralile figure and exercised a great share of influenee in the Heptarchy under Adelfrid, a brave aiifi able but ambitious a. id unprincipled rider. Originally king of Bornicia, he marri(!d Acca, daughter of Alia, king of the Deiri, anil ai the death of that monarch dispossessed and expelleel his youihful heir, and united all the country norih of the Huinber into one kingdom, the limits of which he still farther extended by his victorii^s over the Picts and Scots, and tlie Britons in Wales. An anecdote is related of this prince which seems to indicate that he held the clergy in no very ureal respect. Having found or made occasion to lay siegi; to Chester, he was opposed by the Britons, who marched in great force to compel him to raise the seige, and they were accompanied to tlic field of li.illie by upwards of a thousand monks from the monastery of B.iiigor. On being informed that this numerous liody of religions men hail come to the firld of battle, not actually to fight against him, but only to exhort their CDUiitryinen to fight stoutly and to pray for their suceeaa, tiio stern warrior, wlio could not understand the nice <]istin<'tion between those who fought against him with their arms and tliose who prayed tli.it those arms might be victori- ous, immediately detached soww of his troops witli oiders to charge upon the monks as heartily as though they had been armed and genunie sol- diers; and 80 faitlifully was this rnililess order obeyed, that only fifty of the monks are said to have escaped from the s inguiiiary si'eiie \\iih their lives, [ii the battle which immeilialidy followed this wiiiitoii butchery the Britons were completely defiJaied, and .Vdelfrid having entered Ches- ter in triumph, and strongly garrisoned it, pursued his inareh to the mon- astery of Bangor, n'S(dveii that it should not soon again send out an army of monks to pray for his defeat. The early years of" the sway of Catholicism in every country were marked both by the miinbers of the monasteries and the vast expense that was lavished upon them. This was espeeiallv tlw iMse ni both I'lng- land and — as we shall hereafter have to rem. irk — Ireland ; but in neither I.-8 114 THE TREASURY OF H/STORY. of tlifise countries was there anotlior monastery which could, for extent at least, bear comparison with that of Bungor. From gate to gate it cov- ereii a mile of ground, and it sheltered the enormous number of two thousand monks; the whole of this vast building was now sacrificed to the resentment of Adelfrid, who completely battered it down. But the warlike prowess of Adelfrid was fated to prove insufficient to preserve him in the power which he had so unrighteously obtained by de- priving a young and helpless orphan of his heritage. That orphan, now grown to man's estate, had found shelter in the court of Redwald, king of the East Angles, This monan-h's protection of the young Edwin, and that young prince's reputed ability and courage, alarmed Adelfrid for the stability of his ill-acquired greatness ; and he had the ineffable baseness to make offers of large presents to induce Redwald to deprive the young prince of life, or to deliver him, living, into the power of tiie usurper ol his throne. For some time Redwald returned positive and indignant re- fusals to all propositions of this kind ; but the pertinacity of Adelfrid, who still increased in the magnitude of his off"ers, began lo shake the con- stancy of Redwald, when, fortunately for that monarch's character, his queen interposed to save him from the horrid baseness to which he was well nigh ready to (consent. Strongly sympathising with f'/dwin, she felt the more interest for him on account of tlie magnanimous confidence in her husband's honour which the young prince displayed by tranquilly con- tinuing hi'' residence in East Anglia even after he was aware how strong- ly his protector was sued and templed lo baseness by the usm'per Adelfrid. Not conleiited with having successfully dissuaded her husband from the treachery of yielding up tlu; unfortunate and dispossessed prince, she farther eiideavoured to induce him to exert himself actively on his behalf, and to march against the usurper while he was still i!i hope of having an affirnialive answer to his disgraceful and insultinrj proposals. The king of the East Angles consented to do tb.is, and suddenly marched n power- ful army into Northumberland. In the sanguinary and wncr Karpwold, second heir of the murdered h;i re: is, ow nnr t his of I THE TREASUKY OF HISTORY. lis King. Earpwold acconlinjrly iiscuiided the thrKiie, and was protected upun ■'. by the power and repiitatiuii uf Edwin. Edwin married Ellielburga, daughter t»f Ethelbert, king of Kent, by Ber- tha, to wlioin, chiefly, that monarci. und iiis people had owed their con- version to Cliristianity. Of such a inotiier, Etiielburga on the occasion of her marriage proved herself the worthy daughter ; she, as her mother had done, stipulated for full and free exercise of lier religion, and she also took with her to her new realm a learned bishop, by name Paulirms. Very soon after her marriage, she began to attempt the conversion of her 1ms band. Calm and deliberate in all that he did, Edwin would not allow the merely human feeling of conjugal affection to decide him in a matter so vitally important as an entire cliange of religion. The most that her af- fectionate importunity could obtain, was his promise to give the fullest and most serious attention to all the arguments that might be urged in fa- vour of tlie new faith that was offered to him; and, accordingly, he not only held frequent and long conferences with Paulinus, but also laid be- fore tiie gravest and wisest of his councillors all the arguments that were urged to him by that prelate. Having undertaken the inquiry in a sincere and teachable spirit, he could not fail to be convinced, and the truth having fallen bright and full upon his enlightened mind, he openly declared him- self a convert to Christianity. His conversion and baptism were followed by those of the greater part of his people, who were the more easily per- suaded to this great and total change of faith when they saw their chief priest, Coifi, renounce the idolatry of which he had been the chief pillar and proponnder, and excel in his conoclaslic zeal against the idols to which he had so long ministered, even the Christian bishop, Paulinus himsel The reign of Edwin produced great benefit to his people, but rather by his activity and industry than by its length, he being slain in the seven- teenth year of his reign, in a battle which he fouaht against Cicdwalla, king of the Welch Uritons, and Penda, king of the Mercia. At the death of Edwin the kingdom of Northumberland was dismem- bered, and its inhabitants for the most part fell back into paganism. So general, indeed, was the defection from Christianity, that the widowed Eilu'iliurga returned to her natal kinudom of Kent, and was accompanied by Paidinus, who had been made archbishop of York. ,, Alter the dismembered kingdom of Northumberland had been torn by much petty but ruinous strife, the several portions were again united by Oswald, brother of Eanfrid, and son of the usurper Adelfrid. Oswald was stroni^ly opposed by the Uritons under the; connnand of the warlike Cied- walla, but the Mritons were so desperately beaten, that they never again made any general or vigorous attack upon the Saxons. As soon as he had re-established the unity of the Northumbrian kingdom, Oswald also restored the (Mnistinn religion, to which he was zealously attached. It is, probably, rather to this than to any of his other good qualities, that he owes the marked favour in which he is held by the monkish histori'.ns, who Ixslow the highest |)ossible praises upon his piety and charity, and who moreover aflirm thai his mortal remains had the power of working miracles. Oswald was slain in battle against Penda, the king of Mercia. After his death the history of the kingdom of Nortlnnnherland is a mere melange of usur|i:itions, and of all tin- distractions of civil war, op to the lime when Egbert, kinij of Wegsi'X, reduced it, in (!onimon with the rest of the Hep- larchy, to obedience to his rule. 116 THK THKASUHY OF H18TOR\. I CHAPTER IV. TUB HEPTARCHY (CONTINUED). The kingdom of East Aiiglia was foundod by Ufla ; but its history af- fords no instruction or amusement ; it is, in fact, in the words of an enii- nent historian, only "a long beadioU of barbarous names," until we arrive at the time of its annexation to tlie powerful and extensive kingdcin oi Mercia, to which we now proceed to direct the reader's attention. Mercia, tlie most extensive of all the kingdoms of the Ileptarchy, could not fail to be very powerful whenever ruled by a brave or wise king. Sit- uated in the middle of the island, it in some one point or more touched each of the other six kingdoms. Penda, in battle against whom we have already described Oswald of Northumberland to have lost both throne and life, was the first really pow- erful and distinguished king of Mercia; but he was distinguished chiefly for personal courage and tiie tyrannous and violent temper iti which he so exerted that quality as to render himself the terror or the detestation of all his contemporary English princes. Three kings of East Anglia, Sige- bert, Egric, and Annas, were in succession slain in attempting oppose him, as did Edwin and Oswald, decidedly the most powerful of the kings of Northumberland ; and yet this monarch, who wrought such havoc among his fellow-princes, did not ascend his throne until he was more than fifty years of age. Oswy, brother of Oswald, now encountered him, and Penda was slain; this occurred in the year 655, and the tyrannical and fierce warrior, whom all hated and many feared, was succeeded by his son, Penda, whose wife was a daughter of Oswy. This princess was a Christian, and, like Bertha and Ethelburga, she so successfully exerted her conjugal infiuence, that she converted her husband and his subjects to her faitii. The exact length of this monarch's reign is as uncertain as the manner of his death. As regards the latter, one historian boldly asserts that he was treacherously put to death by the order and connivance of his queen ; but this seems but little to tally with her acknowledged and afTec- tionate zeal in converting him to Christianity ; and as nothing in the shape of proof rr.n be produced to support so improbable a charge, we may pretty safily conclude that cither ignorance or malice has given a mistaken turn to some circumstances attending his violent death. He was suitcceded by his son Wolfhere, who inherited his father's courage and conduct, and not merely maintained his own extensive kingdom in excellent order, but also reduced Essex and East Anglia to dependence upon it. He was suc- ceeded by his brother, Ethelred, who showed that he inherited his spirit as well as his kingdom. Though a sincere lover of peace, an. t<32) ihey landed from thirty-five ships upon the coast of Dorset, they were suddenly encountered by Egbert, near Char- mouth, in that county. An obstinite and severe contest ensued, in which the Danes lost a great number ui' iheir force, and were, at Iciiglb, totally defeated ; but as they were skilfully posted, and had taken caiT! to pre>- serve aline of communication with the sea, the survivors contrived to es- cape to their ships. Two years elapsed from the battle of Charmoulh before the pirates again made their appearance ; and, as in that battle they had sulTi-red very severely, the English began to hope that they would not again return to molest them. Hut the Danes, knowing the ancient enmity that existed between the Saxons and the British remnant in Cornwall, entered into an alliance with the latter, and, landing in their country, had an easy open road to Devonshire and the other fertile provinces of the West. But here afiain the activity and unslumbering watchfiduess of Egbert enabled him to limit their ravages merely to their first furious onset. He came up with them at flengesdown, and again they were defeated with a great di- minution of their numbers. This was the last service of brilliant importance that F/jbort p*rfotmed for England, and just as there v-.s every appearence thai liis •• nhnir and sagacity would be more than ever necessary to the saf '' i>f ;!■ ; - .''ry, he died, in the year 838, and was succeeded by his son ' ;'.. i ■ li. The very first act of Ethelwolfs reign was the division of the country which the wisdom and ability of his father, aided by singular good for- tune, had so happily united. Threatened as the kingdom so frequently was from without, its best and chiefesi hope obviously rested upon its •jnion, and the consequent facility of concentrating its whole flghting ."^rce upci any threatened point. But, unable to see this, or too indolent 10 ii • the v/hole governincnt of the country, Eihelwolf made over the ., . ui.? of ■> ^ut, Sus* .«, and Essex, to his sou Athelstan It was for •lunate il.