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PREFACE. -♦ - Till-: i)ivsL'iit work is iniuKlcd on an article written for the hist eilition of the KncycloiiaHliji iJiitannicii untler the same title, and has boon expaiuhMl hy more di-tailcd expositions of the various suhjucts it embraces, at the request of the I'uldishcrs of the Encyclop.'cdia, who thought that its appearance as a substantive 'work might sujtply a want. Its design is to give a connected view of the physical geography and ethnology of the areas comprised m ithin the north and south polar circles, and of the progress of discovery by which our knowledge of these extremities of our globe has been attained. To keep the volume within r. ...able limits, the ditTerent matters it comprises jire necessarily treated in a summary way, but the numerous references to authorities will enable a student to go to the fountains of information. f COXTKNTS. I'AKT F1I>'ST. INTISOIilCridN ClIAJ'TKi; I. WJIX.DLIMUIA.V |-KIU()U — H.C. 52-A.I.. 1194 A.I.. 14U2-1527 <'IIAl'Ti:i{ II. ClIAl'TER III. VOYAGES TU TIIK NOHTH-KAST rilOM KXOLaM)— a.D. 1548- 1580 (HAPTKJi IV. DL'TClf XURTII-KASTEIIN VOYAGES— A. I.. 1594-1597 CHAPTER V. ENGLISH NOHTII-WEST VOYAGES— A. U. 157G-1G3G CHAPTER VJ. AMERICAN CONTINENT, ETC.— A.I). 1GG8-1790. CHAPTER VII. nUSSIAN VOYAGES ALONG THE SII3EUIAN COAST— A. IJ. 1598- 1843 I 14 35 53 G4 112 130 viii CONTENTS. ciiAiTKii vm. MNKTDKNTM <- KVTIHV— K.\(iI-.\M)— .\.|, 1817-184.") . . HI rilAlTKIi IX. NlXET.-5ENTIf VKSTVH\—(,^n„(u,Unl)—mi J..IIN IHANKI.IN . 150 CirAlTKR X. BE.\ncni\a mvmniosH—.\.\>. 1817-18.59 . . .171 fllAlTKR Xr. siMT;?i)i:Hr.i:.v 203 CHATTKIi XT I. CLnRKXTH UK THE POI,.\U 8E.\H ICE cirAiTKij xfir. 219 237 wixnn TEMPEHATUItK VEGETATION- ZOOLOGY CIIAPTEII XIV CHAPTKTf XV. CirAPTEK XVI. CHAPTER XVI r. 244 249 2G3 . 274 GEOLOGY CHAPTEJ{ XVIII. 285 njNTEXTs. ix l'Al>iC 141 <'IIAPTi:i{ Xl\. KSKINfns TALK 15G (JirAlTKl; XX. HAMUVFMS 331 171 < HAlTKli XXI. I.AI'l.ANDKIls (IK VfOniAN OIIKIIN 3n .'03 I'Airr sKcoxi). 219 rilAITKIi I. A.I). 1570-1840— AXTAHCTIC I'OI.AU HI'OK.Ns 351 < HAPTKi; If. DF.HCOVEUY or V/CToniA r.AMi 307 <'lIAPTi:it in. HK.MARKS n.V THE I'lIYSK AI. (ii: UKOKiX.s . OfillAPJIV OF TUK AMAKiTK 374 Pos'i'scurpT. l.KTTKR OK DON PEDHO VK AYAI. i'ADOT I.V 1497 A 0\ THE VOVA(il'; OK .lon.v 381 INDEX 385 rOLAE EEUTONS. PART T. AKCTIC FEIGID ZONK SECTION T. PROGRESS OF DISCOVEEY. INTRODUCTION. Aiicitiit igiiuvanct' ct' tin- Polar Hi-^ioiis — Tlu- PliociiiLiiin-' llio tiisl iiiivi'rators ol" tho NortluTn Atlantic — vEstrviiiiuuk-s m- (."assiteiitli's — Till — Tal•slli^^]l — Irelaiul — Americti. In attempting to trace the rise and progress of our present knowledge of the Polar Regions, we naturally turn tirst to the ancient historians, Init we can glean very little exact informa- tion from them, their writhigs containing only obscure notices of countries lying towards the arctic circle, and no account whatever of a corresponding antarctic climate, though some of the old philosophers did express a suspicion of its existence. The rhftnicians alone of the ancients, and their Cailhaginian descendants, have a fair claim to the discovery hy sea of th(! western coasts of Europe, and this they achieved in the pur- siut of commerce. Tin was the staple commodity sought by their northern voyages, and from Cornwall, then, and still the eliief sotn'ce of that metal, they supplied the world. It is indeed generally supposed, that all the tin in use at the dawn of liis- toiy came from Cornwall, and if that opinion be correct, the intercourse between the INIediterranean and Britain must have begun at a very early date. In the Book of Numbers tin is specially mentioned among the spoil taken from the ^Midianites 1452 years before the Christian era. " Only the gold, and the silver, the brass, the iron, the tin and the lead, everything thai B POT.AR REOIONS. I ! , 8 It il (1 may abides tlio fiiv, yo sliall iiiako it ^o thvoiigli the tiro, and it shall 1)(^ cloan."* Tlio lii'i<;lit white Kassitcro^'\ or KaUiteros, is named often in the Iliad as a valual)le ornament of chariots and armonr, of which Ave have examples in the following passages taken from Cow])er's translation: — TinpciK'tralile brass, fiu, silver, gold, Ho cast into tlu- foi'g(>. n., xviii. V. 590. There, also laden with its fn . lio fdviii'il A vineyard all of gold ; pnriil lie made The clusters, and the vines supporti'd stood By poles oi' silver, set with even rows, Tlie trench lie colonr'd sable and around Fenced it with fni. IL, xviii. v. 701. With five folds Vidran had fortified it : two were bi'ass, The two interior tin : the midmost gohl. II., XX. V. .33«. * Chap. xxxi. v. 22. Sec also Isaiah i. 25; E/.ekiel xxii. 18; xxvii. 12. Mr. Rawlinson supposes that the Phcciiicians did not emigrate to the Mediter- ranean coasts until the thirteenth century before Christ, and if he is correct in giving that date, the Midianitcs coukl not have obtained their tin from Corn- wall through the Sidonians or Tyrian Pha'nicians. — Translation of Herodotus, iv. p. 249. Pliny however says, " India neque ces neque plumbtim Jtahet, gem- misqiic suis ac margaritas Jkvc permutat. f Pliny says that the cassitcron of the Greeks is the metal which he calls plumbum album. According to Sir Gardner Wilkinson, tin is termed Kasdecr in Arabic, and Kostira in Sanscrit. Stannuni is supposed to have been an alloy of lead, tin, and otlicr metals, combined with silver in the ore, and separated by melting. The word had perhaps a barbaric origin, for tbe Irish stdn is as likely to have been the root as the derivative of the Latin epithet. The Icelandic din, the Swedish tenn, the English and Dutch tin, the German zinn, and the French etain may have come from cilhcr the Irish or the Latin. The Welsh alcan looks as if it had received an Arabic prefix. In the Truro Jrnseum there is a pig of tin, which, from its peculiar shape, is supposed to be Phoenician, as it differs from the Roman and Norman pigs found also in Corn- wall. A figure of this pig is given in RawHnson's Herodotus, book iii. chap. 1 IG, which see for further details. i:l INTRODUCTION. -^ I will jtrosetit to liim my cori^cKt Lritjlit, . Won I'miii Astci'npii'iis, cilu'il iiroinid Willi .ylittcrin.u' /'■/*,• ;i ]>n'i'i.■)(). A nocklaeo of MTouj^ht sohl, with Kiii/n'r rich Bostudiled, ev'ry Ix-ad liri,i,'ht us a siiii. O'f., xviii. V. ,3.")8. As the principal source of amber in the present day, as well as in former times, is the south shore of the Baltic, especially the Gulf of Dantzic ; it has been conjectured that the riuenician ships had penetrated into the Baltic, but so light an article as aml)er was more likely to have been brought overland from the Baltic, as the furs of the Ural ^Mountains came further over the continent in the time of Herodotus. Amber is the product also of other coasts in the north of Kurope. l*liny tells us that an island lying near the peninsula of Cartris (Jutland), which is terminated by the Cimbric cape, wa^ named Ghssaria by the Roman soldiers because it pro- duced amber (the Glcssum of the Germans, and Gkcr of the Anglo-Saxon.s). Considerable pieces of amber are still found occasionally on the Lincolnshire coast by a few men who gain a livelihood by digging up trees from the submarine forest there, to which they get access in the spring-tides.* * " The throwing up of this fossil (amber) during two thousand years on tlio coast botwef n ^leniel and Dnntzig, loads us to assume that there subsists I'OLAU UEfUONS. 'ii Without, however, claiminfj for tlie Phrciiiciaus us t'crtaiii, the h(»iioui' of liiiviiig first saikid elown the Catte^^'at, there is litth^ reason for tloiihtiii'' the iiavi^atiou of the Northern Atlantic hy tliat peojih^, and their i)re-eminent skill in nautical al'l'airs, which was indeed readily conceded to them by rival nations,* Pliny, in his list of mythical inventors, says that Ilippus, a Tyrian, constructed the first "merchant ship" and that "cock-l)oats" {cijinlo) owed their oriji;in to the riireni- cians, who wer(\ moreover, the first people \vho directed their course on the ocean by the fixed stars. The Carthaginians, he adds, first built "a ship of four banks of oars," and they were also the first who instituted a trade in merchandise, though from father .Tui>itor came the instinct of buying and selling. When we consider that the Carthaginians had formed settlements on tlu! western islands of the Mediterranean and ou the coasts of Spain,t before the Romans possessed a fieet, and were the discoverers and first colonizers of IMadeira, we are not of the number of those who believe that they never ventured out to sea but servilely hugged the shore in long coasting voyages. It is scarcely possible that a people, who, during the many centuries that intervened between their first occupation of Sidon and Tyre, and the destruction of Carthage by the Romans, had enjoyed a monopoly of tratfic on the Erythrncan, Mediterram^an, and Atlantic oceans, should have at that place a peculiar biowu coal formation." — JUrman, Travels in Siberia, translated by W. D. Cooley, Lontl., i. p. 11. Minute grains of amber, or of a substance very similar to it, exist in some of the strata of a (miocene) tertiary formation on the Mackenzie. * liawlinson's Herodotus, ii. 414 ; iv. 46. ■j- Gades ( Gaddir) and Utica, according to the Phfeniuian annals, as quoted by Aristotle, were founded at the same date, about 270 years prior to the build- ing of Carthage, or lliiO n.c. — IJcrrcn. I i n INTJIOIU'CTION. reiiiiiiiiud stiitioiiiiry in tlic art of nuvigatiun.* It has Ik-i'U alleged that their .ships wtTc tuo sniull tur anything hut coasters, though the tonnage of a Cartliaginiau vessel must have greatly exceeded that of some ketches and fly-boats tliat hraved the Clrtienhind seas in the days of (,>ueen HIizu1)etli. A pinnace which foi'nied one of Frnliisher's first lleet was only of ten tons hurthen, and his other two ships were little more than twice as big. Contrast this with the armament of IFanno, composed of sixty shijjs, capable of cariying thirty thousand colonists of all ages to the western coast of Africa, and averaging five hundred passengers to each ship.j* There is no reason to su])pose that the ileet of llimilco, which sailed at the same time to colonize Western Europe, was less efficiently organized, though it may have numbered fewer ships. Ilimilco's narrative has unfortunately peiished, but Festus Avienus, who consulted a record of it deposited in one of the temples of Carthage, states that the Carthaginian admiral navigated the Atlantic four months, planting colonies doubtless on his way. If Strabo be correct Avhcn he assigns a Phcenician origin to two-hundred towns in the south (jf Spain, we cannot but believe that many of the maritime towns of Portugal were also founded by that people. llimilco at length reached the promontory and l)ay of ^Estrymon and the * iSee Dr. Roilsliob, uii Turtessus, in Notts ami QuericH, Jan. 1, 1859, 2d. Murios, vii. p. 3. Strabo says that before the lime of Homer the rhcenician.s had po!i.sessio!i of the best parts of Africa and Spain, iii. p. 104. f According to Strabo, the Getuli and Libyans destroyed three hundred cities founded by Tyre in western Africa. Professor Owen identities the " haiiy men " which IlannoV sailors slew and skinned, with the gigantic Gorilla or Satyr of the country lying under the equator on the west coast of Afiiea. As to the size of the ships, Strabo tells us that the nierehanls of Gades employed very largo vessels in their sea voyages, though the poor fishermen of the city had only small boats, whieh they named "horses," because their prows bore figureheads of that animal. ■* ii, I'OLAll IltldlONS. Ir : ■ I I i I i 111! » il;: ill' in. I 1 !! isUiiids of tlic /KstiA iiiiiiilL's, which wcie clcsciihcd as buiii}^ rich ill till ami lend, and iiihal)ilc(l hy a vcit iuiuil'I'ous, .sjiiritcd, and iiidustriiais ]_)C(»i)ic', devoted to cuuiinorct', and uavigatiii;^ the sea in boats ol" liide ; in Mhicli one may vcco^uiso the Welsli coracle* J)istant two thiy.s' sail from these islands lay the green-turfed holy islandf of the Ii'ish raci.', and near at hand, the Island of Albion, llimileo ^vas contem])orary with Aristotle, who apj)lii's the epithet of Kdtihvn to KassUcros. The yEstrynniides have been identilied with the Cassiterides or "Tin islands" of the CJrei;ks, and by some moderns with St. Michael's jMount, the Lizard, and the adjacent promontories of Cornwall ; by others they are thought rather to be the tSciliy Islands. Herodotus (li. c. 450) mentions the Cassiterides, as does also Aristotle {\',. c. 340). rolyltius (n. c. ICO) makes a distinct reference to the Jhitish Isles.:}: This knowledge, im- perfect as it was, could have been ac(|uired only from the Vha^nicians, or from the I'hociean Creeks, who began tt> frequent Spain in the time of Cyrus (n. c. 5GG). Avienus says, moreover, that long before llimilco's time, trading voyages were made from Tartessus to the it^strymnides, and that Gacldir was the I'uuic appellation of the seaport anciently called Tartessus, or, as its Tyrian founders named it, Tarshish.W When the riioca-ans first visited this poit, in the sixth century before the Christian era, it had a monarch * Tlieic is no proof that the coracle was the only sea-boat of the ancient Uritons, though the peculiarity of its construction brought it strongly into notice f Jvin-fail (Hibcrnice), Insula fatalis vel sacra. \ Moore supposes that all the British Isles, inchiding Albion, Jerne, Scilly, and the Isle of ]\Ian, were called Cassitcides. — Hist, of Ireland. II " Ships of Tarshish " came iu time to signify vessels built for long voyages, and tho ships of Solomon and Iliram (1 Kings x. 22 ; Chr. ix. 21), destined In bring gold, silver, ivoiy, apes, and iieaf-ncks, were constiucted In navigate llio INTllODriTlON. , spirited, avigating j;iii,S(j tlie lauds lay I lu'ar at laiy Avitli sltci'08. ssiteridcs i5 with St. iitui'ies (jf lie Scilly elides, as makes a edge, iiii- rum the jegaii to |o's time, ,'mnides, seapuit anied it, |t, ill the Inoiiarch iiaiued Aijauthoniiis, wlit) is said to liave livi'd to an extieiiic old age. It Mas still in exisleiiee, but poor and destitute when l''(>tu^ Avieuus saw it about A. D. ;17(), l>eiug, lie says, little uioic than a heap of ruins, thougli even then an annual least was held there in honour of the Tyrian Ilereults.' The IJonians knew little of the northern and western eoasts of Euro]»i' until the time of Ca-sar, when in the laogress ec'uliai' and very nucicnt glass beads dii<,' up in C'onnvall and Ireland, similar in all respects to those still found in Western Africa* Cainbden says that mining,' shafts in Cornwall, deserted ages ago, an* named in the Cornish language adal sarann, from the heliif that they are the work of people that came from 8i)ain or Africa ; and the translator of lleeren's [dan adduces as traces of the Carthaginians hi Ireland, the existing traditions of a colony of rhenian miners in the county of Wicklow, remarking also on the resemblance which the ancient shafts there bear to the remains of Punic mineral works in Spain, lie adds that the brazen instruments occasionally dug up in the Irish bogs, are allicu in the same proportions with Carthaginian relics discovered in Italy and Sicily .t The Irish also attribute t the Phenians the introduction of letters into their island. However shadowy the Irish traditions of the Phenians may * Hawlinson's Herodotus. f Moore in his "History of Ircltiiid" mentions tlio same fact, and states tliat Phfcnician brass implements discovered in an Irish cairn in the year 1848, consisted of 85 or 90 parts of copper alloyed with 15 or 10 of tin. He likewise informs us, that the antique swords found in Iieland are exactly similar to the swords obtained on the field of Canna- by Sir William Hamilton, and preserved in the British Museum. There were giants on the earth in those days; and the Irish for giant being " I'hiun," is a coincidence worth noticing, when speaking of the sons of riueiiix. Phinn iSIT'oul the Celtic hero had all the attributes of a giant or of a superior caste. " Far to the west in tli' orcaii wMo o Dcyoiid tlic realm of Gaul, a land there lies, Sea-girt it lies, where gyants dwelt of old." — Milto.v. • Dr. Viilanueva in bis learned " Ibemia Phcenicea" supposes that I^eiiie may not signify Phcenician generally, but some principal man, which would be in accordance with the Ossianic fragments. Fen velfelvch, he says, denotes the " ronier of a building" in Pluenician, and is extended to a leader of the people — Ihcrnia Flwnlcia, Publin, 18.31. ill INT'MJDirnoN. \i iipjK'iir to ii ri|^'iil critic, tlicy inay Imvc a ival luiiiulatinii, and it (Iocs not i('(|uifc umch exercise of the iiiiaj^inalioii to find a near resemblance between a group of handsome young .Mik'sian girls, gracefully bearing their brown water-pitchers from a cistern in Cork, and ii knot of females, of the sani(! ages, i-arrying jars of exactly the same form, froni an Audalusian fountain. Xothing in lineaments, form, or attitudes, militate against b(jth being descendants of one peo[tle, prol)al»ly the Bfi'ifidi or riuenician half-breeds. After the riioca-iins had founded ]\Iassilia (^^arseilles), tin was carrieil thither aero-ss (laul, and this route would probably be the jtrincipal one during the punic wars, when the Cartha- ginian fleet found full em}»loyment in the Mediterranean. Pytheas, a native of Massilia, sailed, as he himself vei)orted, out of the Straits of Gibraltar northwards, and then eastwards, into the Baltic. Strabo, while denying the truthfulness of Pytheas, states many facts on his authority. Among others, he describes Thidc as being the northernmost of the liritish Isles, situated on the arctic circle, and having neither sea nor atmosphere, but merely a concretion of the two, like lungs. l*liny terms this icy region the Cronian Sea, and says that it begins a day's sail beyond Thiile, which he speaks of as the last of the islands lying off the Germanic coast, beyond the Glcssaricc or Elcdridas. Thule, lie adds, has no night at the summer solstice and no daylight in the winter. Tie also mentions by name Scandinavia, as an island of the Sinus Codanus or Baltic, and calls other islands in the Sound or ( 'attcgat, Scandia, Berr/os and Kerijon, the latter word being usually translated Norway. The voyage t(. Thule is generally made, ho tells us, from Xerigon. In another passage this author, on the authority of 10 P(Uvliifli iuv In liu I'ounil in so many ]io|aiIar works, as notliiii;^' (crtain ran Ix' (K'ilnccd IVoni tlu'in ; lail as di.si'ussioiis have rt'ceiitly lakfii place rcs[K;ctin'^ u discovery, or pretended di>covery, in America, I'mm wliieli a communication between Cartliaj^e and tliaL continent has heen iiderri'd, we shall here insert a very l.iriet' notice of the tacts rel"erre(l to. At (Jrave Creek, near Wheeling, in the valley of the Ohio, there is a conical tumulus havin<;' an altitude of sixty-nine li'ct, and II basal circumlcrencc of eight hundred aial twenty. 'Ihis mound was t'X])hjred u[)wards of twenty years ago, by the present i>roprietor of the ground, ^ir. Tomlinson. A cluunber was found in it, in which lay a human skeleton ami various substances, of which a ndnute account was draun up and ])ublished by the late Dr. ^Morton. This leanu'd and accurate' man, liowevev, made no mention of a small stone with engraved characters which Air. Tomlinson states he found in the same chamber, and which was actually described soon after the oj)en- ing of the mound, in 1838. Mr. Sqiner says that this stone is ol' sand-stone, of a sort that is very connnon in the valle}' of the ( )hio. The inscri])tion on it is stated by ]\[. .lomard to be in characters exactly lik(; {jmrfaitcincnt coiiformcs) to those which exist in the bilingual inscription Carthaginian anil Berber of Thugga ; that are also cut in other rocks of northern Africa ; and have been probably in use in Libya i'rom time im- memorial. This learneil geographer argues that m 1838 these "J ■I III I (I i! !■ .! i!: itt '(i ' 1 U I!' '1 i! ii ll' ! ' 1 j ; I , i' ' ! P i i i! 12 POLAR REGION'S. diameters weru uukiiowu in Aiueiiea, and tliat any one design- ing to fal)ricatG a fictitious relic, could not liave done so without committing some mistake M'liicli would instantly have betrayed his imposture. The characters are further said hy M. Jomard to be the same as the alphabet of the Touareg, obtained in 182i at El Ghat by Dr. Oudney, and more recently identified by an officer of the Algerine army with cuttings on the rocks, and numerous inscriptic- on the shields, armour, and clothes of several African tribes. This kind of writing is denominated tsinaf/h, is said to have been practised by the Berbers from the most ancient times, and Governor Hanoteau, wdio has carefully studied the subject, is of opinion that the ancient Libyan idiom mentioned by Herodotus is fundamentally the Berber tongue, which is spoken at this day from one extremity of Africa to the other. It will be observed that between the date of Dr. Oudney's travels and the opening of the tumulus on the Ohio in 1 838, there was ample time for the alphabet he made known to have reached the remotest quarters of the United States ; and Mr. Squier and other competent ethnolo- gists of that country, who have the best means of judging of the aathenticity of the details, have no confidence in the story related by Mr. Tomlinson, on whose authority the whole matter rests.* The preceding pages, containing notices of the early navi- * Vo>/cz (Jomard) Seconde Notk sur utie pierre gravee trouvee dans un aacien tumulus americain et sur VUliome Uhjen lue a VAcadvmle des Inscriptions e.t Bella Lcttres, 7 Nov. 184") ; Ainsi Troisiejie Note (Bulletin de juillet-aoul 1858, de la Soc. Gcoijr. de Paris, ii. p. 372 ; Sir J. Alexander, Geogr. Soc. of London ; llauoteau Soc. de O'cof/r., iv. p. 12[), Paris ; Sniithsouiun Contributions to Knowledgo, 1850, vol. viii., on the Gravc-btone Creek stone, by S. F. Ilavcn, )) 28; Jomard, Bullet, de la Soc. Geogr. de Paris, 1858, p. 101, et torn, xviii. 1859. f.clfre de M. Squier, p. 212. Uepome par M. Jomard, p. 24(i). Dr. LmiImhi f-alN tlm IV-ibers Amazirgh, and states that they have been supposed INTRUDUCTION. i;i one desigii- i3 so without LVG betrayed jNI. Jomard oLtiiiiied ill y identified 11 the rocks, and clothes leuomiiiated jrs from the las carefully Lent Libyan the Berber sxtremity of )etween the he tumulus dphabet he ers of the nt ethnolo- judgiug of 1 the story the whole karly navi- [vee dans un ! Inscrijdiuiis Ic juiUet-aout eogr. Soc. of I'oiitributions ^. F. Iliivcn, lorn, xviii. I. 24r.). Dr. t'll slipposcil gatiun (»f the Atlantic by the pre-eminently maritime people (if the ancient world, have been compiled as an introduction to the accounts which are to follow, of voyages into regions still further removed from the centres of civilization by the race upon whom the mantle of the riitcnicians has de- scended,"' to be till' representatives of the tributaries of Cartilage. 'J'heir laiiguago lias an afliiiity in grammar to tlic Heniitic, and tiic Tlnliabot now in use, wliieli lie gives jip. 523 and 5G6, he believes to be deficient in claims to antiquity. — Latham, Vur. of Man, 18r>0, p. 507. * Tlie authorities consulted in drawing up the introductory chapter are Ideen iiher die Volher dcr Allen Welt von A. II. L. Ileercn, ii. Da8 Pfiiinicien, i. (Jarthag. This comprehensive work was translated into English in 1832, and to that translation wo have had recourse for extracts from Avienus, uot in the original German work. The references made by Ilecren to Strabo and Pliny have been examined ; and also the papers on the tin and amber trades of anti- (juity by Sir Cornwall Lewis, which contain u condensed statement of the whole subject. These are published in "Notes and Queries, 2d Series, Nos. 110, 115., 1 18, for 1858, and vol. vi. for July 1858." In Turner's " Anglo-Saxons" there is a dissertation on the Cassiterides and the commentators on Herodotus, more particularly Uawlinson's translation, give much ethnological information re- specting the Phrenicians. The historical work of Sanchoniathnn, a Phamician who lived twelve cen- turies before the Christian era, was said to have been tianslated a century after the birth of Christ by Philo of Byblus, a town near Berytus ; and some frag ments of this pretended translation were pres(n-ved by Eusebius, but Philo's work is considered by modern critics to be wholly of his own composition, or, at the best, a translation from a Pha-nician writer of much later date than Sancho- niathon. Dius and Menander compiled from the annals of Tyre a history of which there are no remains. Herodotus was evidently conversant with Tyriau records ; Poiybius, Pliny, and Strabo, derived some of their statements from Carthaginian authors, and Sallust (ii. c 40) saw and had interpreted to him the Libri Punid, then in the possession of Hicmpsal the Second, King of Xuiinidia. IJufus Festus Avienus consulted Himlico's narrative as late as the 370th year of the Christian era. It is probable that a great number of precious African manu- scripts were destroyed by the burning of the Alexandrian Library. li ci i '"M !l! !■! Ill jlii il f lii! • t ml ! 14 POLAR REGIONS. CHAPTER T. AXTE-COLUMBIAN TEKTOD — B.C. 52 — A.D. 1494. Jioinaiis — AllVed — Ohtlior — Scandiiiaviiiiis — Iceland — Greenland — O'unniiif/ar/a/i or Battiu'.s Buy — The Zeni — Szkolni — Colon. When Ca'sar, fifty-two years before the Christian era, planned Ills expedition against the Britons {imiitus toto orhc divisos), lie excnsed the meditated aggression by the necessity he was under of cutting off the war supplies Avliich the Gauls received from the island, and he found no difficulty in selecting for its execution ninety-eight ships of burthen from the mer- chantmen employed in the commerce of the narrow seas, capable of transporting two legions of foot soldiers, and three hundred cavalry, or above 8000 men. The active intercourse between the two sides of the straits of Dover soon enabled the Britons to hear of the hostile designs of the Romans, and to deprecate the invasion by an offer of submission. Ca'sai''s hopes of conquest were, as is well known, not destined to be fulfilled, and more than a century elapsed before the Eomans established themselves in Britain, notwithstanding that they were greatly favoured in their progress by the disunion of the various tribes and nations then occupying the island. During the Eoman rule we hear only of a coasting voyage round the British isles, and the writers of those ages, when mentioning Thule, the frozen north, and the Cronian Sea, did no more than repeat what had been handed down to them 1 A. m ,11 ANTE-COLUMBIAN PERIOD. 15 tVum the Phceniciinis. Wlu'ii tl.c li(»iiiaiis fiiuilly left tlio lU-itons to themselves, they abniuloned hnvj^ lines of defeiisivo fortifications, with many well-built towns, and be([ueatlied a legacy of municipal institutions to the en<'rvatcd inhabitants ; but the art of navigation does not seem to have l)een culti- vated by the well taxed and well governed natives. Its revival was due especially to the Frisians, who were the best seamen of the various Saxon tribes that invaded England, on the depai-ture of the liomans. Wo hear nothing, however, of an English fleet until Alfred, im])roving on the Danish and Frisian models, caused "long ships" to be built, with which, aided by Frisian oflicers and seamen, he gained a decisive victory over the Northmen, who had, during the previous century, carried their raven-flag triumphantly over the northern seas, and who continued for more than a century after Alfred's death to excel the other ]uiropean nations in deeds of daring on the stormy main. In the year 8G0, or eleven years before the accession of Alfred to the throne of jNIercia, a Norwegian viking, named Naddodr, discovered Iceland, an island which touches the arctic circle on the north, and answers to the accounts given of Tlude by the Phcenicians and Greeks, though most pro- l)ably no mariner of either of these nations had ever seen it. In the following season it was visited by Gardar, a Swede, and in 874, Ingolfr conducted thither a colony of Norsemen, the ancestors of the existing Icelanders. The Iceland annals state that the Norsemen who first landed on the island dis- covered traces of some Christian mariners (whom they believed to have been Irish), having preceded them.* * Saint Brendan, who flourished in the middle of the sixth century, sailed, according to Irish Ifgends, from Kerry westwards to a largo island, on which i!; : ■ ! 'J i! ' m 1,1'' t i/ilM I 16 POLAR REGIONS. AltVt.'tl, wlioSL* anjuli'eiuent.s, thirst fur knowledge, and princely endowments, have seeured him a place in the first rank of English sovereigns, acting on the maxim, fas est nh hoste doccri, sought fur information of the north from Ohtlier, or (Audlier), a Norwegian. The reply he received to his questions was added by Alfred to his Anglo-Saxon trans- lation of the llormista of I'aulus Orosius, and Hakluyt has reproduced it from the version of Geoffrey of Monmouth. The following abridged extract from Hakluyt contains what relates to our subject ; and for the better understanding of it, the reader may be told that the Helgoland or Holy Island, which is situated on the coast of Norway, lies on the CGth parallel of latitude, about half a degree from the arctic circle. " The voyage of Octher, reported about the year 890 unto Alfred, the famous king of England. Octher said that the countrey wherein he dwelt was called Helgoland. Octher tolde his lord. King Alfred, that he dwelt furthest north of any Norman. He sayd that he dwelt towards the north part of the land toward the west coast ; and aflfirmes that the land, notwith- standing it stretcheth marvelous farre towards the north, yet it is all desert and not inhabited, unlesse it be very few places here and there, where certain Finnes dwell on the coast, who live by hunting all the winter, and by fishing in the summer. He said that upon a certeine time he fell into a fantasie, and desire to proove and know how farre the land stretched he spent seven Easters and then returned to Europe, reaching first some northern islands, prohably tlic Shethinds or Orkneys, but finally attaining his native Ireland with his followers, where he founded many churches. — Dr. Todd, Nat, Hist. liev. July 1860, p. 424. The disciples of St. Columba, in the sixth and seventh centuries, were zealous in propagating a knowledge of the gospel in foreign lands ; and Adomnan mentions several voyages into the ocean, made with that view by Cormac. — Life of St. Columba by Dr. Smith, pp. .55-74. ANTE-COLUMBIAN PERIOD. 17 ledge, and in the first im, fas est north from received to ixon trans- akluyt has Monmouth, iitains what mding of it, [oly Island, n the 66th irctic circle, ir 890 unto id that the )cther tolde rth of any part of the id, notwith- lorth, yet it few places coast, who le summer, iitasie, and stretched lig first some attaining liia Mirches. — Dr. Columba, ia I knowlcilgc of ■ages into the l)y Dr. Smith, northward, and whether there were any habitation of men north heyond the desert. Whereupon he took his voyage directly north along the coast, having upon his steereboord alwayes the desert-land, and upon the leereboord* the maine ocean, and continued his course for the space of three dayes, in which space he was come so far towards the north as con.nionly the whale hunters use to travell. Whence he ]jroceeded in his course still towards the north so farre as he was able to saile in other three days. At the end whereof he perceived that the coast turned towards the east, or els the sea opencul with a maine gulfe into the land, he knew not how farre. Well he wist and remembered that he was faine to stay till he had a westerne winde and somewhat northerly ; and thence he sailed plaine east along the coast still so far as he was able in the space of four dayes. At the end of which time he was compelled againe to stay till he had a full northerly winde, forasmuch as the coast bowed thence directly towards the south, so farre as he could travaile in five dayes ; and at the fifth daye's end he discovered a mightie river which opened very farre into the land. At the entrie of which river he stayed his course, and in conclusion turned backe againe, for he durst not enter thereinto for feare of the inhabitants of the land, perceiving that on the other side of the river the countrey was thnrowly inhabited: which was the first peopled land that he had found since his departure from his owne dwelling: whereas, continually tLorowout all his voyage he had evermore on his steereboord, a wildernesse and desert countiy, except that in some places he saw a few fishers, finvlers, and * In Anglo-Saxoii Steorhord and BwchorJ. The terms are synonymous with the modern nautical ones, Starboard and Larboard or I'ort, and mean, tlio former the helm side, and the other the back or left hand, tlie helm's-man being seated with his right hand to the rudder and looking forwards. C 18 POLAR REGIONS. i • liuiitors, wliii'h wcro jill Fyiiuos ; and all the way upon his hiureboord was tho niaine ocoan. Tlio Biannes had inliahitod and tilled their country indifferent well, notwithstanding he was afrayed to go on shore. But the country of the Terfynnes lay all waste and not inhabited, except hy as it were certeine hunters. . . . Thishe judged, that the Fynnes and Biarmes (Perniians) spealce but one language. The principall purpose of his traveile this way w.as to cncrease the knowledge and dis- coverie of these coasts and countreyes for the more commoditie of fishing of horse-whales,* which have in their teeth bones of great price and excellencie ; whereof he brought some at his returne unto the king. Their skinnes are also very good to make cables for shippes, and so used. Tliis kind of whale is much lesse in quantitie than other kindes, having not in length above seven elles. And as for the common kind of whales, the place of most and best hunting of them is in his owne countrey ; whereof some be forty-eight elles of length, and some fifty, of which sort he affirmed that he was one of sixe, which in the space of three days killed threescore. He was a man of exceed- ing wealth in the riches of the countrey, having six hundred tame Eane Deere, yet he had but twenty kine and twenty swine, and that little which lie tilled he tilled it all with horses. " He sayd that the countrey of Norway was very long and small. So much of it as either beareth any good pasture, or may be tilled, lietli upon the sea coast, which notwithstanding in some places is very rockie and stonie, and all eastward, all along against the inhabited land, lie wilde and huge b'H':"^. and mountaines, which are in some places inhabited by the Wynnes. * Hakluyt calls these horse-whales "niorsses." The Anglo-Saxon word is hors-Jnoccl. {Ohtheres Seisehericht. Konig Aclfred von Dr. Reinhold Pauli, Berlin 1851, where the whole passage is quoted in Anglo-Saxon.) Longfellow has given a pleasant poetic translation of Ohtheres' narrative. ANTE-COLUMBIAN TERIOD. 11) . . . TIr' luouutaiiu's be in Inviulth of ^UK•ll t[Uiiutitie as ii mail is able to travoile over in a fortni<>]it, and in some place ni) move than may be travelled over in sixe days. Eight over against this land, on the other side of the mountaines, some- what towards the south, lieth Swetnland, and against the same, towards the north, lieth Queeneland. Tlie (j>ueenes sometimes passing the mountaines, invade and spoile the Xormans ; and on tlie contrary part, the Normans likewise sometimes spoile their countrey. Among the mountnin(\s be many and great lakes, in sundry places, of fresh wafer, liiito which the ( Jueenes use to carrie their boats upon tludr backs overland, and thereby invade and si)nil;' tlie countrey (if the Normans. These boats be very little and v(;ry light."* As Olither mentions twice that he had the main ocean on his left hand in his voyage north, we may conclude that he jiassed to seaward of the Lofodon Isles, and that not being embarrassed by the intricate passages between them and tlui continent, he was able to advance with a fair wind at the rate of at least fifty or sixty miles a day, which in six days would bring him to the North Cape. The time that remained would scarcely suffice for a voyage to the bottom of the "White Sea, and it is probable that he turned back from Varanger Fiord, or the estuary of the river Kola ; or at the furthest, from the Gulf of Kandalask. The Biarmes were the people of Finnic extraction, called Pcrmial-i't or Permians by the Russians, and in the middle ages the Scandinavians gave the name of * Iliikluyt, riiiiciiuil Nuvigatiims, etc., i. 4. a.ix la'J'J. f 'J'liey were llie ihvaiTs of the Scaiuliiiaviau Etula, who extracted metals from the depths of tlie earth and practised sorcery and magic. Until a late period, English seamen sailing to the \\'hite Sea used to land in Lapland to buy n wind from the natives who traded in their superstitions. Omid-vick (iithern snow-clad headland by the designation of Hvidsa:rk (White Shirt). This discovery did not lead to immediate consequences, but about 982 or 1)83 Erikr lianthi (Erik the Tiod) was convicted of manslaughter before tlie Tliorims Tiny, or judicial assembly of Iceland, and sentenced to banishment foi- ti term (jf years. He resolved tit pass tlie time of his compulsory absence in exploring Gunbiorn's land, and having prei)ared a vessel, sailed with his followers from Sneefieldsjokel, the northern promontory of Faxe IBay, in one of the southern iidets of which the town of Eeikiavik has been built. IloMing a westerlv course, he came in sijiht of the east coast of Greenland, along which he steered south- wards, looking for a haltitable spot; and in doing so doubled the Hvidswrlc of Gunbiorn, calle. 2a a The occupatiun of tJit'eiiluiid .speedily led to the discovery of Aniericii. One of the eohjiiists, conducted hy Kiikr to (j!re(!iiland, was Ilerjulfr JJanlsun, a descendant of In;_;ulfr, the first settler in Jceland. This man's sou JJjarui was ahseut on a voyaj^e to Norway at the time of Erikr's expedition; but returned in the same season of 085 or 1)80 to Kyras in Iceland, when being informed of his father's departure, he innnediately resolved to follow him, that they might spend their yule-tide together, as they had always been accustomed to do. He therefore made the proposal to his crew, and tjbtaining their consent put to sea again, but encountering thick stormy weather, was driven far to the southward of his pri j .or course. On the sky clearing, ]>jarni was within sight of a woody part of the American coast, sujtposed to be Nantucket 1 .land, .south of IJoston, which, not agreeing at all with the description he had received of Greenland, he directed the prow of his ship to be turned northwards ; and after passing several of the projecting headlands of Newfoundland and Labrador, but without landing on any, or ev(in naming them, he finally came in sight of White ►Sark, and fortunately meeting a boat there, was directed to Herjnl/rsncs, his father's new abode. The fiord which enters the land at this promontory, is understood to be Friederich.stal, in latitude 60°, where in 1828 the ^Moravian mission, esta- blished only four years previously, numbered four hundred member.s. Hot springs exist on the island of Ounartok in its vicinity. To understand rightly the accounts of the voyages of the Norsemen of that age, it is necessary to have an estimate of the length of a day's sail, and this Captain Graah furnishes us with from averages taken out of sailing directions given in the Landnama l»ok, and other very ancient documents. In i 24 I'OLAR RECJIONS. Il'ii tlieiii the vi>yugo from Stnclt iii Norway to Ifoni on the east of Icehuiil, was stated to be seven days' sail ; and IVoni Sme- fiehlnes to Ilvaif in Greeidand four days, givuig witli cuier uveragcs from ninety-se\en to one hundred and seven miles each day. A row-boat Captain Graah found, was expected to average twenty-four miles a-day, much about what it would ay and Capo (\)d, l>y till! d»'sciii>tions ^'ivcn of tliu c(»a«t in the annals ivIV-ncd to. fji/l/ti Hdliiltnul and lldlahvnd it milda, the lesser and «reuter Slatvlaud.s, are on tlu; same aiitla rity of llafn, eon- sideied to hii Xewfoundland and Labrador, while by Maik- lantl (the woody country) Xova Scotia is thouj^ht to havt.' been designated — ^larkland's <,Mdf, iteing conse(pieiitly tla; (Julf of St. Lawrence. The first child of European extraction born in America was Snorre Thorfinnson, mIio saw thi; light in Thoifmii's Buthr, near the ("xisting town of Taunton. The intercourse between (}re(,'nland and America was from time to time renewed, down to the year 1347 by voyages undertaken chielly to i)rocure wood for building jiurposes, but no second attempt at colonization was made. Among the wood brought from America, special mention is made of a piece of Mosid; probably bird's-eye or curled maple, whicli was sold in Norway at a high price ; richly carved bowls of wood, formerly named mazers or masers, being greatly prized, Tlie entire narrative of the events here merely glanced at, is told in authentic Icelandic annals, and is of deep interest, but we must turn to less attractive indications of voyages made within the arctic circle by the Norwegian Grecnlanders. * The relcbratcd Digliton Itock, on which certain chiiractt'is jind fignr<;s aiv insnibed, as lias been suijposud, by tlio Scandinavians, has had considerable weight in fixing the exact locality {>( Leifr'a hulhr, bnt as early as ITS'J Wasli ington considered the inscrijitions to be of Indian origin, and Schoolcraft, taking to his aid an experienced Indian chief, has confirmed tliis opinion ; the Indian prononncing the legend to have reference to a battle, but rejecting some of the characters as interpolations destitute of meaning. it' |ii;i!'| ill': m ''*;^ Mli ! ! In I i! iii liil iii (I i iljil i I \r'\1). 2t) disposed of in England wore libemted ; Imt the neglect of eith the mother country continuing, the Greenland colonists retreated to Iceland, or perished under the I'opeated assaults of the Skra.'llingar. Vestiges of the ancient colonization remain in ten difterent places Avithin the limits of the West Bygd ; and ruins of old edifices are still more numerous ond in better preservation in the East Bygd, where the roofless walls of six or seven churches remain standing, the most perfect being that of Kakortoh in the inlet of Igcdiko, about ten miles distant from Juliana's Hope. Here, according to Eskimo tradition, the last of the colonists was slain by the Skrfellingar. In 1830 a gravestone was dug up at this church, on which there was an inscription in Runic characters to the memory of Vigdisa, the daughter of jMagnus, but no date. The name of Vigdis was borne by several descendants of Thorfinn the lied. Accidental circumstances may have kept up in the north a knowledge of Greenland, which was lost to the world in general for want of a periodical press. In the chnrcli of Barra an Eskimo kayak was suspended, having been driven thither by winds and currents. In 1682 a Greenlander was seen in his kayak off the island of Eda by several people who did not succeed in bringing him ashore, and two years afterwards another appeared off Westray.* The condensed notices which we have given of the first European colonization of Greenland have been abstracted mainly from Eafn's Antiqidtates Amcricancc, which contains latin versions of the Icelandic annals with comments. For the identification of the ancient names of places with the modern ones, and for various facts. Captain Graah's authority * Account of the iBlands of Orkney by James Wallace, a.d. 1700. 30 POLAR RECirON«. ■# ± 111! li lii lii 1 : 1- in! ill ^!ii! :jl': (.'• I.jl ;1; ilW lias Ikk'11 relied on.* The authenticity of the Icelandic manuscripts seems to be fully established, and the facts they record are mingled with fewer extravagances and mythic interpolations or monkish fictions than those of the contem- ])orary nations. Though the discovery of America by the Northmen is mentioned by Adam of Bremen in his Ecclesias- tical History, written in 1073-6, and the sailing directions for vessels proceeding from Norway to Greenland by the aforesaid Ivar Bardsen, by ]*)iorn Jonsen, and of the Landnama Bok, were more or less extensively known to the northern seamen, the importance of the discovery seems to have been so completely overlooked, that the exploits of the Ice- landers had been forgotten when the genius of Columbus awoke in Europe the spirit of maritime enterprise. Then the attention of the learned was turned to the Icelandic annals, and in process of time various versions and extracts were given to the world ;t but the want of maps and the absence of astronomical observations rendered the geographical results of the early voyages scarcely intelligible to the moderns. The adventures in the northern seas of the two brothers Zeni, M. Nicolo, the knight, and M. Antonio, in the year 1380, are evidently to be placed in the category of fictions, to which some appearance of truth has been imparted by the introduc- * Expedition to the East Coast of Greenland, by Captain W. A. Graali, in 1828, tr. by G. G. ]\Iacdongall, London, 1837. The Icelandic Kongslaujfjiio and Landnamahok were begun to bo compiled very early in the history of that Island. Translations into English were published by Beamish in 1841, by Blackwell in his edition of Mallet, in 1847, and a summary is given in the Geo- graphical Journal for 1858. t Adam of Bremen's Hist. Ecd. Ilamh. et Brem. was printed in 1579 ; the Theatr, Orbis of Ortelius in 1601; Mylius De Anti'q. Ling. Belg. in ICll; Grotius De Orig. Gent. Amer. in 1G42 ; Glaus Jlagnus, De Hist. Gent. Sep- tentr. in 1550; Torfanis, Hist. Vinland in 1705. is ■ :^1 ANTE-COLUMBIAN PERIOD. .'il Icclamlic facts they ncl Tiiytliic lie contem- ica by tlie s Ecclesias- ; directions ncl l)y the ! Landnama le northern have been •f the Icc- Cohimbus . Then tlie ndic annals, were given absence of Leal results derns. brothers year 1380, s, to which e iiitroduc- f tion of a few names and facts. These could readily l)e gathered 1)y the Venetians in tlieir connnercial voyages to England and Scandinavia; and Captain C. C. Zahrtniann (in a paper* which fidly exposes the falsehoods of the narrative), gives it as his opinion that it was compiled by Nicolo, a descendant of the Zeni, from accounts current in Italy in the middle of the sixteenth century, after an interest for the fate of the last Christian colony had been awakened at Ilome.t The romance of the Zeni mitiht have been dismissed with these observations, but as the mariners of Queen Elizabeth's time, and geographers down to a recent date, have speculated on the situation of the ])laces said to have been visited by the Zeni, it may be well to add that Frislanda of the Zeni, is in Captain Zalirtman's opinion the Feroe Islands.^: Nicolo Zeno, il cavalierc, is stated to have made a voyage to the north after the defeat of his countrymen in the battle of Chioggia, by the Genoese, and being overtaken in the Flemish seas by a storm, was wrecked on Frislanda, an island under the sovereignty of the king of Norway. Eslanda is without doubt Iceland, and Engrovclanda, (jrreenland. To this latter countiy the narrative transfers the volcano of Heckla, and states, moreover, that there was near it a monastery of preaching friars, and a church dedicated to St. Thomas. Hot water brought from thermal springs in pipes. A. Graah, in gskvygsiii and istoiy of that in 1841, by In in tlicG Co- lin 1579; the slg. in 1(311 ; \t. Oent. Sep- * Royal Geographical Society of London, v. p. 102. f Letter of Pope Nicholas the Fifth to the bishops of Skalholt and Iloluni, discovered by Professor Mallet in the papal archives. I Columbus, in his Tratado de los zinco zonas habitahilcs, mentions Fris landa at a date prior to the jntblication of the narrative of the Zeni. Heberstein evidently makes Kovaija Zemhja and Engroneland to be the same, .since he says that opposite Petschora and the mouths of the Obi there is reported to be a region called Engroneland, which remains unknown, because of the difticulty of navi- gating the icy sea which surrounds it. — liamiisio IL, fol. 182, and Suppl. fol. ()i)., ed. 1583. See in the same vol., fol. 230, the narr.itive of the Zeni. ;tf ill it Ji ; i ! 1 ill i: if ''ill ii , I p i Jli I ■ 32 POLAR REGIONS. sii])])lit'd Nviiruith tu tlie monastery in winter. Tlio imagination f)t' the writer here turns the CJeysers of Iceland, or tlie liot spi-'ngs of Ournatok, in Greenland, to economic uses. But there is no evidence of a church dedicated to St. Thomas having ever existed in either locality. The Zeni papers, how- ever, describe correctly the Skra^Uing or Eskimo Kayak. " The fishers' boats resemble a weavers shuttle, and are formed of skins of fishes (seal-skins) extended on bones of the same. In these they shut themselves up close, and let the sea and wind toss them about without any fear of breaking or drowning."* Estotilanda is said to lie about a thousand miles westward of Frislanda, and may well be part of the American continent. Southwards of this lies a country named Drogio; and Icaria was another land, siaid to have been discovered on a voyag(^ from Frislanda to Estotilanda. The accounts of the inhabitants of these several countries, and of their social condition, are such as to shew, beyond doubt, the fictitious character of the main narrative on which, nevertheless, some imperfect intelli- gence of the colonization of Greenland has been engrafted, as the passages referred to indicate. The narrative of the Zeni was not published till 1558, when it appeared at Venice in a small volume accompanied by a chart, the original of which is said to have been an old portolano in the Zeno archives.t It was reprinted in 1559 in the second volume of * Cluvierus (a.d. 16G1) divides Canada into Estolihrnd, Terra Cortorealis, and Terra Laboratoris, and into the adjacent islands of vast size, Golesme, Beauparis, Morde de Lions, and Terra Xova, vliich last is the same, he says, with Terra de Bacalas, South of Canada lies Nova Francia, of which Norum- hega is a part. t Hudson, the navigator, by G. M, Asher, LL.D. Printed for Hakl. Society, p. \(Sb. :!ii i . ■ "1 ! i I ANTK-('OM?MBTAN FElMoD. 33 nagiimtion Qr the hot uses. But jt. Thomas \pers, ho\v- no Kayak, are formed f the same, et the sea creaking or !S westward n continent. and Icaria m a voyag(^. inhabitants ndition, are .cter of thci |fc3t intelli- engrafted, Itive of the at Venice original of the Zeno volume of la Cortorealis, pize, Golesme, [ime, he says, vliich Norum- lakl. Society, "it 'i 1 til." Vi(tf/f/i of Kamusius, but witliout the map. This may is considered by Dr. Aslier to be of Scandinavian origin, to be very correct for the time in its outline of the coast of Green- land, and lo have served for the basis of Ilondius' delineation of that country. The error in its position of the south part of Greenland, by the detachment from it of Frizeland, led to mistakes by Frobisher and Davis, who took copies of it with them, as it was considennl to be authentic by the geographers of that time. The Danes, though they suffered the Greenland colonies to die out, did not permit their memory altogether to perish, and in 1 t7C Szkolni or John of Kolnus,* a Polish pilot in the service of Christian the Second King of Denmark, carried out a number of emigiant Scandinavians. He is said to have landed in Grcesland (Grassland), after visiting Greenland, but there is no account of his having founded a colony, or of any of his further proceedings. Michael Lok's map, published in Jones's edition of " Hakluyt's Divers Voyages," places the discovery of Scolvus, written Grcetlandy to the west of Green- land, between latitudes 72° and 7G° ; and Dr. Asher observes, that Gilbert having placed Grodand, as the word has been otherwise spelled, further to the south, led to tlie tiction ol" a Dane named Anskoeld having been the discoverer of Hud- son's Bay.f Gomara says John Scolvo the pilot visited T.abrador with the men of Xorway.t Cristoforo Colon, now universally known by his latinized name of Columbus, had as early as the year 1 174 formed the plan of the voyage, by accomplishing which, thirty years * Variously named Scolvus, Scojraus, Sclolvus, and Scalve by cosmographers. t Asher, lib. cit. xcviii. The earlier editions of Brockhaus' Conversatioiis liixikon contain the xVnskoeld myth. t SeWt. Ictt. of Columbus by R. II. Major, p. xxx., printed for Hakl. Son n •ll 'i: 11! 34 POLAR REGIONS. later, he cliaugod the geography of tlie world. In a letter dated 1 i77, quoted by his sou, he says, that "he sailed a hundred leagues beyond the island of Thule, the southern part of wliieli is distant from the equinoctial line seventy- three degrees, and not sixty-three as some assert ; neither does it lie within the line which includes the west of Ptolemy, but is much more westerly. To this island which is as large as England, the English, especially those from Bristol, go with their merchandise. At the time that I was there the sea was not frozen, but the tides were so great as to rise and fall twenty-six fathoms. It is true that the Thule, of which Ptolemy makes mention, lies where he says it does, and by the moderns it is called Frislanda.""' As it was not till 1480 that the astrolabe was improved by ]\Iartin Behaim and his assistants, so as to become serviceable at sea in ascertain- ing the latitude by the altitude of the sun, we are not to expect a near approach to the true geographical positions in a seaman's narrative of earlier date ; and even in maps con- structed a century after the time of w'hich Columbus speaks, the whole of Iceland is placed to the north of the arctic circle instead of to the south of it. The island to which the Bristo- lians traded can be no other than Iceland, but tides, which rise 156 feet, are not to be foimd even in the Bay of Fundy, and this passage requires explanation. The "West Bygd of Greenland corresponds more nearly in latitude with the Thule of Columbus, but in 1474 that colony possessed neither trade nor inhabitants. The information that Columbus obtained in Iceland must ha,ve strengthened, or perhaps originated, his desires for western discovery. ^i * Miijor, lib. cit. p. xlv. L'AHOTIAN PHKKM). 11 a letter e sailed a 3 southern 10 seventy- t ; neither )f Ptolemy, is as large tol, go with the sea was se and fall , of which oes, and by tot till U80 im and his Q ascertain- are not to [positions in maps con- >us speaks, ,rctic circle the Bristo- |ides, which of Fundy, |st Bygd of the Thule dther trade iS obtained inated, his CHAPTER ir. A. 1). 1492-1527. Minru l\>\o — (.'oluiiibus — Tlie Oabotti ov Cabots, John and Sebastian — Labmdiir — Newt'oumlland — Fabian's Chronicle — Cutrigarius — Sir Jluniphrcy Gilbert — Sebastian Cabot's maps — Cortoreah' — Robert Tliorne. During the latter third part of the tliirteenth century, when tlie prosperity of Venice was in its zenith, Marco Polo, follow- ing the steps of his uncles and other merchunts, travelled across Asia to Klian-balik or Pekin, the seat of the Tartai- conqueror of China, Kublai-khan. His narratives made Europe acquainted with the advanced civil condition of China, and approximately with the position of Cathay ; but the pro- j"ect of reaching the fabulously rich lands of the extreme east by sea, does not seem to liave presented itself at that time to the minds of northern navigators, and maritime enterprise lay dormant until the middL of the fifteenth century, when Prince Henry of Portugal gave the impulse by which his countrymen went forth to trace the western coast of Africa down to the Cuho Tormcntoso, the throne of the Genius of Tempests oi' Caiiioens. In l-i92 Columbus, the most noble of the many worthy seamen Genoa had produced, made his glorious dis- covery of the Western Indies, by which he gave a new world to ungrateful Spain ; and six years afterwards Vasco di Gama, nibling the storm-beaten extremity of Africa (to be thenee- IK i I ^- I Hi! Wh 1 1 1 ; I i 1 1 1 .■if! ; E Jl 1 'M I'OLAll UEGIONS. (nrtli tt'iiueil the Ciipe of Good Hope), readied India by the custeni route. These .splendid achievements of the peninsular mariners were not unheedi'd iu the north. The English inerchant.s longed to have a share of the commerce of the two Indies ; and as the l*ope had assigned the eastern route to the Portu- guese, and the western one to the Spaniards, the mariners of liristol thought that a way to new fields of commercial enter- prise might be found by steering to the north-west. How far a knowledge of the doings of the Norsemen in Greenland may have been inliuential in originating this notion has not been ascertained, but it is difiicult to believe that the Bristo- lians, who traded to Iceland in the time of Edward the Fourth, had not heard of Engronlaud, whither so many of the Icelanders had gone, and of the western HeUuland, Markland and Yiu- land, discovered by the emigrants. It happened fortunately for the interests of geography, that during the reign of Edward the Fourth, a Venetian merchant, Signer Giovanni Gabotto (John Cabot) had settled in Bristol and had prospered largely by the commerce then carried on there, that to Norway and Iceland doubtless in- cluded. This man had three sons Lodovico, Sebastian, and Sancio who were associated with him in his maritime enter- prises. Whether these children were bom to him before or after he left Venice, is a matter of uncertainty; and though both Italy and England claim to have given bu-th to Sebastian, the most celebrated of the family, the honour seems to belong properly to Venice, for according to Sebastian himself, as quoted by Galeacius Butrigarius, the Pope's Legate, and Pietro Martire i\nghiera, he, though merely in boyhood when his father settled in England, was old IS CAliOTIAN PKK [()!). 37 ilia by the ir mariners morcliauts wo Indies ; the Portu- mariners of rcial enter- . How far Greenland on has not the Bristo- th(3 Fourth, 13 Icelanders id and Viu- geography, a Venetian had settled nerce then ubtless in- istian, and ime enter- im before inty ; and iven bii-th e honour to anus, the gh merely . was old lording f :i i enttugli to liiive acquired some knowledge of the classics and of tlie sphere; moreover, in letters patent granted when Sebastian was twenty -seven years of age, John Cabot is styled a Venetian citizen. As the Cabots are generally held to be discoverers of North America up to tlie arctic circle by English writers, who over- look the previous doings of the Norrwnu Greenlanders, we may be excused for devoting a little space to the various and in some points discordant accounts of their voyages. The foundations of the several reports are Sibastian's recollec- tions, uttered in conversation many years after the events, his written documents having perished. It is not therefore surprising that the exact year of the first voyage should be uncertain, and that it should not be easy to apportion the amount of credit, as discoverers, due to the father and son respecti\'ely. A French writer states that M. d'Avezac has fixed, by authentic documents, the year 1494 as that of Cabot's first arrival on the western continent ; and moreover alleges that the Basques claim, by their traditions, to have discovered and established a cod-fishery on the great bank of Newfoundland as early as the middle of the fifteenth century, having been led thither iu pursuit of whales. Unless, however, this claim can be supported by some substantial evidence, it must fall to the ground.f * Ilukliiyt in " Divers Vo) ages, " says that Sebastian was an Englishman, having been born at Bristol about the year 1467. See, "Of the north-east Frostio Seas by the Ambassador of Moscovy, addressed to G. Butiigarius — collected by Richard Eden," 1555. Tub. llakl. Soc. 1852, ii. p. 192. t licvuedes deux blondes, An. 1859. The documents on which M. d'Avezac relies, are not named in the paper to which we refer, but he probably took for his authority the Mappemonde of Sebastian Cabot, to be mentioned in a succeeding page. 88 I'OLAU 11 Ef J IONS. ;l . i!ll !.'* ■t ■I Hiikluyt has pvintcid an jiutliontic docunieiit iclatiiij,' t(» the comnicncenu'nt ol' tliu voyagoa of the Cubots, heiii, Tfakluyt has interpolated "with an English fleet from Bristol," and in tact the ^[athew of Bristol is said to have been the llrst of the fleet which reached the North American continent, not the island of Newfoundland, as generally supposed, but according to arguments atlduced by ]Mr. Biddle, the coast of Labrador.* From a letter to the English Ambassador at Madrid,! written by Master liobert Thorne, long a resident in Spain, wa learn further that his father, "a merchante of Bristow," and Hugh Eliot were adventurers in that fleet, antl discoverers, he says, of the Newfoundlands, and "if the mariners would then have been ruled, and followed their [)ilot's minde, the lands of the West Indies, from whence all the gold commeth, had been ours. For all is one coast, as by the carde now appeareth." In this last sentence Thorne refers to a map made by himself, and sent in L527 to Dr. Ley, the Ambassador to Spain from Henry the Eighth, a copy of which exists in the reprint of " Divers Voyages," published by the Ilakluyt Society. In it a deep inlet is shewn on the American shore, about the 44th parallel of latitude, and another about the 54th, beyond which the coast line stretching directly northwards is designated '' Nova terra lahoratoriim dicta ah Anr/lis j^rimttm invcnta" ov tlie land of Labrador newly discovered by the English. The delineation of the coast extends to the Straits of Magellan, and Terra del Fuego is expanded into a large southern continent. Hugh Eliot or Elyot's name appears again in a patent of dis- * Monvjir of Sebastian Cabot. f ITnkluyt, i. p. 214. 40 rOLAR llECUONS. I 11: I rii pi|:ij J Hi; !M.i! ^m iiM 1r i I T|M!j!! coveiy, grantfcil by Henry VII. to hiin and three others, at a later date. John Cabot followed up his discovery of 14<97 by obtaining a licence under the sign-manual, dated on the 3rd of February 14<98, permitting him to equip six English ships of 200 tons burthen, and to lead the same to " the land and isles of late Jmmde hj the seid JoJm, in oure name, paying for theym as we should for our owen cause paye, and noon otherwise." John Cabot, to whom this licence is exclusively given, did not, as far as we can now learn, go to sea himself in the fleet fitted out under its authority, but he either deputed his son Sebastian to the command, or as a passage quoted below may lead us to conjecture, having died before the fleet sailed, Sebastian took charge of it by right of inheritance. A contemporaiy entry in a chronicle kept by one Eobert Fabian, mentions the departure of the fleet of 1498 in the^ following terms : — " In the thirteenth yeere of K. Henry the 7. (bi/ meenes of one John Cabot a Venetian, which made liimscll'e very experte and cunning in knowledge of the circuit of the world and ilands of the same, as by a sea card and other demonstrations reasonable he shewed) the king caused to man and victuall a ship at Bristow, to search for an Island, which he said hee knew well was rich, and replenished with great commodities : which shippe thus manned and victualled at the king's cost, divers merchants of London ventured in her small stocks, being in her as chiefe patron, the said Venetian. And in company of the said sliip, sailed also out of Bristow three or foure small ships fraught with sleight and grosse merchandizes, as course cloth, caps, laces, points, and other trifles. And so departed from Bristow in the beginning of May, of whom in this maior's time returned no tidings." A tl <\B()T1AN PERIOD. 41 tliers, at a obtaining ■ February • 200 tons les of late tlieym as )therwise." sn, did nut, L the fleet ed his son 3elow may set sailed, •ne Robert 98 in the^ Henry the ich made ihe circuit card and Lg caused ,n Island, ihed with ictualled ed in her enetian. Bristow d grosse Ind other [nning of igs." A later entry says — "This yeere (the iburteenth of his raigne), also were brought unto the king three men taken in the Newfound Island, that before I spake of, in William Purchas' time being maior.* It is to this voyage doubtless that reference is made by ?i(;tro Martire Aughiora, a meinl)er of the Council of the Indies to the Catholic King, when he says that Sebastian dabotto, a very prudent man and accomplished seaman, his very familiar friend, told him, that on the death of his father, finding himself to be very wealthy, he fitted out two ships at his own cost, and steering between the north and nortli-west (tra il vcnto di Maestro e Tramontano), went on till he reached the 55th [)arallel of latitude, where being surrounded by icebergs, even in the month of July, and his ships in great peril, though he had in a manner continual daylight, he was forced to turn and direct his course for some distance to the south and then westwards, according to the inclination of the coast. He traced the laud, which he named Baccalaos, going southwards until he reached the same parallel of latitude as the straits of Gibraltar, in the longitude of Cuba.t Galeacius Butrigarius, the Pope's legate in Spain, who also conversed with Sebastian on his discoveries, reports his words to have been, — " And understanding, by reason oi the * Ilakluyt, ii. p. 9. Fabian's Chronicle was in the htands ol' John Stow when Hakluyt mado these extracts. •f Sebastian evidently uses the name Baccalaos us a commercial designation of the Gudits morrhua or cod-fish. But the word being of Basque origin ( Bacaleos or Bacallos), has given rise, as mentioned above, to an assertion of the lirior discover} of Newfoundland by the Basques, who are said to have been led thither in the pursuit of whale.s, about the middle of the fifteenth century. The French name for the cod-lish Cabillaud, is supposed to have conic from the Basque word by a transposition of syllables. — fievuc dis detix MundeK, 1859. Hakluyt, iii. p. 8. Ramnsio, iii, p. 35, I). Hi 42 POLAR REGIONS. mui • ! !ii sphere, that if I shoukl saile by way of tlie uorth-west, I shouhl hy a shorter tract come unto India, 1 thereupon caused the King to be advertised of my device, who immediately commanded carvels to be furnished with all things apper- tayning to the voyage, which was as farre as I remember in the yeere 1496, in the beginning of summer, I began therefore to saile toward the north-west, not tliinking to find any other land than that of Cathay, and from thence to turne toward India, but after certain dayes I found the lande ranne towards the north, which was to mee a great displeasure. Neverthe- lesse, sayling along by the coast to see if I could find any gulfe that turned, I found the land still continent to the fifty-sixth degree under our pole. And seeing that there the coast turned toward the east, despairing to find the passage, I turned back againe, and sailed downe by the coast of that land toward the equinoctial line, ever with intent to finde the said passage to India, and came to that part of this firme land which is now called Florida, where, my victuals failing, I departed from thence and returned to England, where I found great tumults among the people, and preparation for warres in Scotland ; by reason whereof there was no more consideration had of this voyage." * There are discrepancies in these several accounts, owing either to Sebastian's forgetfulness of dates, or to errors in the reporters of his conversations. Thus, our navigator is made to say by Butrigarius that his father died at the time of Columbus's great discovery of America becoming known in * Iliikluyt, iii. p. 6, translated from Kamusio, lii, Richard Eden, as quoted by Ilakluyt (i. p. 498), mentions a voyage made in the eighth year of the reign of Henry the Eighth to the West Indies and Brazil by Sir Thomas Pert and Pifhaslinn Cabot, which was defeated by want of courage in the former. OABOTIAN I'ERKHI. 43 England, which it must have heen at the tardiest, in 1493, whereas the licence of 1408 shews that John Cabot was alive in the beginning of that year, as does also the Chronicle of Robert Fabian. With respect to the preparation for war with Scotland, James the Fourth, carrying Perkin Warbeck with him, invaded England iu 149G, a truce was concluded between the two countries in 1497, and Perkin himself was made prisoner in that year — dates not easily reconcilr.ble with Sebastian's reasons for the voyages being broken off after 1498. There is no distinct evidence of more than two voyages having been made to North America by the Cabots, father and son, yet the accounts said to have been derived from the latter of the highest latitude that he reached are very contradictory. In one of the immediately preceding extracts, it is stated to be 55°, in the other, 5G°. Francis Lopez de Gomara says, that Sebastian Cahotc with two ships and three hundred men, took the way towards Island from beyond the Cape of Labrador until he found himself in 58 degrees and better. Then x 'ng the cold he turned towards the west, refreshing himself at I'accalaos ; afterwards he sailed along the coast unto 38 degrees, and from thence shaped his course to retume unto England. (Hakluyt.) Eamusio in his Discorso sojn^a la terra fcrma dctte del Lavorador ct de los Bacchalaos, affu'ms that Sebastian searched the land up to the G7th degree ; and in his general treface to the same volume, he informs the reader that, " // Signor Sebastian Qahotto nostro" wrote to him many years past that, having sailed a long time west and by north (ponente e qiiarta d.i Maestro), behind the islands of Kova Francia up to 07° 30' north latitude, he found the sea open, and would have gone to Cataio Oricntalc, if the malignity of the shipmaster had not tJi^ 44 r'OLAIl REGIONS. ir r I ■■'! III; ^lipji forced him back. Perhaps tlu' high latitude Eamusio mentions, may have been an eiTor occasioned by his fancy that the voyage of Steven BuiTough to the Sea of Kara was made by Sebastian himself,* to whom in fact he attri- buted it. Sir Humfrey Gilbert, in his Discourse on the North-west Passage, uses nearly the words of Ramusio, stating Sebastian's highest latitude to have been QT\ degrees, and referring, like llakluyt, to the map in the Queen's private gallery at Wliite- hall, but adding the above statement of the latitude to the extract from Adams's map.j- Sir George Peckham, in a treatise on the same subject, mentions G3 degrees as the northern limit of the discoveries of the Cabots. While Mr. Pichard Willes,i|! in his Argument to prove a North-^uest passage, says, " Graunt the West Indies not to continue unto the pole, graunt there be a passage between these two lands, let the gulfe lie neerer us then commonly we finde it, set namely between 61 and 64 degrees, as Gemma Frisius, in his mappes and globes imagineth it, and so left by our country- man Sebastian Cabot, in his table which the Earlc of Bedford hath at Gheinies\^% again, "Cabota was not only a skilful seaman, but a long traveller, and such a one that entered personally that straight, sent by King Henry the Seventh to make this aforesaid discoverie, as in his owne discourse of navigation you may reade in his carde, drawen with his owne hand, that the mouth of the North-westerne straight lyeth ueere the 318 meridian, between 61 and 64 degi-ees in the elevation, continuing the same bredth about 10 degrees west, where it openeth southerly more and more until it come * Komusio, Viaggi. ii. p. 211. f llakluyt, iii. p. IG. \ llakluyt, iii. p. 26. '^ .T.ilin Raion Rus.sell of Choyncys, Bucks, was advanced to an earldom in 1549. t'ABOTlAN rEIlIOl). 45 under the tvopicke of Cancer, and so runneth i!it(» Mar del Zur, at the least 18 degTees more in bredtli there, then it was when it first began."* Sebastian's "owne mappes and discourses, drawn and written by himself, were (according to llakluyt) in the eustodie of the worshipful master, William Worthington," and were accessible to geographers in the time of Queen Elizabeth, but are no longer extant. The great interest wliich attaches to the voyages of tlie Cabots, as being the beginning of the attempts of Jlngland to make the north-west passage, has led us to give tlic pre- ceding quotations from most of the early notices of any credit. Though Ptanmsio corresponded with Sebastian, hv. does not seem to have been accurately informed of the dates and objects of his northern voyages, since, though evidently inclined to award a full measure of praise to his countryman, of whom he speaks proudly and even affectionately, it is to the Portuguese Gaspar Cortoreale that he gives the merit of being the first, as far as he knew, who attempted a north-west passage to the Spice Islands, yet he tells us that Sebastian would have gone to China but for the mutiny of his men. Until a very recent date, geographers had to rely on the statements of the authors we have quoted, when debating the northern limits of Cabot's vo} age and the probability of his having entered Hudson's Strait, but a discovery has been made on the continent witliin a few years, of a great planisphere of Sebastian Cabot, bearing the date of 1544, and now preserved in the Imperial Library of Paris. We have not seen this very interesting document, but Dr. Asher went to Paris to examine it, and he states, that it is attached to a roller, is very lar1. o ' 46 fOLAR REGIONS. W I '■m'. and oil both sides ol' the engraving tliaptista Agnese contains a map bearing date 22d October 1544, and therefore co^itemporary with the engraving of Sebastian's planisphere, whereon the American coast is represented as deeply indented by veiy numerous inlets, not explored to the bottom. On its northern portion the following names occur in order, proceeding from the south, — Terra chc discubrio Stcucn Gomes — ZalJI — Terra di Bertones — Caho raso — y. d. Baccalaos — i/. dc los aues — ?/. del fofjo — ij. de la fortuna, placed in the, mouth of an inlet, beyond which the Labrador coast is traced for some degrees I!' CAIJOTIAX PKUIOl). 40 without names. TIk; i)lii('('s t'loin Ciipe lliice, iioitliwards, l)eloii<^' all to |)i.) .etinj,' parts of Nowfoundlaiul, mostly vopiv- seiited as islands.