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Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams Illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent ttre fllmAs A des taux de reduction dIffArenta. Lorsque Ie document est trop grand pour Atre reprodult en un seul cliche, II est fllmA A partir de Tangle supArieur gauche, de gauche h drolte, et de haut en bas, en prenant la nombre d'Images nAcessalre. Les diagrammes sulvanta illustrent la mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 ETrf : ^H \ m I i% Triumphs and Wonders OF THB i9TH Century THE TRUE MIRROR OF A PHENOMENAL ERA A VOLUME OF ORIGINAL, ENTERTAINING AND INSTRUCTIVE HISTORIC AND DK;SCRIPTIVE WRITINGS. SHOWING THE MANY AND MARVELLOUS ACHIEVEMENTS WHICH DISTINGUISH AN HUNDRED YBARS OF Matei^ial, IntBlIectuBi, ^ocia! and }l[m\ progfe^^ EMBRACING AS SUBJECTS ALL THOSE WHICH BEST TYPE THE GENIUS, SPIRIT AND ENERGY OF THE AGE, AND SERVE TO BRING INTO BRIGHTEST RELIEF THE GRAND MARCH OF IMPROVE- MENT IN THE VARIOUS DOMAINS OF HUMAN ACTIVITY. BY JAMES F». BOYD, A.M., L.B., Assisted by a Corps of Thirty-Two Eminent and Specially Qualified Authors. Copiously an& fiDaanificcntl^ lIUuatrateD. C. R. HARISH & CO., 28 & 30 TORONTO ST., TORONTO, ONT. ■PMHIHVPiVipil ' I'"" ] i 1 ivi > IIpJ* W-'''' ■; Bri- ^B'i . ^ aP ^ "1 ' Copyright, 1899, by w. h. Isbistkr. ^// A'tff/i/s kiscrved. 16 3^^z. f ^ INTRODUCTORY Mkasi'RINg epochs, or ems, by spaces of a Imndred years each, that which €inhraces the nineteenth century stands out in sublime and encouraginij; contrast with any that has preceded it. As the legatee of all prior cen- turies, it has enlarged and ennobled its bequest to an extent unparalleled in history; while it has at the same time, through a genius and energy iw'culiar to itself, creiited an original endowment for its own enjoyment and for the future richer by far than any heretofore recorded. Indeed, without permitting existing and pardonable pride to endanger rigid truth, it may be said that along many of the lines of invention and progress which have most intimately affected the life and civilization of the world, the nineteenth century has achieved triumphs and accomplished wonders «qual, if not superior, to all other centuries combined. Therefore, what more fitting time than at its close to pass in pleasing and instructive review the numerous material and intellectual acliievements that have so distinguished it, and have contributed in so many and such marvelous ways to the great advance and genuine comfort of the human race ! Or, what could prove a greater source of pride and profit than to comi)are its glorious works with those of the past, the better to understand and measure the actual steps and real extent of the progress of mankind ! Or, what more deliglitful and inspiring than to realize that the sum of those wonderful activities, of which each reader is, or has been, a part, has gone to increase the grandeur of a world era whose rays will penetrate and brighten the coming centuries ! Amid so many and such strong reasons this volume finds excellent cause for its being. Its aims are to mirror a wonderful century from the van- tage ground of its closing year ; to faithfully trace the lines which mark its almost magical advance ; to give it that high and true historic place whence its contrasts with the past can be best noted, and its light upon the future most directly thrown. This task would be clearly beyond the power of a single mind. So rapid has progress been during some parts of the century, so amazing have been results along the lines of discovery and invention, so various have been the fields of action, that only those of special knowledge and training could be expected to do full justice to the many subjects to be treated. Hence, the work has been planned so as to give it a value far beyond what could be imparted by a single mind. Each of the themes chosen to type the century's grand march has been treated by an author of special u INTllODUCTORY \ •f i fitnesH, and hij,'h up in liiH or her protcssiou or calling, with a view to securing for readers tlu' l)est tliouglits and lacts relating to the renuirkablo events of an hundred jears. In this re8i)ect the vohunc is unitjue and ori- ginal. Its authorship is not of one mind, but of a