IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) '<>/ 1.0 I.I 11.25 IA£||2^ m m ^ tiS, 2.5 111 U ill 1.6 p;^ /] c'a. 't* >> /A Photoeraphic Sciaices Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STReiT WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 872-4503 Ws V \ V IV i*- ^^^ &?, o CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductlons historiques \ 4 (meaning "CON- TINUED"), or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Maps, plates, charts, etc.. may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diograms illustrate the method: Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprimie sont film^s en commen^ant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la derni^re page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, salon le cas. Tcus les autres exemplaires originaux sont film6s en commen9ant par la promidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole — »- signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc.. peuvent dtre film6s d des taux de rdduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul cliche, il est film6 i partir de I'angle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas. en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 |i '/ T I V THE STUDENT'S GUIDE TO ENGLISH GEAMMAR; OB, THE WAY TO SPEAK AND WRITE GRAMMATICATLY; BT ▲ CONCISB AND COMPREHENSIVE SYSTEM, IN WHICH CONSID- ERABLE IMPROVEMENTS AND CORRECTIONS HAVE BEEN MADE THROUGHODT : COMPEISING^, ly A PLAIN AND SYSTEMATIC COMPENDIUM, PRACTICAL LBS- SONS, ILLUSTRATIONS, EXERCISES, RULES, QUF3TI0NS, AC. FOR BEGINNERS. BY THE REV. JOHN GILBERT ARMSTRONG, M.A., Incumbent of |^atoftes6urg, (B. am., Ckairum of Ue Circuit Cojuitj Board of PuHic Iii»tructiv,n for Presoott and Buuell j Superin- leadcat of Schools, &c. Pirst Canadian Edition. iWontreal: PRINTED AND PtTBLISHED BY JOHN LOVELL. 1861, wmmm BBH /// 7^f Entered a(?bording to the Act of the Provincial Parlia- ment, in the year one thousand eight hunt sd and sixty-one, by the Rev, J'ohn Gilbert Armstrong, M.A., in the office of the Registrar of the Province of Canada. (! mm it PEEFACE. la- nd Lce ( Thh First Edition, of a thousand copies, of « The Stu* dent's Guide to English Grammar," was published by request several years ago ; and was the result of lectures delivered before Mechanics' Institutes, and other public Essemblages, on the other side of the Atlantic. It was dedicated by express permission to the late Rev. Dr. Sadlbir, M.R.I.A., for many years Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, and one of the Commissioners of " Na- tional Education " in Ireland. Nearly six hundred subscribers have induced the author to publish the present edition. The following extract, from the preface to the first, will give some idea of the nature of the work : " The study of Grammar has justly been considered mn object of the greatest importance by learned men in every age, but, like other sciences, it has been enveloped in mystery, and perplexed with needless difficulties. Every art, or science, is more or less involved in ob- / ■Bsn IV PREFACE. scurity by the difficult terms peculiar to it. In no^ science, perhaps, is this more remarkably the case than in Grammar : the terms employed are so abstruse^ thai, unless accurately and intelligibly explained, many per- sons of experience and moderate capacity cannot understand them. Could this inconvenience be tho- roughly and efficiently removed, the principles of Grammar might be adapted to the humblest ability j for were the nature of the various parts of speech clearly shown, the mind would recognize its ov/n oper- ations, and perceive that Grammar is nothing else than a delineation of those rules which we observe in the expression of every thought by words. As the English language has received its greatest improvements from men of classical knowledge, and as we cannot clearly understand the true meaning and force of the terms made use of in Grammar without tracing them to their origin, the derivation of the words of importance have been given throughout, with the plain meaning at-" tached to each. Under the head of Orthography, a list Of directions for using capitals and italics has been added. Under Etymology, considerable improvements and corrections have been made in almost all the * parts of speech.' Under Syntax, within thirteen rules and their notes, will be found sufficient instruction on the concord and government of the English tongu^! Under Prosody, the various rules to hft observed in PREFACE. ^^ punctuation have been carefully framed from the writ- ings of standard authors. A chapter is given on Ver- sification, and the requisites indispensable to good com- position. Short exercises are introduced after each of the parts of speech. Under Syntax, ' Exercises to be corrected and parsed' are inserted of sufficient length and variety to enable the student to understand the rules and notes thoroughly." As simplicity and conciseness have been kept in view throughout, words easily understood have been introduced instead of many of obscure and often ambi* guous meaning ; and several technical terms have been dispensed with altogether, wherever allowable : for the same reason, mere facts aro sometimes stated, unac- companied by any comment whatsoever. : Questions, calculated to test the attention and ac- quirements of the student, and to aid the teacher in examining his pupils on every point upon which instruc- tion is given, areinserted, in their proper places through- out the work, A short chapter on analysis, intended to be studied by advanced pupils only, has been added as a necessary introduction to general composition. As a large portico presents an unbecoming entrance to a small edifice, so a long preface is an unnatural introduction to a slender volume. The author, sensible M^.^ct, would rather invite an unbiassed PTnmi^ 1^ PREFACE. ation of his little book, than say anything further in explication of its contents. His Grammar may be considered by some as pos- sessing few recommendations : if it possesses ani/f he will not regret that he has devoted so much time and attention to the subject. In conclusion, be will merely add that the present edition is published in a revised form ; and that it contains many additions and alterations ; as to the utility of which, he quotes the words of a well-known classic author :* — " Emen,' datio 'pars studiorum utilisaima ; neque enim sine cau94t creditum es/, stylum non minus agere^ cum delet" -rrrrr-rr-. : —r^, ♦ Quintilian. See Table of Contents, at the end. THE STUDENT'S GUIDE TO ENGLISH GEAMMAE, Grammar (from the Greek word gramma, a let- ter or law,) means the science or law of language, English Grammar teaches the correct manner of speaking and writing the English language. Language (from the Latin word lingua, a tongue,) means speech, or tongue, or the expression of our ideas by words.* In order that Grammar may be more easily and methodically studied, it is divided into four parta or sections, called Orthography, Etymology, Byntax, and Prosody, Orthography (from the Greek words orthos, just or right, and grapU, writing,) points out the right mode of joining letters into syllables and words. Etymology (from the Greek \y^ords itumos, true, and logos, a word,) treats of the true or: gin of words, their classification, and the various changes made in them. ♦ Words will be explalQed under the head of Ortho- gfiipii^r. 8 THE student's GUIDE Syntax (from the Greek words sun, together, and tasso, to arrange, or taxis, order,) points out the arrangement of words in sentences, and the rules by which they are controlled. Prosody (from the Greek pros, for, and ode, verse,) treats of the art of making verse, and pro- nouncing words. ORTHOGRAPHY, Orthography treats of letters, syllables, and WORDS. LETTERS. A LETTER is the mark of a sound. The letters taken together are called the Alphabet. There are twenty-six letters in the English alphabet :— a b cdefg hijklmnopqrst u vw X y z. A letter that can produce a perfect sound by it* self is called a vowel. The vowels are a e i o u, w, and y. ' ' * ^ The remaining nineteen letters of the alphabet are called consonants (from the Latin con, together and sono, to sound,) because they cannot sound alone, or without the assistance of the vowels • as b, 0, d, &c., sound as be, oe, de, &c, ' When a letter is not sounded in a word, it is called mute ; as a in the word beat. A DIPHTHONG (from the Greek dis, double, and phthonffos, a sound,) is the union of two voweiR in a syllable, so as to produce SidQubk sound; as. TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 9 A PROPER DIPHTHONG is that in which loth vowels are sounded ; as in the above example, voice. An improper diphthong is that in which only one of the vowels is sounded ; as oa in boat. A triphthong (from the Greek treisj three, and phthonffos, a sound,) is the union of three vowels in one sound ; as eau in beau, CAPITALS, Letters are either large or small ; the former are called capitals, (from the Latin caput, the head, because they bear a head above the other letters), directions for using capitals. 1. The first word after a full stop, and after a note of interrogation or exclamation when it ends a sentence. 2. The first word of every quotation, example, or precept introduced in a direct form ; as, " Franklin Bays, * Serve thy self J " <' The motto was ' Death or QloryJ' 3. The first word of every book, tract, essay, &c., and of their great divisions into chapterc, sections, para-, graphs, and notes. 4. The names of the Deity ; as, God, Mmighty, 6. Proper names ; as, William, Dublin, Liffey, Ac, 6. Titles of books and publications ; as. Homer j *< Tho Evening Mail,'' &c, *l. Inscriptions, title-pages, &c. 8. Adjectives derived from proper names of places and men ; as, " The Lutheran doctrines," (from Luther,) f' English," (from England). 9. The first word of every line of poetry. ; 10. The name of an object personified ; as " The Might draws nigh ; where now, O Day, has fled thy Sun." n Jlis^Him, when applied to Peity, or used emphatically. 10 THE student's GUID^ M N 12. Any fading term ; as, The RebellioTif The lu' quisitiorij The Reformation. ,. 13. The names of months, days, a,nd feasts ; as Easter j Monday, May, Christmas. 14. Titles of offi'^.e or honour ; as, " The LordMayoVf ff Baron Brady." Shew where the capital letters should be em- ployed in the following examples ; — ji wise king was solomon, the queen arrived on monday, christmas day comes but once a year, he and i are very old acquaintances, god rules every thing ; he is priest, prophet, arid king of his people, o wretched man that i am, " i take thy gold, but J have made thy fetters ' fast and strong,^* the london times, william, james, and george came to london april last, i have read homer and virgil ; also byron and milton, ^' to the memory of thomas johnson,^^ the irish penny journal,- the coronation of queen victoria, the Spanish armada, ITALICS. Italics (so called because they were first used in Italy%^ are letters which stand in an inclining or slanting form.r;^ They are employed to point out words upon which ' emphasis is to be laid, or S70rds of importance, or which are to \)e, for some reason, distinguished from the rest in a sentence. 1. The following is au e^^ample of words put in Italics for the sake of e7nphasis : — JSe was a man possessed of great power and learning, find yet his language was as easily understood as that of a very plain and ordinary individual. Ii^ Canada m^ Muiiia the oUmat© in Winter la very cold. TO ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 11 2. Words which do not belong to our own language are put in Italics ; as, " The Governor and his aid-de-* camp have arrived." The ad valorem duty is distasteful to certain poll" ticians and merchants. 3. A word or phrase employed merely as »uch is often placed in Italics ; as, " The vessel called the Great Eastern is of immense size." "The Episcopal veto was a subject of Synodioal discussion." " The comparative of great is greater, and the super- lative greatest." [N.B. In writing, a line is run under the word or wi.rds des'gned to be put in Italics ; thus, " Compare e very letter with the copy."] 4. Sometimes whole sentences are printed in Italics ; as, "The verdict was ' Not Proven ;' a belief having pre- vailed, that there was not sujfficient evidence to determine one way or other." Capitals are frequently used instead of Italics where the writer wishes his words to be very prominent ; as, " The best work of its kind that we have seen is Lotell's General Geography." SYLLABLES. A SYi^LABLE (from the G-reek sun, together, and lamhano, to take,) is a sound represented by one or more letters. Everi/ syllable must have in it at least one vowel. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable (from the Greek monos, alone, and sullahey a syllable) ; as, man. A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable (from the Greek dis, twice, and sullabe, a syllable) ; as, manner, boy-hood. A word of three syllables is called a Trisyllable (from the Greek treis, three, and sullabe) ; as, con-^ ienUedy man-fid-ly* 12 THE student's GUIDE 1 ' \ ) i \ •m- t i I ■ A word of mani/ syllables is called a PoJysylr lahle (from the Greek polus, many, dnid sullabe) ; as, de-co-ration^ e-man-ci-pa-tion^ &c. WOKDS. Words are articulate sounds formed of one let-' ter or many letters, by the organs of speech. ArtU^ culate sounds mean distinct sounds ; and cannot apply to those made by the brute creation, for they have not the power of articulation. The word articulation (from the J^atin articulo, to joint,) means a " jointing,"— and the joining, op closing and opening, the organs of speech, forms a ** joint " or ^' articulation." (The organs of speech are the lips, the teeth, the* tongue, the palate, the nose, and the throat.) A, I, and are the only words consisting of a single letter. Words are primitive, derivative, or 00M-» PorND. A primitive word (from the Lditin primus, first,). is the original word from which others spring ; as. man, house, Hng. ♦ ^ A derivative word (from de, downwards, and rivus, a stream,) is that yjhieh fioms from another word ; as, manner from man ; kingdom from Mng^, A compound Yiord (from the I^atin compono, to put or lay together,) is made up of two or mor^ simple words; &h, manservant, railrroad-track, &c, division of words into syllables. The syllables of a word, as a general principle, are the divisions which are inade with regard t^- correc^ pronunoiatipn. **, ^^o~*^ -^ TO ENGLISH GlUMMAR. 13 \llahe) / one let- . Arti' cannot on, for The ling, oi» forms a ith, the •) ng of % r OOMV , first,) ng ; aa^ is, an(i mother mponol )X mora J. nciple, The following rules may be of use : — 1. The termination ed, though not always pronounced separately, is looked upon in writing as a distinct syl- lable ; as, " walk-ed," " turn-ed." 2. Compound words are generally divided into the simple words of which they are formed ; as, " heart- less,"^ ^^man-ly,^^ ^^ king-dom." 3. Two consonants forming but one sound, as shj ph, th^ ch, ng, whj are never divided ; as, " weath-erj'^ ^^pub' lish- QUESTIONS ON ORTHOGRAPHY. What is the meaning of Grammar? What is the word derived from, and what does it teach ? What is the root and meaning of language ? Into how many parts is Grammar divided, and why ? Name each part — its derivation and proper meaning. What does Orthogra- phy treat of ? What is a letter ? What do you mean by Alphabet? How many letters in the English alpha- bet ? What is a vowel ? How many vowels are there ? Name them. What is a consonant ? Give its deriva- tion. Name the consonants.. What do you mean by a mute? What is a diphthong? Give the derivation. What is the diflference between a proper and an impro- per diphthong ? What is a triphthong ? Give its de- rivation. Give an example of a mute, a diphthong, a proper diphthong, an improper diphthong, and a triphthong. ^^' LETTERS. What do you mean by capital letters ? What are Italics ? Give an example of classes of words which commence with capitals. For what purpose are Italics generally employed '. Where were Italic letters first used ? When are capital letters used instead of Italic ? Write ft sentence marking some of the words in Italics. SYLLABLES. '"What does the word syllable come from? What does it mean ? What must every syllabie have in it ? 14 THE STUDENTS GUIDE What is a monosyllable ? What a dissyllable ? What a trisyllable ? What a polysyllable ? WORDS. What are words ? What do you mean by an articu- late sound ? What does the word " articulate " come from ? What are the organs of speech ? Name the only words in the English language consisting of one letter. How many kinds of words are there, according to their construction ? What is a primitive word ? Give an example. What a derivative word ? Give an exam- ple. What a compound word? Give an example. What is the termination fid looked upon in writing ? How are compound words generally divided ? Are two consonants forming one sound ever divided? Give examples. 1 i-^ ETYMOLOGY. Etymology teaches the true origin of words, their classification, and the changes made in them. PARTS OF SPEECH. The English language is divided into nine parts of speech: notjn, aeticle, adjective, pro- noun, VERB, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, CONJUNC- TION, and Interjection/ ^ Parsing (from the Latin parsj part,) is an explanation of the " parts of speech" of which Bentences are composed, and the grammatical rela- tion which they bear to each other. NOUN. A noun ^from the Latin noman. name.'