* Gaspor Cortovcale is said to have been an able navi<^ator, of a dotermiiHul and enterprising character, who had been educated in the household of the King of Portugal. He sailed in the year 1500 with two caravels and discovei-ed Terra Vcrdc (Labrador) from Rio Xcvado, a river or strait enenmbered with ice, in latitude G0° (Hudson's Straits) to Rio Lorenzo and its gnlf called Quad redo (Gulf of St. Lawrence), which turns at the end of Los Bacchalaos. Tn his voyage down the coast he named Poi'tu di Molvas (Cod-harbour) in latitude 50°, a large; island of demons, succeeded on the south by another called Terra Nuova ; tbjn by a smaller one termed Los Bacchalaos ; and by a detached islet denominated Calo dc Ras (Cajie Eace). All these, with many other small islands and straits, are represented on a rude map in Ramusio's third volume, which was first published in the year 1550. That map, therefore, may be considered as containing Ramusio's notion of Ncwfcumdland and the adjoining coasts at that date ; but the headlands are represented as they w uld appear to a ship a good way from land, making like islands, and the map is otherwise so incor- rect, that the trouble of endeavouring to identify all the [daces by their modern names W'ould be ill repaid, though this may be approximately done by referring to T)e Laet's map, whereon many of the names are reproduced. Mr. P. Fraser Tytler, in * This map, though cm a small scale, is very neatly executed, and is very far superiur as a delineation of the coast to the rude wood-cutH of Hamusio. It does not contain lines of latitude and longitude, and the north point is towards the right-hand corner of the sheet. There is a second map of North America in the same atlas, which does not go so far north. The Atlas is preserved in Trinity College, Dublin. E M roi.AI! llTiGIONS. Ill " ijii III ■lii , i; ^1 ' liis Progress uf Disroirry in the Xorfhcni parfs of Aincnni, says that Terra Venh' is* naiiuMl Terra Cortorcalis in a Koman map dated I. "SOS. Cortorealc's voyage was closely followed l>y that of Estevan Gomes, but as the latter is not said to have approached 1 : Arctic regions we shall not make; further mention of him here, Though both contributed to introduce the Portuguese to the Newfoundland cod-tishery. Rondelet, whose work appeared in 155 1, speaks of the fishery of the cod-fish by the Bretons and Normans in the sea of Nova Francia as an (jstablished thing at that date, and Bellon, another French icthyologist, identifies the American species of cod with the stock-fish which was brought to Germany from the coast of Norway. The Basques also were early in the field, and Sanmel Champlain, quoting from Nillet and Antoine ]\Iaghi, says, that the Bretons and Normans established a fishery on the great bank of Newfoundland in 15()4< ; and Jean Denys of llonileur is said to have constructed a chart of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in ISOG.f Ifakluyt also has recorded the private voyages of se\eral Englishmen to the American continent in the beginning .of the sixteenth century, but as these were not directed to the high latitudes, and did little or nothing in preparing the way for Arctic enterprise, we must pass them by. In 1527 Master Eobert Thome, then residing in Seville, addressed what he termed " a Declaration of the Indies" to * This short notice of tlie voyage of Gaspar Cortnreale is extracted from llumusio (iii. p. 417). iMr. Tytler says, that tlio most authentic details of the voyage arc to be found in a letter written by the Venetian Ambassador at Lisbon, to Pietro Pasqniligi, only eleven days after Curtoroale's return to Portugal. The pretended voyage of Anus Cortoreale is omitted in the text, as being unsupported by authentic records. f Charlevoix ITistoire de la Nouvelle France, i. p. 4. (•AUO'IIAX I'KItlUl). 51 Kiureoccupied the southern, western, and eastern routes. This writer's lather has Leen mentioned in a preceding page as one of the first adventurers that left England in seareli of new lands, and the son claims to have a hereditary interest in the subject. A second letter, giving his reasons in detail, and accompanied by a ma]) which we have already referred to, is addressed to Dr. Edward Ltiy (or Lee), then ambassador to the Emi)eror, and afterwards Archbishop of York. In this letter he gives a sunmiary view of the discoveries made by the Spaniards, Portuguese and others, up to that time. Tie adds to his notice of the discovery by the English of the " Xewe founde lands." " Nowe then, if from the sayde newe founde landes the sea be navigable, tlua'e is no doubte, but sayling northwarde and passing the pole, descending to the equinoc- tiall lyne, we shall hitte these islandes (the Spice Islands), and it shouldc bee tlie nmcli more shorter way than either the S])aniard.s or the Portingales liaue." ..." I judge there is no lande (un) inhabitable nor sea innavigable. So that if 1 had facultie to my will, it would bee the first thing that I would understande, eueu to attempt if our seas northwarde be navigable to the pole or no." This is the first clear enun- ciation of the desirableness of attempting a voyage across the polar regions, and Master Thome's arguments had doubtless considerable weight at the time when they were made public and for long afterw^ards.* * Thome's letters are given at lengtli, together witli fiy«c simile of his niaj> in " Divers Voyages," edited for the Ilakhiyt Society by John Winter Jones, ISad, ji '27 pf infra. 52 PoLAIt RKOIONS. > 5 ■* Ilakluyt iiil'(»rins us (hat Tlioviuj's oxlioitation took 'pvesciit cjfcd with King llunry the Eiglith, wlio si'ut forth in tlu' month of May of that sanio year "two faim .ships well nianncil and victualed, having in them divers <;unning men to seekc strange regions." These shijts, the Mary of Cluihlford and Sampson, eflected nothing. The former touclied at Newfound- land and came home, the latter was lost in a storm.* The voyages of the Cabots did not open to the English nation a short way to the Spice Islands or to the fabulous golden regions of the East, but they laid the foundations on which, in the course of a few generations, a lucrative fishciy and many prosperous colonies were raised, and through which the Anglo-Saxon race were eventually diffused, as masters, over the northern half of the new world. The knowledge of America, possessed by the best informed geographers of the period that elapsed between the voyages of the Cabots and those of Frobisher, will be best understood by consulting the ancient maps republished by the Visconte de Santarem in his Trois Essais sur VUistoiyc clc la Cosmograpliic. (British Museum.) * Ilakluyt, iii, p. 54. 'ii i :'i 1!| ■: i' ^'1 r '■' V(^^ AtiKS T(i IIIK NOUTH-l'Asr IKOM i;.\<;KANI>. 53 CHAPTER Til. VuYACiES TU Till!: NOliTII-EAST FHOM ENULANl*. — A.D. ir)4b-15»S(). Selfustifin Calwt — Sir IIn<,'h Willoiii^libv — Noviiyjv Zciulya — Arzina — Ridmiil (,'liaiia'lor — Stuiiliou BiUTOuf^li — Kol<,'uev — Potcliom — Novjiya Zi'inlya — Vaii^ats — Sou of Kara — Kara ;^at(.', ur Biiriuiij^'h's Strait — I'l t ami Jackiiiau — Tlie Ob — Xuvaya Ziiiilya — rttclmra — Vgtiisky Scliar, Soutlu.-in Vnij,'ata or Pots Strait ; or Straits ot Nassau — Uiissian accounts ul' Sanmoid land. — Matliew's laml — Kostiu Schar — Cajje Taimyr — Siiivero Vostocluidi iios, or Clu^liuskiii. -'4 TliK unfuituuate voyage alluded to at the end of the la.st chapter, is the only ellbrt made by England in the reign of Pleniy the Eighth to further northern discovery ; but in the auspicious, though too brief reign of his son Edward the Sixth, thesi)irit of discovery revived, and the merchants comi)Iaining of the decay of trade, \\hile the Portugals and Spaniards were bringing home riches yearly from both the Indies,* their views were now directed to the north-east, and to Itussia, of which countiy an account by Sigismund Baron Heberstein was published at Vienna in 1549.1 The Hans Towns had hitherto monopolized the Eussian trade, under pretence of a league established among themselves {Hans Lmo, Purchas calls it) for repressing the overflowings of the supposed teeming • Hahliiyt, i. p. 213. f Jicrui.i Muscovitar'nuii Cowm'-ntarii. Vindohona. An Italian trannlatiini was brouj^ht out at Venice in 1550, and rcprintcil in the viayf/i di lluinvsio in 15S3. See an I'aiglisli translation for the Haklnyt Society by IJ. II. Major. .)^'*" 54 I'OLAll II RG IONS. !■ I i ill! .1 . . '!!' nortlierii populations, and securing the soulhorn kingdoms from damage. Tlie English merchants determined to hrave the Hans Law, and Clement Adams says that Sebastian Cabot was a prime mover in the business, and, as jNFr. IJichard Eden testifies, had long beforehand the secret of a voyage toward Cathay in his mind. lie had returned to London in 1318 from the service of Spain, either of his own free-will or recjdled by the young king, who in 1540 created him Grand Pilot of England, witli a pension of £100 : 13 : 4, for the good and acceptable services done and to be done.* As "governour of the mysterie and discouerie of regions, dominions, islands and places unknowne," he drew up an excellent code of instruc- tions for the guidance of the olHcers and mariners in the com- pany's employment, and carefully superintended the outfit of the three sliips that were " prepared and furnislied out for the search and discoverie of the northerne part of the world, to open a way and passage to our men for trauaile to newe and unknowen kingdomes." This enterprise was undertaken in the year 1553; Sir Hugh Willoughby, an able military officer, was appointed Captain-General, and embarked in the Admiral, named the Bona Esperanza, of 120 tons, William Gefferson, master; Richard Chancelor, pilot-major, commanded the Edward Bonauenture, of IGO tons; and the Bona Confidentia of 90 tons, had Cornelius Durfoorth for master. Each ship was furnished with a pinnace and a boat, and i)rovided with eightecni mouths' provisions and everything that was necessary. The expense was defrayed by a subscription of £25 sterling from each of the members of the company, producing the gross sum of £6000. • Tlakliivt, lii. p. 10. VOYACJES TO TIIK NOinH-KAST FROM EXUJ.AM). .1.) All being ready, the squadron unmoored from liiitcliHe on the 2()tli day of INIay 1553, and passing- by Greenwich, wliert; the young king then lay sick, the mariners, apparc^lled in watchet or skie-coloured cloth, rowed amaine ; "the common peo[)le tlockt together, standing very thicke upon the shoare, the Privie Counsel, they lookt out at the windowes of the court, and the rest of the courtiers ranne up to the ttjps of the towers : the shippes hereupon discharge their ordnance, and shoot off their pieces after the manner of warre, and of the sea." Very slow progress was made in IIk; voyage down the Thames, and Orfordness was not left behind until the 23d of June. On the 1 4th dny of July the lleet approached yEgoland and Ilalgoland, Norwegian islands lying on the OGtli parallel, and distant by the reckoning 250 leagues from Orfordness. The last named island was Ohther's abode, as mentioned in a former chapter, and a jjarty having landed there in a pinnace, saw about thirty small houses, but the inhabitants had fled. Off Seynam or Senjiin, an island on the Norwegian coast, whose north end is in latitude {ii)}°, the fleet encountered a storm in which the Admiral and the Bona Confidentia were separated from the Edward Bonauonture, driven far out to sea, and prevented from embarking a pilot to take them to Wardhuus, in Finmark. Fourteen days after leaving Senjiin they sighted " Willouglibie Land, in 72 degrees," along which they plied northward for three days, but " the Confidence being troubled with bilge water, and stockccr (stagged, hogged), they bore round to seek a harbour. Willoughby's Land is, according to Admiral Beechey, whose opinion has been generally received, that part of the coast of Novaya Zemlya which is named the Goose Coast by the Eussian Admiral Liltke, of which the hi 56 POLAR REGIONS. I ^ ii! ;lii; IIP ■Ml oxtreme points are the Sycvernuy Muis, aiul Yu::lt'nHy Guisnuy Muis, or North and South Goose Capes. A harbour was found in Lapland, on the west side of the entrance into the White Sea, opposite the promontory of Kanin nos at Warzina, called by Hakluyt Arzina, near unto Kegor. There, at no great distance from tlie Dwina, where relief could have been obtained, the captain-general, officers, and crews of both ships were miserably frozen to death, as some liussian fishermen ascertained in the following spring. The .journals and other papers that were recovered mention the discovery of Willoughby's Land, and that the captain-general, believing from the frost, snow, and hail in the middle of September, that further navigation was inexpedient, determined to winter in that desolate haven. He had sent out parties to explore the country in several directions, for the distance of tliree or four days' journey, but no inhabitants were met with, though bears, great deer, foxes, gluttou"- and diverse other strange beasts were seen. How long the miserable men sustained the severity of the weather is not known, but a will, found on board the Admiral, proved that Sir Hugh Willoughby and most of that ship's company were alive in January 1554. Had they been skilled in hunting and in clothing themselves,* so as to guard against the severity of the weather, and taken tlie precaution, moreover, of laying in at the beginning of the winter a stock of mossy turf, and such dwarf em2)etra, vaccincop and andromedcc, as the country produced for fuel ; and above * Voyage towards the North Pole, edited by Capt. F. VV. Becchey, 1843, p. 227. See also Three Voyages, edited by Dr. Beke for the Hakluyt Society, 1853, p. 5. Tn a commission from the Muscovy Company, bearing date 15r)8, instructions are given to search whether that part of Nona /tiuhla (against Vaigats) doe ioyne with the land of Sir ffnijh Willoii(/hbi/, discouered '53, and is in 73 degrees. — I/dklin/f, i. p. 382. VOYACiKS TO THE NOKTH EAST FHOM EN(;i,AM). ,07 all, liad they secured a few of the very many seals and great lishes (wliales) which they saw in abundance in the sea aroiind them, they miglit liave preserved their lives, and even passed a comfortahle winter. Chaucclor, during the tune the fleet lay at Harwich, had overhauled his provisions and found much of them corru[)ted and putrid, Mhich aftci wards gave him much anxiety, iVIatters were not likely to bo better on board the other two ships, and want of warmth, with a low and bad diet, would speedily render the crews victims ol' scurvy. The English agent at Moscow, o.i being appiised of the sad event, sent men to conduct the ships containing the goods and dead men back to England; but Ihe ships being leaky, sunk by the way, and carried the living navigators to tlie bottom along with the dt^ad. The Edward Bonauenture was more skilfully or more for- tunately managed by Eichard Chancelor, captain and pilot- major. On losing sight of the Admiral, off Seynam, Chancelor made for the appointed rendezvous at Wai'dhuus, in latitude 70i N., and after waiting seven days in vain for the arrival of the Admiral, he again sailed, and eventually reached St. Nicholas in the Wliite Sea. From thence he proceeded over- land to Moscow, delivered his credentials to the Czar, Ivan Vasilovitch, and obtained from him many privileges for the English merchants. In 1554 Chancelor returned to England ; shortly afterwards Cabot's Company received a charter of incoi'poration from Queen Mary, and in the eighth year of Queen Elizabeth, an act of parliament was passed, in which the company is styled " The Fellowship of English Merchants for the Discovery of New Trades." It was, however, generall}' termed the ^Muscovy or IJussia Company. This success, and the long and advantageous alliance with liussia which it led 58 rOLAIl REGIONS. iiifiii W ill i '- ^^1 i ■ J to, is another of the hciiofit.s resulting from the suggestions and influence of Sebastian Caliot, and England owes grati- tude to Venice, from whence her grand pilot came. In 155G the INIuscovy Company fitted out the Serchthrift pinnace for discovery towards the river Ob, and further search for a north-east passage. The command of this small vessel was given to Steuen or Stephen Burrough, who had been master of Chancelor's ship, and he was accompanied, as he had been in the Edward Bonauenture, by his brother William, afterwards comptroller of Queen Elizabeth's navy. The family name of these seamen is variously spelt by Hakluyt, Borough, or Burro. "On the 27th of April, being Monday, the Eight Worshipful Sebastian Cabota came aboord our pinnesse at Grauesende, accompanied with divers gentlemen and gentlewomen, who, after they had viewed our pinnesse, and tasted of such cheere as we could make them aboord, they went on shore, giving to our mariners right liberall rewards, and the good olde gentleman Master Cabota, gaue to the poore most liberal almes, wishing them to pray for the good fortune and prosperous successe of the Serchthrift, our pinnesse. And then at the signe of the Christopher, hee and his friends banketed and made mee and them that were in the company great cheere ; and for very joy that he had to see the forwardness of our intended discovery, he entred into the dance himselfe, among the rest of the young and lusty company : which being ended, hee and his friends departed most gently, commending us to the governance of almighty God."* Sebastian Cabot was then in the eighty-eighth year of his age. By the end of IMay the Serchthrift had reached the highest * Hnklnyt, i. p. 274. grati- ., gaue or tlie ift, our ec and ere in lad to id into lusty parted lighty year lighest VOYAGES TO 'I'lIE NOlITH-KAST FltOM EN01>ANI>. 50 point of Norway wliich I'urrough says was named liy liini on the previous voyage of Chancelor. On the 7th the Edward, Captain Chancelor, which had hitherto accompanied the Serchthrift, heing 1)unnd for St. Nicholas, steered to the south- ward while Burrough went to the river Kola. There they met a Russian lodia, whose master informed them that the river Petchora was distant seven or eight days' sail. Availing him- self of the great courtesy of this Russian shipmaster, whose name was Gabriel, Burrongh kept company with his lodia (lodji), and with others bound for the fisheiy of salmons and morses at Petchora. On the 8th of July he reached Kanin-nos, the eastern promontory of the Gulf of Archangel, near which, riding at anchor in ten fathoms of water, he obtained a good plenty of haddocks and cods. Thirty leagues further, Gabriel conducted the English pinnace to the harbour of jNIorgiouets, where there was plenty of sea-fowl with abundance of drift- wood, but no trees growing. Here P>urrough was presented with three wild geese and a barnacle by a young Samojed. On the 14th the Serchthrift passed to the south of the island of Kolguev or Kolgoi, and next day went in over the danger- ous bar of Petchora, on which there \v'as one fathom of water. Burrough ascertained the latitude to be 09° 10', and the variation of the compass 3i° from the north to the west. The rise of the tide at full moon is four feet. On the 21st July, after leaving Petchora, monstrous heaps of ice were seen, and at first mistaken for land ; and soon afterwards, before the mariners were aware, the Serchthrift was enclosed within it, " which was a fearefuU sight to see." Getting clear of this danger, an easterly course ^\•as pursued in about 70 degrees of latitude, but the pinnace was daily hampered by ice. On the 25th a monstrous Vhale came so near the shi[> that a sword M \M ni U ';* ■< !! 1' 60 I'OLAR KKiJlONS. might have huen thrust into his sido, on which all the com- pany shouted, for they feared that their ship would be over- thrown ; with the cry however the monster, making a terrible noise in the water (spouting) departed, and the fearful mariners were quietly delivered of him. On the same day certain islands were seen, one of which Burroiigh named St. James, and made its latitude to be 70° 42' K, which, according to Admiral Liltke is ten miles too much. From a Russian mas- ter of a lodji, Burrongh learnt that he was off the southern extremity of Novaya Zemlya, and on the 3 1st the Serchthrift came to anchor among the islands of Vaigats. On one of the islands Bun-ough saw a heap of Samojcd idols, of very rude manufacture, with bloody eyes and mouths. This spot is Bolvanovsky Nos (Image Cape), at the north-eastern end of Vaigats, which, according to Admiral Llitke, was visited in 1824 and found to be in precisely the same state as it was when discovered by the .Serchthrift.* On the 5th of August Burrough saw " a terrible heape of ice approach neere," and therefore thought good with all speed to depart from thence. On the 2 2d, despairing of discovering any more to the eastward that year, he returned westwards ; on the 29th he passed to the north of the island Kolguev, and on the 31st doubled Kanin-nos. On the 11th of September the Serchthrift was brought to anchor in the harbour of Kholmogorui (Colmogro) on the Dwina, where she wintered. Burrough intended *<-» resume his voyage to the Ob next spring, but being dis- patched to Wardhuus to search for some English ships, the voyage to the Ob was not performed. " The passage by which liurrough thus sailed between Novaya Zendya and Vaigats into the sea of Kara, is called by the Russians Karsl'oi Vorota * Dr. Reko, lib. cit, jinge x. VOYAGES TO THE NOUTH-EAST FROM ENULAM). (51 (tlic Kara CfUto), and as hu wns tlie first navigator who is rucurded to havu l>een there, ho must ho rogardod as the dis- coverer of that Strait."* Thoiioli the ^luscovy Company were much uccujned witli their inhmd commerce tlirough liu.ssia to Persia, they renewed from time to time their attempts to find a passage eastward along the northern coasts of Europe and Asia. With this in view, they instructed their agents in liussia to collect information respecting the mouths of the Ob and other large rivers that flow into the Arctic sea ; and they sent out at least two sea-expeditions. Of one of these, only th'" in- structions are known dated 1508, and addressed to I'assen- dine, "SVoodcocke and Browne. The oilier sailed in 1580 under conmiand (;f Artlrar I'et and Charles Jackman, two ahle and pei"S(!vering seamen. They were instructed when they came to Vaigats to pass eastwards along the coast of Samoeda, keeping it always in sight till they came to the mouth of the river Ob, and so to pass eastwards to the dominions of the Emperor of Cathay. Jackman's vessel was very frail, sailed ill, and had a crew of only five men and a boy. Pet pushed on ahead leaving Jacknum to folloM- him to the rendezvous at Vaigatz, and having made Novaya Zemlya in latitude 71° 38' N., about the south Goose Cape, he ran to the south- v/ard, keeping Novaya Zemlya on his larboard hand until he reached Vaigatz, but being unable to approach it on account of the ice, he thought that it was a continuation of Novaya Zemlya, and standing off shore missed the northern or I! i-m Burrough's Strait which he was seeking for. Continuing his * Dr. Beke, 1. c. Steven Burrnngh's jonrnal apijears in the second volume of Ivannisin's " Viaggi," and i.s there crroncouisly attriLuted to Sebastiano C'nbnta. 62 rOLAU RKOIONS. coui'S(j to tlio soiitlnviird with a llowiii;^' slicet, he run into tlio ]}ay (»f rutchora, thiiii resuiuiii^' an easterly cDurse he gdt isi^^ht of the .south end ol" Yai^i^atz, and on the lOth of July entevetl ilw. strait between tliat ishmd and the main hind of the Saniojiid.s. This southern passage of Vaigatz or Pet's Sti'ait is ealled hy the Russians Y(joisl-ij Schar, and by the Duteh tlie Straits of Nassau. (Dr. lieke.) On tlie S.^th, wliile endeavouring to find a way eastward through the ice, Pet "was overtaken by Jacknian, when they agreed to seek the hnid again and to confer furtlier at Yaigatz. ]\y warping from one piece of ice to another they reached a cle.ir sea on the lotli of August and gave God the praise. On the IGth tliey turned to the westNvard, and on the 2Gth of December Pet reached Eatcliffe, but Charh^s Jackman carried tlie AVilliam into a Norwegian port, where he wintered. On the opening of the navigation next year he left his port of refuge iu company with a Danish ship and was never heard of after that time. Arthur Pet was one of Chancelor's crew in the Bonaventure. Purchas* has preserved two documents written in 1584: by Anthony Marsh, a chief factor of the Muscovy Company, in which he quotes a letter from four Russians containing the following paragraph : " Heretofore your people have been at the said river of Ob's mouth with a ship, and there was made shipwreck, and your people were slain by the Samojeds, who thought that they came to rob and subdue them. The trees that grow by the river are firs and yell, a kind of soft light fir." Dr. Beke, after giving the two documents at length, observes, that we learn from them two very remarkable facts. The first is, that previously to the year 158i, an English vessel had crossed the sea of Kara, and reached the mouth of * i'ilgriiiR'8, iii. p. 804. VOYAUES TO THE NOUTH-EAST FIIOM EN(JLAN1). »•) iitu tlic ll(3 gnt )f July laiul «»t" .r IVt's by the h, while ret was he luiid roiu one hu loth y turned reached [I into a !>• of the ompany lat time, icnture. 1581 by pany, in iiing the been at s made ds, who le trees ft light length, facts. iMil lish lo\ith of the Oil. Till" second is, that at that time the Ix'st marine route from the White Sea and the Petehora was hy the isles of Vaigat/ and Novaya Zendya, and by the land of Mal- ))lieoue, being a record of the discovery of the entrance into the sea of Kara by the ^Fatoehkin SSehar. In this strait the Eussian i)ilot Itosnmistor wintered in ITON, and through it penetrated into the sea (;f Kara in the following season, but eould not proi'eed far for the ice. The navigation of the sea of Jvara has always been obstructed by ice, and on that account the eastern side of Novaya Zemlya has not yet been fully surveyed. Mathew's Strait (which is the translation t)f Matochkbi t'^char, or Matfu.schoi Ya)\ is in latitude 73i° N.) and separates Novaya Zendja jiroper from JNIathew's Land, north of which, and sejiarated from it by a narrow winding channel, lies Liltke's Land, the largest of the Novaya Zendya islands. jNfathew's Strait lies nearly on the same parallel of latitude with Olcnii nos, the eastern promontory of the estuary of the Ob. The Novaya Zendya islands, including Yaigats, which may be considered as the fourth and southernmost of the chain, stretch in a crescent ic curve, concave to the east from a little below the seventieth parallel northwards through seven degrees of latitude. The east side of the sea of Kara has a general north-east direction from Kara Bay, in latitude 69, to Cape Taimyr and Cape Cheliuskin of Middendorf or the Sievcro Vostochnoi nos (Sacred Promontory) of Baron Wrangel. Several large rivers fall into the sea from the land of the Samojeds, of which the Ob and Yenisei have long estuaries. The Piasina, and Taimyr or Legata, are more northern, the latter entering the bottom of Taimyr Bay. ill ■ .1 64 POI.AII HECIONS. II CHAPTEU IV. DUTCH NOUTII-EASTF.UX VOYAGES. — A.D. 1504-1 51)7. Williaiu Bavciitzooa — Novaya Zcinlya — Cornt'lisDU Nai — Sia of Kara — iJui'dit/oou ami IJijp — Dear l.-laud — C'ii'cuniiiavi;;uli(»n of Si)il/,- bor^'oii — Uiiiililin^ of the Ucntli omX of Xovaya Zoiulvii — Davoiit- zooii's ii;isorablc winter and ilcatli — cscaj)!' of tlio survivors. The Netliei'laiklors luid loooked on the progves.s of the Eiiglisli in llussia, with no small coninierciiil jealousy, ami aftiv um])loying in vain John de Walle, merchant- ambassador at the court of the Cziir, to shake the credit ol' the ^[usco\y Company, determined to comi)ete with them in the search for the north-east passage. The merchants of Middlebnrgli in Zeelandt were the tirst to move in this business, and in conjunction with the Syndic of West Friesland, resident in Enklniysen, fitted out the Swane of Ter Veere, under the command of Cornelis Corneliszoon Nai, who had served for some years as a pilot in the liussian trade ; and the Mercurius of Enkhuysen, commanded by Brant Ysbrantzoon, otherwise Brant Tetgales, also an experienced seaman. Amsterdam likewise, desiring to participate in the enterprise, fitted out a vessel named, like that of Enkhuysen, the j\Iercurius, which was wisely entrusted to William Barentzoon, by contraction Barentz, (meaning the sou of Barent or Bernard,) a most skilful mariner and a burgher of Amsterdam. He had prepared him- self for voyaging in the north-sea by a study of the Icelandic records, and Purchas has preserved a translation of part of TU'TCH NOKTH-KASTKHX V«)VAmast(!rs, on his separate voyage to Novaya Zemiya, and a few ik Wakkendorph, Archbishop of Drontheini, and translated by Torfreus in his Grcenlandia. 'J he imperfect copy used by Barentzoon was found in the Ferbe Islands. •f In Blome's English edition of M. Sanson's map, printed in 1(570, this strait is named Gorgossoio Schar. '* .\ CG I'OLAIl RE(M0N8. voyage, in thought by Genii do Veer to have made too favourable a report of the extent of tlie voyage aeross the Kara. On the 14th of September all the three shii)s regained the Dutch coast, and shortly afterwartU reached their respec- tive ports in safety. A second fleet of seven ships from Zeelaudt, Knkhuysen, llotterdam, and Amsterdam, did not get farther than I'et's Strait and made no discovery. The third Dutch voyage ^vas performed by Amsterdam ships only, the other ports declining further expenditure. Barentzoon \'as chief pilot, and Jacob Van Ileemskerck and Ian Corneliszooii liijp were captains. They sailed early in the sunnner of 1 .590. Barentzoon desired to reach Cape Taimyr by rounding the north end of Novaya Zemlya, in 77 degrees of latitude, but llijp wished to avoid the eastern land, and Barentzoon giving way to his authority, or to the urgency of his persuasions, they steered to the nortlnvard on a more westerly meridian. On the 9tli of June 159G they saw a high steep island in latitude 74 i°, to which they gave the name of Bear Island. Seven years later, Stephen Bennet, a ship-master in the service of the ^Muscovy Company, called the same rock 'Cherie, after Sir Francis Cherie, a member of the Company. Continuing their voyage northwards and eastwards, the mariners saw land again in 79° 49'' N. and supposed that they had reached a part of Greenland, but they had in fact arrived on the east side of the Spitzbergen group of islands, and were the discoverers of that archipelago. Eunning westwards, along the south coast of the north-east island, they entered the Vaigats or Hinlopen Strait, and pass- ing round the north ends of New Frizeland and West Spitz- bergen, in the 80th parallel of latitude, they returned to Bear 1, but lergen Iclago. li-east [pass- >pitz- 1 Bear DLUVU NuUTH-KASTKUN VoYAUIvS. o; IhIiuuI on tlio 1st of .lunu. Ilcro thfi two vosscls scpanitrd. Rijp again sailocl nortli to IJiid Capo, on the west siilc ol' Spitzbcrgcn, and from tlicncc lionic. IJaruntzoon, on the other hand, hcUl to thu eastward until he reached Novaya Zemlya, in latitude 73^", whence he coasti'd the western shore, nortliwards, until he ])assed the Islands of < )range, tlie limit of his first voyage ; and having fairly rounded the north-east extremity of the land, and traced its eastern coast some way, was arn^sted by the ice, and shut up in Ice Haven. " In the (Evening of the 20th of August," says (ierrit de Veer, "wo got to the west side of lee llauen, where we were forced, in great cohl, prtuerty, misery and griel'e, to stay all that winter." On the 1 1th of 8ep^end)er thi? poor mariners took counsel among themselves, and after debating the matter, determined to build a house upon the laud, to keep therein as well as they could, and so commit themselves to the tuition of God. "And to that end we went further into the land, to find a convenient place, and yet we had not much stuffe, in regard that there grew no trees, nor any other thing in that country to build the house withall. But at last we found an unexpected comfort in our need, which was, that we found certain trees, roots and all, which had been driven upon the shoare, either from Tartaria, jNIuscouia, or elsewhere, for there was none growing upon that land." On the 15th of September, a bear having come to where the crew were working at the wood, put its head into the harness-tub, to take out a piece of salt-beef, and was shot in the ?ct of doiug so. After this, in the fine days, they dragged the wood on sledges to the building site they had chosen, and in so doing, ran coiisideral)le risk from the bears ; but in stormy weather they kept close under hatches on board, being unable to eudure the severity of the 68 POLAR REGIONS. mi cold, wlien it blew hard. On the 12th of Octoher the house was so far finished, that half the crew slept in it, but endured great cold, not having clothes enough, and because they could keep no fire, on account of the chimney not being made, whereby it smoked exceedingly. From this time they were engaged, when the weather permitted, in landing provisions, breaking up parts of the ship to get deals, and in other necessary preparations for the winter. On the 20th of October, a party going on board to get spruce beer, found it frozen, with the barrels burst and the iron hoops broken. This day, in calm sunshine, they saw the sea open. On the 2-ith, the whole crew took up their abode in the house, part of them having up to that night slept on board. On the 4tli of November the sun ceased to lise above the horizon, and at this time the bears began to depart, and the arctic foxes to come about them. The foxes which they took in the dark season gave them an occasional and seasonable supply of fresh food. They endeavoured to warm themselves in their sleeping berths by putting hot stones under their feet, for the cold and the smoke were alike unsupportable. The heat was so great a comfort that they endeavoured to make it continue by stopping up the doors, chimney, and all the avenues of fresh air, but (as was sure to lappen) when they had succeeded, " we were taken with a great swounding and dazeling in our heads, so that some of r.s that were strongest, first opened the chimney, and then the doores, but he that opened the doore fell downe in a swound, with much groaning, upon the snow. On casting vinegar in his face, he recovered and rose up. And when the doores were open we all recovered our healthes again, by reason of the cold aire." They continued in fine weather to ^■0 abroad and sot springes for foxes, but were often frost- DUTCH NORTH-EASTERN VOYAGES. 69 bitten iii the face and ears. By an observation of Bellatrix, a star in the left shoulder of Orion, the latitude of the house was ascertained to be 75° 43' N.* On the 28th of December, one of the men made a hole at the door and went out, but staid not long, on account of the hard weather. He found the snow higher than the house. On the 5th of January 1 597, the festival of twelfth night was kept, and the gunner was made king of Novaya Zemlya, which, says Gerrit de Veer, " is at least 800 miles long, and lyeth between two seas." On the 22d, some of the men going abroad perceived that daylight began to a^jpear, and said that the sun would soon be visible, but William Barentzoon replied Hint it was yet two weeks too soon. On the 24!th in fair clear weather, Gerrit de Veer, Jacob Hcemskerck, and another going to the sea- side, saw, contrary to their expectation, the edge of the sun, and hurried home to tell "William Barentz and the rest the joyful news; "but "SVilliam Barentz, being a wise and well experienced pilot, would not believe it, esteeming it to be about fourteen dales too soone." After two days of misty weather, the sun was again seen on the 27th. From some astronomical data, given by Gerrit de Veer, Dr. Beke infers that it was on the 25th, not the 24th, that the sun was first seen, and even with this correction, the extraordinary refrac- tion of 3° 49' must be allowed for. The daylight, by this time, had so increased, that the men Avere able to refresh themselves by playing at the ball, With the return of day- light, the bears came again about the house, and some being shot, afforded a very seasonable supply of grease, so that they were able to burn lamps and pass the time away in reading. • Beke, 1. c. p. 131. 1 70 ruLAR RlXilON.S. M''^ h -s';' -t s: iii f i The bears, at this time, ransacked the ship, and drawing from under the snow the cook's cupboard, which was empty, carried it on shore. In May 1507 it was determined chat, if the ship were not clear of ice by the end of the month, the crew should depart in the schuyt and boat, which w^ere accordingly made ready to put to sea. For this purpose, on the 29th of May " ten of us went unto the scute to bring it to the house to dresso it and make it ready to sayle, but we found it deep hidden under the snow, and were faine with great paine and labour to dig it out, but when we thought to draw it to the house we coulde not, because we were too weake, wherewith we became wholely out of heart, doubting that we should not be able to goe forwarde with our labour ; but the maister, encouraging us, bad us strive to do more than we were able, saying that both our lives and our welfare consisted therein, and that if we could not get the scute from thence and make it ready, then, he said, we must dwell there as burghers of Novaya Zernlya, and make our graves in that place. But there wanted no good will, but only strength, which made us to let the scute lye, which w^as no small gi'eefe unto us, and trouble to thinke of But after uoone we took hearte again, and determined to tourne the boate that lay by the house with her keele upwards, and to amend it, that it might be the fitter to carry us over the sea." One of the bears killed in the end of May had in its stomach a piece of rein-deer with the skin, shewing that these animals frequent Novaya Zemlya in the spring, if indeed some do not remain there all the winter. If the poor men could have procured an adequate supply of so sane an aliment as rein-deer's flesh, they might liavc kept off scurvy, which liad Ity this time seriousl}' ■»Si:l;. DUTCH NOJlTH-EASTEliN VOYAGES. 71 impaired their strength, the sudden and unexpected debility when called upon for exertion being one of its most unequi- vocal signs. Had they been able to go out on the ice and procure seals, tlieir flesh, dark and unsightly as it is, wo\dd have been an excellent resource, and even the polar bears might have been eaten with impunity and advantage, but the narrative makes no mention of their having recourse to the tlesh of those they killed until the 31st of ]\[ay. Then they unfortunately took the only noxious part of the animal, the liver, " and drest and eate it ; the taste liked us well, but it made us all sicke, specially three that were exceeding sicke, and we verily thought that we should have lost them, for all their skins came of from the foote to the head ; but yet they recouered againe, for the which we gave God heartie thankes, for if as then we had lost these three men, it was a hundred to one that we should neuer have gotten from thence, because we should haue had too few men to draw and lift at our neede.'' On the 14th of June, having made all the preparation in tlieir power, cut a road through the ice and snow to the ship, for the more easy transporting the most vahiablo of their merchandise, and launched their two boats, they set sail, after having written and signed a letter of protest, stating that they had abandf ned the ship which was still fast in the ice to save their livx\s. Eleven of the crew placed their signatures to the docriient, but four others either could not write, or were too ill to do so. On the first day, though occasionally ham- pered by ice, they sailed twenty miles, to Island Cape. Next day passing Hooft-hoek (Angle-head) and I lushing Point they reached Point Desire, being a distance of fifty-two miles ; and on the 10th they went thirty-two miles further to the Islands II 72 FOLAR REGIONS. of Orange, tliereby eiuergiiig from tlie Sea of Kara. Having obtained tliree birds here, tliey drest them for the use of the sick. " And being there, both our scutes lying hard by each other, the Maister called to William Barentz to know liow he did, and William Barentz made answeare and said — Well ! Cod be thanked, and I hope before we come to Wardhuus to be able to goe. Then he spake to me and said, Gerrit, are we about the Ice Point ? If we be, then, I ])ra} you lift me up, for I nmst view it once againe, at which time we had sailed from the Islands of Orange to the Ice Point, about twenty miles." From this date they kept sailing southwards down the west coast of Novaya Zemlya as the weather and streams of ice permitted. On the I7th of June their boats were so sipieezed by large masses of ice, that they were forced to land their sick and the cargo on a floe, which was done with much difficulty and hazard, and the boats were hauled up and repaired. " On the 20th Claes Adrianson began to be extreme sicke, whereby we perceived that he would not live long, and the boatesou came into our scute and told us in what case he was, and that he could not long continue alive ; whereupon William Barentz spake and said, I think I shall not live long after him ; and yet we did not iudge William Barentz to be so sicke, for we sat talking one with the other, and spake of many things, and William Barentz read in my card which I had made touching our voiage ; at last he laid away the card and spake into me, saying, Gerrit give me some drinke ; and he had no sooner drunke but he was taken with so sodain a qualme, that he turned his eies in his head and died presently, and we had no time to call the Maister out of the other scute to speak unto him ; and so ho died before Claes Adrianson. DUTCH NORTH-EASTERN VOYAGES. 7:5 The deatli of Williimi Baroiitz put vs in no small disconiiurt, as being the chiefe guide and onely pilot on whom we reposed (nirselves next under God." On the 27tli of June the boats doubled Cape Nassau ; this is Admiral Llitke's noi'th-extreme in 1828, and all that part of Novaya Zemlya which is to the east of it has been justly named Barentz's Land, he and his companions having been the sole explorers of it down to the present time. One of the boats foundered, by pressure of the ice, on the 1st of July, but most of the merchandise, though damaged by the salt water, was saved with much exertion, the sick landed, and the boat recovered and repaired. The hardships the crew endured, however, were fatal to another of the sick men, John Franson, nephew to that C.'laes Adrianson who died on the same day with William Barcntz. On the 27tli of the month, the boats passed a place named in the narrative Constinsark, and by later writers Coasting Search. Dr. Beke has clearly shewn that this is the Kostin Shar of the Eussians, a strait leading round an island named Medusharsky, previously visited by Oliver Brunei, already mentioned, and subsequently by Henry Hudson and others.* Soon afterwards they fell in with two Eussian lodij, from whose crews they had a friendly reception, and got some small supplies, but being unable to understand their language, they obtained no precise directions as to their future course. In shaping this they missed AVilliani Barontzoon sadly, and made a great circuit into the bay of Petchora, instead of crossing direct to Kanin nos, as they had hoped to do. They met, however, other Eussian vessels from which thev obtained occasional supplies of ^aovisions, and eventually reached • "Three Vojiiges," etc., pp. 30, 202, 222. 74 rOLAIl EEC! IONS. !" "* r ' Kanin nos on the 18tli of August. Then they made arrange- ments frr crossing the White Sea by dividing their candles and other stores betweon the boats. This voyage of ICO miles they performed safely in their small and crazy boats, and on the 2()th they were near the Lapland coast. Having reached the island of Kildin on the 25th of August, they were received kindly by some Eussians, who told them of vessels lying up the river at Kola, and by their means the Master Heemskcrck hired a Laplander to guide one of his men overland to Kola, with a letter setting forth the destitute condition of his party. Having despatched their messenger, the rest, after lightening the boats by the removal of the goods, drew them up on the beach. " Which done we went to the Eussians and warmed us, and there dressed such food as we had ; and then again we began to make two meales a day, when we perceiucd that we should euery day find more people, and we dranke of their drinke which they call quas, which was made of brokeii. pieces of bread, and it tasted well, for in a long time we had drunke nothing else but water. Some of our men went inland and there found blew-berries and bramble-berries, which we plucked and eate, and they did us much good, for we found that they healed us of our loosenesse" — (scorbutic diarrhcea). On the 29th the Laplander was seen returning with- out the man, " whereat we wondered and were somewhat in doubt ; but when he came unto vs, he shewed vs a letter that was written unto our Maister, the contents thereof being, that he that had written the letter wondered much at our arrival in that place, and that long since he verily thought that we had beene all cast away, how thot he was exceeding glad of our arrival, and woidd presently come vnto us Avith victuals DUTCH NORTH-EASTERN VOYA(iE.S. to lesse witli- lat in that that Irival It we id of uals and all other necessaries to succour vs withall. We being in no small admiration who it might be that shewed vs so great favour and friendship, could not imagine what he was, for it appeared by the letter that he knew vs well. And although the letter was subscribed iy mc John Coriiclison JRijp, yet we could not be persuaded that it was the same John Cornelison M'ho the yeere before had set out in the other ship with vs and left vs about Bcare Island," It was, however, the same kindly Ian Cornelizoon, who being in Lapland on a trading voyage, next day came to them in a liussian Jul (yacol or jolly-boat), bringing Eoswicke beere, wine, aqua vitir, bread, flesh, bacon, salmon, sugar and other things, rejoiced with them for their unexpected safety, ga% e God great thanks for His mercy, and finally carried the rescued mariners to their native country. The open scutes in which they had sailed IGOO miles in a stormy and ice encumbered sea, were, by permission of the Boyard, deposited in the merchants' house at Kola, for a remembrance of their extraordinary voyage. The more eastern seas and coasts of arcti'3 Europe and Asia, having been explored at much later dates by Eussian subjects, will be mentioned in a future chapter, but the efforts of England for the discovery of a north-west passage, subsequent to Cabot's timC; claim the precedence chronologically. i 7(5 I'OLAll UEdlONS. CHAPTER V. ENflLlSlI NOIITII-WEST VOYAGES. — A. D. 1576-1G36. Sir Malt in Frohisher'H, First, Second, and Tliird voyage to Meta Incog- nita — Desolation — Queen Elizabelli's Foreland — Frobisher's Straits — Terra seiitentrionalis — Gold ore — ^listaken, or Hudson's Straits — Greenland — Davis — Desolation — Davis' Straits — Hxulson's Straits — Cumberland Inlet — Labrador — Baffin's Eaj', latitude 72;^° — W( )nien's Islands — Sanderson's Hope — Maldonado — Weymouth — Jolm Kniglit — Henry Hudson — Land of East Greenland in 82° N. ! ! — Dr. Scoresby — Hudson's Eiver — Hudson's Bay ITiidson sent adrift by his mutinous crew — Sir Thomas Button's, Hope's check'd — Nelstjn River — Ut ultra — Prince Henry's instructions — Baffin and Bylot — Southampton Island — Ballin's Ba}- — Horn Sound — Wolsten- holme Sound — Whale Sounil — Sir Thomas Snath's Sound — Carey's Islands — Alderman Jones' Sound — Sir James Lancaster's Sound — Jens Munck — Luke Foxc — Hudson's Bay — 67 ultni — Sir Thomas Roe's Avelcome — New Wales — Foxe's farthest — Tenudiakbeek. I The project of a nortli-west passage, though afterwards a favourite enterprise iu England, and resumed from time to time, was suffered to rest for nearly eighty years after the failure of Sebastian Cabot's attempt in 1498. Sir Martin Frobisher, an educated man, "thorowly furnished of the knowledge of the sphere, and all other skilles appertayning to the arte of navigation," had for fifteen years been endeavouring to move his friends and the London merchants to fit out an expedition for north-west discovery, but though he had the patronage of Dudley Earl of Warwicke, and the active assist- ance of one Michael Lok, who helped him with money and credit, lie could not overcome the opposition of the Muscovy n ENGLISH NOIITH-WEST VOVA(JE.S. t i rds a le to the lartin the lig to Iring an the 5ist- land levy Coini)iiiiy, until 157i, when u iiiandati! of the Lord Treasurer cojupcUed that company to grant a license for the voyage. Three several expeditions in successive years were tlu* results of Fnjbisher's agitation, and in point of date, they take the precedence by eighteen or twenty years, of that of l]arentzoon, mentioned in the last chapter. The first expedition, projected on a small scale, consisted of two harks, the Gabriel and ^lichael, of between twenty and twenty-five tons a-})iece, and of a pinnace which measured ten tons, manned, iii the aggregate, by thirty-five men, and victualled for twelve months. Sir ^Martin Frobisher, captain and pilot, embarked in the Gabriel, and Christopher Hall, the master of that ship, wrote a journal of the voyage as he did of the two following ones, being master of the Ayde in the second voyage, and chief ]iilot of the fleet in the third one. George Best, Frol)isher's lieutenant in the first twy\s v\\)v- lUtion, lliill says, " We set saile, nil tlirec (»r vs, nnd \n\\v dowiic by tlie Ctiiirt, where wv sliette oil' our onliuaiicc and iiiadi! tli(> best show we eouhl; Her Abijestie (C^^ueeii I'lli/abcth) behohl- in<^ the same, I'oiimieiuU'd it, and baile vs l'are\ '11 m ith shaking her hand at vs out ol' the wiutlovv. Afterward slie scut a j^eutleuuiu alioord of vs, wluf deelaied that liei- Majestic had j^ood liking' of our doinj;s, and thanked vs for it, and also wilK'd (uir Captainc to come the next day to the Court to take his leave of her." On the 11 til of .Fuly land was discovered, in latitude 01 \ rising like ])iniuieles of steejdea, and all covered with snow, to which the ships were unable to a])proacli because of the ice. Our navigatoi's sup])osed this to be Frizeland, but, in fact, the land so named is the south part of (Jreenland, and they were then olf Cape Desolation or Toranhitek, at the north-west extremity of the deserted colony of Eiixt Bz/f/d. Charts of this period place Creenland to the north, in the ])ositiou of JlaOin's I'ay, and Frizeland is represented as an island havinn- tlu; form of the real southern extrennty of (Ireenland. 0^ Deso- lation the pinnace foundered, carrying down her crew of four men, and the ^Afichael, Owen Gryflyn master, "mistrusting the matter," returned to England and reported that Frobishcr was cast away. But that " worthy captaine, notwithstanding these discomforts, although his mast was sprung, and his top])e-mast blowen overboord with extreame foulo weather, continued his course tow\ards the north-west, knowing that the sea must needs haue an ending, and that some land should haue a beginning that way ; and determined therefore, at the least, to bring true proofe what land and sea the same might be so larre to the northwestwards, bevond anv man that hath here- ENdLlHll NOKTII-WEST V(»VA(Ji:s. I) ig the toforo disi'ovrrcd." On tlit; SHtli of .Inly ir)7(), Kroliisliorsaw ii licadlinul which he ii!1miimI (^)ii('('n Kli/.ulK-th'.s Forchuid, hut n liiiiding couhl not ho oUcclcd till the lOth of August, when Hull I'owctd in the hoiit lo ii small islund and lonnd IIk; llood- tidt^ setting soulh-wcst. Next day 11h( latitude at minn was (j;V' S' N., and this day the (lahriel entered tla; strait. This is IVoni Hall's jdurnal — I'.est «lil'l'ers in tlie dates, and says as Iblltws: "And the liOth of duly he (the wctithy eaittain) had night of a high land, which he called (.^)ueenc l^li/ahcths Forohmd, after Her Majesties name. And sailing moic north(!rly ahtngst that coast, he descried another forelan ;\ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSM (716) •72-4S03 Ill W-- ill 1 1" *'' 80 I'OI.AU KKlilONS. Frol>i.sli('r"s Strnits Iiiivt; not Ikh'Ii cxitlnrcd by a ooinpctcnt surveyor since the days of tlicir discoverer, and lor long their jiosition WHS lield to be so uncertain, that every niap-niaker took tlie liberty of ]»lacin, by Henry MiJillctoii, printed for Richard Jlinnes. i:X(!Vi»iul tliat is TIkjiiiun Williiun.s' Island, and bearing nuilh-west from the latter, at the distance of ten leagues, is Burcher's Island, which is the limit of Frobisher's passage westwaitl, in the straits. Trumpet Island is situated between Williams' and Gabriel's Islands ; ^Fount Wanvick stands on the south side of the straits, and the Countess of Warwick's Sound on the noi-th side. At r>uiehei*'s Island a party of Sknellings or Eskimos was seen, with whom Frobisher had sundry conferences, and some of them came aboard his shij), and bartered skins for looking glasses and other toys. This giving the crew undue confidence, five of them went inland, contraiy to the captain's orders, and were never seen again. After this the natives became waiy, but at length Frobisher entrapped one and took him captive, in revenge for the loss of his men, that lie sui)posed to have been intercepted on their way back to the boat. This man died after reaching England. If Frobishei"'s men were merely detained among the Eskimos, or voluntarily designed to remain among them, this was the worst measuie that could have been resorted to for their safety, as the natives would, without fail, wreak their vengeance upon the captives. Frobisher, however, was not less humane than other navigators of that age, few of them scrupling to carry off the natives of the new world to make a show of in Europe. As a seaman, Frobisher seems to have had few sui)eriors. The following account of his behaviour in the storm off Desolation, mentioned above, is taken from an extract, given by ^Ir. liundall, of a manuscript of Michael Lok's, preserved in the British jMuseum.* — "In the rage of an extreme storme the vessel was cast flat on her syde, and, being open in the waste • ^ISS. Cotton ; Otbo. E. 8-47. O i . fi;i II 82 POLAR REGIONS. was fylled witli water, so as slic lay still for sunk, and would neither weare nor stcare witli any lielpe of the liulnic ; and neuer lia\o rysen agayn, but the inerueilous work of God's great mercy to help them all. In this distress, when all the men in the ship had lost their courage, the captayn, like himsf Ife, with valiant courage, stood vp, and passed alongst the ship's side, in the chayne-wales, lying on her flat syde, and caught holde on the weather leche of the fore-saile ; but in the weather-coyling of the ship the forc-yarde brake, and the water yssued from both sydes, though withall, without any- tliing fleeting over." On his return to England from his first voyage. Sir Martin Frobisher " was higldy conunended of all men for his gi-eat and notable attempt, but specially famous for the great hope he brought of the passage to Cataya," and her majesty con- descended to name the broken lauds, bounding the straits, Meta Incognita. A tract on the north side is termed, in Sir Humfrey Gilbert's chart, Teira Scjytcntrionalis. This prospect, however, of a passage to India, was less attractive to the London merchants than the bait of immediate gain. A piece of black stone, brought home by one of the company, being submitted to one Baptista Aguello, he (by coaxing nature, as he privately admitted, to Michael Lok), obtained therefrom a gram of gold ; thereupon money was speedily raised to defray the outfit of a second expedition, not for discovery, but to bring home the supposed golden ore, and this in the face of the report of the master of the Tower, and of two skilful assayists, who declared it to be but a marquesite, containing none of the precious metal. The instructions given to Frobisher for his conduct on this second voyage, were to search for the ore, and defer discoveiy r y KNdLiail NOKTH-WKST VOVA(ii:.S. 83 ^g Dii this 30very K to a future time; liut tliou^li it luust liuvc cost hiin u licnrl- jiang to forc^^'o ii project that lie had clierislied so Imi^-, lie was faithful to the orders ho rec(!ived, and loaded his three .ships with the worthless stuff. On this voyages the mariners ei-ected, with soundin«? of trumpets and other ceremonies, a cairn of stones on Mount Wanvick. Various intei-views and skirmishes with the natives took ])lace, and in Yorke's Soinid, somi; rem- nants of clothing were found belonging to the men they had lost the year before. Several of the poor natives were slain in these conllicts, many more wounded, and a man and two women captured. One of the wonien being old and ugly, was thought to be a dt.'vil or a witch, and was thercfur*^ set at liberty ; but the other, who was young, with a child at her back, was kept. Fifteen ships were titted out in 1578 for the third voyage, to bring home ore, but one of them, the baik Dennis, foundered in a great storm oft" the Queen's Foreland. In the meanwhile a swift current coming from the north-east cairied the re- mainder of the fleet southwards towards Frobisher s Mistaken Straits, now known by the name of Hudson's Straits. "We have already mentioned that a claim has been set up in behalf of Sebastian Cabot as discoverer of this strait, and there is greater reason to believe that it is actually the opening which was called by Cortoreale Rio Xcvado, which nanui of Nevado has been transferred to some mountainous islands on its north side, that even in summer are covered with snow. Part of the fleet following the (Jencral, "entereil within the said doubtful and supposed straights, having alwayes a faire continent upon the starboorde, and a con- tinuance still of an open sea before them ; and had it not been for the charge and care he had (jf the Ikete and fraughtcd ? 84 roi.Aii uKcioxs. Hliii)s, the Ooiieval both woiihl and ctjuhl have j^'one throuj^h to tlu! South Sea, and dissolved the long doiil>t of the passage which we seek to find to the rich countrey of Cataya ; . . . And where in other places we were nuich troubled with yce, as in the entrance of the same, so after wc had sayled fifty or sixty leagues therein, we had no lets of yce." Respecting the opinion here expressed by ^faster Best, there is no doubt that had Frobisher been on a voyage of discovery and not on a mercantile enterjirise, he would have pushed onwards and entered Hudson's Bay. ])ut his sole object was to get into the straits named after himself, where he could " provide tlu; fleete of their lading," and which he had overshot in thick weather, by mistaking Ilesolution Island for the north Foreland. Though the chief pilot, Christopher Hall, had ojjenly declared that they had never been in that strait before, Frobisher, to keep up the spirits of his folloA\ers, held out that they were in the right way ; and after many days, having doubtless ascertained his true position by astronomical obsei-vation, for " it pleased God," says Best, " to give us a clear of sunne and light for a short time, . . .he perceived a great sound to goe thorow into Frobisher's Straights." By this channel Frobisher recovered his intended port, and the Gabriel being sent round, proved the Queen's Foreland to be an island. INIany years aftenvards. La Peyrouse, going to attack the Iluds ni's Bay posts, entered Frobisher's Straits in mistake, but found his way into Hudson's Straits, probably by the same channel through which Frobisher passed in the opposite du'ection. On the 1st of August, after many dangers past and the dispersion of the fleet by a storm, most of the ships were assembled at the Countesse of Warwick's Island, and every f , hold days, lomical us a ceivcd By nd tlie to be ing to , » id the were every en<;li.sh nohth-west voya(jes. 85 r'n|»tuin was coimnaiidcd to bring ashore all siicli gentlemen, soldiers, and nn'ners as tlu'vliad under their eharge, with sueh |)i'nvision as they had of victuals, tents, and other necessaries, for the speedy lading of tlu* shijts with the contents of the iiiinc. It was designed that one hundred men should winter there in a fort to be built, but i)ortions of the liouse were lost in the storm or were stowed in the missing shifts, so this part of the scheme was abandoned. Whereupon they buried the timber provided for the intended fort, and sow(!d some pease to prove the fruitfulness of the soil against tin; nex year. Master Wol fall preached a godly sermon and ailministered the eonnnunion to many of the company on a spot called Winter's Fornace ; as the said y richer did at sundry other times and phaces, because the whole company could not conveniently come together at once. On the last day of August the whole fleet departed homewards. Best tells us nearly as much of Mcta Incofjnita, its natural ^productions and inhabitants, as we know in the present day. "It is newfound," he says, "that Queene Elizabeth's Cape, being situated in latitude Gl Y, which was Ijetore supposed to be part of the firme laud of America, and also all the rest of the south side of Frobisher's Straites, are all several islands and broken land, and so will likewise all the north side of the said straites fall out to be ; and sonu; of our companions being entered above sixty leagues within the Mistaken Straites, iu the third voyage mentioned, thought certainly that they had descryed the firme land of America towards the south, which I tliink will fall out to be. These broken lands and islands, being ver}' many in number, do seem to make there an archipdagiLS, which as they all ilitter in greatnesse, form and fashion, one from another, so nn; thcv in gf>odnesse 86 rol.All I!Keople are f,aeat enchanters, and use many charmes oi" witchcrait." . . . "They use to trallikc and exchanj,'e their commodities with some other l»eoi)le, of Avhum they have such things as their misemble c(juntrey and ignorance of art to make, denied them to hauc, as harres of yron, heads of yron lor their darts, needles nuidt; I'oure Si^uare, certain buttons of copper, which they vse to weare u]ton their foreheads for ornament, as our ladies of the «;ourt ol" England doe vse great pearle."* J»est goes on to give a very fair and full description of the habits of the I'iskimo.s. Tlu! iron articles he saw were either remnants of Iheir intercourse with the ancient Icelandic colonies in (ireenland, or articles that had ascended so far north by coast tradic in the course of the seventy or eighty years that had idapsed since the diseoveiy of Newfoundland and the neigh- bouring parts of Labrador. The Eskimos have a natural ai»titude for barter, and articles pass in that way rapidly from tiibe to tribe. On each of Frobisher's three voyages, " Frizeland" (as part of (Jrecnland continued to be named), was seen, when outward bound; and this is just the course the whalers of the present day are forced to pursue. They find that the sea opens earlier in the season on the Greenland coast, and that it is only when the whale-fishing is far advanced that they can penetrate the i(;c on the west-side of Davis' Straits. On the third voyage, after sailing for a time along the Greenland coast, " a very hie and craggcd land, almost cleane covered with snoAv," our mariners ]ainled on a i)lacc somewhat void of ice. There they * llakluyt, ii. KN(!LFS1I NORTH-WF.ST V(>V.\<;KS. 87 H part Avaid resent arlier when c the •yage, y hie our they saw certain tents made of skins, and boats {kaijacks) much like those of ^leta Incognita; but alon<,' with tlie usual Eskimo furniture, there M'as found a ho.e of na'ih, whence it was con- jectured that the natives had trallic with other nations. Ellis, who mentions this fact, docs not describe the nails, and we are left to conjecture whetlicr they had been extracted from some ancient colonial buildings or from the drift timbers of some wreck. Frobisher was the first, except perhaps Skolni, who landed on Greenland after the destruction of the Scandinavian settle- ments, whose former existence on that coast he seems not to have known, and believing that he had made a discover}', he took possession of the country in the name of Queen Elizabeth, calling it " West England," and naming a con- spicuous high cliff "Charing Crosse." The worthlessness of the ore procured on the last two voyages having disgusted the merchant adventurers, Frobisher's career as a discoverer tenninated ; and luckless Michael Lok, being unable to redeem his suretiship, was shut up in •' . Fleet Prison, a catastrophe wliich involved himself and fiftev - children in ruin. A passenger on board the Busse Emmanuel of Bridgewater, one of the ships of Frobisher's third expedition, reported that on the homeward voyage that ship had coasted for three days a large island lying to the south-east of Frizeland, which was observed to be fertile and well-wooded. This land was no doubt the southern extremity of Greenland, or it may be a congeries of icebergs, and the supposed forests merely ocular delusions. The island, however, found a place in charts, though it was never seen again; and even after whaler's had often traversed its supposed site, it was thought to have sunk in the sea and was then noted as a shoal, and called the " Sunken 88 POLAU KKfJIONS. ••i»: 1 I land of I'ussc." Sir .lolm Ko.s.s souiidt'd for tlii« bank Imt found it not. The report of Thoni.i.s Wiaix tlje passenger, fts (pioted l>y Ilaklnyt, is silent about woods.* It is curious that anotluir island in the same vieiuitv, between Iceland and ( Jreenland, was supposed to have perished in a different way. In a map of the world ])y lioyseh, dated 1508, the situation of the ishind is marked, and a ncjte tells us that it was totally destroyed by fire in the year 145().f After ten years had passed subsequent to Frobisher's third voyage, the merchants of London took fresh courage, and again subscribed their moneys for another trial for the north-west passage. This time the charge of tlic enterprise Mas entrusted to Master John Davis, " a man well-grounded in the arte of navigation." This truly able navigator made, like Frobisher, three consecutive voyages to the north-west. In the first, the Sunshine and ^loonshine were the vessels fitted out for the occasion ; and of the crews, numbering conjointly forty-two persons, four were musicians. Davis was " captaine and chiefe pilot of this exployt." In the second voyage the Sunshine was agsiin engaged with two others ; and in the third voyage, the same vessel once more made one of three. Davis followed the practice of sighting the Greenland coast on his outward voyages, and of landing thereon when weather and place were suitable. The name of Frizelaud, however, was still retained, and Davis named a part of the coast to the north of West England, the " Land of Desolation." One fjord, situated in latitude 64!!° N., he named Gilbert's Sound, and there he found much drift timber, and had many * Hakluyt, lu. p. 4t. ■|- rinvcrsnlidr I'ognit.i oiMs. 'ralmluox lecciilibus conft'ctii observiitioiiibiis. (Kovsrli) An l.'iOS. Pios('ivf'c them tido is Juinl)er- st moon steel the I to 04" liitli ho situated ly races, J Strait; 111 as 02°, •eat capo ic :<'3tli, ast inlet four, of se name cape of eland, a ; Reso- rth-east i-ong, as lits was I'. John Davis* ke; the |opy of globe Account of his voyages, ai?d preserved in tlic lihrary of tlic Middle Temple.* Cundierland Strait has of late years been exjilored by whaliTs, and (,'aptuin Tenny has named its nnrtliern arm llo^artli Sciuiid. There he has repeatedly wintered, and car- ried on a very successful seal and whale fishery. The mdy account <»f the country since JJest wrote, that we have n»et with, is published in the Misaiops-B/aH for 1851) by Ih'otlier Warmau, who ])assed the winter of IM.jT-H in tlie sound. Cumbeiliiiid Inlet, he states, penetrates Cundu'rland Island ill an almost due northerly direction, with a slight inclination (o tlie westward. It extends from about the 0.')th to tlie ()8th parallel of north latitude; its southern angle being in the same longitude with Cape Chudleigh, the most northerly point of Labrador. Its eastern coast rises abruptly from the sea, attaining in some ]»oints an tiltitude of 3000 feet. The western coast is thitter, dotted with islands, and more inhabited. The face of the country consists almost exclusively of barren granite rocks ; moss, scantily intermixed with grass, occurs in the hollows where moisture collects, while in sheltered spots various berry-beaiing jilants are found, but no trac(^ of wood. Drift-wood not being met with, bones of w hides are used in its ]dace by the natives. Rein-deer, arctic foxes, and hares inhabit the land, but the polar-bear and wolf are not id'ten seen. The birds are ptarmigan, ravens, and snipe ; only one variety of seal is abundant; whales, which were formerly numerous, are becoming fewer The climate is veiy severe, but in calm summer weather the heat is at times veiy great, and then mosquitoes abound. " We proceeded in two boats northwards along the eastern * Ttmlson, tlif Navigulor, b> ., jv lOO. i t 1 1 : ii' I I ; • ii i t t ^•l f ' i: ; 'i I; 1 1 1 -'^ I' h 1 1: 1 2=^ 92 I'OLAll REGIONS. slioro of th(^ inlet for about 110 miles, and saw traces of d\vellinf,'s, especially n(,'ur the entrance of the most northeily fjords, named NnrvjarschiiiU meaning the corner of a promon- toi/. This place is covered with the remains of houses, whose frame-work is composed of bones. We wintered in tlu^ harltour of Tornait, and early in May were visited by 1 50 Eskimos, who are all retained in the servii j of the ships, to assist in the whale-fishery." — Warman. Sir John Iloss examined the part of the coast which Davis fell in with at the first, and reports rhat Mount Raleigh is pyramidal and very high. It stands in ^ itude Gl° l-i' N., longitude G\V W. Cape Walsingham is exactly where Davis placed it, in latitude GG° 00' N., and longitude C0° 50' W. It is the eastermost land, and the distar e from it across to Greenland is .about one hundred and six v^ miles.* In the second voyage Davis coastec the American shore from G7 to 57 degrees of latitude. To ^ e north he found only baiTen islands with abundance of ) tives, who were gentle and friendly, but maiTellous thieve? They cut his boats from the ship's stern, injured his cable ai^v' carried away an anchor. To oblige them to restore the latter, he made two captives, whom he brought to England, the anchor not being returned. He seems to have been very diligent in exploring the sounds leading to the westward, with the hope of finding a passage, l>ut in vahi. On the Labrador coast he went inland, and found fair woods, firs, spruces, alder, yew, birch, and willows. There he saw a UacJc bear, and great store of birds, among the rest ptarmigan and pin-tailed grouse, of which many were killed with the bow and arrow. In the harbour, called Davis' Inlet on the Admiralty cliait, there were plenty of cod-fish, * H.iss ; Voyagi- to RiffiiiV Hay, ISlS, p. 215. ENGLISH NOUTH-WKST V(>VA(iKS. 93 tf I'aces of oi-tlierly promon- liouses, tered in [by 150 ships, to ;li Davis ileigli is = W N., re Davis ' 50' W. across to an sliore ind only re gentle )ats from anchor, [captives, Returned, sounds [ passage, md, and hvillows. long the hy were Davis' ;od-fish, so tliiit in one hour the seamen caught a huudn-d. This liarbour lies in latitude 5G° K, runs ton leagues into the land, and is two leagues wide. On the 4th of September Davis ancho'-ed in a very good road among many isles, being prevented by head- winds from (.ntering Jin inlet which he saw, and which gave liim great hopes of a passage. This inlet, which is in 54^° of north latitude, he does not name, but it is called " Ivucktock" on the recent Admiralty chart. The ^Mermaid and the North Star had forsaken him soon after crossing from Greenlaiul, and Davis explored the coast down io Ivucktock in his bark the Moonshine, of thirty tons and nineteen hands. Here, however, two of his men were slain by a sudden and unpro- voked attack of the Eskimos, and the bark having ridden out a severe storm, in which it narrowly escaped shipwreck, sailed homewards on the 11th of September. The Sunshine also reached England, but the North Star was never heard of £igain. In the earlier part of his third voyage, Davis, keeping near the Greenland coast on his voyage northwards, as the whalers of the present day are accustomed to do, reached latitude 72i° N., and on the 30th of June 1 587 had the sun five degrees above tlie horizon at midnight, having fairly entered Baflin's Bay. The Greenland country to the east of him he named the "London Coast," and a passage among Women's Islands, called by him "Sanderson's Hope," has been identified with the Kosarsuik of the Greenland Eskimos. Of the entrance i^.to Baffin's Bay, now known universally as Davis' Straits, Davis himself says in his " Ilydrographical Description of the World." — " I departed from the (London) coast (of West Greenland), thinking to discouer the north parts of America, and after I had sailed towards the west ( 1. i' 'I m II I i!: lli^^ 'iii I ■ 1 1 94 rOLAR REGIONS. forty leagues, I ful vpnii a great Laiikc of yen (tlie iiiidclle ico of the wlialers) : the wind blew north an»l Ijlew much, and I was constrained to coast the same towards the south, not seeing any shore west from me, neither was there any yce towards the noi-th.-but a great sea, free, large, very salt and blew, and of an vnsearchable depth. ... By this last discovery it seemed most manifest that the passage was free and without impediment towards the north ; but by reason of the Spanish fleet, and vnfortunate time of Mr. Secretarie (Walsingham's) death, the voyage was omitted, and niver sithens attempted."* Laurent Ferrer Maldonado is reported to have sailed up Davis' Strait at this period (1588), till he reached the 75th degi'ee of latitude, and then to have steered south-west till he attained tlie strait of Aniaii which separates America from Asia, His narrative, which did not appear till twenty years after the date of the suppositious voyage, received little credit at the time, and is totally at variance with what is now known of the configuration of the noithern coasts of America. In 1C02 the Muscovy Company sent out two vessels under the command of Captain George "Weymouth in search of the north-west passage. He crossed Davis' Straits, and on the 28th of June reached the western shore, in latitude C3° 53' K, or Warwick Island between Cumberland and Frobisher's Straits. Sailing northwards round Cape Walsing- ham, he had nearly reached the C9th parallel, when the crew, instigated by John Cai-twright, a minister of the gospel, mutinying, he was compelled to turn to the south, and on the 25th of July he came to Hatton's Headland, a promontory of Eesolution Island. Turning round this he sailed a con- " Voyage to North-west, edited by T. Rundall fur the Ilakluyt Society, p. 50. EXCJLISIf NOllTH-WEST VoYAfiES. 95 UUe ice 1, and I itli, not my yce alt and liis last ^as free cason of jcretarie d niver liled up he 75tli st till he ca fvoni y years e credit known vessels search Its, and latitude id and [alsing- le crew, [gospel, ind on [ontory con- |, P- 50. siderahle way up Hudson's Strait, and then returned to England, where he arrived so early as the 5tli uf August. Weymouth is therefore one of the navigators who entered tlu^ strait leading to Hudson's Bay before Hudson's time. Tlie voyage of Master John Knight in. the Hopewell for the "Discouery of the Nor'west passage," in IGOO came to an early and disastrous termination on the coast of Labrador, by the death of Knight himself, his mate, and three of his men, who were surprised and slain by the Eskimos. The remainder of the crew, after patching up the vessel, which had been shattered in a stoi-m, reached England after enduring many hardships. Yet this disaster and the previous failures did not extin- guish in England the hope of a north-west passage, Henry Hudson, in 1G07, made a bold attempt to cross the polar sea.