corps of minds, whose union assures what tlie occasion demands. The scope, character, and value of the volume further appear in its very large number and practical feature of subjcuits selected to show the active forces, the upward and onward movements, and the grand results that have operated within, and triumphantly crowned, an era witlumt parallel. These subjects embrace the ijciences of the century in their numerous divisions and conquests; its arts and literature; industrial, commercial, and tinancial ]iro- gress ; land and si-a jirowess ; educational, social, moral, ami reli<;ious growth ; in fact, every Held of enterprise and achievement within the t-juice of time covered by the work. A volume of such variety of subject and great extent affords fine opportu- nity for illustration. The publishers have taken full advantage of this, and have beautified it in a manner which commends itself to every eye and taste. Karely has a volume been so highly and elegantly embellished. Each sub- ject is illuminated so as to increase the pleasure of reading and make an ii.i2)ression which will prove lasting. As to its aim and scojie, its number of sjiecially (jualified authors, its vigor and variety of style and thought, its historic oomi)reh(!nsiveness and exact- ness, its great wealth of illustration, its superb mechanism, its various other striking features, the volume may readily rank as one of the century's tri- umphs, a wonder of iiulustrious preparation, and acceptable to all. At any rate, no such volume has ever mirrored any previous century, and none will come to reflect the nineteenth century with truer line and color. Not only is the work a rare and costly picture, filled in with inspiring details by master hands, but it is equally a monument, whose solid base, grand proportions, and elegant finish are in keej)ing with the s])irit of the era it marks and the results it honors. Its every insciiption is a glowing tribute to human achievement of whatever kind and wherever the field of action may lie, and therefore a happy means of conveying to twentieth cen- tury actors the story of a time whose glories they will find it hard to excel. May this picture and monument be viewed, studied, and admired by all, so that the momentous chapters which round the history of a closing century shall avail in shaping the beginnings of a succeeding one. AUTHORS AND SUBJECTS JAMKS V. IIUYI), A. M., 1,. II., VVoMlKIlN OF I''.I,K( TUICITV. UKAK-ADMIUAL OKOUCiK WAM-ACK MKl-VIU-K, C/iiiJ 11/ /liiri'iiu 0/ Sliiim Knijiiinriiuj, Nui'ii Hejinrlmiiil, \\' Arms. JBsmmiM Ir AUTUUliS AND SUBJECTS > I WAI.DO I'. HUdWS, Aiirieulfiiriil Hililnf " I'ini'iiiiinli ;/' TrnnA/tiirliilinii anil I'lniiiin rn , I'liirn'tihi nf Ptnntylflini'l, TlIK CKNTIIIY'.s CdMMKIK IAI, l'lll«il(l:».s. FItAXKI.IX S. KItMdXDS, A. .M., Auittanl I'roffMiir iij' I'nlitiiiil Si'iriirr, f'tiitrnl /lii/li .S'i7/mi/, Pliil(iilel/)liia. TlIK CKNTIIIY's AllVANt KH in KKrcATIllN. THOMAS .1. I.IMiSKY, Edilorldl SinjI' J'liiliiilil/iliiii " Kniiiiii/ /iiilhliii,'' "TlIK .\llT I'llKSKIlVATIVK." (iKOKCi: A. I'ACKAIil), Afrttilliiriiitl unit Miiiini/ Kni/liini'. riKKlllKHS IN MlNKM A.NII MlNINIi. JOHN V. SKAKS, Art Crl'if riiHnilrlphiii " Erriimii TeUijrnph.'" AllT I'HiMiHKSS (IF TlIK ('KNTI'HY. .1. MAKISOX TAYKOK, M. 1)., and .loHX II. GlltnoX, M. I)., Surgtons Oiil-Pnlimln Drpurlmenls nf I'timfyltanin mid Cliitdrtn's Iloijiilals. TlIK ("KNTUUV'm AkVANCE is SriKiKHY. IKAXK C. HAMMOND, Al. I)., Itutniclnr in Gi/Htecnlnijij, Jefftrsim Medical College. I'KdOKKMS OK MkIIU'INK. E E. Ur.SSEI.L THATMAX, C. E., Amitant Edilnr n/ " Eni/inerriii;/ j\ewt," Chieayo, III. EvdI.UTION OK TlIK KaII.KOAII. LUTHER E. HEWITT, L. H., Librarian nf Philadelphia Lata Association. Advanck in Law and Justice. MK'HAEL J. HUOWN, .SVcre/ory of Jinildini/ Assvcialion Leai/ue of Pennsijlrania. Pbookkss ok BfiLniNr, ani> Loan Associatioss. REV. A. LEFKIXdWELL, Rector Trinitij Church, Toledo, 0. . -^. Erocii Makkrs ok tiik Ckntkiiv. • ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS WoNDKliS »IK K1.K( TltKITV . ,\ r rm: Ii.vwn hi' niK tKNTiuv: - I'Jirlii'Kt Oli«rrvutioii» oii Kli'rlrU'ily — SHiily iif Ainhpr — l'.ailii«l KliTirii' Miiiliiiii* --< 'iiiiiliiiMiiii cif KliMiririly 'I'lir I.i'ydi'ii .!ur — Frniiklhru IiisicivcrU'ii. II. Nkw Ninkii;h..ntii iii — The Vdlliiic Tili- |)iivv'» Arc- li(;lit '\'hv I'.liilrii-iiiiiKiirl — I'liniiliiy'-. |li-i nviTii's • - Tln> IniliKliiiii ( nil — I'lrlils iif Kiircc. IM. Till-; TKi.l',«iH.