^ is the name of any object. Whatever oan be seen, heard. <*IMh> TO ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 15 ! What a m articu- te" come Name the ng of one iccording rd? Give an exam- example, writing ? ed ? Are divided ? f words, aade in Ine parts E, PRO- ONJUNO- .'i ,) is an )f which ical rela- /^ is the D, heard, felt, or understood, is a noun ; as, George, Duhlin, man^ tree, happiness, &c. Observation. — A nice distinction should be observed in using the term substantive or noun which many gram- marians seem to overlook. The word substantive liter- ' ally means that which refers to substance, and should not be applied to words which are immaterial ; as glory, happiness, &c. The term noun, on the other hand, is ^applicable to material as well as immaterial objects ; aa " city, happiness, boy, London, &c. ; and is the better teriitt, "'for it includes both in one general name, I,: KINDS OF NOUNS. Nouns are of four kinds : Proper, Common, Neuter, and Collective. A PROPER NOUN refers to an individual object of the same class, and in the same sense ; as, William, Cork, the Ottawa,^ A COMMON NOUN refers to several objects of the same sort, class, or species ; as, man, city, river, A NEUTER NOUN (from the Latin 7i6Mier,neither,) is a noun that belongs to " neither " gender, and therefore can only represent objects without life ; as, house, field, rich^^, honour, &c. \ 1^ A COLLEOTIYE NOUN (from the Latin con, ( I together, and lego, to collect,) expresses in a singleK form a number of individuals j as, army, multi-J tude, &c. PROPERTIES OP NOUNS. A noun has four properties j namely, gender, number, case, 21x1^ person. * When a proper noun is used fignratively. it becomes s common ; as, He is a Samson ; She is a Venus ; &c. { 16 THE student's GUIDE GENDER. Gender (from the Latin genus, race or family, or the Greek genos, kindred or sex,) means th^ distinction between sex. As there are hut two sexes, the male and the female, there are therefore onlg two genders, the masculine and the feminine. The MASCULINE GENDER signifies animals of the male sex ; as, man, lion,^ Ac. The FEMININE GENDER signifies animals of the female sex ; as, woman, lioness. PERSONIFICATION. \ Nouns belonging to neither genders} are often spoken of as if possessed of life. This is called ^'personification'^ Thus nouns of masculine qualities are put in the masculine gender; and those of feminine qualities in the feminine. For example, we say of the earth, " she yields her fruit ;" of death, " he holds mortals in his iron grasp ;" of the sun, " he shines ;" of the m^on, ** she gives light." [No absolute rule can be given as to what nouns should hepersonified by the masculine or feminine : we must chiefly be guided by our taste and judg- ment.] EULES FOR FORMING THE FEMININE. 1. Add ess to the masculine ; as, host, hostess, &c. 2. When the word ends in or or er, cut out e or o, and add ess ; as, actor, actress ; arbiter, arbitress : ex- widow. CU'&VI' COO ^ TO EKQLISH GRAMMAK, 17 3. Prefix he or she^ male or female ; as, a /le-goat, a «A(!-goat ; a wa/e-servant, a/ema/e-servant. 4. Affix cock or hen; as, a peA-coc/c, a pea-/t€n, &;c. The following nouns do not form their feminine according to the above rules : I. MALE AND FEMALE BY TOTALLY DIFFERENT WORDS. ^ Bachelor, spinster or maid ; boy, girl ; brother, sister ; bull, eow ; buck, doe ; colt, filly ; cock, hen ; drake, Juck ; eari, countess ; father, mother ; friar or monk, nun ; gander, goose ; gentleman, lady ; hart, roe; horse, mare; husband, wife; king, queen ; lad, lass ; lord, lady ; man, woman ; master, mistress ; nephew, niece ; ram, ewe ; son, daughter ; stag, hind; singer, songstress or singer ; sir, madam ; uncle, aunt ; wizard, witch. II. IRREGULAR TERMINATIONS. Abbot, abbess ; beau, belle ; bridegroom, bride ; caterer, cateress ; czar, czarina ; don, donna ; duke, duchess ; emperor, empress ; hero, heroine ; infant, infanta; landgrave, landgravine; margrave, mar- gravine; marquis, marchioness; monsieur, mar dame; sorcerer, sorceress ; sultan, sultana; signer, signora ; widower, widow. [Some nouns are used only in the feminine ; as, virago^ threw, syren, amazon, brunette, kc. Other noups may belong to either gender; as, child, cousin, parent j friend, infant, partner, relative, &c. The masculine is sometimes useji for both Sexes or g«nders ; as, " God made man." meaning all mankind-.^ f 18 THE student's GUIDE EXERCISE. State the kind and gender of each of the follow- ing nouns : George, cane, happiness, hoy, hooh, canal, coun- tess, beau, woman, tree, joy, declaration, impu- dence, air, riches, executor, sun, winter, Danube, severity, cow, ass, donna, caterer, NUMBER. Number (from the Latin numerus, a number,) means one, or more than one. There are therefore two numbers. The Singular (from the Latin singularis, one alone,) means only one object ; as, man, boy, house. The Plural (from the Latin plus, more,) means more than one ; as, men, boys, houses, &c. The word regular is fpm the Latin regula, a rule. When a part of speech conforms to an established rule it is called regular ; when it does not, it is called irregular, or not according to the rule. The rule for the formation of the plural of nouns, is, that they take the letter s after the sin- gular; as, table, tables ; hooh, hooks ; &c. Nouns that do not form their plural according to this rule will be exceptions to the rule, and consequently irregular, EXCEPTIONS. 1. Change y into ies after a consonant, but not after a vowel ; thus, ghry, glories ; duty, duties ; delay, delays / valley, valleys. -" TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 2. When the singular ends in a;, ch soft, s/i, ss, Sy or 0, add es; ns, box, boxes ; churchy churches; kiss, kisses;^ brush, brashes ; potato, potatoes ; cargo, cargoes ; wo, woes, &c. 3. Qug makes quies ; as, soliloquy, soliloquies, 4. When ch is sounded as k, the plural is regu- lar ; as, monarch, monarchs. Nouns ending in after a vowel, follow the rule ; as, bamboo, bamboos. 5. The following nouns in forfe change these terminations into ves ; as, beef, calf, half, leaf, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief wolf knife, life, wife; as, beeves, loaves, knives, &c. The following nouns form their plurals accord- ing to their difference of meaning : jjppendix, appendixes — parts of a book. .Appendix, appendices -^things attached to others. Brother, brothers—sons of same parent. ^ Brother, brethren — members of same society. Die, Dies — for stamping coins. Die, Dice — for gaming. Geniua, Geniuses — possession of exalted intellect. Genius, g-enw— fabulous spirits. Penny, pennies — single coins. Penny, pence — value or amount. Pea, peas — single ones. . Pea, jocase— collection. Staff makes staves in the plural ; but all other nouns in/" have their plural in s ; as, stuff, stuffs; * Memento, grotto, quarto, portico^ two, solo, tyro, zero, junto, canto, form the nlural reqrularlv : as. errotto. grottos, &c. 20 THE student's GUIDE u Some notins are the same in both numbers ; as, deer^ sheepf pair, trout, salmon, &c. Names of virtues or vices, things weighed or measured, also names of metals, are generally singular ; as, silver, corn, justice, anger, &c. The following nouns are used onlrj in the plural ; MCissors, ashes, riches, alms, vmges, annals, data, bellows, lungs, pains, amends, archiv^ 'tiers, bowels, calends, clothes, embers, goods, hose (stockings), manners, politics, snuffers, shears, tongs, vespers, victuals, pincers, dregs, morals, thanks, vitals, &c. The following plurals are irregulofrly form ed :— man, men ; woman, women ; child, children ; foot, feet; ox, oxen ; toothy tteth ; goose, geese ; Tnome, mice; louse, lice. -'^ Nouns from the Latin and other languages, sometimes retain their original plural. , ^^;-.xs> As a general rule, when the singular ends in ex. or ix, the plural will be ices ; when in is, the plural will be es ; whem in um> and on, the plural will be a ; when in us, the plural will be i — as observed in the following list : Alumnus^ alumni ; arcanum, arcana : automaton, automata ; ax\'s, axes ; antithesis, antitheses ; animal- culum (or animalcule, Eng.,) animalcula ; amanuensiSj amanuenses ; analysis, analyses ; apex, apices ; cristt, crises i datum, data; hypothesis, hypotheses; &c. When a title is prefixed to a proper name, the title only should be plural ; as, the Messrs. Todd, (not the Mr. Todds,) the Misses Grey, (not th^ Miss Greys.) When the principal word in a compound noun comes first, the sign of the plural is affixed to it ; as, aid-de-camp, aides-de-camp; cousin-germany coipsins-german ; knight-errant^ knights-erra/nt; father-in-law, fathers-in-law ; but when the priar TO; BNGLiSH QBAMMAR. 21 3er3 ; as, deer^ rtues or vices, of metals, are e, anger, &c. a the plural ; data, bellowSj owets, calends, nners, politics, nncers, dregs, ly formed :— - ildren ; foot, jeese ; mowssc, r languages, I. ir ends in eoc. . is, the plural le plural will —as observed : automaton, keses ; animaU i; amanuensis, apices ; crisis, es; &c. .. .; oer name, the \Iessrs. Todd, rey, (not the oapound noun affixed to it ; oudn-german, lights-errant; hen the prin- I "cipal word terminates the compound, the plural •sign is placed at the end ; 2l9, fellow-servant, fellow- servants, &c. (Some writers use such an expression as " spoon'- fulls," which is incorrect ; because /mW is an adjective, «nd adjectives in English are not varied by " number.") Xi X £ BC IS xj • State the plural of each of the following nouns, «,nd whether it is regular or irregular : Salmon, alms, amends, dregs, medium,, meana^ seraph,odds, foot, Scipio, formula, dozen, hilliards, news, bandit, goose, penny, camera-obscura, court- martial, magus, sheep, trout, milk, Ccesary lunacy, cannon, calend, thank, cavalry, &c, CASE. Case (from the Latin cado, to fall,) means the *' falling " or leaning of a noun (or.pronoun) from its first state, (or nominative,) in order to show its relation to some other word. There are three cases in which a noun is placed. The first case^ QT state, is called the nominative ; the second, the possessive ; ihQ^\Ydi,\hQ objective. J^^I. The NOMINATIVE (from the LsLiin nomino, to name,) is so called because it is mostly used to name the subject of a verb* It generally goes before a verb ; and when it is the subject of a verbj it is known by its answering to the question it? Ao f ovwhatf Thus, " William writes correctly.'* Ask who writes correctly? The answer is William; therefore William is the " subject " of the verb writes, and the " nominative " case. i i ■A 22 THE student's GUIDE The nominative sometimes comes after the verb ; as "Now stood Eliza on the wood-crowned heWht." Here Eliza is the nominative after the verb stood. Such examples are generally found in blank verse, and in sentences which commence with " Therer or " Were there T as, " There are five loaves, m the basket."-^" Were there two more, we would have enoTigh." ^ ^ ^ There are two other circumstances in which la noun may be the nominative case. (See Note, Rule yil., page 96.) II The POSSESSIVE Case * (from the Latin possideo, to possess,) denotes the possessor ^^^d. \m two forms,— the apostrophe with the letter « Cwhich is called the Saxon form) ; as, I lived m my father's house " : and the sign of possessively , (which is called the Norman form): as, " The house of my fatherr In this latter iy.;t mc^ the word of is not a preposition, but the ^rrjii :*t tUe possessive case. In order to ascertain when of is the sign of the possessive case, and not a preposition, transpose the sentence, as in the above example—" The house 0/ my father,'' which is in substance ai|d sense the same as, " My father's house ": although differing in form, the possessor is the same. The possessive may be known by its answer- ing to the question whose ? « The old Saxoa form of the possessive was is and c», which in modern days has become contracted into the annstrophe and lettter « ('«) 5 as, " The king's," was spelled" The kinges." TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 23 } in which a I VARIATIONS OF THE POSSESSIVE. 1. When the nominative plural ends in s, the possessive plural is formed by adding the apos- trophe only; as, nominative plural boys, posses- sive plural toys' ; nominative plural roads, posses- sive plural roads'. But when it does not end in «, the possessive is formed by adding an apos- trophe and 5, (as in the singular) ; as, nominative plural men, possessive plural men's. 2. Sometimes, when the singular ends in ss, s, or ce, only the apostrophe is added ; as, for good- ness' sake; for conscience' sake, &c. : except witness ; as, " The witness's evidence." 3. When two or more poss.essive cases are united by the conjunction and, only the^ last receives the apostrophe when common possession is implied ; as, " It was my father and mother's house." 4. When the conjunctions neither, nor, &o., come between them, all the possessive cases retain thes; as, ''This house is neither William's nor John's, but Thomas's : " also when common pos- session is not intended ; as, " The landlord's and tenant's hay was good," meaning that some of the ^ hay belonged to the landlord and some to the tenant. III. The OBJECTIVE case (from the Latin ob, against, and jactus, thrown or laid,) represents the person or thing acted upon, and generally fol- lows a verb or preposition ; as, " The boy learns his lesson " ; *' the lesson was learned by the boy." When the objective case follows a transitive verb, it is the object of an action; as, " James M TBM student's GUIDK writes his copy'': and when it follows, a preposi- tion, it is the object of relation; as, ''The copy was written by Jamesy The objective case sometimes comes before the verb in a sentence ; as, '' His port I love." Here port is the objective case, governed by the transitive verb love. Such instances are generally to be found in blank verse and poetry. The nominative and objective cases of nouns are nlike; but, in pronouns, they vary; as, "I love William "; " William loves me." Here in the first example William is in the objective case; in the second, William is in the nominative, and are alihe; but /is in the nominative, and me the objective, and are not alike j but vary. The objective case may be known by itSv^ answering to the question wlwm f or what ? exercise. Find out the nouns in the following exercise, and mention their case, gender, and number : Jameses house. The man's hook. He bought a horse* I am writing a letter. There are fowr seasons. The glory of the martyrs. The girls are at school. J ohnson^s Dictionary is for sale. :!^fi warriors have returned. The city was reduceano ache^ He found it at home. TTiey are from town. He is pleased with his purchase. Jane bought a tvatch for fifteen pounds. He has read several books. They were lost in the vortex. The waves make a great noise. PERSON. (See explanation of "p erson " under " Personal TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Oft. DECLENSION. Declension (from the Latin verb decUno, to bend,) signifies the " bending " (or inflexion) of a noun into its cases and numbers, from the nomina- tive downwards. Nouns are declined as follows :— Plural. Nominative, Possessive, Singular. Nominative, man Possessive, man^s Objective, man Singular. Nominative, boi/ Possessive, boy's Objective, bog men men^s men Objective, Plural. Nominative, boys Possessive, boys' Objective, boys r " Personal Man is an irregular noun, because it does not form its plural after the regular manner. Boy, is a regular noun. (See page 18.) In Etymology a noun is parsed by stating what hind it is ; to what gender, number, person, and case it belongs ; as, boy is a common noun, mascu- line gender, singular number, nominative case, and 3rd person. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. NOUN. How many parts of speech? What is a noun? What is its derivation? How many kinds of noun? What is a proper noun? What is a common noun? What a neuter, noun? What does the word " neuter" come from? What is a collective noun ? What does the word " collective " gome from ? a 7 26 THE student's GUIDE In the following Exercise point out which of the nouns are proper, which common, which collective, which neuter, and state the reason; also which should commence with a capital letter : EXERCISE. america, document, Army^ navy, f ranee. Virtue, Gold, house, Woman, city, Jerusalem, people, con- gregation, Silver, clothes, mankind, honesty, sin, air, benevolence, Wickedness, the alps, rain, china, Opulence, Independence, multitude. Lioness, hero. Can a proper noun ever become cominon ? OENDBB. What do you mean by the properties of a noun ? HoW many properties has a noun ? What is gender ? What its root or derivation ? How many genders ? Is neuter a gender? Why? What is the masculine gender? What the feminine? Are nouns not having life ever placed in any gender? Is there any rule to guide uat Why do we sometimes say she of the earth ? Why he of the sun? What sort of language is this called? How many rules for forming the feminine ? When do you add ess to the masculine to form the feminine ? What is the feminine of actor? What of executor? Name those nouns in your grammar that become femi- nine by totally different words. Name the list of those of irregular terminations. What gender is each of the following words : Man, liouse, glory, widow, tree, happiness, kind, queen, infant, London, sister, shepherd, aunt, friend, beast. Name those nouns that are used only in the feminine. NUMBER. What is number? What is the root of the word? What is the root of singular and its meaning ? What TO ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 27 doness, hero. is plural from ? Meaning ? What )S the derivation and meaning of regular? When do nouns form their Dlural regularly ? Give an example. Name the nouns U8ed only in the plural. When do you change y into ies7 What does quy at the end of a word become in the plural ? When ch is sounded like fc, what will be the plural? What nouns are alike in both numbers? What nouns are generally singular ? EXERCISE. What is the plural of the following nouns : Cloud, months, lion, ashes, chair, fox, cat, dog, penny, grotto, monarch, cargo, brother, goods, pail- ful, miss, toy, bell, potato, decency. Spell or write the singular of the following, and state how you know you are correct : Glories, brushes, twos, thanks, lungs, pair, calves, appendices, brethren, genii, peas, rebuffs, ladies, staves. CASE. What is the root of the word " case ?" What does case mean? How many cases ? Name them,, What does the objective mean? What root does " objective " come from? Where is the objective generally found in a sentence? When the objective follows a transitive verb, whafis it? Does the objective ever come before a verb ? Give an example. What cases of nouns are alike ? Are the same cases of pronouns alike ? Give an example of each. How may the objective case be known? How do you know the possessive case? What is its derivation ? What is the Saxon and what the Norman form of the possessive ? When the Nominative plural ends in s, how do yo,u form the possessive? When it does not, how ? (What was the old Saxon form of the possessive ? How is it now altered ?) When the singular ends in s«, «, or ce, how do you form the posses- 2S l\nW student's GUIDE' aive? Give an example. Give an exception. When do all the possessive cases retain the si What doeai "nominative" come from? Meaning? Where does th^ nominative generally go in a sentence? How do you l^now it when it is the subject of a verb ? Does the nominative ever come after the verb ? Give an example, GENDER, NUMBER, AND CASE. EXERCISE. Tell the gender, number, and case of eacli of the following nouns, and the reason for what you, say- Father, mother , field of blood, George, William^ Thomas, the hoy, men's gloves, porcupine's quills, mountain's side, people^ school, hoys', girls') Danube's waters, queen of heaviy, children's toys, DECLENSION. What is declension ? What derived from ? Decline man, boy, slate, city. Is man a regular or irregular noun ? Why ? D^ cline Thomas. Has Thomas any plural? Why? Is boy a regular noun?. Do you know any rule for finding out the objective case ? ARTICLE. Article (from the Latin articulus^ or artus, a joint, or little member,) is a small word, of the nature of an adjective, placed before a noun to iimit its meaning ; as, a man, the man ; a city, the cities. When a noun takes */io article before it, it is not restrained in sense; as, man means any maA^. hoy y any bpy., 10 ENGLISH SRAMMAtl. 