* After passing the latitude of Iceland, he made the east coast of Greenland, or, as he writes it, Grondand, in latitude 07^", on the 13th of June, in a thick fog, but steering northwards six or eight leagues, he saw very high land, for the most part covered with snow. The headland he called "Young's Cape," and a very high mount, like a round castle standing near it, he named "the Mount of God's Mercie." He then steered or lay-to as stormy weather and thick fogs permitted, with the view of ascertaining whether the land he had seen was "an iland or part of Groneland. But then (on the i8th p.m.) the fogge encreased very nmch, with much wind at south, wliich made us alter our course and shorten our sayle, and we steered away north-east. Being then, as we supposed, in * Ilenry HuJhoii, the Navigator, by G. M. Aslicr, LL.D , London IHtlO. Dr. Asher is of opinion that the narrative of Hudson's first voyage was written by John Playsc or Fleyce, with additionc by Hudson himself. ii i'! I 96 POLAll IlEGIONS. the meridian ui the suiiil' hind, having nu observation since the 11th day, and lying a liuU from the 15tli to the 17th, we perceived a current setting to the south-west." On the 20th, Hudson steered noi-th-north-east hoping to fall in with the body of Newland (Spitzbergen), and on the 22d he saw "mayno high land nothing at all covered with snow, and the north part of that mayne high land was veiy high mountaynes, but we could see no snow on them. "We accounted by our observation, the part oi the mayne land lay neerest hand in 73 degrees. The many i 's and calmes, with contrary winds and much ice necre the slioare, held us from farther dis- covery of it. It may be objected against us, as a fault, for haling so westerly a course. The chief cause that moved us thereinto, was t)ur desire to see that part of Groneland, which (tor ought that we know), was to any Christian unknowne ; and we thought it might as well have beene open sea as land, and by that meanes our passage would have been larger to the Pole ; and the hope of a westerly wind, which would be to us a landerly wind if wee found land. And considering we found land, contrarie to that which our cards make mention, we accounted our labour so much the more worth. And for aught that we could see, it is like to be good land and worth seeing." On the 21st Hudson saw land on the larboard or left hand in 73 degrees of latitude, the sun being on the meridian on the south part of the compass. He named this land " Hold-with-Hope," it was the most northerly point of Greenland that he saw,* and he fixed its latitude by an observation. * Judging from the abridgment of Hudson's narrative puLlished by Hak- luyt, land scon subsequently by Hudson, reaching, as lie supposed, beyond 82" N. Lit., was conjectured to be part of Greenland, and as such it is indicated by i •(> ENGLISH NORTH-WEST VOYA(;ES. 1)7 m since 1 7th, we lie 20tli, vitli the "mayiie 10 north ntaynes, I by our hand in ry winds :her dis- fault, for tioved us id, which knowne ; as land, to the be to mng we nention. And for worth oard or on the led this loint of by an Steering various courses for nearly a week, but always making much northing, on the 'iTth <»t .rune Huds<»n saw Newland, or, as it is termed in a marginal note, (Jieenland. He resen'cs for Greenland pro])er the Danish name of CJriine- land. Coasting the Spitzbergen shore in a smooth sea, at noon he was, by dead reckoning, in 78 degrees, and near Vo(jclhod\ the north point of Prince Charles Island, according to Lord Mulgi'ave, synonymous with " Fair Foreland," which, by iJr. Scor(\sby's observations, lies in 7 is a small island, which he named after his boatswain, Collins Cape. On the 15th Collins' Cape bore south-east, and land on the starboard, trending north-east and by east, to the dis- tance of eighteen or twenty leagues, stretched by account into 81 degi'ees. This land was veiy high and mountainous, like rugged rocks with -snow between them. Tn Pellham's map of Greenland (Spitzbergen) there is a Castlin's ])oint, on the north side of West Spitzbergen, which is probably the cape named Collins l)y Hudson, the situation corresponding. In that maj* its latitude is 79° 50'. On the IGth, having neared the northern land, Hudson saw more land joining the same, and trending north, stretching into 82 degrees, and by the bowing or shewing of the sky much farther. As no part of Spitzbergen lies so far nortli, Admiral Beechey believed that Hudson committed n by Hak- ^•ond 82* Icated by the chart which accompanied this compilation in the form it liad in tho Enry clopiedia Britannica. An attentive consiileration of the more exteniled nar rative, published by Dr. Asher, shews that this was an error. H T " , 1 ' . \ 1 ■ ■ ! i' 1 i)8 'OLAR REGIONS. fi r v: li an error in his observation of the .sun, oft' Cape Collins, and that the northern land he saw was the SeA en Islands. Hudson " meant to have eonipassed this land by the north ; but now finding, by ])roof, it was imi)ossible, by means of the abund- ance of ice compassing us about, and joyning to tlie hmd, and seeing that God did blesse us with a fair wind to sayle by the south, etc., we returned bearing np the helme." "And this 1 can assure at this present, that between 78 degrees and J, and 82 degrees by this way, there is no passage." After this our navigator passed doM'n the west side of Newland (Spitzbergen), and i'ound by "the icy skie and our nearness to Cironeland, that there is no passage that way, which, if there had, I meant to have made my returne by the north of Croneland to Davis his Streights, and so to England." He came again, however, in sight of Newland, and on the 31st of July bore up for England, passing near Cherie Island, and arriving in Tilbury Hope on the 1.5th of September. Part of the coast of Creenland proper seen by Hudson, that is, from Gale llanke's Bay, in latitude 75°, so named in 1G54, down to Cape Barclay in 69^°, was carefully surveyed by Dr. William Scoresby, when he was master of a whaler. Hudson's Hold-with-Hojie he identifies with Broer Ruys Land, and he nanies an island in its vicinity Bontekoe. For the names of the other capes, islands, and sounds, and for a good description of the country, the reader is referred to Scoresby's West Greenland.* The south district of the same coast is laid down, and described in detail, by Captain Graah of the Danish Navy, whose writings have been quoted in a former page. Another voyage of Hudson, performed in the course of * .Fournsvl of a Voyage to tlie Nortliern Wliale FiRhery. Edinburgh, 1823. I '(II ENGLISH NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. \)i) good resby's lis laid )anisli I'se of 1823. the following .suiiiiner, in the service of the I)uteh, had fur its result, the discovery of the niagnilieent river, vhieli still bears his name, and at whose mouth tlie most important commercial city of the New World has arisen. IJefore this, he had tried for the north-east i)assage, Init did not get beyond Novaja Zemlva. I'y these voyages Hudson's reputation as a skilful and enterprising seaman had been so firndy estal)lished, that when ►Sir John Wolstenholme, and Sir Dudley Digges resolved, in IGIO, to emi)lf)y the Discovery, of fifty-five tons, in searching for the north-west passage, Uenrie Hudson was nominated to the command. On this, the last of his voyages, liis fame chiefly rests, because of its disasters, for his y)revious adven- tures were not less hazardous, nor less deficient in displays of nautical skill. On this voyage he sighted Cape Desolation, on the Avestern side of South Greenland, and passed what he supposed to be the western outlet of Frobisher's Straits ; for in the charts which he used, Frobisher's discoveries were su])posed to lie between North and South Greenland. On the loth of June IGIO, he says in his Journal, "we were in sight of the land (in latitude 59°, 27')* which was called by Captain John Davis, Desolation, and found the errour of the former layings dow^n of that land." Continuing to sail to the noi-th-westward, across Davis' Straits, he encountered much ice, with many riplings, or overfals, and ascertained that, in latitude ()0" 42', there is a strong stream setting from cast-south-east to west- north-west. On the 24th, or eleven days after passing Cape Farewell, Hudson saw land to the north, but suddenly lost siglit of it * Tins ?s probably the latitude of the ship at noon, as Cape Farowell li«M farther north, though in sight. ill I, is ■:il. 1,1 I 111 ■< '<]'<} I lip :■ III « I' ^ij i '< I 100 POLAK REGIONS. ii^'iiiii, being tluMi, iis lie states in a marginal note to his journal, at tlic east entrance into the straits, into which lie continued running to the westward, on the parallel of 62" 17'. This was, therefoie, what he called Lumley's Inlet, but which was more properly Frobisher's Strait. Dr. Asher* remarks that TTudson had two years befon* that time, when making his second voyage, entertained the design of sailing a hundred leagues, either into Lumley's Inlet, or into the Furious Ovcrfal, thereby to seek a passage to the north-west. Ho now embraced the opportunity he had ol' putting his intentions into i)ractice. Leaving Frobishers' Strait, probal)ly on account of obstructions from ice, or adverse winds, he crossed the entrance of Hudson's Strait, and "plyed upon the souther side" in Ungava Bay, amid much ice, until the 8th of July, when he was on the GOth parallel, and saw "a champagne land" covered with snow, reaching round from the north-west by west into south-west by west. This, which he called " Desire Provoketh," is the Island of Akpatok. riyiug westward to the 11th, he reached the Isles of (rod's IMercies, where he found the flood tide coming from the north, and rising four fathoms. From thence he coasted the south side of Hudson's Strait, naming a part of the shore in 61^°, Hold-ivith-IIojye, and the neighbouring extremity of Labrador, Magna Britannia. On the 2d of August he had fairly reached the western end of the strait, and named a " faire headland on the norther shoare, six leagues dis- tant ' Salisburies Foreland,' being a cape of Salisbury Island. From thence he ran west-south-west into a great whirling sea, and sailing seven leagues further, was in the mouth of a strait about two leagues broad, and distant from the easter * Hudson the Navigator, cxovi. I ENGLISH NORTH-WEST VOYA(JES. 101 3 to his liich he 62° 17'. it wliicli s before ned tlie ijs Inlet, ;e to the had of oljishers' ice, or rait, and id much parallel, achinj^ )y west. and of le Isles g from coasted of the ;remity list he named es dis- Island. hirling ,h of a easier part of Fretam Davis two hundred and fifty leagues, or there- abouts." The southern head of this entrance he named " Cape Worsenholme," the north-western shore he calleil "Cape Digs," being an island, one of a small group. This is distinct from the Cape Digges of modern charts. After this the laud is mentioned as falling away to the southward. Our navi- gator observed for the latitude in 01" 20' with a sea to IIk; westward, and then his journal closes on the 3d of August. The rest of his melancholy history is told by Abacuk I'rickett, who stat(^s that, after sailing for three months in a labyrinth of islands, they were frozen in on the 10th of November in the south-east corner of dames' 15ay.* Dissen- sions had early in the voyage sprung up among the crew, some of whom were men of evil passions, and in the June following, a mutiny was brought to a head under the header- ship of Robert Juet and Heniy Greene, the latter a prodigal and protligate man, who had been rescued from utter ruin by the kindness of Hudson. On the 21st of the month Hudson was seized by the conspirators, bound, and driven with his young sou into the shallop. The carpenter, John King, whose name ought to be held in hoiiouralde remembrance, made a determined resistance, which being overcome, he leapt into the shallop, being resolved to share the fate of his master. Six sick and iufirni www were also forced into the boat which was th^n cut adrift. None of the party thus inhumanely abandoned were ever heard of again ; but retri- bution speedily overtook the leading mutineers, who were slain in an assault of the Eskimos at Cape Digges. After suffering greatly from famine, the survivors reached England, Kobert Bylot (or P>illet), who afterwards became t^elebrated * F>r. Asher, I.e. p. Il«. 1 102 rOLAR ]{K(}IONS. I i' mir my ill li ■i, ; .;i as a pilot, having tiikcii chiirgi' of the vessel on the deiitli ol" -Fuet. Sir Thcjums Button, accompanied hy Bylot and Prickett, Itrosecuted the discovery iu 1012-13, taking the route of Hudson tlirough tlie straits. A group of islands at the southern portal, within Cape Chidley, hears the appellation of Button's Ides. A southern point of Southampton Island, which lies on the noilh side of the entrance into Hudson's Bay, wa:' named Cari/s Swroi's Nest ; and on reaching the western side of the hay, liutton called the h'Uid "Hopes checked," because it arrested his progress on a promising course. Turning southwards he entered Xelsan Riirr in latitude 57° 10' N., and there wintered. The estuary of the river was named Button's Bay, and the adjacent country New Wales. His crew living on salt provisions with limitetl rations, experienced the usual miseries of scurvy, but pro- curing large cxuantities of birds and fish in the spring, were greatly recruited, so as to be able to resume the voyage northwards in the summer of 1G13. In this respect the voyage is a memorable one. None of the crews who had wintered in the high latitudes before this time, were in a eondition to pursue the object of the voyage in the ensuing season. In advancing northwards, liutton's pilot observed a strong tide off the mouth of the Missinippi or Churchill river, and considering that to be a favourable omen of a passage, called the locality Huhhart his Hojte, but the river was not entered, nor indeed discovered. The voyage out ended in latitude 05° N. somewhere near AMiale Point, and the land lying southwards of that projection was termed Ui Ultra. On the homeward Aovase, commenced on the 30th of July, Cape Southampton was doubled, and an island lying ENGLISH NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. UVA dt'iith ol" Prickett, route o\' nt the pellation 1 Island, iiulsoii's liing the '* HopeH com i sing Riirr in y of the country I limited )ut i)ro- ig, weri^ voyage )ect the lo had e in a Misuing erved a lurchill 11 of a e river ge out nt, and led Ui 3 30th I lying to the eastward of Southampton Island was named Mansel, erroneously written Manstield on our charts.* An extract from Prince Henry's instructions for Button's voyage, dated 5th of April IG12, is worth inserting here, as shewing the correct knowledge then possessed of Hudson s Straits and the route to them, so as to have advantagt* of the currents. 7. " We think your surest way wil l)e to stand upp to IsELANl), and soe over to Guoinland, in the heighte of (51", soe to fall downs with the current to the most southerlie cai)e of that land, lyeing in about oif, called Cai'K FakewelLi whicli i)t»inte, as the ice will give you leave, you must double, anil from thence, or rather from some 20 or 30 leagues to the northward of it, you shall fall over Davjs his Sthaichts to the western maine ; in the height of 02 degrees or thereabouts, you shall fiiide Hudson's Stkeights, whicli you may knowe by the furious course of the sea anil ice into it, and by certain islands in the northern side thereof, as your carde shows." 8. " Being in ; we holde it best for you to keep the northerne side, as most free from the pester of ice, at least till you be past Cape Henry, from tlusnce follow the leading ice, between King James and (^)ueen Anne's Fokeland, the distance of which two capes observe if you can, and ^^■llat harbour or rode is near them, but yet make all the haste you maie to Salisbiry his Island, between which and the northerne continent you are like to meet a great and hollowe • IJuudall's Edition ol' Voyages to the Nortli-wcHt, published tor the Uukluyt Society, has been chiefly followed in this and the other voyages in his volnme. He had his information respecting Button's voyage chiefly from " North-west Foxe," printed a.d. ltJ3.5. Copies of instructions from Prince Henry exiht in the British Museum; and a broadside containing "Motives for the Disccivery ol the North I'ole," is now in the Smithsonian Institution, inserted in a fine copy of " Davis's World's Hydrographical Description," 1.00!5. I I. li ': I 'i:ih ii|ilii| 104 POI.AK HKCJIONS. Itilliiwc I'roiii iiii opening', iiiid llnwinj,' si-a fVoiii tlu'Jict'. Tlicrc- loic iciiiciiiltciiiiji timt your fiid is west, . tc."* Ill till' .suiiii' year of 1012, fiiitlu'r iie<|iiaiiitaiieL' wiis imulo witli till! coast of (Jri't'iihiiid bv Juiul's Hull uinl WilliiiiM liiitfiii, who went tliitlior to look for a <^c Comfort, which last, was the limit of the voyage, and is situated, according to his observations, in latitude 05° N., longitude 85° 22' W. Having doul)led this cape, the tide was found to set difterently from what he expected, and the hope of a passage in that tlirection failhig, he turneil back. In the. Admiralty charts, (he part of Southampton Island traced by Battiu is not filled in, but he mentions his daily position at noon, and his map (published by ^Ir. Rundall) gives a tracing of the coast-line. His journal proves that he was an experienced nautical astrononu-r, and an able seaman : it concludes with th(! following o[)inion : — "And now it may be that som expect I should give my • llaiirolt'H lai Miiiiili', etc., (iiul AlhoimMini, I80I. nililionnniliiciil MIm-uI- laiiv, NoveiubiT 18r);j, KNiiLlsH NoUTII-WKST VOV.V«iES. i(>:) o|iynitl('s tlK'iuv is a passa.I^;*'. Hut witliin this strayto, wliume is called lltulsmrs Straytcs, I am tlnulttfiill. supi.osiu;;!' l\ni cuiitraiyi'. Hut wla'thtr tlu'iv 1)0 or m>, I will not alliiUK'. lUit this 1 will allirmc, that we have not hirnc in any tydc then that from Ilcsolutyon Hand, and the ^.Mcatest indraft of that (•ommoth t'ri»m Davis' Straytt-s : and my jml;,'- mcnt is, if any passudj^c within Ui'solution Hand, it is hut som crc'i'kt' or in lutt, hut the maync; will In- up J'lrtani Duris.'' In accordance with the opinion here expressed, nallin, in his voyage of lOH), in which he was again accompanied l>y I'ylot, sailed up Davis' Straits, with thi; intention, according to his instructions, of i»roceeding into the SOth paraUel of latitude, if he could, heforu turning to the westward. On the :jOth of ^lay, Hojie Sanderson, the northern limit of Davis's ex[»lorations, was left behind, and the vessel proceetled onwards, passed Women's Islands, in latitude 72'^, to Horn Sound, in latitude 7-t°, where it was detained until a barrier of ice, which im])cded further progress, gave way. Here our naviga- tors had free intercourse with a band of Eskimos, from whom thev obtained manv narwhal teeth or horns, as they thought them to l)e, whence the appellation they gave to the ink't. 'I'wo centuries later Sir John Ifoss sailed past JIoi'7i Sound, and had interviews, in a bay sixty miles farther north, with Kskimos, whom he named Arctic llighlaudt-rs. Had Sir John had an elUcient intei"preter, he might have learnt whether any tradition of the existence of ships, manned by white men, remained among the natives of that coast. He states that these northern Skra-llings believed that they were the oidy inhabitants of the universe, but this supposed ignorance is inconsistent with their s))eaking a dialect of Kskimo, common lOG POLAll RECllONS. I !i;:: Mi.;. . (!,■• I in latitude 73° where Sacheuse, iSir Jolins interpreter, had uc(|uired it. Had they been i'uund cognisant of the meaning of the word Kabloonacht, signifying " white people," the ([uestion would have been solved, but we are not told that 8acheuso was directed to inquire. J When liberated from Horn Sound, liaflin continued his northern course by Digges Cape, in latitude 70° 35', and, twelve leagues onward, sailed i)ast Wolstenholme Sound, having an island in its entrance. He was next embayed, during a storm, at the mouth of Whale Sound, in latitude 771" N., and after passing HakluyCs Island, which is remark- able for a rocky pinnacle rising to the height of six hundred feet, he saw another great sound extending to the north of the 78th parallel, and observed, -with surprise, that the compass varieil five degrees to the westward. This sound he named after Sir Thomas Smith ; it is the northern continuation of I^affin's Bay, and on this voyage its oiHng, abounding in whales, was the most northerly position attained. Turning southwards down the western coast of the bay, Cavcjfs Islands were next seen; and on the 10th of July, the l)oat being sent on shore at the entrance (jf a lair sound, on which the name of Alderman .lijues was bestowed, brought back a report of plenty of sea-morses, but no inhabitants. (^)n the 12th of July, Sir James Lancaster's Sound was dis- covered, but a ledge of ice lying athwart it, prevented Baffin from crossing the true threshold of the north-west passage. \'i his letter to Sir John Wolstenholme, this able and adventurous navigator explains the causes of these various .sounds not having been explored. Off Wolstenholme the ship dro\ c w ith two anchors ahead, and was obliged to haul off shore under a low sail. At W/ia/r Sound an anchor and i;N<;LI.SH NORTH-WEST VOYA(;ES. 107 eter, had meaning plo," the told that nuud his 35', and, e Sound, embayed, 1 hititude s remark- hundred north of e compass le named nation of n whales, the bay, I July, the sound, on brought labitants. was dis- "d Ikffni Issage. |d)le and various Ihne the to haid •hor and cabhi were lost, and the wind continued to blow so strongly when he was ofl' Sir Thomas SmItlCs Sound, that the ship could not remain at anchor. Two centuries and a half after- wards. Captain Jnglelichl dying to i)ush up the same sound, was driven out by violent gusts of wind. After passing Lancaster Sound, llatlin could not ai)proach the short; because of an intervening ledge of ice, and on the 27th, his crew being sick and weak, he struck over to the (Jreenland coast, and anchored in Cochin^ Sound, in liititude (55^^ N., wlu're he saw great sculls of salmon swinninng to and fro. liatlins report made to Sir John Wolstenliohne on his return to England was, that having coasted all, or nearly all, the circumference, he found it to be no other than " a great bay, as the voyage doth trucly shew." But he gave such an account of the numbers of whales that he saw, as to encourage the establishment of the Davis' Strait whale-fishery, which the efibrts of two centuries and a half have not yet exhausted. The Danes had not seen unmoved the efibrts of England, and Jens ^Funck, who hail previously made some voyages to (Treeidand, was despatcluid in quest of a north-west passage. He entereu Hudson's iiay and wintered in Churchill rivei,* whose estuary he named Mvnclrnes Vintcrharn. The neigh- bouring coasts were calletl New Denmark, and there he s[)ent a nnserable winter, owing to ignorance of the nu'thods lur economising the resources of the cunntry. That estuary abounds in tish ; American hares, which an; easily tra])])ed, arc plentiful in the willow thick(!ts on its shores, there is no lack of grouse and ])tarmigan, and rein-deer might have been * Wlieii till' IIiitlson'M Ijjiy (^impimy vslablisheil their foil on tlii.s river, ono I'f Miinck's ciiiinoii, iniirknil Civ, was found in a rove on the south siHo ol' iho (Ntnarv, from thcnco naineil Munk's ("ove. 'k Wh" «^i '1 .1. 108 POLAR REGIONS. killed by hunters. But from living on salt provisions, scurvy assailed the crew, their beer and wine were frozen, and death was busy among them as the winter wore on. Towards the spring Munck himself lay in a hut four days without food, and when he at length crawled forth, he found only two survivors out of a crew of fifty-two. These, digging under the snow, found some herbs and grass which they ate, and strength enough returned to enable them to fish and shoot. The spring migration of birds yielding them plenty of food, their A'igour was restored, so that they were enabled to fit out the smaller of the two vessels that had left Denmark, and, after a hazardous voyage across the north sea, to reach their native country. A romantic story is current of this stout seaman having died of grief on being harshly received by Christian the Fourth, but Forster states that he did not die till eight years after his return to Denmark, and that he continued to be employed by government till that event. The voyage of Captain Luke Foxe, or as he quaintly called himself "North -West Foxe," promoted also by the Musco\^'^ Company, negatived a westerly outlet from Hudson's Bay, below the highest latitude to which Foxe attained. He sailed from Doptford in May 1G31 in the Charles, a pinnace of seventy tons burthen, well stored with eighteen months' provisions of the first quality, and of kinds which he enume- rates at length. Crossing from Greenland to the western lands, he reached the north side of Lumley's Inlet, where he obtained a good observation for latitude in G2° 25' N. on the 20th of June. This sliews that Foxe, who was perfectly conversant with what Davis had performed, identifies the Inlet so named with the Strait discovered 1>y Frobisher, and named after himself. Lord Lumley, as Foxe tells us, was "an i ENfSLISH NORTH-WEST VOYAfJES. 109 [IS, scui-vy iiid death vards the food, and survivors the snow, strength lot. The bod, their fit out the id, after a eir native it seaman Christian till eight itinued to quaintly by the iHudson's bed. He pinnace months* enume- western k'here he r. on the [Derfectly Ifies the |her, and kvas " an especial furtlu^rer to IJavis in liis voyages." Standing across Lumley's Inlet for two leagues, he had an observation in (52° 12' N., and at ten that night saw Cape Warwick; on tlie 22d he entered Hudson's Strait in smooth water, between Cape Chidley and Cape Warwick, near by the Island of Ivcsolution, by whom named ho knew not. Having passed through th(^ Straits he landed at Cary's Swan's Nest, and then doubling the southern cape of Soutliampton Island, proceeded to survey the channel that separates that island from the main shore. On the 27th of Jidy, in latitude 04.° 10' N., he saw, an island which he took to be the east side of Sir Tliomas Button's Ut Ultra. This was his northern limit on that meridian, for his instructions directed him to search thi; western laiul for a passage from latitude G3° southwards, until he came to Iliulson's ]3ay. Having landed on the island and found that it was an Eskimo burial place, he named it Sm Thomas Roe's Welcome, an appellation whicli has since been transferred to the entire channel. Eounding t])e Welcome by the north, and passing southwards on the west side of it, he came to another island resembling it, being a high mass of white cpiartz, which ho called after one of his patrons ]>rooke Cobiiam, and on a neighbouring group ol' islands he bestowed the appellation of Brigges his Mathe- MATICKES. Continuing his course to the south along the American coast, he came to an island in latitude 61° 10' N., which he identities with the Hoiks Chech' d of Sir Thomas Button, and four days afterwards comirg to Huhart his Ho2)r, he pronounces it to be "a vaine hope." Standing along a green, pleasantly wooded coast, in latitude 59°, he came to the mouth of a gre.ct river (the Missinijij^'i) with a cliff at its south entrance like unto Balsea cliff near Harwich. This . -^' ■f 1% Wm^l khm •'li IP i ! ; I' 110 POLAR REGIONS. was Munckme^s Vinterhaviiy where the Hudson's Bay Com- pany's post of Clnirchill was afterwards established. On the lOtli of August Foxe entered Nelson River, and having found that the cross \i'\i\\ an inscription wliich Sir Thomas Button erected, had fallen down, he restored it to its position, with the addition of a notice of his o\vn arrival there, and of his having called the land, in the right of his Sovereign King Charles, New Wales. Keeping his southerly course for a fortnight longer with- out detecting the slightest indication of the desired passage, he met the Maria, commanded by Captain James of Bristol, and an interchange of courtesy ensued. Foxe, however, a shrewd, intelligent Yorkshireman, and skilful as a navigator in all points, expresses his conviction that Captain James was a good nautical astronomer though but an indifterent seaman. Having now convinced himself that there was no western passage between the parallels of 65° 30' and 55° 10' K, Foxe expresses an opinion that Sir John will expend no more money in the search, and he therefore names the land on the latter parallel of latitude Wolsteniiolme's ultima vale. Leaving this coast, Foxe turned his ship's head north- wards, and proceeded to explore the opening on the east side of Southampton Island. Having ascertained the positions of several of the salient points of this island, he crossed the North Bay of Baffin and By lot and attained latitude GG° 47' or 1 oxe's farthest. The various projections of the land that crosses the western extremities of Frobisher's and Cumberland's Straits were named by him in succession King Charles his Promontory, Cape jVIaria, Lord Weston's Portland, and ]*oiNT Peregrine, this last being the northern extremity of the land that he saw. ft has been ascertained of late years !,|i. KXdLlSH NORTH-WEST VOYAGES. Ill Jay Coin- ed. On cl having * Thomas I position, re, and of iign King igcn* with- :1 passage, )f Bristol, owever, a navigator lames was t seaman. 10 western N., Foxe no more nd on the ad north- east side isitions of ossed the e GG° 47' land that berland's ■rles his ND, and eniity of te years that there is an P^skimo route from Point IVregrine through a larire sheet of water nameil Lake Kennedv, to a westerlv arm of Frobisher's and Cumberland Sound called by the natives Tcnududhcch* Captain James gives a most doleful account of his mishaps on the voyage, and the sullerings he endured during a winter in a harbour which he discovered in latitude 52" N. This was the only discovery he made, and was of some importance, as it became and continues to be the winter harbour of siu'h Hudson's Bay ships as are cleared too late in the season to return througli the straits. In a former page it has been mentioned that Hall and Bafhn went to look for a gold mine in Greenland, supposed to have been worked by the Danes. In 1 G3G the Danish Chan- cellor Fries having been informed that the English had found gold, sent out two vessels to ascertain the truth of the report, but they returned with samples of iron ])y rites. In most, if not in all the nortli-west voyages alluded to in the preceding pages, the *y)ilots looked for a liood-tide setting from the west, and when that was not found, tnought the iidet to be unpromising, and desisted from the search at that place. For almost a century after Foxe and James' voyages, or from the time of Charles the First till the accession of George the First, civil wars and revolutions at home, and the wars of Marlborough abroad, engaged the attention of the nation to the exclusion of the prosecution of maritime discovery, the only effort in that cause being an abortive attempt by Cai)tain James Wood, in 1G7G, undertaken through the influence of the lioyal Society, to make the north-east passage by way of Novaya Zemlya. • See page 91. M, 112 POLAR REftlONS. *^: iii'Mi V ^ m ! CHAPTER VI. AMERICAN CONTINENT, ETC. — A.D. 1()G8-1700. I FikIsoii'.s ]?ay C(mii)aiiy — De la J'otlu'rio — Jean Bonnie m — Kiii;,'lit — Barlow and Vaiij,'liaii wrecked and died of famine on Marble Island — Fruitless search for tlieni — Beniains discovered after the lapse of half a century — ^Middleton — Tlepnlse Bay and frozen strait — Moor and Smith — Banken's Inlet, or Doujj;las8' Bay, or Corbet's Inlet — Chesterfield Inlet — Hearne — Co])ponnine river and Arctic sea — Phipps — Spitzber<,'en — Cook — North-west America — Berinjf'a Straits — Icy Cape — Sir Alexander Mackenzie — Mackenzie River — Whale Island — Arctic si-a. Foxe's voyage, mentioned in the preceding chapter, was the last of the north-west expeditions sent out at tlie expense of the members of the IVIuscovy Company, but in process of time a new company grew up and entered on the field of discovery as an essential jjart of its constitution, just as the "Discoverie of New Trades" liad been of the older corpo- ration. In 1670, on the 2d of ]\Iay, King Charles the Second granted a charter to Prince Eupert and several other noble personages, giving them and their successors the exclusive right to tlie territories drained by rivers falling into Hudp^ju's Bay, and the trade thereof, on certain conditions, one of which was the promotion of geographical dis- o\ jry. This company is said to liave been formed on the immediate represent itions to Prince Rupert of a Captain Gillam, who with two adventurers that liad been employed in the Canadian fur-trade, named Groiseleiz and Ratisson, had sailed from Gravesend in 16G8 vova<;ks ok TirE iiudsun s hav ch»mi'anv. 113 0. — Kiii;^'lit — on Marl)U' .'(1 after the frozen strait , or Corl)et'.s r and Arctic ca — Bering's izie River — Br, was the expense of iiocess of le field of ust as the er corpo- le Second ler noble exclusive HudPvjn's ! of which )mpany is t itions to /•enturers e, named in 1GG8 to Kui)ert's river in Hudson's Bay. Suon aflt-r the coiiipany had bc^im ttt establish tlieir posts on the rivers that fall into the bay, th(^ Canadians, hearinjjf that the English wore en- riehiiig themselves, formed line Compagnie du Xord (about tlie year J 070) with the view of eontestiu}^ the ]>ossession of the country, and (Jroiseilliers and liadisson, liaving obtained a ])ardon from the French monarcli, returned to Canada to give their countrymen the aid of their experience. ^[. de liacqueville de la Potlierie, in his Vllistoirc dc VAmcrique Septmlrionale, says tliat Jean Bourdon, who siuled from Canada in lOoO, was the first of his countrymen who visited Hudson's liay. In IGSO, Avhen the English company had five forts on \\\v. bay, and thougli there was peace between the nations at the time, an expedition coming by land from Canada under ]M. le Chevalier do Troye took three of tlu' forts, and in IGDO M. d'Iberville tailed in an attempt to take York Fort, on Hayes river, near the mouth of the Nelson, but succeeded in 1094. For some years after- wards several of the forts changed masters more than once, and the Hudson's Bay Company lost their ships in a severe action amid the ice. After the peace of Utrecht, York Fort was delivered up to the company in 1714, before which time the only fort the company had been able to keep possession of for some years, was Albany Fort, on the river of that name. Even during the hot contest M'ith France, the yearly instructions of the governor and committee of the Company ill Loudon to their agents in ltU[)ert's Land, urged the sending of intelligent men to discover tlie inland country, and a lad named Henry Kelsey, having made several overland journeys, in the company of the natives, was patronised and promoted. The first northern voyage by sea, however, which the Com- 1 It ll 114 I'OLAll REGIONS. ,t!'U.. 'Mv ,i'l|li lilMl m\ Ji. pany provided for, was undertaken in 1719. The expedi- tion consisted of a frigate, commanded by Captain George Barlow, and a sloop, Ly Captain David Vaughan, the chief command over both these seamen being intrusted to Mr. James Knight, ex-governor of several of their factories, and described as being most zealous in tlie cause of discovery, but whose age had reached the mature period of eighty years. This expedition, which sailed from Gravesend in June (the month in whicli the Hudson's Bay ships always leave the Tliames), consisted of the Albany and tlie Discovery, whicli were well stored with provisions, a house in frame, and a good stock of trading goods. The instructions were for them to proceed to the northward (by Sir Thomas Boe's Welcome as far as latitude 64 degrees) in search of the Anian strait. As neither of the ships returned to England at the close of the summer of 1720, and no intelligence was received of them, great fears were entertained for their safety ; orders were therefore sent out by the next ship for the Governor of Churchill to despatch the Whalebone, John Scroggs, master, to search for them. These instructions reached Churchill too late in the year to be acted upon that season, but Scroggs sailed in 1722. He seems to have been neither judicious nor enter- prising, and was greatly embarrassed by the shoals and rocks that skirt that coast. Though he picked up some fragments of ships' fittings on White or MarUe Island, which is the same with the Brooke Cdbham of Foxe, he made no effective search, and returned, believing that the articles he had found were merely indications of some trifling accident* People clung * Arthur Dobbs, foncying that the Hudson's Bay Company kept the events of Scroggs' voyage concealed, because of the discoveries lie had made tending to prove the existence of a north-west passage at Whalebone point, took much credit for having published some particulars of it. — Ellis, Voy. to Huds. Bay, p. 80. '»■ I ■-a 3? VOYAGES OK THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY. 11.3 le expedi- iii George the chief id to ^Ir. ories, and oveiy, but rhty years. June (the leave the ary, which me, and a B for them i Welcome lian strait, le close of eceived of rders were vernor of s, master, irchill too )ggs sailed por enter- land rocks fragments the same re search, lund were pie clung |he events of tending to luch credit /, p. 80. to the notion that Knight liad made liiis way into the Taci- lie, and many years elapsed before his fate and that of liis companions canu; to be fully known, though Captain Smith, in 1747, found some tracies of shipwreck on the same island. Every season a sloop was sent to the Welcome to trade with the Eskimos, and in 1707 a whale fishery was carried on in the vicinity of Marble Island. It happened that the boats of the Success, Joseph Stephens, when on the look-out for fish, rowed close to the island, and discovered a harbour near its east end, which had until tlien escaped notice. At the head of this haven, guns, anchors, cables, Ttiicks, a smith's anvil, and many other articles, were found. The wrecks of the ships lay sunk in five fathoms water, and the remains of the house from which the Eskimos had extracted the nails were still in existence. The figure-head of the Albany, the guns, and some other things were sent home. In the summer of 17C9, fifty years after the catastrophe, Hearne visited Marble Island, which he describes a.s a bar- ren rock, destitute of every kind of herbage except moss and grass, lying nearly sixteen miles from the mainland, having a like character — the woods there, he says, being several hundreds of miles from the sea-side. Wliile prose- cuting the whale fishery in that quarter, he met several Eskimos, greatly advanced in years, and, with the aid of one of their countiymen employed in the Company's service as an interpreter, he extracted from them the following account : — " When the vessels arrived it was veiy late in the fall (close of sunmier), and the largest received much damage in getting into the harbour. Immediately afterwards the i:l ■-*. ¥ 116 TULA 11 UEUIONS. white mull began to build their houHe, their nmiibevs beiii}^ at that time aV)out fifty. Next summei' the Kskimos paid them another visit, and found tlieir nundu-rs greatly reduced, and the survivors unhealthy. Their carpenters were then at work on a boat. At the beginning of the second winter only twenty were living. That winter the Eskimos built ihv'w houses on the opposite side of the harbour, and fiviiuently HUi)plied the English with whale's blubln'r, seal's llesh, train oil, and such other provisions as they could spare. The l-'skiinos left in the spring, and on returning later in tlie summer of 1721, found only five Englishmen alive, wl (^ were in such distress for provisions, that they ate eagerly of the seals' tlesh and whales' blubber quite raw as they i)urchased it. This diet so disordered them that three died within a ^",w days, and the other two, though extremely weak, made a shift to bury them. The two survived the others many days, and frequently went to the top of a rock, and ^3oked earnestly to the south and east, and afterwards sat down together and wept bitterly. At length one of these melancholy men died, and the other, in attempting to dig a grave for his companion, fell down and died also." The longest liver, probably the armourer, was ahi^ays employed in working iron into implements, for trade with the Eskimos. \Vlien Hearne was there the skulls of the two men were lying above ground near the house.* The disastrous termination of Knight's voyage gave the Hudson's Bay Company a dislike of sea-expeditions of dis- covery for a length of time, though they gi-adually extended their trade in peltries into the interior, and gained a know- ledge of the country and its inhabitants. At the instance, however, of Arthur Dobbs, Esq., a gentleman who interested * Hearne, xxx. #; m KNOLISH NOHTH-WEST VOYAfiES. 117 nios paid ,' reduced, e then at inter only viv liouses ' su])itlied 1 oil, and kiiiios left r of 1721, h distress flesh and lis diet so 1, and the fin7 them, ntly went outh and erly. At other, in own and Lirer, was Ifor trade ikulls of lave the of dis- kxtended know- Instance, Iterested himself greatly in the discovery of the north-wost ])assage, the (Vdupany sent out two vessels in 1737, which elfectcd nt)thin,L,', not goinf^ farther north than 02'°, or to Whale Cove, .short of Marble Island. In 1741, Cai)tain Middleton, an able seaman and a good nautical astronomer, who had l)een long employed in the sen'ice of the Hudson's Bay Com])any, and who had received the Copley medal from the lloyal Society, for several papei-s on the variation of the compass, occultations of Jupiter's satellites, and on the cold of Hudson's ])ay,* was selected by the Admiralty to conduct an expedition of discoveiy np the Welcome. Middleton was appointed commander of the Fur- nace IJondj-ketch, having under him William Moor, master of the Discovery Pink, and was instructed to make the best of his way to Carey's Swan's Nest, and from thence to steer north- westerly, so as to fall in with the north-west land at Sir Thomas Roc's Wdco77ie or Ke nUra, near latitude 65° north, and having reached ^Vlialebonc Point, to try for a passage westward or eastward, directing his course to that side from whence the tide of Hood came. Having thus found the passage, he was to proceed onwards, keeping the American shore on his larboard, till he arrived at California, and so on. The Dolphin, man-of-war, was appointed to convoy the dis- covery vessels as far as the Orkney Islands, for security against the enemy's privateers. ^Middleton wintered the first year in Churchill lUver, and in 17-i2 proceeded northwards, discovered the wide and deep inlet which he named Wcif/cr liivcr, and entered Repulse Bay, the south headland of which he called Cape Hope. His further progress northwards being impeded by ice, Middleton landed, and having walked fifteen ♦ Phil. Trans, rnpers, .SO.*?, 40.5. 1 ; 4 lis IMU.All UIXJIONS;. 1 :'it; iiiiles uci'OHM till' liij^li jioint at the nortli-oaHtern cud of the bay, he beheld a fro'^cn strait turning rountl the north end of Southampton Island towardw Cape CoM\fort and the NoHli Iiay o^ IJallin, or Voxe'.s Farthest. Eighty yeai-s afterwards. Sir Edward Tarry, entering by the frozen strait, then open, provcid the perfect correctness of !Middleton's survey, and Sir (leorge Back, in 1830, found the strait encund>ered with ice, as jMiddleton had seen it. The tlooil tide came round South- ampton through the Frozen Strait, which is four or fuc leagues across at the narrowest part. On his way northward up the Welcome, ^liddleton examined the Wager Inlet, having its entrance in latitude 05° 23' N., hjngitude 88° 37' W., its southern cape, nanieil Dulls, being in G5° 12'. Fjghteen days, or from the 13tli of July to the 1st of August, were spent in this inlet, in explor- ing it by boats and in trying the tides. These were very strong, running five or six miles an hour, and setting in, during flood from the Welcome, with a rise of from ten to fifteen feet. The inlet was found to narrow towards the mouth of a river at its western extremity. On Middleton's return to England, Ai-thur Dobbs, who had been a chief instigator of the expedition, and a cor- respondent of Middleton's on the subject for six years before it left England, was grievously disappointed with the result, and prefcn-ed charges to the Admiralty against the captain of his own choice, accusing him of want of honesty in the report of his proceedings, and of concealing everything that told in favour of a passage, so that he might seiTe the interests of the Hudson's Bay Company, which he alleged would be injured by the discovery of the north-west passage. Middle- ton's honest and seaman-like reply, and the evidences which i ! ] '11(1 of till' )ith t'lul of tlio North ifterwnitls, hen opoii, !}', iind Sir I with iec, uul South- ur or five MidiUetou II hititiule pe, 11 allied lie 13th of ill cxplor- ■\vere very ettiug ill, om ten to yards the hbs, who tid a cor- n's before le result, aptain of he report b told in erests of oiild lie ]\[iddlc- r.s wliifh i:n(;lish nouth-wkst vovacjkh. 119 he adthued of the truth of his statements, satislied the Admi- raltv* Ihit Dobhs, who socnis to have been a man of much ciH'igy, thniinh waiitinj,' either in fairness or in judf^'iuent, had iiilhu'iui' eiKiUgh, through his publications, to procure the piissing of an Act of rarliaiueiit, ollcring a reward of X2(M)()() for tlie discovery of a north-west passage ; and was mainly iiistrumcntal in raifsing CI 0,000, by suV)scriptioiis of £100 each share, towards defraying the outfit of an exi)edition that might earn the national reward. On their part, the Admiralty promised protection from ini[iress for three years to all sea- men who volunteered for the ships to be fitted out; and a scale of j)reniiiiiiis, in the nature of prize-money, was settled for the officers and men, in case of success. The command of the Dobbs galley of 180 tons, was confeiTcd on Captain \Villiam Moor, who, having been Middleton's second, had been won over to espouse Dobbs' side in the controversy which that gentleman had stirred up. On board the Dobbs, Henry Ellis, gentleman, agent for the proprietors of the expe- dition, was embarked ; and wrote a narrative of the proceed- ings. I'he California, of 140 tons, was placed under the com- mand of Captain Francis Smith, and a journal of his doings was kept by the clerk. In the instructions issued to the Cajitaiiis, "Wager Inlet is denominated a strait, through which they are told to push westwanl, and when by that route they get into an open sea, they are encouraged to depend on an open passage, and to proceed boldly, keeping America on the * Vimliciition of tho Conduct of Captain Christoplier Middleton, F.K.S., Lie, London, 1743. According to Mr. Goldson, Middleton, being neglected by the Admiralty, retired to a village near Gainsborough, where he died in pecu- niary distress, having previously sold his Copley medal for his support. m 120 POLAR RECJIONS. It. ii i 'mi!! m left hand. They had also the option of trying Pistol Bay, or Rankin's inlet, near Marble Island, and on finding no obstruc- tion, were to winter on the I'acific in 50° north latitude, and to rendezvous in any harbour nearest to -iO", on the back of California. In these instructions, we can trace a belief in the existence of the fabulous strait of Anian, and the chaits afterwards publisheil to illustrate the two narratives, and which it is not uncharitable to '-uppose embody Mr. Dobbs' study of the older north-west voyages, erroneously transfer Frobisher's strait to the south end of Cheenland. When the discovery ships left the Orkneys on the 12th of June 1746, in company with the Hudson Bay vessels, by a singular fortune a Captain Middleton, then commanding His Majesty's ship Shark, was appointed by his senior ollicer Connnodore Smith, to convoy them to the westward, which he did for six days. The ships wintered at I'oH Nelson, and next year proceeded to fulfil the objects of their mission. Dobbs seemed to have infused his captious spirit into the officers of the two ships, as we have a double set of names imposed on the several headlands and inlets ; and though frerpieut councils were held, no hearty co-operation ensued, and finidly, two polemical narratives were published. In one thing the two captains agreed, namely, that they were not instructed to examine Eepulse Bay, and the Frozen Strait; and in another, that Wager Inlet, after an accurate exannna- tion, is entirely shut off from having any communication with any place but the W^elcome. The name tif liankin's Inlet was changed to that of .Tames Douglas's Bay, in honour of a merchant of the city of London, one of the adventurcn-s in the undertaking. Ellis calls this same o]>ening Corbors Inh't. These are the only returns the i VOYACKS OF TllK HUDSON S 14AY COM PAN V. 121 ol Bay, or o obstruc- itudc, ami le back of belief in the cliaits tives, and [r. Uobbs' )' transfer the 12tli ,'essels, by nmandinj;' lior oliicer rd, which Ison, and mission. into the of names though ensued, In one ^'ere not Strait ; ixamina- ion with >f James London, alls this iviis the adventurers had for their £10,000. On the 25th (if August, a council was held, and " a definitive resohition was taken to bear away without f'.vt!n.r delay for England." . . "The diiicovery being finished," as the otlier narrative has it. Chcstcrjldd Inld had been entered by both ships, and cxamiiunl as far as an overfall or cascade, l)y (.'attain Smith, who chnnged its name to Bowdens Inlet ; but his account of it was not thought in England to be satisfactory, and it was supposed that an unexi)lured passage existed from its western extremity. To set this tpicstitin at rest, the Hudson's Ikiy Company sent Captain Christopher in a sloop to examine it anew, in 1701. On his return he reported that he had navigated the inlet for more than 150 miU's in a westerly tlircctijn, until he found the Mater fresh, l)ut had not seen its end. On this, j\Ir. Ncu'ton was sent, in 17G2, to trace it to its extiemity, which he did, and found it to end at the distance of 170 miles from its entrance, in a fresh-water lake twenty-four li-agues in length, and seven or eight wide. A river flows into the western extiemity of this lake.* In 17!)!, Captain Duncan was sent by the same Com- pany to exannne Corbet's or Rankin's Inlet, which proved to be a bay, and Chesterfield Inlet, which he found to agree with Norton's description. He traced the river, which enters its extremity, for thirty miles, when finding that it flowed from the northward, he turned back.f Dr. Itae, chief factor of the Hudson's Buy Company, in hS54, entered the inlet and ascended the river (^loich, which falls into its north side. This stream he navigated in a boat for two degrees and * Sec IntroiliK'tion to Cook's Third N'oyago, wliori; jusliee is reiulcied to MitlillL'tun iuid to llie Hudson's \\;\\ Companv. t fidldson nil tlh' I'assntrc ImMwicii ilir Allanti. jmd racilii' Oii^ans. I'<.i|h- liioiitli, 170.'?. Pp. »•"> anil 53. 'c\ ■m J1 I' I li.- 122 POLAR REGIONS. If a half of latitude, until lie had crossed the parallel of Wager Inlet at the distance of twenty miles from its head waters, and about eighty geographical miles from the nearest bend of Back's Great Fish liiver. The country was difficult, moun- tainous, and barren. As early as the year 1715, the northern red Indians, or Tiime, who brought peltri(3s to the Hudson's Bay Company's factoiy, called Prince of Wales Fort, on the Llissinippi or Churchill Eiver, described a river in the west flowing north- wards to the sea, on whose banks there was abundance of native copper, pieces of which they produced. The disastrous expedition of Knight, Barlow, and Vaughan, of 1719, had reference to the discovery of tliis river, and Mi*. Dobbs had kept it in view in the instructions drawn up for the discovery vessels sent out through his exertions. In 17G9, Mr. Norton, governor of the fort or factory of Churchill, proposed an over- land expedition to find out the Coppermine Eiver, as it came to be called, but which the Tinne named Xceiha-sansan-tessi/ (the far-off metal river). Samuel Hearne was the traveller chosen, two seamen being appointed to accompany him, to- gether with two leading chiefs and eight picked men of the " home-guard," — that is, of the Cree Indians, or Nathew inyu- wuck, living in the vicinity of the fort, and trading constantly with it. Some '* very portable astronomical instruments were sent out for his use ; " and he was instructed to trace the Coj)- permine Iliver to its mouth, and to note what advantages it offered for a settlement of the Company. On the Gth of November 17G9, Hearne and his party set out, hauling their baggage, which was very light, on sledges, and directing their course to the north-west. The limit of the woods in- clines to vhe north-wost, and does not reach the coast to the % Hudson's bay co. overland expeditions. 123 jf Wager d waters, ; bend of it, mouu- idians, or )mpany's inippi or g north- dance of isastrous ri9, had ibbs had liscovery Norton, an over- it came mn-tessy raveller lim, to- of the sv inyu- istantly s were le Cop- tages it Gth of g their ecting ods in- to the north of Churchill river. They crossed Seal liiver, antl the Indian chief Chawchinaliaw, who assumed the direction of the party, assured Hearne that they would reach the woods in four or five days. In the meantime the cold was great and the party suffered from want of fuel. It appears to have been Chawchinahaw's design to disgust the Europeans with the enteq)rise, and with that view to keep on the barren grounds, but not far froui the woods which they occasionally saw loom- ing in the distance. Finding this plan not to answer his end, he first induced several of the Indians to desert, and then telling Hearne that it was not prudent to go further, he and the remainder went off laughing heartily at their own devices and the difficulties in which he had involved the English, after leading them 200 miles from the fort. Chawchinaliaw, however, had the humanity before (putting Hearne to shew hiai the best course he could take homeward. Hearne and 1 3 two men reached Prince of Wales Fort in safety, after an absence of thirty-six days, and no little hard living. In February 1 770, Hearne set out a second time, taking with him no Europeans, because the two men of the former expedition had been harshly treated by the Indians. On this occasion his native guides led him into a labyrinth of lakes, extending, if his distances and latitudes are correct, nearly as far north as the parallel of Chesterfield lulet, travelling as was convenient to their pursuit of deer, and without the slightest intention of going to the Coppermine River. Though the land is described by Hearne as entirely barren, and destitute of trees and shrubs, except the Wishacapucca {Arhutus uva-ursi), deer were abundant, and at least GOO Indians were assembled in one encampment by the middle of .luly. On the llth of August, having set up his quadrant im r m 1 I |l! ill ii' ■mi '!( I Ml ■fill f I 124 POLAR REGIONS. for the pui-jiose of taking a meridian altitude, it was blown down and broken, wliicli accident deternuned liim to return a second time to the fort, and there was indeed little prospect of the Indians he was then associated with, leading him to the river he was seeking. The instrument thus broken was a Iladley's Quadrant, Mith a bubble attached to it, instead of an artificial horizon, made by Daniel Scatlif of Wapping. With this, Hearne, if he knew how to observe correctly, might have ascertained his latitudes within moderate limits, and his chart of this second journey is more likely to be right than that of his third and principal one, in which the instmment he had was little used, and of little use. The day after the accident to the quadrant, a party of strange Indians, plundered Hearne and his native "home-guard" companions, of every useful article. In the way back to the fort, however, assistance was obtained from parties of natives going thither witli furs, and above all, from Matouabbee, a famous leader of the Tinnd, whose aid Hearne had been instructed to seek. On the 25th of November he reached the fort a second time, after an absence of nine months. The third journey, conducted on a plan sketched out by Matonabbee, and under his guidance, was successful. This time Hearne eschew^ed the companionship of the home-guard Crees, as he had done on the second occasion, that of European servants of the Company, and threw himself wholly on ]\Iatonabbee, as the most influential leader of the Timi'' nation. The third start was made on the 7th of December 1 770. His first winter was spent within the verge of the woods, Maton- abbee moving from place to place in quest of deer and fish to su|)ply the party, which, including the women and children, was generally largo. The movement was, however, on the whole Hudson's bay co. ovehland exteditions. 125 to the wostwartl, and about the liiidtlle of A[>ril the party had reached Little-Fish hill, on the hanks of a small lake, in latitude 01 i^ north, and longitude 112° W. Here prepara- tions were made for crossing the barren grounds by providing a stock of dried ])rovisions, and on the 18th of the month, the course was changed to north. On the 3d of ^lay a lialt was made at Cloivcij or {Thlucli) Lake,* for the purpose of building canoes, which were not finished till the 20tli. LT[)\vards of 200 Indians came to the same place for the same purpose, while the party remained there, and Ilearne remarks, that being under the protection of a principal man, none of them oflered to molest him. In reading Ilearne's narrative, it is necessary to advert to an overstatement of distances, a very usual circumstance with pedestrians, and the cumbrous Elton's quadrant which had been lying thirty years at the fort, and was the only astro- nomical instrument he had on this last journey, was not likely to aid him in correcting his reckoning. On collating his chart by aid of two or three ascertained geographical posi- tions, his differences of latitude and longitude are invarial»ly found to be in excess.f During the stay of Hearne at Clowey, a war-party was organised to attack the Eskimos that frecjuent the mouth of the Coppermine Eiver, for which sixty men volunteered ; and on arriving at Cofjcad Lake, as he calls it, but which now bears, with the Copper Indians, the name of Gontwoy-to * The Tklueh or Trout Lake, discliarges itself by the Tchu-tessij, into the south side of the eastern extremity of (Jrcat Slave Lake, ancl by information obtained by Sir George Back, must lie between the G2d and 03d parallolH of latitude, but nearer the former. Li ilearne's map, it is on the G3d parallel. t For a critique on Ilearne's geographical positions, see " \'oyage down the Great Fish River by Captain (since Rear Admiral Sir) George Hack," p. 144. 126 POLAR REGIONS. iMi M :! !il or Ituiii Lake, the womuii, children, Jogs, and lieavy baggage were left there until the return of the party, the situation being good for fishing not far from the woods, and, moreover, a common sunmier resort of the Copper Indians. Travelling without encumbrance, the war-party, with Hearne in company, reached a river of some size, called Con- gecawthaivachaga, on the 21st of June, and there they met a large body of the Copper Indians or Eed Knives, one of whom, then a boy named Cascathiy, was well-known in 1820-21 to Sir John Franklin. This boy joined the war-party, and in his old age remembered the circumstances well. Hearne says that he ascertained with his Elton's quadrant the position of the ferry over the river to be G8° 46' north, and 118" 15' west of London. According to Sir John Franklin's observa- tions it lies in 66° 14' N., long. 112° W. Under the guidance of the Copper Indians who knew the country, the party crossed the Stoney mountains, which seemed to Hearne to be at first sight totally impassable, so craggy did they appear. This ridge of mountains is granitic, and termi- nates in Cape Barrow on the Arctic sea, about ninety miles east of the mouth of the Coppermine River. Fourteen days' march from Congecawthawachaga, including some detention by bad weather, brought Matonabbee and his party to the Coppermine River, and Hearne's plan of it, though not accurate, is sufficient proof that he had personally inspected it for twenty-five or thirty miles. The Indians having ascertained by scouts that some families of unsuspecting Eskimos, were encamped on the west side of the river near a cascade, stole upon them when they were asleep, and butchered upwards of twenty men, women, and children. In 1 821 some human skulls lying on the spot -:«, »,« ^^■J ENGLISH VOYAGES TO BERING S STRAIT. 127 baggago situation loreover, ;y, with led Con- iy met a )f whom, 20-21 to lid ill his rne says )sition of 118" 15' olDserva- knew the seemed aggy did id termi- ;y miles Qcludiiig and his ;, though ispected bore testimony to this cruel slaughter, llearne's description oi" the country, and of the abundant fishery at the waterfall, arc correct, but it is impossible to give him credit for endeavouring to speak the truth, when he snys that at the mouth of the river, on the 17th and 18th of July, he had sunshine the whole night. " The sun," he says, " was at midnight certainly some; height above the horizon, how much, as I did not then remark, I will not iioiv take upon me to say, but it proves that the latitude was considerably more than Mr. Dalrymple will admit of."* In his written report to the Company, Hcarne had said that the sun was " a handspike high at midnight." On the same days in the year Sir John Franklin saw the sun set, and the mouth of the river was ascertained to be in lati- tude 07° 48' K, longitude, 115° 47' W. Hearne, by dead reckoning carried on from Congecawthawachaga, places it more than four degrees too far north, and nearly five too far west. The Admiralty expedition in 1773 to Spitzbergen, under Captain Phipps, afterwards Lord MulgTave, made no discovery ; and the hopes of the advocates for further search were then fixed on our great navigator Cook, who was induced by the Earl of Sandwich to leave his honourable retirement in Greenwich Hospital to undertake the third and last of his voyages, mainly for the purpose of ascertaining whether or not a passage existed between the Northern Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. The Expedition sailed in 177C, and returned to England in 1780, though, alas! without its distinguished commander. Bering's t discovery of the Strait which retains * Hoarne, preface, p. vii. t Bering was a Dane, and his family retain the orthography of his name, which we have adoptecl .—(5acr Nachricht, etc.) 128 I'OLAK REOIONS. '5: jMiiiiii'iji liiP liis iianic, way kept in view in t'mniing Cook's instnictiouH, iis well as lleaviie's journey, which negatived a |)assage in a low hititude ; and Cook was enjoined not to lose time in exploring rivers or inlets till he got into the latitude of G5°. Though Cook considered the reports of the pretended Strait u/Da Fonte, supposed to lie between the 50th and 55th parallels to l«i improbable stories that carry their own refutation with them, he would have examined the coast there, Ihad he not been prevented by a gale of wind. His judgment, however, was fully confirmed by Vancouver's accurate survey, made twenty years later. Cook's careful examination of the American coast, from the 58th parallel of latitude northwards, proved that there was no passage below Ici/ Cajx:, which was the limit of his voyage within Bering-'s Strait. The Eussian surveyor Cwosden had seen the American side of Bering's Strait in 1730 ; and Bering Tchirikow and De Lisle had rounded the peninsula oi Alaska, and touched, in 1771, the main land near Mount St. Elias, as well as in latitude 55° 30' ; but Cook was the first who made a continuous and effective survey of those coasts. The failure of Phipps in the Spitzbcrgen seas, of Cook by way of Bering's Straits, and of the vessels sent on two successive seasons to Davis' Straits to co-operate \vith him, satisfied the Admiralty of the day, and for forty years the North-west Passage was unheard of in the government bureaus. In 1789, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, a member of the North- West Fur Company, trading from Canada, descended the great river which bears his name, and traced it to its termination in the Arctic sea. Though this traveller says that he was not supplied with the necessary books and instructions, and with nmch modesty adds that he was deficient in the sciences oi' SIR ALEXANDER MACKENZIE S VOYAGE. 129 iistroiiomy and navigalioii, his sui-vey was in the main hij,'hly creditable, and the position of Whale Island, his extreme point, is very nearly accurate. He had actually reached the sea-coast, but the ^Mackenzie poui*s out such volumes of fresh waters from its various mouths that the sea does not become salt till near Garry Island, which lies about tliirty miles out from the coast of the river-delta. The rising of the tide was however observed. The latitude of Wliale Island was found to be G9F by a meridional observation of the sun, and its longitude, by dead reckoning, 135° west. Before leaving the island many Belugas or white whales were seen — whence the name given to the island by Mackenzie. Ilis descriptions of the channels he followed in the delta are so complete, that they were readily recognised when Sir John Franklin after- wards surveyed the river. 130 POLAR UEOIONS. il *'':i>t An CHAPTER VII. RUSSIAN VOYAGES ALONG THE SIBEKIAN COAST — A.D. 1598-1843. Dyakow — iTenissei River — Pdssitli River — The Lena — Jclissei Busa — Tlie Lena and Olekma — ^Tungnscs — The Jana — The Tshendonia — The Jukahirs — Ivanoio — Tlie Indigirka — The Alascia — Staduchin — The Kolyma — The Tchixktchi — Cape Chelagskoi or Erri-nos — Tchann Bay — Rein-deer Tchuktchi or Tuski — Deschnew doubled the North-east. Cape, and passed Bering's Strait to Anadyr — Alexiew — Svatoi-nos — Bering — East Cape — St. Lawrence Island — Ame- rican Shore of Bering's Strait — Kurile Islands — Kamtsehatka — Ame- rica — St. Eliao — Aleutian Islands — Tchirikow — Cape Edgecumbe — Kotzebue — Kotzebue's Sound — Penniikow — Liakhow Islands — Svatoi-nos — Indigirka — Eterikan — Liakhow — Anjou — Kotelnoi Island — New Siberia — Fadcyevkoi Island — Sieveroi vostochnoi-nos — Laptew — River Olenek — Bay of Nordvich — Bay of Cliotanga — Cape St. Faddei — River Taimura — River Chotanga or Khotanga — Taimura Lake — Tunguses. We now turn to the progress of Arctic discovery on the coasts of the Eussian empire ; and it may simplify our statements, if we premise, that the " North-east Cape," or Sieveroi Vostochnoi N'os of Wrangell, or the Cape Clicliuskin of Middendorf and Peterman, is the northernmost point of Asia. It lies on the 100th meridian, and readies the 78th parallel of latitude, extending higher than Cape Taimura, and about 7° to the north of any part of the American continent. It has never heen doubled, either by a boat or a sailing vessel. No ship coming from Europe has passed eastward beyond the Sea of Kara or Karskoie, and the whole of the northern RUSSIAN VOYAGES ALONG THE SIBEIUAN COAST. 131 coast (h of Judg- ment and disciplino. An atteni])t mad(3 by the sanu' distin- guished navigator to find a ]»assago through Jicgont's Inlet, was terniinated by the shijiwrcjck of one of his sliips — the Kury, eonnnanded l)y Captain II. V. Iloppner. With great forethought, Sir Edward had all the i)rovisions landed from the wreck and safely housed on Fury I'oint, off Xorth Sonu;rset. Finally, being fi'ustrated in his i-ndeavours to lind a ])as- sage westward. Sir Ivlward Tarry attempted the Polar voyage in boats, starting in 1827 from the north end of Spit/.bergen. He actually, by an uncxami)led boat-voyage, reached 82" 40' :}()" of north latitude, which is ])eyond the highest authenti- cated position of any previous navigator ; and he wouhl have gone much further, luit the current which set continuously to the south, carried back the boats iluring the hours neces- sarily allotted to the repose of the crews, and the daily ad- vance, notwithstanding great exertion, was conse(piently small. At length fatigue and diminution of fuel and food comj)elled him to fall back on his ship, the Ilecla, which awaited his return under Captain Forster in Treurenberg l>ay. lloss's Islet, the most northerly rock seen on this most singular and adventurous voyage, lies in latitude 80° 49' Us., and until recently was the most northerly laud known. This was the fourth and last of Sir Edward Parry's northern voyages. AVhilst Parry was so employed by sea, Lieutenant Franklin, afterwards promoted through the grades of commander, and captain, and knighted, was engaged in tracing the northern coast of the continent by land. Trained to be an accurate nautical surveyor, under his kinsman Captain Flinders, in the ■■ 'I 140 I'OIAII KEfUoNH. M to. "!t ';!>:.;. Australian seas, and known as an active first-lieutenant and alile seaman in liis long course of ordinaiy service in tlu; royal navy ; during wliicli lie had distinguished himself in the action between Sir Nathaniel Dance and Admiral Linois, in the great s(!a-fight of Trafalgar, and in hoarding and cany- ing an American gun-hoat at New Orleans. Franklin's rei)U- tation, hacked by the high opinion of his abilities entertained by Sir Joseph Banks, the President of the Koyal Society, secured his nomination to employment on the expeditions of discovery, and his first appointment was to the Trent, as mentioned above. From 1819 to 1822, Franklin was employed in leading an overland expedition from Hudson's Bay to the mouth of the Coppermine River, and the adjoining coast of the Arctic Sea. AVhen this expedition was planned, the Admiralty, by whom it was organized, knew more of the condition of the countiy through which it had to pass, in the days of Hearne, than of its actual state in 1819, and relied solely on the aid that could be given to it by the Hudson's Bay Company, until it was on the eve of embarking. A letter of recommendation was then obtained from one of the agents of the North-west Fur Com- pany, trading from Montreal to their chief factors and chief traders employed in the north, but too late for any effectual provision being made that year to assist the CfOvernment party. The fact was, that the two rival companies were canying on a deadly warfare with each other. The Hudson's Bay Company claimed an exclusive right to occupy and trade in Rupert's Land, by virtue of a charter from Charles the Second; and their opponents based their rights of trade in the interior, on prior occupation, while they, at the same time, denied the validity of the charter. NINETEKNTH CENTl'KY— ENGLAND. 147 In tlie conU.'st tliu liiJiiiiis wore clcinKializcd by the \'\vo. distribution of spirituous liiven ; and the expedition party, consisting then of twenty-five individuals, started ^ith one full day's supply of food. Tt Avas joined on the north side of CJreat Slavi' T.ake by a band of Co])per Indians, under their chief Akaitcho, and finally reached the second winter quarters at Fort Franklin, in lati- tude Gti N., on the 19th of Au«:just 1S21. This place is 553 miles from Fort Chepcwyan, and from thence to Cund)erlan(l House the (hstancc exceeds 800 miles, so that the party travelled from the first year's wintering jdace to the second, 1350 miles. Every cllbrt was made to procure annuunition and other supplies from Fort Chepcwyan; L'-nitenant IWdv haN'ing travelled thither in the middle of winter for the pur- pose, but his cold journey over the snow of 1100 miles there and back, was productive of a contribution very inadequate to the wants of the party. During the winter, the inmates of Fort Enterprize were supplied M'ith venison by Indian hunters ; but spring found their store exhausted, and the journey over the baiTcn grounds to the mouth of the Copper- mine Eiver, was performed on the casual and often very scanty products of the chase. Of that distance, amoimting to 33-t miles from Fort Enterprize, 120 miles had been performed by dragging the canoes and baggage over snoAv and ice. The mouth of the river was found, by meridional observations of the sun, to be in 67° 48' north latitude, and bv chronometers in 115° 37' west longitude.* On the 21st of July, the two * Ilearne, aw mentioiioil in Chaptei' VI., gives the position of (he mouth of ^''i NINKTEENTII (ENTUUV— ENCiLANI). 149 canoes were luunelied on the Antic Sea, and by tlie 10th of August, the coasts of liathurst Inlet and of the rest of Corona- tion Gulf were surveyed eastward to I'oint Turnagain, whose latitude is (JS° ID' N., and longitude; 10!)" 25' W. At this, tlu^ cxtn'nie eastern ]»oint of the expeilition, the canoes wi-re detained for some days by a heavy snow storm, and on the weather moderating, the advanced period of the season made a return southwards indispensable. The ^^•ay was tlierefore re- traced to Lathurst Inlet, and up Hood's Kiver for a little way — and then the canoes being reduced so that one of them could be carried on a man's head, and the men's baggage being restricted to a blanket a i»iece, their guns and amnnmition, a course was shaped for I'oint Lake, and the march eonunenced over the barren grounds. This disastrous retreat was made, except for the first two or three (.lays, over snow ; game was scarce, the strength of the party rapidly failed under the conjoint inlluences of cokl, famine, and fatigue, and more lliaii half the i>arty perisheil, among the rest a young ollicer of extraordinary promise, Lieutenant Hood, under most dis- tressing circumstances, which are related at h-ngth in Sir -lohn Franklin's narrative of the journey. The survivors being succoured by the Indians of Akaitcho's band on the 7th of November, with their aid reached the Hudson's l]ay Company's post on the north side of (Jreat Slave Lake on the 11th of December, and Knglaml in the following October KS22. In the years 1825, 1820, and 1827, Captain Franklin having receiveil the honour of knighthood from his sovereign, again left England to resume the survey of the Arctic coasts thu river, coiToclcil fur imliliiiiiinn as 71° 5 1' N., I'Jd- ;{u' \V.; liv reckoning I'mm Congc'CiilliewiK'lmgn, nmvv tlian fmir tlegrcts of l.itiUulc too fur nurtli. <"' I h :,:i .'.' : i .^ ■:f'' 1! 1 ii 1 ^■■•'^tu*. :!■■!'■" f a i 1:1 I ( ii! Ii 1'^ f I» t '^ 150 POLAll REGIONS. of the American Continent, but under much happier circum- stances than before. The Hudson's Bay Company had now amalgamated with the North-west Company, and the two having no rival, were carrying on a peaceful commerce throughout the length and breadth of the fur-countries. The Indians well-treated and happy, acquiesced in the absence of the "fire-water," which was no longer carried to the north, and were beginning to listen to the missionaries, as well as becoming gradually more amenable to the influence of the traders, which has always been beneficial when not perverted by commercial rivalry. On this expedition. Sir John Franklin wintered in 1825 on Great Bear Lake, and during the follow- ing summer descended the Mackenzie, and surveyed the coast- line to the westward as far as Eeturn Eeef, more than 1000 miles distant from his winter quarters on Great Bear Lake. In connection with this survey. Captain Beechey in the Blossom had entered Ber^ig's Straits, and by his boats ex- plored the coast considerably beyond the Icy Cape of Cook, as far as Point Barro%/, lying on the highest parallel of lati- tude to which the American Continent reaches, and consti- tuting therefore the north-west cape of America. Its position is 71° 38' K, and 15G° 15' W., the distance between it and Eeturn Eeef being IGO miles. In his advance to the last- named locality, Sir John Franklin had rounded the northern extremity of the great chain, named the Eocky Mountains, and consisting, as he perceived from sea, of several parallel ranges. At the same time that Sir John was occupied to the westward of the Mackenzie, a division of his party in two boats, commanded by Dr. Eichardson and Lieutenant Kendall, were performing a \oyfige eastward from that river to the NINETEENTH CENTURY — ENGLAND. 