\i'ii: — I'lol Siiici'^liil Trliniuiiliy — 'I'lic Mursi' Systiiii— liiipnivciiiciitw in 'IVlc- Hni|iliy — (di'iiii ri'li'({ni|ili\. IV. lli;i,r.i>I IIki.i.oI — liivciitinn df llic 'rilcplKirii' I'lincipli' (if lllr- rili'|illiinr — Tnill^illlilliT mill ItririviT— l%i"« of the 'IVlrplliilli' — 'I'llv I'lldllciKnipIl, (Jrillll- MpliiJiii', jiiiil (iiiipliiipliiiiii'. V. Dynamo vnh Mnroii: — 'I'lit' l''ii>t Mutur — I'l'rrt'iticm of tliu l>wmiiiii — IIiiH il nc'iu'niti"< I'.liiiririty — I'riruipli' iiiiil I'sch nf tin' Motdi. VI. " Ami>tiiKIIK w.vit l.KiiiT; "— Viiiiciiis l,i);litH nf llic I'lii-I — Km of KIcclrii- l.iKlilinK • Arc mul Iii(iin(l(">(i'Mt l.iiuip!! — rriiicipli'x iif Kiicli — Viiliii' «( Klirtrif Liglit. VII. Ki.KcriiK' I,o< omotion; — I'li-iKlnt^ (if till' llor-i' anil 'rrmtiini t'lir — liitrinliiitiipn of the I'liillcy — Ki'iitiiri-s nf the I'.li'rtrlr Ui.ihvny — Tilt' .StiiriiKi' Hiilliry iiiiii lliir»i'li">« Ciiriiiiu'c. VIII. 'I'iik X \t\^: — lii^cdvcr* (if — Wliiit tliu X l{ny it— I'liiitiinriipliiin; liy Miiiii» nf ilii' .\ liny. IX. tlriiKn Ki.i-.cthicm. Wiinhkiis: — Kk'ctric Clucks— Kk'ilriitypiiiK mill Kill triiplutiiiK, fti'. X. Ki.tiriiUAi, Lanoi ,\oK . .10-54 Tin; (KNTL'UV'S XAVAI, PUOCHKSS . lN|."i.fKN<'K OK Ska I'owKii; — Si'a I'iiwith tlirmiKli'iiit tlic Wiirlil — Eiiiimcratinii "f flrcat N'lival WiiT'*, II. TiiK ('kntuuv's (iKowtii in Navai. STiiKNiiTii; — .ViniiicHii Navii - at IMf- fiTciit I'.ras^ r.iiroiM'aii KIcctH — Soiitli Aniciicaii and I'liinciK Navii's. III. Till; IIatti.khIIII' I'ant a.n:i riii>KNT: — Tlic Old FIjtIitiiij; KriKiitc — l',^"l^ltlllll of llii' .Mmli'm Jlaii-nl-War — Cinii. parisiin nf Kiijjati' wllli Irnnclail. IV. l'lio<;itKSM ok .Naval K.N(iiNKKItlNiiii.nax< k: — Deseriptidii df Varinns (inns and Pro- jectiles — I'liwer of Mdilern K.splosives. VI. TiiK Kkvki.oI'Mknt ok Ahmoii; — Its Necessity in Naval Warfare — Ilnw it is made, tested, and put (in. VII. TiiK Ham am. Toiii-kdo: — Kvolution (if the Ham — Intniductidn of tlie T(ir|M'dd — Varinns Kinds df Turpcdnes. VIII. TllK I'nitkI) Statk.s Fi.kkt; — Whence it spraii>r and hnw it has frniHii — Its Ships, OlHcers, and Men — Ollicial Naval Hanks — The Naval .Vcadeniy — Tassa^e nf the United States to a World I'dwer ' 66-80 ASTRONOMY DUKING THE CENTURY . AsTHOsoMY A Centuhy ago: —Discovery of Uranus. II. How "Book's F,aw " promoted Kehkahcii: — Further Discovery of Planets — Celestial Photography. III. How Neptu.ne wa.h KoiTNii: — Ix! Vcrrier, "First Astronomer of the Ajfe." IV. Mktkohitks: — Meteoric Showers — Various Large Mtdcorites. V. Do Metkohs oktk.n strike tiik Kaktii: — The "F'irc-hall" (if 18t!0. VI. AsTitosoMicAl. Obhervatoiuks: — Thiir Equipment and Work — Number of Ob- .-ervatorics. VII. Imi'Ro''ED In«thumknt.s: — Their F^ffect on the .Science. VIII. The Spec- tkoscope: — Its Triumphs — Elements di.scovered. IX. Work i.n a Larok Observatory; — Discovery of Comets and Nchulir. X. Wasiii.noto.n National Ohskrvatory: — Its Instru- nients. XI, Star Maps .>Nn Catalixiues: — Numlier of Stars — The Planisphere. XII. AsTitoxoMioAL liooKH ANi' iVriters: — Niiinberof Students of .Vstronomy. XIII. Practical Uses of Astronomy: — It' Help in Navigation — U.ses in (Jeodesy. XIV. Notable Astro- NOMicAL Epochs:— C;iocl. Ueijiilation -—Invention of Chronograph and Spectroscope — Great Telescopes. XV. Disc \ri>ki> Theories: — Are Planets inhaliited?— The Orrery. XVI. Fu- ture Astronomical Problems:— How long will the Sun endure? .. .87-104 vi ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS STOKY 01" IM-AXT AND FLOWER Early History of Botnny — The FutlitT (if .ModcTii Untaiiy — lli)taiiy at tlie BcRinninp of the Niiie- leeiitli Oiitiiry - Natural Systi'iii of ('la>sili(atiipii — AdvaiiiT' in Sliiily of I'laiit lli'liavior — Illustrations from llio IVauut and (irapf-viiic — I'lant iMotious as ropards Forms — Ori;;iii and Development uf I'lant Life — The Doelrine of Kvcjintion — Nutrition of I'laiits - Fertilization of Flowers — Inseetivorous and t'rnel Plants — Ve);etalde I'h_vsiolof;y — Advance in Itelalimi to Cryptoguniie I'lunts — Geographical liotany — llerliariuins and. liolanieal Gardens . . . 