^u, under aich a prince, who at the very outset of his reign could 1 THE TRKAaURY OK UlriTOftY, 121 eommit an error so capital, England Im '. in most of lur |)rincipal places, magislrat(!s (irgovornors of bravery and abdity. •rtiiis VVolflitii-e, governor of Hampshiro, put to the rout a strong party of tiie maraudnrs who had landed at Southampton, fi mi nofewerlhiin three" and-thirly sail ; and, in the same year, Athelhelin, governor of Ditrseishire, encountered and defeated another powerful body of tiiem who had huid- ed at Portsmouth ; though, in this case, unfortunately, tlie gallant govern- or died of h's woundH. Aware of the certain disadvantages to which tluy would I/'.; exposed in fighting pitched battles in an enemy's country, the I'Saiirg, II' their subsequent landing, took all possible care to avoid the ne- f^-v'v :'J:)ingso. Their plan was to swoop suddenly down upon a re- iired j).iii of the coast, plunder the country as far inland as they could prudenil) advance, and re-embark with their booty before any consider- 4 iiMe force could be got together to o|)pose them. In this manner they , ^1 |ilundered Kasl Anglia and Kent, and their depredations were the more "iW dibtressing, because they by no means limited themselves to booty in the k usual sense of that term, but carried off men, women, and even children into slavery. The frequency and the desultoriness of these attacks, at length, kept the whole coastward in a perpetual state of anxiety and alarm ; the inhab- itants of each place fearing to hasten to assist the inhabitants of another place, lest some other party of the pirates, in the meantime, should rav- age and burn their own homes. There was another peculiarity in this kind of warfare, which to one order of men, at least, made it more terri- ble than even civil war itself; making their descents not merely in the love of gain, but also in a burning and intense hatred of Christianity, the Danes made no distinction between laymen and clerks, unless, indeed, that they often showed themselves, if possible, more inexorably cruel to the latter. Having their cupidity excited by large and frequent booty, and being, moreover, flushed with their success on the coast of France, the Danes or Northmen at length made their appearance almost annually in England. In each succeeding year they appeared in greater numbers, and conducted themselves with greater audacity: and they now visited the Knglish shores in such swarms that it was apparent they contemplated nothing less than the actual conquest and settlement of the whole country. Divi- ding themselves into distinct bodies, they directed their attacks upon dif- ferent points; but the Saxons were naturally warlike, the governors of most of the important places seaward were, as we have already re- marked, well fitted for their important trust, and the very frequency of the attacks of the Danes had induced a vigilance and organization among the people themselves which rendered it far less easy than it had formerly been to surprise them. At VViganburgh the Danes were defeated with very great loss by (^ orle, governor of Devonshire, while another body of the marauders was attacked and defeated by Athelstan, in person, off Sandwich. In tins case, in addition to a considerable loss in men, the Danes had nine of their vessels sunk, and only saved the rest by a pre- cipitate flight. Uul in this year the Danes showed a sign of audacious confidence in their strength and resources which promised but ill for the future repose of Kngland ; for though they had been severely chastised in ?■ more than one quarter, and had sustained the loss of some of their bravest ] . men, the niaii. body of them, instead of retreating wholly from the island, i as they had usually done towards the close of the autumn, fortified them- I selves in the Isle of Sheppy,and made it their winter quarters. The prom- ise of early reiominencement of hostilities that was thus tacitly held out ' was fully and promptly fulfilled. Karly in the spring of 853, the Danes who had wintered in the Isle of Thanet, were reinforced by the arrival of a fresh horde, in 350 vessels m 122 THE THliA&UilV OF HISTORY. I ; and t!iR whole marched from tlie Isle of Thanet inland, burning and de- Btroyiiiff wlmtever wiis not sufficiently portable for plunder. Urichtric, who — St) far had Ethelbert allowed the disjiniction of the kingdom to pro- ceed — was now governor and titular king of Mereia, made a vain attempt to resist tliein, and was utterly routed. Canterbury and London were sacked and burned and the disorderly bands of the victorious enemy sprf-ad into ttie very lieart of Surrey. Ethel wolf, though an indolent king, was by no means destitute of a certain princely pride and during. En- raged beyond measure at the audacity of the marauders, and deeply grieved at tlie sufferings they inflicted upon his subjects, he assembled the West Saxous, whom, accompanied by his second son Ethelbald as his lieu- tenant, he led against the most considerable body of the Danes. He en- countered them at Okely, and, although tliey fought with their usual reck- less and pertinacious courage, tiie Saxons discomfited and put them to flight. This victory gave tiie country at least a temporary resi-ite ; for the Danes had suffered so much by it, that they were glad to pohipune fur- ther operations, and seek shelter and rest within their intrencinnent in the Isle of Thanet. Thilher they were followed by Hudaand Ealher, the pjv- ernors of Surrey and K'Mit, who bravely attacked them. At the com- niencement of the action the advantage was very considerably on the side of the Saxons: but tiie fortune of war suddenly changed, tiie Danes re- covered their lost grounds and the Saxons were totally routed, both their gallant leaders remaining dead upon the field of batile ; a.d. 853. Desperate as the situation of tlie country was, and threatening as was the aspt:ct of the Danes, who, after defeating Huda and Ealher, removed from the Isle of Thanet to that of Slieppey, which they deemed more con- venient for winter ipiartcrs, Ethelwelf, who was extremely superstitious and bigoted, and who, in spile of the occasional (lashes ofchivalric spirit which he exhibited, was far more fit fora monk than foreithera monarch or a military coinniander, this year resolved upon making a pilgriniiisjc to Rome, fie went and carried with him his fourth son, the subseiiuently "Great" Alfred, but who was then ;i child of only six years old. At Home Ethel wolf remained for one year, i>assinghis time in prayer; earn- ing the (latteries ami favmir of the monks by liberalities to the church, on which he lavi.^hed sums which were too really and tenibly needed by liis own im|(overislied and sufieriiig coiintry. As a specimen of his profusion in this pious sqiiaiideiing, he gave to tli(3 papal sc(', in perpetuity, the year- ly sum of three huiidied maneuses — each mancun weighing, says Hume, about the same as the English half crown — to be afiplied in three etjual porliiiiis: fir^l, iIk^ iiroviding and maintaining lamps for St. Peter's; sec- ond, for the same to St. fauTs, and thirdly, for the use of the jiope liim- Bidf. At till! end of the ye;ir"s residence which lie had ])romis(Hl himself h(! reluriKMl lidine ; happily for his snhji'cts, whom lii.< prolonged stay at Home could not liav<^ failed to im|)nverish ; his feolish facility in giving, being not a whit iinirc rcinarkalilc than the unscrupulous alacrity of the ));i|)al eoiiit in taking. On reaching England, he was far more astonished than gr;itilied at the state of aflairs there. Alhelslan, his eldest son, to whom, as we iiave before menuoned, he had given Kent, Sussex and Es- sex, li;ul been scnne tune dead; and l'',tlieli)ald, the second son, having, in coiiseipniiee. assmned tlir ri'geiicy of the kingdom duriiiix his father's ab- Hcnce, hail allowed filial alVcctioii and the loyalty dm' to a sovereign to he coiupiereil by ambition. Many of the warlikt! nobility lielil Elhehvolf in eoiiteiiipt, and 'id not scruple to alUrm that he was far iiim'e fit for cowl iiiid e|i)i.^ler than for Ihi' warrior's weapon and the nxinarcli's throne. The young and ambition iiiinee lent too facile an ear to these disloyal ileiiders and snlT'iTcil IiuiimII to be persuaded to join aiil lii'ad ;i |iiirly to delhrone Ins father and set hiniM'lf up in his pl.ii'c. Hut Elhelwolf, llionnh despised by the ruder and fiercer nobles, was nut without mitneruus and sinuero THE TaKASURY OF UISTOllY. 123 fi lends ; liis party, long as he had been absent, was as strong and as zeal- ous as that of the prince; both parties .were of impetuous temper and well inohned to decide tlie controversy by blows; and tlie country seemed to be upon the very brink of civil war, of wiiich the Danes would no doubt have availed themselves to subject the island altogether. But this extremity was prevented by Eihelwoif himself, who voluntarily proffered to remove all occasion of strife by sharing his kingdom with Ethelbald. Tlie division was accordingly made ; the king contenting himself with the eastern moiety of the kingdom, which, besides other points of inferior- ity, was far the most exposed. It were scarcely reasonable to expect that he who had not shrewdness and firmness enough to protect his own rights and interests, would prove a more efficient guardian of those of his people. His residence at Home hud given the papal court and the clergy a clear view of the whole extent of the weakness of his nature ; and the facility with which he had parted Willi his cash in exchange for hollow and cozening compliments, marked linn out as a prince exactly fitted to aid the Knglish clergy in their en- deavour to aggrandize themselves. And the event proved the coriectness of tiieir judgment; for at the very same time that he presented the cler- gy with the tithes of all tlie land's produce, which they had never yet re- ceived, though the country had been for nearly two centuries divided into parishes, he expressly exempted them and the church reviMuics in gcn- enl from every sort of tax, even though made for national defence; and this at a moment when the national exigences were at their greatest height, and when the national peril was such that it might have been sup- posed that even a wise selfishness would have induced the clergy to con irilnite towards its su,)port ; the more especially, as towards them and their property the Danes had »!ver exhibited a peculiar malignity. Klhelwolf died in 857. about two years after he had granted to the En- glish clergy the iinportiint boon of the tithes; and he, by will, conlirmed tu Kihclbald the western moiety of the kingdom, of which he had alreaily put him in possession, and left tiie eastern moiety lo his second eldest sur- viving son Ethelbert. Tlie reign of Ethelbald was short; nor was his character such as to iiiaki! it desirable for the sake of his people that it had been longer. He wiis of extremely di'liiiuched habits, aiul gave especial scandal and disgust lo his people by marrying his mother-in-law, Judith, the second wife of his (Icceased father. 'I o the comments of the people upon this incestuous iiiiil diagracefnl coniKU'lioii he jiaid no attention; but the censiire of the I'iiiirch was not to be so lightly regarded, ;iiid iIk; :idvi(!e ,ind autiiority of Swil hill, bishop of Winchester, indiiciul him to consent to be divorced. lie died in ilie year 8(ii), and was succeeded by his brother ICthulbert, and the kingiiont thus, oiil'! more, was united under one sovereign CH.VPTER Vr. TIIF. HKKlNS OF K.rilKI.nKUT AND KTIIKMlli.K. The reign of Ethclliert was greatly disUirbed by the fie(|nent (lesceiits of the Danes. On one oi'ciision they niai'i! a fiirions attack iipmi Win- chi'sler, and did an iinmetise deal of mischief in the neighboiirliooii, but were finally l)e;iten off with great loss ; and, on another occasion, the lioriic of tlii'm that was settled in the Isle of Thiiiict, hiving thrown I'^tlielbcrt off his giiaril by their apparent determination to keep sacred a treaty into whitdi they hail etilereil with him, Hiiildeidy broke from their ;juaricrs, marched in gri' it niimbcrs into Ki'iil. and lliere committed the inosl wanton outnges in addition to -oizmg immense liootv- 124 THE TREASURY OP HI3T0RY. w Ethelbert reigned solely over England but little more than five years ; he died in hG6, and was succeeded by his brother Ethelred. He, too, was greatly harrassed by the Danes. Very early in his reign, connived at and aided by the East Angles, who even furnished them with ilie horses necessary for their predatory expedition, they made their way into the kingdom of Nortimniberland, and seized upon the wealthy and important city of York. iKlIa and Osbricht, two high-spirited Northumbrian princes, endeavoured to exjicl them, but were defeated and perished in the assault. Fluslied with their success, the Danes now marched, under the (command of their terrible leaders, Hubha and Hinguar, into Mercia, and after much carnage and rapine established themselves in Nottingham, from which (rentral situation they menaced tlie ruin of the whole kingdom. The Mercians, finding that their local authorities and local forces were no match for desperadoes so numerous and so determined, despatched mes- sengers to Ethelred, imploring his personal interference on their behalf, and the king, accompanied by his brother Alfred, who had already begun to display those talents which subsequently won him an imperishable fame, marched to Nottingham with a powerful army, a.d. 870. The gallantry and activity of the king and his brother speedily drove the Danes from Mercia, and they retired into Northumberland with the apparent design of remaining there quietly. But peace was foreign to their very nature, and, forgetful of their recent obligations to the treachery of the East Angles, they suddenly rushed forih upon them, butchered Ed- mund, their tributary prince, in cold blood, and coimnitled the most exten- sive iiavoe and depredations, especially upon the monasteries. The Danes having, in 871, made Heading a station, from which they greatly harrassed the surrniiiKliiig country, Ethelred determined to dis- lodge them. l)n desiring the aid of the Mercians he was disloyally re- fused, they, innnindful of the ben<'fit they had received from him, being desirous of getting rid of their dependence upon him, and becoming a 8ei)aratc people as in the Heptarchy. Even this shameful conduct of the Mercians could not move Ethelred from his purpose. Aided by Alfred, from whom, dmnig his whole reign, he received the most zealous and ciricient assistance, he raised a large force of his hereditary subjects, the West tSaxons, and marched against Ueiiiing. Iteing defeated in an action without the town, the Danes retreated within the gales, and lOthelred com- menced a scige, but was driven from before tlic i)lacc by a sudden and well-conducted sally of the garrison. .