151 mouth of the Coppermine River. They doubled Cape Buthurst in latitude 70° 31' N., Cape PaiTy in 70° C N., and passing through the Dolphin and Union Strait between Wollaston Land and Cape Krusenstern, reached the Coppermine Eiver ; thus connecting Sir John Franklin's former discoveries to the eastward in Coronation Gulf with, those made by him on this occasion to the westward of the Mackenzie; and with the exception of the unexplored IGO miles adjacent to Point Barrow, carrying, in conjunction with Captain Beechey, the northern outline of the American Continent from Bering's Straits eastward, through sixty degrees of longitude. Sir Edward Parry had previously penetrated on a higher parallel, from the entrance of Lancaster Sound, on the eightieth meridian, to Cape Dundas, on the one hundred and fourteenth, or through thirty-four degrees of longitude, the two surs'eys overlapping each other by six degrees, and requiring merely the discovery of a connecting channel running north und south to complete the long-sought-for North-west Passage. The eastern division of Franklin's party also circnnonR'ngated and laid down Great Bear Lake, with the e> >. vi'.< a of one bay, afterwards surveyed by Mr. Thomas Simpson. In the years 1829-33, Captain John Eoss, being laudably desirous of obliteratmg the reproach of former failure by some worthy achievement, and having through the munificence of Sir Felix Booth, Baronet, been provided with funds for fitting out a vessel, named the Victory, of 150 tons, sailed in her with the intention of seeking a passage through Regent's Inlet. The Victory was set fast in the ice, and finally aban- doned in Victoria Harbour, near the seventieth parallel of la- titude, and on the opposite side of Regent's Inlet to the Strait of the Fury and Hccla that was discovered by Sir Edward '■ ^1! v^ lii mi '.' J ' r 1 'li ■ jii I r ' , \ iii' •. !l) ■i ! i I ill ',H i Hi i ! ii' ;-ti» Hn ''^ -ii! ;1S H' '' 1 n: ('€ iJA ^KH I^Ml ii 152 POLAR KEGIONS. TaiTy ill 1822-1823. This expedition of Captiiiii lloss was re- rnarkaljle for the number of winters spent within the Aretic cirele, three of them in the Victory, and the fourth after aban- doning her, on Fuiy Beach, where the provisions stored up by !Sir Edward Tarry were found serviceable. The party at length escaped in good health in 1833, in their boats, and fortunately reached a whaler in Lancaster Sound. During his stay in Regent's Inlet, Sir John Koss surveyed the country immediately adjoining his winter harbours, and gave to the lower part of the Inlet the appellation of the Gulf of IJoothia. But the chief discoveries were made by Lieutenant James Clark Boss (now Bear-Admiral Sir James), who, by several well executed extensive sledge journeys, traced a portion of the coast-lino of King William Island, and of the west side of the Beninsula of Boothia up to the Magnetic Pole, and Cape Nikolai ; he also suiTcyed Lords Mayor's Bty and its vicinity, in the Gulf of Boothia. In travelling over liic iJ? J I'aura trouvu, et do le faire parvcnir au plutot au Secretaire do 1' Amirautfi .^j V^^ ji"flritannique & Londrcs. ' f"1 "**^ CuALQUiKRA quo hallaro este Papel, se le snplica de cnviarlo nl Sccrctario^ f j icJ del Alrairantazgo, en Londrcs, con una uota del tiempo y del lugar donde se hallo. t;"^ ^ ? til "v ^ Een icder die dit Papier mogt vinden, wordt hiermedo verzogt, om het"*i ■^ ^ | zelve, ten spoedigste, te willen zenden aan den Heer Minister v.in de*>S j A»J' Marine dcr Nederlaudcn in 'a Gravenhage, of wel aan den Secrotaris der 5 -v'^.j'S Britsche Admiraliteit, to London, en daar by te voegen eene Nota,"^ Vf-t, ^ ^ inhoudende do tyd en de plaatu alwoar dit Papier is gevonden geworden. ^ i I FiNDEREx af dctto Papiir ombedes, naar Leilighed gives, at Kendo ^ > *\Bammo til AdmiralitetHSecrctaireni London, ellernuermesteEinbedsmand '^, ^,^, X j'v^' Ban nark, Norgc, oiler Sverrig. Tiden og Sttt'dit hvor dotte cr fundet *""> kes venskabeligt paategnet. -Xt ^ >-. Wer diesen Zettel iindet, wird hier-durch ersucht densclben an den \ "} ^3" ^ ^ Secretair Jes Admiralitets in London einzusenden, mil gefjiUiger angabo ^ * /^J" ^^jan welchen crt und zu welchor zeit er gofundet wonleii ist. -^ ^ ' 1 < ( 'I i ■ w 102 I'ULAli REGIONS. |i'..:„ .' •: 'f t ii' ' 4 ''^■, fli I'll ■I II 'I J^ i li! '• ! 'if' *'' ' uf Well iiigtuii Channel, wlieie he wintered in 1845-0. It i« pvesunieil that he made this divergence northward from his direct C(jur.s(j to Bering's Strait in virtue of a clause in his instructions authorizing him, in the event of his finding the southern route obstructed by ice, to attempt Wellington Channel should it be open. Before he sailed northwards he had doubtless discovered the harbour in Erebus and Terror Bay, behind P>eechey Island, to which he returned on the approach of winter. We are also entitled to assume that he had convinced himself of the hopelessness of penetrating to the westward on the high parallel of 77°, for he nn'ght have found a harbour to the north of the islands had he designed to try for a passage there next summer. Except the two circumstances of the passing of the dis- covery ships up Wellington Channel to latitude 77°, and their return by the west side of Cornwallis Island, we have no hint of that sunmicr's proceedings. The winter of 1845-0 was spent in Erebus and Terror Bay, but the date of the entry of the ships into that harbour is unknown. On Beechey Island many traces of a winter residence were found, the sites of a large store-house and workshop, of observatories, and of the blacksmith's forge, a great many coal-bags, scraps of cording and clothing, coal-dust, cinders, and many preserved meat tins, regularly piled, and filled with gravel. Several mounds, two feet high, were raised of these canisters, varying in breadth from three to four yards ; and Dr. Sutherland states* that six or seven hundred were counted, besides many more that were dug up and emptied in search of documents. These cases were labelled " Goldner's Patent." So large a quantity of preserved meat as they were calculated to hold could not have been • T,ib. cit. i, p. 30(5. • liv^i I, ft! NINETEENTH CENTURY — ENGLAND. 1G3 . .,*i needed duriiii: the Hist winter from England ; but it is known that a vast (luantity of preserved meat, supplied by Goldner to the Iloyul Navv, being found putrid, was condemned by survey at rortsmouth, and thrown into the sea. It is, therefore, most probable that the. defective condition of this portion of the provisions having been discovered, a survey was ordered, according to the custom of tlie navv, and that the bad cases, readily known l)y the convex form which their ends take when jjutrefaction is going on within, were opened and piled in the order in which they were found, so as to be the more easily counted by the surveying ofliccrs. The loss of so large a proportion of the supply of provisions, was doubtless a main cause of the disastrous fate of the expedition two winters afterwards. Traces of excursion or hunting parties were discovered at Cape Spencer and other places within easy distances of the winter harbour. A cairn was likcnvisc discovered on the south- west cape of Beechey Island, but, though it was twice taken down, and its site carefully dug over, and the whole island repeatedly searched, no papers relating to the ships were found, except a fragment of a note, and some leaves of a book. It cannot for a moment be thought that the Erelnis and Xerroi- left their winter harl)our before a careful record of the year's proceedings had been prepared and deposited by the com- manding officer ; but as no recent traces of Eskimos existed, the record, in its tin case, was most prol>ably jilaced where it would be most readily found, exposed on the top of the cairn. The voyagers did not know that the polar bear is in the habit of carrying oli and knawing such unusual objects, a fact subsequently learnt liy the searching parties.* * In the course of Barciitzoon's nicniorjibli' winter on Novava Zcnilvn, tlic ff I5''i!' 64 VOLAR liEGiONS. m. !i .1'':. ii f: i\'*' Ii';" ■l<|,- (i ., ,» !L, Is i;S" i; ■I? ';•'■ f - Three inuu of tlie eApedition died in the first wiuter, two of them belonging to the Erebus and one to the Terror. On head-boards erected at their graves, their names, ages, and day of death were recorded, but not tlie cause of death. liecurring to the record found in King Williams Island, we find as follows, " Lieutenant Graham Gore and Mr. Charles ¥. des Vanix, mate, left the ships on Monday the 24th May 1847, with six men (to deposit i)a})ers on King AVilliam's Island);" — "the Erebus and Terror whitered in the ice, in latitude 70° 5', longitude 08° 23' W., having been beset since the 12tli of September 184G. After previously wintering at Beechey Island, ascending "Wellington Channel to latitude 77°, and returning by the west side of Cornwallis Island, (Sir) John Franklin commarlding the expedition, — All well ! ! " * The second winter, though spent in the puck, and conse- polar bears actually dragged the empty cook-safe out of ilie slilp and carried it to the shore, and tlicse animals are now well known to take pleasure in tear- ing to pieces any canvas, cloth, or other prominent and uncommon object that they lind : nor do they hesitate to swallow a tin-box. • From the context of the record, we learn that Lieutenant Gore landed with the intention of dei)0siling a record at the caii'n erected by Sir James Clark Pioss in the year 1831, but that not having found the cairn, be placed it in a spot from w hence it was removed in the following year to th'; geographical position of the cairn, by orders of Captain Cro/.ier, and the additional note was then written by Captain Fitzjames. Lieutenant Gore deposited a second record at a place further along the coa.--r). The discrepancies in the other dates are easily reconcilable. It is probable that ISir John Franklin signed the written notice on board ; that Lieut. Ciore lelt the ship on the •24th of May, deposited the record on the '28th, having spent the intermediate time in searching for Koss's cairn, and did not return till June. The " .Sir" prefixed to Franklin's signature ie not of his writing, but is perhaps Lieut, (lore's, as are evidently the dates of 24th and 28th Mriv. NINETEENTH CENTURY — ENvJLA XD. ir. }■) i quently in as dreary circumstanc; s as can \yromising when viewed from a distance. S r ' 1 \ , : ' li I.. ■* ■- i * i" i i I'y jl 1 J ' ■ ■ •- ■ : 'i r ' ' ■J ■'■■■■ ' ( ■i i;;;:^' " ' ■"»'v ' •'III i,«'' I'll 166 POLAR rp:gions. lli'ferriiig again to the Point AHctory record for infonna- tion respecting other incidents in tliis eventful history, we find that a most inournfu] addition was laade to it on the 25th of April 1848, after the lapse of another winter in the ice, or the third after leaving England, denoting that the Erebus and Terror were deserted five leagues nortli-north-west of Point Victory (having drifted only twelve or fourteen miles south- wards since they were first beset). The total loss by deaths in the expedition up to that date, is stated to have been nine officers and fifteen men * Sir John Franklin died on the 11th of June 181<7 ; a period, it must be remarked, at which the hope of extrication from the ice in the course of the following month must have been as strong as ever, and the consequent antici- pation of ultimate success most cheering. This most excellent officer and humble and sincere christian, was mercifully spared the distress of mind which he must have endured, had he sur- vived to see the summer waste away with the ships still fast in the packed ice, and to mourn the fate of officers and men perishing around him. Two months before his death he had completed the sixty-first year of an active, eventful, and lionourable life. A preceding page contains Sir John Franklin's statement that on the 12th of July 1845 the ships had on board a supply of provisions calculated to last three years : but making no allowance for defect in the preserved meats. The number of deaths indicates that officers and men had gone on sliort allowance, an expedient which, however needful, cannot be resorted to in Arctic climates without inducing scurvy; and ♦ One hundred nnd thirty-four individuals left England in the Erebus and Terror, of whom five were sent home from Greenland, leaving one hundred and twenty -nine on board, from which deducting the twenty-four who died, we have thfl remainder of one hundred nnd five nirntioned in the record. NINETEENTH CENTURY — ENGLAND. 1(5 )< iuforma- itory, we the 25tli e ice, or 3bus and of Point 3S soutli- >y deaths een nine the 11th the hope ig month it antici- excellent ly spared :l he sur- still fast and men he had \\l, and ;atement supply viug no nher of )n short nnot ho vy; and rebus and ndrcd and 1, we liavo the low and barren sliore of King William's Island would yield little game, nor indeed did Captain M'Clintock discover traces of hunting parties having been sent on shore tliore. Even on the ordinary full allowance of tlie navy, scurvy has almost invariably assailed tlie crews of ships after a second winter within the Arctic cii'cl(\ the expeditions that have escaped that scourge having liad either a large supply of preserved meats and pemican to resort to, and plenty of drietl vegetables and vegetable acids, or been successful in adding deer, musk-oxen, and bears, to their stock of provisions. One hundred and live souls landed from the ships on the 25th of April 1848, Captain Crozier, who had succeeded to the command of the expedition. Captain Fitzjames, and Lieu- tenant Irving being among tlie survivors, while Act in, f Com- mander Gore was numbered with tlie dead. The intention of the commanding-officer was to lead his party over the ice to Back's Great Fish River, in the hope of killing deer there or procuring fish for their support, as the Eskimos, who met the weary and wasted travellers later on the marcli, were told. Boats placed on runners and sledges had been [)repared. The distance to the mouth of the Great Fish River from the spot where the ships M^ere abandoned is about two hundred and fifty miles, and even in May much cold and stormy weather was to lie encountered in travelling over the ice. Such a sledge- journey would scarcely have been attempted by enfeebled crews, had not the failure of their provisions rendered it a matter of absolute necessitv, since bv waitinu^ for two months they knew well that lanes of water would open near the shore, by which much of the distance to the navigable channel of Dease and Simpson might be traversed in boats, I'arrying nil their sup]ilies with eompnratively small fatigue.. 168 I'OLAR REGIONS. wK 'm n :^^ That their provisions were, actually exhausted before they got beyond King William's Island, was made known to Dr. liae by a party of Eskimos, who sold them some seal's flesh ; and a band of the same people told Captain i\rClintock that the Englishmen dropt from the drag ropes on the march, and died where they fell — their track being marked by a line of dead bodies discovered in the following season. It is characteristic of scurvy, that its victims are not aware of their weakness, and the near approach of death, until on some sudden exposure or unusual exertion, they expire without warning. Captain M'Clintock, who traced the route of the doomed men backward:^, from the estuary of the Great Fish River, found only three skeletons of those who had perished by the way ; but he remarks that the line ol' march being over ice, near tlie shore, many of the bodies would be washed away on the channel opening. He dis- covered one skeleton near Cape Herschel, which is the south- west corner of King William's Island, and two in a boat, that had been left about half-way betM'cen that place and Point Victory. One of these sad memorials was lying in the hinder part of the boat, carefully covered with a load of clothing, evidently the remains of one who had been unable to proceed further. The other skeleton occupied the bow of the boat, and two loaded muskets u i-re standing upright beside it.* The Eskimos said, that about forty Englishmen reached the vicinity of the Great Eish River, where they all died. That none survived, was the unanimous report of the several bands of Eskimos that were met in succession by Dr. Rae, Mr. Anderson, and Captain M'Clintock, but it was added, that * Lieutenant ITobyon, travcllin;* from the north, came to this boat some dlivs sooner tliau Captain M'C'lint.nc\'. NINETEENTH CENTURY— ENGLAND. 109 i(iat some the spring birds had arrived before the hist of the men perished. Brent, Wavies, and Eskimo geose, r(\ich the Arctic Sea about tlie end of ^Fav, and the Great Northern Divers, which make their appearance as soon as ra])id rivers partially open, are about a fortnight earlier. The party must still have numbered a good many men to have l)oen able to drag a boat as far as Montreal Island,* where the Eskimos found it and broke it up; but strength had failed them before they could accomplish the remaining forty miles to the mouth of the river, where, with nets, they might have caught salmon- trout. From the entrance of Back's Great Fish Biver to the nearest fur-post, Fort Besolution, on Great Slave Bake, the marching distance, even to the Bed Indians who know how to avoid the numerous and extensive intervening lakes, exceeds a thousand miles, most of the way being through "barren grounds." We cannot doubt that this fact was well known to Captain Crozier, and duly considered by him and the other officers. It is therefore probable, that provisions having totally failed in the ships, the object in going so early in the spring to Back's Biver, was to kill a sufficiency of fish, birds, and deer, to enable the i)arty to pursue the voyage to the Coppermine or Mackenzie Biver, in their boats, during the sunnner. Dr. Bae says, that the Eskimos of Great Fish Biver are named by themselves UtJm-hiJialik, and they were called * Mr. Anderson, a chief factor of the Hudson's Bay C:impany, wont to the place on Montreal Island where the Eskimos said the boat liad been abandoned, and there found the sliavings and fragments left by that people in converting the wood to their own uses. The half-casto natives who accompanied IMr. Anderson, being skilful in drawing conclnsio.is fmrn signs and objects, could not be mistaken when they asserted that the boat had b(M n broken up there. n i ! If ' 170 POLAR REGIONS. I V m w m m 'I I •'ii h 1 !*■ . I .. iiS more at leiif^th by Augustus, the excellent interpreter who accompanied Sir John Franklin on his first and second over- land expeditions, Utku-sik haling mmut (stone-kettle people).* They are an inoftensive tribe, and no reason whatever exists for supposing that they would offer violence to the remnant of white men, however feel)]e and helpless. On the other hand, active philanthropy is not an attribute of the Eskimos, and little or no effort would be made by them to prolong the lives of strangers perishing on their lands. By the wearying and fatal journey doAvn the western and southern sides of King William's Island, the party who reached Montreal Island to die there, or in its neighbourhood, connected Lancaster Strait with the navigable channel that extends along the continent to Bering's Strait, thereby proving the existence of the long-sought-for North-west Passage. That Victoria Strait, which they traversed on the ice, is rarely, if ever, navigable for ships, is probable ; Banks's Strait and the entrance of Prince of "Wales Strait into Melville Sound are always, as far as is known, in the same condition, which Pro- fessor Haughton attriliutes to the meeting of the Atlantic and Pacific tides producing perennial accumulations of ice in these several localities. The conduct of the brave, resolute, and persevering but unfortunate men, who perished in accomplishing this dis- covery, which for so many centuries had been pursued by their country, seems to have been most excellent throughout. Sir Leopold ^I'Clintock testifies that every trace of their pro- ceedings which he could perceive, gave evidence of all their movements being in perfect order, and mdcr the guidance of their officers. * Narrntive of n .Tourney to tlio Polar Sen, p. 2^4. SEAR('HIN<; EXPEDITIONS. 171 CHAPTER X. SEARCHING EXPEDITIONS — A.D. 1847-1859. '•I List of searching parties — Sir Jcjhn Riclmrd:art of it — Sir James Chirk Ross' survey of the west coast of North Somerset, or Peel's Strait — Mr. Saunders' survey of Wolstenholme Sound — Captain Ilenrv Kellet's discovery of the Herald Islands — Lieutenant W. S. J. I'ullen's lioat voyage from Bering's Strait to the Mackenzie — Captain (,'ollinson and Commander M'Clure sail from England — Captain Horatio Austin's squadron sail — Captain Penny surveys "Wellington Channel — Lieutenant De Haven, U. S. Navy, enters Wellington Chaniud ; his ships are caught in the pack, and drift with it during tht^ -winter — Captain Austin's sledge-jtarties survi'V tin- north and south-east shores of Melville Sound, with M'Dougall anv Captain Kellet, opens a communication with Captain M'Clure — Captain M'Cluie discovers Prince of Wales Strait, and sails round the west side of Banks's Land ; ahandoning his ship, he travels over the ice with his crew, and thus makes a passage from Ik-ring's Strait to Baflin's Bay — Caj^tain Collinson makes the voyage from Bering's Strait to Cani- l)ridge Bay, and returns by the same way. Captains Belcher and Kellet return to England, bringing Captain M'C'lure and the crew of the Investigator — Dr. Rae obtains proofs of the fate of the crews of the Erebus and Terror — Mr. Anderson visits the estuary of the Great Fish River for further intelligence — Captain M'Clintock, in the Fox, discovers a record paper, and authentic evidence of the movements of the Erebus and Terror, their abandonment, and death of the whole of the crews — Summary of coast line searched — Dr. Kane's investigation of Smith's Sound. i tf 172 rOLAU KECrONS. Ij \\4 I i I I I' k t I Though the suvcessivo tracings of coast by tlio searching expe- ditions were known in England before the previous discoverios made by Sir John Frankh'n, of whom they were in quest, worn ascertained, yet thit cln'onological order of Arctic research, has been adhered to in giv*Mg ilie first place to his proceedings. We cannot nttein]>t even a brief tucount of all the searching parties, and therefore, purpose merely to montion the extent of coast traced for the first time in successive years; but that the reader may have a general idea of the noble efforts made in the cause of humanity, we commence this chapter with a list of the various searching expeditions. 1847-18.50, Sir .Julin Riclianlson, C.B., niul Dr. Eae, overland, and alon;:,' the coast in boats, from the Mackenzie to the Coppennine. 1848-1852, Captain Tliomas Moore, of H.M.S. Plover, to Bering's Strait.s. 1848-1850, Captain Henry Kellet, of H.M.S. Herald, to Bering's Straits. 1 848-1850, Robert Shedden, Esq., in the private yacht, Nancy Daw- son, to Bering's Straits. 1 848-1 H4!.>, Captain Sir Jamea Clark Ross, of H.M.S. Enterprise, to Lancaster Strait. 1848-184!), Captain E. J. Bird, of H.M.S. Investigator, to accom- pany the Enterprise. 1849-1850, James Sanndcrs, Esq., Master of H.M.S. North Star, to Wolstenholme Sound and Pond's Bay. 1849, Dr. Robert Anstruther Goodsir, in the Advice, whaler, to liaffin's Bay. 1849, Lieutenant (now Captain) W. J. S. Pullen, of H.M.S. Herald, boat voyage from Bering's Straits to the Mackenzie. 1850-1851, Lieutenant De Haven of tlie United States Navy, in the Advance, fitted at the expense of Henry Grinnell, Esq., of New York, to Lancaster Strait and Wellington Channel. 1850-1851, S. P. GrilRn, Esq., United States Na\w, in the Rescue, at the expense of Mi*. Grinnell, to Lancaster Strait and Wel- lingtoii Channel. 1850-1851, Captain Horatio Austin, of H.M.S. Resolute, tn Ijancaster Strait and Connvallia Island. SI':AU(H1Ni|., Ma-.Ur of the Uidy Frnnklin, under Admiralty urdt-is to Laiuaster Stiait and Wellington ("liaiiiifl. lb5()lN.")l, Alexander Sti'wart, K.-^ij., Ma.stcr of tlu' Snphia, under Admiralty orders ti) Lancaster .Strait and Welliiiglnn Clianncl. 1850-1851, Rear-Admiral Sir John Hoss, in the Feli.x yacht, titled at the expen.se of the llud^on'ii Buy Company, to Lanca. otherwise be neglected.* To the iiitiueiiee, iilso, of her ardent and moving appeals may be fairly attributed Mr. Grimieir.s humane engagement in the .search, and the volunteering of sueli men as Kane, liellot, l)e Jlaven, De Uray, Sliedden, (IrilHn, Forsyth, Kennedy, Ingletielu, M'Clintock, Young, llobson, and others, to give gratuitous aid to the cause. Though the labours of several of the parties were directed to quarters whither the discovery ships were not likely to have gone, they were productive of additions to our geogra- ])hical knowledge which would otherwise have remained ]»erhaps for ever concealed, and the magnitude of the general movement mav serve to cheer shiijurecked men in future times, as shewing the eilbrts that will be made to carrv them relief as long as hope remains. Now that the course actually pursued by the Erebus and Terror is known, we see that the first scheme of relief orga- nised by the Admiralty was devised with correct judgment. It was founded on the belief that Sir John Franklin would follow his instructions as closely as circumstances permitted, and having reached the meridian of Cape Walker (97i°) on the parallel of 74-1°, would then seek a channel to the south- ward and westward, leading into the open passage known to bound the northern shores of the continent. In attempting to execute this project, his ships might be arrested by ice in some channel south of Melville Sound, or having passed into the continental channel, might have been wrecked there ; or, thirdly, after two winters, might succeed in reaching Bering's Straits or their vicinity, but be in distress for provisions and other aid. The overland searching party, under Sir John * Including one arre«tefl in the Pacific on its way to Bering's Strail by the ilf'scrtion of the crew. : J i: \i\ f' ; f 176 FOLAll RE(UONS. i. • Hfi ■■■«. r > ;■ ' ,1 ' *' I fe I liic'lmiclsoii, wud to descend tlie Muekeiizie, and exuniine tho coast between that river and the Coi)peiniine liiver, and also the south coast of WoHaston's Land, to meet tlie second con- tingency- The surveys of ]Jease and Sinipson, conjoined witli the more distant view of WoHaston's Land by Sir John Itichardson and Lieutenant Kendall, had rendered it almost certain that channels 'leading southwards from Lan- caster Strait and ^relville Sound could make their exits only in three localities, viz., at the west end of WoHaston's Land, between that land and the Victoria Land of Simpson, if these were separated, or to the eastward of the latter. Sir John Richardson's party might therefore fidly calculate on getting tidings from the natives, on the coast between the ^Mackenzie and Coppermine, if the discovery ships had passed that way, or of discovering the channels in the two westernmost localities in which they might be shut up. That this searching party might not be without the means of affording relief should it fall in with the ships, or with crews retreating from them, it carried out from England 1 7,400 pounds of pemican, in her- metically sealed tin canisters, being upwards of sixty days' provision for the entire crews of the Ju-ebus and Terror, at the full allowance of two pounds a man. This is mentioned hero because a naval officer,* now no more, in a pamphlet on the Arctic searching expeditions, characterizes this one as espe- cially useless, and unable to lend effectual aid, had it found the ships; but though the whole of the i)emican was not carried to the sea, three boat loads were — quite sutVicient to liave fed the ships' com])anies until they could l>e conducted to productive fishing stations in (Jreat Bear or Slave Lakes, where they couhl winter in safety. As the length of the * Kear Ailmiral Sir .lohn h'oHS. SEA R( H I Nil EX PEDITIONS. 177 interior navigntion from Muntrciil to tlif Arctic Sea is, in roiin*! ninnbcrs, 1-K)() miles, wliicli c(»ii]il nut he pcrlormod in l(»;i(lt'tl linats, in one sciisdn, witliont cxliausting the pnivisioiis, the men, boats, pi'mican, and oilier stores were sent ont in June 1S1<7 l\y the annual Iludstms ]\,\y slnjis, to advance ns far as tlu' season jx-rmitted, and the two otUcers followed in light cnnoes in the next spring to overtake them, wliieh they did before they reached the ^Mackenzie.* Owing to unavoid- * This soanliiiiE: party rcadifil flroat Slave I.akn on i\\o ITtli nf .Iiily IS-tS, nml hail it bcfii actually kiKiwii that Captain CiuziiT hail Ici't the ships for tiio mouth of the (treat l''i>*h Iiivor, ami Sir .lolin Iticliarilson hail gone in that ilirc'clioii to meet him, tln' transport of the Imats ami stores over the heij^lit of lantl at the cast eml of (ireat Slave Lake, ami their navigation down the tJreat Fish Hiver, woulil have occupied a timntli, or more prolialily six weeks, and could nut, therefore, have reached Montreal Island till soiue months after the lust of the discovery party had perished. Matters would not have been mended by despatching a party in 1847, via Canada, to travel in a li,Lrht canoe, starting from Lake Superior as soon as the navigation opened. On its arrival at rior one of "Wollaston. Dr. Itae, then passing through Dease Strait, examined the eastern extreriity of the island formed by the conjoined lands, and ascended the western coast of "Victoria Strait tf Pelly ]\unt, situated to the north of tlie parallel of Capi' r'oinpaii}' to have men and boats, with a sufficiency of provisions, on the Great Fish River, so that ailvanced ih'pnts of boats and stores coidd bo made on thi' river in 1847, thus enabling ;i detacliment to travel to sea on the ice early in 1848. All this wouhl appear preposterous without express knowledge of tli'" conroe intended to bo pursued by the crews of the ships when be.«et. M SEARCniNT. EXPEDITIONS. 17f> Felix, tho northern extremity (if Kin^' AVilliani's Island, and in a higher latitnde than the jilaees where the discovery ships were arrested and alian«loned. The exact distance from tho cajx'S on the west side of Victoria Strait to either of the stations of the discovery ships did not exceed thirty miles, yet ])r. liae, on that voyaj^'e, found only u single fragment of wreck that could he su]>i)osed to have belonged to them. This boat voyage; gave us a knowledge; of considerable tracts nf island coast-line, and limited tht> possible outlets from ^^(■lville Sound to the east end of Wollaston Island, on the lOlst meridian, and the west end, beyond the ILSth or 110th. To Sir James Clark Koss, in the Enter])rise, accompanied by Captain Bird, in the Investigator, was connnitted the duty nf f((ll()wing up the track of the discovery ships, shoidd that he ascertained, and of searching for traces of it in Wellington Channel, along the northern shore of North Somerset, from Leoi)old Island or Cape Clarence, onwards to Cape AValker, iind having placed the ship in a convenient harl)our, of explor- ing, by boat or sledge parties, the west side of North Somerset and Boothia ; also, if the state of the ice permitted, of sending a steam-launch to Melville Island, from whence parties might he carried to Banks's and Wollaston Lands. No better plan, as we now know, could have been devised for tracing the lost ships, and the Enterprise was well placed in the harbour at Leopold Island, but too late in the season (September 11) to use the steam-barge with effect, the ice having shut up the harbour the day after tlu; ship entered it. The officer sent across Lancaster Sound on the ice in spring, reached Cape Ilurd, but was prevented, by the hummocky condition of the ice, from going to Cape Riley or Beechey Island, where he would have found traces. An examination of the east coast of North ^ W 180 k POLAR REGIONti. Hi I I . f ■' Somerset, down to Fury IVacli, taken in conj unction witli Dr. Rae's surveys of tlie Lottoni of tlu; (Julf of I'»ootliia in \H\7. rendered if inorallv ecrtain tliat the diseoverv sliiiis lind not passed down lle^'i-nt's lidet. Sir James Ross liiiuself travelle(l with a sledge along the north side of Xorth Somerset, and do-wn its western coast to latitude 72° 3 intention of going on to Capo Walker, and making further search, l)ut his ships were suddenly enclosed in the pack, and, with it, drifted out of Lancaster Sound, nor were tliey released till the 25th of September, before which date all navigation within the strait has been found to close. lie therefore bore up for England. The failure of the earliest searching parties did not, however, occasion loss of life in the discovery ships, Avhose crews had perished to a man befcjre the earliest of the searching parties could liave reached the scene of the disaster, even had they been able to have gone straight to the spot. In the same summer in which Sir James Ross was drifted into Baffin's Bay, the North Star, J. Saunders, Plsq., master, sent after him with supplies (being unable to cross that bay on account of the ice), wintered in Wolstenholme Soimd, on the west coast of Greenland, and ascertained that it was merely an inlet. In the summer of ISIO, also. Captain Kellett discovered a group of high islands within Bering's Strait, on the Asiatic coast, in latitude 71° 20' N., and longitude 175° IC W. The Herald's Islands, as they were called, are on the bearing of lands occasionally seen, in certain states of the atmosphere, ;<', ♦:' SKAKCniNCJ KXPEDITIONS. 181 fmiii f'apo Jakan in Silicria, and tlnuiglit by tho luiuters of that coa.st to lo' inlialtitod.* Jiclbrc ra|itaiii Kdlctt niadi' tliis disrovorv, ho had dis- patclii'd Lk'iiti.'iiaiit rullcii and Mr. Hooper, ^ith two whalo hoats, to search the coast iK'twccii I'liiiit liarrow and the ^rackeiizic. They were coiivoyi'd heyond the point hy tho Nancy Dawson, Mr. Shi'ddcn's yacht. Tlu' voya^'c to the Mackcn/ic was succi'sslullv niadf, whcrchv, in conjnnction with Sir John Iiichardson's antl J)r. Eac's l)oat-voyag('S ahovo mentioned, tlie whole continental coast-line lietweeu r.erinj,''s and Victoria Strait, was exaniini'd withont any trace of the Erehus and Terror hein.i,' found. After wintering on tin; Mackenzie, Lieutenant I'nllen tiied, in l.S.'>0, to reach T.ank's Land, hut got no further than (.'ape JJathurst. On the return to Kngland of Sir James Koss ami Sir John llichardson in 18t0, the hope of the safety of the; expedition which, though mingled with fears, had heen previously cherished, gave place to the certainty of some serious misf(jr- tuue having occurred, and the Admiral*;' letermined to renew the search on a more extensive scale, ,.,ardless of expense. The Enterprise and Investigator having been refitted with celerity, were sent round Caj)e Horn under command of (.'aptains Cidlinson and ^^'C"lure, to make the passage eastward from I>ering"s Strait; and in time for the opening of the navi- gation in Uaflin's ]»ay, two stout ships, with two steam tenders, were dispatched under command of Cai)tain Horatio Austin of the Kesolute ; Captain Onnnaney of the Assistance, was second in command, and the steam tenders wei'e officered by Lieu- 1 i\ i i i * Tho land seen Iv Serjeant ArulreoFor Andreyer, in 17tj2, is farther to the west, having been discerned from the northernmost Mevidji, or Bear Island. *, K 182 I'ULAll UECIUNS. r fA i M V k I tenant Slieranl Osljoin, and Lientonant K. J.. M'Clintock. To this s(iuadion, l)ut vitli .scparatt' orders, the AdniiraUy added the Lady Franklin and Sophia, commanded l»y Captains Penny and Stewart, exjiorieneed masters of whalers. The association of oflieers of the r(tyal navy with masters of the merchant marine, havinjj; independent commands, in pursuit of the same ohject, in the same place, was ill-advised, and sure to lead to misunderstandings and bickerings, which did not fail to follow. Ilear-Admiral Sir John lioss, in the Feli.\, joined himself to the Admiralty expedition, and the American vessels under Lieutenants J)e Haven and (Jrillni, also followed the same route, so that the nine vessels were congregated at one time in Lancaster Strait. Had definite fields of search been selected, by mutual consent. Peel Sound would probably have fallen to the lot of some one of the parties, notwith- standing that the absence of cairns or any other trace of the Erebus and Terror, observed by Sir James Eoss, discouraged a search in that direction. The commanders of the two American schooners, being the first to perceive the impolicy of so many ships pressing to the westward on one parallel, turned back, and were l)y winds antl currents carried some distance up AVellington Channel, m here, with the privilege always allowed to discoverers, they named the headlands, being of course in total ignorance of Franklin having passed up that channel before them. Afterwards, in making their way out of Lancaster Sound, the Advance ami Rescue were shut up in the ice-pack, and with it they drifted down Baffin's P>ay and Davis' Straits the whole winter, yet withouu damping the zeal of the officers and crews, for, on being released in the spring, they again went northward to aid in the search. ■■it J'^ SEAHClliNti EXrEDlTlONS. Im;{ Cai»taiii DninmiiL'y in iiiocwUin;; wtstwaitl alter lajitaiii Austin, saw uiuiii.stakt'alde traces of tlii' Kiclais and Tcinir at Cap*' Uilcy ami aialli'l, ineludiii;,' a tliorou;,di survey of Cape WalUei-, pru\ed t(» l»e the exti'eniity of u snudl islanti, which then was named liUssell. The exandnation of I'linee of Wales' Island was most important, as it lay exactly in tlie course that Sir dohn Franklin was tlirectcd to puisue, and tliese surveys sliewed that, as far as they went, there was a ]iassa^fe on either si(h; of it ; hut the I'aet of no cairns or other sij^nis of the discovery snips havin*i[ been perceived, overbalanced the si<\' tlir iiiil Ik* 1i:i*I iltiiiiiii'lol tVniii ('ji|it;iin Austin; iiiid tin- /\\vn rclat to his (i|M'ratinns, tin? |ailili»', jnvs.s tnnk np liis caiiM' warmly. TIk' lint' ul' scartli la; liari(lport InJet, on the south side of Melville Island ; while Captain Pulien, in the North Star, was stationed at Beechey Ishmd, in an intermediate position for communicating with either division, and Mith vessels comiiij,' from England. From these three stations, sledge and boat parties were sent out in autunm, spring, and early summei'. by which the whole chain of Parry Islands was laid cor- rectly down on the charts, up to its north-westeni extremity. Ireland's Eye and Prince Patrick Island were examined thoroughly by the indefatagible IM'Clintock ; while Com- manders Kichards, and Slierard Osborn, and other officers SKAlU'HINlJ KXPEDITIUNS. 18- leading the very numerous sledge-parties, traced the nortlu'rn coasts of ^Melville, JJatliurst, and Connvallis Islands, Avitli the straits that separate them, and also corrected errors in tlu» jirior survey of Wellington Channel. Sir Kchvavd Ueli'lier himself surveyed the so\ith side of North Cornwall, the channel hearing his own name that leads into dones' Sound, the north side of (Jrinnell Peninsula, and the adjoining promontory of Xorth ])evon. On the opening of the naviga- tion in the summer of 1S53, Cai)tain Ji'dcher ordered the retreat of both divisions of his scpiadron towards ]5i'ei'hey Island, but his own ship was shut up in the ice olf roinl Eden, in AVellington Clumnel, and Ca])tain Kcdlett's had the same fate in liarrow Strait, south of Austin Channel, which separates 13athurst and I^vam ^lartin's Islands. A most melancholy aeciilent occurred this autumn in connection with "Wellington Channel, Lieutenant llellot, of the French Imperial Navy, having been drowned in attem])ting to carry dispatches from the North Star to the Assistance. His loss was regretted by all who knew and had learnt to admire his amiable qualities and gallant behaviour. We revert now to the proceedings of the Enterprise and Investigator, which sailed from England as mentioned abovi', in Januaiy 1850, for Bering's Strait, Commander (now Sir) Robert Le Mesurier M'Clure, of the latter shij), -was, through a combination of favourable circumstances ami the exercise of a prompt and sound judgment, able to get rouiul Point Jiarrow time enough before the close of that sunnner, to ])ush along the north coast of the continent to the south end of Banks' Island, which he doubled. lie then sailed through I'rince ol' Wales' Strait, between that Island and Wollaston Land, until the firm ice of Melville Sound stayed his progress, when he ■ '\ ■ ! K 188 POLAR REGIONS. li-M retired into the strait for the winter. In the .spring of 1851, a travelling party, under the command of Lieutenant Haswell, sur\'eyed the western coast-line of the peninsular part of Wollaston Island, which Captain M'Clure had named I'rince Albert Land, down to a deep inlet called Prince Albert's Soimd. From the northern side of this inlet he turned back on the 14th of ^lay, and exactly ten days afterwards, Dr. Eac, in prosecuting the survey of the south side of "SVollaston's Land as mentioned in page 178, reached the opposite side of the sound. At the same time, ^h\ Wynniatt travelling along the north coast of Prince Albert's Peninsula, and rounding Glenelg Bay, attained Eeynolds' Point, in latitude 72° 4' N., and longitude 107° 40' W. The coast between this point and Cape Collinson on Gateshead Island, forming the south side of M'Cli'itock Channel, is not yet explored, and is in fact the only piece of coast-line within the sphere of the searching parties which has not been traced. It comprises a distance of about 160 geographical miles. On the opening of the navigation, on the 14th of July 1851, Captain M'Clure made another fruitless attempt to cross the ice-covered Melville Sound, and then despairing of succeeding at that place, deter- mined to try a more northern route. This he did, by nearly circumnavigating Banks' Island, exposed to frequent imininent danger of shipwreck, from the pressure of the polar pack coming down the west side of Parry's Archipelago, until ho found shelter in the Bay of jVIercy, on the north side of Banks' Land. There the Investigator remained shut up during the winters of 18.51-2, and 1852-3, making three winters in all of her abode in the ice. In the spring of 1853, preparations had been made for abandoning the ship, for sending the weaker part of the crew to the liil tiiU 'i! SEARCHING EXPEDITIONS. 189 Hudson's Bay Company's posts on the Mackenzie, and for attempting, with the more able men, to travel over the ice to Lancaster Sound, when Lieutenant Pym most unexpectedly appeared among them, bringing hitelligenco of relief being at hand. This officer had been sent by Captain Kellett to eom- nuniicate witli tlie Investigator, wliosc presence on the coast of Banks' Island he had learnt from a note, deposited by Captain M'Clure at Winter Harbour on ^Melville Island. In the early summer of 1853, the Investigator -was abaii- doned, and the ship's company travelling over tlie ice, were received into the Ilesolute by Captain Kelh'tt, where tliey passed their fourth winter, and being in the spring of 185-4 transferred to the North Star, at length reached England in the month of October, after an absence of nearly four years. They were the first navigators who had passed from Bering's Strait to Baflin's Bay. Though the Investigator had ])rovi- dentially not been provisioned with Goldner's patent pre- served meat, yet three winters had told so severely on the health of the crews, that, except for the aid supplied by the Iiosolute, the results of the journeys that were contemplated on the abandonment of the ship, could not have been other- Avise than most disastrous. Captain Sir Robert jM'Clure by this perilous voyage, pro- secuted with undaunted perseverance, found a strait connect- ing the continental channel with jNIelville Sound, and thus discovered the North-west Passage, after it had been discovered in another quarter by Captain Crozier, and the survivors of the Erebus and Terror, who perished in accomplishing their object.* A parliamentary grant shewed the national sense of * The prior discovery of a north-west passage by the survivors of the Erebus and Terror is with great candour allowed in the published narrative of Sir Robert M'Clure's voyage. :v '' ■ 190 POLAR REGIONS. M». i : V t * i ■ tlie bravery and skill of Sir Rohert M'Clure, his ofticers, and nion. There is, however, little prospect of the navigation in the direction of banks' Land Ijcing ever practicable for shi])s. Sir Edward I'arry Avas stopped there by fast ice in the suiinners of 1819 and 1820. Sir Robert M'Clure found it t<. be equally impassable in 1850, 1851, and 1852. In 1851? also, jMr. Krabbo states the ice to have remained firm;* and Captain Austin, in 1850-51, was unal)le to advance westward beyond Cape Cockl)i m. Captain Kellett got to Dealy Island, only a little Ijeyond ape Cockburn, and short of "NVintir Harbour. Sir Edward Parry, in his report of the state of the ice in this quarter, says, " It now became evident, from the combined experience of this and the preceding year, that there was somctMiif) 2)ccuUar about the south-west extremity of ^Mel- ville Island, which made the icy sea there extremely unfavoui- able to navigation, and which seemed likely to bid defiance to all our efforts to proceed much farther to the westward in this parallel of latitude." Captain Osborn, in his narrative of M'Clure's voyage, also remarks, that, — "The heavy pack of !Mel- ville (Banks') Strait, lying across the head of the channel, wa>; supposed to be the reason of the ice filling Prince of Wales' Strait ceasing to move on to the north-east, and the imi)assahk nature of the pack in the same direction in the following year, confirmed this hj'pothesis." A writer in the Duhlin Natural History Review for April 1858, attributes the con- stant packing of the ice in Banks' Strait, to the meeting there of the Atlantic and Pacitic tides ; and the Rev. Samuel Haughton, (who is understood to be the writer alluded to) in the appendix to Captain M'Clintock's journal, shews in a map the co-tidal curve, passing from the vicinity of the magnetic * Dr. Armstrong's Personal Narralivo, etc., p. r)92, and Blue Book for 185''. S; SEARCH I NO EXPEDITIONS. IDI pule by the north-end of King "William's Island, across Banks' Stmi^ ui'd eastward alonj,' the north side of the Parry Islands, towards Joh'^'s' Sound; thus aseribincj tlie packinjj; of the ice in these several ^narters to the conMuenee of the main cur- rents, as has been l.)riefly stated in a jireceding eha])ter (p. 170). Cai^tain Collinson arrived in Berinj^r's Straits later in the season than ^I'(.'lure, and was nnable to double Point Barrow in \H7){), In 1851, however, he succeeded in getting,' round that low, and generally ice-encumbered ]»rojection, and i)ur- suing the continental channel with the same facility that his precursor had done, followed him through Prince of AValcs' Strait ; but though he penetrated a few miles furtlun- into >h'lville Sound, he found no passage, and returning to the south end of the strait, passed the winter of 1851-2 in AValker r>ay. Next sunnner he carricjd his shij) through ].)olphin and Union Straits, Coronation Gulf, and Dease Strait, to Cam- bridge Bay, in the Victoria end of WoUaston Island, where he spent his second winter. His sledge-jtarties ex])lored the west side of Victoria Strait as far as Gateshead Island, some miles beyond Eae, who had ])receded them, and whose cairn they found. From the Eskimos who visited the Enterprise in Cambridge Bay, a piece of an iron bolt was purchased, and also a fragment of a hutch-frame, being evidently parts of the wreck of the Erebus or Terror. A deficiency of coals com- pelled Captain Collinson to return by the way tliat he came, instead of spending another year in forcing a passage through Victoria Strait, where the attempt would doubtless have lieen made had he persisted. He did not, however, get round Barrow Point on his return, without passing a third winter on the northern coast of America. In the meantime, as has been said above. Sir Edward %■ I •1 192 POLAR REGIONS. Belcher, in endeavouring to descend Wellington Channel on his Avay lionie, was cauglit in the ice off Eden Point, and there passed the winter of 1853-4 ; Captain Kellett, of the Resolute, heing enclosed during the same season in tlie pack between ]>yani Martin Island and I'rince of Wales' Island. In these positions the Assistance and li(>solute were aban- doned, with all their stores and provisions, and also their steam-tenders, the Pioneer and Intrepid, ]»y command of Sir Edward Belcher, the senior officer. The Resolute, havin^f been previously made snug and the hatches securely battened down by Captain Kellett, drifted afterwards into Baffin's Bay, and being found tJiere by the master of an American whalei". was carried by him to his own country, and finally presented by the United States Government to the British Admiralty. The loss of five fine vessels (besides a transport) closcil the Admiralty search by sea, but the Hudson's Bay Company again dispatched Dr. Rae to Repulse Bay, one object of his mission being to ascertain, beyond cavil, the continuity of tho isthmus which separates Regent's Inlet or the Gulf of Boothia from the estuary of the Fish River and the southern extre- mity of James Ross's Strait. On his way northwards. Dr. Rae entered Chesterfield Inlet, and, in the hope of finding a route from thence to the estuary of the Great Fish River, ascended the river Quoich, which falls into the north side of the inlet on the 94th meridian. After navigating the Quoich, however, which is full of rapids, up to the G6th parallel of latitude, as has already been mentioned at page 121, he found the country to be too mountainous for the passage of boats, and, therefore, descending the stream, he left the inlet, and pursued his way to his former winter quarters in Repulse Bay. From thence, in the spring, he crossed the neck of Simpson Peninsula and i * SKARCHIN*; EXPKIUTIONS. 193 flio IV^othian Istlunu.s, wlio.si' western coast lie traced iVoni the Castor and Pollux Itiver of Dease and Simpson, iij) to ('ape Porter of Sir James Koss, fully establisliinf? the ijisularit y (if King William's Island. Dr. Kae also obtained, on this journey, unquestionable cvidonce of the melancholy fate of the crews of the Erebus and Terror. In the spring (four winters past, as Ik; was told, hut actually) six winters past, whilst some Eskimos were killing seals near the north end of King William's Island, about /(>?•/// white men were seen dragging a boat and sledges over the ice, on the west side of the island. None could speak the Eskimo language so as to be understood, but by signs they gave the natives to understand that their ships had been crushed in the ice, and that they were going where they expected to find deer to shoot. All the men hauled the drag I'opcs except one tall, stout, middle-aged oflicer. They were Inoking thin, and seemed to want provisions. At night they slept in tents. At a later date in the same season, but previous to the disruption of the ice, the corpses of some thirty persons and some graves were discovered on the continent, and five dead bodies on an island near it, about a long day's journey to the north-west of the mouth of the UtkiL-hikalik-kok, or Back's Great Fish River. Some of the bodies were lying in tents, and one, supposed to have been an officer, lay on his double- Itan'elled gun, with his telescope strapped to his shoulders. Dr. Rae's report, and the numerous relics of the deceased purchased from the natives, were adjudged by the Admiralty to be certain testimony of the entire loss of the Franklin expedition, and £10,000 were paid to him and his party, being the sum promised to any one who should find and 1, :. i *■'■ m ill i I I • II 194 POL All KEG IONS. relieve the missing maiiiicrs, or Itiing cidTect intelligence ul' their lute. J»ut in the hope of receiving some fuller details of the sail event, Government requested the Hudson's liny Company tu send a party down the Clreat Fish lUver, to explore its estuaiy, and communicate with the neighhouring Eskimos. !Mi'. Anderson, one of the Company's chief factors, was accordingly employed on this mission in the summer of 1855. Unfor- tunately, no interpreter could be procured on so short a notice, there being none within 2000 miles, and the only conversa- tion Mr. Anderson could hold with the Eskimos he saw at the mouth of the river, was by the uncertain medium of signs. From them, however, he obtained many additional articles which they had found on the deceased ; and on Montreal Island he discovered the si)ot where the natives had broken up the l)oat for its wood and nails. I'y expressive and nnmistakeable i)antomirae, the Eskimos told him that the white men had died of hunger. A minute and patient search of Montreal Island, of the whole peninsula of Point Ogle, ami of an adjacent island to the westward, revealed neither books, scraps of paper, nor arms, nor a single human bone or grave. He supposed that all the dead were concealed by the drift sand which abounds on Point Ogle, but it is more probaMi' that he had not discovered the exact place mentioned by tin; F^skimos as the spot where the remnant of the crcM' had breathed their last, or that their tents having been pitchetl en the strand, their bodies had been swept off by the rising sea on the breaking up of the ice. Lady Franklin was not satisfied that all had been done that was required for the fame of her gallant husband ami his brave companions; and having not yet abandoned all hoi)L' SEARrHIN 1 ■ ■;; . ■i • ■h tlio consequent disappointment to Lady Franklin, used their utmost endeavours to reach the region of their search ; and, after touching at Greenland, succeeded in crossing over t«> Pond's ])ay, on the -western shore. Tiiis inlet was entered and pursued 1>y the Fox, as far as the ice permitted, and from what Cai>tain M'Clintock himself saw, and from a survey made in lcS55 by ^Mr. Cray, master of a whaler, we learn that it is a strait leading to an inland sea named F^clipse Sound, which again communicates with llegent's Inlet. Fxlipse Sound has in all three northern entrances, the other two being Admiralty and Navy Board Inlets.* On the 18th of August, the Fox descended Peel Strait for twenty-five miles, when, being stopped by a bridge of ice, Captain ^PClintock turned about, and rounding North Somerset, went down llegent's Inlet to Bellot Strait. This strait, being twenty miles long, and in some places not above a mile in width, is traversed by very rapid tides, of which the night tides are by much the highest. The flood tide conies from the west, as it does also in the I'ury and Hecla Strait, on the other side of liegent's Inlet.f An ice-floe lying across the west end of the strait obstructed the fuiiher progress of the Fox, which was therefore housed for the winter in Port Kennedy, a snug harbour within its western entrance. The proceedings of Captain M'Clintock and his associates cannot be more briefly stated than in his own words : — ^" Our geographical discoveries amount to nearly 800 miles of coast- line ; they are interesting not only in consequence of their extent and the important position they occupy, but also from ♦ See Captain Allen Young's Chart in the " Cornhill Magazine for January 1860, No. 1. t The tides will be discussed by Professor Haughton, of Trinity College, Dublin. ■my- SEARCHING EXPEDITIONS. 197 the },'rcat difriciilty of access, whotlier by soa ov land, to tliis iicwly explored area. With the exception of a comparatively small and unimportant part of the shore of Victoria I^md (between Wynniatt's farthest and Cape CoUiuson), the whole coasts of Arctic America are now delineated. "My sledge journey to the Magnetic Pole in February completed the discovery of the coast-line of the American continent. The insularity of Prince of Wales Land was ascertained, and the discovery of its cuast-line concluded, l)y a sledge party under the direction of the sailing-master. Captain Allen Young ; as also the west coast of North Somer- set, between Bellot Strait and Four-river l>ay. Lieutenant Ilobson and his party completed the discovery of the west coast of King William's Island, picking up the Franklin records; whilst, witli my own, I explored its eastern and southern shores, returning northward by its west slK)re from the Great Fish River. " liepeated attempts were made in 18.58, before the close of the navigable season, to reach the open water visible in the broad channel westward of North Somerset ; but a narrow barrier of ice which lay across the western outlet of Bellot Strait, was there hemmed in so firudy by numerous islets as to continue unbroken throughout the autumn gales, and to foil my sanguine hope of carrying the Fox (according to my original plan) southward to the Great Fish River, passing east of King William's Island, and from thence to some wintering position upon Victoria Land. From a very careful survey of the ice during my journeys over it in February, March, April, May, and June, it was evident that in this western sea it had all been broken up ; whilst eastward and southward of King William's Island there had been hardly any ice last autumn ; If 198 POLAR 15 Kf J IONS. Ill ami, tlicrcfoic, in nil i»i(t1»(i1»ility, wo saw in tliiit ItaniiT of iic, soHJO tlircc or Inur niih'H witlc, tlu; only (jltstnictiiui to oiii coniltlcte success. "The wide clmimcl iK'twrcii Prince of Wales Land and Victoria Lund, iipon which I confern.'d the name of • Lady Franklin,' admits a vast and C(tntinuous stream of very heavy ocean- foiined ice from the north-west, which jiresscs upon thf western face of Kin^' William's Island, and chokes up Victoriii 4h "I cannot divest myself of the belief that had Sir John Franklin heen aware of the existence of a channel eastward ol King William's Land (so named until 1854), and sheltereii from this impenetrahle ice-stream, his shi[»s would safely and speedily have i»assed through it in IHW, and from thence witli comparative ease to IJering Strait." * The very long journeys over the ice mentioned by Captain M'Clintock were not accomplished without much jtersoual suffering l)y all engaged in them. Lieutenant llobson, espe- cially, having been previously enfeebled l>y scuiTy, was unable to walk or even to stand l)efore he reached the slii}*, and the health of Captain Allen Young sustained severe injury. From the Eskimos who were hutted on the west coast of Boothia many interesting relics of the Franklin party were obtained, and also intelligence of the fate of the two ships. One of the ships was seen by the natives to sink in deep water, and they rescued nothing from her. The other was forced on shore by the ice on a point named by them Utlu-lik. These events took place in August or Septeml)er, the white men having some months previously gone away towards Great Fish Iiiver. The body of a man was found o)i • Proceedings of tlie Royal Society, x., No. ?>1, p. 147. Nov. 1809. li i I ijii i;i! (Miil .Si:AIU;HIN «'X]»lore(l UOO luiles of coast on the eastern side of reel's Strait, in Lancaster Strait and in Kegent'« Inlet; Captain Austin traced (lO.sT iiiijes-. Sir Kdward litjlcher and Captain K<'llett, !)4.*J2 miles; Sir Kobeil >r'Cluru 2350 miles; Captain ('ollinsctn in his voya^'e to Cumliridj,'o IJay, and I)r. Jtae's ]»rovi(ais exploration of the sanif coasts, included lO.SO miles — making' in all 2I,')(K> miles 1)1' coast line examined, of whi(di .'>7'S(> were pr<'viously unknown. In this enumeration, the hoat expeditions of Sir John liichardson and Captain I'uUeii are omitt«'d, hotli beiiij,' along shores previously well surveyed. Tluj extent of search made by Ca})tains IVniiy and Stewart, by the American expedi- tions of l)e Haven and Kune, and by the commanders of Lady Kianklin's several expeditions, are also left out. To the t(»tal amount, Cai)tain M'Clintock's survey is to be ad(U'd, having been made subse(|uent to the reading of the pajter. To avoid interru]»ting the narrative (»f the discovery of the fate of the Erebus and Terror, an account of one of the most remarkable of all the enterprises undertaken in connection with the search for Sir John Franklin, has been j)ostponed to this place, instead of being mentioned in chronological sequence. We allude to Dr. Elisha Kent Kane's wonderful exploration of Smith's Sound. This expedition Dr. Kane says, was based upon the probable extensi(»n of the land- masses of fireenland, to the far norih, a fact not verified at * Nat. Hist. Hev., .Jan. IH.'A j.. .",.".. : I ■-. I 200 POLAR REGIONS. Il . •1 ! \[ ■1, \\ i •i: II ! I that time by travel, but sustiiiued by the analogies of physical gcogi-aphy. Believing in the extension of the peninsula ol (ireenland (in form of a congeries of islands connected by interior glaciers), and feeling that the search for Sir John Franklin would be best promoted by a course that might lead directly to the open sea, of which Dr. Kane had inferred the existence, he chose Smith's Sound as the scene of his opera- tions, thinking that the highest protruding head-land would be most likely to attbvd some traces of the lost party.* Dr. Kane left the United States in the Advance, with u crew of seventeen oflicers and men, to which two inhabitants of Greenland were added. On the 7th of August 1853, ho entered Smith's Sound, and after much labour and many narrow escapes from shipwreck, the Advance was secured in Eenssoliier Bay, from whence she was destined never to emerge. The geographical position (»f this place was ascer- tained to be in latitude 78° 38', and longitude 70° 40', deter- mined by astronomical observations, and it is farther north than the wintering place of any other ship, being a degree and forty-six minutes higher than Sir Edward Belcher's liarboui', ill Wellington Channel. According to Dr. Kane's view ol the structure of the coast, Greenland terminates at Cape Agassiz, in latitude 79° 14', and longitude C5° 14' W., ascer- tained by intersecting bearings. North of this the coast line is formed by the stupendous Humboldt glacier, which issues from a mcr dc glace, and presents an unbroken precipitous sea-face of nearly sixty geographical miles. A similar glacier exists farther south, in Melville Bay, presenting an unbroken front, estimated by Captain M'Clintock to be forty or filly miles in extent. The Eskimos state that herds of rein-deer * Arctic Explorations, l.y Klisha Kent Kane, M.D., U.S.N., pp. 10, 1". SEARCHING EXrEDlTlONS. 201 retire into tlie interior across the glacier, wliose extent inwards has never been ascertained. Dr. Kane's personal explorations terminated at the great glacier, and so far the geographical positions of the headlands are doubtless correct. It was very nearly at the sacrifice of his life that he went so far. l>eyond the Humboldt glacier the coast was explored by William Morton, and the positions being laid down mostly by dead reckoning or cross bearings, cannot lay the same claim to perfeet accuracy. A meridional observation of the sun, however, was ob- lained on the 21st of June, at Cape Andrew Jackson, in latitude 80° 1' N. Another observation on the 24th gave 80° H' N. for the latitude, which is the most northerly position ascertained by the meridional altitude of the sun on j\lr. IMorton's journey. This seems to have been in a bay on the north side of Cape Jeflerson. From this spot to Cape Con- stitution, the most northerly point reached, Mv. Morton travelled on foot carrying a load, and concluded his journey between noon and midnight, but his journal mentions neither tlie distance travelled nor the number of hours. Makinu a ( orrection, however, for dead reckoning corresponding to that which was found tc be required for Cape Andrew Jackson, Ca])e Constitution cannot be far short of the 81st parallel of latitude. The western side of the inlet, named by Dr. Kane " Grinuell Land," is laid down almost wholly by cross bearings. Us extreme northern point, jMount Parry, lies in about 82° 14' N., corrected latitude, and is 100 miles to the north of Itoss' Inlet, the extreme rock of the Seven Islands in the Spitzbergen group, which was previously the highest land known. The width of Siiuth's Sound or its northern prolongation, w 1 202 POLAR REGIONS. Kennedy Channel, is about thirty-three geograpliical miles across, at the narrowest places. The more southern half was closed by a firm field of ice during the two years that Dr. Kane watched it ; but in the month of June, Mr. Morton found open water, traversed by small streams only of brash-ice, extending from Cape Andrew Jackson, northwards, and as fai' as his vision could take in, when looking from an altitude fil" 300 feet some way up the cliffs of Cape Independence (which are 2000 feet high). He saw an open sea, frequented by numerous water-fowl and brent geese ; on shore he observed considerable vegetation, among which were the Scilio) arctim and S. nva-7irsi, denoting a climate much like that of Spitz- bergen.* After the lapse of two winters. Dr. Kane was obliged to abandon his ship, not being able to get it out of the ice, and his successful voyage in boats, with his starving party, to Sanderson's Hope, is nearly as memorable as his perseverance' amid the dangers and privations of Smith's Sound. This summer (18G0), Dr. Hayes has sailed from America, to complete the sun-ey of Kennedy's Channel. " Kane's Arctic Explorations, I. p. 299. Tlie elevation of ^lorton's look-out station is stated to be 500 feet in that seaman's own report. R "■ 'M « ~^B' i ^ HHi f' > {^■;ii ■ * ' ., 1 '■ ■\ ♦■ ^ .1 'i !' ■ mA ' 1 '' ,[ SPITZBERGEN. 203 SECTION 11. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ( CHAPTER XL SPITZBERGEN. Number and Asjiect of the Islands — Mountains — Glaciers — Iceberg — Avalanche — Disintegration of Rocks — Vegetation — Animals — Drift-wood — Marine Currents. i< ton's look-out In presenting a summary view of the physical aspect and ethnology of the lands within the arctic circle, it is convenient to hegin with Spitzbergen, because of its position, intermediate between the eastern and western hemispheres. It is only to its physical geography that our attention is called, since it lias no indigenous human inhabitants ; and it is in fact, with the exception perhaps of the still more iiiliospitable antarctic lands, by far the largest countiy wherein no traces of man- kind met the eyes of its discoverers. The principal island of the Spitzbergen group has a pecu- liar shape resembling a pair of trousers with the waist-band deeply indented towards the pole, by Weide and Leifde Bays, and hung up in the north on the parallel of 80^ while the logs fall down 3° of latitude to the southward. The western log, flanked by Charles Island and many lessor islets, is called West Spitzbergen or King James's Neidnndy and f»ften by the ft!/ ■*•■■ m' T 11 204 POLAR REGIONS. older navigators, Greenland, on account of their supposing it to be a continuation of the Greenland of the Eskimos. Thu eastern leg, named New Fricsland or East Spitzbcrgcn, is cut across near the middle of its length by a strait; and the detached southern part designated in old charts as Witches Land, is termed Staats Band by the Dutch, and Maloy Broun by the liussians. Another large island of a sub-triangular or pentagonal shape, is named from its position the North-east Land, and is separated from East Spitzbergen by Heidopeu Strait or Waigatz. North of it lie tlie Seven Islands, and Walden Island ; Itoss Islet, which is the northernmost rock of all, is in latitude 80° 49' N. The Archipelago of the Thousand Isles is at the entrance of Wcide Jans Water, which separates the legs of the trousers from each other. The only account of the geology of Spitzbergen which we have seen, is a brief one by Professor Jameson, drawn up from fragments of rock brought to England by Sir Edward Parry. These specimens consisted of primitive granite, gneiss, and mica slate ; gneiss with precious garnets was obtained on the most northern islets. In Henlopen Strait, fetid limestone and a limestone containing madreporites, orthoceratites, and terebratulites, were found. They were detached probably from Silurian deposits. Red sandstone, thought by Professor Jameson to be of more recent origin, also exists in Eed Bay on the north of West Spitzbergen, and in Heidopen Strait. Tertiary laminated and cubical glance coal, found in small pieces near the beach on the eastern and western shores, a little above the ordinary line of drift-timber, were evidently conveyed thither by marine currents. Some pieces of vesi- cular lava that were picked up, are also thought to have been Hoated to Spitzbergen by sea, from Iceland probably, or Jan ji yPlTZBEUGEN. 205 Ariiyoii's Island, \vlioso yaik, named IJeercnLerg, is a volcanic cone, rising C780 feet above the sea level, and is, according to Dr. Scorcsby, occasionally active. Captain lieechey says, that the high ridge of Western Spitzhergen nms north and south, lowering in the latter direc- tion, and that its lateral eastin^n spurs are also lower, the land generally sinking towards the east. Where the sandstone exists, there are table-topped hills, and Low Island is described l)y Dr. Irving, who accompanied Captain Phipps (Lord Mulgrave), as being formed of hexagonal stones commodiously placed for walking. This kind of pavement was probably the summits of basaltic columns, or perhaps the faces of horizontal beds of silurian limestone, which is cracked in that manner by the frost. Spitzhergen derives its name from the pointed peaks, seen while coasting its western side. Its mountains there rise steeply from the beach to a very con- siderable height. Eound Smcerenherg (Oily Hill) Harbour, many of them exceed 2000 feet in height. The Devil's Thumb on Charles Island, is calculated by Dr. Scoresby to rise 1500 or 2000 feet, and Horn Mount, in the harbour of the same name, he states to be 4400 feet high. The mountains on the west coast are very steep, many of them inaccessible, and most of them dangerous to climb, from the smooth hard snow by which they are encrusted in summer, and the loose rocks which project through it so poised, that they give way under the slightest pressure of the foot. The views of the coast given by Captain Phipps, shew dark, craggy rocks, projecting every where in summer above the snow, and the Devil's Thumb, a crooked peak, is alike destitute of snow and verdure, but the high rocks are black with lichens. H i i 206 POLAR REGIONS. I ■ r*i I Vi; ■ii k .: Almost all the valleys, says Captain Beechey, which have not a soutlicrn aspect, are occupied either by glaciers or im- mense beds of snow, which must be crossed before the summits of the mountain ridges can be gained. "NVliere the valleys open out on the sea, the glaciers shew precipitous cliffs of ice, in some places 400 or 500 feet high, washed l)y the waves. Dr. Scoresby says, that a little to the northward of Charles Island aro seven icebergs, each of them occupying a deep valley formed by hills of about 2000 feet elevation, and terminated in the interior by a mountain chain rising above 3000 feet, and running parallel to the coast. The upper surfaces of the glaciers are generally concave, the higher parts always covered with snow, and the lower parts, towards the end of summer, converted into bare ice. They are traversed by many rents, and their ends, as they advance out of the valley into the sea, aro continually breaking off, to form icebergs of various and often vast magnitude. There are four glaciers in Magdalena Bay, the smallest having a sea-face of about 200 feet. One called the Waggon-way, is 7000 feet across at its terminal cliff, which is 300 feet high, presenting an awfidly grand wall of ice. A concussion of the air is sufficient to detach one of these icy cliffs, and there is the same necessity for preserving silence in passing under them, as the poet inculcates on a traveller over the Swiss Alps — " Mute lest the air convuls'd by sound, Rend from above a fros.en mass," An avalanche of this kind, on a magiiiiicent scale, was produced by the purser of the Trent firing a gun from a boat when about half a mile from a glacier in Magdalena Bay. " Imme- diately after the report of the musket, a noise resembling thunder was heard in the direction of the iceberg, and in a Sl'ITZBEUOEN. 207 t(!\v secuiids mure an imiuense piece broke away and fell head- lung into the sea. The crew of the launch, supposing them- selves to be beyond the reach of its influence, quietly looked upon the scene, when presently a wave rose and rolled towards the shore with such rapidity, that the rowers had no time to take any precautions, and the boat being in consequence washed upon the beach, was completely filled by the succeeding wave. As soon as their astonishment had subsided, the seamen exa- mined the boat, and found her so badly broken, that it becanu; necessary to repair her in order to return to the ship. They had also the curiosity to measure the distance the boat had Ijcen carried by the wave, and found it to be ninety-six feet."* " About Fair Haven," says the same officer from whose writings the preceding paragraph lias been quoted, "the mountains which came under our observation appeared to be rapidly disintegi'ating from the great absorption of wet during the summer, and the dilatation occasioned by frost in the winter. Masses of rock were, in consequence, repeatedly detached from the hills, accompanied by a loud report, and falling from a great height, were shattered to fragments at the base of the mountain, there to undergo a more active disintegration. In consequence of this process, there is at the foot of the hills, and in all places where it will lodge, u tolerably good soil, upon which grow several Alpine plants, grasses, and lichens, that in the more southern aspects flourish in great luxuriance. Nor is this vegetation confined to the bases of the mountains ; it is found ascending to a consider- able height, so that we have frequently seen the rein-deer browsing at an elevation of 1500 feet." " During three or four * Vojage towards the North Pole (Dorothea and Trent), by Captain F. W. Beechey, R.N., F.li.S. 1843. I: 208 POLAR REGIONS. Vkn !4'l montlis of the year the rndiation of the sun at Spitzbergen is always veiy intense, and its effect is greatly heightened l)y the very clear atniosi)liere that prevails over cveiy extensive mass of snow or ice, so that we find mountains bared at an elevation nearly equal to that of the snow-line of Norway ; and as vegetation is not regulated so much by the mean tem- perature of the situation as by its summer heat, there seems to be notliing anomalous in the fact. I'lants whicli can endure considerable frost and remain at rest during an Arctic winter, vegetate very rapidly in a n)ild temperature ; hence they burst into flower almost as soon as their snowy covering is removed, perfecting their seed, and preparing for a quiescent state again, all within tlie space of a few weeks." " In some sheltered situations at Spitzbergen the radiation of the sun must be very powerful during two hours on either side of noon, as we have frequently seen the thermometer in tlie offing, upon the ice, at 58, G2, and G7 degrees, and once at midnight it rose to 73 degrees, although in the shade, at tlic same time, it was only 36 degrees of Fahrenheit's scale."