1U&-U4 PROGUKSS OF WO^IKX WITHIN' THK CKXTrRY Woman's Miseonception of her liights — Fornnv ( )ppressiijn — ( 'osniie ami .Moral Processes — What Christianity has done for Women — Hardship of the I'auline Crip — The True Mission of Wonwin — Improvement in lier ICdiication — Fi^nnile Oeciipations — Competition with Men — Wonnin in the Literarx Field — In Pliilanthidpy and Morals — Women's CInbs — Woman in Politics — The constantly Hroadening Field of Woman's Intlueiiee 115-124 !' : *) THF, CKXrrUY'S TKXTILF PKOliUKSS Antiquity of Textile Industry — The DistalY, Spindle, and Looni. anions Chinese, F'gyptians, and Greeks — Introdnctioii of tin' Spinninfi-wheel — Loom of the ICi^ihteeiith Century — The Fly- slmttle — Textiles at the Iteginuing of the Nim'teenth ('(■nlury - Invention of the Spinniiif; .Icunv — Ark«ri}^hfs Drawing-rollers — Whitney's Cotton-;;in — Its Inttueuee — Inventicm of the Spin- ning-mule — The Spinning-franu' — liapid linproveim'nis in Spinniii;; Machinery — Kvcdutiou of the Spindle — Increase of Speed — Introdnctioii uf the Cardinfr-niaeliiiie — Cardinfj-combs — Ad- vent of PoW' looms — Description of their Machineiy and Products — The .laci|nard Loom — Of Pile Fabrics — The Ui^elow Loom — How Tufted Pile Fabrics are madi' — Weaving of Fancy Cloths — Variou-^ Forms of Looms — Hair-clolli Looms — Weaving; of Tubular Fabrics — Intiiiitudc of Uses to which the Loom can be put — The Comiiiff Automatic l.oiin — Advent of the Knitting- machine — Its Wonderful Perfictioii and Products — The Century's Patents of Textile Machinery — Beauty of Textile Art — Its Intluence on Taste ami Comfort 12."i 140 THE CENTUUY'S UELIGIOUS PROGRF„SS Religious Status in Eighteenth Century, in England, France, and on the Continent — Condilion in the United States — The Heigii of Skepticism — Doctrinal Divisions in the Churches — The Nine- teenth Century Revival — Variety and Growth id' Religions in the United States — Fl-cdnm of the Church — Kinship of Denoniiiiatimis — Increase in Material and .Spiritual Forces — (Church ICdi- flces and Capacities — Religious Population — Number of Communicants — Distribution of Com- municants — .Ministers and Organizations — Missionary Enterprises — Service of Religion in Education, Philanthropy, iinl Reform — Gifts to Educational Institutions — Growth of Chari- table Institutions — Religion and Republican Institutious . , 147-lb8 l GREAT GROWTH OF LIBRARIES Antiquity of Libraries — Evidences of Civilized Progress — Character of Ancient Writings — Books of Clay — Meso|iotamian Literature — Egyptian Hieroglyphics — Papyrus Manuscripts — Sacred Books of Thoth — Greek Libraries — Their Number and E.\tent — Roman Libraries — Imperial Library of Constantino|)le — FtTccts of Christianity upon Literature — Church Book-making and Collecting — All Books written or copied by Priests — Fate of Monastic Libraries — Early Libraries in France — Royal Libraries in ICiirope — The French National Library — Introduction of Copy- ■ !ght — (ii'owth and Extent of Euro|)ean Libraries — Their Location ami Management — The Brit- ish Museum — Libraries of (ireat Britain — Canadian Libraries — English Colonial Libraries — Libraries of the Latin Republics — Phenomenal Growth of Libraries in the United States — Wide Ramification of the System — The Oldest United States Library — Colonial Libraries — Libraries of 1801) — Number fminded during the Century — State Libraries — School-district Libraries — Library Systems — The Library of ( 'ongress — Its Vast Extent and New Repository — (^'opyright System — United States Free Libraries — Noted Libraries of the Country — Libraries of over 100,000 Volumes — .Munificence of Library Founders — Noted tiivers to Libraries — Progress in Library Management ^. 169-170 . ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS Tii PROGRESS OK THE CENTURY IN ARCHITECTCRE English Architecture at the Uoffiiminj; of the t'cntury — The (iueeii Anne Style — French Archi- tecture and Arcliitects — Ariliiteetiinil Styles in (iernwmy, Austria, Italy, (Jrecce, Turkey, and throughout Europe — Cunailiaii Styles and Notable Itiiildinns — Early Architecture ir. the United States — Old New England and Soulliern Honu!