\ii action shortly afterwards took place at Aston, not far from Kcadnig, at which an incident occurred which Eivcs us a strange notion of the manners of the age. A division of the English army under Alfred connnenced the bailie, and was so skilfully surrounded by tln^ enemy while }ei in a disadvantageous position and not fairly formed in order of baiilc, ihat it was in the most ninnineni danger of Ik ing completely cut to pieces. Alfred sent an ur!;cnt message to his brollii'r for assistance, but I'Uliclred was hearing inasN, and positively re- fnseil to stir a stcji until its cmiclusion. Had ihe day gone against the Saxons, I'lthelred's ■ onduct on this occasion would |)rol)ably have been censured even by tin priests, but as the Danes were put to the rout, and with signal slaughter, ilu^ whole credit of the victory was given to the piety of Ethelreil. Heatc'.i iiiii of Herkshire, the Danes now took up a strong position at Uasiiig, in Hams. Hen; they received a iiovverful reinforcement from abroail, and sent out marauding parties in all directions willi great suc- cess. St. di, indeed, was tliiir havoc, that Englishmen of all ranks began to contemplate, with unfeigned terror, the near probability of theii wlnde ccniiilry being overrun by tliesi' merciless and greedy invaders The anxiety of KlIiLdred occasioned by these gloomy prosnects, wliuh THE TKEASUttY OF HISTORY. U5 were still farther increased by the impatience of the Mercians and others under his rule, so much augmented the irritation of a wound he had received in the buttle at Basing, that it terminated his life in the year 671 CHAPTER VII rilK REIGN OF ALFRKD THE GREAT. ALFRED succeeded his brother Ethelred, and scarce were the funeral rites performed before he found it necessary to march against the enemy, who had now seizcfi upon Milton. At the outset, Alfred had considerably the advantage, but his force was very weak compared to that of tlie enemy, and, advancing too far, he not only missed the opportunity of completing their defeat, but even enabled them to claim the victory. But their vic- tory — if such it was— cost them so many of their bravest men that they became alarmed for the consequences of continuing the war, and entered into a treaty by wliicii they bound themselves altogether to depart from the kmgdoni. To enable them to do this tliey were conducted to London, but on arriving there the old leaven became loo strong for their virtuous resolutions, and, breaking off from their appointed line of inarch, they began to plunder the country round London for many miles. Burthred, the tributary prince of Morcia, of which London formed a part, thinking it improbable, after his shameful desertion of Alfred's brother on a former occasion, that Alfred would now feel inclined to assist him, made a treaty witli tiie Danes, by which, in consideration of a considerable sum of money, they agreed to cease from ravaging his dominions, and remove themselves into Lincolnshire; but they had on former occasions laid that county waste, and finding that it had not yet so far recovered as to promise them any booty worth having, they suddenly marched back again upon Mercia; then establishing themselves at Repton, in Derbyshire, they commenced their usual career of slaughter and rapine in that neighbour- hood. This new instanc(? of Danish pcrfiily filled Burthred with despair, ami seeing no probability of his being abb- either to chase the Danes away, or to render them peaceably dis|)osed eithiT by force or bribe, he aban- doned his territory altogether, proi-eeded to Home, and there took up bis abode in a monastery, wiiere he continueil until his death. nurthrc(l, who was broiher-iii-law to All'ied, was the last titular and tributary king of Mercia. The utter abandoiiniPiit of the English cnusc by Burthred h-ft It no other leading defeiKU'r but Alfred : a.o. S71. Brave and able as that prince was, his situation was now truly terrible. New swarms of Danes came over, under the leadershii) of laulhruni, ('sital, and Amund. ()iii< liaml of the host thus formed took U|) their quarters In Noriliuniberland, and another Cambriilite, whence the lalter inarched for Warcbam, in DorscMsliIre, and thus sellli'il llicinselvcs In the very midst of .MlVed's territory. This cir- euinHlance, from Alfred's superior knowledge' of the country and his faell- ily of oblaining sii|)plies, gave hiin advantages of wliirh he so ably and promptly aviuli'd hims<'lf, that the Danes wer(^ glad to eni{ai>(^ llieinsclves to depart. They hail now, however, beeoini^ so notorious for breaking their treatii>s. that Alfreil, in concluding this one with them, resorteil to an expeilient very charai'lcristic of that rude and sllperstltlou^ age. He made them confirm their pleilges by oallis upon holy relliincs. lie thought It unlikely th.tt even Danes would venture to depart from an agreement made Willi a ceremony winch was then thought so treineinlou'*, and even sliiinld they be impious enoiigli to do so, lie felt quite ecrlaiii that lliell awful pcrinry would not fail lo draw down full deslrui'tion upon them. Bui the banes, who hated (Miristianity, and held its forms in utter con '13 yl^ 126 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. tempt, no sooner found tlieinselves freed from the disadvantageous pos' tion in whic^li Alfred had plac^ed them, tlian ihey fell without waniinn; upon his astounded army, put it completely to flight, and then hastened to take posspssiiin of Exeter. Undismayed by even this new proof of the faith- less and indomitable nature of the enemy, Alfred exerted himself so dili- gently, that he got together new forces, and fought no fewer than eight considerable battles witiiin twelve months. 'I'liis vigour was more effec- tual against snch a foe than any treaty, however solemn, and they once more found themselves reduced to an extremity which compelled them to sue for peace. As Alfred's sole wish was to free his sulijects from the intolerable evils incident to having their country perpetually made the theatre of war, he cheerfully agreed to grant them peace and permission to settle on the coast, on the sole condition that they should live peace- ably with his subjects, and not allow any new invaders to ravage the country. While they were distressed, and in danger, the Danes were well pleased with these terms, but just as the treaty was concluded a re- inforcement arrived to them fnun abroad. All thouglit of peace and treaty was at once laid aside by them ; they hastened, in all directions, to join the new comers, seized upon the important town of Chippenham, and re- commenced their old system of plundering, nmrdering, and destroying, in every direction, for miles aroinid their qnarters. The Saxons, not even excepting the heroic Alfred himself, now gave up all hope of success in the sirngule in which they had so long and so bravely been engaged. Many fled to Wales and the continent, while the generality submitted to the invaders, contented to save life and land at the exftense of national honour and individual freedom. It was in vain that Alfred reminded the chief men among the Saxons of the sanguinary successes they had achieved in the time past, and endeavoin'ed to persuade them that new successes would aitend new efforts. Men's spirits wen; now so utterly subdued ttiat the Danes were looked upon as irresistible; and the heroic and niifortiniale Alfred, unable to raise siiflicieni force to warrant him in again endeavotning to save his country from the yoke of tlie foreign foeman, was fiin to seek safety in concealment, and to console himsidf in his temporary inactivity with the hope that the oppressions of the Danes would be so nnmeasined and intolerable, that even the most peace-loving and indolent of the Saxons would, at no distant day, be goaded into revolt. Unattended even by a servant, Alfred, disguised in \\w coarse habit of a peasant, wandered from one obscure hilling- pjacf? to another. One of these was the lowly hut of a neatherd, who had in happier days been in his servu'e. The man faithfidly obeyed the charg(! given to jiiin by the king not to rev(?al his rank (?ven to the yood woman of the house. She, UMsuspirKMis of the quality of her guest, was at no pains to (•(Uieeal her o()iiu(iii that so able a man, in full health, and with an ixlremely vigonnis appetite, inii;lil lind some better iinployinenl, bail llunigh the limi's were, than moping about and muttering to liinis<'lf. On one occasion she still more siroiiiily gav(! her opinion of the iillene.>^8 of her guest, lie was seated befine the ample wood fire, putting his bow and arnnv in order as she |iut some wlieaten cakes down to bake, and being called away by some other (Uniiestic biisiness, slie desired Alfred to mind the cakes, giving him especial charge to liirn ihem frecpieiilly lest tliey should be burned. The king prinniseil due obedience, but scarcely bad Ins iinperious hifstesg left him when he fell into a profound reverie on liisowii forlorn and aban- doned eiiinlilion, and the manifold miseries of Ins coniitty. It is probable that, diiriii'i that hnig sad day-dream, more tli:in one thought suggested itself to Alfred, bv which Knglaiid, at a I'nlnre il;iy. was to be greatly benefited, lint, as.suredly, his tlioiigbls were, fur that time at U'.isl, of little benefit to Ins hostess, who, (Ml her return lo the collage, found tho kmg deeil buried in Ins gloomy thoughts, and her cakes done, indeed, but THK TREASURY OF HI3T0R\. 127 Qone — to a cincrer. The good woman's anger now knew no boimds ; oaf, lubber, and lazy loon, were the mildest names which she bestowed iipon him, as, with iiiinsilcd anger and vexation, she contrasted his indolence in the matter of baking, with his alacrity in eating what he found ready baked for his use. So successful had Alfred been in destroying all traces of his wander ings, that Hiibba and other leading Danes, who had at first made search after him with all the activity and eagerness of extreme hale, not nn- mingled with fear, at length became persuaded that he had either left the country altogether, or perished miserably ere he could find means and opportunity to do so. Finding that his enemies had discoiuimied their search after him, Alfred now began to conceive hopes of biMiig able once more to call some friends to his side. For this purpose he betook him- self to SoiiKTsetshire, to a spot with which he had accidentally become acquainliHl, which singularly united obscurity and capability of being de- fended. A morass formed by the overflowing of the rivers Parret and Thame bad nearly in its centre aboitt a couple of acres of firm land. The morass itself was not safely practicable by any one not well aitquain- ted with the coticealed paths that led through it to the little terra firma, audit was further secured from hostile visitors by numerous other morasses no less (liflii'ult and dangerous, while by a dense growth of forest trees it was on (wery side environed and sheltered. Here he built himself a rude hut, and, having found means to comnninicate with some of the inost faithful of his personal friends, it was not long before he was placed at the head of a small but valiant band. Sallying from this retreat mider the cover of tlie night, and always, when practicable, returning again before the inorniiig, he harassed and spoiled tin; Danes to a very great extent; and his attacks were so sudden ami so desultory, that his enemies were unable either elTcctually to guard against them, or to conjecture from what quarter they proceeded. Kven by this warfare, petty and desultery as it was, Alfred was doing good service to his country. For with the spoil which he thus obtained he was enabled to subsist and from tiint^ to time to increase his followers; ami while his attacks, which could not be wholly mtknown to the Saxon population, gave them vagim ho[)es that armed friends were not wholly lost to tliein, they moderated tln^ cruelty and imperiousness of the Danes by constantly reminding them of the possibility of a successl'id and gene d revolt of ibe Saxons. For U[)warils of a year Alfred remained in this secure retreat, in which time he h. id gathered together a considerable iunnl)cr of followers; and now at length his pers(!veranc(! had its rewanl in an opportunity of once more meeting his foes in the formal array of battle. Hubbii, the most warlil<(! of all the Danish chiefs, led a larjje army of liis couiitryinen to besiege the castle of Kinvvilh, in Devonshire. 'I'hc earl of that cmmlry, a brave and resolute man. di!emin<; death in the battle field far preferable to starving witiiin his fortified walls, or lite preserved by submission to t\w haled Danes, collected the whole of his garrison, mill, having inspired iIkmu with liis own brave deterininatinn. made a sudden sally upon the Danish camp in the (lirkness of night, killed llultba, and roiiieil the D:inisli force with immense slaughter. He at the same time (captured the enclianlcd lieufni, the woven -aven which adorned the child' stand ird of the Dam"", and the loss of whiidi their siipi'r-ith of Ins shipping, and pracliscd a larLte puiliiiii of his leople ill naval tactics, to which, considering their iiisiilar siiiiaiion, the \liigs and pi'iiple of Kngland had hiiherto been siraiiLu iy indiUVreiii. Toe good eflccts of tlii.s wise prccauliim were soim ni.iiiiiest ; squadrons of his arinrd vessels lay at so many ami at such well-chosen pusiliiins, that llie D.iiies, though they often came in great numbers, were eiUier wliully 1.-9 i:' t30 THE TREASURY OP HISTORY. m prevented from landing, or intercepted when retiring from before the land- forces, and deprived of their ill-gotten booty, and their ships either cap- lured or sunk. In this manner Alfred at length got together a iuuidred and twenty vessels, a very powerful fleet for that time, and as his own subjects were at the outset but indiffenMit sailors, he supplied that defect by sparingly distributing among them skilful foreign seamen, from whom they soon learned all that was known of naval tactics in that rude age. For some years Alfred reaped the reward of his admirable policy and untiring industry in the unbroken tranquillity of the country, which gave his subjects the opportunity of advancing in all the useful arts, and of gradually repairing those evils which the long-continued internal wars had done to both their trade and their agriculture. But a new trial wag still in store for both Alfred and his subjects. A.D. 803. Hastings, a Danish chieftain, who some years before had made a short predatory incursion into England, but who recently had confined his ravages to France, finding that he had reduced that country, so far as he could get access to it, to a condition which rendered it unproductive of farther booty, suddenly appeared this year off the coast of Kent, with an immense horde of his pirates, in upwards of three hundred vessels. Dis- embarking the main body in tlie Holhcr, and leaving it to guard the fort of Apiddore, whiidi he surprised and seized, he, with a detachment of nearly a hundred vessels, sailed up the Thames as far as Milton, where he estab- lished his head-quarters, whence he sent out his maurading parties in every direction. As soon as tidings of this new incursion reached Alfred, that gallant monarch concentrated an immense force from the armed militia in various parts of the country, and marched against the enemy. Setting down before Milton and Apuldorc, Alfred, by his superiority of force, com- pletely hemmed ii" /le mtiin bodies of the pirates, and their detached par- lies were encounttied as they relumed with their booty, and cut off to a man. finding that, so far from having any prospect of enriching them- selves, they were, in fact, compelled to live in England up(m the plunder that they had seized in France, the pirate garrison of Apuldore made a sudden sally with the design of crossing the Thames into Fsscj.v. Hut the vigilant eye of Alfred