* During summer, streams of water flow down the inclined sur- faces of the glaciers, or make their noisy way through interior tunnels. Dr. Scoresby, travelling over the land round King's Bay in 1818, found large ponds of fresh water derive il from melted ice and snow, and near the base of the moun- tains sunk to the knees in a morass of a moorish aspect, consisting apparently of black alluvial soil mixed with some vegetable remains. In ascending the hill the ground gave way at every st( p, so that progress could be made only by leaping or running. The first ridge he crossed was of lime- stone, in loose pieces, and so acute on its summit that he sat * Beechcy, lib. cit. pp. 138-9. ;';|i ■ SPITZBERGEN. 209 astride on it as on horseback. Tlio liij^dicr and more inland ridge was surmounted at midnii^lit. Under its brow, at an estimated altitude of 3000 feet, the temperature in the shade was 37° F. On the lower limestone rid^'e it had been 42°, and on the jdain near the sea, when the sun was lii<^her, from 44° to 40° R The mean temperature of the three summer months (June, July, and August) in ][ecla Cove was + 35° F., and on board the Trent, cruising in the hititude of 80° among ice, some years previously, it was only half a degree hnver. Dr, Scoresby found the temperature of the sea to increase gradually, and invariably with the depth to which the ther- mometer was let down. At the surface in the summer it varied from + 31° to + 34°, but at the depth of 700 fathoms (4200 feet) it was + 38°. Ilis observations were confirmed by the experiments made on board the Trent, in one of Mhich water from a depth of 700 fathoms raised the thermometer to 43°, though in the surface water it fell to 33°. The liussians mention their having experienced heavy rain on Maloy 13roun on October the 7th, and even in the month of January. (Eain after the second week in October is very rare in Eupert's Land, 20° farther to the south.) A lake in the centre of IVIoffen Island, latitude 80°, was found by Phipps to be frozen over on the 2Gth of July. Tlie isothermal line of 32° F., or of the freezing point for the month of July, curves, in Dove's charts north of Spitz- bergen, higher than in any other meridian within the Arctic circle, and descends to cut Novaya Zemhja, on the east, and on the west to pass through Melville Island. Tliis line probably coincides nearly with the upper range of the variable snow-line, but not exactly, for the direct radiation of the sun in the high latitudes denudes the rocks of snow, and suffices for i f ' 210 ruLAU UEGIONS. ill % \ > *: tlic vcj^etaliou of lichens in situations wlicrc a tlionnoniotcr, placed in tliu sluule, is constantly IujIow tlie IVeezin;^' jioint. The llowei'in<,' plants hitheito discoveicd in S]»it/lt('i'L;i n belong to the following families : — RuminrAilacco', 1 ; Piqm- vcracccv, 1; Cniciforr, 5; Coi'i/oj^Ji/jUca; 7; llosaccrr, 1; Soii- fraf/conn(ls uf ivin-decr fat. Lnvy inexperienred deer- .stalkers, and withont the aid of do«;s. Sir .lames Koss oltsorvos, that these animals ari^ V(!ry nnmerons aloni,' the northern shores of the islands; and tliev alionnd also on tin; Mestern coasts, where, in ]»ell Sonnd, Horn Sound, and other ])lar,es, ninny arc killed every year by the whalers. One locality has been named Deer-Fell (Hert-bcr;:;), because of the herds that rre(|uent it. The other quadrupeds that have boon seen arc tlio polar bear, the arctic fox and lemminj^'s. All these inhabit also the whole circle of arctic Europe, Asia, and America; but the lausk ox, whose proper country is the north-east coi-ner of America, does not exist in Spitzber^^en, and has not been found alive on the Old Continent. On Low Island, Dr. Irving saw, but did not procure, a creature somewhat larger than a weasel, with short ears, a long tail, and a skin spotted white and black, which cannot easily be identified with any known species by this brief description. The quadrupeds of Spitz- bergen pass the winter as well as summer there. The marine warm-blooded animals, the morses or walruses, the seals and whales of different kinds, are the chief induce- ments which have drawn Europeans to Spitzbergen. Their earliest resort was to Bear (or Cherie) Island, in search of wal- ruses, which were then so plentiful there, that a thousand could be killed in a few hours. Indiscriminate slaughter, however, drove the marine herds to more secluded northern districts. According to Purchas, the first whale killed in the seas between Spitzbergen and Greenland was by the Biscaynes '.it,-', '.i 41 212 J'OLAIl UKO ION'S. »f 1 , / \m ■i\ m "1 n ■ ' r ^ lii Jii ill Hill. Tliu fishery of the ii;,'lit \vliak' lias also tlofliiud tlirouuli tlic scnrcitv of the aiiiinals. At one time \\w Hans Towns l(((ik i\\v It ad in it, and Admiral Ik'cchcy saw ni>warils of one tliousand (((Hins in Sniccrcnlicrf,' harl)onr, over a few of which boards, with Kn^dish inscriptions, were erected, hut the greater nuiuher were Dutch, and had heeii dejmsited in the eif,diteenth century. In Treureidier;^' llay, also, Sir Kdwanl Parry found thirty J)utch coflins. Xone of the marine niaiii- mal.s ar(( ])eculiar to tlu; Sjtitzheigen seas. Of the insc^ssorial liirds, tlu; well known snow-hird (/V'v- trophanca nirtdls), and the fann'liar lesser redpole, which win- ters within the Arctic circle in Norway and America, are the only representatives in Spitzbergen. There are perhaps grass seeds enongb in Spitzbcrgen to nourish the redpole all tlu; winter. Of rasorial birds, the ptarmigan {Lar/ojms alius) more cer- tainly winters in Spitzbcrgen, judging from the facility with which it can procure its food under the snow. The officers of the Hecla shot several in Treurenberg Bay, and the species was also met with by the French scientific expedition. Of the waders, the common ringed-plover {Charadrivs hiatmda) occurs, a single individual having been killed by Dr. M'Cormick of the Hecla. This may perhaps be the " Ice-bird," which Martens saw in English Harbour, and which he -svould not shoot at, lest he should spoil its fine plumage, and so, notwithstanding its tamencss, he let it ily away. It was, he says, almost equal in size to a small pigeon, and when the sun shone on it looked like gold. Another Spitzbergen wader is the purple sandpiper or suite {Tringa maritima). The common sandpiper {Tringa hypolcuca) was seen there in flocks by Dr. Scoresbv. Sl'lTZBKlUJKN. 213 tk'cliiHil ho linns cr ii ft'w 'cti'd, Imt lositcd ill r Kdwanl ino luaiii- |.ii(l(/Vu.s y/ta'/^Z/.f) ; the red-throated diver ((,' scptintrioiKilia) ; the ra/or-bill [Alca tui'ilu), which rears its young on the nu)st northern rocks ; the diving parrot, pulHn, or eoulleineb {Fntfc/'cula arctlca)] the looms of lU'ilisli sailors or the guillemot {Uria iru'dr, and U. hi'iDinichU), called by the Danes lotn and /oowt, which wortls appear to be of Finnish origin ; the pigeon- diver, dovekie or black guillemot (W. f/r>/llc) ; the rotge (so named from its cry), called also tln^ little auk (Arctica alle) ; the fulmar petrel {Procd/ariu (jlacUdis), seen in lanes of water heyond 82 degrees of latitude ; the solan goose or John of Ghent {skua) ; the pomarine skua, or strunt-jager {Stcrcora- rius parasiticus) ; Koss' gull {likodoskthia liossii) seen also beyond 82° N. lat. ; the burgermaster {Larus (jlaucus) ; Sabine's gull {Xema Sahini) ; the kittiwake or mew {Rissa tridaetijla) ; the ivory gull or rathsher {Patjvpldht churnca) ; the arctic tern or kirmas {Sterna ardica). Some of these water fowl, such as the dovekies, remain in the high latitudes all the winter, feeding in the occasional ponds and lanes of water that open among the ice. Others seek milder climates after their young are Hedged. No fresh-water fishes are mentioned by any author as having been found in Spitzbergen, although fresh- water ponds of considerable size exist there. On various parts of the Spitzbergen shores, but more particularly on the northern ones near Henlopen Strait, w\ t 214 I'ULAR REGIONS. ..; I i. (li'ift-wuod is found. On JNIoffen Island, Captain Lutwidge of the Carcass saw a piece with its root about three fatlioms in length, and as thick as the niizen mast of his ship; and on Low Island l)r. Irving observed several large fir trees lying at the height of sixteen or eighteen feet above the level of the sea ; some of these trees were seventy feet long, and hail been torn up by the roots, others had been cut down by the axe and notched for twelve feet lengths ; this timber was no ways decayed, nor were the strokes of the hatchet in the least effaced. There were likewise some pipe staves, and the beach was formed of old timber, sand, and whalebones — {PMi^^JS, p. 58). "All the drift-wood which we saw (except the pipe- staves) was fir, and not worm-eaten. The place of its growth I had no opportunity of ascertaining" {Ih. p. 71). Were pieces of the drift-wood brought to England, perhaps the microscope would enable us to ascertain the species, and consequently whether it is of Asiatic, European, or American origin. During the summer months at least, the j)revailing current north of Spitzbergen and along its shores is from the north or north-east. Sir Edward Parry, in his attempt to reach the North Pole in boats, succeeded, with great labour, in attaining 82° 45' of north latitude, after travelling in direct distance from where he left his ship, 172 miles mostly over ice. Through- out this remarkable journey he had to contend with a general southerly drift, and when the wind was from the northward the loss by drift during the necessary hours of repose some- times exceeded all the advance that he could make during the hours of labour. At the extremity of the voyage but little ice was in sight. In latitude 81^° as he was returning, he saw several pieces of drift timber and birch bark, and a still SPITZBERGEN. 215 larger number nearer Table Island. On Walden Island drift- wood lie says, was, " as usual," in great al)undance. Of the low limestone shore, to the southward of Low Island, at the northern entrance of Henlopcn Strait, Sir Edward remarks — '' On this and all the land hereabouts where lagoons occur, enormous quantities of drift-wood line the inner beach, which is now quite inaccessible to the sea, and this wood is always more decayed than that which lies on the outer or present sea-beach, by which it ajipears that the latter has been thrown up to the exclusion of the sea long since the inner wood was landed. A great many small rounded pieces of pumice-stone are also found on this part of the coast, and these generally occur above the inner line of drift-wood, as if thev had reached the highest ]!mit to wliich the sea has ever extended. We found one piece of bituminous wood-coal which burned with a clear bright flame, and emitted a pleasant odour." * At the present date the tidal rise on these parts of the Spitzbergen coast is said to be only eight feet, but a line of drift-timber at more than twice that height above the sea is mentioned by Lord Mulgrave. A secular elevation of the islands is perhaps in pro»i'ess. An immense quantity of trunks of birch, pine, and fir are said to be thrown upon the northern shores of Iceland also, especially on the promontory of Lcmr/anes. On the west side of the island, according to Van Troil, boats of twelve tons' burthen are constructed of this drift-timber and sold to the inhabitants of other districts. This drift-wood probably comes from the Obi or other large rivers that fall into the sea of Kara. Dove observes that "the watershed of the Kara Sea exceeds that of the IMediterranean. A current issues from it ♦Attempt to reach the North Pole, by Captain W. E. Parry. n i 216 I'OLAii kp:gion.s. t ■ .-. i if through the Wai(/atz and Strait of Matochhin Schar to tlie westward towards Spitzbergen, is deflected to the southward by the coast rf Greenland, and then flows south-westward between Iceland and Greenland to Cape Farewell. This cur- rent, carrying with it masses of ice (in which the ship AVilhel- niine was enclosed for 108 days in the year 1777, and carried 1300 nautical miles), brings with it everywhere intense cold.'"* Rear-Admiral Beechy states that "the south-west drift of the ice between Spitzbergen and Greenland has been ascertained by ships beset in it to move at the rate of about thii'teen miles a-day," which is equal to that at which Sir Edward Parry calculated the drift of his boats in latitude 82° on a day when the north wind blew. The utmost exertions of the crews of the Dorothea and Trent were unable to maintain these ships in position on the west coast of Spitzbergen, unless they had favouring winds. It is Admiral Beechey's opinion, however, that this south-westerly current does not reach below the parallel of Bear (or Cherie) Island on the east, nor extend as far as Cape Farewell on the west, and certainly not further ; " for there," he says, " a south-easterly current prevails, as proved by the fact of bottles thrown into that sea having been picked up on the shores of Great Britain and Teneriffe, and likewise by the casks of the William Torr, whaler, which was wrecked in Davis Strait, having been found in the Bay of Biscay, off Eockhall, on the west of Scotland, and at inter- mediate stations between that islet and Newfoundland. "It seems," he says, "that the south-westerly current sets from Davis Strait down the coast of Labrador, and, turning east- ward, is met by the drain of the gulf stream, which diverts it * H. W. Dove on the Distribution of Heoi, p. 17. tBecchc,v, Voviige to North Pole, p. 3il, and fcp. 342-3. 2 J -i 1* : SI .TZBEllGEN. 217 to the north-east towards Iceland, the Feroe Islands, and the shores of Britain. Nay, there is an indication of this effect of the jj;ulf stream further to the northward, even beyond the North Cape, and we carried the unusually lii|,di temperature of the sea as far as the seventy-fifth degree of latitude.'** Sir Edward Parry appears to have passed tlu'ough this warm stratum of water on his voyage from Soroe in Norway to Spitzbergen. If it cc-exists with the current mentioned above, ou the authority of Dov^, as running north-westward from the Sea ot Kara, the two streams must cross nearly at right angles, one flowing over the other, or perhaps they intermit, one over- powering the other at certain times, or when accelerated by cer- tain winds. Sir James Clark Eoss does not hesitate in ascribing a SilDcrian origin to the drift-wood of the Greenland coast — " It is this current," he says, " that carries the timber of Siberia down betw^eeu Spitzbergen and the east coast of Greenland to Cape F'"'ewell, whence it takes a north-westerly direction up tlie western shore of Greenland until it meets the southerly current from Baffin's Bay at Queen Anne's Cape, near the Arctic circle. The drift-timber is frequently cast ashore as high as Holsteinberg, but never to the northward of that place. Tlie breadth of the current at Cape Farewell may be con- sidered to extend one hundred miles from the land, gradually diminishing its extent from the coast until it is entirely lost at Queen Anne's Cape.f During two days while coasting the barren district between the eastern and western Byg Is, Cap- tain Graah's vessel was set to the northward at the rate of half a mile an hour. Captain E. Irminger of the Danish I h' * Admiral Beechey supports his statements by reference to his own observa- tions in the Trent, to Dr, Scoresby's authority, and to Commander Beecher's bottle-chart. f Graah's Greenland, Engl.tr. p. 24. w: ■:l 218 POLAR REGIONS. Navy, on the authority of the log-books of the Danish ships trading annually to Geeenlantl, establishes the course of the drift-ice from the Spitzbergen seas down the east coast of Greenland, round Cape Farewell, and up tlie west coast in spring. Tlie ice mostly disappears between September and January on the south and south-westerly coasts of Greenland, reappearing towards the close of January. But he gives r'^a- sons for affirming that there is no current running in a direct line from East Greenland to the banks of Newfoundland, an assertion quite compatible with Admiral Beechey's observa- tions.* • Journ. Roy. Geogr. Society, xxvii. p. 36, vol. 26. A.D. 1856. :/ r . ijS ^ ■■' 1 , ^ 1 ' '- f 'i , ^ :i^',- " ''i \'i^ .Al ' ii 1 t i ... ' 'i i 1 1 ;: ■ i I. !■; ' ' : * <,:U1UIENTS UF THE I'OLAll SEAS. 219 CHAPTER XII. CUiaiKNTS OF THE POLAR SEAS. Spitzbergen CiuTuiit from North — Gulf Stn-am — Davis Strait Current — Suiitli's Sound — Kennedy-Polynia — Elevation of the Coast — Com- parison of the Vegetation of Smith's Sound and Spitzbergen — Parry Islands — Bering's Strait — Siberian Marine Currents — Sil)eriau Polynia — Secular Elevation of Coast — Currents on the Xorlh Coast of the Amerieau Continent — Bellot Strait — Fury and Hecla Strait — Prince of Wales' Strait — Parry Islands — Barrow Strait and AVel- lington Channel — Jones' Sound — Professor llaughtou's Theory of the Polar Tides. 1 . . In the preceding chapter, the south-west current, setting along the eastern coast of Greenland out of the Spitzbergen Seas, has been mentioned. The effect of such currents in modify- ing climate, is discussed at length in Lieutenant Maury's comprehensive work on " The Physical Geography of the Sea." He therein assumes as the most probable causes of the rjulf stream, the increased saltness of its water coming from the regions of the trade winds, and the inferior saltness of the northern seas, whose consequently lighter waters are displaced l)y the more saline and heavier southern flood. This current nius northward out of the Gulf of Mexico, like a mighty river, to the banks of Newfoundland, which our author considers to be formed of deposits made at the meeting of the current coming from the north along the coasts of Labrador and New- foundland, with the warmer but Salter stream from vhe gulf. i-: ■%■ m fy^' f ■ t t ill' II ■ i, ' oj ' ' f ■ ■ ■ ^ : ri'-: ■ : ;--.iji.-'^^ . V- -, ■%- ■ f 1. ■ ■*. ,ii J . ■ '* . iji 1 '■ . E0' ii . :! 1 . 220 POLAR REGIONS. Captain Scoresby counted 500 icebergs floating soutliwanls in the Greenland-Labrador current. Many of these loaded with earth, gravel, and boulders, take the ground on the banks, and there deposit their loads. In Lieutenant Maury's chart (l)late ix.) the gulf stream is shewn as deflected to the east- ward at the Great Bank, and continuing its course to the north-east between Iceland and the northern extremity of Europe, with counter currents of much less breadth setting south-west down the coasts of Norway and Greenland. The data for ascertaining the northern limits of the gulf stream are imperfect. There are some reasons, however, for believing that it continues its course beyond the north cape of Norway to the western coasts of Novaya Zemlya. In the year IGOS Henry Hudson, being a little to the north of the Goose-coast of that island, was drifted in a calm to the northward " by a streame or tide ;"* and Admiral Lutke traced this northerly current for more than three degrees of latitude further, or to Cape Nassau, lying between Ltitke's and Barentz Lands, which was as far as he went in that direction. That the same current is prolonged to the northward and eastward as far as Cape Taimur is also probable, since Middendorf, in 1843, found a polynia or open sea there, and a tidal rise of thirty- six feet in Taimur Bay.f Whether the current deflects west- ward from Cape Tcheliuiskin or Sieveroi Vostochnoi nos, into the polar basin, is not known, no one having as yet attained that north-western extremity of Asia.| Malte Bran, hoAv- ever, says confidently, on the authority of Olafsen, that the Gulf-stream constantly sets along the north coast of Siberia * Second voyage of Master Henry Hudson, Purchas iii., p. 577. •j- Beke, N.E. voy., Hakl. Soc. map. J Usually named in Engl'sh charts the N.E. cape. CURRENTS OF THE POLAR SEAS. 221 jutliwards se loaded the banks, iry's chart the east- rse to the tremity of ath setting land. The ;ulf stream ir believing of Norway ! year 1008 Goose-coast iv^ard " by a .s northerly de further, entz Lands, at the same ■d as far as m 1843, e of thirty- iflects west- 01 nos, into et attained ;run, how- Li, that the of Siberia from east to west, and carries into all the bays that open to the east, Peniambuco and Campcachy woods, as well as the coniferous trees of Siberia itself. Barentzoon detected no tide in the Sea of Kara, or as it is called from its calmness, J/fo*- mora, but he found the height of water at its entrance or W(ujf/atz to be greatly influenced by the wind. At Spitz- bergen in Treurenberg Bay, the in'ghest rise of the sjjring tides was ascertained by Sir Edward l*arry to be only four feet two inches, and to take place at the fourth tide after the full moon. Martens was unable to detect any tide on the western coasts of the Spitzbergen islands. The rise therefore observed in Taimur Bay is very remarkable.* A quotation from Sir James Ross, in a preceding page, mentions that a branch of the current which flows out of the polar basin to the south-west, down the eastern coast of Greenland, curves round Cape Farewell to run northwards along the land of West Greenland up to the Arctic circle, carrying with it a belt of ice ; but the main surface current of Baffin's Bay and Davis' Straits is from the north, to form the Labrador and Newfoundland iceberg - bearing stream above mentioned. This south-going current setting through Davis' Straits, is supposed to have been fully demonstrated * Dr. Wallich, in his " Notes on the Presence of Animal Life at vast Depths in the Sea," drawn up from observations made on Sir Leopold M'Clintock's survey of the sea-bottom of the Northern Atlantic, in the Bulldog, in 1860, says that tlie presence of the Globigerina tribe of Foraminifera in the deep sea deposits is evidently associated, in an intimite manner, with the gulf stream or its oftshoots. These organisms in a recent, if not in an actually living con- dition, were abundant in the ooze brought up between the Fariie Islands and Iceland, and between Iceland and Greenland ; but they were almost entirely absent between Greenland and Labrador. They live at the bottom in great depths, and not near the surface ; whence we may infer the gulf stream to be an under current in the localities named by Dr. Wallich. (pp. 19, 20.) -^ii IP 222 POLAR REGIONS. m ij i>'.i V i i i I 1 1 ■ il'' I if ■II • ,. ^\i-\' = 1 :i 1 >« ', i- .% % r ■ i^ l)y tlie annual ice-drift, and by tho invariable roiirse of many whale-ships that iiave been beset in the ice ; and l)y the drift of Sir James lioss's sliips, of Lieutenant de Haven's, (if the Resolute, after being al)andoned by Captain Kelk'tt, and, more recently, of the Fox, Captain IM'Clintock. Tlie last- named officer, hoM-ever, says, that durinj^^ his long and most remarkable winter's drift of eiglit niontlis, from latitude 75'° N., down to the parallel of C5°, during Mhicli he "was accom- panied l)y several icebergs ; he could detect neither surfaco nor ground current, and he therefore attributes the movement of the ice to the southward solely to the prevailing winds. But other obser\'ers and writers believe in the existence of a soutlierhj surface current flowing out of Davis' Strait. Biier and ]\Iaury fully admitting the existence of this sur- face currerit, argue that there is a counter under-current setting into the polar basin to keep up the equilibrium ; and the latter affirms that the warmer and Salter under stream must rise to the surface somewhere in the north, and there produce a po^yniaj" or open sea of greater or less extent ; such as that reached by "Wrangell off the Kolyma in 1822 ; by Anjou off the Indigirka, and by Kane to the westward of Greenland in 1854. Kennedy's Channel, as the latter piece of open water is named, is described by Mr. Morton, the only European of Dr. Kane's party who saw it, as being about thirty-five miles across. It was coasted northwards for fifty-five geographical miles ; and from an elevation of 500 feet, at the limit of his journey, Mr. Morton, on the 24tli of June, looked to the north- westward, over an expanse of water towards a "dark rain- cloud " on the distant horizon. From this height he saw only * 8]^e\t poluinya by Erman. SMITH S SOUND. 223 [> f>l' many y the drift lav en's, of cllett, aiitl, The hist- r and most Ltitude 75. V was acconi- :hcr siuftu.'f c movement liling winds, istencc c)f a lit. B of this suv- mder-cnrrcnt i])rinm ; and Lnder .stream |h, and there less extent; |ma in 1822 ; westward of narrov,'- strips of ice, with great intervening spaees of ojicn wati'r. A strong cnrrent was setting almost constantly to the south, hut the tides in shore seemed to ilow hoth nortli and south ; the tide from the north ran seven hours, and there was no slack water. The wind at the time Mew heavily down the channel from the open water, and had l)een tVcsh- ouing since the preceding day nearly to a gale; hut it hrought no ice with it * Had there been ice-floes within a moderate distance to the northward, Mr. jNIorton would have readily recognized the " ice - blink" which attends them, so that twenty, thirty miles, or more, may he safely added to the extent of open water actually traced. Xc^ar Cape Jackson, at the south end of the open water, pieces of ice were observed moving northward in the channel at the rate of four miles an hour, and on tho turn of the tide, returning southwards, at the same rate. At the south end of the chan- nel the temperature on one trial was Tound to be +30° in the clear water of a rapid tideway close to the " ice-foot " or lc(lg3 of shore-ice ; and on two other trials near the same place it was +40°, the last being of water drawn from the depth of five feet with the tide setting from the northward. The temperature of the air when the last-mentioned obser- vation \\..s made was +34° F. Dr. Kane states that the freezing point of sea-water in Eensselaer harbour was found to he 29° F. According to Dr. Walker, the temperature at which the surface begins to freeze in Baffin's Bay is 28i° F.f Xear Cape Independance, " many small pieces of willow, about an inch and a half in diameter, had drifted up the slope of the bay." The only willow, and indeed the only plants with a really woody stem in the high latitudes, approaching * Kane's Arctic Expl., App. No. v., II. p. 378. f Nat. Hist. Rov,, Jan. 1860, p. 2. ■ I 1 ' 224 POLAR REGIONS. r=^'{ ? \ 3 ^ i I I /^ ■ B ^ ' i ^ -^ || : : \ 1 1 ' ui i i'i 80° K, are the Salix arctica and Vaccinuan uliginosnm, and if Mr. Morton means tlie diameter of the stem, and not the width of the bushy crown of branches, an inch and a half exceeds the diameter of any stem of these plants, even in much lower parallels of latitude. "Willow is a common desig- nation of slender twigs of any bush or tree, and may have been so applied by Mr. IMorton. In any case these drift willows came from a distance, and did not grow near the bay in which they were found.* !Much grass grew in this neighbourhood, and several flowering plants. Wateifowl abounded on the open water, the species being the same that frequent the Spitzbergen seas ; very large flocks of eider ducks were swimming therein. To the southward of the open water of Kennedy Channel, a solid field of ice tilled up about ninety miles of Smith's Sound, from side to side, for the two years that Dr. Kane remained shut up in Rensselai-i' harbour, but his chart is marked with arrows, shewing that a current running southward sets through it beneath the icy bridge. Though the attempt made to carrj' the Advance northward by that opening was in accordance with the belief entertained by Lieutenant Maury, and many other cultivators of physical geography, of the existence of a polar polynia, which Frank- lin's ships were supposed to be traversing. Dr. Kane's remarks, part of which we quote, are made with true philosophical diffidence. " I am reluctant," he says, '' to close my notice of this discovery of an open sea, without adding that the details of Mr. Morton's narrative harmonized with the observations of all our party." " It is impossible, in reviewing the facts which connect themselves with this discovery — the melted * Kane's Arctic Explorations, II. Appendix, No. v. SMITH S SOUND. 225 stiow upon the rocks, the crowds of mariiio birds, the limited but still advancing vegetable lite, the rise of the thennonietcr in the water, not to be struck with their bearing on the ques- tion of a milder climate near the Pole." "There is no doubt on my mind, that at a time within historical, and even recent limits, the climate of this region was milder than it is now. T nn'ght base this opinion on the fact abundantly developed by our expedition, of a secular elevation of the coast-line. Piut independently of the ancient beaches and terraces, and other geological marks, which shew that the shore has risen, the stone huts of the natives are found scattered along the line of the bay, in spots now so fenced in by ice, as to preclude all possibility of the hunt, and of course of habitation, by men wlio rely on it for subsistence." " Tradition points to these as once favourite hunting-grounds, near open water." " I would respectfully suggest to those whose opportunities facili- tate the inquiry, whether it may not be that the gulf stream, traced already to the coast of Novaya Zemlya, is deflected into the space around the Pole. It would require a change in the mean summer temperature, of only a few degrees, to develops the periodical recurrence of open water. The con- ditions which define the line of perpetual snow, and the limits of the glacier formation, may have certainly a proximate application to the problem of such water-spaces near the Pole."— (Kane, Arct. Expl. I. 308). The open water of Kennedy's Channel, in the month of June, is not of greater extent than the spaces clear of ice that have occasionally been seen in summer by the whalers north of Spitzbergen. Supposing, as Dr. Kane suggests, that a cur- rent is deflected from the Spitzbergen seas round the north end of Greenland, and that in its course the warmer water Q I ::' • i n M iii! i' 1 im t jjs 1 I f In i \! 1 22G POLAR HKOIONS. rose to the siirfuco, the toin])ovaturo of 40", ohscrvecl by Mr. Morton, would at once bo accounted for. Tlie vegetation ol" Smith's Sound is very nearly the same as at Spitzher^^en, but J)r. Kane procured seven more ])henof,'amous species than have been enumerated in the Sjiitzberfirn flora, towards whidi, tho time and care he spent in collecting,' may have con- tributed.* The additional numbers arc — RanuncuUtcccr, 2 ; Crucifcrw, 3 ; liosaccrv, C ; Compositw, 1 ; Ericacccr, 1 ; Scro- 2}hidarvica%2; Cypcracca:, 1 — ni(d ,■• ► i': ^'.! .' I:.: . '1 ' ' *' • ' r " Barrow, ibiiiid his progress to V»e greatly aided Ijy that current during the prevalence of contrary winds ; and in calms a " strong favourable cun-ent carried the ship past the gi'oundrd ice to the north-east at the rate of two miles an hour."* The same ofiieer mentions that whalers, when making their way out of the straits with light favourable winds, were obliged to stem the current by using warps. Bering's Straits are neither wido nor deep at the present time. If the bottom has risen, in accordance with the secular movement of elevation, of which there are evidences on all the islands lying to the north of America, the diminishing influx of warmer water from the Pacific must have been gradually impairing the climate, and a corresponding loss of strength in the outflowing ice-bearing currents from the eastern open- ings must have taken place. South of St. Lawrence Island, at the southern entrance of Bering's Straits, counter-currents exist, either constantly or with certain winds. Lieutenant Hooper mentions that, in October 1848, the Hover was much delayed on approaching the straits by headwinds and strong currents, but that during the night after getting sight of St. Lawrence, the ship drifted between that island and tJK^ Asiatic coast, far to the north-west.f Eespecting the currents on the north coast of Siberia, Baron Wrangell says, that " between Svatoi-nos (longitude 140° E.) to Koliutchin Island (longitude 185° E., lying towards East Cape, and not far north of the arctic circle), during summer, the current is from east to west, or towards Bering's Straits, and in autumn from west to east. The prevalence of • Proceedings of the Plover. Parliamentary Papers, Jan. 1855 (Blue Book), p. 905. t Tho Tents of theTuski, by Lieut. W. H. Hooper, 1853, p. 12. C'UllllENTS OF THE SIBERIAN SEAS. 229 north-west winds is doubtless the cause of the south-east cuiient which we frequently observed in the spring. Our observations are confirmed by those of Liakhow in 1773, Schalarov in 17G2, and Billings in 17S7." "The fur- liunters who visit New Siberia and Ivotelnoi Island every year, and pass the summer there, have observed that the space between those islands and the continent (from sixty to one hundred and thirty miles) is never completely frozen over before the last days of October, although firm ice forms along the coast at a much earlier period. In spring, on the other hand, the coasts are quite free by the end of June, whereas at a greater distance from land the icy covering continues firm for a full month later. Throughout the sunmier the sea is covered with fields of ice of various sizes, drifted to and fro by the winds and currents."* " The ice which the larger rivers bring down every year is never entirely melted the same season." " In the sunnner and autunm the ice breaks up into fields, and lanes of open water are met with near the land as well as towards the open sea. Winter hummocks (formed of pieces forced up over each other) are frequently one hundred feet in height. The thickness of the ice produced in a single winter is about nine feet and a half, and an exposure to a second winter will add about five feet more. Wherever the ice is formed from sea- water, and its surface is clear of snow, the salt may be found deposited in crystals. In the neighbourhood of the polynias, the layer of salt is often of considerable thickness." " The Great Polynia, or that part of the polar ocean which is always open sea, is approached about twenty miles north of the islands Kotclnoi and New Siberia, and from thence hi • Wrangell, Polar SeuH, Eng. tr., 502. ■ i- II Is.;-, ' ,• II r';} Mi! " I m i I r. ■Ji t> ^ > '1 K *' t - \ ■ >^' ' *■> i 1 s 1 1 [fc 230 POLAR REGIONS. a more or less direct line to about the same distance from the coast of the continent between Cape Chelagskoi and Cape North (or between the 135th and 180th meridians). The shore ice extends some way farther from land at Cape North than at Cape Jakan" (eighty miles more to the west). The polynia was seen in 1811 by Tatarinow, in 1810 by Hedenstrom, in 1823 by Lieutenant Anjou, and in 1821 and 1822 by Baron Wrangell. This last observer adds — " Our frequent experience that north and north-west winds, and often north east winds also, are damp to a degree which was sufficient to wet our clothes, is also a corroboration of the existence of an open sea at no great distance in those directions."* " The inhabit- ants of the north coast of Siberia generally believe that the land is gaining on the sea. This belief is founded on the quantity of long-weathered drift-wood which exists on the tundrcn and in the valleys, more than thirty miles from the present sea-line, and decidedly above its level. In no cir- cumstances of weather is either sea-water or ice now known to come so far inland. In Schalarov's map, Diomed Island is marked as separated from the mainland to the east of Svatoi-nos by a sea-channel, but no such strait now exists." t In the navigable channel which bounds the American continent between Point Barrow, the estuary of the Great Fisli Eiver and the isthmus of Boothia, the tides are regular though (except in the straits) of small velocity, and producing little rise of water, rarely amounting to four feet ; but in certain of the straits exceeding that rise. Some Arctic navigators have thought that they perceived a prevailing current setting to the eastward along the coast. Sir John Eichardson found the flood-tide taking that direction between the Mackenzie * Wrangell, Op. cif., p. oO."}. f Wrangell, Op. cit.. p. 506. CURRENTS OF THE ARCTIC AMERICAN SEAS. 231 and Coppermine liivers, and in the Dolphin and Union Strait, both flood and ebb had so strong a current that it became advisable for the boats to lie by while the stream was adverse. A gale of wind, however, had a very decided effect in raising the water, three days of a strong north-wester being sufficient to flood for many miles the low lying meadows on the east of tlie Mackenzie, and to deposit long lines of drift timber a mile or two inland of the ordinary spring tides. At the distance of fifty miles to seaward off the Mackenzie, Captain Collinson experienced currents so strong that, with the boats towing a-head, he could not at times prevent the ship from being turned round. In Bellot's Strait, the first easterly outlet from the continental channel, Sir Leopold M'Clintock had to contend with tides running "like a mill-stream" at the rate of seven miles an hour. The flood came from the north-west, and the ebb flowed with nearly equal force. In Committee Bay, the bottom of the Gulf of Boothia, Dr. Eae ascertained a total rise of nine feet. Opposite the eastern end of Bellot Strait, on the other side of Prince Eegent Inlet, there is another strait leading through Echpse Sound to Pond's Strait, and also communicating by northern channels with Lancaster Sound. The set of the tides in these straits and channels has not yet been determined. But in the Fury and Hecla Strait which bounds Cockburn Island on the south, and connects Foxe's Channel with the Gulf of Boothia, the rise of the tides was nine feet, and the stream came from the west during the twenty-four hours, with eddies in shore running in the opposite direction. The current from the west was at times as great as four miles an hour, and the observers thought that, in tlie summer season, it was so much stronger than in the winter time, as to mask the small stream I I ■ :^ i msr-i — 1 , 1/ * lit* ■ , if ir". ■<., , ' ^ J; 2 232 I'OLAR REGIONS. of the ebb-tide that would have set westwards. In the frozen strait of Middleton the current of the flood or ebb-tide is so strong, according to the Eskimos, that polar bears, when com- pelled to take to the water, are often swept under the ice by the stream and drowned. Tlie channel further noith has also a general set of cur- rent from the westward. In Prince of Wales' Strait Sir Eobert M'Clure ascertained that the flood-tide came from the south, and that at spring-tides there was a rise and fall of three feet, with little if any rise at neaps. At I'oint Armstrong near Princess Eoyal Islands, in the Prince of Wales' Strait, a large quantity of drift-wood was seen by the same officer. It was all American pine, and, in the opinion of the carpenter, could not have been carried from its native forest above two years. As the Coppermine Eiver brings down but a very small number of drift trees, and none at all descend the more easterly rivers, the drift trees of Prince of Wales' Strait come almost certainly from the Mackenzie, which annually rolls down vast numbers. Captain CoUinson saw much drift-wood at the distance of fifty miles from the mouth of that river, and measured the trunk of a tree sixty-eight feet long, which must have grown to the southward of the Arctic circle. In Banks' Strait (at the Bay of IMercy), a registiy of ten months shewed a maxinmm rise of two feet, four tides after the full and change of the moon ; Sir Eobert M'Clure's obser- vations coinciding with those made by Sir Edward Parry on the opposite side of the strait. There the ice-drift, whether impelled by currents or prevailing winds, coming round Prince Patrick Island, and down the passages between it and "Mel- ville Island, keeps the strait constantly filled with the pack. Sir Edward Pan-y remarks, that "the westerly and north- lUHUENTS OF THE AllL "TIC AMERICAN SEAS. 233 westerly winds were always found to produce the efiect of clearing the southern shores of the N'oi'th CJeorgian Islands (called on recent Admiralty charts the Parry Islands) of ice, while they always brought with them clear weather." He also notices the fact of his having sailed back from Wintei' Harbour to the entrance of Lancaster Sound in six days, a distance which took five weeks to traverse in the opposite direction.* While he remained in Winter Harbour of Mel- ville Island, in the months of INIay, June, and part of July, tliu maximum rise of the tide was four feet two inches, and the minimum ten inches, the mean rise being rather more than two f(iet and a half. The highest tide was the fourth after full moon. From Dr. Sutherland's register of tides, kept near Cape Hotliam, to the west of Wellington Channel, we learn that there the rise and fall varied from less than a foot to more tliau six feet. At Cape Beecher, on the north side of Welling- ton Channel, where it joins Queen's Channel, the tides, says Captain Penny, " flow regularly, but when strong winds blow tVoni tlie north-north-west, they continue tide and half tide, the flood coming from the westward, and at a much greater rate ;" that is to say, the flood tide continued nine hours and the ebb only three, the fall of water being rapid. In the autunm of the preceding year t] Iz gentleman, in conjunction with the American expedition, experienced a strong rush of water towards the north up Wellington Channel, caused, he states, by the long prevalence of south-east winds. In the straits formed in that channel by Baillie-Harnilton, and Dundas Islands, the tides are very rapid, the grinding of the ice on the beach producing a sound like thunder.t Farther * First Voyage of Discovery, by Captain W. E. Parry. London, 1821, p. 299. t Journal of a Voyage, etc., by Dr. P. C. Sutherland. London, 1852; IL Pl>. LV-' and IGl. li i: ir.;.' s t. ■, ' ■ 234 POLAR REGIONS. I'!',' Ir- ' K"* ii • i ' ' 1 i 1 ; .'.\ ■ 1 ; f \ ii •ii '; ; i \ 1 ' lii Mi iL' ■ to the north, on tl ■ 7 'th parallel, beyond Grinnell Land, Sir Edward Belcher observed the cVb running strong to the east- ward towards Jones' Sound. That tlie general drain from Barrow's and Lancaster Straits is into BaiTni's Bay, the preceding observations quoted from Sir Edward Parry, together with the drift of Sir James Eoss's ships in 1849 from Port Leopold, that of the American Expe- dition in 1850, and of the Resolute in 1851;, is sufficient to show. We have also seen that the Fury and Hecla Strait affords another outlet from the Polar basin, and that there, probably, is an intermediate one in Pond's Strait ; between Spitzbergen also and Greenland a current comes from thu north. In the contrary direction, there is the current setting northward through Bering's Strait, whose existence is fully established by observation, and one is surmised to flow be- tween Spitzbergen and Vostochnoi Scveroi-nos, but which has been actually traced no further than Novaya Zemlya. These are surface currents. Further experiments are needed to prove that there are under currents, though their existence has been inferred on theoretical gi'ounds. An able writer in the Natural History Review,* understood to be the Professor of Geology in the University of Dublin, gives the following theory of the Arctic tides : — ^" The great tidal wave enters the Polar Sea from the Atlantic by two distinct channels, separated from each other by the continent of Greenland. The first branch of the Atlantic tide, having swept past the British Islands and coasts of Norway, flows into the Polar Sea, past the islands of Spitzbergen, being assisted m its flow and retarded in its ebb by the remains of * Natural History Review, April 1858, p. 65. CURRENTS OF THE POLAR SEAS. 235 tlic3 Gulf-streaiii, wliose heating etlects are supposed to be felt even by the glaciers of Spitzbergen. " Of the oscillations and movements of the Polar Sea itself north of Europe and Asia, we know but little, except the fact furnished to us by Von Wrangell, that its resultant ou the north coast of Siberia is a current setting east by south, towards Bering's Strait ; arrived at this point, the cun-ent is complicated in its action by the influx of the Pacific tide, whose movements are totally different in character. The combined Atlantic and Pacific tides (the latter predominating) flow and ebb in an east and west direction, along the coast of North America, with a preponderant set to the eastward, round Point Barrow, Cape Bathurst, through Dolphin and Union Strait, and Dease's Strait, and probably into Victoria Strait, as far as the bottom of Peel Sound and Bellot Strait, leading into Prince Ptegent's Inlet. It is highly probable, although it has not been distinctly proved, that off shore, both in Asia and North America, the Atlantic tide and Gulf- stream produce a resultant movement of the waters of the Polar Sea, which presses its loose pack-ice eastward and southward against the western and north-western shores of the Parry Islands, forming the great pack-ice obsei-ved by M'Clintock on the north-western shore of Prince Patrick's Island, and also the formidable double and triple floes to the west and north of Banks' Land, encountered by M'Clure. To the westward of Banks' Land, at some distance seaward from the American continent, is found the permanently ice-blocked sea, called by the Eskimos * the land of the white bear.' This gigantic floe we believe to be formed by the continued eastern set of the deep tidal and oceanic currents of the Polar Sea east of Spitzbergen ; and that it is prevented from per- n^ F^rf -,-*— ■i . ■ f ■ 1, ■ . il,' ' ., 1 * *■'■'.' : ■ ',- i':i.O '■ ■ • . ■ , ■ ■ ' ■'.. ." i ^ .^,.,.,,"■,,4 •^ '■'■fi , :i'il I-. ;. am-m . < •■■■("■iMl!! 5^ ; iiSii ! / ' iHjili 236 POLAR REGIONS. luaneutly blocking up the coast line of the American continent only by tlie inliuence of the rapid tides which enter tli(! Polar Sea through Bering's Strait." " The second branch of the great Atlantic tidal wave, passing up to the westward of Greenland, fills Baffin's Bay, flows northward through Smith's Sound, and westMavd througli Jones' Sound and Lancaster Sound, causing high water in succession in Prince Eegent's Inlet, Wellington, Austin, and By am Martin Channels. It finally meets the conjoined Pacific and Polar tides at the entrance of Banks' and Prince of Wales' Straits ; the Pacific tide at Bellot's Strait, and the true Polar tide in the centre of Byam Martin Strait, in the space between Queen's and Wellington Channel, again in Cardigan Strait and Belcher Channel, and lastly at the ice-belt, dividing the open entrance of Smith's Sound from Kennedy's Channel. The limit of the Atlantic tide represents still water at all times of the tide, the currents flowing to and ebbing from the " head-line " of tide (in the manner well known in the Irish Sea and English Channel, forming slack water near the Isle of Man, and from Dover to Beechy Head). In a sea impeded by broken ice-floes, such a meeting of tidal streams will produce an almost permanent and immovable thickened floe." In another paper, the same author calculates the head of the tide, or point of meeting, to occur at ten or eleven o'clock Greenwich time. High water takes place three hours and a half sooner at the northern extremity of Nortli Somerset than it does in Bridport Inlet of Melville Island.* * Natural History Review, V. p. 123, July 1858. See also the preceding pages of the present work, where Professor Haughton's opinions are referred to. 1(JK. 237 CHAPTER XIII. 1- . ICE. Dismptiun of River and Lake Ice — Lapland — the Mackenzie — the Kulyuia — Sea ice — \Miale-fi.shers' biyht — Efl'ect of Drift Ice on the climate of Iceland — on Meta Incognita — Poles of cold — Tlierniic anomaly — Continental climate. In treating of the oceanic currents in the preceding chapter some facts respecting the movements of ice in the I'ohir seas have been mentioned. The Siberian rivers Obi, Yenisei, Lena, Indigirka, and Kolyma, and tlie American ISIackenzie, Coppermine, and Great Fish rivers, all rising far to the south of the Arctic circle, carry much ice into the Polar basin. Wahlenberg has remarked in his Flora La^)onica that the air imust acquire a mean temperature of 39i° F. before the frozen rivers of Lapland break up completely. In the interior of subarctic Siberia and America, however, the spring is com- paratively cloudless, and the direct rays of an unveiled sun have a manifest influence in hastening the epoch of the open- ing of the rivers, so that near the sources of the Mackenzie, for instance, about the 55th parallel, 3G° F. is probably nearer the mean atmospheric temperature of the ten days -svhich immediately precede the general disruption of the ice. As a matter of course, the upper or more southerly branches of these rivers break up first, and bearing down accumulations of water, ice, and drift-trees, the flood sooner or later is obstructed it ^vi I 238 POLAR REGIONS. Ea'! ■1 Hi" "•!■ f; -^ ^ 1 ■ ' J ,, ■ • ''1 i > by a strong bridge of ice extending across tbe river. The water rapidly rises in the ^Mackenzie, often to the height of forty feet above its autumn level. Its pressure at lcnf;tli demolishes the obstructing l)ridgo, and the flood sweeps over the islands and submerged banks, cutting doM-n the trees as the grass falls before the mower's scythe. This operation is repeated more or less frequently before the debacle reaches the sea, and in some seasons much more destructively than in others. In the general thaw the land-floods, proceeding from the melting snow, break down the river banks in innumerable places, adding largely to the drift-trees ; and in the Mackenzie the snags and sawyers are as common as in the mighty Mh- sissippi. The jNIackeuzie usually breaks up where it crosses the Arctic circle, about the middle of May, or a few days earlier, the 23d of the month being unusually late. It takes about a fortnight for the flood to make its way from the Arctic circle to the delta of the river. The disruption of the rivei- ice is speedily followed by the arrival of geese ; but the larger lakes in the same quarter are not navigable for a month or six weeks later. The Oussa, which rises from the Ural mountains within tlie Arctic circle, and, running west-south-west, joins the Petchora near the CStli parallel of latitude, is frozen by the beginning of September, but firs, birches, alders, service trees, and willows grow on its banks, the forest being similar in character to that on the Mackenzie. The subsoil is permanently frozen, yet barley, rj-e, sheep, and cattle are products of the district. On the Lower Kolyma the seasons appear to be more severe, and the spring later. Baron Wrangell, speaking of this province, says : — *'At Nijnei Kolymsk (latitude 68t°) the river freezes early in September ; loaded horses can often cross ICE. 239 the ice of the most nortlierly branch as early as tho 20th of August, and the icy covering never melts before the begin- ning of June. AVhen need is at tlu^ highest, suddenly largo flights of birds arrive from the south, swans, geese, ducks, and snipes, and the general distress is at an end. At last, in June, tlie rivers open, and fish pour in abundantly ; but sometimes this season brings with it a new ditliculty. The rivers cannot carry away sniliciently fast the masses of ice which are l)ornc down by the current ; these ground in bays or shalloM's, and thus form a kind of dam, which impedes the course of tho river, and causes it to overflow the banks ; in this way the meadows and villages are sometimes laid under water. These overflowings of the rivers take place more or less eveiy year."* It requires as much heat to melt a given quantity of ico as would raise twenty-eight times the mass of water one degree of Fahrenheit. Hence the drifting of a large quantity of ico down the rivers relieves the districts it leaves from the loss of heat that would have been consumed in melting it, and that which is carried down the rivers into the Polar basin produces a proportional deterioration of climate there. Baron Wrangell's description of the sea-ice north of the Kolyma, already quoted, will apply generally to the ice in the sea north of America; but though there are high hummocks and ridges where currents or strong winds have pressed the floes and smaller pieces together, and caused them to over- ride each other, there are no icebergs of any size in the Arctic American sea, from the absence of glaciers to furnish them, either on the continental shore or islands due north of it. The nearest approach to an iceberg on the American coast-line is a talus of drift-snow formed under a precipitous cliff washed * Wrangell's Polar Sea, pp. 46 and 62. 240 POLAR IlEf;iON>«. It im i 11 ,i-* ' 1] ! '1 by tlio sfa, wliifli Innaks oil' liy the action of the wavo^ i\\u\ HUH ultcr one or more suniiners. Those are fnw and coni|iur;i- tively insi<,niifi('ant wlien contrasted witli tlio mountainous bergs furnished by tlie vast ohiciers of (Jrccnland and Sjdfz- berf,'en. Sir Jiobcrt M'Clure and (Juptain Collinson, in tlie voyacji s from ]>erinnfs Straits to Banks* Ishmd, obtained information of the fixed barrier of ice ah-eady noticed as distant from thiity to fifty miles from the continent. It is probable that this ic( belt hangs on to a northern chain of islands. The Eskimos df Point Barrow have a tradition, reported by Mr. Simpson, sur- geon of the Plover,* of some of their tribe having l)een curried to the north on ice broken up in a southerly gale, and arriv- ing, after many nights, at a hilly country inhabited by peoi)lp like themselves, speaking the Eskimo language, by whom tluv were well received. After a long stay, one spring in which the ice remained without movement they returned without mishap to their own country, and reported their adventurers. Other Eskimos have since then been carried away on the ice, and are supposed to have reached the northern land, finui whence they have not as yet returned. An obscure indication of land to the north was actually perceived from the mast head of the Plover when off Point Barrow. In the latter quarter, lanes of water, in which the whalo- hunt can be carried on, appear in some seasons by the end of April, though it is usually later in the year before nuich movement in the ice takes place. As early as the end of March, lanes of open water were seen between Beechey Island and Port Leopold by Captain Pullen in 1 854, which he con- sidered to be unusually early. But Sir Leopold M'Clintock, * Blue Book on Arctic Matters, 1835, p. 939. ICE. 241 ill the remarkable sledge journoy of 105 days, employed in travelling roi nd Prince Patrick's Island, and iu surveying the adjacent shores, kept on the ice till the middle of July. Lan- caster Strait and Melville Sound are seldom navigable for ships before the end of tlie month, and the harbours are often closed up till late in August, so that a ship that has wintered lu one of them has only a fortnight or less time left for escape. About the end of September fresh ice begins to encmst the surface of the sea, so as to tenninate the general naviga- tion for the season, and the history of Arctic enterprise in the earlier pages of this work shews that in certain localities, and in some seasons, the ice may be packed by prevailing winds and currents so as to obstruct the progress of ships for a whole summer, or even for several successive years. The usual course of the whalers in Davis' Straits is to wr.rk to the northward along the coast of West Greenland early in the summer, and to cross over to the broken lands of Meta Incognita as soon as the *' middle ice " has drifted tar enough down the strait to allow them to pass round its northern end, or has become loose enough to let them sail through it. On the east side of Greenland, a remarkable tongue of ice, mentioned by Dr. Scoresby, stretches abruptly to the north, between Ian Mayen and Bear or Cherie Island, and separates the west or sealing district from the east or icMlc-fishei^s hight; this latter being the only pervious track to the northern fish- ing latitudes. Sometimes the bight is closed up on the north by ice, and ships are then prevented from approaching Spitz- bergen, on which event the season is termed a close one, nJ is unproductive. The co-tidal curve indicated by Profe^oOt' R rt '- ** If p.l- 242 POLAR REGIONS. Haughtoii, as stated in Chapter XII., would, if prolonged from Smith's Sound, take this direction, and this tongue of ice nuiy occupy the area of comparatively slack water, interposed between the north-flowing current on the east of Spitzbergeu, and the ice-bearing stream running southwards down the Greenland coast. From some cause or concurrence of circumstances this tongue-like floe occasionally breaks up to an unusual extent, as was the case when Dr. Scoresby took advantage of the event to recommend 1818 as a favourable period for polar research. When the ice is drifted in extraordinary quantities upon the Iceland shores, it has deteriorated the climate of that island for a year or two, so as to produce famine from lack of pasture, as well as exposed the flocks to the ravages of the numerous polar bears that inhabit the ice ; but at the same time the Icelanders obtain a supply of drift-w^od which lasts for years. The year 1271 is mentioned in the Icelandic chronicles as one in which an extraordinary quantity of ice, multitudes of bears, and much wood, were cast on the coast by a north-west wind.* The deterioration of climate by drift-ice, which is only occasional after intervals of many years at Iceland, recurs annually in Meta Incognita, and the adjoining corner of the American continent. The winds and currents conspire to till the numerous intricate sounds and straits in that quarter with drift ice during the summer, by which the temperature of that season is kept much below the normal heat of other meridians in the same parallels of latitude. By the gieat extent of land, also, near the Arctic circle, as wiU be mentioned in Chai)tei '•• " Tlic slioirs uf Icclaml fire visiteil by drift ice only hcvcii or eight tiiiifs in a Lonlury." — Sir F. Leopold M'Lintock, in the Emjineer, Pec. 21, I860. ICE. 243 XV., the climate becomes what is called a continental one, and its winters more severe, so that both in summer and winter tlie temperature is kept low. Sir David 13rewster explained these facts by supposing the existence of two poles of extreme cold in the uoithern hemisphere, one near latitude 80°, in longitude 92° west, the other in Siberia ; round these centres, as poles, he represented the isothermal lines as circu- lating in lenuiiscate curves. Dove gives a graphic exposition of the same facts under the designation of the thermic anomaly, by which he represents an area of abnormal cold as having a inonthly progression, being inland on the parallel of G0° north at midwinter, and having moved north-east to Meta Incoynita at midsummer. In like manner, the Siberian area of abnormal depression of temperature moves from the vicinity of Jakutsk, where it has its winter station, to Bering's Sea at midsummer. It is to be understood that these isahiarmal areas denote merely the places where the temperature is lowest on their parallels of latitude, and not the coldest points in that hemi- sphere. They imply, of course, areas on the same parallels wherein the temperature exceeds the mean.* * Distribution of Heat over the Surface of the Globe, by H. W. Dove, Lon- don, 1853. r '] ""^ "^^^vw [B%'. #r i' .:' I*..!-* ■■ 1 ■'* r; ■J' 244 POLAR REGIONS. m:: fe CHAPTER XIV. |t. ::-i * m WINDS. Mr. Coffin's Theory — Lieutenant Maury's — Von Wrangell's Observations on the Winds of the Kolyma District — Winds at Fort Confidence — Teploi Weter — Repulse Bay — Baffin's Bay and Davis' Strait — Spitz- bergen, Mr. J. H. Coffin, in a treatise published in the sixth vohime of the Smitlisonian Contributions to Knowledfje (1854), places a meteorological pole in latitude 84° N., longitude 105° W., and states that it is encircled by a zone twenty-three degrees and a half in breadth, of westerly or north-westerly winds, encompassed on the south between the parallels of G0° and 66° by a belt of eastevly and north-east winds, as indicated by observations made at Great Bear Lake, Great Slave I^ake, and Fort Enterprise, two stations in Greenland, and one at Eeikiavik in Iceland. Lieutenant Maury's wind-chart marks the pre- vailing direction of the winds in the polar basin and northern seas as being westerly, but does not indicate the easterly encompassing belt of Coffin. These generalisations, though backed by references to observ^ations, are partly founded on theoretical considerations. Baron WrangeU, in treating of the windii of the Kolyma district in Arctic Siberia, says that the ?, orth wind is seldom fresh, or of long continuance ; it is more frequent in summer, when it brings cold, than in winter, when it often brings %1 bservations infidence — :ait— Spitz- th volume 54), places e 105° W., :ee degrees rly winds, f G0° and dicated by I,ake, and Eeikiavik s the pre- d northern e easterly Bns, though [ounded on ^e Kolyma is seldom In summer, ken brings WINDS. 245 mist and milder weather. The north-east ivind, or more often the east-north-east, is seldom of long continuance, or violent. It usually clears the atmosphere from mist, and causes the thermometer to rise in summer and to fall in winter. The south-east wind drives away mist, and may be regarded as the prevailing wind in auturun and winter. There is a remarkable phenomenon called the tcploi ivetcr (the warm wind), which occurs sometimes in the middle of winter ; it begins suddenly, when the sky is quite clear, with the wind blowing from the south-ea.^t by soutli, or south-east by east, and causes the temperature to rise from — 24;°, or even — 47°, to + 32° or + 35° F., the barometer having in the preceding eight hours sunk four-tenths of an inch. The soiUh-soutJi-east winds do not influence either the barometer or thermometer. South winds seldom blow with much force. The south-u'est wind influences the temperature in summer little, but in winter it is the most piercing of all winds, and is called by the natives schalonik. The west and north-ivest winds prevail on the general average of the year; in winter tit*, lovth-cast prevails, in summer tlie north-icest, — this latter ./L^l, blowing often in summer also ; it is a cold v/jnd in summer, and in winter brings snow and bad weather.* Fort Confidence is situated on the north-east arm of Great Bear Lake, in latitude C6° 54' N. ; longitude, 118° 49' W. ; and consequently rather more than 80 degrees of longitude from the Kolyma. At this post, for seven winter months (October and April inclusive), in 1848-9, the wind was noted hourly, the total number of observations being 3430, of which 294 were calm. Direct east winds blew on 547 hours from the harren grounds towards the wooded valley of the Mackenzie ; * Wrangell, op. cit., pp. 49 and 513. •i. * ;> ' i ■• ; V^'' 1 il 246 POLAR REGIONS. ■■■■ ■ 'l^'- and on 28G hours west winds blew. The east and west direction of the arm of the lake, on which the house stood, had probably an influence on the frequency of these winds ; excluding them from the calculation, we have 909 hours of north and north-easterly winds, and 348 of winds from the northerly and westerly quarters, or 1017 hours of winds coming more or less directly from the north. Of winds with southing, there were only 2G2 from the westerly points, and 718 with easting, or 980 hours of winds coming from any southerly points. The southing increased with the progress of the spring, and, had the summer months been included, would have predominated. The pressure of the atmosphere was greatest when the wind was south-east, decreased greatly when the wind came from any point to the north of east. Wrangell says that the south-east winds were preceded by a fall of the mercury on the Kolyma ; and we may perhaps con- clude that they occasioned a rise there, as they do at Fort Con- fidence, though he does not say so. At Fort Confidence the force of the winds was least in mid-winter, and from December to March, both months inclusive, calms were very frequent, but became rare in 'April. The sky was comparatively cloudy in October and November, and became remarkably clear in December and the succeeding four months. A storm of wind and snow always raised the temperature, which was uniformly low in a clear winter sky. In Arctic America, the phenomenon of warm winds Qeploi weter of Wrangell) also occurs, and makes the month in which they happen, whether December, January, or February, warmer than the other two. The same warm wind was probably the cause of the rain which the Eussian sailors observed in Spitzbergen in the month of January. WINDS. 247 The observations of J)r. liae inado in the years 1840 and 1847 at Reinilse Bay, in Latitude G0° 32' N., and longitude 80° 50' W., or about 32 degrees of longitude east of Fort Con- fidence, on nearly the same parallel, fuvnisl a convenient example of the winds on a different meridian. The period of observation embraces the entire year, except the last twenty days of August. The direct east and west w^inds were few at Repulse Bay, there lieing only 23 clays of the former, and 22 of the latter. The days of north winds, and of northerly and easterly ones, WT^re 130 ; of northerly and westerly ones, 201 ; or 391 days of winds having more or less northing. Of those; having more or less southing, there were 82 days, viz., .52 with easting and 30 with westing, the directly east and west winds being excluded from this part of the numeration. The northerly and westerly winds were greatly in excess from December to April, Dr. Eae's experience agreeing with Sir Leopold ^M'Clintock's, who, in his winter drift down Davis' Straits, had almost constant northerly \Wnds. In the four months of May, June, July, and August, the northerly winds prevail in Baffin's Bay and Davis' Straits, being, according to Dr. Sutherland's record kept in 1850, 14 days of direct cast wind, 4 of direct west ; 54 with more or less northing, of which 43 belonged to the north-east quarter, and 11 to the north-west. Winds blew from the south-east quarter on 12 days, and from the south-west on 20 ; the total with southing being 38. The effect of these prevailing northerly winds in bringing down ice from the Arctic basin, and filling the straits of the American north-eastern Archipelago in summer, is unquestion- able, and, as has already been said, is probably the main cause 1 I t.il 248 POLAR REGIONS. -J- [■''■ '■ ■,;'i' of the abnormal depression of temperature in that quarter.* In the interior of the continent, when the ground is well clothed with snow, the influence of the winter winds on vegetation can be only very small ; but, on the contrary, the southerly winds that prevail during summer in the valley of the Mackenzie must tend greatly to promote the growth of the flourishing forests which fringe the banks of that stream nearly down to the shores of the Arctic Sea. Dr. Scoresby says of the Spitzbergen seas — " North-west and east winds bring with them the extreme cold of the icy regions immediately surrounding the pole, whilst a shift of wind to the south-west, south, or south-east, elevates the temperature to that of the surrounding seas." This is, of course, from his experience during the season of navigation, commencing in April, for he did not winter in Spitzbergen. A hard westerly gale with snow, occasions, he says, the greatest depression of the mercury in the barometer ; and a light easterly wind, with dry weather, the greatest elevation — his experience agreeing in the latter respect with the observations made at Fort Confidence. * See Chapters XIII. and XV. TEMPERATURE. 249 CHAPTER XV. TEMPERATURE. Decreases with increase of Latitude — Effects of the Predominance of Land — Snow-line — Central Heat — Temperature of Soil — Epoch of Thaw — When the Rivers freeze again — First Appearance of Vegeta- tion — Isothermal Lines — Table of Temper'.tures — Comparison of Latitude with Altitude. Temperature performs an important part in the promotion of vegetation on tlie surface of the earth ; and, though not the sole agent, is a principal one in the maintenance of that variety of plants exhibited by the various zones of the earth that succeed each other between the tropics and the poles. The sources of the heat are two. One existing in the centre of the earth has been clearly demonstrated, by direct thermometrical experiments in mines, shewing that the temperature increases with the depth to which the surface of the earth is penetrated. Geologists affirm that in ancient epochs of the earth's history, the mass of the earth was warmer than at present, and thus they account for the fossil plants of the older strata in northern or southern latitudes having more the character of tropical or subtropical productions, than the climates of the same lati- tudes wiU maintain in the present day. And as all bodies part with heat from their surfaces in every direction by radia- tion, it follows that the earth would be continually cooling did it not receive accessions of heat from the only body i.-''- ii r 250 POLAR REGIONS. •I I r exteviov to itself from whence it can come, namely fium the sun. The rays of the sun strike any one part of the eai-th only one half of the year, or about one half, for there is a slight difference in this respect between the northern and soutlu'iii hemisphere ; at the poles the day is six months long, and Sd is the night ; while at the equator, where the day is also e([\vd\ to the night, the length of each is only twelve hours. Ijotwccn these extremes there are all intermediate stages of transition. The effect of the sun's rays lessens as their obliquity increases, and their thermal power ought consequently to diminish sis the poles are approached. Philosophers, taking into accouiil these elementary propositions, have endeavoured to elicit a rule by which the connection of the mean iemperature of .1 place, with its latitude, may be calculated. But other influences than mere distance from the equator contribute to produce the great variety of climates which experience has proved to exist, and Humboldt has shewn tho importance of the in-egular distribution of land and ^ator, and of aerial and marine currents. As a graphic exposition of ascertained facts, he suggested the delineation of isothermal lines, and his idea has been ably acted on by Professor Do^'l', whose charts, founded on an immense body of observations, collected from every available source, should be consulted by every one who is desirous of acquiring a comprehensive knowledge of the distribution of heat on the surface of the (jloh. He says that from G0° latitude to the pole the decrease ol temperature is represented with much exactness by the fol- lowing formula, in which t^ denotes the mean temperature of the year in degrees of Fahrenheit in the latitude x : — /^= + 3-65" + 105-75 cos V. m i •; tkmpf':rature. 251 As far as lat. 80° tlie foninila, he tolls \is, gives vciy approxi- mate values, but at the pole there is a dift'ereuce of about 1-35° of Fahrenheit.* I'rincipal Forbes of St. Andrews, assuniinji it to be a fact that the temperature of the globe, on an average of all the meridians, reaches its maximum in latitude G" 30' north, gives the following empirical formula, coincident with that of Kanitz, in which T is the mean annual temperature on Fahrenheit's scale of the parallel whose latitude is \ : — T = 80-8°cos/ (>.-G°30'). ]\y this formula the temperature at the pole is + 1-0 Fahr., and on the Arctic circle about + 1 0-3 Fahr. In the same paper, Principal Forbes states that the maxi- nunn proportion of land on any one parallel of latitude, being about six-tenths of the circumference, occurs almost exactly on the Arctic circle, and that in latitude 50'' south, tlie entire circle of latitude passes through water, being the only portion of the known glol)e where this is the case. The effect of masses of land or continents is in every parallel to exaggerate the variation of temperature due to the seasons, and also to depress abnormally the mean annual heat beyond -15° of north latitude, and to raise it nearer the equator. In meridians which pass through one of the great oceans — the Atlantic for example — the decrement of temperature follows pretty nearly the formula of Sir David Brewster, or the simple cosine of the latitude; but when the continents are included, it is more accurately expressed by the square of the cosine, or the formula of Mayer. The great accumulation of * Distribution of Heat, etc., by H. W. Dove, printed for the British Associa- tion. London, 1853, p. 15. And Inquiries about Terrestrial Temperature, by ■Tames D. Forbes, F.Il.S., etc., in the Trans, of the Royal Soc. of p:din., 1859. I ■ H, ' t ■ K Mi> I \- #• t <.' Ill a 252 POLAR REGIONS. land in Siberia sinks tlu; temperature below the mean of the parallel* Tlicsc quotations from the two works we have cited are all that we purpose to state on the general question of gradntinn of mean temperature with increase of latitude. The physical jjhenomena resulting from the diminishing temperature arc more innnediately our object, and one of the most obvious is the existence of perpetual snow on the summits and sides of hills at altitudes varying with the latitude, and also witli other circumstances, which produce so many local modifica- tions of the general law enounced by Professor Leslie, that we can be guided by actual observation only. This philoso- pher, starting with the erroneous assumption that the mean temperature of the atmosphere at the pole is + 32° or + 2S' Fahr., tells us that the limit of perpetual congelation forms nearly the curve called the companion of the cycloid, bending gradually downwards from the high regions of the atmosphere as it recedes from the equator, reverting its flexure at the 45th parallel of latitude, and grazing the surface of the sea at the pole ; the mean height of eternal frost under the equator, and at latitudes 30° and G0°, being respectively 15,207 feet, 11, 484, and 3818. He is probably correct in supposing that the lower limit of the snow line keeps near the sea in the Arctic jjolar regions, notwithstanding that the mean annual temperature of the air is thirty or forty degrees lower than that which he assigned to it ; and the explanation of the fact may be sought for in the influence of direct radiation from the sun, reverberated from large tracts of land continuously for six summer months, compensating to a greater degree • Inquiries about Terrestrial Temperatures, by James D. Forbes, D.C.L.. F.R.S., etc. Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edin., xxii., pi. 1, p. 79. TEMPERATURE. 253 than he had imagined for the obliquity of the sun's rays ; ia the eiT^ct of mild southerly winds, and, perhaps still more, in the existence of oceanic currents bringing warmer water and rafting off ice. The observations of Humboldt, Dr. Hooker, and others, shew how very much the height of the snow line on diflcrent sides of the same range of mountains is varied by conditions of aspect and of radiation from adjoining plains. That the reflection of the sun's rays from a snowy surface in a clear atmosi>licrc has a most powerful effect on the thermo- meter, has been surmised by I'rofcssor James Forbes ; and it Mill bo found, doubtless, that between the upper and lower limits of perpetual snow within the Arctic circle there is a diflcrence as great as on the sides of high mountain ranges.