< — The Culonial Styles — The White House and United States Capitol - l'r(p),'icss in Public Uiiildiuf; Architecture — Notable Changes after the War of 1812 — The (iotliic Cotliigcand Italian Villa — The I'irst School of Architecture — Compari- son of Styles in Different Cities — Inlnidmtion of Iron — Styles for Holclsainl Summer Resorts — Effect of Chicago and Huston Fires on Architecture — How the Centennial Exposition changed Styles — Church ami l.iliniry Architeetnn — The C(Uigrcssi(Mial Library and Other Notable Speci- mens of American Aiihitcclnre — Advent of the Sky-scraper — General Review of Architectural Effects — Monumental Works the I'oetrv of Architecture 171~iaO THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY Status of Chemical Science ■ ' Heiiiniiing of the Century — The (I'enlnry's Main Lines of Progress: I. I.NonoA.MC AM> I'liYsicAi, ( 'iiK.MisTHV : — Lavoisicr's (Cardinal Propositions — Rapid Advance of ('heniical Science — Sir Hnmplirey Davy's Achievements — Elementary Bodies of Eighteenth Century — Same in Nineteenth Centnry. II. Puy.skai, ('mkmistkv; — Properties of F^lements — (tf Matter and I'.ner(,'y — Rates of Reaction — Conditions of E(|nilibrium. HI. Okgamu CiiEMisTKv: — Of Carbon Conipouiuts — Tlieorv of .Substitution — Atom in the Molecule — Space Relatiiins — The Carbon Atom — TheCJrgaiiic l!ody. IV. Analytic ai, Ciikmisthy: — Develop- ment of the Iilo\v-|iipe — (ias Aimlysis — IClectricity as a Factor — Discovery of .Spectrum Analysis. V. Systiieticai. CnK>iisTi{v: — Building up of Com)ilex Forms — Synthesis of Coloring Mat- ters and .Sugars — Future Food of Man. VI. .MKTAi.i.umiRAL Ciikmistuv: — Oldest Branch of Chemical Science — Reduction of Ores — Advantage to Agriculture. VII. AciUicui.TUKAL CirKMisTitv; — Utilization of Fertilizers — Nitrogen as a Plant Food — Advnn ages to Practical Agriculture. VIII. (iHAi-iiie Ciikmistky: — Fundaniental Principles — iJaguerreotypc and Photograph. IX. DinACTic Chkmistuy: — The Student and the Laboratory — Advantages of Laboratory Training. X. Chkmistuy THE CENTURY'S MORAL PROGRESS Morals among the Ancients — Moral Precepts common to all Coninuinities — Kyoliition of I'^lliies — Early Cliristian Morals — Spirit of the Reformation — Low Moral Condition of the Iviglitcenth Century — Hirtli of a New Moral Epoch — A National Conscience — Abolition of Slavery — Larger Applii.ition of the Principle* of Right and .lustice — How Women are alYected — Eft'ect of Inven- tion anil Education on Social and Moral Conditions — Hroadeniiig of Woman's Sphere — Increase of Self-respect — Inllueiice of Women on Moral Status — Legislation and Morals — How to meet Ethical Problems — Uiisiness Success and the Moral State — Rights and Duties of Capital anil Labor — Cruelties of War and Iflessings of Peace — The Century's Moral (iain — Changed Treat- ment of Vice and Poverty — The Principle of Well-doing— Growth of Tolerance and Altriiisin — A Higher Individual and Public Conscience '2(11-270 PROGRESS OF SANITARY SCIE'NCK. Hygienic Code of Jloses — Hiiipocratcs and Disease — Sanitation and Sanitary Science — Founda- tion Rules — Spirit, of Scientilic Investigation — Effect of .\ct of Parliament of 18:J7 — Value of Oliicial Figures — The Riddle of Sa-iison — Health lieports in rniteil States — Duty of Separate States — Mortality in London of Filth Diseases — Progress of Sanitation — Diminution of Scourges — I^fTect of .Sanitation upon the Weak and Helpless — Value of Culture Tubes — Discovery of Disease Causes — Of Trichimr in Pork — Communicable Diseases caused by Living Crganisnis — Infectious and Contagious Diseas:^s — I'ses of Hiology In Sanitary Science — Piirilication of^ Waters — Of Consumption and Clioler:i — EtYccts of Filtration — What liacteria are — Of Isola- tion and Disinfection — Modern (Quarantines — Fumigation of Shi| s — Lowering of Death liates — Influence of the Sanitarium — Improved Construction of Divelling: Care for Paving and Sewage — Disposal of Refuse — Of Food Inspecuon — State ItoariN of Health — Care of Eni]doves — Of Play and Athletic (iroiinds — Public Hreathing Spaces — Duty of Caring for Personal Health — Hearing of Public Health on Community and Nation 271-282 THE CENTURY'S ARMIES AND AR.MS Armies and Arms of the Eighteentli Century — Alteration in War Methods — European