was loo constanily upon them to allow either secrecy or suddenness to give them success in this attempt. Ui\ arrested their march at Farnluim, utterly routed them, and spoiled them of all their prop- erty, including numbers of valuable horses. The slausihler was very great, and those Danes who were so fortunate as to survive the battle, ii'adc their way in panic haste to their piratical vessels, and sailed over to Essex, where lliey entrenched Iheni-selves at Mersey ; Hastings, with the division under his command, at the smne time going also into the county of Essex and entrenching himself at Canvey. (lUthrum, who from the time of his baptism had been constantly faith- ful to the engagement into which he had entered with Alfred, was new dead, as also was Guthred, another Dane of rank, who was very faithful to Alfred, by whom he had been made governor of Northumbcrliind. No longer restrained by the example and authority of those two ('ininenl chiefs, the East Anglian and Norlhnmbiian Danes now suddenly exhibited their ohi [)riipensiiy to strife and rapine, got together a Heel of nearly two hundred and fifty vessels, and made their appearance in hostiU; array be- fore Exeter. I,eaving a sufficient force; under coni[)etent command to make hear. ceived the immense importanoe of an attention to details, and the eixtie with which many graduated efforts and arrangements will produce a result which would be in vain aimed at by any one effort however vast. Of what may be called the national police established by Alfred, we take the following brief and condensed, but extremely lucid and grapliic, ac- count from Hume: "The English," says Hume, "reduced to the most extreme indigence by the continued depredations of the Danes, had shaken off all bands of government, and those who had been plundered to-dviy, betook themselves on the morrow to the like disorderly life, and, from despair, joined the robbers in pillaging and ruining their fellow-citizens. These were the evils for which it was necessary that the vigilance and activity of Alfred should provide a remedy. "That he might render the execution of justice strict and regular, he di Tided all England into counties; these counties he subdivided into hun- dreds, and the hundreds again into tithings. Every householder vas answerrtble for the behaviour of his family and his slaves, and even of '.lis guests if they lived above three days in his house. Ten neighbounr^ householders were formed into one corporation, who, under the numc of a tithing, decennary, or fribourg, were answerable for each other's con- duct, and over whom one man, called a tithing-man, headbourg, or bond- holder, was appointed to preside. Every man was punished as an outlaw who did not register himself in some tithing, and no man could change his habitation without a warrant or certificate from the bondholder of the tith- ing to which he formerly belonged. " When any person, in any tithing or decennary, was guilty of a crime, the bondholder was summoned to answer for him, and if he were not wil- ling to be surety for his appearance and his cleariiii' hnnself, the criminal was committed to prison, and there detained till h .^ trial. If he fled, either before or after finding surety, the hondholdor and decennary be came liable to inquiry, and were exposed to the petialties of the law. Thirly-onc days were allowed them for producing the criminal, and if the time elapsed without their being able to find him, the bondholder, with two other members of the decciniary, was obliged to appear, and, to- gether with three chief members of the three neighbouring decennaries, making twelve in nil, to swear that his decennary was free from all priv- ity, both of the crime committed, and of the escape of the criminal. If the bondholder could not find such a number to answer for their inno- cence, the decennary was compelled by fine to make satisfaction to the king, according to the degree of the offence. Hy this institution every man was obliged by his own interest to keep a watchful eye over the conduct of his neighbour, and was in a manner surety for the behaviour of those who were placed under the division to which he belonged ; whence these decennaries received the name of frank-pledges. " Such a regular distribution of the people, with such a strict confine- ment in their habitation, may not be necessary in times when men are more inured to obedience and justice, and it might perhaps be re^'arded as destructive of liberty and commerce in a polished slate: but it was well calculiiled to reduce that fierce and licentious people under the salutary restraint of law and government. Hut Alfred took care to temper these rigours by other institutions more favonr.ihle to the freedom of the citi- zens, and nothing could be more popular or liberal than his plan for the administration of justice. The bondholder summoned together his whole dcceiniary to assist him in deciding any lesser difference which occurred among tlic members of this small community. In affairs of greater mo mont, in appeals friim the decennary, or in controversies ar' .iug between members of differtnt decennaries, the cause was brought before the hnn dred, which consisted of ten decennaries, or a hundred families of free- of ii THE TKEASURY OF HlSTOaY. 133 nmn, and which was regularly assembled ouce in four weeks for the de- ciding o( causes. Their method of decision deserves to be noted, es being ilie ori;s, from which it arose. He took care to have all his nobility instructed in letters and the law ; he chose the earls and sheriffs from among; the men most celebrated for probity and knowledge ; he punished severely all malversation in office, and he removed all the earls whom he found unequal to their trust, allowing some of the more elderly to serve by deputy, till their death should make room for more worthy successors." Without any qualifiualion or allowance for the age and circumstances in liich he lived, the military, and, even more, the civil talents of Al- fred, and their noble and consistent ievotion to the magnificeiit task of making a great and civilized nation out of a people disunited, rude, igno- rant, tierce, and disorderly, would justly entitle him to the praise of being among the greatest and best monarchs that have ever existed. But when we reflect that he had to contend against a late, an imperfect, and irreg- ular education ; that he, who, in a comparatively short life, so largely figured both as warrior and sage, was twelve years old ere he began to learn even the very elements of 'ileralure, and that, during the latter years of his glorious life, he laboured under frequent and painfiil fits of illness almost amounting to bodily disability, it would not be an easy task to exagirerato his merits. Good as well as great, a patient and thought- ful student, as well us a mighty chieftain in the field and a sage statesman at the council-board, he probably approached as nearly to perfection 134 THE TREASURY OF KT8T0RY. both as man and mnnarch. as is possible for one of onr fallible and Iran race. To the Enjriisli r)f his own age he gave benefits, some of which have descended even to onr own generation ; his renown shines forth in the page of history like some bright particnhir star, a beacon of greatness to tilings and of gooihiess to private men: and sad will that day be for England, and degraded will be the English character, when the general heart shall fail to throb with a lively, a grateful, and a gladly proud emo- tion at the mention of him whom their sturdy fathers heartily and justly hailed by the proud name of Alfrer the Great. Cn.\PTKR VIII. MlSTOnV OK THE ANGLO-SAXUNS, FROM THE DEATH OK ALFRED THE GREAT TO THE REIGN OF EDWARD THE MARTVR. Alered the Great, who died in the year 901, had three sons and three daughters by his wife Kiholswitha, the daughter of an earl of Mereia. His eldest son, Kdmund, iliiMl b(!fore him, and he was succeeded by his second s(ni, Rdward, who, being the first English king of that name, was surnanied The Elder. Though Edward was scarcely, if at all, inferior to his truly great father in point of military talents, his reign was, upon the whole, a turbulent one, and one that by no means favoured the growth in the kingdom ol that civilized prosperity, of which Alfred had laid the foundations both deep and broad. But the fault was not with Edward ; he had to contend against many very great difficullies, and he contended against them with both courage and prudence. He had scarcely paid the last sad offices to his royal father when his title to the throne was disputed by his cousm Eliudwold, son of Ethelbert, the elder brother of Alfred. Had the hered- itary and lineal descent of the crown been as yet strictly settled with a regard to primogeniture, the claim of Eilielwold would have, undoubted- ly, been a just one. But such was far from being the case ; many cir- cumstances, the character, or even the infancy of the actual heir in the order of primogeniture, very often inducing the magnates and people, as in the case of Alfred himself, to pass over him who in tiiis point of view was the rightful heir, in favour of one better qualified, and giving higher promise of safety and prosperity to the nation. Etiielwold had a considerable number of partizans, by whose aid he collected a largo and imposing force, and fortified himself at VVimborne, in Dorsetshire, with the avowed determination of referring his claim to the dcci.sion of war. But the military condition in which Alfred had left the kingdom now rendered his son good service. At the first intimation that he received of his cousin's opposition, he on the instant collected a numerous and well appointed army and marched towards him, deter- mined not to have the internal peace of the whole kingdom disturbtjd by a series of [jetty struggles, but to hazard life and crown upon the decision of a single great battle. As the king approached, however, the informa- tion of his overwhelming force that was conveyed to Etiielwold so much alarmed him, that he suddenly broke up his army and made a hasty re- treat to .Normandy. Here he remained inactive for some lime ; but just as all ohserv(.'rs of his conduct imagined that ho had finally abandoned his pretensioiis, Ik; passed over into Northumberland, where he was well received by iIk; Danes of that district, who were glad of any pretence, however slight, for disavowing their allegiaiK^e to tlii; actual king of Eng- land. The five burghers, who had so long been in a state of rarely brok(Mi tian(|inllity, also joined Etiielwold, and the country had once more the prospect of endles.'* iml ruinous internal warfare. Ethelwold led hif THE TREASUllY OF HI3T0EY. 13fi ii troebooleis iito VViltsliii< . Gloucestershire, and Oxfordshire, and made their esca|je good, with ;ui iininense booty, ere tlie royal fonjes could couie up »iili tlieui. Hut the king followed his foes iuto Kust Aiiy;lia, and fearfully retaliated upou that district the injuries that had been in- liided upo.i' his peaceable subjects. When, laden with spoil, he gave the onUir to retire, a part of his army, chielly Kentish men, disc^eyed him. They were, coiisequenily, left behind in the enemy's country, and, while busily engaged in adding to their already rich booty, were suddenly and furiously set upon by the Danes. The battle was obstinate on both sides. in the end the Danes were victorious ; but though they remained masters of the field of battle, they lost their bravest headers, and among them the original promoter of the war, Kthelwold himself. Tiie East Anglians were now glad to accept the terms of peace offered to them by the king; and he, having notiiing to fear from them, turned his whole attention to subduing the Danes of Northumberland. ;Ie accordingly fitted out a (leot, under the impression that by carrying the war to their own coast he would infallibly compel them to refrain from plundering his people, by the necessity they would experience of staying at home to defend their own property. But the consequence of this mancBuvre was directly contrary to what the king had, and not illogically either, supposed it would be. They judged that the king's fleet carried the main armed strength of ICngland; and, trusting the safety of their own property to concealment and the chapter of accidents, they no sooner saw the royal fleet appear oir their coast than they made a land incursion upon the English. But they, too, had reasoned witli more seeming than real correctness. I'jiiward was fully prepared to meet them by land as well as by sea; and he attacked them at Teieiihall,in Slatlbrdshire, put a great number of them to the sword, recovered the whole of the spoils they had taken from his sui)jects, and drove all those of them who escaped death or captivity, in a .nost desolate and poverty-stricken state, into their own country. During the whole remainder of Edward's reign he was engaged with one party or another of the English Danes. Hut he chastised each party severely in its turn; and, by constant care and unsparing liberality, he f(U'litied Chester, Warwick, Colchester, and many other cities so strongly as to leave ihem little to fear from any sudden incursion of their perse- vering and rancorous enemies. In the end he vanquished the Northum- brians, the East Anglians, the Britisii tribes of Wales nearest to his fron- tiers, and compelled the Scots, who had recently been very troublesome, to submit to him. He was much aided in his various projects by his sister Ethelfleda, widow of the Mercian earl Ktheibert, who was a woman ot masculine genius as well as masculine haiiits and feelings. Upon the whole, though the reign of Edward the Elder was a victo rious, it can scarcely be called a fortunate one; for in it many of those Danes wiio had long lived in habits of peace returned to their old taste for plundering, and so many battles fought in his own country could not, even when he was the most signally victorious, be otherwise than injuri- ous to both the prosperity and the morals of his piJoplc. Edward died in 925. We have already reiuarked upon the unsettled state of the law of succiission to the throne in that age. Another instance of it occurred now. Edward left legitimate children, but they were of years far too tender to admit of their assuming the reins of govornment under any circumstances, and cspei'ially so in the then iMiiiiiiieiit danger of England being again convulsed by llu; Danes. Tlie chief people of the nation therefore passed those young cliildren by and gave the throne to Athelstan, an iilogiiimate son of the deceased monarch. Util though Alh elstaii had the general siiffraifi's of the great men, there were some excep- tions. Among those wen; Alfnid, a JSaxon nobleman of greai. inrtiience iiiid popularity, who cudeuvoured to organize an armed opposition to th': 136 THE TREASURY OF HISTORTT nrw kinsr. B"t the kinyr's suspicion fell upon this nobleman before his ('onspirH<'y was ripe for execution, and tie was seized and charfjed with the offence, or rather llie intent of offtMiding. He by some means ascer- laiiied, or he boldly presumed, that the king, however vehemently he might suspect him, had in reality no tangible evidence, and he offc'red to (!lear himself of the imputed crime by an oath taken before the pope — Such was the awful respect in which tbe pope was then held, and such was his sanctity supposed to be. that it was finally and universally be- lieved that the fate of Ananias and Sapphira would inevitably befal any one who should dare to make oath falsely in his presence. 