* * It was not till the manuscript of this and the following chapters had been BC'iit to the printer that I received Mr. L. W. Meech's paper on tlie Lilcusiti/ of the Heat and Lujht of the Sun upon different latitudes, published among the Smithsonian Contributions to Knoicledije, in I80G. Thin author's deductions from his elaborate mathematical investigations coincide with many of the state- ments given in the text as founded on observation ; and his paper should bo consulted by the reader who feels an interest in these matters. Room can bo fuund here for only a few desultory extracts. While the intensity (or thermal efl'ect), at any one instant of time, decreases from the equator to the poles, and is proportional to the cosine of the latitude, the cumulative intensity during twenty four hours of polar day at the summer solstice is onefourth greater than on the equator. This the author states is owing evidently to the fact that daylight in the one place lasts but twelve hours out of twenty-four, while at the pole the sun shines on during the whole twenty- four. , , . The excess of thermal eflcct at the pole continues for eighty- five days, commencing on the 10th of May, ending on the 3d of August, and comprehending the whole summer season in the frigid zones. In the six winter niouths the intensity at the poles is 0. Let the number of days in a mean tropical year (3G524) represent the thermal unit, and the values of all the latitudes be converted in that proportion, then, while the thermal days in the year are 305'24 at the equator, they are 183-41 at the polar circles, and 151 '59 at the poles, or five thermal months. Between 60° and 80° of latitude the height of the line of perpetual snow (or frost) descends 891 feet for every increase of five degrees of latitude, having an evident relation to the difTerenccs m n 254 I'OLAU 1(E(JI0NH. Iti il ' 11 ' ? ^f if' hi 1 tl It is certain that theii! i.s considunible i)huiio<^iiin()Us vegeta- tion in the must northt'in liinds that have been attanied, and that lichens llourisli on rocks risin;^ iar above tlie level oi' snow which conthmes to cover the ground from year to ycui'. In the chapter on Spitsbergen it has been mentioned that almost all the valleys that have not a southern aspect arcs tilled with snow or glaciers, yet Dr. Scoresby states that in climbiiiy a mountain in King's IJay, of about 3000 feetia height, plants of ScLvifrofja^ Siil'u, Draha, Cuchleana, and Juncus, ■which he had observed here and there for the tirst 2000 feet of elevation. did not disappear till he approached the summit. At the height of 3000 feet, the rays of the midnight sun caused streams of water to issue from the snow, and the temperature of the air in the shade was + 37° F. on the night of the 23d of July. He does not state what vegetation he saw on the summit of the hill, but it is probable that wherever the rocks were denuded of snow they supported crustaceous lichens, and that the upper limit of the snow-line about the 80th parallel of latitude, ou the meridian of Spitzbergen, is elevated about 3000 feet. Within the Arctic circle, on the American continent, none of the mountain ridges are known to rise to the line of perpetual snow, though farther south the high peaks of the Eocky Mountains overtop it. Wrangell tells us that the thaw pro- ceeds every sunnner at the Asiatic Liakhow Isl aids, disen- gaging the fossil bones of which the cliffs there are mostly composed ; but on the Siberian continent no Arctic moun- of the number of thermal days on the successive parallels. The intensities above mentioned represent the sun's effect at the summits of the atmosphere. " While passing through the atmosphere to the earth, the solar rays are subject to refraction, absorption, polarization, and radiation ; also to the effects of eva- poration, of winds, clouds, and storms." 1'he thcrmometric heat at the surface of the earth being the resultant of a variotv of caiiws. — (P. 21.) TEMI'KKATUIIK. 2.'5r) tuius are s))oki'ii of u.s olothod witli p«'ij><'tiuil .snow, except on the pioinontoiy of Sieveroi Vostoehnoi-iios, nor «loes Wnm«,a'll nieiitioii glaciers. There lire, however, as liu.s Ihh'U ulruiuly s;ii(l, throughout the pohir .seas, scattered banks of snow, iiccuuuilated under cliffs with a northern a.-pect, whicli the Mininier heats have not wholly melted when the new snow hi'gins to fall, and in certain localities packs of ico may remain for several summers, receiving winter additions eciual to tlie ;iummer's waste. Innumerable observations have established the fact that the temperature of deej) mines greatly exceeds that of the atmosphere at the surface of the earth ; but tlie rate of incre- ment, corre.spoudiug to the depth, varies with the locality, and is variously stated by experimenters at forty-five, fifty, sixty, ciud by some at one Imndied feet of descent for each degree of l*'iihrenheit's scale of increased heat. The mean increase has not as yet been satisfactorily ascertained over any extensive district.* In the nearly cloudless winters of the Arctic regions during the total absence of the sun, or in the nights of spring, the radiation into the dark blue depths of space produces the c'liurmous depressions of temperature recorded by travellers in their thermometrical tables. The heat thus parted with is replaced by the calorific rays (if the sun when that luminary is above the horizon ; but \\ itlnn the Arctic circle generally, the direct radiation of the sun during the whole spring of that region, or until after the sun has begun to decline from its greatest altitude, is employed in removing the snowy covering in which winter had clothed • AJolpli Erinan founcl the increase of tempcraturo in the mines of the Ural, tibout the 59th parallel of latitude, to be 1" R. (2°25 V.) for every 112 feet of descent, or 1" F. for every 50 feel of dcf^cent.— jTyrfye/s in Siberia, i. p. 288. I' I 256 POLAR REGIONS. ^•m/i I ill 1: 2 t ■' 5. the earth ; and the soil, though it thaws rapidly as the floods of melted snow pass over it, is exposed to the direct rays oi the sun for only three months at most, and for a shorter time in the highest latitudes that have been reached by explorers. The two Arctic seasons of summer and winter are, therefore, of very unequal duration, being respectively of nine and three months, the latter including June, July, and August, being further restricted in the very high latitudes, and but little extended in the most favoured districts, such as on the Nor- wegian peninsula, and in the sheltered alluvial valley of the Mackenzie, or that of the Obi. It is in this short summer only that phenogamous vegetation can proceed ; but the powerful effect of the sun's rays in May, and even in April, may promote the development of lichens growing on preci- pices where the snow cannot lie; or prepare trees rising above the snow for the ascent of the sap, which, as a general rule, does not flow freely till the snow is gone. Everywhere in Arctic America and Siberia the trees freeze to their centres in winter, and are not thawed till the end of March or begin- ning of April. The thermal effects of the two seasons descend in waves through the soil, becoming gradually less and less distinct as the distance from the surface increases, and finally blending at depths which vary with the latitude and with local causes, but which Dov6 states to be at about 100 feet below the surface. In severe polar climates the result of the comparative length and severity of the winter's cold is a permanently frozen sul)- stratum, whose southern limit coincides, according to Biier, with the isothermal line of +32° F., or the freezing point, its thickness increasing, of course, with the decrease of mean annual temperature calculated for a series of years. TEMPERATURE. 257 The centrnl heat of the earth sets bounds to the depth of the frozen soil, by lessening, as Dov6 says, the extreme tem- peratures, without affecting the periods of variation on the surface ; but borings within the Arctic circle have as yet been too few for the enunciation of any rule whereby the tliickness of the permanently frozen bed can be correctly cal- culated. In Arctic Siberia and America the sun's rays thaw the surface-sod to the depth of from six inches to one or two feet, or more, under which the hard icy substratum presents an even surface, like a smooth bed of rock ; and in woody districts, resembling rock, in the way that the roots of trees spread horizontally over it. At Port Clarence in Bering's Strait, j\Ir. Berthold Seeman, in 184!9, made several experiments to ascertain the depth of Hie summer thaw, and found that it varied from two feet, in some places, to four or five in others where the soil was sandy. On the northern coast-line of America, a number of pits were dug by Sir Jolm Pdchardson, and nowhere did he find the fro- zen subsoil more remote than fourteen inches from the surface. On the banks of Bellot Strait, in latitude 72°, Dr. Walker (surgeon of the Fox), sunk a brazen tube, tM'o feet two inches long, into the soil, and placed tlierein a padded thermometer with a long stem. In the middle of September the loose pebbly surface-soil, six inches thick, was thawed, but imme- diately below it the subsoil, called " a ycllowisli mud," was firmly frozen. On the 15tli of September the thern)ometer marked + 31°*2 F. It was examined at intervals of a few days, throughout the winter, and shewed an invariable and tolerably regular decrease till the 10th of JVIarch, when it marked + 0°'5. On the 28tli of that month it had risen to + 0°-8, and continued thenceforth to rise. Dr. Walker thinks, S 1} 258 POLAR REGIONS. that had it been examined on t]ic IGth of tliat montli, it would probably have stood at zero, but he was then absent from the ship travelling. From the 28th March it rosp, without any retrogression, to the 11th of July, when it indi- cated + 31°*8 F. All tlie winter there was a covering of snow, deeper than the general thickness, over the place in which the thermometer was sunk ; and this coating of snow increased from three inches, in the beginning of October, to eighty-four inches at the end of April, when it was thickest, and on the 1st of July it had melted away. Another thermometer, wliich was similarly sunk into gravelly soil, in the middle of January, in a place from whence the snow was constantly blown away, gave different results, and was less regular in its decre- ments and increments. When first sunk, it shewed (ISth January) — 18°'7. On February 2Gth, the sunken thermometer was at its minimum, -25°*7, the mean temperature of the at- mosphere having been for ten previous days •-37°'4. On tlie 16th of June, the sunken thermometer rose above the freezing point, the mean of the atmosphere for five days previously having been + 37°"-i. On the 11th of July, the sunken ther- mometer was + 37°"8, the atmospheric mean, + 30°'9, and on the 28th of July, the sunken thermometer shewed + 44 .8, while the mean atmospheric heat for ten days was only + 42'''7 F. The effect of the covering of snow, in prevent hig noc- turnal radiation from the earth, and in moderating the direct influence of the sun's rays, is distinctly shewn by these t^vo sets of experiments ; as are also the different powers of a loose porous soil, and one retentive of moisture in transmitting heat * In the Kamcnnaya-tundra (or Stony-waste), exposed to • These facts were kiiully furnibbed by Captain Sir Leopold Jl'dintock. The different thermometers used T.ere compared, and the results reduced to one standard. i:\ TEMPERATURE. 259 fK the action of the sun, in latitude G8°42' K, Wrangell obsen-ed tliat the summer thaw did not penetrate deeper than six or eight inches.* At lakutsk in Silieria (If^titude G2l° N.) a stratum of frozen soil, 382 feet in thickness, was pierced in digging a well, until water flowed from beneatli it. At Fort Simpson, oil the Mackenzie (in latitude Gl° 51' X.), the soil near the l)ank of the river thawed to the depth of eleven feet during the summer, beneath which there was a bed of frozen sandy earth of six feet thickness. At the depth of seventeen feet from the surface, the sand having no readily visible spicuhie of ice among it, had a temperature of 32° F. At York Factory, on Hudson's Bay, five degrees south of Fort Simpson, but having nearly the same mean atmospheric temperature, the frozen stratum was not cut through until the shaft had been sunk to the depth of twenty feet and a half from the surface, or three feet and a half lower than at Fort Simpson ; and the surface soil at the close of summer was tha\\"od only for three feet. The soil at York Factory is allu- vial, with a mossy surface, and is very retentive of water. Xear the 120th meridian of west longitude on the Ameri- can continent, and on the verge of the Arctic circle, trees begin to thaw towards the end of March, and by the second v.'cek of April a decided softening of the snow occurs in briglit sunshine. So ^nuch water flows from the melting snow during the first six days of jMay, that geese appear in favour- able localities, and rivers that issue from lakes and shallow sire? ins begin to flow, the mean temperature of the preceding ten days having reached 37° F. By the beginning of June (latitude 67°), the snow has gone, except where it had accu- * WravgeU, French cd. Paris, 1843, ii. p. 150. '\ U: I ) Ik rf =1 i^ i- 260 POLxVR REGIONS. H - mulated in deep drifts, and tliencefcrtli vegetation proceeds rapidly, until after a i)criod of about o hundred days from tlic cominencenient of foliation, or by the luth of September, tlic deciduous leaves are falling fast. Occasional snow showers occur before this date, and snow that falls towards the end of the month ceases to thaw ; the soil too begins to freeze, and before the end of October the trees freeze likewise, though the frost does not reach their centres till the winter is fuiiher advanced. On the 75th parallel, at Melville Island (Sir Edward Parry tells us), vegetation on the low grounds proceeds for seventy days, from June to September, but snow showers are not unfrequent in every summer month : and the snow remains for the winter from the first week in September. Patches of earth become visible on the 10th of June. In 1853, three officers travelling over the ice, through the channels among the islands north of jNIelville Sound and Bar- row Straits, had a mean temperature in June as follows: — Captain INI'Clintock, mean latitude, 77° temp. + 28-3° F. „ Osborn, „ 70^ „ -f 80-8 „ Pdchards, „ 76 „ 31*8 Though the mean temperatures of the first ten days of the month were only + 24° + 27° and + 26° respectively, the snow melted rapidly during that period, and before the end of the month had disappeared from the ice and from the low lands. Buds of Saxifrage were noticed among the melting snow ou the first day of the month, and on the 21st that plant was gathered in flower. Brent geese were seen on the 1st, and an ivory gull was found sitting on its eggs on the 21st. The highest temperature in the shade recorded by any of these observers in the month was + 42° F., and the mean of the last decade of the month was from + 32° to + 37°. TEMPERATURE. 261 On the 77tli parallel Sir Edward Belcher observed the meadows to be partially denuded of snow early in June, and Dr. Kane mentions the first week in July as the time when patches of ground covered with flowering plants were seen in latitude 79°. For tlie course of the isotliermal lines for the mean of tlie year, and for each montli, we nuist refer to Dove's Tables of the Distribution of Ilcat already cited. The following collec- tion of temperatures within tlie Arctic circle, and in a few instances from places a little to the south of it, are from the best sources to which we have access : — V- iig snow ou Observer. Piiny Furster Franklin (On the Muo- \ nio B.) j" (Siberia) (Greenland) : Kane I Belcher Rae (Greenl.) Beleher Sutherland Parry M'Ciure Parry iM'Cluro Collinson Colliuson Parry i Collinson Richardson Parry M'Murray Piichardson (Greeiilani Year. 1827 1.S27 1818 1802.6 Many 1854 1852- 1850- 185;5- 1850- 1819- 1851- 1824. 1850 1851. 1853- 1822- 1852. 1848 1821. 184C 1825 jPIaee and altitiule above , the sca-lcvul in I'ect. Siptzbergcn, Icy Scca, „ llecla Cove, At St a, North Cape, Norway, Enontekis, Lapl., 1350 Umeo, - - Uleo, - - Hos. St. Gothard, 6390 lakutsk, - • ? Godhaab, - - Smith's Sound, - Northumberland S., Wolstenhdliue S. Wellington Channel, Barrow St., Lane. S., Melville I., - Banks' Land, - Port Bowen Reg. In., Prince of Wales St., Do. Do., - Camden B., - St.ol'Fury aiidllecla, Camb.B.WollastonI.,0 Great Bear Lake, 500 Lvon Sound, - Yukon R., - - 400 V Cireat Bear I;., - 500 Godhaab, Lat. N. 82 A" 80" 80" 710 681" 65^° 65" 62" 64^-'' 781" 77" 76.J" 75^0 74f 74i" 74" 73:^" 73" 7U" 70" 09J" 09" 67" 06i« 66" 'C5i« :64i" Loli^ E. 20" 16f 10" 25.}" 39i» 20f 25i" 8f 13U" W. 52 i" 70f' 97" 70" 92" 94" HI" 118" 89" 118" 117^' I45i» 81i" 105» 118f 83" 148" 123i" 52 ^V" Moan 1)1' tliixi' Mi'nn I .suiiMiicri year, months. + 33'0 + 38-1 + 34- 5 1 + 43'3:+320 + 54-9 +270 + 54-9 +33-3 + 57-7. + 35-1 + 450 +30-4 + 61-6 +140 + 40-6 + 33-0 -I- 30-8 + 37-8 + 32-6 + 35-9 + 371 + 35'5 + 36-9 + 37-1 + 38'2! + 38-li + 35-1 + 37-5 + 49 + 35-1 + 56-7 + 50-4 + 4()'6 + 26-8 — 3-2 — 11 4-5 1-7 9 +" + + + + + + + + + + + + 14-6 + 17-7 + 26-8 0-2 5-8 4-4 90 98 \:'. » iw. ffr fi' n .... 5KJ' ■' 262 POLAK REGIONS. A comparison between the temperatures at the north cape of Norway and the Hospice de St. Gothard, given in the pre- ceding table, shews that in Europe a difference of about twenty-four or twenty-five degrees of latitude is equal to between six and seven thousand feet of altitude, in depressing both the mean heat of the year and that of the three sum- mer months during which alone vegetation can proceed at these places. Again, on comparing the places in Lapland with those on Great Bear Lake, we find that while the sum- mer heats of the two countries are similar, the winters in Arctic continental America are much colder, and the moan heat of the year consequently greatly lower. This is dnnU less due to the more continental character of the climate, the clearer winter atmosphere, and greater radiation from tlie earth in the vicinity of Great Bear Lake, than in Norway or Lapland, where the neighbourhood of the White Sea on one side, and of an open northern Atlantic on the other, agitated by the gulf stream, causes clouds and mists. 11 1^ -■! i VEGETATION. 26a CHAPTER XVI. VEGETATION. Barron Grounds — Tundrcn — Tena; chmnahe — Line of Woods \--i'i- 45° Summer lieat — Lino of Woods in America — And in Asia — Trees and their limits — Vegetation in retchora-land — In Finmark — In Norwegian La])land — In the Ajnerican Barron Groxnids — In the Valley of the Mackenzie — Peel's River — Kolyma — Aniui. Ax Arctic circumpolar map shews three great chains ol' luoiintains, the Lulcan, Ural, and Eocky jNIountains, all run- ning northward ; those on the old continent having an mclination eastward, after entering the Arctic circle ; and the main chain in America, as well as a second minor one termi- nating in Cape Barrow, in the Coronation Gulf, inclining westward. All of them lose in altitude as they approach the Polar Sea, are more abrupt on their western slopes, and have tracts of comparatively low lands spread out from their eastern liases. It is on these eastern levels that the " barren grounds" of America occur, and the " tundren " of Siberia. In America, the barren ground district has its greatest extension near Hudson's Bay, where it descends to the 61st parallel, and in that direction may be said to include the north end of Labrador, bordering on Hudson's Straits, M-^ta Incognita, the whole of Greenland, and all the American islands of the Polar Sea. It is the absence of trees that has given name and character to " the barren grounds " of North America. The whole district is fidl of lakes, and it is tra- 264 POLAR REGIONS. versed by one large river (the Great Fish River), and mnny smaller ones. Its surface is also varied by rocky hills of moderate altitude ; and one ridge, alluded to above, named Ity Ilearne the "Stony jMountains," runs from the Point Lake, and the bend of the Coppermine Paver, to terminate m Ca])o Barrow, a promontory of Coronation Gidf, which has cm altitude of about 1500 feet. The district narrows greatly on the north of Great Bear Lake, and terminates at the delta of the Mackenzie. Greenland, though agreeing with the baru'ii grounds in the absence of trees, differs in its lofty mountains and consequent presence of glaciers. The winter winds sweep over this corner of America, ren- dering it uninhabitable in that season by theEed Indians, and the bulk of the Eeindeer keep near its borders, so that they can retreat to the woods in storms. In places where the soil is moderately dry, it is densely clothed with the lichens, named Cornicidana; which are mixed in moister spots with the Reindeer moss (Cciraria). Other plants also flourish where the soil is suitable, such as the Lapland rhododendron, tlie glaucous kalmia, the blueberry {Vacdnium), crowbeny {Empdrum), the Ledum, bearberry (Ardostcq^hylos), the Andromeda tetragona^ the cloudberry {Ruhns chamcemurus), the Rubus arcticus, and various depressed willo^\s. In favourable and sheltered meadows grasses and bents flourish in considerable variety, and on the banks of streams some- times a growth of Scdix spcciosa, three feet high, or even more, may be seen. Also many flowering plants, of less note, but which serve to cheer the traveller, who trjiverses these wastes in the fleeting summer. In character the Siberian tundreu is very similar to the American ones. Tims Wrangell says, — " When one com- U VEGETATION. 2G5 lenca, run- ing from the naked, frozen, moss-tundra reaches the valleys of the Aniui, which are sheltered by mountains from th(3 prevailing cold winds, and where birches, poplars, willows, and low creeping junipers {.hinipcrus in'ostmtuii) grow, ho thinks himself transported to Ital)'. In travelling across the wide tundra in dark nights, or when the vast plain is veiled in impenetrable mist, or when in storms or snow-temi)ests, tlic traveller is in danger of missing the sheltering hut, he will fre(piently owe his safety to a good dog, who will be sure to bring tlie sledge to the place where the hut lies deeply liiu'ied in the snow, and will suddenly stop, and indicate where his master nuist dig." Even in tlie narrower country of Lapland there are dis- tricts which resemble the tundrcn. Linuieus calls them tcrnc damnata; and thus describes his experience of travers- ing one in the beginning of June, when tlie melting snow had Hooded the country: — "AVe had next to pass a marshy tract (in Lapmark), where at every step wa were knee-de(>[> in water, and if we thought to fmd a sure footing on some grassy tuft, it proved treacherous, and only sunk us lower. Our half-boots \r'ere fdled with the coldest water, as tlie frost in some places still remained in the ground. I wondered how I escaped with life, though certainly not without excessive fatigue, and loss of strength." The guide •\\lio had been despatched to seek assistance returned. " He was accompanied by a person whose appearance was such, that I did not know whether I beheld a man or woman. Her stature was very diminutive ; her face of the darkest brown, from the efl'ects of smoke, her eyes dark and sparlding, her eye-brows black. Her pitchy coloured hair hung loose about her head, and on it she wore a flat red cap. She had a grey petticoat, and ■t- ;;■ .,•.-1 1 t' 20(3 I'OLAll REGIONS. iji from lier neck, which resemblud the skin uf a frog, were sus- pended a pair of large loose breasts of the same brown com- plexion, bvit encomi)assed by way of ornament with biu^is rings. She addressed nie with mingled pity and reserve in the following wordi- — " O thou poor man ! what hard destiny can have brought thee hither, to a place never visited by any one before ? This is the iirst time I eviT beheld a stranger. Thou miserable creature I how didst tliou come, and whither wilt thou go ?" The northern termination of the vjoods, co-incident with the south-west borders of the barren-grounds and tundren, thougli partly dependent on soil and on contiguity of the sea, yi.'t furnishes an approximate measure of the climate of vari(jus meridians, as well as of the elevation of the country. It oscillates nearly on the line of mean temperature of the three summer months, or between the isotherals of + 4'3° + 45" Fahr. In America, this boundary line of the woods, rising with an increase of westerly longitude, passes the lOGtli meridian in the neighbourhood of Artillery or Peshew Lake, between the 63d and G4th parallels of latitude ; strikes the Cop])ermine Eiver at Point Lake, runs northwards some way on its banks, then cuts the Arctic circle, and passes a little beyond the 67tli parallel on the north side of Great Bear Lake. In this part of the country the Avoods are confined to the valleys, and after skirting the Becfhoola-dcssy, a stream of considerable magnitude, for an indetermined distance to the rorth, they attain the G9th parallel, on the delta of the Mackenzie. On the left bank of that river the northern end of the Eocky INIountain chain comes within ten or twelve miles of the sea-coast. To the westward of this chain there is a baircu u ^^ VEGETATION. 2(5; district whoso limits linvo not 1)ceu ascertiiiiiecl, but the woody bunks of the Yukon touch the Arctic circle, niid running west under the nunie of the KicicJipael; that river falls into the sea some way to the south of Norton Sound. Forests of white spruce occur on the Xoa(aIi, a river which fulls into Kschscholtz Ijay on the Arctic circle. In Xorthei'u Asia the iinc of iruocU, as traced by Bai'on Wrangell, commencing near the J]ay of the Holy Cross, at the head of the (tulf of Anadyr, rises IVom the Arctic circle Avith considerable undulations, in its course eastward through 50" uf longitude, until it reaches the 71st parallel of latitude on the deltas of the Tana and Lena. The great north-eastern promontory of Asia is probably wholly destitute of trees, and three tundnn on the lower Petchora arc specially named and described by Count Keyserling.* In giving a very bi-ief sketch of the range of trees and tlieir kinds within the Arctic circle on different meridians, imd of some other phenomena of vegetation, it is convenient to begin with Europe where they have been most fully explored. Xo corn is grown in the lower I'etchora district. On the 28tli meridian east from London which passes from the Gulf of Finland through the extensive sheet of water ill Lapland, named Enara trccsh, the spruce {Ahics cxcclsa), ceases at the G8th parallel, and the Scotch tir {Piiius si/lvcstris), at the G9th. In Swedish Lapland, a little more to the east, Von Buch and Martins traced the spruce a quarter of a degree further to the north. In Norway the trees advance still more northwards, pro- bably owing to the vicinity of the gulf stream. The forests nf Altenfjord yield Scotch firs sixty feet high, and birches * Kelse en das Petclmia Land. f^t. PetPisbarp. 184*5. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // •v:^ 1.0 1.1 u|2£ 122 ■u Ui 12.2 2.0 u ■ 40 m IP IIIJ^ u^ ^ 6" ► 0% /] t: /^ W PhotDgraphic Sdences Corporation 23 WiST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSM (716) •72-4S03 1 r '«•■ »1; te: •i;;' ■f > J- n'" s. '• ■ K f 'i « •. 1 •■• li-- ! ' .• L . ■( *■'.;■■ ^■'■«-1 T-',#|l '■' ~ ■♦ A. ■» ;/ :..r ■ , ■ 5s J j .• ■ "*,' .' ■^'■^m\ •] « p I fit? 268 POLAR REGIONS. which average foity-five. On the northern slope of the moun- tain Kjolen, in that vaDe/y, the fir ascends 800 feet, and in a dwarf and isohited condition to twice tliat lieiglit. Near Ki.s- trand, on Torsangcr Fjord, in latitude 70° 28' N., the Scotch fir was seen by Lund, but the spruce fails a degree or more further south. At llamnierfest, in latitude 704'" N., tliere are dwarf alders and aspens, bird cherries {Pruyius jkuIus), rasps and currants. On the extreme island of IMageroe, to which the North Cape of Europe belongs, and wliich reaches 71° 11' N., there are among other ligneous plants Salic fjlanca and lajiponum, Bdida 2)uhcsccns or iiaua, and the common juniper. Von Buch, as <[uoted by Malte Brun, gives the following tabular view, calculated for the 70th parallel of latitude in Norwegian Lapland or Finmark. Limit of the red pines 730 feet of altitude ; of the birch, 1483 ; of the whortleberry {Vac- cinium myrtillus, 1908 ; of the dwarf b'vch, 2570 ; of the SdlLc mijrsiniies, 2908 ; of the Salix lanata, 3100 ; and of perpetual snow, 3300. jMr. William Dawson Hooker says, that at Hani- raerfest he observed an attempt at a garden behind one or two of the houses, where a few radishes, turnips, lettuces, and parsley plants struggled to elevate their starveling heads into an ungenial atmosphere. About a dozen stalks of im- mature rye were raised as a curiosity but were not expected to ripen.* Barley is cultivated as far north on the Scandina- vian peninsula as the 70th parallel, and oats up to the Ootli, in sheltered valleys whose rocky clifi's reflect the sun's rays with much power. It nmst be attributed mainly to the constant presence of ice drifting from the north that Iceland, Greenland, with its in- land glaciers, and the barren Mda incognita islands that form * Hooker, lib. cit., p. 18. VEGETATION. 269 the western sliores of Davis' Straits, present such a contrast in tliL'ir treeless desolation to woody Norway. On Melville Island and the neighbouring shores lying north of Lancaster Strait and ^Melville Sound, seventy-seven phenoganious plants have been detected, of which f fty-seven are dicotyledinous, and only one has a ligneous stem, the prostrate Salix ardica. Tlio Andromeda teti'iKjona also occurs there, but its stem is a mere thread, although the whorled and withered leaves adhere to it for successive wintei's. At Repulse Bay, on the Arctic circle, it was on tliis Andro- meda that Dr. Rae depended for fuel during the two winters he passed there, thtnjgli the barren grounds nourish other shrubby plants, such as roses, rasps, Andromeda 2^oli folia, and calycidata, Arctosta^thylos nva-ursi and vitis-idaa, Rhododen- dron lapponicuni. Ledum jmhistre. Azalea 2^^'ocnmhcns, and various Salices, but these are local, and on exposed situations rare. The neighbourhood of the "frozen strait" which Cap- tain Middleton and Sir George Back found to be impenetrable iu the years of their voyages, is probably the reason of the extreme barrenness of Repulse Bay. In the valley of the Mackenzie, on the 135th meridian, the spruce fir (Abies alba) is the most northern tree that forms a forest, reaching to a much higher latitude than the pines, contrary to what occurs in Norway, where the pines ant the most northern. In latitude G8° 55' N., the trees, which up to this parallel cover the immediate banks of the river and the islands of the delta, terminate sudderdy in an even line, probably cut off by the sea-blasts. Beyond this line a few stunted spruces and scrubby canoe-birches straggle up the acclivities, struggling for existence, and clinging to the earth. The forest is formed by the spruces, but among them there m FT ^'^^^m JX; ' , U 3;;^ 1; ■ i / . 1 . bv..' <■"'»•. ^■'S,"; •/•' ;;■; S ^i'< i:>\ ;^i -^ I ■ '."^ > iSt-. F.;*'- J W^ 1 ^v I.*; «f IV^i ^1 ; ■f < 270 rOLAR REGIONS. are many canoc-birclies of iiuicli slemlcror growth, tlioir stems not exocedinj:^ fivo inches in dinmotcr. Tiie P(qnil)i>i halmmi- fera nnd Alinis viridis grow to tlie height of twenty feet, ainl the Sdix sjxr-lom to tliat of twelv(! near th<' termination woods. The iiills skirting the river in these hititudes iU'" nearly bare, supporting only a few seattered dein-essed trec^^. The Rom Honda, and seven r>ther shrulthy iJosaeeii', nine or ten dwnrf prostrate Kricacca', the connnon juniper, the trailing form of the Junipcnm rirginionus, the Bcfnla ^nnnihi uml nana, the Ekagwdi arycnka and the Sh('i>hrrdla canadrjisl.% together with a number of willows, comprise the ligneous plants which accompany the spruce to its noi-theru limit on the ^Mackenzie, some of them going beyond it. Pinva laid:- siana, the most northern American member of the genus, Im-- not been traced far within the Arctic circle, and the rinii>i resinosa does not go beyond 57°. Wheat has not been raised within the Arctic circle in America, nor indeed within six degrees of latitude of it. It requires a sunnner heat of 120 days, but is said to be culti- vated u]) to the G2d or G4tli parallel on the west side of the Scandinavian peninsula. ]]arley ripens well at Fort Norman on the C5th parallel, in the valley of the Mackenzie, after tlio lapse of 92 days from the time of its being sown. All attempts to cultivate it at old Fort Good Hope, two degrees further north, have failed. Sixty-six degrees of latitude may therefore be considered as the extreme limit of the ccrcalia in America, which is four degrees short of the northern extreme of barley in Norway. Oats do not succeed so far north as barley or bere. At Fort Good Hope, on the Mackenzie (the new fort), in latitude 661° N., a few turnips and radishes, and some ether VEOETATION. 271 loir stem.-* ? hahami- ■ l\'ft, iiiiil inn dl" llii' iUuk'.s iU'i' ;i', iiiiK' or lio tnuliii;^ nm'ild ami le lij^ncous •n limit on *tu?'s' hanJ:- ! genus, ha? the Pinim ic circle in e of it. It to l»e culli- side of tilt' ort Korinan ie, after the isown. AH wo degrees titude may cereal ia in rn extreme LIT north as ^ew fort), in some other culinary vogetahles, are raised in a sheltered corner, which K'ceives the reflection of the sun's rays from the walla of the house, hut none of the ccrcaUa will grow, and potatoes do not repay the lahf)ur. On IVol'.s liiver {(\T 3.')' X.) the trials made to raise escu- lent vcgetahles failed ; nothing grew except a few cresses. Turnips and cahbages canic uj> aliout an inch ahove tlie ground, hut withered in the sun, and were blighted by the early August frosts. The general character of the fundrrn of tlic east of Siln-ria is like that of the American barren grounds. On the Lower Kol^'nia, "NVrangell observes that "the s{>ve- rity of the clinuito may be attributed as nuuh or nii>re to the unfavourable physical position as to its high latitud(\ To the west there is the extensive barren tundi-a, and to the nortii a sea covered with perpetiml ice; so that the cold north-west wind which blows almost without intermission meets with no impediment ; it brings with it violent snow-storms, not only in winter, but freiiuently in summer. The vegetation of sum- mer is scarcely more than a struggle for existence. In the latter end of May the stunted willow-bushes put out wrinkled leaves, and the banks which face the south become clothed with a semi-verdant hue, which an icy blast from the sea suf- fices to destroy. At Xijnei Kolymsk, in latitude GH.V" X., the neighbourhood is especially poor. It is a low marsh, with a thin layer of vegetable earth on the surface, intermixed with ice that never thaws ; it supports a few stunted larches, whose roots, being unable to penetrate the frozen subsoil, extend along its surface. A few small-leaved willows grow on banks facing the south. The nearer we approach the sea the more rare be- come the bushes, and on the left bank of the Kolyma they ■ ■ k 272 POLAR REGIONS. • "*>. "■ ' * V i \ I cease entirely, twenty miles to the north of Nijnei Kolyinslv, or n(!;ir the COth parallel. On the right bank of the river. where the soil is clr>er, they extend further north than on tlio dreary icy moor of the other side. On the right bank tlicic are patches of good grass, wild thyme, wormwood, M'ild vdsv, and forget-me-not. The currant, the black and white whortle- berry, the cloud berry, and livhus ordicus bloom there, and in favourable seasons bear fruit. No cultivation is attem])te'(l, though at Shriidne-Kolymsk, which is two degrees more to the south, I have seen radishes, and even cabbages, but the latter formed no heads."* Here the larch is mentioned as the most northern tree. It is dwarfed, and disappears on the Mae- kenzie long before the same latitude is reached. We ha\e already quoted a passage from Wrangell in which the valleys of the Anini are, mentioned as supporting birches, poplars, willows, and creeping junipers, but the forests seem less tloiu- ishing in this quarter of Siberia than on the INIackenzie, where they are formed of white spruce. Nevertheless, the line of woods is represented on Wrangell's map as crossing tlie Kolyma below Nijnei Kolymsk, and as rising to the 71st parallel of latitude on the lana. With him it may mean tlie utmost limit of the isolated depressed trees. In America these are met with here and there in the barren grounds, and convey to the traveller the impression of the forests having in former times extended further north. The same idea crossed Baron Wrangell's mind in regard to the Siberian woods. At Obdorsk, on the estuary of the Obi, nearly on the Arc- tic circle, a pit sunk into the frozen soil to the depth of seven- teen feet from the surface, had a temperature of + 30"25' F. On the Obdorsk range of mountains, Erman observed single * Wrangell, Polar Sea, etc., p. 61." VEOETATTON. 273 stragjiliiig larclios at the height of six liuiidred feet above the alluvial valley of the Khanami. These mountains rise nearly 5000 feet above Obdorsk. The stone pine (Pinna ranhra) is on this meridian the. most northern tree of the family, and especially a prostrate variety of it. The birch (B. alha) was not seen at Obdorsk, but it was a cons[)icious object twt'uty nr thirty miles further south, in latitude GG". At Ueresov, in latitude G4°, rye and barley thrive well. Ernian states that the condition assigned for the cultivation of barlev is tlint the mean temperature of any one of the three summer months shall not fall below + 7° 11 =" ^Tlo F. The mean temperature of the three summer months at Bercsov is actually + G-")" R, and of none of the months more than three decrees lower.* Taken as a whole, there is a close simihirity ni the vegeta- tion of the different meridians within the Arctic circle. Xearly the same genera arc repeated on all, and the majority of species are alike. The trees of the old continent, however, and of America, are for the most part specifically distinct. Ill the higher latitudes, which the trees do not reach, there is very little difference in the phenogamous plants of one meri- dian from those of another, the mosses are nearly identical, and only two or threo lichens are peculiar to Arctic America. * Eritmn, Travels in Siboriu, i., 474. ii .?H •• 274 I'oLAH l{K«;it»NS. (JII AFTER XVII. -> " ii- .- /.OOLOCY. Ri'iii-ilft'r — Mu>k Ox — I'ulur Ilan — Manuots — Lciiiii!iii;;s — Airlir l-'^x — WolviiiiH — Pular IJcar — IJimwii IWar — Ulatk JJcar — Aiyali — (J..at-AiiUlujK r.inis — (J.cst Watii-lnwl — IJavcti — ()\vl< — Siiow-Hiiiitiiij,' — Ln]>1aiul Finch — Lesser I{e(l|MiI» — Marine Mam- mals — Fislies — llerrinj,'(* — Muksuii — WliiU- Fish — Tchiir — Nehna — liej,'hulu — Kiindsha — ( Jolzy — Lcnok — Anierinin TroiUs — Knly- nia Stur^'iMin. The most important land animal within the Arctic circle is the rein-deer, or rcnnthicrc of the Germans, so named dnul)tk'.S8 because of its fleetness. This animal, connnon to the Arctic coasts of Europe, Asia, and America, frequents the most nor- thern islands that man has reached. It is comparatively abundant in Spitzbergen, and some small herds remain all the year in the extremes of arctic Greenland and on the islands north of Melville Sound. But the bulk of the species retire from the Arctic coasts and barren grounds in September, (October, and the beginning of November, to the vicinity (tf the woods, where th(!y assemble during th(^ rutting season in large and very numerous bands. The passes among the mountains and lakes which the deer frequent in their migiations south- wards arc known to the natives, and sought by them for secur- ing a winter's supply of venison. Indeed the movements ot the rein-deer regulate those of the northern Indians, and ot the families tjf E.skimos who iidiabit the continental shores of Z()«U, shedding their seeds in the spring as the; snow disappears, and their culms, not entirely de])rived of sajt, are at that season good hay. In the beginning of June, Captain Osborn, when tra- velling over the ice between the islands north of ^Feb'^le Sound, observed numerous seeds of plants, among whic. ' e recognised those of the po])]>y, willow, and saxifrage, travel- ling over the smooth Hoes before the wind. The northern islands are thus su])plied with seed in seasons when the plants growing far north have not heat enough to bring their own fruit to maturity. The migrations of the rein-deer are as constant in Siberia as in America. " About the end of May," says Baron Wran- gell, " these animals leave the forests in large lu-rds, and seek the northern plains nearer the sea. The hunt is not so suc- cessful in this season as in the autumn, since, the rivers being frozen over, the hunters have not the same opi)ortunity of 270 l'(»l,AR KKdiON'S. intercepting' tlieni. The true liarvcMt is in Anj^'ust nr Scpteni- bev, when tlie rein-dt'cr arc rclnrniny IVnni the tiin(h'en tu the forests. In j^'ood years the nii^'ratinj,' body of rein-deer on the Aniui consists of many thousands, and thou^'h tliey are divided into hands of two or tlu'ce hunchcfl each, yet the herds keep HO near toj^etlier as 1(» form only one imnK-nse lienl of from tliirty to sixty miles in breadth. They always follow the same route, and cross the ri\'er at the same ]ilace." In another passage the same author say^', that the rein-deer ri'iiiaiii almost immovable durin'' the severe storms of winter. Erman mentions similar periodical migrations c»f tliis animal over the Samoy(>d lands on both sides of the Ohi. The rein-deer, like other ruminants, is fond of salt, and Erman states, that the ajipetite of the animal for the alkaline urine el' man, is one of the chief means by which it is tamed. The hall- tamed deer follow a sledge-driver with eagerness, to lick his urine from the snow. In Lai)land, also, tin; wild rein-deer go to the noi-theiii coasts in summer, as Limueus long ago told us. In Siberia and Europe this animal is domesticated, but the only domestic animal in Arctic America is the dog. The nmsk ox {Ovihos moschatiis), another native of the Arctic regions, is much more limited in its distribution tlian the rein-deer, which it resembles in its habits. It belongs properly to the eastern barren ground district, and does nut range south of the Arctic circle, but frequents in small bands all the islands north of Melville Sound. Dr. Kane, as has been mentioned, found a number of its bones in Smith's Sound ; but we have no account of more than a solitary skull having been found in Greenland. In the ice-cliffs of Esch- scholtz Bav, its bones, nut to be distinguished from those of Z(M>l.(HiY. 277 tlu' ('.\i,stiij<4 .spucicH, nro associati'tl in i^noat mmiltcrs with tin- ItdUcs of c'l('](liant.s and utliiT extinct animals, nritluT of tliLiii niiiu'iali/cd, and none of tlu-ni liavinj? sustainctl nineh loss of iiiiimal matter. Thn nnisk ox is not known to live at the pre- sent time in that corner of the continent. This animal was conteniporaiy with the extinct mammoths and rhinoceri of the ic(!-cliirs of Kschscholtz J>ay, and it is probable that the anti- ([iiity of the rein-deer is as jrroat. The polar hare, some marmots and lemmings, also dwell on the Parry Islands, and the beasts of prey are the arctic or stone fox, the wolf and wolverine. The jxtlar bear, which preys specially on seals, belongs rather to the sea. The brown barren ground bear, not as yet distinguished s])ecifically from the Norwegian bear (iirsus arcton) has not been seen beyond the continental shores of the Arctic Si^a. All these animals are common to the Old World and the New, except perhaps the marmot and polar hare, which are American ; yet even they have representatives in Siberia, which may, on further exami- nati(jn, prove to be the same species. The black bear, which is a proper American species, enters the Arctic circle, but only in the woody tracks that run noi-thward along the great riv(;rs. The argali or big-horn, which is contined to the Itocky Mountain range, and on it reaches the (J8th or G9th parallel of latitude, has a near ally in the Siberian argali. The goat- antelope {A])loccros moiitamis), which also inhabits the Itocky Mountains, but is not known to jtass far within the Arctic circle, has not, as far as we know, a rej)resentative in the Old World. Bones of the species exist in the Eschscholtz ice- cliffs along with those of the mammoth. As far as quadrupeds are concerned, the lands within the Arctic circle form but one zoological province. i i (.; 278 rol.All KKIJIONS. TIk' [lolar ic^inii, I'xcludiii^' iin'icly tlic |iuiiits wluir the woods croHs tlic Arctic lirclo, idcsciits an uuilunnity in its nutivo l)ii'(l.s on all meridians. All the birds tlint fri'fincnt tlie high hititudcs are natives, and thnnj,'h their stay at the? hreid- ing ])laces does not exceed three niontlis, they are to he enn- siih'red as merely visitors in the sotitheni re^dons, uhieh they traverse in j,'oing and eomin<,' during the remaining nine months of the year. The hrents and snf>\v-g(M'se hreed in the most nortliern lands on all meridians, as do also the various birds enumerated in the chai)ter on Spitzbergen. The dovekic {Alcaallc) keeps the sea in the high latitudes all th(! wintci wherever open water exists, but nundiers of the species migrate southward. Of land birds the ptarmigan is a winter resident in the north, and the raven and snowy owl, though seanc. may be seen in winter wherever food is to be obtained. Altn- gether, about lifty species IVeiiuent the Tirry Islands in sum- mer, among which the snow bunting and Lapland finch arc graminivorous. These also visit Spitzbergen. FuHher soutli, within the Arctic circle, where- shrubs exist, the lesser redpoK' is also a winter resident. The laughing gofis(.' {Anscr alhifroiiA) is common to the Arctic coasts on the old and new continents, but the Eskimo goose {Anscr Ifittchinsii), which also goes north to the shores of the Arctic sea to breed, is confined to America. The Canada goose follows the larger rivers in their course through the Arctic regions, and is properly an American species, though it is not unfrequent in Europe. Whether it frequents the northern .Siberian shores or not we do not know. The arrival of the sununer birds, and especially of the ducks and geese, is to the northern nations of Siberia and the Eed Indians and Eskimos of America not only an iinequivocal sign of spring, and as such welcomed with joy, but also the com- ZOOl,(MiV. 27» iiR'HctiiU'iit (tf 11 i»cri(Hl (it jtKuty .succct'tliiig one ol inivution itv raiuiin', for the months uf March and A]m\ an- tliosc in which tuotl i.s nn).st dillicuh in he |»rocinv(l hy th«' uncivilized natives (»f Antic cnuntrics. The geese nnive in the north as soon us |»atche.s «if j,'round heconie visihle. Ve^fctation is so rapid, that sinndtaneously with tlit? melting of the snow, th(! dcveloi»inent of leaves and {lowers occurs. Thi' geese, on their tirst arrival, feed on the crowns of the roots of Kruqtlun'i and Cnriccs, which, just hefore the leaves show, have sonic sweet- ness; and for a few days after the snow has gone on the barren gnninds, huth the birds and bears feed with rt'lish ou the berries oi KmiKtruni and Vaaiiiium, which are then laid bare. The flight of a goose being forty or fifty miles an hour, or more, with a favouring gale, these birds niaylireed in the most barren northern solitudes, where they find safety, and in a few hours, on a fall of deep autumn snow, convey themselves, by their swiftness of wing, to better feeding grounds. The seals, walruses, ami whales being the marine beasts on which the Eskimos and coast Samoyeds depend mainly t ir subsistence, must not be overlooked in the enumera- tion of Arctic animals. The blubber which these beasts y'';ld is a substance of absolute; necessity to the noitheru Eskimos, who subsist wholly on animal matters, supply- ing them with a kiiul of food essential to their health in winter, as well as with fuel ; and all their domestic fur- niture, nuicli of their clothing, their boats, and tishing gear, are made from the skins and bones of marine mammals, — the rein-deer skins comjdeting the articles of Eskimo dress. The pursuit of the seals aud cetaceans by the civilized races of Europe and America, carried ou with systematic perse- verance and the appliances of science, must eventually drive V 280 roi.All lUXMONS. K? ■< r.;l ,''< these a):imuls from llicir luuie ucccssibk' Iiamits to tin- extreme recesses of tlu' jtohir area. Already the f(»nii ilv hiy Pallas as a well- known and aliumlant inhabitant of the AVhitc Sea and Siberian Ocean, as well as of the coasts of Kamtschatka and Sen. of Ochotsk. It was taken by Sir John Franklin s party in Corona- tion Gulf, and it occurs in the (Ireenland seas, where it is known to the Eskimos by the name of KapiscUl; but is said to be rare in that quarter, thou<4h Fabricius saw some sculls of it in the Fjord of Fredcrikshaab in the month of July. In Kamts- chatka, Pallas informs us that it seeks the innermo.^.t bays and even fresh-water lakes at midsumnu'r in innumerable sculls for the purpose of spawning. Sometimes the exit from these fresh or brackish lakes is ol)structed by banks of gravel thrown up by storms, and the herrings and their young ren)aiu shut in until liberated by the breaking up of the barrier next summer. The Kamtschatdales avail themselves of these occa- sions to take vast numliers by cutting a gap in the bank and placing nets in the opening.* Erman states that sculls of it ascend the Obi, and, passing into the tributaries of that river, * Pallas, Znog. RoRsica. b ' Ir, 'ifi 't . f .J ^unirorous, Lia.«sic ami Tertiary Forniatiuns — Pseudo-volcanic Prodiuts — Wood-liill.s — Fossil Ele- l)hant and Rhinoceros — Liakliow Islantls — P.ison — Ice-clill's of Esclisclioltz Bay — Drifts — Spread of the Tundren. The Geology of the Polar Ilegioiis is too wide a suljjeet, and one too imperfectly known for a full view of it to be attempted in a compilation like the present one, and it will siiflice to say, tliat the following formations have been recognised — primitive granites and gneiss; silurian deposits; devonian; true coal- fields ; liassic beds ; tertiaiy deposits, including thick beds of coal or lignite, and also newer alluvial and drift beds. The primitive igneous rocks prevail in the eastern barren grounds of America, and in the moss tundren of Siberia. They form high hills in Spitzbergen, and constitute the most northern islets of that Archipelago. Thc.'y also occupy much of CJreen- land. Cape Bariow, on the east side of Coronation Gulf, a lofty gi'anitic promontory, at least 1500 feet high, is the end (jf the Laurentinian range proceeding from Point Lake and Fort Enterprise, situated on the western edge of the barren grounds ; and most of the islets in Coronation Gulf are knolls of granite. Granite exists also in North Cornwall, in the neighbourhood of I'assic fossils. The paleozoic limestones, and other more recent fossili- i i iif\r *'■;■' V -J-:i f .1 'H - ■ .V i 280 POLAR REGIONS. ferous dejHi.sits oicuiTiii},' in the high latitudes, and containiiii^ the remains of animal forms which resemlde those living only in wanner climatos in the present age, are interesting as indi- cations of the changes of temperature, as well as of surface tliat have taken place on the earth. Silurian limestone occupies much of the area within llic Arctic circle, at least on the American continent and islands. It forms the whole continental coast from Cape Parry (longi- tude 124° W.),to Cape Krusenstern (longitude 114° W.) : als(. the north ends of the islands hounding the entrances of X;uy Board, Admiralty, and Prince Eegent's Inlets. Xorth Somer- set and Boothia consist mostly' of the same ; and it occurs on King "William's and Prince of Wales' Islands ; also on liotli sides of Wellington Channel up to the 77th parallel, where newer deposits come in. Mr. Salter observes, that from tlie eastern borders of Europe to the Itocky Mountains of America, and from the southern states of America to the Polar regions, there is a general similarity in the fossil contents of these old rocks, and some of the most common species are the same. But even over this wide area, the seas of which must certainh have communicated with each other, there are great local dilTe- rences, and the northern districts are wanting in many charac- teristic southern fonus.* In the arctic parts of America, the Silurian deposits are in general as little disturbed from their horizontal position, as in the United States and llupert's Land. These horizontal limestones .split into thin slates and fiag- ments by the action of alternate frosts and thaws, and on the shores of the Arctic seas form the most barren of all suriaces, identical probably with the "stoney tundren" of Siberia. The continual disintegration prevents all vegetation, and * Sutherland's Journal, etc., ii. p. ccxviii. GEOLOGY. 28; except where .sandstone Itetls and crevices ucciir, even lichens are scarcely to be met with. The "banen grounds" or mossy tundren of the primitive igneous districts, are much more fertile in gi-asses and other food for herbivorous animals. Carboniferous limestone exists on the north-western coast of Banks' Island, on Melville and IJathurst Islands. At Village Point, in latitude 7G° 50' N., and longitude 97° W. ; at Depot Toint, Grinnell Land (of Belcher), latitude 77° 5' N., and at various other places in the carl)oniferous limestone tract there are coal beds. These coal l)eds are considered by Professor Houghton to be very low down in the carboniferous scries.* A liassic basin extends on the 77th i»arallel of latitude from the 95th meridian to the 120tli, or for a distance of 270 geographical miles. On Exmouth Island, at the hciglit of 570 feet above the sea, bones of a species of Ichthyosaunis were found by Sir Edward Belcher in limestone resting on sandstone, and, as said above, in the vicinity of out-crops of granite. This formation exists near Cape York on the east side of Baffin's Bay, and at Capes Horsburgh and Warrender, on the west side of the same. A tertiary coal in workable beds comes to the surftice at Disco, in Greenland. The Garry Islands, lying off the Macken- zie, contain beds of a tertiary coal which takes fire spontane- ously on exposure to the atmosphere. Higher up the Mackenzie, at the junction of Bear Lake Eiver, on the G5tli parallel of lati- tude, there is a tertiary coal deposit of considerable extent, which yields hand specimens entirely similar to Garry Island ones. The forms of trunks of trees, lying confusedly in a hori- zontal or nearly horizontal position, are preser^'ed in some of * Xat. Hist. Rev., .Ian. 18.")>^, p. 45, and .Inly IHOO. p. HiWk ; S . 1 .- ii . ..' (• I 288 POLAR REOIOXS. these beds, wliieh are iiiucli iron-shut. In otlicrs, composed oi' glance (;oal, tlie wood-like structure is lost, and ]tieces taken from any of the beds split into small rhomlxjidal fraL,'ments, no longer presenting the grain or layers of wood. ].ayors of pipe-clay, with minute grains of amber, and i)lastic clay intei"posed among the beds of lignite, contain delicati; inii)rcs- sions of leaves belonging to plants of the y(!W tribe (Tiuids), of a plant resembling Vacciniwn, of one similar to a maidc, of others like the mulberry, the lime {Til la), and the hazel — in short, an assemblage of plants such as a climate like that of the northern United States would support. The lignite, examined carefully by Mr. Lowerbank with the microscope, was considered by him to bo coniferous, but it offered mucli difficulty to microscopic investigation. These lignite beds are constantly on fire where they meet the atmosphere, and the interposed clays are burned like bricks, producing many pseudo-volcanic products. A precisely similar formation, but with less of the coal exposed, exists near Cape Bathurst, and has been erroneously called volcanic in some of the recent arctic narratives. The true coal beds of the Arctic seas must have been deposited when the climatal conditions of the earth were so totally different from those of the present epoch as scarcely to afford materials for comparison ; but the lignite beds were evidently accumulated when the configura- tion of the surface departed much less from that which at present exists. The leaf beds were undoubtedly formed of vast layers of leaves quietly deposited along with a fine mud in still water. Had these leaves been transported from any considerable distance, their neiv^es, margins, and hairs, could scarcely have remained in the perfect condition in which impressions in the matrix shew them to have been when GEOLOGY. 280 they slcnvly sulisidcd in tlic turbid but still watta". Thoy ore leaves of deciduous trees belon<'iiik' to jjenera Mliicli do uot iu the ))n'°ent day eome so tar north on the Anieiiean eon- tinont by ten or twelve de<,'rees of latitude. A still newer lifjneous dei)osit exists in several localities on the Arctic Sea. On the tlat alluvial shores at the mouth of the jVrackenzio there are conical hills, which rise a hundred feet or more above the jfcneral level. AVliere these hills are escarped by the action of the water, they are seen to consist of sand of various colours, in which vast (quantities of drift timber are imbedded, the whole mound beinj? coated with a black ve^fctable earth, which, in that climate, must have been ages in forming. At '^ the present time, the highest Hoods reach only to the bases of these mounds, on which they strew a line of newly-drifted spruce fir tre(\s. Sand blown by the winds among these logs will slowly increase the extent of the formation.* . In a valley of IJanks' Island, some distance from the coast, • Franklin's Second Overland .Tnurncy, 4to, 1S28, p 209. There is a pr >pect of the formations on the Mackenzie, one of the localiticH (if most interest to the peolii<;ist, being investigated by competent ohservers, since there are now able naturalists employed in that district and in various parts of Rupert's Land by the Smithsonian Institution. Prof. H. Y. Hind re- ceived two Ammonites from Mackenzie s River resembling Jurassic species, but which he thinks may belong to the Cretaceous epoch. The same geologist remarks that tertiary coal or lignite occurs in tertiary and cretaceous formations in more or less continuotis "foas along the flanks of the Rocky Mountains from Mexico to the Arctic Sea. Of these deposits he enumerates the following. The great Missouri Lignite Basin, extending 600 miles on that river and 300 up the Yellowstone. It possesses the mixed charac- ter of a fresh water and estuary deposit, and cannot. Dr. Ilayden thinks, be older than the Miocene period. Lignite has also been traced from the Coul6es of the Mouse (Little Souris) to the head waters of the Milk River, a distance of 500 miles. Dr. Hector traced lignite strata 211 miles along the north branch of the V ^fe 200 ror.AR RKniONS. niul 300 feet al)ovo tlu; seu-levcl, Cai>taiii M'(Jlure, nccom- ])ani(!(l l»y Dr. Annstioii^, visited u fnniiatioii .similar to tlnit just cles(!ril)i'il. "Tho ends of trunks and hranclii's ol" trees," says the last-unuied ollieer, " \vere seen protrudiufj tliriiu,i;li the rieh h^auiy S(jil in wliich tliey were iiuheiUled. On excavating' to some extent, m'o Ibund the entire hill tn lie a ligneous t'ormation, being composed of the trunks and hraudies of trees — some of theiu dark and softened, in a state of semi- carboiiization ; others (^uite fresh, with a woody structure I)erfect, hut hard and dense. In a few situations tlie wnod, from its flatness and the })ressure to which it had been for ages subjected, presented a laminated structure with traces (tf coal. The trunk of one tree was twenty-six inches in dia- meter. Other pieces, though still preserving the woody structure, sunk in water. Numerous pine cones and a few acorns were found in a state of incipient silification. Many of the trunks crumbled when struck with the pickaxe, some approached lignite in character, and as far as our excavations penetrated, nothing but the trees and the loamy soil in whitli they were imbedded was met, though in some places the decay of the wood seemed to form its own soil. ]\Iany por- tions of the branches of trees were found silicificd on the surface of the hill and on the neiglil)Ouring heights. Some were impregnated -with iron, and had a metallic tinkle when struck. Rills of water, impregnated with iron and sulphur, Saskatchewan. They disappeared four miles below Edmonton, ■when the cre- taceous rocks came to the surface. The same gentleman saw an extensive deposit of tertiary coal on Red-Deer River in lat. 52" 12' N. and long. llS" W. The lignite beds Avhicli are now worked at Xanino, Vancouver's Island, were ascertained by Dr. Hector to be of the Cretaceous age. Dr. Evans some years since, found Tertiary coal in Oregon and British Columbia. — See Assini- boine and Saskatcheimn Expedition in 1858, by Henry Youlc Hind, JI.A., F.H.G.S. oEoi.orjv. 201 Howod ovor the surface. "On scvcimI nf tlic nrin;lilH)nviii,ij; hills I dbscrvrd distinct sti'sitificatioiis of wdnd runnini,' liurizontally in a circnlar cunrsc, Ininicd liy tlic protnidiip^ (nid.s of tlie tnmks to Avliich thu bark adliciccl."* Tliis description of Dr. Armstrong's would apply, in a great part, to the li^^Miito fonnation on tin.' Mackenzie, at the mouth of (Ireat liear Lake Iiivei-, though none of the li;4nit(! in tlie latter situation is so little chanu'cd as some of the tives on luinks' Land. The wood i'rom the latter ([uarter \\as con- sidered by Dr. Joseph Hooker to ho the white s[)rnc(! {Ahic-t alha), and Dr. ILirvey pronounced one of the fossilized cones to belong to the same species. The whit*; spruce is the jirin- (.'ipal forest tree on the Mackenzie, and extends the farthest north ; but the acorns are remarkalde things to be found in such a deposit, as no oaks grow on the baid seen at tin* distanc«! of seventy niilea. They eonsint of horizontid beds of sandstone, idter- natinj,' with bituminous beams or trunks of trees, to tho heiglit of 180 feet. On ascondinf,' the hill, fossilized charcoal is everywhere met with, encrusted with an ash-coloured matter, which is so hard that it can scarcely be scraped olf with a knife. On the sunnnit there is a Ion;,' row of beams resembling the former, Ijut tixed perpendicularly in the sand- stone. The ends, which project from s(!ven to ten inches, arc for the most part broken. The whoh; has the appearance of a minous dyke."* These vertical stumps were pn^baldy set up by man, as the custom is with the Eskimos of the present day. On the Mackenzie there are precipitous cliffs, apparently of hard stone, but, in fact, composed of incoherent sand, fix(;d in a matrix of ice, which cements the whole into a rocky cliff. At the close of summer, the surface thaws deep enough to support a stake driven into it. Lieutenant Anjou describes the wood hills as extending for about three miles and a half along the southern coast of New Siberia, and rising abruptly from the sea to the height of 120 feet. It consists, he says, of eaith, in which planks are imbedded in groups of more or fewer than fifty, with the ends cropping out, the thickest being two inches and a half in dia- meter. The wood was brittle, semi-hard, black, faintly shining, imperfectly combustible, and burnt with a pitchy smell, glimmering in the fire without flame. In another passage. Lieutenant Anjou remarks, that the trees, though generally t Wrangell's Siberia. f K 'v.. " ' ■ ■ ill j . 1 '« " tm ft a' 294 POLAR KEG IONS. liovizontiil, iii'c! vt'iy iiTc^uliirly disposed, iiud lluit the largest had a diiiiiu'tev ofultout ten inches* JUiried trees of a siiuilar description were found by lleden- strom on the ^loss-Steppe Tundra, east of the Jana, remote from tlio present line of the forest. The inhabitants desig- nate them as subterranean trees of Adam's time. They glow M'hen lighted, but emit no flame. From an early period of the Itussi.ui explorations of Siberia, the tusks of the ibssil elejdiant or inannnoth have be(!n sought for on the shores of the Polar Sea as a valuable article of connnerce, and they have been found in gi*eater or smaller numbers in various localities, from the Taimur lliver to f'ering's Sti-aits. Even in the first quarter of the present centur}', Mheu Erman visited the Gulf of Obi, large quanti- ties of mannnoth tuoks Mere collected there. But the great deposit of these bones was discovered in 1773, on the Liakhow islands, l)y the merchant ^vllose name they bear, and by his associate I'rotodiakonow. The soil consists (these adventurers said) of sand and ice,M'ith such quantities of mammoth bones, that they seemed to form the chief substance of the island ; the skull and horns of a bovine animal, and bones of a rhinoceros {Rhinoceros iichoriivis) were also found there ; and its toes, mistaken l)y the hunters for the claws of an enormous bird, were by them used in the structure of their bows. lieads of deer, with antlers differing somewhat from those of the rein-deer, also form part of the bony deposit. For eighty years after the discovery of Liakhow islands, the tusk-hunters worked every sunnner at the cliffs without producing any sensible diminution of the stock. The solidly frozen matrix, in which the bones lie, thaws to a certain * W'miiiicU, translated by Mrs. Sabine, pp. S83, 487, 492, and 499. OEOLOOV. 295 extent annually, allowing the tusks to drop out, ov to bo qnarriod, l»y the Jukaliiis. In 1821, 20,0{.l) lbs. of fossil ivory were procured from the island of New Siberia, some of the tusks weighing tiSO lbs. The skull, ilesh, and skin of the Rhinotrros f ichor inns have been procured there. And at the mouth of the Lena, the entire carcass of a mammoth was ilis- covcred so fresh that the dogs ate the Ilesh for two summers. The skeleton is ])reserved at St. Petersburgh, and specimens of the M'oolly hair, Avith which tlu; skin was co\t'red, exist in England. The history of this remarkaltle discoveiy has been repeatedly given in popular works. Elephants' teeth are also abundant on the American side of Bering's Sti'ait, and have long been articles of Eskimo trattic with the Asiatic Tchutehe. In the zoology of the voyage of the Herald there is an account of the fossil ilerous ice-cliH's of Eschscholtz l>ay, iirst discovered by Atlmiral Kotzebue of the liussian navy; and Mr. JVrthold Seeman's botany of the Herald's voyage contains a vicAv of the cliff's. These clills are described by some who visited them as com- posed of pure ice ; by others, as being merely faeecl with ice of considerable thickness. The foss'.l3 lie upon the toj) of the ice, indjedded in, ami more or less completely covered with, boggy or sandy soil. The bones had lost little of their animal matter; and those of the mammoth (or elejthant), when the earthy substance was removed by acids, shewed the tine mem- branes of the sieversian canals in great beauty. J lair was dug up along with the elo])hant skulls, and the whole deposit had a strong charnel-house smell. The species found Avei'e, the — 1, mannuolh {Elq>has 'jM'iniiijcriim) ; 2, the horse {E, a musk-ox. '.':S'i- I 1 ^ -\'' ■■■■?] ft'?.. ' hi''' ■ ■' fMj5 ■,■. at 296 POLAR RE(}10NS. of greater size than any living one {Ovihos maxiimis) ; 7, Arctic fossil bison {Bison latifrons, Fischer 1 B.Amcricamis, Leidy??); 8, the heavy horned fossil bison (B. crassicornu, Rich ; B. antiquus, Leidy ?) At least fifteen difi'erent individual mam- moths must have contributed the bones collected by Admirals Kotzcbue and Beechey, and Captain Kellett, in Eschscholtz Bay. Other parts of the coast near Bering's Strait, as far eastward as Point Barrow, yield mammoth teeth ; and an entire skeleton of this species was discovered by the Indians inland, on the elevated country near the sources of the Yukon. No mastodon remains have been found in America further north than the south side of the Saskatchewan Valley, about latitude 51°. It is foreign to the plan of this compilation to enter into speculations on the manner in which such accumu- lations of bones could be formed, but it may be stated as probable that many, or all, the animals were migratory, like the quadrupeds now frequenting the same districts. The shells of many moUusks, of the same species with those now inhabiting the sun-ounding seas, are scattered over the Arctic islands, and a general opinion prevails among the coast inhabitants of Siberia, as well as with voyagers to the Arctic American seas, that the shores and islands are rising. Professor Haughton thinks that there is evidence of the islands of Lancaster Strait and Melville Sound having risen 500 feet within a comparatively recent geological period. An opinion also exists among the inhabitants of both continents that the tundren and barren grounds are encroaching on the forests. Solitary outlying dwarf spruces cling to the gromid many miles from the edge of the woods, but the traveller meets witli no seedling trees, nor even with young onef^*, straggling out in the same way. GEOLOGY. 2[)-i Facts of a similar kind have Leeii obsurved in Norway. " I was much struck with the evidence that presented itself of pretty large trees having formerly existed upon Qualoiin (Whale Island, on which Hammeifest stands), where nothing now but a few stunted birches can be seen. Dead stumps of considerable size of this kind of timber still stand erect, some of them with branches bearing twigs, even as small as my little finger, with the bark sufficiently recent to tell that the decayed trunks it encompasses belong to the genus Bdula, thus indicating a comparatively recent date of destruction. The air of Qualoen possesses a peculiarly drying anti-putres- cent quality, so that I doubt not but these trees, or rather these remains of trees, may have existed in this state for perhaps centuries, as it is not in the memory of man that living trees, of such magnitude, grew on the island ; but tra- dition says that Qualoen was formerly covered with fir-timber of great magnitude.* The same intelligent writer mentions a report of the entire skeleton of a whale lying on the summit of Fuf/le-oe, an island that rises four or five hundred feet above the sea. Time did not permit him to ascertain what truth there was in report, by ascending the hill, which, on the 1 4th of Jidy, w^as still covered .with snow. * Notes on Norway, by William Dawson Hooker. Glasgow, 1837, p. 19. '\ iv t$^1 p w b1 l.f ■jf T ' ■'■ 1 i- ' , *■ '*■ 298 I'oi.AR REraoxs. "?■•' ,; CHAPTER XIX. . Ifggl ||ai«Q'jV?',i I^B H| ,4 H H i 1 H i H 1 ^rt Ur-,- ■J *♦ IXIIABITANTS. Greoiil.inders, Skvajllings, Eskimos, or Imiit — Xame — Area — Native Niiincs — Physical As] )L-ct — HaLits — Dross — Slcd^'es — Bow.s — Avrow- Pdiiits — Kajaks — dnidl — Te-iits — J(/fi(t or Wiiitt-r Huts — Kn.th!,,! — yi'o/A/— Mode (.f Living— Eaters of Raw Fk-sli— WlmU- limits— Seal Hunts — Trullic witli Asiatics — ArhnaK/ii — Ti-nipcr — Kasliim uniong the Kusi-Htcheicu/,- — Su])erstitiuiis — Shaiiiaiiisni — Iuhiki; h\- Souls — Creation — Society — Tclndxh' — Sedentary Tchukche or Na- . niollos — Liakliow Islands — Ancient Buihlings of the Eskimo type. The sea-coasts of xirctic America, including Greenland, arc inliabited solely by one nation, called by the Scandinavians of the tenth century Slcrcclliiigar.* The seamen of the Hudson's Bay Ships ^vho trade annually with the natives of Northern Labrador, and the Afeia Incognita islands on the opposite or northern side of Hudson's Strait, have for long called them " Seymos," or " Suckemos," appellations evidently derived from the vociferous cries of Seymo or Toynio, with wliicli tlio poor people greet the arrival of the ships. French writers call them Eskimaux, which name Charlevoix conjectures may have been derived from the Abenaki word Esquimantsic, signifying " eaters of raw flesh." t English authors, in adopt- ing this term, have most generally written it " Esquimaux," * Arngrimi Jonre G riicnlandla, Kiobenhavn, 1732. Grmlandia aniiqva, Thonnoilo Torfico, ITariiiti?, 170(3. Skriil fcm. pi. in Danish signifies "Scream- CVS." Skra'lUngar, in Hwedisli, " wretches.'' f The Abenaki inhiibited the area at present occupied by New England, and are not likely to have come into contact with the Eskimos since Cabot's time, though in days of Scandinavian discovery the Skrrellings occupied the c(»ast line as far south as Vermont. INHABITANTS. 299 but Dr. Latliam, and other recent ethnolojjjists, write it " Flskimos," after the Danisli orthography, a practice which is followed in this compilation. The Eskimos are essentially a littoral i)eoplc, able to gain subsistence on an icy sea exclusively, with a facility which no other nation has attained to, and occupying a larger extent of continuous sea coast than has ever been held by any other pri- mitive race. At present, they retain jiossession of the shores of the continent h'oni the lower parts of Labrador, along Hud- son's Strait", and down the east side of Hudson's IJay nearly to James' Bay ; (from thence round the west side of Hudson's Bay up to the GOtli parallel of latitude, the EifhinyunmJc and Tinne have seized the coast-line, but more to the north) on the shores of the Welcome, and throughout the whole northern sea-board of the continent, round to Bering's Strait and Koczebue Sound, the Eskimos are the sole maritime inhabitants. To them also belong the entire Greenland coasts, up to the 81st degree of latitude, or as high as Europeans have as yet penetrated ; also the large group of Me fa Incog- nita islands, and all the islands of the American Polar Sea, whereon traces of their recent or ancient dwellings ha^■e been eveiywhere discovered by the recent searching expeditions. The autochthonal designation of the nation at large is InuH, the vowels having the same sounds as in modern Italian, and consequently the word, if written in English according to its pronunciation, ^\■ould be " Eenoo-eet." It signifies men (of their own race), and has a singular Inuk* * Mr. Simpson, surgeon of the Plover, for the two years that that ship was stationed at Point Barrow, writes the national appellation according ^o the pro- nunciation of the Western Eskimos, £n-yu-in, and its singular Enyuh; the n of the plural being substituted by the western tribes fur the temiinal t of the eastern ones. ' ??." 7i.A .i> 300 POLAR REGIONS. The Greenlanders give themselves the distinguishing ejiithet of Kaldlik (in the singuhir Kalalek), while the natives of Repulse Bay call themselves Ahdhuin-liclih ; those that fre- quent Back's Great Fish Eiver bear the designation of Utku- hikciUk (stone-kettle Eskimos), or as Augustus, 8ir .John Franklin's interpreter named them, Utku-hikaliiKj-itieut. Fur- ther to the westward, near Cape Alexander, the Kamj-or^ient (Snow Goose Eskimos) possess the coast ; in the vicinity of the Coppermine Eiver the Nwjyeuktor-m'mt (deer-homs) dwell ; and the eastern outlets of the Mackenzie and the Eein-deer Mountains are frequented by the hold and numer- ous Kittcgarcut, The coast to the west of the Mackenzie, as far as Barter Eeef, is occupied by the Kangmali-cnyiiin, and the Point Barrow tribe bear the distinctive appellation of Nuwung-yn'i'-^im, Nu-wuk being the native name of Point Barrow. The Nuna-tmigm'e-un inhabit the country traversed by the Kunatok, a river which falls into Kotzebue Sound. In Greenland the natives term a Dane KaUunak (plural Kablunei), and the same word is recognised as denoting a white man or European along the American coast, as far west as Barter Eeef. But as the Eskimos are very observant of peculiarities of features, dress, or gesture, they readily in- vent epithets to denote either people or individuals ; thus in Greenland, the Dutch, who at one time traded a good deal thither, have a proper designation, and at Point Barrow the natives termed the crew of the Plover sometimes Shakevatana- meun, "people from under the sun;" or Emakh-lin, '-oa- men;" or Ingaland-meun, "men of England;" but most commonly Nellumig - meun, "unknown people." They have also distinctive names for the Eed Indians, of their seve- ral vicinities, and several expressions for stranger Eski- ESKIMOS. 