29 tion. When What doeai here does th€| How do vou ? Does the i an example, -SE. of eacli of or what you ge, William^ ome's quillsj 'o,ys\ girls', lldrerCs toys. )m? Decl'ne • or irregular Thomas any n?. Do you ve case ? S) or artuSj a ivord, of the e a noun to man ; a city, re it, it is not LS any mm^ A, or An, is called the indefinite article ^ (from the Latin words in, not, and defino, to limit,) because it is unlimited in its meaning ; as, a man, means any man ; a house, any house. A becomes An when placed before a word com- mencing with a vowel, or an h not sounded ; as, an apple, an ink-bottle, an hour ; because it sounds hettr than a ?pple, or a ink-bottle, ka. The Indefinite Article, although unlimited in meaning, is limited as regards number. A, or aw, (from the Saxon ane, one,) can only be placed before the singular mxmhQx ) as, a pen, meaning o«e pen, &c. The is called the definite article, (from tfle Latin defino, to limit), because it limits the mean- ing of the noun ; as, the man, the house, the book. The Definite Article is unlimited as regards number, for we can say YAe house, ^Ae houses; meaning a particular house, or a particular num- ber of houses, parsing. An article is parsed by stating whether it is r«i«- finite or definite, and the noun to which it belongs. ARTICLE. . QUESTIONS. What does the word " article" come from? What is its meaning ? What meaning would a noun have without an article ? How many articles are there ? What da you mean by an indefinite article ? What by a definite article ? What is the derivation of " indefinite" ? What of " definite" ? When d®es a become an 1 Give an ex- ample. What number must the indefinite article go before ? What Saxon word does a or an come from ? 30 THE student's GUIDE EXERCISE. Place the indefinite article before the following words : , Books, horse, army, uorJc-hox, man, trvmpet, sol- dier, india-rubber, sugar, hour, ink-bottle, orange, p 1/tYh' tree • Correct the errors in the following, and state a reason for the change: ^ An trumpet, a army, an quiet mmd, an liigfi house, a honour, a under story, a opera, a earl, an countess. ^^^ ADJECTIVES. . An ADJECTIVE (fiom the Latin adjectus, joined to ) is a word which must be joined to a noun expressed or understood ; as, A wild horse, a strong city. Here wild and strong are adjectives. COMPARISON. Comparison (from the Latin con, together, and paro, to make, or shape,) is that property of the adjective by which its various degrees of quality are shaped or formed. There are three degrees of comparison, — the POSITIVE, the COMPARATIVE, and the superlAt tive.^ , ,. I. The positive simply expresses the quality of a noun ; as, good, great, bad. - • Some grammarians argue that there are only two . degrees of comparison, and that the positive is merely the form of the adjective ; but when we use such an ex- pression as " That is a tall man," we evidently mean, he is above the ordinary height of men ; and consequent- ly, that the word tall is a degree of comparison, as well as others of a similar signiucation. TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 81 the following trumpet J sol: ottle, orangey , and state a Ind, an high ra, a early an jectus, joined d to a noun lorse, a strong ctives. ^on, together, at property of :ees of quality parison, — the the superlAt 33 the quality e are only two aitive is merely use such an ex- vidently mean, and consequent- parisoD, as well II. The COMPARATIVE increases or lessens the positive to a higher or lower degree ; as, better, greater, worse, &c. • III. The SUPERLATIVE increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, largest, greatest, worst, &c. The Comparative is formed by adding to the positive er when the adjective ends in a consonant, or r when it ends in a vowel ; as, great, greater; wise, wiser, &c. The Superlative is formed in like manner by adding est or st to the positive ; as, great, greatest ; wise, wisest. The Comparative and Superlative are also formed by the adverbs tnore and most, less and least ; as, benevolent, more benevolent, Wuost benevolent. This latter form is more generally used with adjectives of two or more syllables. EXCEPTIONS AND OBSERVATIONS. 1. Adjectives ending in d or t, preceded by a single vowel, double the consonant in forming the comparative and superlative ; as, red, redder, red- dest ; hot, hotter, hottest. 2. Marig and much are often misapplied. Care should be taken to use many only in reference to what may be numbered, and much only to what may be measured. Thus we might say, " How Tnany bushels of oats;" but we should not say, " How many oats.^' 3. The addition of ish to the positive indicates a slight degree of comparison ; as, black, blackish; dark, darkish, &c. ^ymnom MSpi ^ 82 TffE student's guide 4. The adverbs very and exceedingly^ when placed before adjectives, constitute the superlative of eminence ; as, " He is a very tall man ;" " She is exceedingly fair." 5. i/a^er refers to M^i,d^tc,'""-^^^'y , . v- ( BS THfi student's guide V Adjective pronouns (like adjectives) are depending on nouns for their meaning, witli this exception, that they have not comparison ; they are, mine, thine, my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, this, that,-\ these, those, which, what, each, everp either, neither, some, other, no, any, all, and such; as, ^'I own that book;" '' This is my house; " Learn every lesson," &c., &c. [Mine and thine, in the preceding list, are sel- dom found in common use : examples occut ifi the Bible and poetic writings. My and thy supply their place in general . omposition.] The word ever affixed to the pronouns does not alter their classification ; for whoever is a personal pronoun, as well as who ; whichever is an adjective pronoun, as well as which. Sometimes so comes between ; as, whosoever, whichsoever, &o., &c. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Relative pronouns are so called because they relate to nouns or pronouns going before, called their antecedents; as, " The houses which were built." Here houses is the antecedent, and which the relative. Somitimes several words taken together will be the antecedent ; as, " The whole school was in an uproar, which troubled the mas- ter greatly." Here all the words preceding which^ are together the antecedent to which. Observation.— The relative pronoun not only " re- lates to " its antecedent, but also connects its clause there- ivith. t That, which, and what are given in the list of ad- jective pronouns because they are frequently so used ; as, " I'll pay you what you ask for that horse," &c. ♦to ENGLISH ORAMMAfl. 39 The relative pronouns are who, which, that, and iiohat. Who and which are alike in both numbers'. They are thus declined : Singvlar and Plural, Nominative, who Possessive, whose Objective, whom Singular and Plural, Nominative, which Posseesive, whose Objective, which Which is applied to inferior animals and things without life ; also to collective nouns representing persons ; as, '^ The Parliament which was eum- moned;" *' The horses which drew the Queen's carriage ;" &e. Formerly which applied iQ persons. It is so used in the Sacred writings ; as, " Our Father which art in heaven.'* Who is applied to persons ; as, " The boy who ;'* ^^ the boys who ;'* &C;. That is not declined. It is used to avoid the too frequent repetition of wh/) or which^ and applies to things, and sometimes to persons. What does not apply to persons, and has no fttttecedent, becawee it «tand8 for the '^ thing which'* or ^'that which ;" and is therefore itself both antece^ dent and relative. It ma^ be of either number. Who, which, and what, are used interrogar tively, or as interrogatives, when employed in asking questions ; as, who are you ? what house is that ? which way are you going ? PIBECTIONS FOR USING SUCH OF THE ADJECTIVJB PRONOUNS AS ARE LIABLE TO BE erroneously APPLIED. 1. Each relates to two or more persons or thing* isOam Mingly; dB, ^^ each month in the year.'* **' 40 THE student's GUIPB 2. Either refers to two only, and means either the one or the other taken separately; as, *'His father and mother live; he never sees ctVAcr." Neither means not either, and must only be used in like manner. 3. Every relates to seTeral persons or things, and alludes to every one of them all taken sepa- rately ; as, " every house in tue city was destroyed," " every child in the hospital was in danger :" un- less the nouns imply a collective idea ; as, " every hundred years is a century J^ % 4. This and these refer to the nearer or last mentioned of two persons or things, that and those to the more remote; as, " Virtue and vice are op- posed to each other; this produces misery, that happiness." 5. That is sometimes a conjunction ; as, *■ I came to school in order that I may learn." 6. Some is an unlimited term, and means a por- tion of a number or quantity ; as, " I bought some flour from the miller;" ^^ some men of the orew perished." 7. Any means one out of a number, without mentioning which pari«ular person or thing is alluded to ; as, " I will be directed by any of the judges ;" " any book in the Institute can be had!" ADJECTIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Parsing.— In parsing an adjective pronoun, it is only nx^^.^^^^a y to state the noun to which it be- longs ; ti. . ''■ suy hat is torn." My is an adjec- tive proiii.A oelonging to hat. In parsing a vAUiixTA Tvr.> #4.. Btata its aender. numher. and^uzjie * TO BNGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 as either His IS, u either, ^^ be used p things, :en separ Btroyed/' er :" un- , " every r or last md those se are op- ery, that as, * The passive voice represents the subject, or nominative as being acted upon, as, '' James broke his slate;" Here the verb broke represents Jame^' (the nominative) as acting on the object, slate ; '' broke " is therefore in the active voice. But when we say '* the slate was broken by James," the verb *' was broken " shows that the slate (the nominative) " was acted upon " by James : *^ was broken " is therefore in the vassive voice. The / 44 THE student's guide passive voice belongs to transitive verbs only^ and is formed by adding the " past participle " of a transitive verb to one of the forms of the verb " to be;" as " I am taught,^^ " he is heard. " Some intransitive ' verbs are erroneously put in the passive voice ; as, " They are gone away," which would be much better expressed in the perfect tense of thQ active voice, namely, *' They have gone away." VERB. CLASSES AND VOICES, QUESTIONS. What is a verb? What does the word "verb" come from ?" Of what use in a sentence is a verb ? Into how many classes are verbs divided ? What does the word " transitive " come from? What "intransitive?" Ex- plain the difference of meaning, and give examples of each. Can an intransitive verb govern any case ? Why ? Does a transitive require an object ? What do you call the nominative to a verb ? Voices. How many voices ? What is voice ? What is the difference between the active and the passive voice ? Give an example of each ? Can intraositive verba bfi. put in the passive voice ? -^^^ • E^ERCISE< Point out the transitive and intransitive yerbi/ also the active and passive voices, in the following exercise j afterwards parse the nouns and proi. nouns I am taught by him. I was My brother was leaving town I taught him. reading a book, when the storm commenced. The temple. wa» nmlf VkTr finlnnnrkn •** v-^iv '-'-7 r*-fViv*A^v** all /loTT TO ENGLISH flRAMMAH, 45 nly^ and e" of «: erb " to V it in the )h would e of thQ b" come Into how the word 5?" Ex- tmples of >? Why? you call \i is the e voice ? veyba be, ■e verba,' allowing nd proT I was ig town pie T!ra» uncle's death. I was thinking of sending a pre- sent to the master. He gave me three hats that I might choose one. He was very well. They wrote long letters. He lives on wholesome diet. Every way is blocked up with heavy drifts. EXERCISE. Change the active voice into the passive in the following exercise ; and name the subject and the object of each verb ; then point out the verbs that cannot become passive^ and give the reason : — They appeased his anger. Caesar thought highly of his army. You will punish. He had admon- ished him. The Romans conquered the Greeks. He presented him with two books. They con- demned him to death. She slept all night. The slave surrounded his head with a garland. Lord Norbury invented many witty sayings ; he often set the Court in roars of laughter. Where now is the splendid robe of the consulate ? Where are the huzzas of the city? All these have perished. The English word " dextrous " denotes skill and agility. America is to modern Europe, what its western colonies were to Greece, — the land of aspi- rations and dreams. Every change in America has occasioned a corresponding change in Europe. He died in the spirit of peace. Read again each sentence in the foregoing exercise, and parse the nou7is, articles^ adjectivesy and pronouns. Verbs are varied by mood, tense, numbeb, and FEBBON. V I 46 THE student's GUIDE MOOD. Mood (from the Latin modus^ manner,) la the mode or maimer of the verb to signify the various intentions of the mind. There are five moods, the infinitive, the indi- cative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the IMPERATIVE. Observation. — The Infinitive ts the root of the verb, and should be placed first amongst the moods, because from it the other parts are formed. 1. The INFINITIVE (from the Latin infinitus, indefinite or unlimited,) is the verb itself in an unlimited manner, not confined to number or per- son, and will be the latter verb in a course of action j as, I wish to read. The infinitive is generally known by its having to prefixed to it, (in which case to is not a preposi- tion, but merely the sign of the mood.) Sometimes the to is omitted-; as, " Let me walhj^ that is, " Let me (or suffer me) to walk." When the infinitive stands for a noun and is the subject, it is the nominative to the verb following ; as, '* To study is profitable," that is, " Study is profitable." Sometimes it is the object; as, " Children love to playj^ that is, children love ]play, [The sign (/o) of the Infinitive mood is not used after the verbs make, see, hear, feel, bid, and let ; nor after let in the passive voice ; as, " hear him say his lesson," (not to say) ; ** Let him be instructed," (not to be. instructed.) ] ' 2. The INDICATIVE MOOD (from the Latin, indicoj to indicate or make known,) simply declares TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 47 or points out ; as, " they read ;" or it is used in asking questions ; as, do they read ? 3. The POTENTIAL MOOD (from the Latin potens, powerful,) expresses power, liberty, possi- bility, or necessity, and is known by the signs may, can, might, must, could, would, and should ; as, 1 may read, I could read, I must read, &c. The potential is sometimes used in asking ques- tions ; as, " should I obey ? may I go ? must I leave?" &c. 4. The SUBJUNCTIVE mood (from the Latin suhjunctus, added or subjc' *ed,) means subjoined^ because it is usually joined to some other verb in some part of the same sentence to express a condi" tion, and cannot make good sense by itself; as, ^^Ifl go, he will not meet me;" " He cannpt work unless I pay him." Here go is in the subjunctive joined to meet ; and pay is joined to work in like manner. Observation. — The subjunctive can never be properly used unless futurity is implied. If futurity is not im- plied, the indicative should be employed. The subjunctive mood may be known by the signs though, unless, except, whether, (and some- times lest,) as well as if, when they express contin- gency or doubt ; as. Though I readj Unless I oh serve, Except I see. 5. The IMPERATIVE MOOD (from the Latin, impero, to command,) commands, exhorts, entreats, or permits ; as, ^^ Steal no more;" " Ofcservc honest principles." This mood will generally be known by its makins" sense with thou. ve. or you. understood. 48 THE student's GUIDE TENSE. Tense (from the Latin tempus, time,) means There are three times, the present, the past, and the future ; but in order to avoid confusion in alluding to different past and future events, it is neceodary to have six grammatical tenses ; one for the present time ; three for the past ; and twn for the future. These six tenses are called the pre- sent, the PERFECT, the past, the prior-past,* the FUTURE, and the future-perfect. 