'I'his belief, absurd as it was, had singular corroboration given to it by the fate of this Alfred. He was permitted to purge his guilt in the way proposed by him- self, and he took the required oath in the presence of Pojie .lolin, but had scarci.ly pronounced the words dictated to him ere he fell into convul- sions, in which he continued till his death, which occurred in three days This story has been spoken of as being a pure monkish invention. Wo think differently. The monks did frequently exaggerate and even invent, but that is no reason for assuming their guiltiness of !ik(? conduct where there is no proof aeainst them, and where, without attaching (he slightest consequence to the alleged sanctity of the pope's person, we can explain the actual oct'urrence of the event by a simple physical cause. Anil what more easy than to do so in this case? ,Super.- the conseipiences alh'gcd to await perjury such as he jiroposed to commit, he might he buoyed tip siifflcicntly to commit tiie perjury, and yet, at the very moment of commillniir it, terror, compounded of the consciousness of a trcinendons cnilt. ami ol the tremendous conseiiucnces which from infancy he had heard predical('(l of such guilt, would surely be not unlikely to affect his brain. Men have maddened on the instant at be- holding some horrilile siijlil, others have grown gi'ey in a siii'ilc night of mtense and harrowiiiiX mental auony ; why, then, should we suppose it impossible that the awful feelings incident to such a situation as that of Alfred HJionld produce sudden epili'psy anil Hiibsc(|nent death? 'I'he result was as fortunate for Ailiejstan as it was disastrous to Alfred. The kiiii; was freed from the opposition of a noble who iiiighi have been very tronhlesonie to liim, and the manner of that nolilc's death was to all ranks of men a most convincing proof not only that Aifrcil had been doubly giiiliy. (irsi of conspiracy and then of perjury, but also that the king was the riiihtfiil possessor of the crown, and that toilis|)iiie his right was to incur all .Mlreil's danijer anil much of Alfred's guilt. The king look care to siri'iiirlhcn and confirm this feelinii by confiscalniij: tlie whole of Alfred's properly, as though his deatli, iimler the I'lrciiinsiances, was lantamoiiiit to a Jmlicial Hciitence ; and, as he [iriidenily bestowed this large property upon tile already weallliy moiiaslery of Milmsbiiry, ho iiiailc the lall of a sinnle powerful eiieniy the iinniediale means of secur- ing the friendship of an nifiiiltely more powerful i'or|Hiratioii, ilaviiiu thiiH become free from what at first seemed a very imminent peril, Allielsiaii tinned Ins atteiiinni loqnieimgihe Noriliinnhi lan Danes, who just at tins tune were very ilisconteiiteil under the Mniflish rule. On his urrival he saw reasun to believe that he cuuld belter S(!uure their obe> THE TllEA lURY OP HISTORY. 137 aience by giving them a tributary prince of tlieir own race than by the utmost severity, and he accordingly g;ive the title of king of Northum- bei'and to Sithric, a powerful Danisli chieflan, to whom he also gave the hand of his own sister Hditha. But, though this was siigacioua, and seemed to be especially safe policy, it gave rise to (•onsiderable dilficnlty. Sithric, who was a widower wlien honoured with the hand of Kditha, died about a year after his second marriage, and Aiilaf and Godefrid, his sons by the former marriage, assunied the sovereignty of Northnmberland, as a matter of permanent and settled hereditary tenure, and not of the king'a favour and conferred during his pleasure. Highly olTemled at this i)re- gumption of the young men, Athelstan speedily ejected them fiom their assumed sovereignty. Aniaf look shelter in Ireland and (iodefrid in Scot- land, where lie was very kindly and honourably treated by Constantiiie, then king of tliat country. Athelstan, on learning that tiie pr'?sumptunus Dane who was so likely to prove a troublesome enemy to him was protected by Constantiiie, im- portuned him to put his guest into the Kiiglish power. Desirous of avoid- ing, if possible, an open quarrel vviih so powerful a prince as Athelstan, the Scottish monarch gave a feigned consent to a proposal which it was almost as infainmis to make as it would have been to have complied with ; but he gave (iodefrid private inliniation which enabled him to get to sea, where, after making himself dreaded as a pirate, he at length finished his life. Athelstan, who, probably, was well informed by spies at the Scottish court of the part which Consiantine had taken in aiding the escape of '^iodefrid, nnrched a numerous army into Scotland, and so much distressed that counlry that (/onstaiitine found himself obli;;i'd to make bis submis- sion in order to save his country and himself from total ruin. Whether his submission went to the extent of Constantine's actually acknowledg- ing himself to hold his crown in real vassalage to the king, which some historians stoutly atTirm and others just as stoutly deny, or whether it went no farther than apology and satisfaction for actual offence given, certain it is, that (-oiistanime took the earliest and most open opportunity of showing that he looked upon the king of Kngland in any other rather than a friendly light. For AnIaf, brother of (Jonsiantine's deceased pro- Icgi', having gotten together a body of Welsh malcontents and Danish pirates, ('onstaniine joined forces with him, and they led an immense body of marauders into ICngland. IJndismayeil by the numbers of the invaders, Athelstan marched his army against tliein, and, (diiefly owing to the valour and conduct of 'riirkeiul, the then chancellor of Kngland, the invaders were coinpletely routed. In this battle, winch was fiuight near lirunan- hurg, in Nortliumlii-rland.a ureat number of tin- Welsh and Danish leaders perished, and AnIaf ami the Scottish king, after losing a great part of their forces, were barely abh; to effect their own escape. It is said that on the eve of this great battle AnIaf was the hero of an adventure in the Kiiglish camp like llmt of AU'icil the (Jreat in the camp of (hilhrnm the Dane. Habited like a minslrid, he approached the Kiig- lish camp, and his music was so much aihnired by the siddters that tliey obtaineil him admission to the kind's tent, where he played during the royal repast, so much to thi^ delight of tlie king and Ins nobles, that on being dismissed lie received a very handsome present. Too polilii! to betray bis disguise by refusing the present, the noble Dane was also far too haiiuhty to rel.iin it; and iis soon as he believed hiinself out of the reiich of oiiservalion, he buried it in the earth. One of Aihelsian's sol- (hers, who had formerly fought under ilie banner of .\nl.if, had al the very first sight imiigined Unit ht< saw his old chief under the disjmse of a min- strel. In the clesire to ascertain if his suspicnm were correct, he followed \nlaf from the royal tent, and his suspicion was changed into conviction 138 THE TREASUKY OF HlriTOUY. 1 i »• i ; when lir saw a professedly poor and wandering minstrel burynig the kiny's rich gift. He acc-ordingly warned the king that his daring enemy had been in his lent. At first the king was very angry that the sokher had nut made this discovery while there was yet time to have seized upon the pretended minstrel; but the soldier nobly replied, that having served nnder Aniaf, he conld not think of belraying him to ruin, any nmre than he now eould peril tiie safety of Athelstan himself by neglecting to warn him of Anlaf's espionage. To such a mode of reasoning there could be no reply, save that of admiring praise. Having dismissed the soldier, Athelstan "pondered on the probable consequences of this stealthy visit paid to his tent by Anlaf ; and it having struck him that it was very likely to be followed iiy a night-attack, he immediately had his lent removed. The bishops of that day were to the full as brave and as fond of war as the laity, and on that very night a bishop arrived with an armed train to the aid t)f his sovereign. The prelate took up the station which the king had vacated ; and at night the king's suspicion was verified with great exaclilude. A sudden attack was made upon the camp, and the enemy, disdaining all meaner prev, rushed straight to the tent which they sup- [K sed to be occupied by tfie king, and the belligerent bishop and iiis im- ine(liate attendants were butchered before they had time to prepare for their defence. 'I'he decisive battle of Brunanburgh gave Athelstan peace from the Danes, and he devoted the remainder of his reign to wise and active en- deavours to improve the character and i ondition of his subje<'ts. Several of his laws were well calculated to that end, and there is one which particu- larly I'uiiiles liim, even without any reference to the barbarism of the age in which he made it, to the character of a profound and sagacious think er. Anxious to encom'age a mercantile spirit among his subjects, he or- dained by this law that any luercliaut who on his own adventure shoidd make three sea voyages should, as a reward, be promoted to the rank of a thane or gentle. After an c.Mremely active imd prosperous reign, upon which, however, his endeavoiu'lo persuade the Scottish king into the cummission of an act of the fiiullcsl treachery has left one dark and indelible stain, though the oidy one, this King ilicd in the year Oil, and was succeeded by his half brother Ivlimnid, the legiiimate son of I'Mward the Elder. Siinndateil by the accession of a ni.'w king, and the unsettled state of thiuijs naturally eonnecled with a new reign, the Danes of Northumber- land broke out into rebellion against I'Mnnnid as soon as he had asceiuled the thi-oiii'. Itiit I'Mimnul mar(thed so proin|)tly against them, and ut the head of SI) imposing a force, that ti,iy met him with assurances of the most hnmlile and pcrmaiu'nt nibmission, and even volmitariiy olTered to prove their sinrrriiy as (iuthrum and his followers had formerly done to Alfred, by becoming Christians. K.dmund accepted their Milimission, but \h\ wisi'ly jiidncd that the submission cxiiirted by an armed force was not liiM ly to hist much longir than the fear which tiial Au'ce awakened; and he therefore removed tlie five Hurgher Danes from the Mercian towns in wliiidi they had liecn allowed to settle. A wise pri'canlion, as they had invariably taken advantage of their situation to aid rebellious or invading Danes to penetrate into the very heart of the kingdom. ('umberland, in the hands nf iIk^ Wcdsli Dritims had beiMi on many oc CHsidiis ii sore amioy;tnce t bestow it as a mdilary lii'f im Scutlaiid, that power accepting it oi, condition ol protectjnu the northern part of I'^ngjiiiKl from Danish incursion. Ivlmniid's active and useriil ren^ii h.id (uily endured six years wlien lie WH:* iminliiid under rircninslaiices which giv(' us a slriinge nniice of the iluiueatic habits of royalty at tint day. He was seated at a banipiet. at THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 139 liloiiccstor, wnen iiii infamous robber, named Leolf, whom he had some time before condemned to banishment, entered the hall of banquet, and seated himself at the royal table with as cool an assurance as thoufrh he had been a I'avoured as well as an innocent and loyal siibjeet. The king angrily ordered the fellow from the room, and, on' receiving some insolent refusal, seized him by the throat and endeavoured to thrust him out. Whether the rulfuin had from the first intended to assassinate the king, or whether the knig's strength and passion alarmed the robber for his own life, is uncer- tain ; but from whichever cause, Leolf suddenly drew his dagger and killed the king on the spot : a.d. 946. Edmund was succeeded by his brother Edred ;. another instance of ir- regularity in the successyon, as Edmund left children, but so young that they were deemed unfit for the throne, audit would seem that the n ulual jealousy of the Saxon nobles as yet prevented them from thinking of a tem- porary regency, as aineans atonce of preservingthe direct orderof succes- sion and remedying the uonageofthedirectheirtothe crown. The new king had no sooner ascended his throne than the Danes of Northumberland pro\ed how justly Athelstan had judged of their sinrerity, by breaking the peace to which they liad so solemnly pledged themselves. But Edred ad- vancing upon them with a numerous army, they met him with the same submissive aspect which had disarmed the wrath of his predecessor. The king, however, was so much provoked at their early disobedience to him that he would not allow their humility to prevent him from inflicting a severe punishment upon them. He accordingly put many of them to the sword, and plundered and burned their country to a considerable extent ; and then, his wrath appeaseil, he consented to receive their oath of alle- giance and withdrew his troops. Scarcely had he done so when these ever-faithless people again broke out into rebellion, perhaps prompted on this particular occasion less by ,iny niercly mischievous feeluig, than by the real and terrible distress to which the king's severity had reduced them. This new revolt was, however, speedily quelled, and he appointed an KnuHish governor of Northmnberlami, and placed garrisons in all the ciiic^f towns to enable him to support his authority. Edred about ih's time also made Malcolm of Scotland repeat his homage for his fiefof Northum herland. 