301 iiios.* Tlirougliout the lon«^' lines of coast which this people inhabit, they are generally scattered in stnall bodies of five or six families together, or even fewer m situations so remote from their enemies, the Eed Indians, that they are not apprehensive of attack ; and only in places that are favf)Uiably situated for hunting deer and marine animals, and, it may be added, for commerce, do they congregate in large numbers, such as Hud- son Strait, the delta of the Mackenzie, the banks of the Colville, of the Nutawok, and Point IJan-ow. Yet, from Labrador to the northern extremity of Smith's Sound, includ- ing both sides of Greenland, and along the whole northern coast of America, the variations of dialect are small and unimportant. Mr. Miertsching, who learnt the language on the Labrador coast, understood, and could make himself intelligible to, the Eskimos in the vicinity of the Mackenzie and in Camden Bay ; and the native Eskimo interpreters from Hudson's Bay employed by Sir John Franklin, Sir John Eichardson, and Dr. Rae, had still greater facility of conver- sation with the north coast tribes. The language is similar in its grammatical construction to the other native American tongues, but differs widely from all of them in its voca- bulary. The Eskimos are remarkably uniform in physical appear- ance throughout their far-stretching area, there being, perhaps, |-./ 1 ;J^ 1 * Tlie liinguage is copious; tbiia, in addition to the national epithet of Inuit "people," they have in the eastern dialects Ang-vt (sing.), (dual) Ang- uteh; plural Ang-utit, "man, relations, or stock." Seksariak means an unpro- tected man; and Tunnisuga, "my nation.' All the relations in which a man stands to other men have distinct words to express them. In the western dia- lects outside of Bering's Strait, Tatchu signifies "man," Tagut and Yugvt "Eskimos," corresponding to which, on the other side of the continent, the Labrador Eskimos call the image of a man in a glass, or his shadow, Talchak. The looking-glass itself Tatchartut, "it reflects images." ^.V 1 'I ;»; ~" 1' • i. • 1 . ♦' . 302 POLAR REGIONS. no other nation in the worhl so unmixed in hlijotl. Fiohi.shei's people \vere struck Avitli their resenihlance iu features and general aspect to the Sainoyeds, and their physiognomy lias been held by all ethnologists to be of tlie ^longolian or Tartiiv type. J)r. Latham calls the Samoyeds Hyperborean ^Nlongo- lidtc, and the Eskimos he ranges among the American Mon- golidie, embracing in the latter group all the native races of the New World. The Mongol type of countenance is, however, more strongly reproduced in the Eskimos than in the lied Indians — the conterminous Tiiinp, tribes ditfcrinj; greatly in their features, and the more remote Indians still more. Generally the Eskimos have broadly egg-sliaped faces with considerable prominence of the rounded cheeks, caused by the arching of the cheek-bones, but few or no angular ])ro- jections even in the old people, whose features are always much weather-beaten and furrowed. The greatest breadth of the face is just below the eyes, the forehead tapers upwards, ending narrowly but not acutely, and in like manner the chin is a blunt cone ; both the forehead and chin recede, the ogg- outline shewing in profile, though not so strongly, as iu a front view. The nose is broad and depressed, but not in all, some individuals having prominent noses, yet almost all havi^ wider nostrils than Europeans. The eyes have small aiul oblique apertures like the Chinese, and from frequent attacks of ophthalmia, and the effect of lamp-smoke in their winter habitations, adults of both sexes are disfigured by excoriated or ulcerated eyelids. The sight of these people is, from its constant exercise, extremely keen, and the habit of bringing the eyelids nearly together when looking at distant objects, has, in aU the grown males, produced a striking cluster of ESKIMOS. 303 furrows radiating from the outer cornor of each eye over the temples. The eompk'xions of tlie Eskimos, when relieved from smoke and dirt, arc nearly white, and shew little of the copper- colour of the Eed Indians. Inliints have a <;ood deal of red on the cheeks, and when hy chance their faces are tolerahly clean, are much like European children, the national pecu- liarities of countenance heing slighter at an early age. Many of the young women appear even pretty from the liveliness and good nature that heams in their countenances. The old women are frightfully ugly, the discomforts which age entails in savage life, especially on the weaker sex, spoiling the temper and the lineaments of the countenance, in a people who are not restrained from giving expression to their emo- tions hy any conventionalities of refinement. To this must be added the deteriorating influences on the complexion of a close atmosphere and high temperature in the winter huts, alternating with sudden exposure to the blasts of arctic snow storms, followed by the scorching eifects of the rays of a spring sun reflected from the snow, all of which concur in giving a harshness to the countenance. Xow and then a benevolent- looking old man is met with but not frequently, and a cheerful and pleasant looking old woman is rare indeed among them. The young men have little beard, but some of the old ones have a tolerable bhew of long gray hairs on the upper lip and chin, which the Red Indians never have, as they eradicate all stray hairs. The Eskimo beard, however, is in no instance so dense as a European one. The hair of the head is black and coarse ; the lips thickish ; and the teeth of the young people white and regular, but the sand that, through want of cleanliness, mixes with their food, ■P ^B J I i %■' J. J I' I I' 304 I'OLAK REGIONS. wears the tcetli down at an early nf^c almost to the level of the ^'iims, so that tlu; ineisors ol'teii have broad erowiis like the molars. The average stature ol" the Eskimos is helow the English standard, hut they cannot be said to be a dwarfish race. The men vary in height I'rom about fivi; feet to five feet ten inches, or even more. They are a broad-shouldered race, aiid when seated in their kayaks, look tall and muscular, but when standing, lose their apparent height by a seemingly dispropor- tionate shortness of the lower extremities. This waiit ol" symmetry may arise from the dress, as the proportion -i of vaiious parts of the body have not been tested by aecui'ate measurements. The hands and feet are delicately small and well formed. Mr. Simpson * observed an imdue shortness of the thumb in the western Eskimos, which, if it exists furtlier to the east, was not noted by the members of the searching expeditions. From exercise in the occupations of hunting the seal and walrus, the muscles of the arms and back are much developed in the men, who ai-e moreover powerful wrestlers. Ablution or attention to personal cleanliness is little prac- tised by the Eskimos of any tribe. Water is a scarce article for eight months of the year, and it does not appear that it is a practice to grease the skin with marrow fat as the younger Eed Indians are accustomed to do. Egede does mention that the Greenland females occasionally wash their hair and faces with their own urine, the odour of which is agreeable to both sexes, and they are well accustomed to it, as this liquor is kept in tubs in the porches of their huts for use in dressing the deer and seal skins. The men, he says, moisten their • Blue Book, 1855. ESKIMOS. .^05 fingers with .snliva nnd tliovewitli ml) off tlie salt that the spray of the sea may have loft on their faces. All the Eskimos have a gi-oat dislike to wet their linihs in salt water, believing it to be injnrious, and the men do not willingly step into the sea unless in water-tight boots. The tongue of the mother is the towel used for cleansing the child, and it is the same handy instrument wherewith the scum is licked off a piece of meat l)y tlu; woman who cooks, before she pn^sents it to her husband or to a stranger. The men do not dress their hair in any peculiar fashion, Init merely shorten it on the crown, and allow it to hang loose on the cheeks and neck. The women turn theirs up in a large ornamental bow on the top of the head as was once the fashion with European ladies, and the side locks are plaited or tied together Avith strings of beads, and allowed to hang down in a club to the shoulder. The patterns in which the women tie their hair vaiy in distant localities, but there is a genenU. similarity of mode, and it is everywhere totally different from that of the neighbouring Red Indians, whose women seldom attempt the conversion of their hair into nv ornament, though the young Indian males do. In Greenland and throughout American Eskimo-land the women tatoo their fiices in blue lines produced by making stitches with a fine needle and thread, smeared with lamp- black. Every tribe has a recognised form of tattooing. "West- ward of the Mackenzie the men cut a hole in the lower lip near each corner of the mouth, which they fill with a labret of bone, stone, or metal ; small green pebbles obtained at the mouth of the Mackenzie are used for this purpose, and are neatly set in wood or bone. This unsightly fashion is prac- tised by the Wakash nation of Vancouver's Island, and may X ft ,?" ,,5.,-.- 3()G roLAIl KliGIONS. ii have passed nortliwanls from tliciii to the Kskiiuos of thr west coast. The same iiiconveniont custom of inserting,' disks ul" wood or other material into the lips and ears exists among the nhorigines of the I'ra/ils. The dress of the l^skimos consists of a pair of drawers, ovci' "wliich tliey wear hreeches, which come helow the knee. The body is ch^thed in a close jacket lik(! a Guernsey frock or jumi)er, with long sleeves, a hood, and a hole to pass the luad through, hut no side openings. This comes down to tlie haunches, and has a peak in front and another, generally a longer one, behind. These peaked tails are longer and broader in the women's jackets, but there is no other difference in the dresses of the sexes, except that manied women have a lar^^cr hood, in which they carry their infants. Both sexes wear boots with wide tops which come up over the hips, and arc used by thn women especially as pockets, in which they occa- sionally deposit their children on the outside of the thigh, or any other article that they will hold. Tlie boots used in summer are of seal-skin, and quite water-tight ; in winter rein-deer skin, dressed with the fur, being wanner, is more employed. The material of which the dresses are made varies with circumstances. The most prized for the two main parts of the clotliing, the frock and trousers, is rein-deer skin, which the women know how to dress with the hair so as to render the skill thin, soft, and pliable, like sliaraoy leather. The finest dresses are made of the skins of unborn deer, which, after being properly prepared, are doubled and worn with their hair both on the inside and outside of the dress. The boots are of seal-skin dressed in a different way, but with equal skill, so as to be water-tight. The females are very superior needle- KSKlMoS. 307 woiiu'ii, and aru chiolly occnpicd in winter in the making ul' garments. In dct'ct of dot'i-.skins, the skins of birds, [lartien- larly of the nurtliern divers, nro used ti> make jackets and breeches, and even tlie skins of fishes are siniihirly enn)l<»yed. Polar hare-skins are used to ornament the drosses, and for socks during winter. For summer use, when seated in tlieir kayacks, the men arc provided with water-tiglit sliiils formed of the intestines of tlio wlude, or of tlie skins of young seals, wiu.h arc so well drawn round the aperture in which they sit as completely to exclude the water ; and even should tlu; kayack l)e upset, the man knows how to right himself by the action of the paddle without allowing water to enter the cavity of his small but elegant vessel. Seal-skins, blown uj) like bladders, are used as buoys for the harpoons, being adroitly stripped from the animal, so that all the natural fipertures are easily made air-tight by wooden plugs. "With equal industry and skill almost every part of the land and marine animals which are objects of the Eskimo chace, are economised. Of the horns and bones of the deer, knives, spear-points, and fish-hooks are made, or they are used in the framing of sledges. The bones of the whale are employed in roofing huts, or in the construction of sledges in situations where drift-timber is scarce. Strong cord is made from strips of seal-skin hide, and the sinews of musk oxen and deer furnish bow-strings or cord to make nets or snares. The Eskimo bow, a most powerful weapon, is artistically formed of three pieces of spruce fir, carefully split with the gi-ain, the two end pieces having a curve in the opposite direction to that of the central one. Along the back fifteen or twenty nicely twisted sinews are laid and bound down at intervals, giving I f ' 308 POLAR REGIONS. ' ii k 'I Mi great strength to the weapon * A strong ann is required, as well as much address, to bend an EskinKj how. In the hands of a native hunter it will propel an arrow with sufficient force to pierce the heart of a musk ox, or to break the leg of a rein- deer. Iron obtained by barter or from wrecks is employed to point weapons or to make flenching knives, but among the Kittegarcut native copper is extensively used for that purpose and for making ice-chisels. The more northern Eskimos are compelled to resort to the antlers of the deer for the construc- tion of the indispensable ice-chisels. Flint or chert, obtained from Silurian limestone, is chipped to make arrow-heads, pre- cisely similar to the flint weapons so commonly found in the soil of various parts of Europe, and even now frequently fashioned by the natives of Australia. The nature of the material has caused the form of the weapon to be alike in all these distant localities."'' The kajak, which is shaped like a weaver's shuttle, pointed at both ends, is framed of wood, bone, or whale-bone, accord- ing to the locality in which it is built, and is flattish above, and convex in the bottom. It is covered with seal-skin, a ^'i; ' '.'^ f i'^ i-'-i<. M* * A very powerful bow also made of fir is in use by the natives dwelling on the northern Obi, and is stated to be the peculiar manufacture of the Kasuimski- The bow is strengthened by thin slices of the horn of the fossil rhinoceros tichorrhinus, very neatly joined to the fir by fish-glue, and requires great dex- terity to bend it fully. The Kasniniski are inhabitants of the banks of the rivers Kas and Suim. Erman, lib. cit., I. p. 431. f Before the area occupied by the Eskimos of the Mackenzie was abridged by the encroa'-'iments of the Thine, the Eskimos used to ascend the stream to the "rapid," three hundred miles from the sea, in quest of chert for their arrows. About fifty years ago some Eskimos ventured up the river to seek this material at tho rapid above Fort Good Hope, and were repelled by the Dog-ribs, who, being armed with guns, shot one of the party. Even at this day the Indians far up the Mackenzie are in continual dread of the appearance of Eskimo enemies. ESKIMOS. .309 circular liole being left in the centre for tlie sitter. No Red Indian lias invented a boat similar, either iu material or form, none of the birch-bark crnoes of the Tinn > . - and they have dancing and aniusenients, though they never remain long enough to sleep there. '* Some more details of this traffic may not prove unin- teresting. At the Co' ville, the Nunatcmfj-meim offer goods pro- cured at Kotzehue Sound from the Asiatics in the previous summer, consisting of iron and copper kettles, women's knives, double-edged knives, tobacco, beads, and tin for making pipes ; and also articles procured from the Eskimos on the river Kowak, such as stones for labrets, whetstones, arrow-heads, and plumbago. Besides these, deer-skins, the skins and horns of the argali, furs, feathers for arrows and head-dresses, are among the articles of trade brought by the Nunatang-m'eiui. In exchange for the Nunatang-meun articles, the Point Barrow people give the goods they procured to the eastward the year before, and the produce of their own sea-hunts, namely, whale or seal-oil, whalebone, walrus-tusks, thongs of walrus-hide, seal-skins, etc., and proceed with their purchases to Point Barter, as stated above. There they obtain in traffic from the Western Eskimos, wolverine, wolf, argali, and white-dolphin skins, thongs of deer-skin, stone-lamps, English knives, small wliite beads, and lately, guns and ammunition.* " The Point Barrow people are acquainted with about GOO miles of coast, between Point Hope and Barter Eeef. Beyond the latter they know, by report, the tribes which have been named above, as far as the makers of stone-lamps or kettles * The Asiatic Tcbukche find this trade ho important, that a settlement of 200 people has been formed on the small but lofty rocky island Ukiwok, in Bering Strait, for carrying on the trade. The people of St. Lawrence Island are also engaged in it ; and a body of skilful factors dwelling on Sledge Island, are entrusted by the Tchukche with tobacco, clothing, and other articles to exchange for furs, fossil, ivory, and other articles collected on the banks of the Kwichpak. ESKIMOS. 317 hey never ove uii ill- goods pro- 3 previous n's knives, ing- pipes ; the river row-heads, and liorns iresses, are 'any-rmun. nt Barrow d the year lely, whale filrus-hide, to Point c from the te-dolphin ves, small about GOO . Beyond have been or kettles lementof200 )k, in Bering iland are also 8 Island, are r articles to banks of the at the mouth of the Great Fish River. More remote still than the UtkuhiJcalir/, there exists, they say, according to rumour, men who have two faces, one in front and the other at the back of the head. Each face has one large eye in the centre of the forehead, and a large mouth armed with formid- able teeth. The dogs of these people, which constantly attend them, have also but a single eye each." It is curious to discover in this fable the story of the Hyperborean Cyclopes, or Arimaspi, mentioned by most of the ancient geographers on the authority of Aristeas of Pro- connesus, himself a myth, or as Herodotus calls him, " ghost of a man."* The Arimaspian troops, whoso frowning foreheads Glare with one blazing eye. Prometh, vinet. (Potter's tr.) Articles of Russian manufacture find their way from tribe to tribe along the American coast, eastward to Eepulse Bay, IMr. Simpson having recognised the double-edged knife seen at Winter Island in the possession of the Eskimos by Sir Edward Parry, as precisely similar to knives exported from Siberia to Hotham Inlet of Kotzebue Sound ; and noticed in the latter locality stone-lamps or kettles from Back's Great Fish River. Sir John E' hardson also saw a sword-blade at Point Atkinson, east of the Mackenzie, of Russian fabric. Love of barter is an almost incontrollable passion with the Eskimos, who encounter many dangers in gratifying it. Von Baer compares them in this respect to the Phcenicians ; and by Baron "Wrangell, we are informed that the commodities with which fossil, ivory, furs, etc., are purchased from the Eskimos of * Herod, iv., ch. 14 and 15, Rawl. t;\ Arima, one; spw, the eye, in Scythic. Id. iv., app. p. 197. ;jis POLAR ItKGlUN.S. llio Ishiiul of Kadyak and of Kutzebiu.': Sound, arc oUlaiiietl by tlio Tchulcclu! at tlu! lair hold annually at Ostrownoic near the Kolyma, in exchange! lor the ivory and other things they liad transported ever IJcring's Strait in tlie preceding,' year. During the long conlinoniont to their hovels in the dark winter months, the Eskimo men execute some very lair figures in bone, and in walrus or fossil ivoiy, besides making fish-hooks, knife-handles, and other instruments neatly of these materials, or of metal or wood. Some of the bone articles purchased from the Eskimos are used in games, reseml)ling the European one of cup and ball, or in other contrivances for passing the time. Imitations of the human figure are connnon, and also of canoes, sledges, and other instruments of their menage, or of the animals known to them ; but there is no reason to believe that any of tlu^ figures they make are ever worshipped as gods. They part with any of them freely in barter. Generally the Eskimos are good-natured and cheerful, and their social disposition is distinctly shewn in the arrangement of their winter dwellings, sometimes with recesses for the accommodaticn of two or three families under one roof, the centre being common to all ; sometimes by placing the houses side by side with a narrow dividing lane, into which the doors open, the lane being easily converted in winter into a porch of communication by roofing it over and shutting up the ends with slabs of snow. The kashim, or council-house, is an erec- tion larger than a common dwelling-house, constructed in the larger villages as a place of assembly for the community, where the men feast, and whereto both sexes are admitted to dance, according to the customs of the northern and eastern i-'' ■> if,/.! ..«A KSKIMOS. :\U) :nowii to Kskiinos.* I'iici', in (l(.'scril>iii^ tlu! innnncvM ol' tlic l\u.sl'iif<:/ic- wuk, nil Kskiino hilx! living' out.sido of IJcriii^'s Stniil, on tlit; banks of a river which falls into the sea on Ihn (iOth ]>.'ir;illf'l of hititudo, slates that with thcni tla; hisliuii is the slecitiiif^ apartment of all tlu; adult, al»h'-lj(Mlied males of the villa;,a', who retire to it at sunset ; wliile the old men, the women, and children, with the shaman, sleep in the ordimiry dwellings. Early in the morning the shanum goes to the kashim with his tambourine, and performs some ceremony, such as his fancy prompts, for he is bound by no established precedent. Feasts are held in the kashim, pai-ticularly a great festival at the close of the hunting season, in which the success of each hunter is proclaimed, and the liberality of the contributors to the feast applauded. The only women admitted on these festive occasions into the kashim are those who have been initiated with certain formalities. In the ordinary domestic; life of the Eskimo tribes, the men eat first and the women afterwards, but the woman cooks, and it is her duty and privilege to lick the gravy from the meat with her tongue before she presents it to her husband. Among the Eskimos that iidiabit the coast of the Welcome, south of Chesterfield Inlet, there were, according to the infoi'- mation of Augustus, Sir John Franklin's interpreter, sixteen men and three women who were acquainted with the myste- ries of Shamanism, the women practising the art on their own sex only. Wlien the shaman was employed to cure a sick person, he shut himself up in a tent along with his patient, * We have no account of the existence of these council-houses on tlie Labra- dor coast, nor does Egede mention them as a Greenland institution, but in the Labrador vocabulary the following words occur : — Kushim-iilt, "an assemblage of men in council ;" Kashiminwikhak, " a place of assembly for council." r^ 320 rOLAU REGIONS. nnd Hiing over liini fur sovcral days, abstain ing from fond nil the tinio. I'lowiu}^ on tlic arfcctiMl ])art is an approvcil remedy with the Shamans, and Kiirnpcans are often nitpu'stod to Itlow on the faces, eyes, or ears of Eskimos who are ailing. The Angekoks employ ventrilocpiism, swallow knives, extract stones from various parts of their bodies, and use other d(;ce])- tions to impress their countrymen with a high opinion of their supernatural ])owers.* Certain women, Egede says, by living strictly according to rule, acquire the pretended power of stilling the wind, causing the rain to cease, etc. They are called Arnak-arjlarpoh (women who abstain at certain times). Simi- lar powers were formerly (and perhaps still are) cLaimed by certain Lapland witches, that were regidarly propitiated by English seamen trading to Arkhangel, who made it a point to land and buy a wind from these poor creatures. A spurious kind of witches called lUisecrsut are said to be feared and hated by the Greenlanders, and often destroyed without mercy. There is always much ditliculty in obtaining a correct notion of the religions belief of a heathen people. The lan- guage must first be mastered, and by the time that that is accomplished, the priests, or shamans, who are the solo expounders of the heathen superstitions, have become jealous of the superior attainments of the white man, and shrink from exposing their practices to his ridicule. In the main, how- ever, the account of the religion of the Greenlanders furnished by the first missionary, Hans Egede, who founded the modern colonies in 1721, agrees with information collected by the Moravian Brethren of the present day. * Angehoh (in the plural Angekut) is the Greenland, Labrador, and Mac- kenzie River name for the Shaman. Among the Kuskutchewuk the name is Avalh-tuh or Tungalh-tvh. ESKIMOS. ;{lM Tli('S(! henthcns bi'licvt*, say tlio niissioniirics, in two groatJT sjiirits luid niiiny lessor ones. Oiio naiiicd Tonh/nrsn/,* is stiitod by E^'odo to \w the bciiif^ who is consulted (»n all oeeii- sions by the An}:,fekoks or Shanmiis, Imt is known to Ihc; com- mon people only by name. Even the initiated vary in their opinions, some saying that he ia devoid of form, others aflirni- ing that he has the shape of a bear, or that he has a largo body with only one arm, or that ho is no bigger than a man's finger. Ho abides, say they, in the interior of the earth, or under the waters, where there is continual fine sunsliiny weather, good water, deer and fowls in abundance. Frojn him the Ange- koka learn their art. Torngarsuk is supposed to be of the male gender, and to be generally friendly to man. There is another great spirit of the other sex, having no proper name, but considered to be of a very bad and envious disposition. Neither to the one or other is worship or honour paid, all in- tercourse with them being left to the Angekoks. These boast of a close intimacy with Torngarsuk, and that it is from him they obtain their familiar, or Tornr/ak, who accompanies them on their journeys when they go to ask advice of Torngarsuk about the curing of disease, procuring good weather, or dis- solving the charms by which land and marine beasts of chase have been secluded from the hunters, f The inhabitants of Cumberland Sound name the evil spirit Torngah, and call the good spirit Sanak or Sana, say- ing that they implore his aid when in trouble or in want, and then Takak (the moon) provides for their necessities, giving them rein-deer, seals, or other benefits. Sanak once lived on * Torngak (dual, Torngck, \A.—ait) a devil, with the nominal affix arsvk, " a great devil," or great Spirit, t Egede. kf'i'' ■ n-.; 322 POLAR REGIONS. '"t- }':' !.■ •','. : ■ ■; •■ ' .•>: :•?'' 1 1 'i' ' f ', ri- '■<:■': P'J fsi! earth, they said, but had retired to the moon and was still there. Among this section of tlie nation Brother Warmow discovered an imperfect knowledge of the dehige, which led him to think that in former times they had obtained some acquaintance with Scripture history, of which only a few vague traditions remain among them now.* The Labrador Eskimos believe that a very old woman, named Supj^erguJcsoaJc rules the rein-deer, and selects those which the Innuit need ; and to Tornr/arsiik, tliey attribute the office of herding the whales and seals, his employment being that of the Grecian Proteus. On him the Eskimos call when they need seal's flesh ;t and in the interior of the country Supi)er- guksoak assembles the souls of the deceased to hunt rein-deer. The condition of the soul is generally supposed to be better after death than during life, and its happiness is by most believed to consist in the possession of abundance of fowls, fish, seals, rein-deer, and other corporeal enjoyments. Its abode h judged by some to be under the sea, from whence the Eskimos obtain their best and most abundant food ; others think that the departed spirits resort to the upper sky over the rainbow, there being no uniform opinion on these subjects. Brother Warmow visited a dying man in Cumberland Inlet. He seemed to have no fear of death, but to rejoice in the prospect of going to his children, who had died in past years. Wlien asked where they were, he said he did not know, but thought that they must be in another world where they were happy. When intelligence was brought to Warmow of the death of this man, he hastened to his hut, and found the * Brother Warmow's Journal of his residence in Cumberland Inlet in the winter of 1857-8. Jlissions Blatt. March 1859. f MiRsions in Labrador dor Evangelischer Bruder. Gnadau, 1831. ESKIMOS. 323 Eskimos engaged in dragging the corpse, tied up in skins, over the snow to a distance from their habitations, carrying also the weapons used by the deceased in the chase to be deposited with the body. When the party arrived at the appointed place, Warmow commenced digging a grave, and asked the Eskimos to assist, and to gather stones to cover it, that the dogs might be prevented from devouring the body ; but they replied the poor animals are hungry, let them eat it if they like. They also told him that if the grave was covered at all it must be done by the Angekok, or one of his pupils. On Warmow taking from among the weapons one or two very neat bows and arrows, telling the bystanders that this was done at the request of the captain of the ship, who wished to have them as memorials, they expressed great surprise, and said that the deceased would come and demand his property. The widow, and a boy who helped to make the grave, had to sit mourning in the house for three days, during which time no Eskimos dared to go near them. AVlien any one is sup- posed to be dying, the relatives carry all the property out of the house that they wish to preserve, as all that is left with him at his death must be deposited beside the coi'pse. The near relatives of the deceased seclude themselves for a time after his death, and abstain from food. If the body has been dragged to the place of sepulture on a sledge, the sledge is left at the grave. Among the Eskimos of Point Barrow, the family of the dead mourn him for five days, according to Mr. Simpson ; while among the Greenlanders the mourning and loud daily lamentations are kept up for some weeks. Egede mentions a minor kind of spirits or Innncc* from i • Innuk (plural /7?«u!<), a man. Iniuiseli,&\\^c. 7nn!/c, atrack. Jnnvjnh a portrait of a man. Innvlivolc, he hoals the sick. >, r4i , ft* I i - ,1, 1/ !!' f ■III'' i '? « :iiHH t^-^^^^^B ^ /4^ .I'l ■ t :M ' rt; * 1 ■u 324 POLAR REGIONS. among which Torngarsuk selects the Torngak or familiar of the Angekok. Some Angekoks have their deceased parent for a Torngak. The Kongeuserohit are marine Innute, that feed on fox-tails. The Ingnersoit inhabit rocks on the shore, and are very desirous of the company of the Greenlanders, whom they carry away for that purpose. The Tunnersoit are alpine phantoms. The Innuarolit are pigmies that live on the eastern shores of Greenland ; and the Erhirjlit who reside on the same coasts are people of a monstrous size, with snouts like dogs. Sillagiksertoh is a spirit who makes fair weather, and lives upon the ice-mountains — Silla means air or wind, also the world and reason. To the air the Greenlanders ascribe some sort of divinity, and lest they should offend it, they are unwilling to go out after dark. Nerrim-Innua is the ruler of diet. Concerning the creation of the world, Egede reports that the Greenlanders have little to say, except that, as things are now, *jhey believe they have always been ; yet various and contradictory fables respecting the origin of things may be gathered from them. The Eskimos have neither magistrates nor laws, yet they are orderly in their conduct towards each other. The con- stitution of their society is patriarchal, the head of the family ruling as long as he has vigour enough to secure success in hunting. "When age impairs his strength and powers of mind, he sinks in the social scale, associates with the women, and takes his seat in their boat. Individuals of greater judgment and ability take, of course, a lead in such a community ; and Mr. Simpson says, that among the western Eskimos, certain wealthy heads of families (Omalik), have great influence, their wealth being the exponent of their superior ^•. • ESKIMOS. 325 !^ prudence and management. Among the Eskimos that fre- quent the Hudson's Bay posts of East Mam and Churchill, there are leading men, it being the policy of the Hudson Bay Company to institute native chiefs, who may direct the motions of the tribe, and act for it at the trading-posts ; but there are no recognised chiefs among the Eskimos, who have no inter- course with Europeans, and it is left to any individual who is aggrieved, to seek redress for an injury by his own might; or, should a murder be committed, for the relations of the deceased to retaliate, or, if they prefer it, to exact blood-money. Both the Eskimos, and their neighbours the Tinn^, believe that the Shamans of either nation can cause calamity or death at a distance by their arts. Hence on the occurrence of an epi- demic or other unforeseen disaster, the one people is always ready to accuse the other of the mischief, and retaliation is made by slaying one or more of the other nation. In this way the feud is maintained, until the desire for barter over- comes the passion for blood, and then the matter is c ^ pro- mised by the people who have killed most men, paying blood-money for the surplus. In the conflicts that have ensued on such occasions, the Tinn^, being armed with mus- kets, have had that advantage counterbalanced, in a measure, by the greater daring of the Eskimos, who are a bold and resolute race of people when their rights or hunting-grounds are menaced. In their demeanour with strangers the Eskimos do not affect the solemnity of the Red Indians, but are lively, talk- ative, and noisy, especially when the women are of the paily. On the first approach of boats to the huts of a band of Eski- mos, who have not seen white people before, the men assemble on the shore with their bows and arrows, and throw them- 1 .1 it f J, ■ I" i"' r'< ^J 4. '■■ 'I' m i'i *( • i 3 5: -'" ' . '* 1* sY^^^' /-*'* * ii ^ fNi |» '" ,ji , -t if ,'|'jyi . ■ ' '■ 1 If f ii > • V.,.. . '*' H 1^1^ 1 * V f 320 ruLAK llEUiONS. selves into uxtraorJinaiy attitudes, standing on one leg, leaping making hideous grimaces, and uttering loud shouts. In some such way, the stories of people with one leg, or with one eye, or two faces, told by Aristteus and Pliny, may have originated. But as soon as the Eskimos are convinced of the peaceable intentions of the new comers, their hostile demonstrations cease at once, and they hasten with ardour to exchange such things as they possess for those offered to them. In their intercourse with strangers, the Eskimos are invete- rate thieves, and steal with a dexterity that could not be acquired wiihout long practice ; yet among themselves the rights of property would appear to be sacred. Mr. Simpson alone, of writers who have had an opportunity of studying the Eskimo character, mentions stealing among themselves as a vice of the Point Barrow Eskimos. This people also lie, as it were, naturally, as often giving a false as a true response to questions ; yet such is their communicative disposition, that with patient listening a true version of any story may be elicited from them by one skilled in their language and habits. Quarrels among themselves would appear to be rare, and when they do occur, they are settled by boxing, the parties sitting down and striking blows alternately, until one of them gives in. The women are treated sometimes with indifference, seldom with harshness, and they have much to say in bar- gains, and in all public transactions. The children are affec- tionately and indulgently cared for. Marriages are made, pursuant to betrothals, when the feniales are very young ; but the wives are rarely mothers before their twentieth year, and the children are commonly suckled until they are about four years of age. The number of children of each marriage are consequently few ; and frequent famines, with ESKIMOS 32; the diseases and accidents of savage life in so severe a climate, keep down the population, so that the numbers of tin nation are most probably on the decrease, though this is a point on which correct data are wanting. The number of deserted encamping places, of very ancient date, scattered over the Arctic islands, are no certain evidence of a decreasing po])U- lation, as many circumstances might lead to extensive wan- derings by a people who can make very long summer voyages in their boats, and are able to subsist wherever animals are to be found. In ancient times the Eskimos ranged down the Atlantic coasts of America, as far as Vermont, if the evidence of the Scandinavians is to be confided in, and they probably once occupied much more of the Pacific coast of America than they do at present. Von Biier establislies, on the authority of Eussian voy- agers and traders, the fact that the Eskimo race predominates down to the peninsula of Alaska, Tchugatch Bay or Prince William's Sound, and the island of Kadjak (or Kodiak) on the 58tli parallel of latitude. The language is, however, not pure in that quarter, but is altered by an admixture of words derived from the Kolyidschin tribes of the Tinn^ stock, with which they have intermarried. The similarity oi the timber houses of Nootka Sound to the Eskimo winter-huts, so different from any dwellings of other Eed Indians, and by no means rendered necessary, or even advisable, by severity of climate in British Columbia, give some reason for inferring that the Eskimos, in former times, held the coast down to the Strait of Da Fuca, and that their houses were occupied and imitated by the Wakash Indians wlio drove them away. The natives of Oonalaflhka, figured ill * . 1 ■ " • S" r-li' ' . ■ ' m ! <.= . Fi '- 328 POLAR REGIONS. by Webber in the atlas of Cook's third voyage, have the Eskimo features strongly marked, and are very unlike t(j either the Nootkians of Vancouver's Island, or to the Tchukche of north-eastern Asia, drawn by the same artist. The rein-deer, Tchukche, of the eastern extremity of Siberia, north of Kamtschatka, now occupy a considerable portion of the area within the Arctic circle, but as they are evidently an intrusive race who have driven away or enslaved the foi-mer inhabitants of that coast, it is not our purpose t(j describe them here. M. Matiuschkin, in Von Wrangell's narrative, gives an account of their summer menage, when they come to trade at Ostrownoie ; and Mr. Hooper, in his recent work, " Ten Months in the Tents of the Tuski," supplies many details of their hospitality and domestic habits in their winter residences. This officer mentions that there evidently appeared to be two distinct races in their villages. The subdued race is named by Dr. Latham, X>:mollos, and from the vocabularies in Klaproth's Asia Polyglotta, are con- sidered to be undoubted Eskimos. They do not possess rein- deer like tlieir present masters the Tchukche, and as they dwell in fishing villages, and have not that facility of travelling great distances over land which the domesti- cation of the rein-deer gives, they are sometimes called by way of distinction Sedentary Tchukche. Their present resi- dence as a distinct people is, according to Dr. Latham, from Cape Tchukotski westward round the shores of the Gulf of Anadyr to the mouth of the river of that name, embracing nine or ten degrees of longitude, but habitations such as they and the American Eskimos construct, still exist in the more northern country occupied by the rein-deer Tchukche and the Eskimos that are enslaved or incorporated with them, also NAMOLLOS. 329 ill various localities along the northern shores of Siberia, as far as the Kolyma. When Andrejew, in 17G3, visited the Liakhow Islands, he found everywhere ruined youi-tes con- structed of earth. One of these which he describes is so much like what a large Eskimo IS'a»ie Nomades — Sledges — Snow-shoes — Dress — Rein- deer — Boats — Regnard — Maupertuis — Knud Leems — W. Dawson Hooker, The Lapps are the rudest, or one of the rudest people of the Yugrian Branch of the Turanian stock, following Dr. Latham's ethnological arrangement. By many authors the Yugrians are called Fins, but this term is of Gothic or perhaps Celtic origin* and is not applied by any of the Yugrian people to themselves. The Yugrians or Lapps are supposed by Humboldt and others to have dwelt primitively on the Ural Mountains, and they are supposed to have occupied the north and west of Europe before the advent of the Indo-European Celts, Teutons, or Litho-Slaves. To a very early people of this L^tock have been attributed flint arrow-heads, and stone tools found in Norway, precisely alike in character to others dug up in abundance in Ireland.! But this argument cannot be safely relied on to establish the identity of a race, as flint weapons and stone adzes collected in Australia and North and North-west * Phinn, the Celtic for "giant," has been already alluded to as perhaps bearing in Ireland some relation to the ancient intercourse of the Phcenicians with that country. What was the origin of the word Fin, applied to the Yugrians by the Norsemen, we have seen nowhere mentioned. The Shrithi- finni, were prohably more clamorous than the others. {Skrige, to scream). t Saturday Review, Dec. 31, 1859. LAPPS. 345 Dress — Reiu- — W. Dawson t people of lowing Dr. authors the 3 or perhaps jrian people apposed by n the Ural d the north o-European ople of this stone tools hers dug up ot be safely ;/^eapons and North-west to as perhaps [le Phoenicians applied to the The Skritht- scream). America, differ little or not at all in form, from those found in the soil of Europe.* The Finnish Runots are surmised to have been composed before the Yugrians entered Western Europe, and the Kalevala is thought to embody the older traditions of a section of the race. In this poem, the Blacksmith Ilmarinen, who wrought the heavens of blue steel, has a conspicuous part assigned to him, betraying an acquaintance with one of the most refractoiy metals at the time of its composition. The Lapps term themselves Same or Sahome.'\ By their Norwegian invaders they were considered to be dwarfs, skilled in extracting metals from the bowels of the earth, and pos- sessing great power as magicians. It is to be observed, however, that the older the burrows in Lapland are, they con- tain less iron, and more stone weapons, associated with skulls of the Yugrian type. It is an Yugrian custom to abstain from intermarrying in their own tribe, and as it is interesting to note similar obser- vances in distant countries, it is worth mentioning that the * Rask proved that the Finnic language had once been spoken in the most northern extremities of Europe, and that allied languages extended like a girdle over the north of Asia, Europe, and America. He maintains that the Eskimo is a scion of the Scythic or Turanian language, spreading its branches over the north of America, and indicating the antediluvian bridge between the continent of Europe and America. According to his views, therefore, the Scythian is a primary language over an area reaching from the AVhite Sea to the valleys of the Caucasus, and extending laterally in Western Europe, as far as Britain, Gaul, and Spain ; and in America from Greenland westward, as well as south- ward. This original substratum he supposes to have been broken up first by Celtic inroads, secondly by Gothic, and thirdly by Sclavonic immigrations. — {Archceol. of United States, wherein the passage is given as a quotation from Max Miiller's results of Turanian research. t Latham, Var. of Man, p. 105. Same according to Eraian, refers to the Bwampy nature of the country they inhabit. ^!! - ■ • 1'i ,.,,. fey? ^ ■J'fr ;»,■'. „n-' 346 POLAR REGIONS. American Eskimo tribes on tlie coast uf Berinj^'s Sea, follow a like rule. The Lapps, like other possessors of rein-deer, are neces- sarily nomadic to a greater or lesser extent. We do not intend to enter at length into the manners of a people living so near to the civilization of Europe, and doubtless at the present time greatly influenced by it, and by the Christianity they have embraced, imperfectly as its precepts have been taught them ; but a few extracts from the account of Eegnard's journey, made in 1G81, will serve to complete what we have to say on the ethnology of the Polar Eegions. " The Lapland sledge is called j^ulea, and is raised in front like a small boat, for keeping off the snow. The prow con- sists of a single plank, and the body is composed of several pieces sewed together with strong thread of rein-deer sinew, without a single nail ; * this is joined to another piece of about four fingers breadth, which goes beyond the rest of the struc- ture, and is like the keel of a ship. It is on this that the sledge runs, and from its narrowness, constantly rolls from side to side. The traveller sits inside as in a coffm, with half his body covered, and is there tied in immovably, with the exception of his hands, one of which holds the reins, while with the other he supports himself when falling. He is obliged to balance himself carefully, least he should lose his life, as the sledge descends the steepest rocks with horrible swiftness. "The Lapland snow-shoes or snow-skeuts, made of two narrow deals, a shorter one for one foot, and a longer for the other, extending to eight feet or more, are peculiar to the * Nails in a climate where there is a great range of temperature, soon become loose, and arc mtu-h inferior to the fastenings of sinew used by the Lapps and Eskimos, LAPPS. Ml follow a re necc's- 3 do not )le living 53 at the ristianity ave been Regnard's we have i in front Diow con- )f several !er sinew, 3 of about ;he struc- ihe sledge le to side, his body exception with the bliged to ife, as the ■tness. e of two onger for iar to the soou become Lapps and country. (The American Indian snow-shoes are a net-work of sinew, on a frame. The Eskimos do not use them.) "No other weapons are used by the Lapps in hunting than the bow or cross-bow. The former is employed in killing tlio larger beasts, as the boar, the wolf, and the wild rein-deer ; and the smaller animals are knocked down by aid of the cross- bow. These people are so skilful that they never fail in strik- ing the object. Some of their arrows are pointed with the bone of a fish or with iron ; others are round like a ball cut through the middle. The inhabitants are ignorant of the use of corn ; fish-l)ones ground with the bark of trees, are used in- stead of bread in the north. " We regarded the first Laplanders we saw very attentively, they are made quite differently from other men. The tallest of them is not more than three cubits high, and I know not any figure more truly laughable. They have lai'ge heads, broad and flat faces, level noses, small eyes, large mouths, and thick heards descending to their stomachs. All their limbs are proportioned to the littleness of body ; their legs are thin, their arms long, and the whole of this little machine seems to move on springs. " Their winter dress consists of the skin of a rein-deer, descending like a sack to the knees, and tied round the thighs with a sash of leather ; the shoes, boots, and gloves of the same stuff. A purse, made of the entrails of a rein-deer, hangs on the breast, and contains a spoon. A lighter summer dress is made of the skins of birds. Their cap is made of the skin of a loom {Coli/mlnis), so placed that the bird's head falls over their brow, and its wings cover their ears. " Wlien a Lapp marries he gives his services for a year to his father-in-law, after which period he removes with his wife and all her property. KM i n w X >■ ■ : t 1i!' 348 POLAR REGIONS. *' One meets with very few old men who are not blind, owing to the smoke of the huts and glare of the snow. No sooner is a man dead than the family abandon the house lest the soul of the deceased should do them an injury, and they even demolish the house. The coffin consists of a hollow tree, or of the sledge, and in it all that the deceased had of value, as his bow, lance, etc., are placed that he may continue to exercise his former profession on his return to life.* " The Laplander nourishes no other domestic animal than the rein-deei, but in this creature they find all that they re- quire. They throw away no part of the animal, but make use of the hair, the skin, the flesh, the marrow, the bones, the blood, and the nerves. The skin serves them for clothing, dressed for winter use with the hair, or for the summer with the hair removed. Its bones are of the greatest utility, for making their bows and cross-bows, arming their arrows, mak- ing their spoons, and for adorning every thing they make. The rein-deer tongue and marrow are their greatest of delica- cies. They frequently drink its blood, but more commonly preserve it in a bladder and allow it to freeze. From this ball they cut off as much as they desire to boil with their fish Their thread is drawn from the sinews of this animal, using the finest to sew their clothes and the coarsest to join the planks of their vessels. The milk of the rein-deer is the only beverage they possess, being mixed with an equal quantity of water owing to its richness. They draw a gallon of milk daily from the best rein-deer, which yield it only when they have a fawn. Of this milk they make very nutritious cheeses, which are fat, and have a very strong smell." The Laplanders rear the deer used in travelling from a • This is identical with the Eskimo practice on a death in a family. not blind, now. No house lest , and they oUow tree, 1 of value, antinue to limal than at they re- t make use bones, the r clothing, mmer with utility, for 'ows, mak- hey make. of delica- commonly m this ball their fish mal, using join the s the only uantity of milk daily ley have a ses, which ig from a familr. LAPPS. 349 wild male and a tame female, and these strung deer are suid to be able to cany the sledge three times in a day beyond tlu; horizon. The swiftest and strongest, when hard pusluMl on firmly frozen snow, can travel six French leagues in an hour, but cannot support this toil for many hours. Maupertuis describes the Lapland boats as being skifls formed of a very few thin deals, so thin and flexible that when borne by violent rapids in the rivers against rocks, they sus- tain the shock without injury. It aflbrds, he says, a sight tenible to strangers and astonishing, to behold this frail machine in the midst of a deafening cataract, sometimes borne up aloft, at others lost amid the waves, which threaten to over- whelm it. Kuud Leems, professor of the Lappish language, wrote a detailed account of the manners, mode of living, religion, and superstitions of the Danish Laplanders in 17C7, which is re- published in Pinkerton's Collection. As his account has reference to a later state of society, modified gi'eatly by inter- course with the missionaries and the more civilized Fins of the Gulf of Bothnia, no part of the treatise is transcribed here, but the reader who is desirous of knowing more of this people is advised to consult it. In our first chapter, Ohther is quoted as mentioning the Finnic Queenes, the inland inhabitants of Norway, who occasionally crossed the mountains to make raids on the Norman occupiers of the western coast. The name still sur- vives as the following extract shews. It relates to the working of the copper-mines of Kaafitrd near Hammerfest. '* The workmen are chiefly Qucins, with a few Norwegians. These two races are so perlsctly distinct, as not to be easily confounded with one another. The former are a dull heavy-looking tribe. t-'U K i; ! : l;S|!h I'i' I !!ii' 350 POLAR REGIONS. broad shouldered, their faces flat and square, with high cheek bones and sallow complexions ; they came originally from the Gulf of Torneii, but have for a considerable time been settled in Finmark, for agricultural and other purposes ; they are indus- trious, tolerably steady, and generally make good workmen. The Norwegians, on the other hand, who are the original denizens and proprietors of the soil, are tall, well built, com- pactly formed, and sinewy, with fair complexions, longish faces, and sharp features ; they are more talented than the Quans, and look down upon their more mercenary neighbours as interlopers and intruders on their territories. What the QuJins, however, want in intellect, they make up by superior industry, steadiness, and perseverance ; for the Norwegian peasant, more especially the miner, is sadly addicted to drun- kenness, making it almost a point to get intoxicated every Saturday, which here, as it is unfortunately in England, is the pay day.* * Notes on Norway, by William Dawson Hooker. Glasgow, 1837 ; p. 32. i. ANTAROTKJ FRIGID ZONE. 351 :ii ligh cheek Y from the . settled in are indus- workmen. le original built, com- is, longish I than the neighbours What the by superior Norwegian id to drun- jated every Pngiand, is 837 ; p. 32. PART SECOND. CHAPTER I. A.D. 1576-1840. — ANTARCTIC POLAR REGIONS. Terra Australis incofjnita — Jnau Fernandez — Tornt fermc — Salonian Islands — Mendana — New Hebrides — De Qiiiros — Santa Cruz — Tierra Austral — Australia de VEspiritu Santo — Silver ore — De Torres — Torres' Strait — Australia — Cook — Enters the Antarctic circle — Low temperature — South Georgia — Sandwich Islands — Southern Thule — Cocklnirn Island — Its vegetation — Bellinghausen — Weddell— Biscoe— Weddell— Balleny— Duniont d'Urvill e— Cote Clairie — Wilkes. This portion of the work will necessarily be short. It refers to an area wholly within the snow-line, uninhabited by man, without land animals, and only in a few instances traversed by navigators. Wlien the ancients had, on mathematical grounds, admitted the globular form of the earth, and Parme- nides, as Strabo* says, indicated five zones or climates, namely, two temperate regions, separated by an equatorial belt, unin- habitable from heat, and two polar regions, considered to be equally unfit for the residence of man, by their excessive cold, the belief in southern lands, to which access was denied solely by the difficulty of traversing the torrid zone, was a natur.'d * Strabo, lib. ii., p. fi5. Ed. Casaub. l.')87. Iv, It i : > :■.(.: ■. .\ B:.;':. -■ ^'^^ ; '; I ■, •< i " ■ •';. . W.,^i' J i '."i ' .» ■; t -t i': f i I I': ii:^. 11 k si 1^. t:|; § 352 POLAR REGIONS. sequence. By a like reasoniug, on a system of represen- tation, several ancient poets have spoken of land in the western hemisphere, which has been held, in recent times, to denote an actual knowledge of the existence of the American continent.* The geographers of the middle ages imbibed the same ideas from the study of the ancients ; and after Columbus had discovered the western continent, and roused the civilized world to the importance of geographical research, no long period elapsed before the project came to be entertained of seeking the southern continent, which was thought to be a neces- sary counterpoise to the northern lands. This Terra Australis incof/nita served the same purpose in the south that the North-west Passage did at the other end of the globe, the search for it having led to many notable discoveries, and eventually to our present extensive acquaintance with southern hydrography. Juan Fernandez is reported to have sailed, in the year 1 576, on a west-south-west course, and after a month's voyage, to have arrived at a tierrafermey a pleasant and fertile land, inhabited by highly civilized white people, dressed in woven cloth. The details of this voyage are wanting, and it has been supposed to be altogether apocryphal ; but some have conjectured that Fernandez reached the coast of New Zealand. The Spaniards residing in South America, were at this time in expectation of discoveries in the South Pacific, excited by rumours of Alvaro Mendana de Neyra having, in 1567, found the Saloman Islands, which so abounded in silver, that one entire mountain was composed of that precious metal. Mendana was evidently no skilful navigator, able * See Select Letters of Columbus, and Early Voyage to Australia. By R. H. Major. Hakl. See. pub. TER1^\ AUSTJtAMS. 353 represen- ad in the : times, to American ibibed the Columbus e civilized I, no long rtained of be a neces- ', Australis . that the globe, the reries, and h southern 1 the year ti's voyage, rtile land, in woven nd it has lome have ,v Zealand. this time c, excited ;, in 15G7, in silver, t precious fator, able lia. By R. H. to retrace his tbrmer course, and donbtlcss knew the stories that were current of the riclmoss of thi^ country ht; liad seen, to liave little foundation ; for lie allowed twenty-eight years to elapse without attempting to profit by his supjtoscd discovery. In modern charts, Mendana's (liscctvory of 15G7 is recognised in a chain of islands lying to the east ol' Now (Juinea, between the parallels of six and twelve degrees of south latitude. In 1594', Philip II. of Spain having instructed the Viceroy of Peru to encourage new enterprises and settlements, so as t(3 disembarrass the land from many idle genti}', the Mnrques de Canete prepared a naval armament for the settlement of St. Christoval, one of the Saloman Islands, and i(i)})ointed Alvaro de Mendana to the command, wi*^h the title of A deltnitado. The squadron consisted of four vessels and nea.ly 400 men, Pedro Fernandez de Quivos embarking as captain and pilot- major in the same ship with Mendana, whose wife also accompanied him. After having sailed about half the dis- tance to the Saloman Islands, the expedition made the island of Madalena, and supposed that this was the land they sought, whereupon there was great rejoicing on account of the short- ness of the voyage, and Te deum laudamns wAi^ sung ; but after sailing along the coast of Madalena from one end to the other, the x\deln-uudo acknowledged that it was not the Saloman Islands, but a new discovery, xhe squadron had, in fact, dis- coveref^ one of the group of islands now known as Las Marque- sas de Mendofi. Continuing the voyage on the same parallel of about ten degrees south latitude, the squadron made the island of Santa Cruz, one of tlu; Salonum group, and there a settlement was commenced, the seareli for San Christoval being abandoned ; but the Adelantado s(jo:i afterwards died, 2 A 354 rOLAR IlEGIONS. having, by will, {i])poiiited liis wife Dona Ysabel Bereto to succeed liini. The hostilities of the natives, however, pro- voked by aggressions of the Spaniards, and the death of some of the leaders, put an end to an enterprise which, Figeroa remarks, was mismanaged in a thousand ways. The governess sailed for Manila, taking with her the corpse of her husband, and having married again, abandoned all thought of re-estab- lishing her government at Santa Cruz. The pilot-major, however, Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, did not abandon the hope of finding the large land seen by Men- dana in 1 507 ; and his arguments appeared to be so plausible to the viceroy, that he sent him to Spain with letters recom- mending his proposal to the ministry. Being furnished with ships by order of l*hilip III., Quiros sailed from Callao in December 1G05, with the intention of renewing the settle- ment at Santa Cruz, and then searching for the Tierra Austral J^ He discovered several snudl islands, reached another of the Saloman group, named Taumaco, and after- wards, sailing soutlnvards, came to one of the New Hebrides group, which he named Australia del Espikitu Santo, sup- posing that it w^as the great southern continent he was seeking for. He returned to New Spain, and in his report to riiilip III. he s&ys — " By all that I have mentioned it appears clearly that there are only two large portions of ihe earth severed from this of Europe, Africa, and Asia. The first is America, which Cristoforo Colon discovered ; the second and last of the world is that which I have seen, and solicit to people, and completely to discover to your majesty."-f' The * liurney, South Sea Disc, (Loml. n. 208-326) quotes the Memorial of Juan Luis Areas. Edin. eil., pp. 17 aiul 20. f Peter Bertitis in liis abridged description of the world, appended to the (it'Odraphjf of Ortelias, [mh\i>i\ieCi in 1001, says tliat tlie Antarctic division of TERRA AT'STI{A[JS. :V)5 I Bereto to ivever, pvo- ath of some ch, Figeroa (i governess er hiisljaiid, of re-estal)- Qiiiros, did en by Men- 30 plausible :ters recom- nished with II Callao in the settle- tlie Tierra Is, reaehed and after- »v Hebrides Santo, sup- nt he was is report to it appears ■ ilie earth Tlie first is second and d solicit to ty."t The norial of Juan ItcmlcJ to llic lie division '>!' reports made to (.^uiros by tlie natives of the Sidonian Islands of the vicinity of a great continent, confirmed him in the opinion of tlie importance of his discovery. An incident of this voyage strongly resembles one that occurred in Fro- bisher's expedition, related in a former part of this volume. In Taumaco tliere was a man who had visited the larg(^ country named Pouro, and brought from thence some arrows, tipped with a metal as white as silver, and in one of the houses of Australia were some black heavy stones, two of which were carried by (Juiros to IMexico. One of them was carried to an assayer, but the experiment failed, by the breaking of the crucible ; yet a part remaining, the assayer melted it again, and in it was seen a small ])oint, which expanded under the hammer. He touched it on three stones, and some silversmiths said it wa.s silver-touch ; but some said that the assay should have been made with (piicksilver, and others with saltpetre ; yet the assayer affirmed that the metal was good, and two silversmiths said that it was silver.* Luis Vaez de Torres, being left in the Kay of San 'Vli)H' of Australia, remained there for two months, and then sailetl to prosecute the original main design of the ^•oyage. (.oasfing Australia, he soon discovered that it was not the continent he sought ; and after keeping on a south-west course, until he had gone a degree beyond the latitude prescribed by his orders, he turned to the north-west, and eoming to New (hiinea, coasted its south side for a considerabUf distance, entered the strait which still bears his name, and had glimpses of Cape York, or the islands lying off th(i northern promontory the world, of wliich a . iol < in .■i*r; lli" 356 POLAR REGIONS. of the rc" I Terra A ustralis. Continuing along the coast of New Guinea, he met Mahometan Malays, anchventontothe Moluccas. In the same year the Dutch Company's yacht Duyf hen coasted New Guinea for above 800 miles, and discovered land in 184° S., which must have been part of ths coast of Terra Australis or New Holland. The point seen was named Kccr veer, or Turnagain. The subsequent discovery of other por- tions of Terra Australis by Theodoric Hertoge, Pool, Tasman, and Cook, and its more connected survey by Flinders, who proi)osed the change of name to Australia, which this fifth continent now bears, are not necessary to be mentioned here in detail, as the most southern land of Australia is far remote from the antarctic circle.* The extent of European knowledge of the high southern latitudes towards the close of the sixteenth century is shewn at L ce in a mappemonde constructed by Judocus Hondius for a Dutch account of Drake's Voyage Round the World, and reprinted by W. S. W. Yaux, Esq., in his edition of " Drake's World Encompassed."! Thereon an immense Terra Australis is depicted, extending from the south pole so as to pass beyond the antarctic circle opposite to the Atlantic, reaching on the Pacific side to the tropic of Capricorn, embracing in its area Australia, and separated from New Guinea nr ^'ely by Torres Strait, which is not however named. Captain Cook is the first navigator who is known to have entered within the antarctic circle. His voyage in the years 1772-3-4 and 1775 was undertaken, he tells us, to put an end to all diversity of opinion about the curious and important * The Early Voyages to Terra Australis, Hakluyt Society, by R. H. Major, Esq., 1859, give a full historical detail of various voyages to Australia, f Hakluyt Society pul ^ations, 1854. m TERRA AUSTRALIS. 357 st of New Moluccas. Duyfhen erccl land of Terra mod Kcer ttlicr por- , Tasmaii, dcrs, who this fifth oned here ar n^mote southern is shewn Hondius ^orld, and "Drake's Anstralis 58 beyond iig on the 1 its area w Torres n. to have the years it an end niportant II. Major, hia. question which had long engaged the attention not only of learned men, but of most of the maritime powers of Europe, as to "whether the unexplored part of the southern henn- sphere be only an immense mass of water, or contain another continent/'* Having ascertained on this long and important voyage that Australia, of which detached portions had been previously discovered by the Spaniards, Portuguese, and Eng- lish, but chiefly by the Dutch, really possessed the dimensions of a continent, he was not content with that solution of the question, but pushed on to the south and entered the antarctic circle in three separate quarters, namely near the meridian of 40° east longitude, between 100° and 110° west longitude, and between 135° and 11;8° west, the most southerly point attained by him being 71° 10' of south latitude, on tlio 107th meridian. On each occasion his further progTcss southwards was arrested by finn fields of ice. He sums up his doings with the follow- ing observations : — " I had now made the circuit of the South- ern Ocean in a high latitude, and traversed it in such a man- ner as to leave not the least room for the possibility of theiu being a continent unless near the pole, and out of the reach ot navigation. By twice visiting the tropical sea I had not only settled the situation of some old discoveries, but made there many new ones, and left, I conceive, very little more to be done even in that part. Thus I flatter myself that the inten- tion of the voyage has, in every respect, been fully answered ; the southern hemisphere sufficiently explored, and a final end put to the searching after a southern continent, which has at times engrossed the attention of some of the maritime powers for near two centuries past, and been a favourite theory amongst the geographers of all ages. * See Introduction, p. 9. I m w m. f. r- l\ y .» ■V i::'i. .H '{•«)' 'i'i 358 ruLAll UKOIUNS. "That there may be a continent or large tract of land near the jmle I will not deny; on the contvavy, I mn of o^nnion there is ; and it is probable that we have seen a part of it. The excessive cold, the many islands and vast floats of ice all tend to prove that there must be land towards the south ; and foi my persuasion that the land must lie, or extend fur- thest to the north opposite the Southern Atlantic and Indian Oceans, 1 have already assigned some reasons, to which I may add the greater degree of cold experienced by us in these seas than in the Southern I'acific Ocean under the same parallels of latitude. In this last ocean the thermometer seldom fell so low as tlie freezing point till we were in G0° and upwards ; whereas in the others it fell as low in the latitude of o^° S. " We saw not a river or stream of water on all the coast of Georgia, nor on any of the southern lands. The valleys are covered many fathoms deep with everlasting snow ; and at the sea they terminate in icy clifi's of va^t height. It is here where the ice islands are formed."* Cook saw no land to the south of Sandwich Land or Southern Thule, in latitudes 59° and 00°. His description of this grouD and of the more southern island of Georgia, lying only a short way beyond the parallel of the southern extremity of America, may prepare the reader for the account to be here- after given of the lands situated within the antarctic circle. Of South Georgia he says : — " The head of the bay, as well as two places on each side, was terminated by perpendicidar ice- cliffs of considerable height. Pieces were continually break- ing off, and floating out to sea ; and a great fall happened while we were in the bay, which made a noise like a canncii. The inner parts of the country were not less suvage and lior- ^ Cook's Second Voyage rioiiiid tlie Woilcl, 1770, ii., p. 2;!0 SOUTHERN THULK. 359 f land near of ojdnion l)art of it. ts of ice all :lie south ; ixtend fur- ind Indian hicli I may these seas e parallels seldom fell upwards ; Df 54.° S. . the coast 'he valleys now ; and ;ht. It is 1 Land or oription of rgia, lying extremity to he here- ctic circle, as well as icidar ice- illy hreak- happened a canncii. and hor- 2;{9 ril)le. The wild rocks raised their lofty summits till they were lost in the clouds, and the valleys lay covered with everlast- ing snow. Not a tree was to be seen, nor a shrub even big enough to make a toothpick. The only vegetation we met with was a coarse strong-bladed grass growing in tufts, Mild burnet, and a plant like moss, which sprung from the rocks. The shores swarmed with young seals ; there were sevei'al Hocks of the largest penguins I ever saw, and the oceanic birds were alljatrosses, gulls, Poi-t Egmont hens, terns, shags, divers, the new white bird, and a small yellow bird which was most delicious food. All the landbirds consisted of a few small larks, nor did we meet with any cpiadrupeds ; though ^Ir. Forster observed some dung which he judged to come from a fox or some such animal. The lands, or rather rocks, border- ing on the sea-coast were not covered with snow like the in- land parts ; but all the vegetation ,;e could see on the clear plaf^r's was the grass above mentioned."* It would appear from this summary sketch that South Georgia lies fully as far within the loM'er snow-line as Spitzbergen, which is twenty-four degrees nearer to tre pole. On the Sandwich group he did not land, but these islands were erroneously thought by him to be probably part of a southern continent, as stated in a passage quoted above. He says of them — " I called this land * Southern Thule,' because it is the most southern land that has ever yet been discovered. It shews a surface of vast height, and is everywhere covered with snow. ... On the 1 st of February we got sight of a new coast, which proved to be a high promontory situated in latitude 58° 27' S., and from land seen from space to space, was made to com-lude that the whole was connected. T was * Cook, I. c. ii., i>. 2i:!. ; i: ^ >i [• < \.'< I ,*U)() l'(»LAU T!K /7^'j # '/ Photogrephic Sdences Corporalion ^t <^ '^^^^T*' ^.V' 23 WEST MAIN STiEIT WEBSTIR.N.Y. U;::30 (716) 872-4503 '^ 1 1 r. I • >. ,1- r. U:f IsA- K -'in ft- '■ ■- 1 3 t fr ■4iiF-'-''- ■'■• 362 POLAR REGIONS. Vegetation could not be traced above the conspicuous ledge of rocks, with which the whole island is girt, at 1400 feet elevation. The lichens ascended the highest. The singular nature of this flora must be viewed in connection with the soil and climate ; than which perhaps none can be more unfriendly to vegetable life. The form of the island admits of no shelter, its rocks are volcanic, and very hard, sometimes compact, but more frequently vesicular. A steep stony bank descends from the above-mentioned ledge, and to it the plants are almost limited. The slope itself is covered with loose fragments of rock, the debris of the cliff above, further broken up by frost, and ice-bound to a depth which there was no opportunity of ascertaining, for on the day the island was visited, the superficial masses alone were slightly loosened by the sun's rays. Thus, the plants are confined to an almost incessantly frozen locality, and a particularly barren soil, liable to shift at every partial thaw. During nearly the entire year, even during the summer weeks, Cockburn Island was constantly covered with snow. The vegetation of so low a latitude might be supposed to remain toi-pid, except for a few days in the year, when, if the warmth were genial, and a short period of growing weather took place, the plants would receive an extraordinary stimulus. But far from such being the case, the effect of the sun's rays, when they momen- tarily appear, is only prejudicial to vegetation. For the black and porous stones quickly part with their moisture, and the Lccanora and Ulva become so crisp that they crur>ble into fragments when an attempt is made to remove them. The air was exceedingly dry at the time of Dr. Hooker's visit, and he remarks that such dryness is eminently injurious to all vegetables except liclien-% which in many cases thrive best J*;-.. ._■ OUDER OF ANTARCTIC DISCOVERY. 303 3onspicuoufl irt, at 1400 hest. The connection lone can be the island very liard, i". A steep ]ge, and to is covered 3lifF above, ;pth whicli lie day the re slightly 3onfined to irly barren ng nearly Cockburn jetation of id, except re genial, lie plants Tom such monien- the black , and the nble into m. The ^'isit, and lis to all •ive best under excessive atmospheric changes. The preponderance of the Lccanora on this island cannot arise from the exsiccation stimulating its growth, but may be caused by the reaction which arises afterwards, on the rapid condensation of vapour. Fur-seals, penguins, and cormorants innumerable, together with a beautiful white petrel, resort to this island.