1. The present tense means present timCy and is used to express some action or event as pass- ing when it is mentioned ; as, I advise; I am advised ; I hear ; do you hear f 2. The PERFECT tense (from the Latin per- fectus, finished,) represents an action or event as finished at the present time ; as, "I have heard from George ; I have been taking a walk ; Jane has seen her aunt." This tense is known by the sign have, 3. The past tense expresses what took place in past time ; and may either represent the action or event as finished or as unfinished ; as, " I bought anew book; I was reading the news when my friends arrived. * The prior-past is generally called the pluperfect, which literally means more than perfect^ and is there- fore without meaning, for what is perfect or finished cannot be more than perfect. The term prior-past means before the past tense, and simply expresses the sense of the tense which is used to point out tims nriar or before that to which the ^^past tense " refers. TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 4. The PRICK-PAST TENSE (from the Latin prior J former,) represents what took place ^nor to or before some other past time mentioned ; as, I had heard from him before he reached my house." This tense is always known by the sign had. 5. The FUTURE TENSE (from the Latin futurus^ about to be,) speaks of time to come ; as, I shall write ; we will read. This tense is known by the sign shall or will. 6. The FUTURE PERFECT (from the Latin /w^^^• rMS,about to be,and^er/ec^Ms,finished) represents an action as complttely finished at mmQ future time, and is known by the sign shall have or will have ; as, " I shall have left before Friday." [The INDICATIVE mood has the six tenses. The SUBJUNCTIVE has likewise six. The poTBNTiAL,/owr; namely the present, perfect, past f SLVLd prior-past. The INFINITIVE has two, the present and the perfect. The IMPERATIVE has only one, the present, because the command is always present ; although the doing of what is commanded is future.] ' AUXILIARY VERBS. Auxiliary verbs (from the Latin auxilium^ help,) are so called because they help in forming the moods and compound tenses of other verba. They are : a7/i, was ; do, did ; have, had ; may, might; shall, should; will, would ; can, could, and must ; which are only used in ihQ present and past tenses, as given above; excepting am, the present and past participles of which (being and been\ are sometimes emnlovcd. Do, bCf and have are Used separately, or. as sepa- I f/ 50 THE student's GUIDE rate, or principal, verbs ; as " I do my duty." But when we say, George does read his book, does is an auxiliary (or helping) verb to read, PAETICIPLES. Participles* (from the liViim participo, to par- take,) are so named because ih^y j>artake of the nature of the verb. Verbs have three participles, — the present, the PAST, and the perfect ; as, present active teaching^ past taught^ perfect having taught, passive present leing iaught, past taught, perfect having been taught. The present participle aotive,f always ends in ing ; as, " He is driving his horse." The past participle is the same in the passive as in the active voice, but its meaning in each is different; as, '' he has drivenhh horse." Here the signification of driven is active ; but when we say " the horse was driven by him," its signification is passive. * Participles are sometimes used as adjectives, and are compared; as, a loving child; a more loving child; an honoured citizen ; &c., &c. Sometimes they partake of the nature of, and are used as, nouns ; as, the subduing of evil dispositions, &c. When employed as adjectives or nouns, they convey no idea of time ; and in the latter position have no possessive case. t The present participle of verbs ending in a conso- nant is generally formed by doubling the consonant when it is preceded by a vowel ; as, rub, rubbing ; bid, bidding, &c. When the verb ends with a vowel pre- ceded by a consonant, the vowel is cut oflF; as, love. •J idc, Tiding; hope,hopingf &Q.,iiQ. jixceptions, jfiVi flyings obey J obeying, ka. y." But 'oes is an 9, to par- e of the ENT, the eaching^ \ present "ig been ends in 3 passive I each is iere the 1 we say cation is t, and are g" child ; r partake subduing ictives or he latter a conso- onsonant ing ; bidf iwel pre- as, love J ceptioDS, TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 The perfect participle^ in like manner, has a dif- ferent meaning in each voice, and is formt ;l of the " present participle " of the auxiliary have, vnd the "past" of the verb itself; as, having taught, in the preceding example. NUMBER AND PERSON. Verbs are in the same number and person as their subjects or nominatives ; as, " The fires were quenched." Here the verb were quenched is in the 3rd person plural because its nominative fires is. Exceptions, — the Infinitive mood, which is not varied by number ; and the Imperative, which has only the 2nd person, although it has both num- bers. Rules. — Verbs that end in y with a consonant before them, change y into i before the terminations est, es, eth, ed; but not before iwg-; as, cry, criest, cries, crieth,^ cried, crying. Verbs whose terminations are s, ch, sh, z, x, or o, form the 3rd person singular present indicative active by the addition of es (or eth, in the solemn style) ; as, " He publishes " (or publisheth.) To all others s or th is added ; as, " he writes " (or writeth.) CONJUGATION. Conjugation (from the Latin conjugo, to couple,) means the union and arrangement of the different moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. Verbs in their conjugation are regular or ir- regular, (from the Latin regula, a rule.) Rule. — When the verb is regular, it forms its past tense and past participle by adding to its in- finitive d, or ed; as, to love, loved; to learn, learned, &c. 52 THE student's aUIDB fl YERBS,— {Continued). MOOD, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES. How are verbs varied? What is mood? Tense? Number ? Person ? How many moods are there ? Name them. What is the infinitive ? Why should the infini- tive be placed first amongst the moods ? What does the word infinitive come from ? How is the infinitive generally known ? Is the infinitive ever the subject or object of another verb ? If so, give examples. What verbs is the sign of the infinitive not used after ? What does the word " indicative " cot - from ? What is the duty of the indicative mood ? ( ve examples. What is the derivation of the word ♦' potential ?" What of " sub- junctive ?" Of " imperative ?" What is the use of the potential mood ? Give an example. What does the sub- junctive mood express ? How may this mood be known ? Is the subjunctive used when futurity is not implied? If not, what mood should be used ? What is the use of the imperative mood ? Give examples. Put the following verbs into the potential : write, walk, run, strike, read. Put the following into the subjunctive : carry, consider^ delight, endure, sit. Put the following into the imper- ative: /«ee, I know, We ride, I leap, 1 survey, They ex- amine. TENSE. What is tense ? How many times are there ? How many tenses ? Why so many ? What is the derivation of the word " tense ?" ( Why is the prior-past so named f Whv the term ^^ pluperfect " objectionable ?) What does the present tense mean ? Give an example. What does " perfect " come from ? What does the perfect tense signi- fy ? What is its sign ? What does the past tense express ? Give examples in both voices. What is the meaning of the prior-past tense ? What the Latin derivation ? Give examples of this tense in both voices. What is the future tense used for ? What the derivation ? Put th« TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 68 'N. Tense ? i? Name he infini- 'hat does iafinitive 3 subject 5S. What r? What lat is the What i3 of " sub- se of the the sub- j known ? plied? If ise of the following ke, read. consider^ ae imper- They ex- ? How Brivation > named f hat does 'hat does ise signi- express? meaning ivation ? at is the Put th« following words into the future and future perfect tenses, indicative mood, active voice : lam weariedy I was struck j I had lovedj I may he heard. How many tenses has the indicative mood? How many the subjunctive? How many the p tential? How many the infinitive ? Why the imperative only one ? AUXILIARY VERBS. What are auxiliary verbs? What derived from? Name them. Name those that are used separately. What do you mean by principal or separate verbs ? Give examples. PARTICIPLES. What is a participle? What derived from? How many are there ? Name them in each voice. What does the present participle active end in ? Which of the three participles is the same in the active as in the passive? How do you know the perfect participle? How is it formed ? (Can a participle be any other part of speech? How is the present participle of verbs ending Id a, consonant formed ?) NUMBER AND PERSON. How do you find out the number and person of verbs ? What moods are not varied by number ? What is the rule for verbs ending in s, ch, sh, z, x, or o in forming their 3rd person singular, present indicative, active ? Give examples. CONJUGATION. What does the word " conjugation " come from ? What does it mean ? When is a verb said to be regular ? When irregular ? Give examples. Are the following regular or irregular : Show^ JcnoWj abide, teach, have, learn, hear, hve, advise, sow, reap, mow, consider, beseech. M THE student's GUIDE EXEROISE. V Parse the nouns, articles, pronouns, and adjec- tives in the following exercise, and point out the verbs, showing whether they are transitive or in- transitive, active or passive, and in what mood and tense, number and person ; also the subject and object of each : If lie remain at Athens^ he will learn a great many useful things. They would have sold their country for a very large sum If thvy could. Ccesar had sent two legions to attack the enemy. He is ^ said to have divided the hooty into ten parts. Balr bus will kill Gains. A prudent man will not violate the laws of his country. Birds will return on the approach of spring. He will ^receive the ^government without seeking it. Although invited - to the feast ^ they will not c/yme. They were accused and condemned. The hoy was killing the dog. The daughter is spinning. It is never useful to lose time. My father values industry highly, TO BE. The Auxiliary and Intransitive Verb To Be, is thus conjugated. (When this verb stands alone it is a "principal verb." See page 49). INFINITIVE MOOD. Present, to be. Perfect, to have been, PARTICIPLES. Present, being. Past, been. Perfect, having been. TrsrT:^raass,;^s.^ TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 65 INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular, Plural. 1 I am, 1 We are, 2 Thou art,* or you are, 2 Ye or you are, 3 He, she, or it is. 3 They are. PERFECT TENSE. 1 I have been, 1 We have been, 2 Thou hast been, or 2 Ye or you have been, you have been, 3 He, &c., has been. 3 They have been. PAST TENSE. 1 I was, 1 We were, 2 Thou wast, or you 2 Ye or you were, were, 3 He, she, or it was. 3 They were. PRIOR-PAST. 1 I had been, 1 We had been, 2 Thou hadst been, or 2 Ye or you had been, you had been, 3 He, &c., had been. 3 They had been. • Usage or custom has established the use of you instead otthou in the second person singular, for which reason the verb must correspond as in the plural ; thus, " Qeorge, you write well," is as grammatical as " George, thou writsst well." Some grammarians have not noticed this in the conjugation of the verb, and conse- quently 'eave the student liable to parse similar exam- ples as plural^ because no other form than tko^tj fee, is given in the second person singular. 56 THE student's GUIDE FUTURE. Singular. Plural. 1 I shall or will be, 1 We shall or will be 2 Thou Shalt or wilt 2 Ye or you shall or will be, or you shall or be, will be, 3 He, &c., shall or will 3 They shall or will be. be. FUTURE-PERFECT. 1 I shall or will have been, 2 Thou shalt or wilt have been, or you shall or will have been, 3 He, &c., shall or will have been. 1 We shall or will have been, 2 Ye or you shall or will have been, 3 They shall or will have been. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. 1 I may or can be, 2 Thou mayst or canst be, or you may or can be, 3 He, &c.,may or can be. PERFECT 1 We may or can be, 2 Ye or you may or can be. 3 They may or can be. TENSE. 1 I may have been, 2 Thou mayst or you may have been, 3 He, &c., may have been. 1 We may have been, 2 Ye or you may have been, 3 They may have been. TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5T PAST TENSE. Singular. Plural 1 I might, couldjwould, 1 We might be, or should be, 2 Thou mightst be, or 2 Ye or you might be, you might be, 3 He might be. 3 They might be. PRIOR-PAST.* 1 I should have been, 1 We should have been, 2 Thou shouldst have 2 Ye or you should have been, or you should been, have been, 3 He, &c., should have 3 They should have been. been. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. 1 Unless I bo,t 1 Unless we be, 2 Unless thou be, or 2 Unless ye or you be, unless you be, 3 Unless he, &c., be. 3 Unless they be. PERFECT TENSE. 1 Unless I have been, 1 Unless we have been, 2 Unless thou have been, 2 Unless ye or you have or unless you have been, been, 3 Unless he, &c., have 3 Unless they have been. been. * The student should be accustomed to conjugate the verbs with the different auxiliaries. Thus "I could have been" or ''I would have been," &c., as well as " I should have been." t The other signs of this mood Csee pasre 47.^ should occasionally be used, to enable the student to become 58 THE student's GUIDE PAST TENSE. Singular. Plural, 1 Unless I were, 1 Unless we were, 2 Unless thou wert, or 2 Unless ye or you unless you were, were, 3 Unless he, &c., were. 3 Unless they were. PRIOR-PAST. 1 Unless I had been, 1 Unless we had been, 2 Unless thou had been, 2 Unless ye or you had or unless you had been, been, 3 Unless he, &c., had 3 Unless they had been. been. FUTUiwE. 1 Unless I shall or will 1 Unless we shall or be, will be, 2 Unless thou shalt or 2 Unless ye or you shall or will be, wilt be, or unless you shall or will be, 3 Unless he, &c., shall 3 Unless they shall or or will be. will be. FUTURE-PERFECT. 1 Unless I shall or will 1 Unless we shall or have been, will have been, 2 Unless thou shalt or 2 Unless ye or you wilt have been, or shall or will have unless you shall or been, will have been, 3 Unless he, &c., shall 3 Unless they shall or or will h ave been. will have been. familiar with the fact, that if is not the only sign of {•uc suojUiiOt/iYe. ^mmmmmKs^ TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 59 were, I or you J were. tiad been, •r you had had been, shall or or you will be, J shall or shall or been, or you will have J shall or been. dy sign of IMERATIVE MOOD. Singular, Plural, Be thou or you. Be ye or you. TO RULE. A transitive verb, and regular in its conjuga- tion, INFINITIVE MOOD. Present J to rule. Perfect, to have ruled. PARTICIPLES. Present, ruling. Past, ruled. Perfect, having ruled. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. 1 I rule,* 1 We rule, 2 Thou rulest, or you 2 Ye or you rule, rule, 3 He, she, or it rules. 3 They rule. Observation. — The student should be taught to con- jugate the verb in the different styles ; as an acquaint- ance with thera will be very useful in letter- writing and in general composition. See note. ♦ This is what in composition is called the common style. The auxiliary do would make it the emphatic ; as, " I do rule," " do you rule ?" or " I did rule " in the past tense, and so on. Doth rule, or ruleth, is called the solemn style ; atn ruling, was ruling, &c., the pro" gressive style. These terms are rather rhetorical than grammatical distinctions. 60 THE student's OUIDfi PERFECT TENSE. (Sign have.') Singular, P Jural, 1 I have ruled, 1 We have ruled, 2 Thou hast ruled, or 2 Ye or you have you have ruled, ruled, 3 He, &c., has ruled. 3 They have ruled. PAST TENSE. 1 I ruled, 1 We ruled, 2 Thou ruledst, or you 2 Ye or you ruled, ruled, 3 He, &c., ruled. 3 They ruled. OR, 1 I was ruling, 1 We were ruling, 2 Thou wert ruling, or 2 Ye or you were you were ruling, ruling, 3 They were ruling. 3 He was ruling. PRIOR-PAST. (Sign had.) 1 I had ruled, 1 We had ruled, 2 Thou hadst ruled, or 2 Ye or you had ruled, you had ruled, 3 He, &c., had ruled. 3 They had ruled. FUTURE. (Sign shall or will.) 1 I shall or will rule, 1 We shall or will rule, 2 Thou shalt or wilt 2 Ye or you shall of rule, or you shall or will rule, will rule, 3 He, &0.J shall or will 3 They shall or will rule. rule. 'l!IS!JJ>'-vtijM!if.fi!fsw^!rwr TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 FUTURE-PERFECT. (Signs shall have or will have.) Singular, Plural. 1 I shall or will have 1 We shall or will have ruled, ruled, 2 Thou sbalt or wilt 2 Ye or you shall or have ruled, or you will have ruled, shall or will have ruled, 3 He, &o., shall or will 3 They shall or will have ruled. have ruled. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. (Signs may J can, must.) 1 I may or can rule, 1 We may or can rule, 2 Thou mayst or canst 2 Ye or you may or can rule, or you may rule, or can rule, 3 He, &c., may or can 3 They may or can rule. rule. PERFECT TENSE. (Signs may have^ can havCj must have,) 1 I may have ruled, 1 We may have ruled, 2 Thou mayst have 2 Ye or you may have ruled, or you may ruled, have ruled, 3 He, &c., may have 3 They may have ruled." ruled. •1 62 V THE student's GUIDE PAST TENSE. (Signs might, could, ivould, should.^ Singular, 1 I might rule, 2 Thou mightst rule, or you might rule, 3 He, &c. might rule. Plural. 1 We might rule, 2 Ye or you might rule. 3 They might rule. PRIOR-PAST. (Signs might have, could have, would have, should have.) I could have ruled, Thou couldst have ruled, or you could have ruled, 3 He, &c., could have ruled. 1 We could have ruled, 2 Ye or you could have ruled, 3 They could have ruled. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.* PRESENT TENSE. (Signs if, though, unless, except.) 