'I'houijh Edred, as his conduct thus early in his reign demon- strateil, was both a lirave and an active prince, he was extremely super- stitions. He (ielighled to be surrounded by priests; and to his e* peeial favourite Dnnstan, abbot of (Jantcrbnry. he not only committed siinie of the most intluenlial and important olHces of the slate, but also tn a very ridiculous extent, surrendered the guidance of his own common sense. Of a hatiglity temper, and extremely ambitious, tliis monk, n> or rier to have tools for the accompi'shment of his wide-spreading purposes of self-acgrandizemenf, introduced iito England a great immber of a new order of monks, the Uenedicliiu's, who, laying a stress upon celibacy b(?- yond that laid by any former order, i. ;d professing generally a niort; rigid way of life and a greater jjurity of heart, were, in trulli, the mere tools ol the vast anil still increasinij ambition of Itome. to which the practice ol celibacy among the prieslliood was especially favourable, as they who thus debarrid themselves from conjugal and patiVnal ties could not fail to be more uilhng an for llie murderer. 'I'liougii muiji of llus monarch's time was devoted to ilissolute pleasures, I I iiuthi and I tCMC( puris gioiis Mu prese a wall serve pliiiet liiat the such attein by iii» could bours equal hiinse iaval exieiii tribiit; the al actual Cllllllll I THE TRBAaURY OP HISTORY. 145 he by no iiieaus neglected public business, more especially of that kind wliicb procured hiui the indulgence of the monks for all his worst vices. Mucii as the monks and the king iuid done towards wresting llie church property fioni tlie hands of the secular clergy, more still remained to be done ; and Kdgar, doubtless acting upon the advice of Dunstan, summoned a council, consisting of the prelates and heads of religious orders. To this council he made a passionate speech in reprobation of the dissolute and scandalous lives which he aflirmed to be notoriously led by the sec- ular clergy : tlieir neglect of clerical duty; their openly livmg with con- cubines, for so he called their wives ; their participation in hunting and other sports of tiie laity ; and — singular fault to call forth the declamation of a kmg and employ the wisdom of a council — the smallness of their tonsure ! Affecting to blame Dunstan for having by too much lenity in some sort encouraged the disorders of the secular clergy, the accomplished dissembler supposed the pious Edred to look down from Heaven, and tiius to speak : "It was by your advice, Dunstan, that I founded monasteries, built churches, and expended my treasures in the support of religion and reli- gious liouses. Vou were my counselor and my assistant in all my sciienies; you were the director of my conscience; to you I was in all things obedient. When did you call for supplies which I refused you ' \Vas my assistance ever witiiheld from the poor! Did I deny establish menls and support to the convents and the clergy. Did I not hearken to jour instructions when you told me that these charities were, beyond all others, the most grateful to my Maker, and did I not in consequence fix a perpetual fund for tiie support of religion ? And are all our pious endeav- ours now to be frustrated by the dissolute lives of the clergy? Not that I throw any blame upon you ; you have reasoned, besouglit, inculcated, and invtngiied, but it now behoves you to use sharper and more vigorous remedies ; and, conjoining your spiritual aulhonii/ with the civil power, U vuri^e elfeclunlli/ the temple of God from thieves and intruders." The wonis which we give in Italics were decisive as to the whole ques- tion; tli(! innocence of tlie secular clergy, as a body, could avail them nothing against tliis union of civil power and spiritual authority, backed and cheered as tliat union was by the people, whom the hypocritical pre- tences of tin; monks had made sincerely favourable to tliose affected purists ; and tiio monkl-jh discipline shortly prevailed in nearly every reli- gions house in the land. Much as all honourable minds must blame the means by which Edgar prcservcil tlu; favour of tiie formidable monks, all candid minds must award him tiie praise of having made good use of the power he thus pre- served in his own hands. He not only kept up a strong and well-discj- pline(! land forre, in constant readiness to defend any part of his kingdom tiiat might l)e altai^ked, but he also built and kept up an excellent navy, the vigilance and strength of which greatly diminished the chance of any siicli attack being made. Awed by his navy, the Danes abroad dared not atteni|)t to invade his country; and constantly watched and kept in check by his army, the domestic Danes perceived that turbulence on (heir part could produce no effect but their own speedy and sure rum. His neigh- bours of ScHuland, Wales, Ireland, and the adjacent isles, iield him m equal respei-t ; ami, upon the whole, no king of England ever showed iiliuself either more desirous or more able to preserve to Ins klngiloni the invaluable Ixini'his of peace at homt! and respect abro.'d. In proof uf the extent to wliudi he carried bis ascendency over the m lijhbouring and Irihutary |)riuces, it is allirmed, tiiat being at Chester, and desiring to visit the abbey of St. .lohii the Baptist, in the neighlionrhood of that city, he actually canseil his barg(; to he rowed thith(;r by eight of those princes, in- chiding Kenneth the Third, king uf Scotland. I— 10 146 THE TKEASUTIY OF HISTORY. The useful a.ts received a great impulse during this reign from the Vjreat eueouragenient given by Edg:ir to ingenious and industrious foreigners to se'lle among his subjects. Another benefit which he con- ferred upon his kingdom was that of the extirpation of wolves, which at the commencement of his reign were very numerous and mischievous. By giving rewards to those who put these animals to death, they wore at length limited into the mountainous and woody country of Wales, and in order that even there so mischievous a race might find no peace he com- muted the tribute money due from Wales to England to a tribute of three hundred wolves' heads to be sent to him annually, which policy speedily caused their entire destruction. After a busy reign of sixteen years this prince, still in the flower of his age, being only thirty-three, died, and was succeeded by his son Edward in the year 975. CHAPTER XI. rROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD THE MAItTVR TO THE DEATH OF CANUTE Edward II.. subsequently surnamed the Martyr, though his death had nothing to do with religion, was the son of Edgar by that prince's first wife, and was only fifteen years of age when he succeeded to the throne. His youth encouraged his step-mother, Elfrida, to endeavour to set aside his succession in favour of her own son and his half-brother, Ethelred, who at tliis time was only seven years old. This extremely bad woman pre- tended that the marriage of her husband to his first wife was on several accounts invalid, and as her beauty and art had been very su(;cessfully exerted in securing favour during the life of Edgar, she would probably have succeeded in her iniquitous design had the circumstances been less favourable to Edward. But though tliat prince was very young, he was at least much nearer to the age for reigning than his half-brother ; the will of his father expressly gave him the succession ; many of the principal men of the kingdom imagined that the regency of Elfrida would be an extremely tyrannical one ; and Dunstan, who was in the plcniliule of liia power, nnd who reckoned upon the favour and docility of young Edward, powerfully supported him, and crowned him at Kingston, before Elfrida could bring hor ambitious plans to maturity. The prompt and energetic support thus given by Dunstan to the rightful heir would entitle him to our unqualified applause, were there not good and olivious reason to believe that it originated less in a sense of justice than in anxiety for the interests of his own order. In spite of tiie hoa\ y blows and great discourr.gement of Edgar, the secular clergy had stiil many and powerful frie-ids. Amonnf these was the duke of Mcrcia, who no sooner asoertainoi'. the death of King Edgar than he expelled all the monks from the religious houses in Mercia.and though they were receiveil and protected hy the dukes of the East Saxons and the East Angliaus, it was clear to both Dunstan and the monks that there was a .sulTicient dis- like U; the new order of ecclesiastics tc render it very im[)ortant tliat they should have a king entirely favourable to tliem. And as Dunstan had walclu"! and trained Edward's mind from his early cliildhood, tliey well knew that he would prove their fittest instrument. Hnt thougii they had thus sccureil the throne to a king as favourable and docile as tliey could desre, tlicy left no means untriecl to gain the voices of th(! inultilude. .\t the occasional synods that were held for the st-ttiemcut of ecclesiastical disputes, they pretended that miracles were worked in their favour; and, THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 147 in the :norant state of the people, that party who could work or invoke the must iTiirafies was sure to be the most popular. On one of lliese occasions a voice that seemed to issue from the great crucifix wiiieh adorned the place of meeting, proclaimed that ho wiio opposed the esiab- lishnicnt of the monks opposed the will of Heaven ; on another occasion the floor of the lialt fell in, killing and maiming a great number of persons, but tliat portion which supported the chair of Dunstan remained firm ; and .on another occasion, when the votes of the synod were so unexpectedly aijainsi him that he was unprovided with a miracle for the occasion, Dim- sllm rose, and, with an inimitably grave impudence, assured the meeting ihat he had just been favoured with a direct revelation from Heaven in favour of the monks. So utterly stultified was the general mind, and the populace received this impudent falsehood with so much fervent favour, that the party hostile to the monks actually dared not support any farther the views of the question upon which they had a clear and acknowledged majority ! Eihvard's reign deserves little further mention. No great event, good or evil, marked it; he was, in fact, merely in a state of pupilage during the four years that it lasted. Having an excellent disposition, it is pro- bable that had he lived to mature years he would have shaken off the be- numbing and deluding influenci; of the monkish party. But in the fourth year of his reign, and while he was yet barely nineteen years of age, he fell a victim to hi atrocious step mother's cruelly and ambition. Not- witlislaiiding the i ;stility she had evinced towards him at the death of his father, young lOdward's mild temper had caused him to show her that respect and att(Mition which she was very far indeed from deserving. She resided at Corfe castle, in Dorsetshire ; and as the young prince was one day hunting in that neighbourhood, he rode away from his company, and, wholly unattended, paid her a visit. Slie received him with a treacher- ous appearance of kindness, but just as he had mounted his horse to de- part, a rullian in her employment stabbed him in the back. The wound did not prove instantly mortal, but as he fainted from loss of blood (^re he could disengage his feet from the stirrups, his frightened horse galloped onward with him, and he was bruised to death. Iiis servants having traced him, recovered his body, which they privately interred at Wareliam. By this surpassing crime of his vile mother, who vainly, even in that superstitious age, endeavoiu'cd to recover the public favour, and expiate her crime in public opinion, by ostentatious penances and by lavishing money upon monasteries, Etlielred, son of Edgar and Elfrida, succeeded to the throne. The Danrs, who had been kept in awe by the vigour of Edgar, and who, moreover, had fomul ample employment in conquering and planting settlements on the northern coast of l"" ranee, a resource which their num- bers hiid exhausted, were encouraged by the minority of EllK-lred to turn their attention once more towards England, where they felt secure of re- ceiving encouragement and aid from the men of their own race, who, though long settled among the English, were by no moans fully incorpo- raied with them. In the year 981 the Dalies accordingly made an experi- mental liesccnt upon iSuuthampton, in seven vessels ; and as they took the people completely by surprise, they secured considerable plunder, witii which they escaped uninjured and almost unopposed. This conduct tlicy repeated in 987, with similar siuh'css, on the western coast. This success of these two experiments convinced the marauders that the vigour of an Edgar was no loiig(;r to be dreaded in England, and they therefore prepared to make a descent upon a larger scale and with more extensive views. They landed in great numbers on the coast of Essex, and defeated and slew, at Maldtm, Brithric, tiie (hike of that county, who liravely attempted to lesist theni with Ins local force; and after their vie- 1 48 THE TREASUKY OF HISTORY. tory they devastated and plundered all the neighbouring country. So soon and so easily does a people degenerate when neglected by its rulers, that Ethelred and his nobles could see no better means of ridding them- selves of these fierce pirates than that of bribing them to depart. They demanded and received, as the price of their departure, an enormous sum. They departed accordingly, but, as might have been anticipated, so large a sum so easily earned tempted them very speedily to repeat their visit. By this time a fleet had been prepared at London fully capable of resisting and beating off the invaders, but it was prevented from doing the service that was expected from it by the treachery of Alfric duke of Mercia. He had formerly been banished and deprived of his possessions and dignity, and though he had now for some time been fully restored, the affront rankled in his mind, and he conceived the unnatural design of ensuring his own safety and importance by aiding the foreign enemy to keep his country in a state of disorder and alarm. He was entrusted with one squadron of a fleet with which it was intended to surround and destroy the enemy in tlie harbour in which they had ventured to anchor, and he basely gave the enemy information in time to enable them to avoid the danger by putting out to sea again, and then completed his infamous treachery by joining them with his whole squadron. The behaviour of the king on this occasion was equally marked by barbarity and weakness. On hearing of Alfric's traitorous conduct, he had that nobleman's son Alfgar seized, and caused his eyes to be put out ; yet, after inflicting this horrid