* Other discoveries were made subsequent to Cook's voyage in the high soutluau latitudes, but veiy few of them within the antarctic circle. The Eussian Bellinghausen discovered Petra and Alexander Islands in January 1821, having in his voyage sailed through several degrees into the antarctic area. Weddell, in 1823, advanced three degrees nearer to the pole than Cook had done. Biscoe, in 1831-3, in the brig Tula, discovered Enderly and Kemp Islands, both crossing the antarctic circle between the meridians of 45° and 00° east. In the year 1839, Balleny discovered Sabrina Land; and in 1840, Dumont D'Urville coasted Adelie and Clarie Land between the meridians of 130° and 140°. In the same year, Captain Wilkes of the United States Navy extended these dis- coveries on the same parallel, rendering it probable that there is a chain of islands just without the antarctic circle, reaching from the 95th to the 1 50tli meridian, often connected by a barrier of ice. To this period, viz., from the years 1839 to 1843, belongs the remarkable voyage of Sir James Clark Eoss, now a Eear- Admiral in the British Navy, who, accompanied by Captain Crozier, carried the Erebus and Terror to a higher southern latitude than any navigators of his own or of any other country have ever attained, and made the only discoveries of extensive land with the area l)ounded by the antarctic circle. * Ur. Hooker's, in Sir .Tainos C. Ross's voyage to tlie Soullifrii Seao. ii. p. 340. (. ■' .'iG4 POLAR UEC5I0N.S. .i% .... : i ', : 1 ■' :i ! •. '^ ' The following extracts from Sir James's narrative of his voyage reliito to the ])riority of discovery of the lands seen Ity IJalleny, D'Urville, and Wilkes. "^Marcli 1. — At noon we were in latitude (kS° 27' 8., longitude 1G7° 42' E. ; and at 5 p.m. land was seen bearing N. G2° W., appearing like two islands. Although I believe these islands to form a part of the group discovered by Balleny in February 1830, yet it is not improbable tliey may prove to be the toi)s of the mountains of a more extensive land. On the 4th of March the land at the distance of thirty or forty miles looked like three distinct islands. It was the same land we had seen on the two pre- vious days, but owing to thick weather, its position can be assigned only approximately as latitude C7° 28' S., and longi- tude 105° 30' E. At noon we had no doubt of the land being that seen by Balleny in the Eliza Scott, whose log states : * February 9th. — Clear weather, got sights for my chronometer, which gave the ship's longitude 1G4° 29' E. At noon observed for the latitude GO" 37' S., and saw the appearance of land extending from west to about south — got within five miles of it at 8 r.M. February 12. — Tacked at noon, and worked in shore to look for harbour or beach, and at C P.M. went on shore in the Sabrina's boat, but found no beach except what was left by the drawback of the sea. Captain Freeman jumped out and got a few stones, but was up to his middle in water. In fact, but for the bare rocks from which the ice- bergs had broken off, we should scarcely have known it for land, but as we stood in for it we plainly saw smoke arising from the mountain tops. It is evidently volcanic, as the specimens of the cinders prove ; the cliffs are perpendicular, and what in all probability would have been valleys or beaches are occupied by solid blocks of ice. We saw no ORDER OK ANTARCTIC DISCOVERY. im A his voyago 1 l»y liulk'iiy, wa were in it 5 I'M. laud two islands. ]>art of the yet it is not e mountains I the land at liree distinct the two pre- ition can be \, and lougi- e laud being ! log states : chronometer, 3on observed mcc of land ive miles of worked in M. went on except what in Freeman is middle in icli the ice- nown it for loke arising inic, as the rpeudicular, valleys or Wii saw no beach ov liarbour or anytliing like one.' During the following fortnight as the Eliza Scott sailed to the westward on the parallel of sixty-five, indications of laud are noted frequently in her log ; and on the 2(ith of February, when in latitude Gt° 40' S., and longitude 131" 35' K., and therefore only a few miles to the westward of the high barrier of ice seen by D'Urville on th(! 3()th of January of the following year, and named by him Cofc C'lcdric. The liW/.n Scott's log states, 'stood for land to the eastward, but at 11 :3() a.m. made it out to be fog hanging over sonu; icebergs.' Thick weatiier in-evented a further examination of tliis part of the coast, but there can be no doubt but it was really land that lUdleny saw, and it will probably prove to be a continuation of D'Urville's Tcri'c Addle seen in January 1840, and on an islet of which some of his oiliccrs landed. Cai)tain AVilkes saw this land, but was then ignorant of the French navigator having seen it a week before him." The last point of land which lialleny saw was seen on the 2d of March 1830, in latitude 05" S., and longitude 122° 44' E. This was named Sabrina Lani I il€^.i [ jiiove tliosc U'li tlie tlis- y 1831, niul lisputo as to ! priority of iditin.s of 47° rtal Cook in [ coufitU'iitly of ice whicli itude, was a ille, voyage dm SiHTHEHN VirroHIA 1,AM». 'M7 CHAPTER II. MSCOVERY OF VICTOUIA LANH. — A.D. 184-1-1842. Sir Janus Clark Hoss's Vova<,'iiroached to the distance of about two leagues from the shore, which was lined with heavy packed ice, but the high surf prevented a landing. This first landfall was named Mount Sabine, and the land generally Victoria. Cape Adare is a remarkable high dark projection of probably volcanic cliffs, and contrasts strongly with the snow-covered coast. Some black rocks rose conspicuously above the white foam of the breakers in the I* H It'] ■ -^^ ♦ t ■i 368 I'Ol.All l!K<;ioXs. vicinity. Souiiilinj^'s lnounjlit ii|» IViij^MiR'ut.s of vnlcaiiie .stones. Ill tlio evening', say.s Captain ]{o.s.s, the atnio.sitlRTL' was beauti- fully dear, "and we had a most enchanting view of the two luagnilicent ranges of mountains, who.se lofty peaks, perfectly covered with eternal snow, rose to elevations varying from 7000 to 10,000 feet above the level of the ocean. The glacier.s filled their intervening valleys, which descended from near the mountain summits, projected in many places several miles into the sea, and terminated in lofty perpendicular ditl's. In a few places the rocks broke through the icy covering, l)y which alone we could be assured that land formed the nucleus of this, to api>earance, enormous iceberg." * The chain of mountains extending to the north-we.st was named Admiralty liange ; and the height of Blount Sabine was found, by means of several measurements, to be rather less than 10,000 feet. Previous to this discoveiy, the islet seen by Bellinghausen was the most .southern known land. On the 12th, Sir James Ross, Ca]^tain Crozier, and several other ofticers, effected a landing on Possession Lsland, situated not far from the mainland, in latitude 71° 5G' S., longitude 1 71 ° 7' E. It was found to be accessible on its western side only, and to be composed entirely of igneons rocks. Not the smallest appearance of vegetation was discovered, but incon- ceivable myriads of penguins covered den.sely the entire sur- face of the island, along the ledges of the precipices, and even to the summits of the hills, and by their occupation of the spot for ages had formed a deep bed of guano, the stench of which was insupportable. A strong tide was running between the island and the mainland, but whether it was ebbing or flowing could not be ascertained. * Koss, 1. c. i., p. IS.'). VltTuKIA I.AND. •.W.) ■aiiic stones. was boauti- of tliu two k.s, perfectly aiyinj,' from The j^'laciers I IVoin near everal miles ir cliffs. Ill covering, by the nucleus ith-west was ount Sabine to be rather 'ly, the islet 3Nvn land. , and several nnd, situated S., longitude A'estern side cs. Not the , but incon- e entire sur- es, and even ition of the le stench of ing between s ebbing or Standing southwards, as the wind anil weather ))ermitted, on the 15th of January, the sky being bi-autifuily clear, our navigators obtained a fine view of the chain of mountains that they had previously seen stretching away to the south- ward. They were completely covered with snow, and their summits were, by rough measurement, ascertained to lie from 12,000 to upwards of l+.OOO feet high. The most conspicuous was named in honour of Sir John Herschel, linrt. The shii)s kept working to the southward along the coast against a strong breeze, but aided l\v a strong tide, or rather current, which set to the windward for more than twelve hours. Dark- coloured rocks of small size and curious shapes, one of \]wm perforated, were seen forming a chain of islets. Sir James lloss mentions an occurrence on this part of the coast which deserves particular notice. Whilst measuring some angles for the survey, an island I had not before noticed appeared, which I was quite sure was not to be seen two or three hours previously. It was above one hundred feet high, and nearly the whole of its summit av." oastern side were perfectly free from snow. I was much .: prised at the cir- cumstance. On calling the attention of some of tlie oflicers to it, one of them remarked that a large berg which had been the object of previous observation, had turned over, unper- ceived by us. The new surface, covered with earth and stones, was so exactly like an island, that nothing but land- ing upon it could have satisfied us to the contrary, had not its appearance been so satisf\ictorily explained ; and, moreover, on more careful observation, a slight rolling motion was percep- tible. At noon on the 19th, when off Mount Lubbock, a block of gray granite was dredged up. It had a clean fracture, as if 2 B \ '1' . .'J70 I'OhAU UKCMONS. W 'V- . [^ . '>■ f?. )( ' =>,; ' '•■,' . ■, f * 1 Jf- Hi 'i : f t : ;•!)* ^ • ■ ■ ': \ v'_ ■ i • rnccntly broken ofV from tlic ])arent rock. Mtiiiy other stones of granitic and volcanic strncture were obtained from the clred^^'c. A tide and counter-tide ran alonj* the coast, and in calm weather the ships were drifted at the rate of three- (juarters of a mile in the hour, near Coulman Island. Mount Melbourne res(?nibles Mount i-Ktna in geiunal form, but was judf,'ed to bo much higher than the Sicilian mountain. The land ice here does not rise more than five or six feet above the level of the sea, but blends so imperceptibly with the snowy glaciers that run far into the sea, that it was almost impossible to form a correct notion of the position of the coast line. Along this ledge the ships held their way to the south- ward, but the strong current setting to the north greatly retarded their progress. After passing Cai)e Washington and Mount Melbourne, heavy gales and the intervention of pack-ice compelled the ships to keep out to sea, and for fifty miles the coast line was not seen, owing to its distance. On the 27th of January, a landing was effected, with much risk, on Franklin Island, which is situated in latitude 76° 8' S., longitude 1G8° 12' E. It is twelve miles long, and is composed wholly of igneous rocks. The northern side pre- sents a line of dark precipitous cliffs, without the smallest perceptible trace of vegetation, not even a lichen or a piece of sea-weed being seen on the rocks. Some broad bands of white and red ochre colours gave a strange appearance to the cliffs. The white petrel and skua gull had nests on the ledges. From the vicinitv of Franklin Island the active volcano of Mount Erebus was discovered emitting flame and smoke in great profusion. Its height was ascertained to be 1 2,360 DISCOVERY OF VICTORIA I-ANI>. Mi other Htoiics ud from the joast, and in Lte of three- ind. Mount jnn, but was intain. Tlie It f(!et above bly witli the t was almost I of the coast to the soutli- orth greatly ; Melbourne, impelled th(^ le coast line ffected, with I in latitude les long, and ern side pre- the smallest or a piece of id bands of irance to the lests on the ;tive volcano 3 and smoke o be 12,360 feet, and that of Mount Terror, on the east «>f it, to be lO.S.SI. feet, llunnini,' southwards, and iidaud from llu-ni, is the chain of the Tarry Mountnins. Th'.; coa.st-line was cnvclupcd in an ice-belt, presenting a .sea-face of 2(M) or .SOO Ictt liiuli, perfectly vertical At 4 P.M. on the 2.Stb, when the ships had ajiproaclicd nearer, Mount Kn;bus was oljserved to emit smoke and flame in unusual quantities, pnMlucing a grand spectiiele. At each successive jet a volume of dense smoke ruse to the height of about 2()()() feet above the crater, which, condensing first at its upper part it, descended in mist or snow, ami gradually dis- persed, to be succeedeil, after an interval, by another exhibi- tion of the same kin«l. Whenever the smoke cleared away, the bright red tlame that filled the mouth of the crater was clearly perceptible ; and some officers believed they cv extended alio North, ,t farther to of tlie land )hore bein«» khite, with- [irt of Vic- islands on group seen n in a pre- the crews of the Krchus and Terror, who executed this niofit remarkable voyage, were never surpassed, and have been rarely, if ever, (Miualled by seamen of any nation ; as a perusal of the iful)lished narrative will at onee convinee the reader. Like Co((k's first voyage, Ross's southern expedition was designed not so much f(U' the promotion of geographical know- ledge as for the making of observations in other branches of bcience, yet both will ever take [tositions in the foremost rank of voyages which have contributed to geography. In 18 JS, the I'agoda was despatched from the ("ape of Good Hope, by orders of the Admiralty, under the command of Lieutenant (now Captain) Moore, for the jiurposo of observ- ing magnetic phenomena in a (puirter of the antarctic seas that had not been visited by Sir James Iloss. On the lltli of February, latitude 08° south was attained in longitude 30^ east, and soon afterwards an impenetrable ice-puck stopped further progress in that direction, on which the course was directed towards Enderby Land, which (Aiptain Moore was prevented from sighting by head winds. On the 1st of March the Pagoda crossed the 73d parallel.* • rnited Scrviio Ma},'iiziiu'. .Tune ami .Iiilv IsfjO. imined the )ass round casion, the of lGli° s were two rn parallel , and cool- rs, and of »l;, «' ■t ; A. ,'i74 rol.AU RKGIONS. CHAPTER III. ANTARCTIC POLAK AREA. Desultory Remarks on the Phvi^ical Geograiihy of the Aiitarctic Regions — Predoniinimce of Sea — Its Etfect un Climate — Southern Evapora- tion — Xortheru Condensation — Tides anil Curr' .s — Deep Sea Temperatures — Pressure of the Atmosphere — ^Mean Atmospheric Temperature in the Antarctic Re>,aons — Wholly within the Snow- Line — Animals — Marine Animals — Microscopic A ' uuals — Whales — Line of Woods — Fossil Trees of Kert,'uelen T .and — Aackland Islands — Trees — Terra del Fuego — Vegetation of iermite IsUiiul — Most Southern Trees. k ! • On conipariug the north and south circuinp ar maps, a great contrast appears between the arctic and r tarctio areas, land predominating in the one, sea in the oth . The uncongenial climate of the southern hemisphere* in the ^ligh latitudes may be attributed to the comparatively small extent of its land, and especially to the taper-pointed form of its continents in the temperate districts, in strong contrast with the great, almost continuous breadth of the northern continents, extending even across the polar circle. Dove remarks that '* a liquid surface is continually renewed, inasmuch as every depression of tempe- rature causes the water at the surface, which by cooling has st'-ir; i(^ ■ t * Dove says, the warmest parallel does not coincide with the equator, but falls in the north.cru hemisphere, so that the parallel of 10° north is slightly warmer than the equator. I'p to 40° south latitude the temperature of the southern hemisphere is lower than that of the northern ; this may not be the case in the liigher latitudes. — Distribution nf Heat, p. 15. ANTARCTIC PHYSICAL (JEOUHAPHY. 375 arctic Regions luTU Evapom- ■! — Deep Sea Atmospheric ill the Snow- iials — Whales 1(1 — Aiiclihiud luite Isliiiid — aps, ii great areas, land uncongenial titudes may of its land, )ntinents in reat, almost snding even [iiid surface )n of tempe- cooling has e equator, but rtli is slightly eiature of the lay not be tho become denser and heavier, to sink down and make way for the warmer water which rises from below to replace it ; and this goes on until the density of the fluid is the same throughout its entire depth. It is thus that the depths of the sea are deprived of the temperature which they would have if they were as tar beneath a solid as they are beneath a liquid sur- face. The sea is also less warmed by direct radiation from the land, Itecause the process of evaporation, or the conversion of part of the water into vajiour, employs heat, which, if the surtiice were laud, would be given off directly by contact to the adjacent air. ... It is probable that the northern hemisphere may be regarded, comparatively speaking, and to a considerable degree, as the condenser of the great terraqueous steam-engine, and the southern hemisphere as its water-reser- voir ; that the quantity of rain which falls in the northern hemisphere is therefore considerably greater than that which falls in the southern hemisphere, and that one reason of the higher temperature is, that the large quantity of heat which becomes latent in the southern hemisphere in the formation of acjueous vapour is set free ui the northern during great falls of rain and snow.* Sir James Eoss noted many strong currents or tides in the vicinity of Victoria Land, and in other places near islands, but the want of convenient anchoring-places prevented their general direction or limits from being ascertained. A very remaikable current, coming from southern latitudes, was discovered by Baron Humboldt in 1802, on the Peruvian coast, and since that time described as being 5480 feet in depth, with such a breadth as to form a considerable section of the south polar sea, travelling majestically from south to • I>iKtribution of Heat, p. 4 and p. 2t>. A -I r u Hi ill •I 376 POLAR REGIONS. north. AMietlier there he a counter-cuiTent on anotlier meri- dian, replacing this column in the south polar basin by ^rarmer waters from the equatorial sea, has not been determined. Sir James Eoss found that the South Atlantic current, near the Cape of Good Hope, did not interfere with the seas of the high latitudes. By seven different experipients. Sir James Ross ascer- tained that between the parallels of 55° S. and 58° 30' S. there is a belt encircling the earth where the mean temperature of the sea, + 39*5° Fahr., prevails throughout its entire depth, forming a neutral border between two great thermic basins of the ocean. To the north of this circle the sea is warmer than its mean temperature, by reason of the sun's heat which it has absorbed, raising its temperature at various depths in different latitudes. In the equatorial regions this mark of the sun's influence is found at the depth of about 7200 feet, beneath which the ocean maintains its unvarying temperature of 39-5° F., whilst that of the surface is about 78° F. In these experiments the thermometer was sent down in several cases to the depth of more than GOOO feet, and in most instances the temperature was nearly 39*5°, but in the highest latitude in which an observation of this kind was made, viz., 58° 36' S., the temperature was 40° at the depth of 3600 feet, and 41° F. at the surface, the intermediate depths being of intermediate temperatures. This was in longitude 104°-105° west, and consequently opposite to the Southern Pacific. A cause for the sea being half a degree hotter in this quarter may be found in the existence of a current setting to the south, as marked in ^laury's chart (IX.),* occupying the space between the northerly Peruvian stream and New Zealand, or between * Phys. Gcog. of the Sea. 1857. A ANTARCTIC PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 377 other nieri- by \v'armer letermined. irrent, near seas of the Ross ascer- 30' S. there perature of tire depth, ■mic basins is warmer heat which s depths in is mark of 7200 feet, emperature - • it down in nd in most the highest made, viz., 3600 feet, is being of i 104°-105° ^acific. A aarter may e south, as ce between )r between the 135th and 180th degrees of west longitude. The same chart exhibits currents issuing from the antarctic basin into the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans, the only one indicated as flowing in the opposite direction, and transferring warmer water into the polar basin, being that to the eastward of Xew Zealand. In latitude 15° south, longitiule 231° west, Sir James Ross ascertained the temperature of the sea, at the depth of 7200 feet, to be 39'5° F., while that of the surface was 77° F. And on the north of the equator, near the Cape de Verd Islands, the mean heat of 39n')° was reached at the depth of 7000 feet, the surface being 78*5° F. The pressure of the atmosphere in high southern latitudes was found on this voyage to be constantly inferior to its mean height within the arctic circle. The barometric pressure increased. Sir James tells us, from the equator to the tropic of Capricorn, being greatest in latitude 221° south, where tlie mercury stood at 30'085 inches ; it decreased from that parallel to the antarctic circle, where the barometric column stood no higher than 28*92 inches ; and in latitude 74*° south, it was as low as 28*928 inches. In a coiTcsponding north latitude (74i° north), at Melville Island, it was 28*870 inches. The mean temperature of the atmosphere within the antarctic circle in the summer months of January, Februaiy, and IMarch was + 27*3° F., that of February, which was passed in the highest latitude, being only + 24*3° F., while the temperature of the surface of the sea, for the first two of these months, between the parallels of 60i° and 78° south, scarcely varied from + 29*2° F. The temperature of the air whUe the ships were in the polar area never exceeded + 41*5°, and in the k ' 5 1 '5 a'' ' ;« ! ^1 1 * I h . 1 I ■^ h 1 ■H 378 POLAR REGIONS. two Februarys passed there did not exceed + 35° ; only on fourteen days in 184-1 was the maximum temperature 32° or above, and in 1842 there were twenty-seven such days of the time occupied in navigating the antarctic area. The whole antarctic area lies within the snow-line, and as has been already stated, no vegetation was detected on any of the cliffs, which were too erect for the snow to lie on them. There are, therefore, no la. <\ quadrupeds. Birds exist there in great numbers, and of kin s which do not frequent the north polar regions. The penguins are perhaps the most abundant and certainly the most curious, for though they resort to the snow-clad ledges of the rocks to breed, they live the lives of fishes. Their short wings are not fitted for flight, but serve as fins to aid them in swimming, while their well- oUed feathers form a dense covering as compact as scales, and not dissimilar in appearance. These birds can swim fast and far under the surface of the sea, and are helpless only on land. Fish must be abundant to supply food to such myriads of penguins, as well as of the multitudes of other oceanic birds which our navigators met with. The few fish that were taken were of previously unknown generic forms. Even at low mean temperatures organic life is maintained, fourteen species of siliceous shelled polygastrica having been procured from pancake-ice in latitude 75°. Upwards of eighty species of microscopic animals were detected in pancake-ice from the barrier in latitude 78° S., and numbers brought up with the sounding lead from a depth of more than one thou- sand feet in the same high latitude. They furnish food to animals of higher organization, and these again to fishes, whales, and seals, the temperature at w ANTARCTIC PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 379 »" ; only on iture 32° or days of the The whole ,s has been of the clifl's, s exist there requent the )S the most :hough they ed, they live ed for flight, J their well- ct as scales, 3 can swim are helpless ply food to multitudes with. The own generic maintained, laving been •ds of eighty pancake-ice brought up n one thou- ization, and perature at which suu-water freezes on the surface not being adverse to the well-being of vast numbers of marine animals. The equatorial limit of the range of the riyht whale in the northern and southern hemispheres, as exhibited in Maury's chart above referred to, and laid down from the experience of M-hale -fishers, undulates both in tlie north and south, and indicates perhaps with tolerable correctness the extent to which the cold polar currents intnide on the warmer districts of the ocean. In like manner tlie lines marking the range of the spermaceti whale have their inflexions towards the poles where the warm currents flow in those direc- tions, and consequently opposite to tiie curves denoting the wanderings of the right whale. The seals of the antarctic regions differ in species from the northern ones, and probably the Clio, Limacincc, and Beroes, observed by Sir James lioss in the south polar seas, and supposed to be the same species on which the whale of the arctic regions feeds, may exhibit specific differences on close examination and comparison with their northern congeners. But some of tlie lowest forms of vegetable organisms seen near, but outside, the antarctic circle, were, in the opinion of so acute a botanist as Dr. Hooker, in no respect different from northern species as mentioned in a preceding page. The line of the last woods falls far short of the south polar circle, partly owing to the abbreviation and conical form of the continents in that direction, and the unfitness of small islands for the growth of trees, but chiefly to inferiority of climate. Kerguelen island, on the 50th parallel and 70th meridian east, no longer nourishes living tribes, but beds of coal (ter- m ■k''A ■^ ' » 3 I O^ J t J Is '1J .J 1^ ill $r>.^ 11^ m 380 POLAR REGIONS. tiary ?) exist there associated with basalt and aranacious shale. Highly silicified trunks of trees are found lying under the basalt, some fragments of the wood appearing to the eye to be 80 recent that their true condition was only discovered by handling them. One fossil tree, seven feet in circumference, was dug out from imder the basalt at the height of six hundred feet above the level of the sea. The Aucklands form a group of which the largest island is about thirty miles long. They are cut by the same parallel of latitude with Kerguelen Island, but reach about a degree nearer to the south pole. None of their heights rise to the level of per- petual snow, and their whole surface is covered with verdure. Like Kerguelen's land, the rocks are mostly volcanic, but few precipices occur. All the shores are skirted by a low forest of Metrosidcros, Dracocephyllum, Panax, and Veronica trees, suc- ceeded by a broad belt of brushwood, above which grassy slopes extend to the summits of the hills. Many ferns grow on these islands. The islands of Terra del Fuego carry trees furthest towards the south pole, or down to about the 56th parallel south. The Evergreen Beech is the most prevailing tree, and is asso- ciated with the antarctic deciduous beech. In North America deciduous beeches (of a different species) have not been traced higher than the state of Wisconsin, or not beyond the 39th parallel of north latitude. Terra del Fuego also supports the winter's bark tree, and many beautiful shrubs of the holly- leaved barbery, fuchsias, and handsome Veronicae ; but as the hills are ascended the woods are replaced by trees so dwarfed as to form an intricate and dense scrub, above which there is a licheniferous moorland ; only four flowering plants were icious shale. J under the :ie eye to be scovered by cumference, six hundred rgest island le parallel of egree nearer level of per- itli verdure, nic, but few low forest of a trees, suc- hich grassy T ferns grow lest towards •allel south. md is asso- tli America Deen traced id the 39th upports the the hoUy- but as the so dwarfed ich there is slants were POSTSCRIPT. 381 traced to the height of 1700 feet. These four belong to the tribes of Umhclliferce, Co^npositcc, Ericca\ and Emiidrecc, and are the outliers of southern flowering plants. Eleven species reached a height of 1500 feet on greenstone. They belong to the genera Viola^ Sa^dfraga, Escallonia, Azorella, Ourisia, Drapetes, Fagus (the antardica prostrate, and only three inches long), Luzula, and three grasses, Triodia, A h'a, and Festuca. The vegetation of Fuegia includes a considerable number of English plants, though lOG degrees of latitude intervene between them.* POSTSCKIPT. As this sheet was passing through the press, a corres- pondent of the Athenanim (Dec. 29, 18G0), residing at Siman- cas, furnishes information respecting the voyages of John Cabot, which fixes the date of the discovery of Newfoundland to the year 1497, as stated in the text of this compilation (p. 38). The con-espondent, who signs himself J. B., states that he sends a short paragraph from a long despatch, written in London by Don Pedro de Ayala, bearing date 25th of July 1498. " I think your majesties have already heard that the king of England has equipped a fleet in order to discover certain islands and continents, which he was informed that some people from Bristol had found, who manned a few ships for the same purpose last year. I have seen the map which the ♦ Dr. Hooker, Ace. of Hermite Island, Ross's Voyage, ii. p. 294. 382 POLAR REGIONS. li ' t r I 17 » 1 J A 'li i rn 1] 11 .;i -I- ' •'a ..■'1 discoverer has made, who is another Genoese like Colon, and who has been in Seville and in Lisbon asking assistance for his discoveries. The people of Bristol have for the last seven years sent out two, three, or four light ships (caravelas) in search of the island of Brazil and the Seven Cities, according to the fancy of this Genoese. The king has determined to send out (ships), because the year before they brought certain news that they had found land. His fleet consisted of five vessels, which carried provisions for one year. It is said that one of them, in which went one Friar Buil, has returned to Ireland in great distress, the ship being much damaged {roto). The Genoese has continued his voyage. 1 have seen on a chart the direction which they took, and the distance which they sailed, and I think what they have found, or what they search for, is what your highnesses already possess. It is expected they will be back (scran venidos) in the month of September. I write this because the king of England has often spoken to me on this subject, and he thinks that your highnesses will take great interest in it ; I think it is not fur- ther distant than four hundred leagues. I told him that in my opinion the land was already possessed by your majesties, and though T gave liim my reasons, he did not like them. I believe your highnesses are already informed of that matter ; and I do not send now the chart or mapa mundi which that man has made, and which, according to my opinion, is false, as it gives to understand that (the lands in question) are not the said islands." In this passage! Don Pedro calls Cabot a Genoese, but the evidence of his Venetian origin seems to be unquestion- able. , We learn from this important letter, that seven years POSTSCRIPT. 383 prior to the date of Don Pedro's despatch, the Bristolians, urged by Cabot, had been in the habit of sending out from two to four carvels annually, on voyages of discovery. This makes the efforts of the Cabots coeval with the preparations for Columbus's first expedition ; but there was evidently no notable result imtil 1497, when the Bristolians brouglit "cer- tain news that they had found land." The fleet of 1498 was doubtless raised to five vessels by the " three or four small ships of Bristol fraught with sleight and grosse merchan- dizes," mentioned by Fabian. 1 If 1 1 •1l 1* M ^' , (■ \' ' V,* : f" ' -1 i • . .'* 1 ; «*<'» i <; O ' ISlollEi] ?i^ \ - "*^*''' ' -w--^-/.„/• o "•5^ .V -U ^:^:pi -■--:^ i ^. l.antliiii ,i» , - % lO Piiblishfdb'^Ai.C.ridrk. Td-Su\M iiLBfiieiTS, Published b^..' ii> A * !|i| a - t/'ijit j. INDEX. ABEKAKr, 298 Acantliocottus qiiadricomis, 281 Adam of Bremen, liO Adams, Clement, schoolmaster, 46; his engraving of Sebastian Cabot's card, 38,47 A dare, Cape, 367 Adelaide Peninsula, 154 Adelie Land, 363 Admiralty, The, ask for opinions on the Franklin Expedition, 159 ; inlet, 196 ; scheme of search, 175 ; range in Vic- toria, 368 Adrianson, Claes, 72, 73 Advance, The, 200,224 Aegoland, 55 Aestrvmnades, 6 Agnello, Baptista, 82 Ahaknanhelik, 300 Agnese, Baptista, his atlas, 48 Alaseia discovered by Ivanoio, 132 Alaska, Peninsula of, 136, 327 Alba, 22 Albany Fort in Hudson's Bay, 113 Albion, 6 Alca torda, 213 Alcan, 2 Alexander Island, 363 Alexeiew (Fedot) is slain after passing Bering's Strait, 134 Alfred's conversation with Ohther, 16 Alfred's long-ships, 15 Alfred's Orosius, 20 Altenfjord, Trees of, 267 Amalchium of Hecatseus, 10 Amazirgh, 12 Amber, where found, noticed in the Odvs- sy, 3 America, 354 America discovered by Biami Herjulfr- son, 23 American continent, its north point explored, 112 Anadyr, Gulf of, 134, 267, 328 Ancient houses of New Siberia, 329 Anderson (Mr.) descends the Great Fish river, 169, 194 Andreason, 27 3 Andreef (Serjeant) sees northern land, 1 8 1 Andrejew, 329 Andrew-Jackson, Cape, 201 Angekoks, 320, 321 Anghiera (Pietro Martire, De) quoted, 41 Anian, Strait of, 121 ; referred to iiering's Strait, 94 Animal life in the Antarctic circle, 378 Animals of Smith's Sound, 227 Aniui, Feitile valleys of the, 264; vege- tation of its banks, 272 Anjou, Lieut., 222, 230 ; on Arctic wood hills, 293 Ankudinow Gerassim, 133 Auser albifrons, 278 Anser Hutchinsii, 278 Anskiold, 33 Ante-Columbian period, 14 Antarctic Physical Geography, 374 ; polar area, 351 ; polar animals, 378, 379 Antiquitates AmericanaB, 29 Aploceros montanus, 277 Approach of an Arctic winter, 2C0. Archbishop Eric Wakkendorph, 65. Arctic America, Tides of, 230 ; mountains "'53 ; seasons, 256 ; summer, 256 ; tern, 213; vegetation uniform, 273; coast- iiiie yet unexplored, 188 Arctica alle, 213 Areas, Juan Luis, 354 Argali or Big-horn, 277, 316 Arimasps, 333 Arkhangel or Archangel, 131 Arkhaya, 332 Aristaeus of Proconnesus, 333, 326 Armstrong Point, 232 Armstrong, Dr., on lignite, 291 Arnak-aglserpok, female Shamans, 320 Arngremus, Jonas, 298 Arnold, Bishop of, 27 Artillery Lake, 266 Arzina (or Warzina), 56 Asher, Dr., 45, 90 Atkinson Point, 817 Atlantis, 11 Attal sarazin, 8 Auckland Islands, 380 Auk, Little, 213 I I \ 386 INDEX. 1.^' m ■' i: M.l . - I 'J. f Ui ' * ^: I.I Austin (Captain and Ailniiial) sails, 181 ; surveys Molville Soiiml, 18;!; outers Jones' Sound, IS-l Australia del Esiiiritu Panto, '.)'ii, ooo Avalanclie at iSpitzborf^en, '^07 Avezac, M. do, ;J7 Avienus (Uufus Festus) consulted Iliniil- co's narrative, I'd Ayala, Don I'odro do, reports the voyage of John Cabot, oSl Bacakaos, or Harcalao", .'38, 17, i'J Bacohalaos, Ysla de, 48 liack (Sir Georj^o, Lioulennnt, Captain, and Admiral) sails to roliovc Cajjtain John Kdss, li>'.'>; on tlie (jrcat Fish river, l-J'2; voya.uo to the fro/.cn >trait in the Terror, 11 A, l.ji; BUer, Von, 317, 222, ;jl.'7 Biccbord aiul Steerbord, 17 Badin's opinion of a north-west passage, 105, 107 Baffin's Bay, 78, 217; currents of, 2:,l Baflin and By!ot sail round liaiilns Bay, 105; and into Hudson's Strait, lot Baflin and Hall visit Fast Greenland, 104 Balleny discovers Sabrina Island, etc., 3(!3, 3G4, 3G.5, 30C ; islands, 372 Baillie-Hamilton Island, 233 Baltia of Zonophon of Lanipsacus, 10 Banks, Sir Joseph, 14G Banks' Strait, 144; not navigable, I'JO; tide of, 232 Barclay, Ca[ie, East Greenland, VS Baidsen, Ilerjulfr, 22 Bardsen (Ivar) or Boty, G5 Barentzoon or Barents, \\ illiani, C4, 65, C6, C7, 77, 221; winters in Movaya Zemlya, 68; dies, 72 Barentz Land, 73 Barlow (Captain George) goes on dis- coverv, 114 Barra Island, 29 Barren ground, 263 Barrow Cape, 126 Barrow Point, 151,230 Barter Reef, 315 Basques resort to Newfoundland, 50 Bassendine, Woodcocke and Brown, 61 Bastuli, 9 Bathurst Cape, 151 Bathurst Island, 144 Bathurst Inlet, 149 Bay of Biscay, 216 Bay of the Holv Cross, 267 Bay of Mercy, Tides, 232 Bear or Cherie Island, GG, 211, 216 Bear, Norwegian, in America, 277 Boar, Polar, its destructivenc^s, 163 Bear Lnkc, Great, 150 Bear Lake River, its tertiary coal, 287 Bear's liver unwholesome, 71 Beauparis, 32 Bedford (Earl of) had Cabot's map, 44 Ceecher, Captain, his bottle-chart, 205 Bcecliy (Lieutenant, Captain, and Ad- miral), 212, 216, 217 ; account of Spitz- bergen, 56, 142, 2UG ; vovage to Bering's Strait, 150 Pieerenlierg Island an active volcano, 2(»5 Boghida, a salnioiioid llsh, 28-'! liegiiula-dossy, 283; woods, 2CG lii'liaiui ^lartii), 34 r.iko. Dr., 56, GO, 61,67, 73 Belcher (Captain .Sir Ed.) sniU, 186 ; winters in Noithiiniberhnid Sound, 187; surveys the I'ariy ArcliiiicIa>go, 186 ; abandons his srpiadron, 192 Bell Soinid, Spitzborgcn, 211 Bellinghauson discovers I'etra aiul Ah x- andcr I.^land-s, 363, 308 Bellon, the Iclitliyolo;;ist, 50 Billot, Eiiutenant, Fioiuh Navv, Hi", IS 197; is drowned, 187 Bellot's Strait, 152, 19G, 231 Biluga albicans, 339 liennet, Stephen, 66 Bi rber inscription, 11 Bore (Ivar) or Bardsen, 2S I Bergos of Pliny,!) Bereus' Point, 315 Bereto, Dona Ysabtl, ,"54 Bering (Captain Vitus), Orthogr. of the name, 127; his discoveries, 131, 135; touches on the American coast, 128 Bering's Island, Kanitschatka, 136 Boring's Strait, 127 ; fossil ivory of, 295 15ernicla brcn:'), 213 Uortius, Peter, 354 Bertcnes, Terra di, 48 Best, Master George, 77, 84 Betula alba, 273 Biarnies, 171 Biarmia or Russian Lapland, 19 Bjarney (Bear Island or Disco.), 26 Biaruiilerjulfrson, 22; discovers America, 23 Biddle's Cabot, 39 Bieloe More or AVliite Sea, 19 Big-horn or American Argali, 277 Billings on currents, 229 Birds of the Frigid Zones all natives, 278 Biscoe, Captain, Antarctic discoverer, 36C ; discovers Enderly and Kemp's Islands, 363 Bishops Arnold and Endride of Green- land, 27 Bison Americamis, antiquus and latifrons fossil, 296 ; crassicornis, 298 Bl.ack-dcath epidemic, 27 Bludnaia and aflluents of the Chotanpa, 139 Bolvanosky nos (Idol Cape), CO Booth (Sir Felix), Bart., 151 Booth point, 154 Boothiii, gulf of, 152; peninsula of, and isthmus, 193 Boty (Ivar), or Bcre, or Bardsen, 28 Moulder Island, 315 Boundary of woods, 206 INDEX. 387 IJourdon, Jean, reported visit to Iliulson's Bay, 113 Bows' of the Eskimos and Kasuiniskv, 308 Brandon, S.ni Island, 18 Bray, De, IGO Brazen weapons dug up in Ireland, 8 Brendan, Saint, 15 Brent goose or geese, 213, 200 Brentford Bay, 152 Brewster's (Sir Daviit) poles of cold, 243 Brigges his mallieinaticks, 10!> Bristol merchants promote discovery, 30 Britain, 21G, 217 Britannia Cape, 153 Broer Buy's Land (Hold with Hope), 98 Brooke Cobham Island, 10!) Brunei, Oliver, 73 Byam Martin Channel, 143 Bylot accompanies Sir Thomas Button, 102 Bvlot and Bafiin sail round Baffin's Bay, '105 Bygd, east and west, 22, 78, 217 Buchaii (Connnander and Captain), voy- age to Spitzhergen, 142 Burbot, The, 283 Burcher's It-land in Meta Incognita, 81 Burgermaster, 213 Burrough or Burro, Steuen, master of the Serchthrift, 44, 58 ; on Samoved idols, 337 Busa, Jelissei, discovers the l.ena, 132 Basse, the Emmanuel of Eridgewatci-, 87 ; sunken land of, 88. Butrigarius, Galeacius, on Cabot, 41 Button (Sir Th.) receives instructions for his voyage from Prince Henry, 1(>2, 103 Button's Bay, Rupert's Land, 102 Button's Islands, Huuson's Strait, 102 Cabillaud or Baccaalao, 41 Cabo tormentoso, 35 Cabot or Gabotto, John, 37, 40, 381 Cabot, Sebastian (Cabota), 3G, 42, 44, 70 ; dances when aged 88 years, 58 Ca!sar's invasion of Britain, 14 Callao, 354 Campeachy woods drifted to Siberia, 221 Canada goose, 278 Canete, Marques de, 352, 353 Cape Adare, Victoria Land, described, 3G7 Cape Cod (Kialarnes), 25 Cape Comfort, Southampton Island, 118 Cape Farewell, its names, 21 Cape of God's Mercy, Northumberland Island, 89 Cape Maria, Cumberland Island, 110 Cape North, South Victoria, 372 Cape Walsingham, Cumberland Island, 89. Carboniferous rocks of Melville Sound, 287 [ Carcass, the, 21 I I Carey's Islands. iJalliii's May, 10(i Carthagincan cohinics in Si)ain, 4 ; largo ships of, 4 ; beads. 8 ; relics of tiie trade, 8 Cartris I'mmontory, " Cartwiiglit (till.' Ifev. Joiiii), lieads a mutiny, 94 Cascathrv, one of Ilcarne's jiaity, 120 Ca.ssiterides (Tin Isl.mds), G Ca.'^tor and Tolliix liivcr, 193 Cataio orientale, 43 CattL'gat, 4 Gary's Swan'.s nest, Suuthamplon I.-.]ai.d, 102,109,117 Celts, 341, .'ill ; migration of, 345 Central ln-at, 257 Crtrealia in tlie Frigid Zone, 270 ; in Scandinavia, 2G8 Cervus alces, 295 Colniogro, OU Colon Cristiforo (Columbus), 34 Columbus, Letters Ve;st Indies, 35 ; Tratado de los Zinco Zonas habitabilcf, 31 Coluniba, St. ; his disciples make voyages to strange lands, IG Colville lliver, 315 Colymbus glacialis et septentr., 213, 3IG Comfort, Cape, Southampton Island, 101 Conipagnie du Nord ilu Canada, 113 Comparison of height and latitude in respect of temperature, 2G2 Congecathawachaga, 127, 149 Constinsark, Coasting search or Kostin schar, 73 Contests between the Hudson's Bay and North-west Companies, 140 Cook's examination of tlie north-west coast of America, 128, 121 ; Antarctic voyages, 35G, 358, 360 Copper Indians; 12G Coppermine River, 151, 231 ; its woods, 20G Coracle, 4 Corcgonus nasutus et sapidus, 282 Cornelius Cornelir^zoon Nai, G4 Cornwallis Island, 144; circumnavigated, 102 Coronation Gulf, 151 Cortoreale Gaspar, 45, 49 Costa del hues norweste, 47 Coulman Island, Victoria Land, 370 Coulterneb, 213 Countesse of Warwicke's Sound, 80, 81 ; Island, 84 Croker Mountains (Fata glacialia), 143 Cronian Sea, 9 Crozier, Captain, 156, 3G3, 371 Chancelor, Richard, 54, 57 Cliaring Cross, Greenland, 87 CL.arles" Island, 205 ; the pinnace, 108 Charlevoix llistoire de N. France, 50; on the Eskimos, 298, 299 , 'i\ "f;. i. <^ r'vt 388 INDEX. Cliailotte, Capo, 143 Charter of the Hudson's Bay Co., 112 Chawchinahaw, 123. Chaya, 339 Chelat,'8ki, Chelagskoi or Erri-nos, 133, 230 Cheliiiskin, Cape, 63 Cherie, t.r Bear Island, G6,98, 211, 241 Cherrits, Dirk, 3S; resemble tlie Samoyeds, 302 ; sculpture of the, 318 : sledges of the, 309 ; of Smith's Sound, 332 ; snow shoes of tile, 310 ; of social habits, 318 ; spirits, 320; stature of tlie, 309; tattoo their faces, 309 ; temperaments of the, 318 ; traditions of nortliern lands, 240 ; traffic of the, 314 ; weapons of tlie, 309 ; whale-hunts of tlie, 313; winter dwel- lings of the, 310 Eslaiida of tlie Zeni, 31 Esquimantzic, an Abenaki word, 298 Estotilanda of tlie Zeni, 32 j Etain, L', (tin) 2 | Exeter Sound, Cumberland Island, 89 Eyras, 23 Fabian, Kob., extract from his chronicle, 40. 43 Fadjevskoi Island, 138 Fair Forelarid, I'lincu Charles" islands, 97 Fair Haven, Spitzbergen, 2(i7 Fairholme, Lieut., 150; letter from, 157 Fansliaw, Cape, 143 Farewell, Cape, 217; marine currents of, 21G Farvid (Cape Farewell), 21 Feine or Ciiief, 8 Female (A) of Lapmark, speech of, to Linnaeus, 2GG Fernandez, Juan, 352 Festus Avienus, on Gades, 7 Finmark, 20, .55 Finn, Ma;,'nusen, 27 Finnic Ituce, 341 ; riinots, 345 Fins, 17, 18, 341 Fishes, Arctic, 280, 281 ; wiiite, 282 F'ish Skins, their use in Eskimo economy, 283 Fitzjames (Commander and Captain), 16■'}■ U ■ ■..! \ ( , & Fricsland, or Frizeland, 78; west, CI; or south Greenland, 3;j; Nt;w or East Spitzbergen, CO, 204 Frislanda of the /eni, 31, 32; of Colum- bus or Iceland, ill Frobisher (Sir Martin), 70; salutes the Queen, 78 Frobisher's Straits, 79, 81, 99 ; and Cum- berland Straits, 110 Frozen soil of Jakutsk, Hudson's Bay, and the Mackenzie, 259; trees, 25(!; Strait of Middleton, 118, 120 Fugle-oe, whale skeleton on, 297 Fulmar Petrel, 213 Furious overfall in Hudson's Strait, 100 Furnace Bombketch, 117 Furthurstranda, 26 Fury Beach, 152 Fury, shipwreck of the, 145 Fury and llecla, Straits of the, 144, 151, 2a4 ; tides thereof, 1!>C, 231 Gabotto, Giovanni (John Cabot), 36 Gabriel's Island, Mela Incognita, 81 (Jades, or Gaddir, founded 1130 B.C., 4 Gale Hanke's Bay, Greenland, 98 GaiTio, Vasco de,"35 Gand-vick, or the White Sea, 19 Gardar, Episcopate of, 20, 22 Garry Island, 129 ; tertiary coal of, 287 Gatehead Island, M'ClinI ick's Channel, 188 Geese, food of, 279 GeofiVey of Monmouth, Transl. of the Hormista of Orosius, by, 16 Geology, arctic, chapter on, 285 Georgia, South, description of, 358 Getuli and Lybians, destroyers of Afri- can Tyrian colonies, 5 Geysers,' Iceland, 31 Ghent, John of, 213 Gilbert, Sir Humf'cy, his discourse on the North-west passage, 44; his map of Meta Incognita, 80, 82; Sound or Godhaab, West Greenland, 89 (Jillam, Capt., 112 Gaiciers absent in Arctic America, 239 ; existing in Melville Bay, Smith's Sound, East Greenland, and Spitz- bergeu, 200 Gltcr, or Amber, 3 Glenelg Bay, 188 GlessariiB Islands, 9 Glessum, or Amber, 3 Globigerina, 222 Gneissic rocks, 285 Goat-antelopp, 277 Godhaab, 89 meat corrupted, 162, Goldner's patent 163 Goldson on the 121 ; mentions 119 Golcsme, 32 North-west Passage, Middleton 's poverly, Golfo quadra, or Gulf of Saint Law- rence, 49 Golzy, 283 Gomara, Fr. Lopez, on Sebastian Cabot, 43 Gomes (Esteuan), Voyage of, 50; Terra clic discobrio, 48 Goodiiir, Dr., 100 Goose, Brent, 213; coast of Liitke, 65; Capos, Nurth and Soutli, 50, 01 Gore, Death of Commander Graham, 104 Gorgossoio-schar, 65 Gothic inroads, 045 Graah, Capt., on the east coast of Greenland, 98, 217 Grassland,, 33 Graham's Land, Plants of, 300 Granite, arctic, 285 ; antarctic, 309 Grave-creek, Ohio, Sii|)posed ancient in- scription found in, 11 Great Bank of Newfoundland, Origin of the, 220 Great Bear Lake, 150 Great Fish River, 197, 230,204; distance from Fort 'iesolution, Great Slave Lake of the estuary of, 109 Great Land of the Samoyeds, 332 Greeks of Poiitus, Trade" with the Uials of the, 342 Green (Henry), mutineer, 101 Greenland compared Avith the barren grounds, 204 ; Dr. Kane's view of the structure of, 200; mentioned, GO, 217 Greenland, or West Spitzbergen, 204 Greenlanders, The civil state of the, 27; raournhig of the, 223 Greipar in liaflin's IJav, 25 Griilin, Lieut., 182 Grillith, Owen, 7H Griffons, Gold-guarding, 333, 334 Grinnell Land of Belcher, Currents of, 234 Grinnell Land of Kane, 201 Grocland, 33 Grnueland, 95 Groiseilliers, or Groiselez and Radisson, 112, 113 Grotius de Origiiie Gentium Amer, 30 Guillemot, Black, 213 Gulf of Anadyr, 2G7 ; of D.mtzic yields amber, 3; of Saint Lawrence or' Gulf of Markland, 25 Gulf-stieam, 219, supposed t'' ivm-i. Nor- M'av, Novava Zemlva, ana i upe Tche- liuskin, 220 Gull, The Ivory, 213 Gunbiorn, the' son of Ulf Krake, dis- covers Greenland, 20 Gunningagap, or l^iflin's Bay, 20 Gwosdcn visitH America, 128 llAKLfVT, GO; Ilakluvt's Island, Green- land, 106 INDEX. 3U1 Halgoland, Ohthor's abode, 65 | Hall, Cliristopher, 77, 70 Hall (James) and lialiiii visits Green- land, 101 Halle's Island, Mcta Incognita, 80 Hamiuerfest, Trees of, 2G8 Hanotcau (luoted, V2 Ilanrott (liistructinns to Hudson, by rriuce Henrv), lot Hans Law, .5.'J; Ilans Towns, wlialo- llshers of the, 212 Ilaswell, Lieutenant, 18H Hatton's headlantl, Hcsoiution Island, !i4 Ilauj^hlon, Professor, 212; on tides, 2;}4 Ilearne (Thomas), first Journey, 122 ; and Klton's quadrant, 12(i; aild Hadley's quadrant, 121 ; Seconal journey of, 12;i; thirtl jiiurucy of, 12.^ Heat, distribution of, 250; deerease of towards the jxdc, and formula, 250, 251 ; central, 257 llel)erst(.in (Haron), 31, o'3 ; Kerum Muse, (yonnn., "i:} Ilecla, ;il ; cove, 209 Hector (Dr.) on Li>;nitcs, 2.s!) Hedenstiijui on fossil wood, 2'.»3, 204, L':'9 He-'mskorck, Jacob Van, CO, 7-i Heeren, Idei.n, etc., quoted, 13 Ilellulaud, it niiklaoud it littla, 25 Henlopeu, St., 20 1, 213, 215 Henry, Cape, 103 Henry the Mi^dilh, Kin;:-, ,51 Henry, Prince of Portugal, 35 Herjolfrsues, 21 Hi^rrinij, the arctic, 281 Herschel, Cape (Ivini; William's Island), 151; Pe.ik, .South Victoria, yCi) HertOLte, Theodoric, 3."i0 Highest southern navigation, 271 Hind (Professor) on lignite, 21)0 Plippus, a Tyriau sliip-huihier, 4 Hobson, Lieutenant, IGl, 1S;7 Hogarth Sound, 01 Hold with Hope, Broer Ruysland, \)S; East Greenland, 9(J ; Hudson's Strait, 100 llolsteinberg, Greenland, 101, 217 Holy-cross, liay of, 2G7 Hondius, map of, 33 Hood (Lieutenant), death of, 14!} Hood's Kiver, 149 Hooft-hoek (Angle-head), 71 Hooker, Dr. Jos., on the snow-line, 253; on the plants of Graham's Land, otJO Hooker, \V. D., on Norway, 297 Hooiier, Lieutenant, on the Tuski, 133 Hope Sanderson, loj Hope's checked, luD Hors-hwal, 18 Ilormista of Orosius, IG Hormogenes, Saint, 13(5 Horn, Cape, 201 Horsburgh, Cape, 287 Horses or ships of Gades, 5 Hothani (Cape), tides of, 233; inlet, 017 Hubart, his hope, 102, 109 Hudson (Henry), t;5, 73, !)5, 99, 101 ; the Navigator, by Dr. Asher, 4(;, 91 Hudson's Bay, 88; Company'.s E.xpedi- tion, Dease and Simpson, l'")3; Dr. Kae, 154 ; liiver discovered, 1)4 ; Strait, 48, 94 Huniiiu'idt on the snow-line, 253; cur- rent, 375 Hutcliius's Goose, 278 llvar;(Capo Kgede), 21, 22, 23 Ilvidsa'rk (^Capc Farewell), 21 Hvperborean Cvdops, 317; Mongolida-, 331 InicKNiA Pheenicea of Viilanuova, 8 Iberville, M. de, takes York Fort, 113 learia of the Zeni, 32 Ice, chapter on, 237 ; barrier. Parry Archipelago, 210; l)reaks ui>, when, 210; bridge, Smith's Sound, 224; binl, 212; bcri;s, 200; drift, 23D; formed in September, last.^ over the winter, 211; Haven, Novaya /endya, (17 ; heat required to melt, 239; cli(fs, Antarctic, ,'.71, 372 Iceberg mistaken for an islan<1, 300 Iceland, 217 ; di.^covered by Naddodr, 15 ; Greenland and Meta Incognita, 2G8 Icy Cape, l28 lerne, (i Igaliko, 29 Iglu of the Kskinios, 320 Iglut, 310 Iliad, quotations f'rom, 2, 3 llliseersut, 320 llmurinen, ;i 15 Indepeiulauce, Cape, 2U2, 223 ' Indigirka, ;il2; discovered, 132; fossil wood, 292 ; Polynia of, 222 I Ingaland-m. un, 300 ! lugletield (Commander), 184 ' Ingnersoit, 324 lugolfr colonizes Iceland, 15 Insula Divi Joanis, 47 Inisfall (Insula saera), G Innuic, 323 lunuarolit, 324 Inuit (Kskimos), chap, on, 298, 299, 322 Inuk, words derived from, 323 Ireland, (J Irish discoverers of Iceland, 15 Irmingrr, Ca[)t., 217 Irving, Dr., 211,214 Isabnornials, 243 Islauda, 48 Island, Cape, Novaya Zemlya, 71 Isle of Man, 6 ; Islands of Orkney, 29 Isothierais, of, 43, 4.% 2t!G Isothcrmals, 209, 201 Ivanoio's discoveries, 132 I Ivory, fossil, 294; gull, 213, 2(j0 i Ivuktok, 93 Jackson, Cape, 223 :J92 ■vii ' INDEX. Jukutsk or Yakutsk, I'lozun soil, 25'.) ; lignite of, 2\)2 .iHtucs, Cu]it,, 110, HI Jainea, King of Scotland, 43 Juna (Uncovered, 132 ; and Lena deltas and woods, '2('>7 Jan Mayen's Mand (Clieriu), 204, 241 Jaj)anfse Junks drift across the Pacific, 11 Jutier.son, Capo, 201 Jenisei or Yenisei Uiver, G3, 131 Jens Munlv, 107 John of Ghent, 213 Johnson, (Uichardjon the Samoyeds, 335 Joniard, M., 11, 12; Mon. d'anc. Ucogr., 47 Journeys over the ice, 198 Juet (liob), mutineer, 101 Jukaiiirs, Yukagirs or Yukaiiir-', burn fossil wood, 2!)2 ; make weapons of fossil ivorv, '-/Do June, temp, in tlie Parry Archipelago, 2G0 Jutland or Cartris, 3 Kaafiohd, 24'J Kablunak, 3 King Charles's Promontory, 1U» King-duik, 213 King James's Foreland, 103; Newland, 202 King, John, stands by Hudson, lOl King William's Island, 160, 152, 197 ; land, 193, 198; sea, 154 Kirmas, 213 Kittegari-ut, 300,309 Kittewake, 213 Kjolen tirs, 267 Klaproth's Asia Polyglotta, 328 Knight, Master John, voyage to Labrador, 95; accompanies Barlow and Vaughan on discovery, 114, 115 Kodiak, or Kadjak Island, 327 Koedesniks, 338 Kola, River of, 19, 59, 74 Kolgoi, or Kolguev Island, 59, 332 Kolniogorui, or Colmogro, 60 Kolyma liiver, 222 ; polynia, 222 ; sea- sons, 238 Kolyutschin tribes, 327 Kongueserokit, 324 Koiigskuggsiii, or Specidum regale, 27, 29 Kotelnoi Island, 229, 230 ; ancient erec- tion on, 329 Kotzebue (Lieut, and Adni.), 137, 29G Kroksiiorthr, 26 Krusenstern, P. Von, 339 Kublai-hhan, 35 Kunilsha, 283 Kuskutchewak, 319 Kwichpak, woods of, 267 Kyerdlek (Cape Farewell), 21 Labradok, 48, 212; Cape, 80; current, 219 Lagmand, or Justiciary, 22 Lagopus albus, 212 Laet, map of Newfoundland by De, 49 Lake Kenned}', Cumberland Island, 110 Lancaster (Sir James), Sound named by Baffin, 106 ; entered by Sir John Ross, 143 ; sailed through by Parry, 143 Land of Desolation, West Greenland, 88 Laudnama bok, 23, 29, 30 Langen^s, 65 Lapland, 56, 74 ; bows, 346 ; burrows, 345 ; coasts, 265 ; marriages, 346 ; metallurgists, 345 ; pulea or sledge, 346 ; snow-shoes or skeuts, 346 ; line of woods, 267 ; witches, 320 ; boats, 349 ; rein-deer, 348 Laplanders or Lapps, chap, on, 331, 344; dress of the, 34C ; figures of the, 346 ; funereal customs of the, 248 ; nomades, 346 m INDEX. •Mi Laplew, Duiiietrius, survevs iieur Isluiul, l;J7, 1 U) J '-i'H Laurcntian range of rockij, 285 Leaf beds, 1.'88 Leems, Kiuid, .')I0 I^eerboord or Larl)oaid, 17 Li'ifdc llav, 20-' Leifr, Kriksoii, baptized, 21 ; winters in Vinland, 21 Leifrs buthr, 24 Lena Kiver, 1J2 Lenok, 283 Leslie on the snow-line, 252 Lewes (Sir Cornwall), quoted, 13 Ley or I.ee, Dr. Kdward, 3t), 51 Liakliow, the merchant, discoveries of, UJ7 ; on currents, 22!) Liakliow Islands, l.'M, 1;J8, 329; wood huts of, 2'J3 ; snow-line of the, 254 Liussic basin, 287 Libyan idiom, 12 Ligneous deposits in the arctic basin, 289 Lif^nite of Itanks's Island, 21MI ; on the Hunks of the Rocky Mountains, 28'J ; at Jakutsk, 292; in .Siberia, 291; Tertiary, 285; of Vancouver's Island at Nanino, 289 Linnseus on the Lapland wastes, 2C5 Lincolnshire amber, 3 Linschoten, 65 Linzaclia, or Jakuts 131 Lisle (iJe) touches on the American coast, 128 List of Searching Expeditions, 172 Litho-slaves, 344 Little lish-hill, 125 Little table-island, 213 Lobassy, 329 Lodia or Lodji, 73, 131 Lofoden Isles, 19 Log-huts, Ancient, 343 Lok, Michael, 70 ; manuscript of, 81 London coast, Greenland, 1)3 Loom or Lorn (Colymbus), 21. 5, ;51G Lord flavor's iiayj Boothia, 152 Lord Mulgrave (I'hipps, Capt.), 211 Lord Weston's Portland, Cumberland Island, 110 Low Island, Spitzbcrgen, 205, 211, 214, 215 Lubbock (Mount), in South Victoria, 3C9 Lumley, Lord, 1U8 Lumley's (or Lumlie's) Inlet, (JO, 100, 108 Liitke, Admiral, on the currents of Ho- vaya Zemlya, 220 Liitke^ land,"G3 ; north extreme, 73 Lutwidge, Capt, 214 MacCi.intock (I ieuteiant and Captain, Sir Leopold), 182, 195, 19:{, 854 JIiMidoca, Las Maniiicsas, u.j.'i Mercs di! ylac^s in (ireunland, 200 Arennaid, 1 lie bark, !».'» Mcta Iiicojjnita, 8-', 211; Best's account of, Hi) Meyer's formula for decrease of tempera- ture, 'J'll Mew, 21.1 Michael, The, 78 MidiauiteH"kiiew the use of tin, 2 ]\Iiildlo ice, 04 Middleton's vovaj;e to Kepulae Hay, 117; liis vindication, III); c.qifain 'of tlie Shark, 120 Mill Ifsliiiid, 104 Mississipiii, or C'luirdiill River, l02 l^Iissions, Ulat, 'JI, .'(22 Blistaken Straits of Frobisher or Hud- son's Strait, x:i, H.") Mofl'un Island, Spitzb>'i'-eii, 214 Moliiisks, Elevated remains of, 29G Molvas, I'orto di, -1!) Molyiicux's t;li>l)o, 90 Miiiif^olidiC, llyperburean, .331 ; Yugrian, IMonte de Lions, 32 Montreal Inland, 104 Moonshine, The Hark, HS Moore's (Captain) Southern voyage, 373 TMorcjionct's harbour, 51) INIoriniarusa of tho Ciinhri, 10 Morton, Mr. AVilliam, 201, 203, 223, 224 jMiisur, 2.") Mount Krebus, an active volcano, 370, 371 ; Melbourne, Victoria Land, 370 Mount of God's mercie, 9/5 Mount Haleigh, Ciunberla.id Island, 89 Mount Saint Elias 128 Mount Warwick, l-'robisher's Strait, 81, S3 Jlount Sabine. Victoria Land, 307, 372 ; plants of, 308 Mount Terror, Victoria Land, 371 Mozine lliver, 332 Muckla iokel (Cape Farewell), 21 Mulixravo, Lord, !)7, 127, 215 Midler, Max, 34.5 Munckenes, Vinterhavn, 107, 109 Munk (Admiral), 104; Cove, 107 IMuscovy, 07 Muscovy Company, CI, 77, 57 Musk ox, its ran.t;e, 270; in North Greonland, 227 ; Fossil, 295 Mussel harbour, Spitzbergen, 210 Mutnaia, liivcr, 131 Naddodu discovers Iceland, l.j Nagga!uktormeut, 300 Nat, Corneliszoon, 01, 05 NamoUos, 328 X.iniiio, Lignite of, 290 Nantuckel Island seen by liiarni llcr- julfrson, 23 Nassau or I'et's Strait, 02, G5; Cape, 73 Navv Hoard Inlet, 190 Ne ultra, 117 Nelluan^iineun, 300 i Nelnui, 283 Nelson Uiver, 102; entered by Foxe, llO Nerigon of I'liny (Norway), 6 , Nerrim-Innua, 324 Nevado, Kio de, 49 New l>enmark, 107 I New Friesland, 204 j Newfountlland, 210, 221 New Guinea, 353, 356 New Hebrides, .'{54 Newland, King James', or West Spit/.bcr- j gen, 97, 98, 202 ; New Siberia, 138, 229,2.30; Won.i.liills I of, 29.3 1 New Wales, Ruperts' Land, 10;?; of ; Foxe, 110 j Neyra, Alvaro Jlemlana de, 352 Noatak, Woods of the, 207 Nootka .Sound, 327 Nordvich, Bay of, 137 Normau contests with the Kainulainen, 19 ; pegs of lead, 2 North Bay of Batiin, 118 North Cape, 19,210,230 I North Devon, 1)4 ' North-east Cap' , 130 ; voyages of the > Dutch, (14 ' North Foreland, Meta Incoi^nita, 80 North Georgian Islands, 23.3 ! North Somerset, 144, 197 North Star, 93 Northursictie (summer haunts), 25, 20 North-west Foxe, 108 North-west passage, 7G; not navigable, 170 Noi th-wost voyages. Early, 7G ; of the lt»th century", 141 Norton Sound, 207 Norway, 18; trees of,'.2G7; bear, 277 Norwegians, 350 Nova Francia, 32 Nova Scotia, or Markland, 25 Novava Zemlya, 31, 55, 00, 01, G5, 07, 209, 234 Novogorod merclianfs, 333 Nicholas, St., Harbour of, 57, 59 Nikolai, Cape, 152 Nijnei Kolymsk foundi d, 132 Nunatangiinun, 300, 315, 3lG Nuwuk, 300 Nuvnjarschiut (Cumberland Sound), 92 Nve Hernhut, 89 Nyenech, 331 Nynei, or Nijnei Kolymsk, founded, 132 ' Oit, Obi, or Obbi, The River, 05, 00, j 131, 308, 332, 333, 334 Obi, Gulf of, 131 INDDX. imr) Oliiliirian .Saniuites, 334 ' 01)ilnr>k, '-'73, ;i.'J3 ; voj^i-t ition of, '2T2 <)l)Mt'rvati(iiioii tlu; lino ol'scuri'li liy (Jroat I'isli Kivcr, 177 i (>^c!e, I'oii't, rJl I OlitlitT, Octlicr, or Audlicr, 34!); voynK" round tliu Kortli Cape, IG; Kcisdiu- richt, 1«. Olal' on currents, 22(1 Olaf, Kini; Tri;;^VL'S()n, 'Ji Ulaus Jla>,'niii, du Hist. Gent. Sept., 30 Oleknia, 132 Oli'nu-nos, ((3 Onialik, 3l'l, 313 l)nlonal•sor.^()ak (Cai)o Fan-well), 21 Oinniauey, (joninianderand Captain, 182 ; tinds) traces of Franklin, 183 Onioki, 312 Con.ilaslika, 327 Oo/.o, composition of the sea, 222 OiMUire Islantis (of Novaya Zendya I, (5."),7 1 Orj,'anisins at tlie livittoi'n of the r^fa, 221 Uniitholof,'v of the Arctic Sea, 27H Orosins, AiVi-ed's, 20 Ortelius, Thcitr. Orl.is of, 30 Osliorn (Lieut, and Capt.j, 18-1, IsG Oiuhifv, iJr, 12. Ounartok, hot springs of, 31 Oiissa, river, '_'38 Uvihos nioschalus, 270, 2ll.j Paooda, brif,', Capt, IMoore, 373 Piifjophila ebmnca, 21.'! I'arlianientary reward for the di.scovery of the Noriii-wcst I'assage voted in 174.% 110 I'arnn niile.i, ool Tarrot, Diving', 213 Parry (Lieut., Capt., and Admiral Sir K.\ 212, 214, 217; accompanies Sir John Koss round IJallin's Uay, 142; .sails tlirouf^h Lancaster Sound, 143, 144 ; examines the coa.st from IJepulse liny northwards, 118, 144 ; lands the Fury's stores, 145 ; his lioat voyage towards the North Pole, 145, 211 ; on tides, 232 ; cape, 151; mount, 2Ul; mountains, 371 Pasquiligi, Pietro, 50 Passida or Tundra, 131; river, 131 Pilssida, Ton>;use villaj^e on the, 140 Pauli (Dr.), Krenij;, Alfred of, quoted, 18 Peace of Utrecht, 113 Peckham, Sir George on the N. \V. Pas- sage, 44 Peels Strait, 19G, 231 Pekin or Khan-balik, 35 Pemican, 159 ; quantity of taken in the overland expedition, 170 Penguins of Victoria Land, 3C8, 378 Penny, Capt., 182 ; linds Franklin's first wintering place, 183 ; surveys Welling- ton Sound, 183 ; in llogarth Sound, '.tl Permiikow (Jakow) reports the existeuci of the Liakhow Islands, 137 Pcrinia, ID; Perniiidvior I'lrmiaii!*, 18, \'J Pcrnamhuto, l)rilt-\Nood from, 221 I'.Tl (.Sir Til.) ami Cahot, 42 IV.sclischi.ri (sul)tcrrunean dwelliMgs),y33 IVslu'W Lake, 200 lV.^tik■nc(• of the black (le.'ith, 27, 28 Pet (Arthur) and ilackmaii, lit Pet's Strait or Yu^iorsky schar, 0,') I'l'tchora, liiverand(,'ou'utrvof,o'>t,03, 131, 238, 3;;2, 331); bay of, t;2, 73 Peter's jieiu'c paid in walrus tusks, 21 I'ltra Island, Antarctic Sea, 303 iVtrcl, the Fidmar, 213 Pevrousi' (La), his vovagc to Hudson's Itay, 81 I'hciiian miners, 8 I'hiUp 11. of .'^pain, 3.VJ, 353 Philip HI. of .vpain, J54 Philo of Itybliis, 13 I'ldun or (jliant, 8, ;!14 I'hipps, ICarl Mulnravo, 127, 205, 209 Phocicaii Greeks Plmniciaiis, the lir>t Atlantic navigators, 1 ; supi>(i.scd of one or more of their ships to America, !(•; miners ami metalliirgihts, 7; pii; of lead, 2; in- scription at Malta, 7 I'hy.sical ^ad;j,raphy, 203 Piasina, 03 Pigeon-diver, 213 Pinus cembra, 273 Pistol Pay or Ilankin's Inltt, 120 I'lanis|)liere of Sebastian Cabot, 15 I'lants of Spii/.bergen, 210 Playse or I'leycc, wiiter of Iltulson's journal, 95 Plectrophancs invalis, 212 Pleuroncctes t;Iacialis ami scaber, 281 320; on metals of India, 2; vu plumbum album, 2 Point iJesiie, 71; lake, edge of woods, 200; Peregrine, 110; Turnagain, 14!) Polar bears, 103; Polynia, 222; tides, 190 Pole, magnetic, 197; (North) thermal ilays at the, 253 Poles of cold, 243 Polo, iMaieo, 35 Polygastrica inhabiting the depths of the sea, 378 Polvnia of Kennedv's channel, 222 ; po- lar, 222 ; Siberian, 222, :.'2y Pomarine Skua, 213 Pond's Pay, 190 ; Strait, 234 Pool, 350 Pope Nicholas the Fiftli, 28 Porsanger F'jord, 208 Port or larboard, 17 l\irter, Cape, 193 Possession Isl.iud, Victoria Land, 308 Pothcrie (M. I5ac(iueville de la), his his- tory of Nortli America, 113 Pouro, 355 Preserved meat tins found on I!ceclie\ Island 102 i'ress, on the seaich for Franklin, 185 Pliny, w T^-^'. /» f , f.r r ,» t ^•1 1. If ... 1 .')i)({ INDKX. I'rirki'tt (Almc'uk) ri'liitcs lliiilsoii^ I'utf, 101 ; accoiMp.inii i Sir T. Itiittun, loJ Prime Charles Inland, S|)il/.lifr^iMi, !»7 rriiii'i) Ilonry'rt iiHtructioiis to .Sir I'lio- 111110 Kiitton, Id.'l I'rince Fiitrick's Island, 'J.'JJ, -.'U l'rlii('(! or Wales' I. ami or Islanil, 11*7; Strait, ciirrcnts of, '2:\'2 PriiK-e Williaiits Somul, i;ifl, 327 I'riiicuHs Hoyal ialuud.-*, wood drifttd to, 'j;i2 I'rior'H Sound, 80 I'rocidlaria ^lucialis, 'JL'i I'roniist'lilciiiiiki or fur-liuntcrs, 1,'M I'roti'iiM, lOskinio, >'J22 IVovInIous corru[)ttd, 57, lijij riariiii^aii, 212 I'litliii, ^'11 Pullun (Lieutenant and Couiniundtir), 181 l'urciia-<, his f)ilgrini», (J2 Pusticerk, ;t.i!) Pytlua.i, a Mugsiliun navi^^utor, 9 QuAi.iiKN, dead trees of, 2!>7 (iuilns or (iuiciis, Finniek fjueens, .'(60, iiVJ (Jwienvick or Kuinuluinen ((iueuniund), 1!) .'{, y.J4, Hob Quoicli Hiver, Uace (or Kas), Cupc, 49 Kadi.ition from snow, 2.H h'a' Cumberland Island, 92 Kamusio, 31 ; imperfectly acquainted with the voyages •i'" Sebastian Cabot, 4.5; ViaRfii de, 'Sti: i.'iscorso sopra los Hac- chalaos, 43 ; li s map of Newfoundland, 49 Kane (or Rein)-deer, 18 Hankin'3 Inlet, Douglas Hay, Corbet's Inlet, or I'istol's Hay, 120 Ras (Knso), Cabo de, 48 Kask, Professor, 345 Ratclilfe, 62 Rathsher, The, 213 Ualision and (iroiselei/., 112 liawlinson's Herodotus, 7 Ita/or-bill, 2l;t Ricord of tliu fate of the KrcbuB and Terror, Pii Red Indians, 3i)0 Redpide, 212 Redshob (Dr.), i|iioted, 5 Regent's Inlet, 11.'), 151, 1!M!, 2.'»l Reiti-deer or lienntliiere, 274, 27."», 27<'i; tleetness of the iuimessed La|»pisli, 349 ; migrations of th(^ 275 Runsseliler Hav, 200 Kefrnciioii at Ke-lnivon, (19 Repulse Hav, 117, 120; winds of, 247 Resolute, drift of the, 192 Resolution Island, lludaon'tf Strait, 89, 90 Reynolds Point, 188 Itliodostcthea Rossii, 213 Richards, Commissioner, 18(J Richardson (iJr. Sir John), 150, 177; Point, 153 Rijp, .Ian Corneliszoon, fiij Ringi^d plover, 212 Rio Nevado, is, 83; en Golfo de Ca.itcllo, 48; or lluilson's Strait, 19 Kipiucan or Ural AIountaiiiH, 342 Rissa tridactvla, 213 Rivers br.ak', ip at 3G" or 39" F., 237; freeze again, 238 Rockhall, 21U Rocks, series of arctic, 285 Hocky Mountains, north end of, 2G7 Roe's (Sir Thomas) Welcome, 117 RomanzoiT, Count, 137 Rondelet, 60 IJosmuister, C3 l.o^s (Cai)tain and Admiral Sir John), 151, 182,211 ; sails round Haflin's Hny, 142; on the Arctic Highlanders, 1(15; on Cumberland Island, 92 ; voyage to lioothia, 151, 152 ; his letter on the Franklin expedition, 158 Ross (Lieutenant, Captain, and Admiral Sir James Clark), 217, 221 ; surveys lioothia, 152 ; sails in the Enterprise, 179; surveys Peel's Sound, 180; is caught in the pack and drifted into IJalHn's Bay, 180; on atmospheric pressure, 377 ; discovers Southern Vic- toria Land, 307; on priority of antarctic discovery, 304 ; his remarkable an- tarctic voyage, 'W3; on southern tem- perature, 3Gt), oG7 Ross's Gull, 213; Islet, 145, 201, 213 Rotge, 213 Route of the Davis' Strait whalers, 241 Runic stone of Kingitorsijak, 27 Ifunots, l''innish, 345 Rupert's Land, 113 Russia Company, 57 Russian exploration of Sii^cria, 130; sailors' residence on Malov Broun, 210 INhF.X. :{!»7 rcbiiH liixi of, 247 Striiit, 8H, 150, 177 i lie Castillo, 842 ;9'> v., 2.'»7 ; of, '207 117 Sir ildlin), |jalVin's Hay, nders, 105; 1; voyage to Itter on tlie id Admiral |1 ; surveys Enterprise, }d, 180; is (drifted into itmosplieric luthern Vic- lof antarctic irkable an- lithern teni- loi, 213 lalers, 241 I27 lljeria, 130; llov Broun, HadinkAs rmli, 21:1; Mi>uiit, Virtoiia I. anil, :i(i7 Saboriie, 34') 8al)rina Isliind iliHrovcrt'it liy llallenv, 3(;3, 3(; I S;lcluMl^e, an l>kinio interpntir, KKJ .SinTctl proinoiilory of WraUKell, C3 Saint Janii'K, Island of, lio Saint >I(ilui, 3H; l.ilnnd of, 47 8aint Lawrence Ulandin Herin^'A Straits, .'il(; SaliHiiurie'n foreland, 1O0; lii!« inland, lo) Salix aritica, 202, 221; iiva-ur.si, 2oj Salmo lenciihthys, 2H3; M;il«r, 2M3 j Snlonian Islandu, 352, 353 | Samu, 321 Same or Swampy, 345 SaniO};edi, 332 1 Sainoyeds, chapter on, 331, 351) ; area of, j 311; belief in a Sni)reine Heiiij;, 3.'tH; dress, 341 ; eaters of raw llisli and li>li, 33tt, 340 ; etlinological relations of the, 341; idols, f JO ; of tiie •leni.sci, 131; land, *i2; pliysloj^noniy, 340 ; stature nf the, 340; tlio physical powers of, 339; wealth, 331) 1 Sana or Sanak, 321 Sanchoniathon, 13 Sanderson's Hope, 93, 202 Sanilpiper, the jiurpie, 212 Sandwich, Karl of, 127 Sandwich Islinds or Simthern Thule, .'t5'.» ; land, 358 San Felipe Kay, in Australia del Espiritu Santo, S55 Santa Crux, Saloman Islands. 353 Santarem, Visconte de, Kssais siir Cos- niographie, 52 Saunders, J., Master, R.N., 180 Scandia of Pliny (Scandinavia), 1) Schalarov on currents, 22!) ; his map referred to, 230 Scilly, G Sclave migrations, 345 Scolvo, Scalva, Scolvus, or Sclolvus, 33 Scorcsby, Dr., 212,217, 241, 212; on East Greenland, 98 ; on Spit/bergen vegeta- tion, 254 ; on winds. 248 Scotland, 21(i Scroggs, Master John, 114 Scythic language, 3li'> Sea-horse I'oint, Southampton Island, 104 ; beasts, 279 Sea- ice, 239 Sealing district, 241 Seals, 279 Search, Admiralty scheme for, 175; by the Great Fish Kiver, 177 Searching expeditions, list of tlie, 172; overland, 175 Seasons for navigation, 241 ; on the Parry Islands, 2G0 Secular elevation of Spitzbergen, 215 ; of Siberia, 230 Sedentary Tchukche, 328 Seed.i tiavollin^' on tin- ice, 275 Senjiln nr .Scvnani, in Noiwav, 5.i >Neulitliril't pinnace, .'iS Settle, l)i(ini^i', 77 Seviii Nlaiids, .Spit/.bergcn, 98, 2) ohainans, tlie ilri'ss and practices of the, 321, 3l'5, 3;|."., ;13H; Salllcyed, ;i;)5 Shcireriis (.lidin) on Lapland, JO Shells, Kl( vate.l, 21i(» Ships of 'I'arsliisli, ti .Siliei'ia, l>u-»ian exploration of, 130 ,Sil"'rian t'(ia>t, 217; linnile, '."."l ; slur- gciiiis, 2H4 ; tiiiidieii, .'(il, 3;I3 Sidonians, 2 Slevcroi vostm imci-nos, Cape (lielins- kin, or tiic Nurlli-cast (ape, 03, lIHi, 3.32; never sailed round, llO; tni'W- !=•<,. „i\ 25.'); P(il>nia cif, -JJO Silla, or the alnid.spla.ru, 324 Sillagiksertdk, 324 Silurian rucks, 2l<5, 28G Simpson (Air. 'I Ims.), his discoveries, 151, 154; on the F.-kiinos, L'Hy ; I'cninsula, 1:12 ; Strait, 154 Sinus codaniis, or the Baltic, 9 Siragne/.i, 331 Sir Thomas Hoe's Welcome, Island, and Strait, 109, 20l, ^,'25 Sir '1 homas Smith's Sound, lOG Skill, 29H hkelet< IIS found, IfiS Skra'llin^ar or Skradlings, Chap, on, 28; of Meta Incognita, 81, 2!i8 Skrige, 344 Skrithilinnia, or Finnish Lapland, 19 Skrithilinni, 314 Skua, 213 Slata baba, 334 Slaty lands, Labrador and Newfound- land, 25 Sledge I.-ilaiid, Smeerenberg, or Oily Hill, 25; ooflins deposited in the harbour of, 212 Smith, Commodore, 120 Smith's St. Columiia (pioted, IG Smith's Sound, 100, 201, 225, 199 Snorre Tliortinnson, born in Vinland, 25 Snow-bird, 212 Snow-houses, 310 Snow-lino, 252 ; on the Arctic circle, 254 ; Meech on the, 253 Soiots of the Samoyed nation, 341 Somateria mollissima, 213 SoriJe in Norway, 217 South Georgia, "birds of, 359; snow-line, 359 South Shetland, 3C0 Southampton, Cape, 102; Island. 118 Southern outlets of Melville Sound, 179 Southern Thulo, 358, 359 South Goose-cape, 01 j Spitzbergen, 06, 201, 217, 259; current I from, to Kennedy's Channel, 225 ; im IN'DI'LX. m ■n 1 ■'!;■ ; t ■i ^^'■l^ tin :if drift ii-'c of, '21«; Ila^t, •Jul; f;c(ilo;^v of. liO-l; lliidsoirs \Wn U<, 'M, In'; pliysit'iii p'o^jrniiliy of, "jn;!; (|iiii(lru- peds of, '210; vi';j;ct;ili()ii of, •Jill; orifjin of the iriine of, 20o ; Wust, (i(i. Spring birds, 2.'i',) Squicr, Mr., 12 Stnats Ilaivl, 201 Staduchin winters on tlie Kolyma, 132 iStiiii or Stanniini, Tin, 2 Statonliuk (Cape l''are\vi'li), 21 Staten Islmid, .Soutii Sea, }W) Steereboord, Steorboni, or ^ftarboard, 17 Stenodiis IMaclvonzii, 2K.'> Stercorarins jiarasiticiis, 21. 'J Sterna arctica, 21. '5 Stewart, Captain, 182 Stoel<-ti.sti or Hacalaos, 50 Stone- tools, 314 Stoncy Mountain?, 120 Strabo, .'{51, Ur>5 Straumfiorthr or Buzzard's Hay, 2.j Strugannia, ;M0 Strunt-jager, 2i;{ Sturgeons not found in Arctic .\nnrica, 280 ; Siberian, 2S1 Subterranean clwellings of Tiniansk, 333 Summer, progress of, 2()1 ; in America, 2.V.) Sunken land of l}u«so, 88 Sun's rays, action of the, 255 Sunshine, The bark, Supperguksoak, 322 Supreme lieing, belief of the Snnioycds respecting the, 338 Sutherland (Dr.), on tides, 233 Svatoi (accursed), 131 Swaue of Tcr Veere, Nai, master of tlie. G4 Swethland or Sweden, 10 Syevernuy, Guisnuy nniis (Goose Cape), 55 Szkolni, or John of Kolnus, or Scolvo, 33 TAniN of Pliny Table of mean, summer, and annual temperatures, 2G1; Island, Spitzbcrgen, 2ir> Tadebcs, 338 Taimur Biiy, tides of, 221 ; Cape, G3, 130; attempts to sail round the Cai)e, 138; Lalvc, 140; Uiver, 13!) Takak, 321. Tamaco, Taumaco, or Taomaco, Saloman Island.^, 354, ;i;)5 Tarandu's fossilis, 295 Tarshish or Tartessus, 5, G; meaning of ships of, 7 Tartaria, G7 Tasman, 35G Tartarinow, 230 Taxites, 288 Tclicndoma, 132 Tchiif, 282 Tehirik'iw, I.icut , 13,'i, IW; touches on tlie Auiericau ec.a>t, I2>< Tcluuateli Itny, JiJT 'IViiukclip, Ichutciii, or Tchuktdii, 131, .'!2)^, .'il3; first heanl of, i;>2; mode of bartering witli tiio, l.'>2; rein-deer of tile, l:;;i; sedmtary, 32S; traders, .'!l(i Tdiukotclii or 'I'cliukotski Cape, 328, 313 Teni|)erature, '^bapter on, 2 19 ; of antarc- tic districts, 37'! : .itniosiilievie, 377 ; in- lluence on vegctalinn of, 241); of .June in the I'arry Areln|'elago, 2t!0 ; of Lapland and (!reat IJear Lake com- jiared, 202; in deep mines, 2.">4, 2,">5 ; table of mean, summt ■ and annual, I 2(il I Tenerilfe. 21 (J I Tciin or Tin, 2 I Teploi wetcr, in Arctic America, 240 I Terfynnes or Tertins, 18 IVrii, Arctic, 213 Terra Australis, ;!.")0; inco;;nita, 352; (]c Haecalaos, 32 ; Cortorealis, 32; map of T. Cortorealis, 50; nova, 32; nuova, 40 ; prinuim visa, 38 Terro Adelie, 20 Tertiary lignite, 285 'lY'utons, 341 Thaw, depth in the Kanienaya tundra of tlio summer, 2.")8; de.-cent into the eartii in various localities of the, 257 Thermal days in the frif^id zone, .253; rays heat the earth to the depth of 100 feet, 250 Thermic anomaly, 243 Tlilueh or (.Mowey (Trout Lake), 125 Thomas AVilliams' Island, nieta incognita, 81 Thorne, Mr. Robert, 39 ; declaration of the Indies of. 50 Th()rn!v>sting, 21 'I'horwaldson of Icelandic descent, 27 Thousand Isles, Spitzbergen, 204 Thule of the Komans, 14; described by Pytheas, 9; voyage from Nerigon to, !* ; of Columbus or Iceland, 34 ; southern, 3.W. 351) Tides of Arctic America, 230; Pay of Mercy, 232 ; and currents of Kennedy's Channel, 223 ; in Furj' and Hccla Strait, 19t!; of 150 feet, 34; Polar, 100 j Dr. Sutherlaiul's register of the, 233 ; of Spitzbergen, 221 ; of Victoria Land, 375 Timieus on Raunonia, 10 Timansk, 333 Tierra Austral, 354 ; Ferme, 352 ; trees of Tierra naya tundra L'Ciit into the of the, ao7 d zone, '253 ; , depth of 100 ,ake), 125 letaincof^nila, kclaiation of csccnt, 27 , 204 described by Nerifjon to, Iceland, 34 ; 230; Bay of ; of Kennedy's and lleelii 34; Polar, ^{^ister of the, of "Victoria ,c, 352 ; trees ids, G lians,122,325, iturnl History 'I'orfii'us (intnlaiidia (piotid, (i"i ; Vlii- land of, ."ii Torne.i, (Jnlf of', 350 Tornait, 'JL' 'I'ornj^ak, or I'skinm familiar, 32i1, .'VJl, 324 Torn^arsuk, an Eskimo deitv, 320, r.21, 32 1 Torres, Luis Vaez, .'l/i.l; Strait, •",")(] 'I'orsiikati'k, or Desolation part of Wist (irrt'iilaml, 7S Totiies K^',> 'rouareir, 12 'I'rafaitjar, Franklin present in tlie action ol, IKi Trallic of the K.skini'S and 'I'chukelie, Trcitv betwciu I rik of Norwin- and llein-y VIl. of Kii-land, 2-t 'J'rees, elevation to wliich tiiey ascend, 2(iH ; freeze, 25f) ; thiir line of tcrniiii.i- tion ill I.aiil.inii and Norway, '.'•!7; tlu'jr dril't on tiie Spit/bcr^en c 'ast, 211; of Tierra did l'ue,i;<>, Ker^uehn's Lund, and till' Aucklands, SSO TreurenlieriT ISay, 145, 211 ; coHins depo- sited in, 122 Trin^ra hyjiolenca and maritinia, 212 Trouts, Arctic, '2^'.'> Trove, tliri'e Umlson's na\- fo'^s taken bv Ji. Le Chevalier de, 1I3 Trumpet Island, Jle'a Iiicoirnila. M Tsina!:ii, or Berber writing, 12 Tundreii, 2<;4 Tunf,'alhtuk, 320 Tunnersoit, 324 Tunudiakbek, Cumberland Ishuul, 111 Turks, 341 Turnat^ain Point, 149 Tnrnciiauka Kiver, 131 Two-faced nation, ol7 Tyrians, 2; reputed to have invented ship-building, 4 Tytler, I'Vazer, on discovery in North America, 50 UWYGDS, 22 Umiak, 300 Unpava Bav, 100 Urals, UrarMountains,!'). 332, 333 Uria brunnichii, crylie and troille, 213 I'rsus arctos, 277 Urville, Duniont d', 3G4;on Cote Clairie, 305 Utiea founded, 4 Utkuhikalik or Utkuhikaling-mieut, 300, 30(), 317. Utkuhikalik-kok, 103 Uthdik Point, lOS Ut ultra of liutton, 102; seen bv Foxe, loa Vaccinium uliginosum, 223, 2S>! Vaifj;atz or Wavgatz (Pet's Strait^, 60, C2, h Id N.K,53; of Hudson's Uav Companc, 114; to N.W. (Kunilall), 1)4 W.^OKU Ini.kt, 122 ; river, 117 Waggon-way, Sjiitzleru'cu. 20() Wai^atz or Waygalz l.sland and Strait, Is'ovava Zi-mlva, 221, 332; currents of, 21G Wakash Indians, .327 Wakkendorph, Archbishop Erik, G5 V.'alden Islands, Spitzbergen, 215, 11.3 Walle, John di-, G4 Wallich (Dr.), on marine animals living at great depths, 221 Walker (Dr.), on teniperatin-e of the earth, 257 ; on the freezing point of sea-water, 223 Walker, Cape, 144, 15S, 175, 180 Wallace, James, his account of the Ork- nevs quotetl, 20 Walrus, 270 Walsingham, Cape, Cumberland Island, 02, 04 Warbeck, Perkin, 43 Wardhuus in Finniark, 5.", .",7, dO Warinow, Moravian brother, !)1, .322 Warwick, Cape, lU'.t ; l-'oreland, 00; Island, 01 Warwicke, Karl of, 70 Water-fowl, arrival of, UIS Warzina in Kinmark, 5() Washington, Cape, Victoria Land, 37ii Watery surfaces contrasted with ex- panses of land, 374 Weiite Ilav, 200 Weide Jans Water, 204 Wellincton Channel, 1(!0, 200; entered by the American expedition, 1S2 ; cur- rents of, 233 Wellington Sound or Channel, 1 13 West l$ygd, 22 West England, tlreenland, 87, fSS West Spitzbergcn, 2lj3 im '" i| •i!' W ' t S ^f 400 INDEX. f:^.' 5 ■ •■ ■. 1. i^' AV f. ^h !■ I n ', , PM! I'/v' K*-' ' ■ ■ -. i ■ » ' • i' •■Sf: .' ■ ' '■ ^ . 't ■ •- ;1V ^"^ •■;'i ,,'* \i m'- % i??: .,, '; . Westray Island, 29 Weymouth, Captain Geor}.;t', 94 Whales, 27!) Whalebone, 31 fi Whale-fislier's bifilu. 241 Whale fishery, 280 ; origin of the Spitz- bergen, 211 Whale Island, 129; Point, 102; Sound, lOG White Dolphins (Beluga), 31G White-fish, 282 White Sea, 19, 5G, 63, 74 Wilkes, Captain, 363, 3G4 ; sees Terre Adelie, 365 Willes (Richard) on the North-west Pas- sage, 44 Wilhelmina, drift of the bark, 216 William Torr, whaler, drift of the wreck of, 21G Willoughby, Sir Hugh, 54, 55 ; 's Land, .55 Winds, chapter on, 244 ; Maury's chart of, 244 ; currents aftected by, 228 ; at Fort Confidence, 245; Repulse Baj', 247 ; in Siberia, 245 ; at Spitzbergen, 248 ; warm winter, 246 Winter harbour, Melville Island, 143 Witches Land, 204 Wolf, 316 Wollaston Land, 151 Wolstenholme, Sir John, 99, 106 ; 's ultima vale of Foxe, 110 Wolverine, 316 Women's Islands, Greenland, 93, 105 Wood, Captain James, 111 Wood, alluvial deposits of at lakutsk, 292; fossil, in Siberia, 291; bills of the Liakhow Islands, 293 Woods on the Ob, 62; terniinatifin* of, 260, 267 ; antarctic line of, 379 Worthington (Will.), keeper of (Jabot's writings, 45 W^rsenllolme, Cape, 101 Wiangell (Baron), 222, 317; on No- ma