Army Sys- tems — Change-, made by Napoleon — Rattle Weapons and Tactical .Movements — Growing Use of Cannon — The Congreve Rocket — Infantry Formations — The Introduction of the RiHe — The Crimean War and Uitied Siege (Jims— The Italian War and RiHed Cannon — Advent of the Hreech-loai'.er — Introduction of Heavy (inns — Arms and Tactics in the Civil War— Use of Steam and Electricity in War — .Advantage of Railroad aiiil Telegraph — Introduction of Armored Vessels — Siege Artillery — Advent of the Machine (Jun — New System of Enlrenclimcnt — Ger- n* Military System — Coming of the Needle (inn — French .Military System - Comparison of Russian and Turkish Methods - Strength of the World's .Armies — United States Army Organiza- tion—Steel Guns and Smokeless Powder — Improvement in Mortars— The Dynamite (inn — Modern Shrapnel — Hea-Coast (inns — Perfection of .Modern RiHes — Their (ireat Range and Power — The (iatliiig (iun — The Maxim .Automatic — Introduction of the Torpedo — (ieneral Review of the Increase in Military Efficiency 283-300 ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS IX evf'latiiiii of If — Iti'Vi'la- viTV — Vast ". 2;il-2U Dairying — real Cliiiiifjc - Iiistitutidii )airy Ilri'iMls Ik — (ircwtli — l>airyiii)j : C'lu'i'sfs — ■ of C.'ciws — rv Iiiti'ri'!-ts. 245-26(> of Ktliics — r,ij.'liti'fntli I'ly — l,ar);rr L'Ct of Iiivcn- e — Increase I low to iiK'et (.'apital and infill Trcal- l Altruism — . 2(il 270 TIIK CKNTUKY'S PKOGKKSS IX ACKICUUIRE . Vicissitudes ok Kahly Fakminu: — First National Road — <:anal BuiUling — Coming of Rail- roads — I'ainiiiiK Comlitions before t lie 50's~ Ilai.isliips of Marlteting. II. Imimioveiients in Kahm Imi'I.k.mknts and Maciiinkhy: — Farmers' Draft upon Nature — Tlie Sickle, Flail, and Cradle — (jiniiuf; of Harvesters— Imi'rov 'Uient in Threshers — I'ortalde and Traction Euuiuci' Separators and Stackers — Iniproveni.nts in Other Implements. III. iMPltovioiKMT IN Stock: — Various Hreeds of Caltle— Hrei(lin>; of Horses, Slieeji, and Swine— Best llreeds. IV. Im- I'HoVKMKXT IN Faioiim; Mktiiods: — Iu Drainage — Care of Animals — Hams and Stabling- Proper Food Hal ions — Fencing. I/. HoMK Imi'Hovemknt.s: — Home Architecture — The Yard and (iardeu— Maintaining Soil Fertility — l'roi>er Manures — Soil -Vintlysis — Use of Modern Fertilizers. VI. bifiiovKMKNT IN AoKicii.Tiu ' L Kxowi.Kixii:: — Agriiiiltural Literature — Fanners' ( Mubs and Institutes — ( iranges — Agricultural » olleges — Fxperiniental Slationa — Tho Department of .Vgricnltnn — lliireau of Animal Industry — Agricultural Newspapers and I'eri- odieals — Siimnuiry of Agricultural Progress 307-33S PRO(iRESS IN CIVIL ENGINKERING . An Inthodittohv Vi!;\c: — Anti(|iiity of Engineering — Ancient Roads and Bridges — Nine- teenth Ceiilnry Advances. II. BuiDdEs: — Primitive Bridges — Iron ami Steel Bridges — The Brooklyn liriilgc— Niagara Suspension Bridge— Pecos River Viaduct — The Forth Bridge--Re- markaliU' Arches— Stone Bridges. III. Caissons: — Invention of the Caisson— Its Principle and I'se Caisson Adventures. IV. Canai-s: —The First Suez Camil —Nicaragua and Panama Canals- Moilerii Suez Canal — The Manchester Canal — Chicago Ivrainage Canal— What it is for. V. <;koi>i-;sv: —Ancient Mi'thods of Earth MeasuremeiUs — The Century's Advance in Methods of .Measurement. VI. Raii.hoaii.s: — Their Invention and Development — Immense Value. YII. Tinnki.s: - Ancii'iit Origin of-- Tunnels of Egypt, Babylonia, and India — Roman Tunnels — Of the Modern T;innel — .\dvance in MachiiU'ry and (."onstructive Processes — Mount Cenis Tunnel —Tunnel Surveying ami Excavating —The Hoosac Tunnel — St. Gothard Tunnel — St. Clair Tuniud — Its Constrmtion ami Commercial Effects 3.'J9— 3tiO ce — Founda- 37 — Value of y of Separate >n of Scourges Discovery of Organisms — urilication of^ re— Of Is(dB- f Death Rates r Paving and e of Employes ; for Personal . . 271-282 an Army Sys- rowing I'se of le RiHe— The \dvent of the War — I'se of nil of Armored ■linient — Ger- t'omparison of riny (Jrganiza- laniite (inn — at Range and ledo — (leiieral . . . 