cruelty upon the innocent son, he so far succumbed to the power and iulluence of the guilty father, as actually to reinstate him in his ofllce and possessions. A. D. 993. — The experience the Danes had acquired of the weakness oi Ethelred and the defenceless condition of his kingdom, encouraged them to make new and still more formidable descents. Sweyn, king of Den- mark, and Olave, king of Norway, sailed np the Humber with an immense fleet, laying waste and plundering in every direction. Those of the Danes, and they were but few, who refused to join the invaders, were plundered equally with the Knglish. An army advanced to give battle, and so fierce was the contest that the Danes were already beginning to give way, when the tide of fortune was suddenly turned against the English by the treachery of Frena, Frilhegist, and Godwin, three leaders, who, though of Danish descent, were entrusted with large and important command.s. These men withdrew their troops, and the English were in consequence defeated. The invaders now entered the Thames with a fleet of upwards of ninety ships and laid siege to London. Alarmed for their large wealth, the citi- zens defended themselves with a stoutness strongly contrasted with the pusillanimity which had been displayed by both the king and the nobles, and their resistance was so obstinate that the pintes at length gave up the attempt in despair. But though they abandoned the metropolis of the kingdom, they did not therefore give up their determination to plunder. Spreading their bauds over Kssex, Sussex, and Hants, they not only pro- cured large booty there, but also a sufficient number of horses to enable them to extend their depredations far inland. It might have been sup- post'd that, after the noble example set by the traders of London, the king and his nobles would he prevented by very shame from ever Jtgain resort- ing to the paltry and impolitic scheme of purchasing the absence of the invaders: but to that exjiedient they did resort. Messengers were sent to offer to subsist the invaders if they would preserve peace while they reni'iiiied in the kingdom, and to pay tribute on condition of their taking an early departure. The Danes, wdy as they were li.irdy, probably imagined that they had now so far exhausted the kingdom that the tribute nlfered to them would be more valuable than the further spoil they would I THE TREASURY OF HISTORY. 149 ninety the citi- 'ith the nobles, fave up of tlie )luiKler. ily pro- i'n;ihle nil siip- ho king resort- of the re sent ile they taking robiibly tribute r would be likely to obtain, and they readily accepted the proposed terms. They took up their abode at Southampton, and tliere conducted themselves very peaceably. Olave carried his complaisance so far as to pay a visit to Kthelrcd, at Andover, and received the right of confirmation. Many rich gifts were consequently bestowed upon him by the king and the prelates, and the sum of sixteen thousaud pounds having been paid to him and Sweyn, they took their departure. Olave, who never returned to England, was so great a favourite with the churchmen that he was honoured with a place among the saints in the Roman calendar. A. D. 997. — The repeated proofs Ethelred had given of his willingness to purchase the absence of pirates ratlier than battle against them, pro- duced, as was natural, a new invasion. A large fleet of the Danes this year entered the Severn. Wales was spoiled for miles, and thence the pirates proceeded to commit similar atrocities upon the unfortunate people of Cornwall and Devonshire. Thence the marauders went first to Dor- setshire, then to Hants, then Kent, where the inhabitants opposed them at Rochester, but were routed with terrible slaughter, and the whole of their country was plundered and desolated. Many attempts were made by the braver and wiser among the English to concert such a united defence aa would prevail against the enemy; but the weakness of the king and the nobles paralyzed the best efforts of the nobler spirits, and once more the old expedient was resorted to, and twenty-four thousand pounds were now paid as the price of the absence of the Danes, whose demands very naturally became higher with their increased experience of the certainty of their being complied with. It was probably with some vague hope that even an indirect connection with these formidable northmen would cause them to respect his dominions, tiiat Ethelred, having lost his first wife, this year espoused Emma, sister of Richard, the second duke of Normandy. Long as the domestic Danes had now been established in England, they were still both a distinct and a detested race. The old English historians accuse them of effeminacy and luxuriousness, hut as they instance as evi- dence of the truth of these charges, that the D.incs combed their hair daily and bathed once a week, we mayfni''' vnougii acquit the Danes of all guilt on this head, and conclude tli , rude and bad as the race was in many respects, they assuredly wi'ie 5e u[K)n ttie domestic Danes, how little mercy they could ex|«'ct at the hands of \\\t'. conntfy. men of their murdered victims, the English had made more than usual preparations for resistance. A large anil well furnished army was ready to I' irch against the invaders, hut tlie (command of it was committed to that duk(' of Mercia whose former tri'ason has been mentioned, and he, pretending illness, conlrived to delay the niarcdi of the tr(M)ps until they were thoroughly dispirited and the Danes had done enorm eighty vessels; l)Ut this rtect, being driven ashore by a tempest, was at tacked and burned by Woifiiolh, A hundred vessels were thus lost to lh»i Enulisli, dissensions spread among other leading men, anil the tteet whiclu If eonci'iitraieil and aldy direct •(!, might havt^ given safety lo tlie nation, was dispersed mto vanoim portj and rendered virtually useless \h THE TREAtUaV OP HISTOHY. 151 >n liiiiiish ■oplo rn- il and iIIr nm il illl. 1{IIV- twfiity t (led ()> WHS ill isf lollm ■t wliicli, ' iiaiioiv Tho Danes did not fail to take advantage of the dissensions and im- becility of tiie English, and for some time Irom this period the history of England presents us with nothing' but one melancholy monotony uf un- sparing cruelly on the part of the nivaders, and unmitigated and hopeless suffernig on the part of the invaded. Repeated attempts were made to restore something like unanimity to the English councils, and to form a settled and unaiumous plan of resistance; but all was still dissension, and when the utmost wretchedness at length made the disputants agree, they agreed only in resorting to the old, base, and most impolitic plan of purchasing the absence of their persecutors. How impolitic lliis plan was common sense ought to have told the English, even had they not possessed the additional evidence of the fact, that at each new invasion the Danes in- creased their demand. From ten thousand pounds, which had purchased their tirst absence, they had successively raised their demands lo thirty thousand, and now, when their rapine liad more than ever impoverished the country, they demanded, and, to the shame of the English people, or rather of the king and the nobles, were paid the monstrous sum of eight- and-forty thousand pounds ! This immense sum was even worse expended than the former sums had been ; for this time the Danes took the money, but did not depart. On the contrary, they continued their desultory plundering, and at the same time ma(h; formal dtimands upon (certain distri<:ts for large and speci- fied sums. Thus, in the county of Kent they levied the sum of eight thousand pounds; and the arclibishoj) of Canttn'bury venturing lo resist this most iniquitous deninnd, was coolly murdered. The general state of the kingdom and the butchery of a pt.'rsonage so eminent alarmed the king for Ins personal safety; the more (ispecially, as many of his chief noLility, haviiifr lust all conlidence in his power to redeem his kingdom from ruin were daily transferring their allegiance to Sweyii. Having first sent over his queen and her two children to \v'.i brother, the Duke of Nor- mandy, Edielred himself took an op|)ortuiiity to escape thither, and thu» the kingdom was virtually delivered over to Sweyn and his Danes. A.D. 1014. — Sweyn, under all the eircnmstaiices, would have foundiiltle difliculty in causing liiinself to be crowned king of England; nay, it may even be donlited if either nobles or piuiple woiilil have been greatly dis- pleased at receiving a warlike sovereign instead (if the fugitive Eihelred, to whom they had long been accustomed to apply the scornful epiihet of the Unready. Hut while Sweyii was preparing to take advantage of the magnificent opportnuily that olfered itself to hiin, lie was suddenly seized with u mortal illness, and expired at (iainsliorongii, in Lincolnshire, about six weeks after the lliglit of Elhelred from the kiii^dom. This cirt'iiinslance gave the weak Ethelred yet one more chance of re- deeming \\i> kingly character. The great men of his kiii;[>dom, when they informed hjm of the event which, soaiis|iicioiisly for him, had occur- red, invited him to return. They at the same lime plainly, though in a friendly and respectful tone, intimated their hope that he would profit by his experience, to avoid for the fulure those errors which had produced so much evil to both himself and his people. Ethelred gladly availed himself of the invitation lo resume his throne, hut tlu! advice that had accompanied that invitatiim Ik; wholly disregarded. Aniong the most glaring proofs which hi; gave of hiHcoiuiiiucd iiu'apacity to rule wistdy, lie remsiaicd Ins treacherous son-in-l.iw, Eilric, in all his former mlhieiice. This p.twer Edric mosl shamefully ahiisi'ii : in iiroof of tins we iiei'd give but a single instance of his mL-icomliict. 'l'«o .Alciriaii nobles, by name Morcar and Sigi-licrl, had iinfniiniiali ly given some of- fence to Eijrii-, who fiirlhwith endeavoured lo p< rsiiadc (lie king lliat lliey were hostile lo his rule , unit the et|iially cruel and we.ik nioiiarcli not only uiimved at their murder by Edric, but gave to that criiiiu h i/uusi legal 152 THE TREASURY OF HISTORY I by confiscating the property of the victims as though they had ivlcted of treason, and lie confined Sigehert's widow in a convent. sanction been conv Here she was accidentally seen by the iiing's son, Kdmund, wlio not only contrived her escape from the convent, but immediately married her. A.o. 1014. — Kthelred was not allowed to enjoy his recovered throne in peace. Canute, the son of Sweyn, was to the full as warlike as his fa- mous father, and set up his claims to the throne with as much grave earn- estness as though Ills father had filled it in right of a long ancestral pos. session. He committed dreadful havoc in Kent, Dorset, Wilts, and Som ersel; and, not contented wiih slaughter in and plunder after the battle, he shockingly mutilated his prisoners, and then gave them their lil)erty, in order that their wretched plight might strike terror into their fellow-coun- trymen. So much progress did Canute make, that Ethelred would, in all probability, have been a second time driven from his throne and kingdom, but for the courage and energy of his sun Edmund- The treacherous Edric deserted to the Danes with forty ships, after having dispersed a great part of the English army, and even made an attempt at seizing upon the person of the brave prince. Undismayed by so many ditHculties, which were much increased by the general contempt and distrust felt for the king, Edmund, by great exertions, got together a large force, and pre- pared to •rive battle to the enemy. Uul the English had been accustomed to see Ihi'ir kings in the vanguard of the hatile ; and, though Edmund was universally popnlai, the soldiers loudly demanded that his father should head tliem in person. Ethelred, however, who suspe<'led his own subjects fully as much as he feared the enemy, not merely refused to do this, on the plea of illness, but so completely left his heroic son without supplies, thai the prince was obliged to allow llie northern part of the kingdom to fall nito subjection to the Danes. Still delermlned not to sub- mit, Edmund niarelied his discouraged and weakened army to London, to make a final stand against the invad<>rs ; but on his arrival he founil the metropolis in a state of the greatest alarm and confusion, on account of the death of the king. A.I). 101'). — Ihlielred tht! I'nready had reigned thirty-five years, and his inca|iacily had rtMlueed the country to a slate which would have betMi suf- ficiently pllial)l' anil dilfieult, cv( ii had not the fierce and warlike Danes been swarming in lis iinrthern provinces. The people wen; dispirited and disaficcled, and the nobles were far less intent u|)on repelling the common enemy than upon pursuing (heir own iniseliievoiis and |X'lly (piarrels; and Edmund had only tmi iniii'h reason to fear that the example of Ins treacii- eroiis brother-in-law woiihl be fojhuved by other nobles. Rightly jihlging that oeeiipatldii was the most eireeliial remedy for the (lisemirageinent ol the peonle, and the best safeguard against the tri'achery of the nobles, Edinniiii |ii»l no time in allaeking tlie enemy. At (•illiiigham he defe.ited a detaeliineiit of ihein, tind then inarched igiiiist ('aiiiite in person. The hostiji- armies met near .'""eoerton, in (ilouiester.+hire, and in the early part of ilie i)attle llie English prince li.iil so iniu h success that it seemej probable he would have a deeisive and crowning victory. Hut thai ca- I. unity of Ins einiiitry, Edrie, having slain Osniiir, who very much resem- bled the kiii'j in connlenance, had Ins head fi.xed upon ibe jiuiiit of a sp''ur and displayed to the English. .\ punie imineiliately spreail ilirough the hitherto vieloriitus army. It was in vain that I'Minuinl, heedless of the arrows that flew around hnn, rode barehcad( il among Ins troops to assure them of liic sal'ely. "Save hiiiiself who can," was the universal cry; a 1 1 though Ediiiiind at lent^th contrived to li'ad his troups from the field in comparatively good order, the golden moment fir seeiiniig iriimiph 11 I passed. Ivl-mnnd was suliseipieiitly del'eated with gK it loss, at As- sni'4tiiii. III Efisex. biil with e.xeinpl.iry aeiivily a<.! nil r.iiM'd an army an IM'eparcd to muke unu more deupcratc ctTorl lu expel the ciiuiuv> Uul tht THE THEA8URY OF HISTORY. 