1 If I rule, 1 If we rule, 2 If thou rule, or if you 2 If ye or you rule, rule, 3 If he, &c., rule. 3 If they rule. *The subjunctive form is sometimes used when futurity is not implied, but merely contingency. What, is understood by the ^^ subjunctive form ^^ is one of the signs of the subjunctive placed before the indicative ; as, *' unless he means what he says, he is not honest." This form will be exactly the same in all the tenses as the indicative with the conjunction prefixed, and might be appropriately called the subjunctive form of the indica^ ' tive mood. TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63 PERFECT TENSE. (Sign i/*, — have.) Slngidar. Plural. 1 If I have ruled, 1 If we have ruled, 2 If thou or you have 2 If ye or you have rule^ ruled, 3 If he, &C.J have ruled. 3 If they have ruled. PAdT TENSE. 1 If I ruled, 1 If we ruled, 2 If thou or you ruled, 2 If ye or you ruled, 3 If he, &o., ruled. 3 If they ruled. OR, 1 If I were ruling, 1 If we were ruling, 2 If thou wert or if 2 If ye or you were you were ruling, ruling, 3 If he, &c., were ruling, 3 If they were ruling. PRIOR-PAST. (Sign if^ — had.) 1 If I had ruled, 1 If we had ruled, 2 If thou hadst ruled, 2 If ye or you had or if vou had ruled, ruled, 3 If he, &c., had ruled. 3 If they had ruled. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Rule thou or you. Rule ye or you. TO RULE. Passive Voice. mce, &c., page 43.) 1 ^^^B 64 THE student's guide INFINITIVE MOOD. Singular. Plural. H Present^ to be ruled. Perfect, to have been 1 H ruled. 2 1 PARTICIPLES. 3 H Presentj being ruled. Past, ruled. 1 Perfect, having been ruled. 1 INDICATIVE MOOD. 1 2 1 PRESENT TENSE. 3 ill 1 I am ruled, 1 We are ruled, 1 2 Thou art, or you are 2 Ye or you are ruled, ruled, 1 3 He is ruled. 3 They are ruled. - 1 1 PERFECT TENSE. (Sign have.) 2 H 1 1 have been ruled, 1 We have been ruled, 3 . hB 2 Thou hast been or 2 Ye or you have been ^^^^^B! you have been ruled, ruled, H I^^^K 3 He has been ruled. 3 They have been ruled. PAST TENSE. 1 1 I was ruled, 1 We were ruled, t : 2 • H 2 Thou wast or you 2 Ye or you were ruled, 3 Me'wrasVuled, ~ ..3 They were rulectr 3 ] TO ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 65 ve been 3 ruled, 3d. : 1 ruled; ive been 3n ruled. id, re ruled, Swgular. 1 I had been ruled, 2 Thou hadst been, or you had been ruled, 3 He had been ruled. PRIOR-PAST. (Sign had,') Plural, 1 We had been ruled, 2 Ye or you had been ruled, 3 They had been ruled. FUTURE. (Signs shallj will,) 1 I shall be ruled, 1 We shall be ruled, 2 Thou shalt, or you 2 Ye or you shall be shall be ruled, ruledj 3 He shall be ruled. 3 They shall be ruled. FUTURE-PERFECT. (Signs shall have, will have,) 1 I shall have been 1 We shall have been ruled, ruled, 2 Thou shalt have been, 2 Ye or you shall have or you shall have been ruled, been ruled, 3 He shall have been 3 They shall have been ruled, ruled. POTENTIAL MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. (Signs may J can, must.) 1 I may be ruled, 1 We may be ruled, 2 Thou mayst be, or 2 Ye or you may be vou mav be ruled. ruled. 3 He may be ruled* 3 They may be ruled. E m UHis student's guide PERFECT TENS?. (Signs mat/ have^ can have^ must have.) Singular, Plural. 1 I may have been 1 We may have been ruled, ruled, 2 Thou mayst have 2 Ye or you may have been, or you may been ruled, have been ruled, 3 He may have been 3 They may have "been ruled. ruled. ^1 m PAST TENSE. (Signs mighty could, would, should.) 1 I might be ruled, 1 We might be ruled, 2 Thou mightst be, or 2 Ye or you might be^ you might be ruled, ruled, 3 He might be ruled. 3 They might be ruled, ■ PRIOR-PAST. (Signs might have, could have, would have, should have.) 1 I might have been 1 We might have been ruled, ruled, 2 Thou mightst have: 2 Ye or you, might haVe been, or you might beien ruWd,^ have bsen ruled, ''■''■ 3 He misj;ht have been 3 Thy might have^ ji TO urauSB oramjuk<. e.) e been ly have re "been ruled, 3 ruled, should re been hthave have - SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Phiral. 1 If I be ruled, 1 If we be ruled, 2 If thou, or you be 2 If ye or you be ruledj ruled, 3 If he be ruled. 3 If the^ be ruled. PERFECT TENS»5 (Sign ify — have.) 1 If I have been ruled, 1 If we have been ruled, 2 If ye or you have been ruled, 2 If thou hast been, or if you have been ruled, 3 If he have been ruled. 3 If they have been ruled. PAST TENSE. (Sign i/, — were,) 1 If I were ruled, 1 If we were ruled; 2 If thou wert, or if 2 If ye or you were you were ruled, ruled, 3 If he were ruled. 3 If they were ruled. PRICR-PAST. (Sign if, — had.) 1 If I had been ruled, 1 If we had been ruled, .2 If thou hadst been, or 2 If ye or you had been if you had been, ruled, ruled, 3 If he had been ruled. 3 If they had been ^ ruled. 68 THE student's GUIDE FUTURE. Singular. Plural, 1 li \^'^^^^ be ruled, 1 If we shall be ruled, 2 i^i^^^ Shalt be, or 2 If ye or you shall be It you shall be ruled ruled, ' 3 If he shall be ruled. 3 If they shall be ruled.; rUTURE-PERFECT. (Signs if, —shall have, or will have.) l.If I shall have been 1 If we shall have been _ -^J^fd, ruled, 2 It thou Shalt have 2 If ye or you shall been, or if you shall have been ruled, have been ruled, 3 If he shall have been 3 If they shall have r^leu* been ruled, IMPERATIVE MOOD. !?e thou or you ruled, Be ye or you ruled. 1... •■ mmm TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 69 IRKEGULAR VERBS. Irregular verbs are so called because they do vot ioxm i\iQiT past tense and past participle according to the rule for regular verbs, already given. {See page 51.) They are as follow : . Present, Past, Abide abode Am was Arise ^ \. > arose Awake Bake baked Bear (to "bring forth) bare, or bore Bear {to carry ^ also toforhfiar) bore, or bare Beat beat Begin began Beud bent Bereave bereft Beseech besought Bid {also ^r6^c?)bade or bid Bind (also un Past Participle, abode been arisen awoke, or awaked awaked* baked or baken* born bind) Bite Bleed Blow Break Breed Bring bound bit bled blew broke or brake broken bred bred brought borne beaten or beat begun bent* bereft besought bid or bidden bound bitten or bit bled blown brought * Thosfi VArha whifrh prA onnUttvataA .•n~,.i^ i_ __ ■,, . » ,' — . --- - J 'evvvw^ icj^Uionv as wen M irregularly, are thus marked. 70 iCHE studektt's guide «' Present, Build {aho build) Burst Buy Cast Cateh Chide Choose Irregulae Verbs. Past Past Participle, re- built burst bought cast caught chid chose Cleave (to split) clove or Cleave (to ad- here) clave Cling Clothe Come (become') Cost Crow Creep Cut Dare (to venture) durst Dare {to chal- lenge) dared Deal dealt Dig dug (or Do (also undo and misdo) did Draw (also with- draw) drew Drive drove Drink drank clung clothed came cost crew crept cut built burst bought oast caught* chidden or chid chosen cleft cloven or clefl cleaved clung clad* come cost crowed* crept cut dared * daredf dealt* digged) dug or done drawn driven drunk t tidr^ tp obaUewre. k resrular. TO ENGLISH GEAMMAB. h dwelt eat or ate fell fed felt fought found fled flung flew forgot forsook froze Present Dwell Eat Fall (also befall) Feed Feel Fight Find Flee Fling :•. ; , Fly Forget Fo sake Freeze Get {beget and/or- get) Gild Gird (begird and en gird) girt Give (2X^0 forgive^ &c,) gave Go went Grave (engrave) graved Grind ground Grow grew Have r V ^'^^ Hang hung Hear heard Heave hove Irregular Verbs. Past, Past Participle, dwelt* eaten fallen fed felt fought found fled flung flown [got forgotten or for* forsaken frozen got (or gat) gotten, got gilt gilt* girt* given gone graven ground grown had hungf heard hoven t Hang, to take awaj lUe, ^g regular ; as, '' Judfti hnncrfiil himself. rr'^-'-gf" — 72 Present THE student's GUIDE Irregular Verbs. Hew Hide Hit Hold {behold and withhold) Hurt Keep Knit Know Lade Lay (inlay) Lead {mislead) Leave Lend Let Lie (to lie down) Light Load Lose Make Mean Meet Mow Pay {repay) Pen (to shut up) Put Quit Read Past, hewed hid hit held hurt kept knit knew laded laid led left lent let lay Past Participle, hewn* hidden or hid hit held or holden hurt kept knitted or knit* known laden laid led left lent let lain (or lien)f lighted or lit lighted (or lit) loaded lost made meant met mowed paid laden* lost made meant met mown* paid penned (pentypent (penned)! put put ^ ^^ quit orquitted quit* read read t Zte, to deceive, is regular. I Pen^ to write, is regular. mm.. TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 73 Irregular Verbs. Present, Rend Rid Rot Ring Rise (arise) Ride Rive Run Saw Say See Seek Seethe Sell Send Set (beset) Shake Shape (misshap Shave Shear Shed Shine Show or shew Shoe Shoot Shrink fchred Shut Sing Sink Sit Pas.. Past Participle, rent rent rid rid rotte^i rotten* rang or rung rung rose risen rode ridden rived riven ran run sawed sawn* said said saw seen sought sought seethed or sod sodden sold sold sent sent set set shool shaken c)shaped shapen* shaved shaven* shore shorn* shed shed shone shone* showed(shewed) shown or shewn shod shod shot shot shrunk or shrankshrunk shred shred shut shut sang or sung sung sank or sunk sunk sat »at .A T4 THE Student's ouidb / Present Slay Sleep Slide Sling Slink Slit Smite Sow Irregular Verbs. PfsL Fast Participle, slew slain slept slept slid elidden slang or slung slung slank or slunk slunk slit, slitted smote sowed Speak (bespeak) spoke Speed sped Spend(mi«sj9c»c?)6pent Spill spilt Spin span or spun Spit spit Split split .Spread(6€«p7'€adf}spread Spring ^ spranor or fiprungsprung BtsLnd(^withstand)8tooii stood Steal stole stolen Stick stuck stuck Sting stung stung String Strang or strung strung Stink stank stunk Strive strove [ed striven slit or slitted smitten sown* spoken sped spent spilt* spun spit or spittenf split spread [dd Strew or strew strewed or strow- strown or strow. Stride Swear Strike Sweat Sweep strode swore, sware struck sweat swept stridden sworn struck sweat swept t Spii^ to put OQ a spit, is ^egijiar, 110 BNauSH ilRAMMAll. rs iciph. Irregulab Verbs. ;n slitted en r gpittenf I Present. Swell Swim Swing Take (betake) Teach (misteac Tear Tell Think Thrive Throw Thrust Tread Wax Wear Weave Weep Win Wind Work Wring Write Past, swelled swam, swum swang, swung took ^)taught tore or tare told thought throve threw thru&t trod waxed wore wove wept won wound wrought wrung wrote Past Partioiple. swollen, swelled* swum swung taken taught torn told thought thriven thrown thrust trodden waxen* worn woven wept won wound [worked wrought, or wrung written n orstrow» en DEFECTIVE VERBS. Defective verbs (from the Latin defkem, wanting,) are those in which some of the moods and tenses are wanting. They are: — can, could; may, might; must, ought ; auoth. ouoth : shall xhauJA • imJI -u^r^W , wu,wiU; witorwptjimt* 76 If THE student's GUIDE 'W 8oJ]init'r''v^ '■" '^'^''y' ''««<' i" the 3rd per^ son singular : it rains, it snows it hnil. it »i • ders, itbehooves, &c. ;'ako m.^il ^1 .T seem^ &c, m which me is prefixed i'nsteadTf;rto the 3rd person singular of the verb : ■ and therefore, a. M.y A«'e^r„" LT-n'*?' PT""' them with propriety. nU^veZZ'- ? T) "P'''^ "» therefore come more cor%c«runHr //'"('''?.'''''''* dtfective verbs. <=»"«'!"y under the heading of MAY, CAN, LET, MUST, DO, DID. WOULd" SHOULD, SHALL, WILL, &o. in which the>.« /our tenses are sometimes uLd' MAT, MUST, CAN, &0. q ■Mffy, and likewise must and can Cas woii .= . >'' so^eti^'es lo rntge:? ^roslC Wh"*'^'*' say of a person possessed of a sum of mo^ev ^v" T' moj purchase the field he was wi?h?L fL^.' ^""■''•' ^-iir^^te-^'^^Ci^^-^--, tha?w7 LVe^'oTr- r stie^rtCw^h^ -« say, "all mpn wwc/ ^;« » suojeci, but when we n.e«n that 4t tt „a^^-^'^4T3S"itI*.4''. -»»** sufficient reason to feel sure fc cannot' VXydkTeM ' as, «r God TO BITGLISH GKAMMAB. 7T «^y, explained above "" "" ""^^ '"' "=«"^ "''» DO AKD DID. pbf:traV'"rr,7vir,et;"^!r°^^r"f "^ "^ r- .«ch ti.e at », si^^iircre-ir^^r^LT ■fir 1^ WOULD AND SHOULD, improvement." ^'^ '^^^ ^^® sake of his OotTMrwrbVar^rpostl'^""""'- -.^ '*-'<' fear LET. ^ lit issometimes used to command : as " l,.f l,!m ,>... » Sometimes it is used to entreat • as "tt '*'""■" P»ss." that good book." •"'""^«'«. as let me send you SHALL AND WILL. pro^se'''as'.frl?n"°''.."P'^''^^ » determination or fend o'mv'businis ""in thr^T"]" "' ''» "- e«mng and then you will get one." ^ °'" ""' r^^^outan hour " In th.','.' "'iTi"'! "^^ ^ '*«« it used to pr^^Ue or to e^^r"l^"^/f P"^""'' '*«« command- «, ^Zl \ „ ^"^^ * determination or a the ox," &c. ^'^ ^^^^* °®* muzzle REMARKS ON CERTAIN TENSES. ^ Present Tbnsb. J^hrZi^""^^? ^j^^^^^'^es used for the future - - - — ^.-._ iwic w=iaurraw; Me « iJ- - 1^ 7S THK SWDENT'S GFtJIDff leaves In a minute." Hhe present is sometimes used fat the past i as, " He is never from his post." Sometimes it is used to include a long period up to the present; aS) " Through centuries the world presents a stupendous history." The present is used for the past in historical rela- tion J as, " Napoleon crosses the Alps " (for " crossed.") Past Tbnsk. The past tense alludes to time although close to the present, yet as altogether past ; as, "They vi«iierf me this morning." Perfect Tbnsb. The perfect tense may include the present ; as, " She has been my servant for years." The perfect does not always convey an allusion to the present 5 as, *' He has braved many a storm. The Prior-Past. In the narrations of diflferent past erentB, the />rtor- pdst should refer to what is farthest back ; as, "I ha(L heard from my friend for the first time ten years ago; since then he wrote me several long letters ; 1 have not heard from him within the last twelve mouths." THE VERB.— (Conimwed.) QUESTIONS. Is " to be " always an intransitive verb ? What is iti present subjunctive 3rd plural? What is its perfect potential 3rd singular? What is its perfect partioif)le? What is its prior-past indicative 2nd plural? What sort of verb is to rule ? ( ^hat is meant by the common style? What by the emphatic, the solemn?) What is the future perfect ind. 3rd plural of " to rule " in the active voice? What the same mood and tense passive? What is the past participle of swell? What of slit? of saw? of icax ? Why do you use you, as well as thouj in the 2nd singular? What is a defective verb? What 13 ita derivation? IVAu ate Such verbs as it rainf, tc. i»^ .|)rop«rly.ea^ im{)^so&ai:?. fis$dai& tii«i ptOtUifti' S3 asedfot Sometimes J present; tup&ndoui [•ical relo- crossed.") lose to the visited me ; as, "She illusion to rm. the prior- as, "I had rears ago: rs ; I have loaths." What is iti its perfect participle? ral? What the common I What is Ue " in the se passive?' at of siitl ell as thouj jrb? What TO ENGLISH ' v'AMMARi 79 force and meaning of may, can and mw-rf, and gire ex- amples of them. What is the meaning of do and did ? of would and should? What does sA//// mean in the lat person? What in the 2nd and 3rd? What is the meaning of will in the 1st person? What in the 2nd Mid 3rd ? In what sense is the present tense some- times used by good writers? V^hat does the past tense allude to? What time may the perfect include? Does the perfect always convey an allusion to the present? How should the prior past-tense be used when other past tenses are employed with it? Give an example. EXERCISE. Parsing. ---The verb is parsed by stating ita class (that is^ whether it is transitive or intransi- tive,) alao its voice (that is whether active or pas- sive:) ita conjugation, mood, tense, hvmber, and person. It should also be stated whether the verb is regular or irregular, what its subject or nomi- native isj and if a transitive verb, the object it governs. EXAMPLE. *' George struck the desk" The subject in this sentence is George, and desk the object of the act. "Struck " is a verb transitive, irregular (present Hrike ; past struck ; past participle struck.) Active voice, indicative mool; >S1TI0N3. !, amidsiy beneath, own, dit- fhrough, utito, up, >osition, n of the should )ointing ition, as )ablin," ogether, } is used , '^You > see our clttssifi- tle book) conjnnc- • that to iction, af< hject, (in tical pur- TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 83 friends; hut, if the day be -wet, we'll remain at home." A LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. And, also, neither, nor, either, or, thour/h, yet, hut, how- ever, for, that, because, since, therefore, wherefore, if, unless^ yet. Obs. — That is a pronoun when it stands for who or which ; for a conjunction, when it means because, INTERJECTION. An Interjection (from the Latin interjectus, thrown between,) is a word thrown between the parts of a sentence to express a sudden or violent emotion cr outcry without affecting the construc- tion J as, Oh ! alas ! A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS. Ah ! adieu ! alas ! avaunt ! alack ! away ! aha ! hail ! hirJc ! huzza ! pshani ! O ! oh ! ha ! ha, ha ! ah, ha ! ho ! eh ! hum ! hmh ! halloo ! see ! &c., &o. Parsing.— A conjunction is parsed by stating the word or words which it connects ; as, '* 1 came and heard," &c. H» »**^ and connects the two verbs. An int(ujection is pui ed by simply stating how you know it is an interjection. QUESTIONS. Mvirh. — What is an adverb? What does the word come from ? What words are generally adverbs ? Low are adverbs in ly generally compared ? Give an ex- ample of adjectives improperly used for adverbs. Name the principal adverbs. Prepositions. — What does the word "preposition" come from ? What is its r waning ? Name the principal prepositions. When are 0/ and f shoes, ositions. r boy in ay shops evotion. Those cjh they NOTES. 1. A pronoun becomes plural when it refers to a number of words of different persons ; in which case the first person is preferred to the second and the second to the third ; as, " William, you and I are advanced on our journey." Here our is the first person because / is. 2. It is sometimes used for a noun in the masculine or feminine gender ; as, " It is I ; be not afraid." " Was it Martha or Mary who was cumbered about many things ? " 3. When two words are alluded to, one in each num- ber, the pronoun must be plural ; as, " Neither the children nor the mother consider themselves in aflflaence." 