283-30O THE CENTIRV'S PROGRESS IN THE ANIMAL WORLD . Of Animal Diskasks: — Effect of Naiioleonic Wars — Various Animal Disease:! — How con- trolled. II. Ix< KKAsK IN XiMiiKU OK Anijiai.s: — Showing in Europe, I'nited Slates, and Other Countries. III. Imi'Iiovkmknt ok Bhkkds: — Shortening the Time of (irowth - Develop- ment of Dairy and Heel' Breeds linpriivemeut in Wool Growing — Poultry Breeds — Thorough- bred Horses — The .American Tnitter — Animal Expcu'ts — Foreign Animal Imports — Displaee- inent of Horses by Mechaiii<'al Motors — Prices of Animal Products — American Cit ions — Second and Third Expositions at London and I'aris — The Vieiyia Expo>ilion — The Centennial at Philadelphia — Description of Subseipient Exjiositions at Atlanta, l. Piioimc- TioN OK PiiKis JIetai.s: — Why (Jokl is a Standard — liimitive Measures of Value — His- tory of Coinage — First United States Mint — Coin Ratios — Gold and Silver Production and Mintage — Exports and Imports of Precious Melals — Circulation per Capita — Coinage Act of IhT^t. III. Eahlv Ha.nkini; in tiik Unitki) Statics; — First Hanking Associations - First United States Bank ami its Branches — Early Slate Banks — Second United Slates Bank — How it fell — Stale Banks and Ind(!pemlent Treasury. IV. HisTonv ok I,k<;ai, Tknuki: Notks: — The Treasury Reserve — Treasury Notes — Manner of I>sne and Redcmiition. V. TiiK Nationai, Bankin Fixax Statks Guvkuxmkxt Dkiit sixci: 18.")": — Gross Rcceipis ami IC.xpenditnres — Interest Clsarges. VIII. Postal Savixos Banks;-- Why they are not adopted in the United Slates. IX. Savixos Banks in tiik I'nitkh Statks: — Their Number and Strength. X. Tiik Ci.earixc Hoisk; — How conducted — Its Economic Usos. XI. Panus of tiik Ckntukv and TiiKiK Cak.ses 443-470 . h THE CENTURY'S PROtiRESS IN FRUir CULTURE Early Cultivation of Fruits — Beauty and Uses of Fruits — I'ruits brought lo the New "World — Culture at the Begiiniing of the Cenlnry — I^arly Fruit Districts — The I'.xperinu'Rtal Stage — Pioneers in Culture — The Age of Progress — First Commeriial Orchards — The Age of Triumph — Spread of Culture in Various States and Areas — Kcvolution in Scie )f Fruit Growing — ■ Success and Failure of Different Species — Vine Culture — Improved Cullnre with Implements — Hinne Consumption and ICxport of I'ruits — Our Fruits a Favorite in lUirope — Apple Culture — Uses of Apples— Typical Orchards —Notable Varieties — lOxlent of Apiile Orchards — Apple Exports — Progress in the (^ulture of Other Fruits — Varieties and Best Soils — History and Pro- gress of Berry Culture — The Cjtrous FViiits — Where ami Imw grown — Their Great Value to Man — General Review of Fruit Culture and F'ruits 47I-4!)0 THE CENTURY'S COMMERCIAL PROGRESS I. Woiii.ii's Commkhpk at F^nd of Eic:hteenth Centkuy: -Methods of Traffic — Volume of Trade. II. Rkvoiatiox in Comjieiick: — Change from Sails to Steam — F'irst Ocean Steamers — Steamship Lines — Change from Wood to Iron — The Compound ICngine — Advent of Steel Vessels — Tlie Twin Screw — Immense Size of Ships — Their (ireat Velocity — Appointment and Service. HI. Imi-uovement i.n Commkikial Arxii iahies: — Betterment of Waterways — Ship Canals — Harbor Improvements — Cable and Banking Facilities. IV. I;.\i>ansion ok Intek- NATioNAi. Tuaiie: — I'uropeau Commercial Growth — Food Importations. V. Trade ok the UnitkI) States: — Extent of Domestic and F'oreign — Vast Flxtension — Imports and ICxports — Character of. VI. The American Makine: — Former Carrying Trade — Modern Carrying Trade — Decline of United States Maritime Imp(n-tancc. VII. Amehican SiiirniTiLDiNo. VIII. Causes Kou TiiE'CEXTrHv's CoMMKHciAi. PitofiHEss: — lu'onomic, Political, and Social Causes. IX. The Twentieth Century Pkosi'Ect ; 4U1-614 ^v ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS id EUUCATIOX Dl KING TlIK CENTUKY Education a Hin.li.il Years n^o — l'es'nl>"'i''' IiiHiii'iicu — Krocliel's Kinitcrt(arteu SvMtem — Its liitrodiiitiiiii mill ihi; Liiitod Statt's — Kn^;li^ll and (iurinaii .Schoul.- — (jrcut Kurcipeaii Teufhers — Fouudatl'ia nf I'ulilii; SoIkhiI Svstoins in llii' Tniti'd Slates — Tlie Hattle.s for I'ublie .Scluxds — Immensity of roniriioii Selioid Svslenis — Xiiniher of Selmols and I'npils — Kxpenditnre for Schools— rriniilivr Silioolliouses — Old-liine Teaeliers and Methods — Tlie Jlodern Sclioolliouse — Iniprovi im 111- in IVaeliers and Metliods — Of the High Sehool — ( ollege and University — T-'ai hers' ln-tiiii|.s — Stale AsMuialions — Sehool I'niiliealions — Xational linrean of Kdiivatiou — Nornnd SehimN Tiaeliers' Salarie: (iirl>' Si minaries — Clnuige lo I'enmlu Teaclicr- — Modern iSehool l'iiri:i-liiii:,' — I'exi-liooks — l'iiiv,T-ily ( 'ourse> (d I,e''tuies — Selniols of Mannal Training and Uiisine" I'.ihiealim of the Negro Kaei — I'.xperinieiit id' Itnolier T. Washington — School Funds — ConipulMiry Kducatiou . . . 