153 and his been suf- DaiR's itt.'d iiiid iMiiinoM U; iiiiU ircach- jutlgiiig incut ut nolili's, eff.itfd 1. The I' curly SfCilK'J lli;il Cil- ICSCIll- ;t s()''ar ujiU thf <)( tho 1 assure ^.il crv; ic fH'ld iriinnph tl As- my iind Hut Iht leading men on both sides were by this lime wearied with »i.rife and car- nage, and a negolialion ensued which led to a division of the kingdom, Canute taking the northern portion and Edmund the southern. It might have been supposed that tho infamous SJdric would have been satisfied with having thus mainly aided ni despoiling his brave but unfor- tunate brother in-law of a moiety of his kingdom. But as though the very existence of a man so contrary and so superior to himself in character were intolerable to him, this arrangement had scarcely been made a month when he suborned two of the kmg's chamberlains, who murdered their un- fortunate master at Oxford. A.D. 1017. It does not clearly appear that Canute was actually privy to this crime, though his previous conduct and the fact that he was the person to be benefited by the death of Kdmund may justify us in suspect- ing him. And this suspicion is still further justified by his immediately seizing upon Edmund's share of the kingdom, though that prince had left two sons, Edwin and Edward. It is true that those princes were very yoiMig, but the most that Canute ought to have assumed on that account was the guardianship of the children and the protectorate of their heritage. Indeed, some writers represent that it was in tlie character of guardian that Canute affected to act ; but a sufficient answer to that pretence is to be found in Mie fact that Canute reigned as sole king, and left the kingdom to his son. SanguiuHi - asping as Iiis whole former course had been, this able, though unp ; prince was too anxious for the prosperity of the king- dom of whi.,.1 .11 liiiU possessed liiinst.'lf, not to take all [)ossiblr precaution to avert opposition. He called a council, at which he caused witnesses to affirm that it had been agreed, at the treaty of Gloucester, that he should succeed Kdunnul in the southern portion of tlie kingdom ; or, as the writers to wliom we ]v.\y alluded afl!irm, that he slioidd have tiie guardianship and protectorate. ■ evidence, and, perhaps, terror lest the well known fierceness of (,'a uie should again desolate tlie kingdom, determined the council in his favour, and the usurper peaceably moimted the throne, while the despoiled princes werr; sent to Sweden. Not content with tiius seiz- ing their dominion and exiling them, Canute charged tho king of Sweden to put them to death ; but that king, more generous than hin ally, sent them in safety to the court of Hungary, where they were educatctf. Ed- win, the elder of the princes, married the daugiiter of the king of Hunga- ry; and Edward, the younger, married Agaliia, sister-in-law of the same iniinarch, and had by her Edgar Atlieling, Margaret, snhsciquently queen of Scotland, and C^hristina, wlio took the veil. The experience which Canute had of tlu^ treachery of tho English no- liiiity of tins period made him, as a mailer of policy, show the most un- biiunded liberality to llieni at the commencement of his luuliviiled reign. To Thnrkill he gave the dukedom of East Analia, to Yric that of Northum- berland, and to Edric that of Mercia, confining his own direct and personal rule to Wesscx. Hut this aecming favour was only the croucliiiig of tho 'iger ere he sjirings. When he fcniud himself firmly fixed upon his throne, and froiH his judicious as well as firm conduct hecoming evcrv day more popular among his subjects, he found a pretext to deprive 'riiurkill and S'ric of tlK'ir (hiki'doins, and lo send Iheiii into exile. It would seem that even while he had profited by the treason of the Enjjlish nobllilv lie had maiilluess eiiougli lo detest the traitors ; f(U', besidi's expelling I', dukes of East Aiiulia and Northumlierlaud, he pul several oilier noble tr tors lo deatli, anil ainon„' lliein that worst of all traitors, Edric, whose ody he had catt into llie Thames. Tlioiiirh Cainile showed much disiiosilion to cdnciliale the favourof his »iibjerts, be was at the commeiicemrul of his rcigii obliged, by the stalt of the kingdom, to tax them very heavily. From the iiution ut lariie li« 154 THE TREASURY OF iilSTORY. I 'I- at one demand obtained the vast sum of seventy-two thousand pounds, and from the city of London a separato furtiier sum of eleven lliousand. But Ih li it was evident that much of tiiis money was devoted to the reward o! ..a own countrymen, and though in the heavy sum levied upon London there clearly appeared something of angry recollection of the courage the Londoners had shown in opposing him, tlie jjcople were by this time so wearied with war, that they imputed his demands to necessity, and prob- ably thought money better paid for the support of a Danish king than for the temporary absence of an ever-returning Danish enemy. To say the truth, usurper thougli Canute was, he liad no sooner made his rule secure, than he made great efforts to render it not merely toler- able but valuable, lie illobanded and sent home a great number of his Danish niercenaries ; he made not the slightest difference between Danish and Knglish subjects in the ev ?ntion of the laws guarding property and life, and, still farther to engage the affections of the Knglisii, he formally, in an assembly of the states, restored the Saxon customs. In order also to ingratiate himself with the English, as well as to pro- pitiate the powerful duke of Normandy, who had shown a strong dispo- sition to disturb him in his usurped power, he married that prince's sister, Emma, widow of Ethelred. By dint of this conciliatory policy, he so far succeeded in gaining the affections of the English, that he at length ven- tured to sail to Denmark, which was attacked by his late ally, the king of Sweden, against whom he felt additional anger on account of his contu- macy in refusing to put the exiled I'Jnglish princes to death. He was com- p.t'iely victorious in this expedition, chiefly owing to the energy and valour of the afterwards famous, and more than regally powerful, Earl Godwin, to whom, in reward for his conduct on this occasion, he gave his daughter in marriage. In 10v!8 he made another voyage, and expelled Olaus, king of Norway. Powerfid abroad and at peace at home, he now devoted his attention to religion; but he did t;o after the grossly superstitious fashion of the agr. lie did not rccal the <'xil('i! princes, or make restitution of any of the property which he had unjustly ac(iuired either in Norway or in England, but he huilt clnirchcs and showered gifts upon churchmen; showed his sorrow for tiie slaughter of which he still retained the profit, by causnig masses to l)e said for the souls of the shiughtered, and c(nnponnded f"r continuing his usurjicd rule of England by obtaining certain privileges for En;;lishinen at Home, to which city he made an ostentatious pilgrimage. An anecdote is told of Canute when at the very height of his glory and power, wlii('li is highly charactc^ristic of the baseness of the English no- bles of that day, and whi(di at the same time shows him to have jiossessed a certain Danes, oow refused to do liomaKu for Cumberland to Canute, on the ground o( to the lo nay tailed. hi THE TREASURY OF HISTORY 155 that king not having: succeeded to the throne by inheritance. But Canute speedily broujjht him to his senses; at the first appearance of the Knglish iiimy Malcolm submitted. This was Canute's last expedition: he died about four years after, in the year 1035. (it to the I.) piiv in, liiilcd. hiKc III DiUH'S, illllll of CHAPTER X. THE REI0N8 OF HAROLD AND HARDICANCTE. Canute left three sons, Sweyu and Harold by his first wife, Allwcii. daughter of the earl of Hampshire; and Hardicanute by his second wife, Emma, the widow of Ethelred. On the marriage of Canute and Emma the former had formally agreecJ that his children by her should inherit the throne. But as her brother, tli.3 duke of Normandy, died before Canute, the latter thought fit to depart from thit> agreement, and to leave the English throne to Harold, his second son by the first wife, rather than entrust it, with its abounding difliculties, to the weak hands of so young a prince as Hardicanute, his son by Emma. By his last will, therefore, Canute left Norway to Sweyn, his eldest son, and England to Harold, his younger son by the first marriage ; and to Har- dicanute, liis son by Emma, he left his native Denmark. The difference between llie arrangement made by the king's will and that which was agreed upon by his treaty of marriage with Emma, placed the kingdom in no small danger of a long and sanguinary civil war. Har- old, it is true, had the express last will of his father in his favour, and be ing upon the spot at the moment of his father'^ death, he si'izod upon the r>yal treasures, and thus 'lad the means of supporting his claim either by open force or corruption. But Hardicanute, though in Denmark, was the general favourite of the people, and of r.ot a few of the nobility ; being looked upon, on account of his mo;h.3r, in the light of a native English prince. To his father's last will, upon which it would have been easy to throw suspicion, as though weakness of mind had been superinduccif by bodily suflTering, he could oppose the terms of the grave treaty signed by his father while in full possession of his vigorous mind, and in full pos- session, too, of power to resist any article contrary to his wish. And, above all, Hardicanute had the favour and influence of the potent Earl Godwii;. With such elements of strife in existence, it was extremely for- tunate that the most powerful men on both sides were wisely and really auxioiH to avert from the nation the sad coiise(iueiices inseparalile from civil strife. Conferences were held at which the jarring claims of the two princes were discussed with unusual candour and calmness, and it was at lensfth agreed that, as each had a plea too powerful to be wholly done away with by his coii^petitor's couuterplea, the kingdom shouhl once more be divided. liOndon and the country north of the Thames fell to the lot of Harold, the country south of the Thames to Hardicanute, in whose name Emma took possession, and fixed her residence at Winchester till he should reach Englanii to govern for himself. The two young princes, Alfred and Edward, the sons of Emma by Ethelred, had hitherto remained at Normandy ; but finding themselves, from the circi;nistance> of that court, less welcome than they had been, they resolved to visit their mother, whose high state at Winchester prom- ised tluMii all possibli! protection and (;omfort, and they accordingly land- e I in l';ii!ilan(l with a niiinerous and splendid suite. But the appearances by wliii'ii they had been allured to take this step were exceedingly d(!- ceitfnl. (lodwin, whose ainliition was resth-ssand insatiable, had been skil- fully liin|ii'red with by tliecrafiy H,irold, who promised to marry the earl's daiigtiler. The idea of being father-in law to the soli- king of Enylaiid pul ixw end to all V determination to claim as heirs of Ethelred. Alfred was, vi, .iiv ,y hypocritical compliments, invited to court, and had readied as far as Guildford, in Surrey, on his way thither, when an assemblage of Gcdwin's people suddenly f-^ll upon the retinue of the unsuspeetinrit y ; unparlonable, even admitiing that he was right when ho af- firmed that, haviny been so much better treated by Canute than bv Ethel- red, she had always ijiven the prefereni'c to llardicainite, and held hei children hy Ethelrcd in comparative conieni|it or indifference. Me i\(U inlv took from her the great riches which she had heaped up, but also ISO THE TREA8UR\ OF HISTORY. committed her to close custody in a nunnery at Wincbester. Some writers liuve gone so far as to say that he accused her of the absurdly improbable crime of having connived at the murder of the prince Alfred, and that Kmnv.i [)urged herself of this guilt by the marvellous ordeal of walking barefooted over nine red-hot ploughshares; but the monks, to whom Kmma was profusely liberal, needed not to have added fable to the unfortunate truth of the king's unnatural treatment of liis twice wid- owed mother. Apart from mere feelings of nationality, the desire of the English to see their throne filled by a man of their own race was, no doubt, greatly excited by their unwillingness to see lands and lucrative places bestowed by stranger kings upon stranger courtiers. In this respect, however, the accession of Edward was by no means f-<, advantageous to the English as they had anticipated. Edward had lived so much in Normandy that he had become almost a Frenchman in his tastes and habits, and it was almost exclusively among Frenchmen that he had formed his friendships, and now chose his favourites and confidants. In the disposal of civil and military employments tlie king acted with great fairness towards liie English, but as the Normans who thronged his courts were both more polished and more learned, it was among them principally that he dis- posed of the ecclesiastical dignities, and from them that he ciiiefly select- ed his advisers and intimate companions. The favour thus shown to ilie Normans gave great disgust to the English, and especially to the power- ful Godwin, who was too greedy of power and patronage to look with complacency upon any rivals in the king's good graces. He WHS the more offended that tlie excln.>*ivc favour of the king did not fall upon him and his family, because, independent of the king having married thr earl's daughter Editha, the mere power of Godwin's own family was so princely as to givo him high claims, whii^h he was by no means inclined to underrate. He himself was earl of Wcssex, to which extensive government the counties of Kent and Sussex wer-' added; Sweyn, his eldest son, had like authority over the counties of Hereford, Gloucester, Oxford, and Herks i while Harold, his second son, was duke of East Anjrlia. with Essex added to his government. Possessed of such extensive power, still secretly hating Edward on ac count of II open fcnid about the murder of Prince Alfred, and consid- ering that to his forbearance alone, or principally, Edward owed his throne, (Jodwin, who was naturally haughty, was not inclined to bear the neglect of the king without shiiwiii? his sense of it, and his ill hutnonr was the more deep and the more bitterly expres::ed, because his daughter Editha iis well its himself suffered from the king's neglect. The king had married her, indeed, iti compliance with his solemn protnise, but he would never live with her- His determination on this head was rightly attributed by Godwin to his having transferred to the