4. The word that answers a question must be in the same case as the word that asks it ; as, " Who comes here ?" Answer, " I." 5. A collective noun when it conveys unity of idea .requires a pronoun in the singular number ; as, " The navy is proud of its victory." But when a collective noun conveys plurality of idea^ the pronoun will be plural ; as, " The Parliament entered ou their duties." EXERCISE. ( To be corrected and parsed.) My soldiers, you and I (said the king) shall probably lose your lives. Every man will be rewarded according to their works. The principal duties of the king are expressed in their oath at the coronation. If a man is bound by gratitude to any well-wishers, our parents are the persons. Rebecca took goodly raiment and put them on Jacob ? Who rapped at the door ? Me and him. An orator's tongue should please their audience. It U a brother of his father's. Whom do you love best ? she. That is a valuable sot of instrttments. ^ ■'' If 11 94 THE student's GUIDE Take handfuls of ashes of the furnace and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven in the si^ht of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust. Religion's ways are ways of pleasantness, and all their paths are peace. Rule VI. — Relative Pronoun. When the pronouns WHO, which, and THAt are relative pronouns, the nouns to which they relate go hefore them, and are called their antecedents y with which they must agree in num- ber and person ; as, '' This is the hook which I purchased." '' He is the man who instructed me." " The house that was built." N0TB3. 1. If no numinative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is nominative to the verb : as. " The bird which sang." 2. If a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the verb following ; as, "The boys whom I have taught." 3. When the antecedent and the relative are both in the nominative, the relative refers to the verb that immediately follows it, and the antecedent is nominative to a verb coming after ; as '* the inan who wilfully brbs is subject to reproach." 4. When the name of a person is used merely as a «a?/i6, and has no reference to the person, wAM and not who ought to be used ; as, " Venus, who is the common name for beauty," should be, " which is the common name," &c. 6. When two antecedents of different persons belong to the same relative in a sentence, the relative and the verb may agree in person with whichever antecedent makes the better sense ; as^ " / am the master who 'teaches you," or " who teach you." *^ Thou art he whp ruleat all things " or " who ruleth;' &c. :f. TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 95 i let Moses P Pharaoh, on's ways paths are rN. md THAI? to which died their 3 in num- : which I cted me." lative and verb J as, jlative and following ; are both in verb that lominative IfuUy BRB8 erely as a which and vho is the ich is the ona belong 7e and the mtecedent aster who rt he who : 6, 'jLuatf as a relative^ is used instead of who or which : — (1.) When the propriety of who or which is doubtful j as, *' The bird that sang so sweetly." (2.) After who when used in asking questions, and some- times after the personal pronouns ; as, " He that fights his country's battles ;" " who that loves free- dom will be a slave ?" ^3.) After the superlative degree, the words sam?, all, and sometimes no, some, and any ; as, " The^nes^ that comes for sale ;" " all that are in earnest will attend." (4.) When one antecedent requires who and the other which ; as, " The people and countries that he saw." EXERCISE. {To be corrected and parsed,) The man which commits treason will be pun- ished. The children who I have brought up have been ungrateful. I am he that desires to serve you, who will always be your friend in need, and that never will desert you. I am the lawyer which pleadeth for that unfortunate criminal. Horace speaks of Bacchus, who is another name for wine. He knows not how to fear which dares to die. The chiid who inherited that estate is dead. All which desire to be happy must be virtuous. The stu- dents and the colleges of Cambridge which are spoken of by the traveller. The dearest goods which I see are the cheapest. Who which travels by night is not in danger. I wl o own this farm will soon buy the next. Wellington, who fought to conquer, is dead. No man who loves his country will refuse to fight for it. The ignorant man when among those which are learned is like a being of another world. Thou who have examined the st^ck can tell what is damaged. i m w THE student's GUIDE Rule VIT. — The Verb. A verb must agree with its nominative in num- ber and parson; as, *' The sun descends and the mountains are sluded^ A sentence is sometimes the nominative to the verb as, " How long life will bcj iS uncertain." NOTPS. 3. Every part of the verb, except the infinitive mood and the participle, ought to have a nominative expressed or understood; as, awake^ arise, that is awnke ye^ariae ye. Every nominative case is the nominative to a verb ; as, "JoAn walks,'' that is when it is the stibject of the verb, or answers to the question who or what before the verb. The two following circumstances are exceptions : 1st. When a person or thing is spoken to ; as, ^^ John^ will you walk ?" »' Sun ! thou orb of day I" Thif if, c&lied the nomnative of OiJdress. ^ 2d. When a noun has no grammatical dependen on the rest of the sentence ; as, " John being engaged, tne mes- sengers left." ''The sun having gone down, the men went home." This is called the nominative independent. 2. When an infinitive xnood or a phrase is the subject of a verb, the verb must be in the 3rd person singular ; bnt if two or more infinitives or phrases are used, it must be in the plural ; as, " To read is instructive." '< To reoii and rejiect are sources of pleasure." [See obser- vations under Infinitive, page 46.] 3. When a verb comes between two nouns of di^..;*nt numbers, it must agree with the noun which Sbems to be more naturally the subject or thing spoken of; as, " The wages of sin is death." " His lunch was bread and cheese." 4. Singular nouns or personal pronouns connected by a conjunction require a plural verb, unless they refer to the same person or thing ; as, " William, James, and Martha are here." "Every man, woman, and child wa$ affected with the disease." w ^^ TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. m m num- and the Dmetimes long life Live mood expressed pfdristeye, ) a verb ; ect of the )efore the ceptions : s, ^^JohUj This is I* on the tne mes- nenwent ent. e subject lingular; used, it e." ♦< To e obser- ibenas to I of; as, read and BCted by ' refer to les, and hild woi 6. When singular nouns or pronouns are joined by oVf neither, or nor, their verbs must be singular ; as, " JVieiYAer the boy nor his mother was here." "John, Alfred, or Stephen is qualified." 7. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun of different persons, are joined by or, the verb will be the same person as that nearest it; as, "I or thou ar<." " You or I aw," &c. When, or, neither, cr nr.r join a singular noun or pro- noun and a plural one, the verb must agree vs^ith the plural nouns or pronouns, which should generally be placed next the verb ; as, " Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved." "Either he or we are to go." , EXERCISE. [To he corrected and parsed.) To labour with the expectation of reward lighten the task. To be temperate in our pleasures, to use frequent but moderate exercise, and to keep our passions under due control, is the best means of preserving health. Poverty cause discontent, riches produces pride. The heavens declares the glory of God, and the firmament show his handy- work. The earth and moon has a tendency to approach each other. Virtue, fame, and glory gives way to riches. His meat were locusts and wild honey. Biography record the lives of eminent men, and may be called the science of life and manners. Every castle, public building, and man- sion, were illuminated for the victory of Waterloo. Neither the king nor his parliament are in favour of the war. Fallen thy throne, Israel ! Silence are o'er thy plains, _ Thy dwellings all lies desolate, Thy children keeps in chains. . G ^inXMMa 98 •I THE student's GUIDE The party are broken up. Idleness and igno- rance IS the parent of much vice. Thou shalt not steal, are one of the ten commandments. You or he are.^ He or I is. Neither you nor your com- rades IS worthy of commendation. Every man, Woman, and child were burnt. The child, the youth, and the aged man agrees in this opinion, and can thou refuse to join in it ? The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, but in ourselves. Lazarus, come forth. Sun, stand thou still on Uibeon, and thou, Moon, on the valley of Ajaloa ! " Danger, long travel, want, or woe. Soon change the form that best we know." Rule VIII.—The Yerb.— {Continued.) Transitive Verbs or their Present Par- ticiples govern the objective case ; as, " He learned his lesson ; I saw ther master teaching, Intransitive Verbs or their Participles do not govern any case ; as, " He walked home." Here home is governed by to understood (i. e. to his home). *^ Repenting him of his design," should be " Repenting of his design " — design is governed NOTES. li The object of a verb is frequently separated from its verb by a noun (or pronoun) in the objective case governed by a preposition understood ; as, " Give (me) that book "—that is " Give that book to me." 2. A transitive verb does not take a preposition after it; as, "He will not admit of it,"— should be, ^^ admit '•%RW ind igno- »halt not You or our com- 3ry man, liild, the opinion, he fault, )urselves. still on * Ajalon ! now. >> ued.) NT PaR- 'He a IS, t riCIPLES i home." I (i. e. to ," should governed ated jtive case jlive (me) iiion after 3, '^ admit TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 99 3. Tntransitive and Passive verbs have the same case after them as before them, when both words refer to the same person or thing; as, "He was named JohnJ' " They are made scholars." *' li has grown a nice tree.'* " Nelson was a famous wan." 4. The past participle, and not the past tense, should be used after the auxiliaries have and be 5 as, " I have written" (not I have wrote), "is written" (noii^wrote). So also the past participle should not be used for the past tense ; as, " He ran " (not he run) ; ** I saw " (not I seen), &c. 5. When the present participle takes the before it, and 0/ after it, it may be used as a noun ; as, " The observing of advice," &c. 6. A noun and its pronoun should not be nominative to the same verb ; as, " The house, it was built," should be ** The house was built." EXERCISE. (^To be parsed and corrected.) I must premise with these observations. He began his lesson. I seen my old friend to day. George is spoke to about the matter. I spent an hour speaking to him. Repenting him of his design. On hearing of it, he became angry. The relatives of the deceased are gone away to their homes. Their children will never want for any- thing. The unfavourable weather will diminish from his crops. Harrison was chosen for Colonel of the militia corps in Halton. He sleeps himself upon his couch. Please hand me that inkstand. The neighbours they all seemed unanimous in going for a repeal of existing abuses, and resolved to persist in advocating the measure. I wrote what is called a review of the Encumbered Estates Act, They would have went had not Robert interfered. •M f .,^W" 100 THE student's GUIDE Rule IX. — The Infinitive Mood. When two verbs come together, the latter (which generally has the sign to) will be in the INFINITIVE MOOD, governed by the former ; as, " I wish to be informed." (See obs. on " Infin. Mood," page 46.) 1. The infinitive may be governed by nouns or adjeC' tives] as, " A desire to improve," " desirous to improve^" Ac. ■ 2. fn comparison^ the Infinitive generally comes after «o, a», loo^ or than ; as, " Be so good as to say whether you are too busy to come over or not," &c., &c. 3. The infinitive is sometimes used absolutely, and stands independently of the rest of the sentence ; as, ^* To confess the truth, I was deceived." EXEROISE. {^To he corrected and parsed,) You cannot make me to understand about your meaning. To use a common saying, every mickle makes a rauckle. To gain an unsullied reputation 'and to discharge the duties of life faithfully, is what few accomplish. Never too old for learning. He had a passionate taste for literature, and always evinced a strong desire for advancing himself in all useful subjects. No one was more ready than him to apologize when in the wrong. To sum up the whole, grammar is a most useful and profitable study ; and we should never give it up until we are able to master its various rules. Pride guides his steps, and bids him to shun the great. I felt my voice to come back to me again. Cease to do evil. Learn to do well. ^ - OD. 3r (which PINITIVK jish. to be page 46.) s or atfjeC' improve," omes after ,y whether utely, and tence : as 'I )out your sry mickle •eputation [y, is what ling. He id always Qself in all than him im up the profitable > until we ide guides I felt my to do evil. 4J TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Let school-taught pride to dissemble all it can : These little things are great to little man. Yes 1 let the rich to deride, the proud to disdain, The simple blessings of the lowly train : >. To me more dear, congenial to my heart, One native charm, than all the gloss of art. Rule X. — The Adverb. Adverbd neither govern nor are governed. They are used to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, and should be appropriately arranged in the sentence ; generally before adjectives, after verbs, and between the first auxiliary and princi- pal verb ; as, " He is a very powerful man ; he works resolutely ; and is very mwc^ dreaded by all who know him." NOTES.' 1. The adverbs yea, yes, nay, no, and amen, are gene- rally used independently ; as, " Will you go ? No," &c. 2. A repetition of the same negative makes the neg- ative more emphatic ; as, '' I would never lay down my arms ; no, never, never, never!" 3. Adverbs should not ')e used for adjectivet, nor ad- jectives for adverbs ; as, " The preceding (not the above) extract." , ? _ ;^ 4. The syllables in, im, un, and dis, prefixed to tt word, make a negative ; as, " He was wnkind." A nega- tive adverb is sometimes used with one of these to signify a diminished kind of affirmation ; as, " I am not ttfikind." This is a weaker expression than " / am kind." •* 5. There does not always mean place, but is often used for the sake of good sound; as, " There is an hour of peaceful rest," &c. 6. When the verb to be can be substituted for the verb employed, an adjective and not an adverb should ge7ierally be used ; as, " He feels (is) warm:' . 102 THE student's GUIDE EXERCISE. (To he corrected and parsei,) The then congregation attended here. He will never become reconciled I am afraid, no, never, never. From whence did they come ? I wish him to quietly remain at home. I don't know whether he will or no. He was not una- ware of the danger. Were they never so strong they might be conquered. He reads most correct and writes excellent well. When you come here you'll see my garden. He kindly has invited me. Only for me he could not have seen it. He was not improperly named a designing man. He was not so disobedient or disinclined to do right as people thought. Being not unconscious of her kind- ness, he acknowledged it They not only found her enriched, but greatly enriched. He is remarkable strong. There are few who know how to read. The artillery rode by most beautiful. You ought steadily to work. She is pleasant often. No man never erred so much. I never did nothing of the kiad. I did not hear nothing about it. The soonest day will be time enough. Thine often infirmities. Genuine medicines only compounded. It is real sharp weather. I hear the same very story. He behaves very good. . Rule XI. — The Preposition. Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, ''He drove /rom Lancaster to Liverpool." NOTES. 1. Nouns denoting ^ime, value^ weight, or measure, are frequently put in the objective case without the y JeBaaa He will 3, never, ae? I I don't not una- 10 strong t correct oroe here ^ited me. He was He WHS right as her kind- bund her markable to read, ou ought No man ng of the Lt. The ine often pounded, jry story. as. (( He measure I ithout the TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 103 preposition; as, "It cost a pound;" "It weighs an ounce ;" " It is a yard wide ;" &c. 2. In is sometimes incorrectly used for about or concerning ; as, " He informed me in parts of his busi- ness," should be about or concerning, &c. In also aig:- nifies rest in a place ; into, motion, into a place ; as, .^' He went in the house," should be, into the house. '*He is staying in town," is correct. 3. To refers to a place, and till to time; as, "He went to school, and staid there till three o'clock." 4. Prepositions are often improperly omitted; as, -4* The mills will be sawing the Spring," should be, " in the Spring." " It is worthy the consideration," should be, "o/the consideration," &c. 5 From between, and over against, are some- times used as compound prepositions ; as, " From be- twcen the branches the bird flew." " Over against the church stands a school-house." EXERCISE. ' (^Tohe corrected and parsed.') How many branches have you been instructed in ? What man are you to give the books to ? He stops in the Greeham hotel at this city. Thomas resides in a house at the same street. He is always found to home on Wednesdays. He said he would write me in every part of his business. He travelled from this in Waterford by the mail. Have you felt cold the day ? Have you ever been at Paris ? He came till tell me to wait for them from one to three o'clock. At what city would - you like to reside in for the summer ? I differ with Sir Robert Peel. He walks by a staff with the aid of the moon. It is worthy the attention , ©f all interested parties. I have seen a man pass ' i-ing through a telescope. I have been actuate ! I 104 THE student's GUIDE from the conviction. He should profit from infor- mation. He is deserving of encouragement. From ten in the morning to ten at night, is twelve hours. I bestowed the premium to the best boy. He told me in some of his adventures. I gave the book to they. He was resolved of going to Bel- fast. W 5 live in Pall Mall at London. Sulphur is found on the surface of, and on the earth. They are on their way for Dublin. There was no water, and they died for thirst. He bears a great re- semblance of me. BuLE XII. — Conjunctions. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case, and verbs in the same mood and tense; as, "^e and /are neighbours." "They conversed with him and me." " They speak and read well." MOTES. 1. OoDJunctions which do not express contingency or doubt, require the indicative mood after them ; those of a positive or conditional nature, the subjunctive; as, " Though he writes and speaks well, he is not a , scholar." " Though he speak and write evtr so well, -he shall not persuade me." 2. When conjunctions do not connect the same moods and tenses, or when a contrast is stated with hutj notj though, Hark 1 the numbers soft and clear, Gently steal upon the ear. ELLIPSIS. Ellipsis (derived from the Greek word elUipo to leave behind,) means an omission of some words' and IS frequently allowable ; but the words left out lie comes ON. ) the objec- 1, and the ), Ah ! me. connection overned by )k on) me." of address, be placed pronoun to poverty ! ound, ler age !" •tXi rd ellei/poj me words, ds left out TO ENGLISH GRAMMAE. rami h^ widerBtood in the mind, in order to parse correctly. EXAMPLES OF ELLirSxS OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OP SPEECH, &C. ^^^ Noun.—" I will sell my horse and. buy another," that is " another Aorsc." ^ rr- ^ » .^; 2. Article.— " The great and good King George, for " the great and the good," &c. 3. Adjective.—" Good apples and plums," instead or " good apples and s^ood plums." 4. Pronoun.—" I admire and venerate old age, for '^^ I adm-re and I venerate old age." ^ ' ■ 6. Verb.—" He studies as much as William," that is, " he studies as much as William studies." ^ 6. Adverb.—" He spake and acted wisely," instead of « he spake wisely and acted wisely:' ' ' •?. Preposition.—" For the good of man and beast, instead of, " for the good of man and o/ beast." ^^ 8. Conjunction.—" The numbers one, two, and three, instead of " the numbers one, and two, and three." 9. Interjection.— " Ob, shame! horror! disgrace! instead of " oh, shame ! oh, horror ! oh, disgrace I" A Phrase.—" An angry man who suppresses his pas- sions thinks worse than he speaks," should be, " thinks 0/ worse i/iiw^s," *=c- * In analyzing or parsing, care should be taken to supply the words that are understood. If such words when supplied do not make good sense, It is an evidence of bad composition. PARSING. Parsing under Etymolo.cry refers only to the meaning of the various parts of speech and their crammatical relation to ea^h other. Parsing m its full sense includes also tiio rules by which their concord (or agreement) and government over each other are maintained. 108 THE student's GUIDE METHOD OP PARSING. , " The carpentsr made two doors of mahogany^'* The^ the definite article, placed before the noun, carpenter J to limit its meaning. Carpenter^ a common noun, because it is a name that may refer to others of the same class or spe- cies ; singular number, because it means one ; third person, because it is spoken of; nominative case to the verb made because it is the agent or sub- ject of the sentence and answers to the 'question who made f and it is of the masculine gender be- cause of the male sex. Made a transitive verb, because it expresses action "passing over" from the agent, carpen- ter^ to the object, doors. Indicative mood, be- cause it simply declares or points out what the .carpenter did. Past tense, because it expresses what took place in past time. Irregular, because it does not form its past tense and past participle by the addition of d or ed. Third person, sin- gular number, because its nominative, carpenter j is of that person and number, with which it agrees according to Rule Seventh, which says " A verb must agree with its nominative in number and per son. ^^ Two is an adjective, because it must be joined to its noun, doors. It cannot be compared, because its signification cannot be increased or lessened. Doors, a common neuter noun, for the same reason that carpenter was a comnion noun. It is neuter because of neither gender ; plural number , because it means more than one ; third person because spoken of; and objective case because it is V,' So^GLISH GRAMMAR. 109 bhe noun, s a name js or spe- ne; third iQ case to or sub- 'question mder be- i',-rf • f-) expresses , carpen- Qood, be- what the expresses ', because participle rson, sin- pew^, is it agrees " A verb nber and (joined to I, because lessened, ne reason . It is 1 number d person iause it is the object of the sentence and of Ae^*'^^, "^ffl bv which verb it is governed, according to Rule i\Zth, which says, " TransUiv. verb, ortheirpre- lent participhs govern the objective axse. oh^ a preposition because it expresses the rela- tion between its object, rmhogany, '•"^ ~ :. Mahogany, a common neuter noun, ^ird person /for the reasons already given in parsing :f^ A Roused up the soldier ere the morning star ; While thronged the citizens, with terror dumb. Or whispering with white lips, " The foe 1 they come. They come 1" Byron. EXERCISE XVI. "the adverb,"— cow^inwec?. Human laws are often so numerous as to escape our memories : and sometimes ao darkly s^i.din- \8tory of TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 115 ood," nds s hold prung ►RDSWORTH. teed, r ring car, I etween me and you, and every living creature of all flesh ; anA the waters shall no more I .;«a.L..alWitfc-i TO BNQLISH ORAMMAB. 117 I mind stition, raction regory* vithout ion for er was 36 who dng.— Hwu'n.e, )venant 1 every srpetual ; and it me and I bring be seen >venant, f living 10 more become a flood, to destroy all flesh." — Book of Genesis, EXERCISE XXI. "the conjunction." Let India boaat her spicy trees, whose fruit and gor- geous bloom Give to each faint and languid breeze its rich and rare perfume •, Let Portugal and haughty Spain display their orange groves, And France exuU her vines to train around her trim alcoves. Old England has a tree as strong, as stately as them all, As worthy of a minstrel's song in cottage and in hall. 'Tis not the yew-tree, though it lends its greenness to the grave. Nor willow, though it fondly bends its branches o'er the wave ; EXERCISE XXII. " THE CONJUNCTION," — continued. Nor birch, although its slender trees be beautifully fair. As graceful in 5ts loveliness as maiden's flowing hair ; 'Tis not the poplar, though its height may from afar be seen, Nor beech, although its boughs be tipt with leaves of glossy green. AH these are fair, but they may fling their shade unsung by me : My favourite, and the forest's king, the British Oak shall bel Its stem, though rough, is atout and sound ; its giant branches throw Their arms in shady blessings round, o'er maa and beast below } i 13! I 118 THE student's GUIDE EXERCISE XXIII. "the conjunction," — continued. Its leaf, though laie in spring it shares the zephyr's gentle sigh, . u ^ As late and long in autumn wears a deeper, richer dye : Type of an honest English heart, it opes not at a breath, . , . But, having opened, plays its part until it sinks in death. » .ut. j Its acorns, graceful to the sight, are toys to childhood Its mistletoe, with berries white, adds mirth to Christ- mas cheer : ^ ^ .^. And when we reach life's closing stage, worn out with care or ill. For childhood, youth, or hoary age, its arms are open stilL EXERCISE XXIV. ; ; " THE CONJUNCTION," — coucinued. But prouder yet its glories shine, when, in a noble form, It floats upon the heaving brine, and braves the burst- ing storm : , ^ , ^ . . I* !^' Or when, to aid the work of love, to some benighted clinie» „ , . .V 1 It bears glad tidings from above, of gospel truths sub- lime '. %.' M Oh 1 then triumphant in its might, o'er waters thm and It seems, mheatven's approving sight, a second glorU i', ous Ark. ' ; Southey. EXERCISE XXV. ^ » THE INTERJECTION." Why do you thus, ah 1 why complain. And kill me with th' unkindly strain ? ^ ^ '»! g'' '' g"»1I W B ! WMW. ! i' ephyr's er dye : >t at a nks ia Idhood Ohrist- it with e opea e form, burst*^"'^ lighted lis sub- ^ in and A I glori- outhey, . . TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Nor can the gods nor I consent That you, my life's great ornament, Should sink untimely to the tomb, While I survive the fatal doom. Should you, alas 1 be ^f^^^^,^^Z7lt^y Wherefore, ah I wheretore should I stay, My value lost, no longer whole, And but possessing half my soul ? One day-believe the sacred oath- ^ Shall lead the funeral pomp of botn , Cheerful, to Pluto's dark abode, With thee I'll tread the dreary road. 119 FrancU Horace. ANALYSIS* Analysis (from the Greek analmis, a separa- tion or division,) means Ae separaton ot a com- r.r„d sentence into the several parts of which it pound =enten^ 1 ^^ understand ^:^X^ -d the mode of thei..; "^rst™. -;Ser be simpU or .m- ^ A^'siMPLE SBKTENCE (logically t«>=ed a pr.po^Ln,) consists of two parts-the subject and the predicate. first edition. The /»f»/„X,3 jn tiie preparation of it by many ^-g^f^.* *\teceived mueh useful informa- it, he has consulted »»* '"„, ! .flrewa and Stoddard, ll°" r]rmUs'XoTom''L''arUcirin the •■ Encyclo- ^,'SXtZpoHta;!^ by Archhishop Whately. s I I III J ! 1 il 120 THE student's GUIDE ft i The Subject is that of which something is affirmed or declared; as, " George bought a book." Here George is the subject because it is declared or affirmed, that ne " bought a book." The Predicate (from the Latin jprcedico, to say or affirm,) is that which is said or affirmed of the subject ; as, " William reads." Here reads is the predicate, because it affirms what William does. The Grammatical Subject is a noun, or pronoun, or some word, phrase, or sentence, used as a noun. The Grammatical Predicate is the verb. The Logical Subject includes all the words used to express the whole idea of the subject. The Logical Predicate includes all the words which are required to express the whoh idea of the predicate; as, " the love of becoming wealthy is general." Here the love of becoming wealthy is the logical subject^ is general is the logical predicate, love is the grammatical sub- ject , is is the grammatical predicate, EXERCISE. Point out the grammatical subject and predi- cate, and afterwards the logical subject and pre- dicate, in the following examples : Honour is the reward of virtue. The Danube is a noble river. Abraham was the father of the faithful. Man inherits the curse of Adam. Vir- tue adorns a woman. The lion is a very ferocious animal. The subject and the predicate may be either simple or compound. •J TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 121 ething is i a book." declared, ledico, to Jirmed of J reads is William nourij or ice, used e verb. le words ect. all the wie idea ecoming ecoming I is the \al sub- 1 predi- tid pre- Danube of the . Vir- rocious either A Simple Subject is one subject of thought, and may be a single noun, or a word or phrase used as a noun, either standing alone, or accom- panied by modifying adjuncts. . . , x {Adjunct, from the Latin adjunctus, jomed to, means a something added to another, but not es- smtially a part of it.) . A Compound Subject is formed of ry, and in a position ; jury is the object of places ; in expresses the relation between places and i^ositioTi; position is the object of in; and a defines position ; responsibility is the object ofo/, which relates it to position. Observation.— Words which modify the sub- ject, and are thus parsed grammatically, otten hgically belong to the predicate. ^ \^ Thus " The man was benevolent." Here 6ene- volent belongs grammatically to man, but Zo^ri- . caZZ^/ to the predicate loas. • EXERCISE. Give an analysis of the following examples^:-- The contest was dubious until the enemy broke into the town. Alexander stabbed his dearest friend Clitus with a sword. Caesar was esteemed great for his favours and generosity ; Cato, for the integrity of his life. Clay hardens and wax softens before one and the same fire, l^laudius was a modest man, tenacious of what was just, and fit for managing the coramo ..wealth. Men use care in purchasing a horse ; but are negligent m choosing a friend. The Roman people, alter the death of Caesar and Pompey, seemed to have re- turned U> their former state of liberty. Hanmbal m SS> i^ripwf' « i 124 THE student's GUIDE being called home to defend his country, was de- sirous to make an end of the war by treaty* CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSES. 1 . An independent clause, — When each of the clauses, or members, of compound sentences, is complete or independent of itself, it is called an independent or co-ordinate clause; as. The Phoeni- cians fly to arms, but there was no time for prepa- ration for war. Mceoenas went to diversion ; Vir- gil and I went to bed. Drunkenness impairs wealth and reputation; time consumes iron and stones. 2. A. dependent clause. — When a member of a compomnd sentence is dependent on another, it is called a dependent or subordinate clause, and the clause on which it depends is ihQ principal clause; as, " Hiero, who was horn of a maidservant, was exposed by his father." Here who was horn of a maidrservant is the dependent clause ; and Iliero was exposed hy his father is the princi- pal clause. " The Carthaginians, when they heard the answer, sent for Hannibal home." The words in Italics are the dependent clause; the rest of the sentence, the principal clause, EXERCISE. Amlyze the following examples; distinguish the simple from the compound sentences, and the dependent from the independent clauses* 10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 125 y, was de- !aty» i SES. oh of ther itences, ia called an he Plio&ni-^ for prepa- lion; Vir- s impairs iron and aber of a ther, it ia :, and the al clause; dr^ervanty was born use ; and le princU hen theif ' e." The luse; the stinguish , and the The swallows, birds that are seen in summer, take pleasure in flying through the air. The moon drives her chariot beneath the sun; the heaven is stretched out above the clouds. Showers are poured down into the valleys, whilst snow tails upon the hills. Whilst Peter was sitting in the parlour, the boys were playing in the porch. Whether I am silent or speak, he goes on to pro- voke. Avoid idleness as a plague. Glory attends virtue as a shadow. Honour, like the rainbow, flies the pursuer and pursues the flier. DEPENDENT CLAUSES CONNECTED. In compound sentences, relatiue pronouns, ad- verbs, and conjunctions are employed to join toge- ther the different dependent clauses ; as. He has become indolent, because he had nothing to do. The people that came yesterday, will leave to- morrow. He remained here till his father sent for him. They that rise early, must go to bed in good season. He will be happy, if he is vir- tuous. WORDS CONNECTED. [The connection of words in the diflfercnt parts of a sentence should tee pointed out in the manner shown in the following exercise. This will be found a most in- teresting, practical, and instructive study, and will tend to do away with that purely mechanical system by which little or no exercise of the mind is performed. The teacher might introduce such exercises in connec- tion with every parsing lesson, in classes that have already studied the grammar thoroughly, and which are 11! Ill 126 THE Student's guide therefore prepared to receive instruction on such ad- vanced subjects.] EXAMPLE. " There is one being to whom we can look with a perfect conviction of finding that security, which nothing about us can give, and which nothing about U3 can take away." ' 1. The pupil should be asked to trace the con- nection between the words away and is ;^— Away modifies can take; can take is connected with can give by and ; which relates to security ; security is the object of finding ^ which is related by o/" to conviction; conviction is the object of with^ which relates it to can hok ; to expresses the relation between whom and can look, and whom relates to being, which is the subject of is, 2. Again let it be required to show the con- nection between that and we: — That defines security, which is the object of finding ; finding is related by of to conviction ; conviction is related by with to can look, which agrees with we. TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 127 u such ad- look with •ity, which hi nothing e the con- nd is ;^— connected ► security ; is related object of > expresses look, and ect of is, ' the con- at defines finding is is related we. PROSODY- PROSODY instructs in the art of making verse, speaking, reading, kc. ,«„»cTa Pronunciation comprises accent, emphasis, INTONATION, and PAUSES. ^ , ' Accent is the placing of a peculiar stress ot the voice on some particular syllable or word,— upon a syllable to create clearness of sound— upon a word to show the perspicuity of its meaning. Emphasis is the placiTig of a particular stress ot the voice on some word in a sentence, which^is calculated to be of special importance, as tor ,.^^wSl^u ride to town to-dag f No, I'll go to- "" Wm Vou ride in town to-day? No, ril walk. Will you ride to town to-day ? No, 1 11 go to '^wTSrideto town to-day? No, I'll send "^^Intonation is the change or modulation of the voice in speaking or reading. Pauses mean a total cessation of the voice at certain periods, and for a certain time. ^ There are two kinds of pauses, called GRAM- MATICAL and rhetorical. The grammatical pauses are four, viz. the COMMA, marked thus (,) the semicolon (;) the colon (:) the period, or full stop (.) 128 THE student's GUIDE COMMA. The COMMA, (from the areek word komma, a segment,) is the shortest pause or rest in reading or composition. o i • The following rules will be found usetul m marking the comma : v •!» *i, 1. Between the nominative and the verb, it tne nominative is long, or consists of several members ; as, " Fire, air, earth, and water, are the four ele- ments." " To act consistently with the laws ot nature, is sometimes found troublesome." 2. When a verb or any other important word is omitted, its place is sometimes supplied by a comma ; as, " To err is human ; to forgive, divme. (i. e., to forgive is divine.) 3. A word or phrase emphatically repeated is separated by a comma ; " To you, you only, will I confess my crime." ^ n n „ 4. When several words of a similar class tollow each other without conjunctions ; as, " She was an industrious, a kind, good woman." 5. Between adverbial phrases and the rest ot the sentence ; as " Death was, indeed, rapidly approach- ing." " I shall not, however, enter upon such a theme." ^. , 6. In a simple sentence, when one of its members is placed out of its natural order ; as, " Grief, by slow degrees, brought him to the grave,' instead of '' Grief brought him to the grave, by slow decrees. 7. To distinguish the speaker of a sentence from the sentence used by him ; as, " My name, she said, is happiness." TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 129 mma, a ding or eful in I, if the jmbers ; bur ele- laws of word is i by a divine." eated is y, will I js follow ? was an ist of the pproach- 1 such a members 9riefj by ' instead by slow mce from , she said, 8. An expression supposed to be sfken or teken from another writer, but not formal y cited, is pre- ceded by a comma; as, "I say unto b^ watch 9 When several words of a class Mow each other with the conjunction expressed; as, Ihe mm women, and chiklren suffered. "1^^ Sen each pair of connected words as « He frequented the voluptvms and the frugal, the iieiJthe bv^y, the merehxnts and the men of "''The members of a compound sentence are usually divided by commas; as, "^^» r^ch,s, thouah enviabk, gratify hxmselj. 12 Words expressing either opposition or con- li. YYoiua c y ° mas- as, " Virtue, the '^-f ^:'rranC;^iection, or an exclamato^ phras'e; as, « Wcome, frMlj visitor, kind, nf Bira'Ss of short clause, common 14. -D«^^ . . u j/g encouraged the arts, ':j::^Zu::,a2tedrnmtarydL,li.e,and vinted all his provinces in person. SEMICOLON. The SEMICOLON (from the Latin words semis, i. vy ueu a ^ nlause complete m 1 When a sentence wuai^^^ ^--^ y . neJtedby a conjunction the o- clau^^--Plete m :.«.if Ja fliA other added as an mterence, (,or iu ■>• SI 180 THE student's GUIDE give some explanation,) they are separated by a semicolon ; as, " Do not think yourself perfect ; for imperfection is natural to humanity J* 2. When a sentence can be divided into two or more parts^ either or all of which are again divi- sible by a comma into smaller portions, the clauses are divided by a semicolon ; as " Though tedious^ he was popular ; though argumentative y he was modest; though inflexibUy he loas candid; and though r.ietaphysicalj yet practical.^- 3.' When a sentence consists of two parts of opposite meaning to each other ; as, ^^ Hatred stir- reth up strife ; but love covereth all sms." When several short sentences follow each other, slightly connected in sense or construction, they may be separated by a semicolon; as, ^^Every- thing grows old; everything passes away ; every- thing disappears.^* THE COLON. The COLON (from the Latin word colony a mem- ber,) is used to divide a sentence into parts which are less connected than those separated by the semicolon, but which are not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. 1 . A colon is used after the member of a sentence which is complete in itself, but which is followed by some remark depending on it in sense, though not in construction: as, "Study to acquire the habit of thinking: .no study is more important." 2. When the first member of a sentence is com- pieiie iii oUilBU, UpUVA liiic iiu^w fjuj^i"i3 TTiwii a. uviij -viiivi/iwis understood^ not expressed ; as, " Cowards die many TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 131 3d by a ^ect ; for two or iin divi- 1 clauses tedious^ he was Id; and parts of )red stir- ;li other^ on, they " Evm/- r; every- ., a mem- ts which by the adent as sentence followed 3, though [uire the portant." e is com- die many times : the valiant never taste of death buc once," otherwise would be thus pointed, '' Cowards die many times; for the valiant never taste of death but once." , , . i • 3. When a sentence separated by semicolons is depending on the last clause for its meaning, a colon generally separates that concluding clause or member ; as " Princes have courtiers ; merchants have partners ; the voluptuous have companions ; the wicked accomplices : none but the virtuous have friends." THE PERIOD. The period (derived from the Greek word periodos, a round or circuit,) is used at the termina- tion of every sentence, unless when an interrogation or exclamation is expressed; as, Fear God. Honour the king. , , The PERIOD is used after abbreviations : as Mr. St. Knt. Bart. Esq. &c. RHETORICAL PAUSES. The RHETORICAL PAUSES are the interroga- tion point, the exclamation point, the dash, and the parenthesis. The interrogation point (?) is used after questions ; as, Whence camest thou ? The exclamation (!) is used to express a sudden or violent emotion of the mind ; as, Ah, me ! how sweet is love. ^ " The foe ! they come ! they come ! The dash (— ) is used to mark an jibrupt ,urn in a sentence; as, '' Shall I,go o»|— ?^-/V »" "^^ died— no one knew how." "' But I— b»ii x. I i ' 132 THE student's GUIDE — It may be a sound— A tone of ninsic— summer's eve— or spring— ^ flower — the wind — the ocean— which shall ^ound. Childe Harold, 4th. The parenthesis () is used to enclose an explanatory clause or member of a sentence not perfectly essential to the sense, but put in as an illustration or remark ; as, " J gave the parcel to Jane (the servant) for Iter mistress." " Call to my friend TJiomas, (that is my cousin) : he wishes to see you." MINOR POINTS. Quotation points (" ")&ve used at the com- mencement of passages taken from another author, or to point out words used by a person spoken of in the sentence ; as, " Thomas called out ' Stop,* but in vain" , ,. . i j Obs. a quotation within a quotation is marked by single commas, as the word stop in the above example. The apostrophe denotes the possessive case, or the omission of one or more letters ; as, ne'er lov'd, for never loved. Man's, to mark the posses- sive case of man. i, 1 1 p i A hyphen (-) connects the syllables ot a word ; as, pre-pare, pre-pa-ra-tions. The DiJERESis (••) shows that each vowel must be separately sounded ; as, atrial, instead of aerial The ELLIPSIS denotes the omission of some words, or of some letters in a word ; as, k—g, or I'^^niavhina, .77 gj - tf * — >»B»»Mi«ww««= >* «i^,a TO ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 133 ih shall Harold, iclose an mce not in as an oarcel to ' Call to le wishes the com- r author, poken of t 'Stop; s marked he above 5ive case, as, ne'er he posses- : a word ; ►wel must I of aerial. of some Jc—g, or The PARAGRAPH (^) denotes the commence- ment of a new subject. Used only m the Bible The ASTERISK (*), the obelisk or dagger {n the double dagger (X), and the parallel m reter to notes in the margin or at the bottom of the page. VERSIFICATION. Versification (derived from the Latin words versus, verse, and>, to make,) is the art ot mat- inff verse. 7,7 «^ Tn Poetry is either in r%me ov blank ^e^se jri rhyme the last syllable of every hue has the same smnd as that in one of the succeeding lines in bUink verse the closing syllables of the lines have no correspondence of sound. OBS.-lWhen the concluding syllab es of two successive lines correspond in sound, the verse is called a couplet ; as, « Scarce has the warrior time his sword to wield, Or breathe a^vhile, or lift the fencing shield. When the final syllables of three successive lines agree in sound, it is called a tnjplet ; as, " Freedom's battle once begun, Bequeathed by bleeding sire to son. Though baffled oft, is ever won. When a verse contains several lines, not arrang- ed in successive couplets or triplets, it is called a stanza; as, — " Ye proud, ye selfish, ye severe. How vain your mask of state ! The good alone have joys sincere, The good alone are great." 134 THE student's GUIDE BLANK VERSE. Procrastination is the thief of time : Year after year it steals, till all are fled, And to the mercies of a moment leaves The vast concerns of an eternal scene. Every line of verse contains a certain number of accented and unaccented syllables. The numbe of accented syllables in a line de- termine the number of poetic feet. The principal poetic feet are the Trochee, the Iambus, and the Anapoest. A TROCHEE consists of an accented and an unaccented syllable ; as, lovely, &c. An IAMBUS of an unaccented and an accented syllable ; as, become, &c. An ANAPiEST of two unaccentcd syllables and an accented syllable ; 8^, overtake. Verse is named, according to the feet that pre- vail in it, Trochaic, Iambic, or Anapcestic. Trochaic verse consists of an accented and an unaccented syllable ia alternate succession : it may contain any number of feet from one to seven. 1. One foot. Sighing, Dying. 2. One foot, and an accented syllable. Purple I scenes, Winding | greens. 3. T rei. PlsasN' f um, Utiierb vt ;mg. lumber ine de- lee, the md an scented and an lat pre- and an it may en. e. TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ^^^ 4. Tw-feet, and an accented syllable. Here the I flow'rets | spring, Here the j linnets | sing. 5. Three feet. Now they j stood con | founded, While the | battle | sounded. 6. Three feet, and a long syllable. Vital I spark of | heaVnly | flame, Quit, ohl I quit this I mortal | frame. 7. Four feet. Go, and 1 may the | spirits 1 if' «^. Gracious; | kind pro 1 teotore> | hear us. 8. Five feet. All that 1 walk on I foot or | ride in | chariots, All that 1 dwell in Ipala Ices or I garrets. 9. Six,fee.t. On a 1 mountain, 1 stretch'd be 1 neath a 1 hoar, Laya 1 sllpS | swain.and | vieWdthe 1 roUing ' billow. 10. Seven feet. Scorn and | shameand 1 fouldis | grace, ac | cumu I lated 1 sorrow, , ^^^ju^ Wait on I him who | wastes to | day re | gaidless I of to 1 morrow. 136 THE STUDENT*S GUIDE Iambic verse consists of an unaccented and accented syllable in alternate succession : it may contain any number of feet from one to six. 1. One foot. Elate In state. 2. Two feet. With rav The mon ish'd ears arch hears. 3. Two feet J with an additional syllable. In woods I a ran To joy I a stran ger. 4. Three feet. or near. In pla I ces far Or fa I mousor obscure. 5. Three feet and an additional syllable. Immor Assist, tal pow'rs, protect | me ; support, I direct | me. 6. Four feet. Fresh as | if Day | again Again | upon 1 the lap | o were born, morn. 7. Five feet. This is the heroic measure of English poetry. The cur mi-- 1 JLIiO iUVY few tolls I the knell | of part | ing day. TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 137 8. Six feet Not so I when swift | as light | Camil | la scours I the plain, , Flies o'er | th' unbend | ing corn 1 and skims ] along I the main.* ANAPJESTIC MEASURE. Anapaestic verse consists of two unaccented syl- lables and an accented one in alternate succession : it may contain any number of feet from one to four. 1. One foot. For in vain We complain. 2. Two feet. In my rage ] shall be seen The revenge | of a queen. 3. Threefeet. For he ne'er I can be true, | she averr'd. Who could rob I a poor bird | of its young. 4. Four feet. The Assy | rian came down 1 like the wolf | on ttie fold, , . . ^1 1- And his co | horts were gleam ] mg m pur \ pie and gold. 5. Four feet and an additional syllable. Thanks, my lord, | for your ven' | son, for fi | ner or fat I ter i > j i rv« o Never rang'd ] in a for | est, or smok d j on a plat I ter. J- :i * ♦« nnmnlftte the stanzas of an oae, or occasionally to vary heroic verse. 138 THE student's guide ; POETICAL LICENSE. A violation of the laws of Orthography, Etymo- " logy, and Syntax is allowed in poetry ^ in conse- quence of the difficulty of arranging words in regular measure ; this is called poetical license : 1. Some words are lengthened, others abridged j as, Presumptuous Xerxes next with efforts vain, To curb the billows, and the sea enchain. For here neither dress nor adornment 's allow'd, But the long winding-sheet and the fringe of the shroud. 2. Two words are sometimes contracted into one, as, To riches ? Alas ! His in vain, Who hid, in their turn have been hid. 3. Adjectives are frequently used as adverbs ; as, They fall successive, and successive rise. 4. Intransitive verbs are made transitive; as, The lightnings ^si^ a wider course. 5. The past tense and past participle are used for each other ; as. The mother seats her by her pensive son, She prest his hand, and tender thus begun. 6. Nor is frequently put for neither^ and or for either; as, Nor love, nor joy, nor hope, nor fear Has left one trace or record here. While the long strife e'en tired the lookers-on, Tlius to Ulv9sea SDoke sreat Telamon -. Or \9i me lift thee, chief, or lift thou me. jitymo- conse- rds in JENSE : idged ; shroud, d into •bs; as, vej as, re used 571. I or for «m s-on, TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 139V ^ 7. A noun and its pronoun are used as nomina- tives to the same verb ; as, " My hatik^ they are furnished with trees." COMPOSITION. Composition (derived from the Latin words cow, together, and 'pono^ to place,) is the art of express- ing our ideas either in prose or verse. Style is the peculiar manner in which ideas are expressed. Its most important qualities are per- spicuity and ACCURACY. Perspicuity depends on the choice of words and phrases, and the combining of these words and phrases into sentences. Accuracy is best learned by having a clear and perfect knowledge of the subject on which we pur- pose to write or speak ; for without a thorough acquaintance with the subject we cannot be accurate in speaking or writing on that subject. The requisites indispensable to a good sentence are clearness, strength, unity, precision, and propriety. Clearness of style consists in a perspicuous ar- rangement of the words and members of sentences, in opposition to obscurity and confusion, which are frequently occasioned by improperly placing ad- verbs, pronouns, and explanatory phrases, and by the improper repetition of pronouns when reference is to be made to different antecedents. Strength is the disposition or arrangement of sentences so as to give to them their due weight and influence. It is requisite that all redundant 140 THE student's GUIDE. words be cleared away ; the stronger clauses must follow the weaker ; a sentence ought never to be concluded with an inconsiderable word ; and the opposition of contrasted thoughts should be strongly marked. Unity consists in limiting a sentence to one leading sentiment with its adjuncts. Therefore, objects that have no immediate connexion should not be crowded together in the same sentence ; parenthesis should not be introduced into the mid- dle of a sentence, and sentences ought never to be extended beyond what seems to be their natural close. Precision consists in the use of such expressions as convey simply the idea which we have in view, and in the rejection of all superfluous words and phrases, in opposition to a loose and diffuse mode of expression. Propriety is the use of such words as have been adopted in the best society ^ and by the most approved authors ; avoiding low and vulgar expres- sions, and such as do not convey a clear idea of our meaning. Such is a brief sketch of the main requisites of style in composition. ..ttmnmniHitmit"', '-m»sjw*»»*««»" CONTENTS. h liGB GfiAMMAB. Definition of, 7 Oethogeafhy, Etymology, Syntax, and Peosody, Definition of 7 Paet Fiest.— Oetkogeaphy. Letters, , 8 Capitals ^ Italics, 10 Syllables, 11 Words, 12 Paet Second.— Etymology. Parts of Speech, 14 Parsing, 14 Noun, 14 Oender, 16 Number, 18 Case, 21 Person, , 24 Article, 28 Adjective, 80 Comparison, 80 Pronoun, 83 Personal Pronouns, 84 Adjective Pronouns, 38 Relative Pronouns, 88 Verb, 42 Division of Verbs, 42 Voices, 43 Mood, 46 Tente 48 Number, •••• ^1 l!|L ■ BS-K 142 CONTENTS. PAGE Person, *..... 61 Auxiliary Verbs, 49 Participles 60 Conjugation 61 Conjugation of the verb To Bb 64 Do. do. To Rule, 69 Irregular Verbs, 69 Defective Verbs, 75 Adverbs, 80 List of do., 81 Prepositions, 81 A list of do 82 Conjunctions, 82 A list of do., 83 Inteijections, 83 A list of do 83 Dbeivation 84 Paet Thied.— Syntax. A Simple Sentence, 88 A Compound do., 86 Concord and Government, 86 Rule 1st and notes,, 87 2n<2 Srd 4ith 5th 6th 1th Sth 9th ** IQth ** nth " 12th " 13^^ C( CI « « 89 90 91 92 94 96 98 100 101 102 104 106 Ellipsis, 106 Paesing, 107 Method of Parsing, 108 Grcneral Exercises on Parsing, 109 Of the Noun, No, 1, 109 No. 2, 110 A 'i CONTENTS. PAGE .. 61 .. 49 ,. 60 .. 61 ,.. 64 .. 69 ... 69 ,.. 15 .. 80 ... 81 ,.. 81 ,. 82 .. 82 .. 83 .. 83 .. 83 .. 84 ... 89 ... 86 ... 86 .. 87 .. 89 ... 90 .. 91 .. 92 .. 94 .. 96 .. 98 .. 100 .. 101 .. loa .. 104 .. 106 .. 106 .. 107 ,.. 108 ... 109 .. 109 ... 110 143 PAQB ... 110 ... 110 ... Ill ... Ill .... Ill .... Ill .... 112 .... 112 .... 118 .... lis <« «< «« Of the Article, No, 3 «• " No. 4 Of the Adjective, No. 6 Of the Pronoun No. 6, '• Ai>. 7, Of the Verb No. 8 " " No. 9. «• " No.lQ,... «• " ^0.11 ** '• No.l2 Of the Participle, ....No. 13 US Of the Adverb, No. 14 H* iV^o.l6, 114 No.lQ, 11* No. 17, • 11*^ « iVb.18, 115 Of the Preposition,. No. 19, H^ .No.^0, 116 Of the Conjunction,. No. 21 H^ « " .No.22 11^ « «« .No. 29 118 «• «* .2Vd.24, 118 Of the Interjection,. No. 25, US A5ALT8IS, 11® Subject, 120 Predicate, 12<^ Exercises, • "" ion Illustrations^ **" 124 Classification of Clauses, Dependent Clauses connected 1^*^ 125 126 Words connected, Example ' Paet FouetHc— Pkobody. Accent, Emphasis *'' Intonation, Pauses, Comma, mdes for marking Mo gemioolon, 127 127 127 128 128 129 144 CONTENTS. PAG£ Mules for marking Semicolon 129 The Colon, 130 Rules for marking do,^ 130 The Period, !..!..!.!!!"!. ..!.!!7 131 Rules ff^r marking do. , '' i^^ Rhetoiiical Pauses, ..'..... I3i Minor Ptints, 132 Vebsific. TioN, 133 Trochaic Verse, J3^ Iambic " 1.,^ • lo4 Anapoestio " ^g. Poetical License, .'......!!!!.."].* 138 Composition, .,...*...' 139 Style, ''''' igg Perspicuity, 239 Accuracy, 13^ Clearness of Style, ^ 139 Strength " 139 Unity, '■*■■'" 140 Precision, i^q Propriety, , 140 THE END. i mmm PAG£ 129 ••M«* 130 >«it.>. 130 131 131 131 132 133 133 134 134 134 134 138 139 139 139 139 139 139 140 140 140 i