515-512 "THK AKT l'l'.!:-;i.f!VATlVi:" I. Tut riti.snxd I'nKss:— Printing Art in the Mighteenlh ("entnry — I'ranltlin's Intluenec — The Hand I're> — V.iiioiis Ini;'roved I'resses- Condiig of tin' I'over I'ress — (Jrder of tlic t'ountries in I'vintinir I'm^tri-^ — Impetus to Printing in the I'nited States — Wondtrfiil Improvement in Presses - lliiw a Snifi-iootioni'd Press operali's -t^nadrnple Presses — Printing, Folding, and Pasting — I'oniiiing ami Deliieiiiig —The Sextuple Press — Its Wonderful Achievements — Color Printing Pre»-e>. !I. I'hk SKnixc; Pi( TiiiK-M AKtx I i1 EPOCH-MAKERS OF THE CENTURY Statesmen, Orators, and Jurists — Great Generals — Naval Heroes — Noted Preachers and Teachers — Eminent Historians — Distinguished Editors — Noted Scientists— Leading Philanthropists — Famous Inventors — Popular Novelists — Greatest Poets — Best Actors and Lyric Dramatists. 691-720 'iiiorrliafjfs — Ad- 'TV— Kiiliipv and '11 Jtraiii SiirjttTv — Tlifir Value iii . . «I5-6.t() " Aiicipiif riiysi- lii'.:l IJcnii'ilics — iiiicf ill Mali'iia 1 of Mddcrii jMciI- a^ IiiipDrlaiii'i' of I'liysidl.i^M- and • . . 6;)l-ti42 niid I'rodiu'iTs — r KailwavM — The ri'iit (' tries — 111 — .Siii>,'lr and M'Clllllllivi's — Tlio t ill Freiftlil ('«is Speed — Uaihvay •r Tiaiis|j()rtali(.ii Hapid Trx.nsit — • . . Ii4;i-li(i4 rs and Duties „( LMliire — (,'o,|iii(.„. "iiislmitMif — I'o. and Cliildrcii inilty I^ws — f(f 11 — Of KHipiDus • . . 6G5-076 11 of the System hares — ('«st of iroad — History 'ast Membership •^ — Teachers of leans — Makers — Size and Cost ties . 677-690 rs and Teachers lilanthropists riu Uraniatists. 691-7a» UST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 'liiial .Maehiue I'liiladelphia All Ocean r,ipyli..ui!.| —Steamship St. Lnuis I'mk Ol.l l''raniiliii \:\ I.eyilen .liir Kranklin liisiiiutc Indiietidii ( (ill MaKlietie [''ii'lil-, ■,!' I'lii'ce . , Daiiicll's fells .... Jlorse Tele(,'ra|ili iiiid Hnt|ei-y . Siiniiiel I''iiilcv IliiM-e .Mcnx" Cyrils W. I'ielil tdeiiii Ciilple Great Kasteni laying an Uecan Cable A String Telcpliniie ThoniHs Alva I'.ili-oii. Full jiaye A (Jrapli(p|ili(pne .... A DynaiiKi The (ioldeii Caiidlesliek An Aneient l,anii A Tallow Dip .... Modern l.aiii| Kleetrie Are Liglii Kleetrie l.oioinotive. I'nnn KUrlrical Ayi Eleetric Uaihvay -Third liail .System tieissler's Tubes Seiagraph or Shadow Picture An August Aloniing with Fariagiit British Hattlesliip Majestic . French IJattleship .Magenta (ierman Hattleship Woerth . Italian Hattleship Sardegna Nelson's Flagship Victory ' . Constitution (1812) under Sail. I'erinission Side View of Constitution. Full pni/e , The IJ, S. Steamship Oregon. Copyright by Action between Monitor and Mcrriinac The Tiirbinia — Fastest Craft aHoat. I'ermission of S. S Engine of U. S. .Steamship Powhatan, A. u. 1849. Full pa^ Engine of \'. S. Steamer Kriccson .... Battle of Trafalgar. Full paije .... The (irowth of Ordnance. Four cuts. Full page . Tlie Distribution of Armor, Twelve cuts. Full page The Growth of Armor. Eight cuts. /'«// page The Movement of Uranus and Neptune Professor James H. Cottiu The Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Cal. Full page The Spectroscope Yerkes Telescope, University of Chicago. Full page , Professor William Harkness Zenith Telescope, madt; for University of Pcnivj'lvania Three-inch Transit. By Warner & Swasey Carolus Linnieus of Sweden The Green Rose Head of White Clover, with Branch from Centre • W. of the artist H. Ran Full page Full page McClure C ge . PAdE Frontifpiece lit ■20 22 2:t 25 2fi 27 27 2H 28 29 n 32 32 35 37 39 30 40 40 43 45 47 49 50 56 57 57 58 59 60 61 63 65 66 67 68 71 73 18-79 81 89 91 93 94 95 97 100 103 105 106 107 i J I ;■; ."i I ZIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS The IVamit-Pml Majjiiilicd Oiitliiiu of Whiti' Il(i);wiMiil KIhwit Yi'llow Toail-Klax in IVInriu Slate . Grained (.'oni-Tassel lianunu Flowers The Cruel Plant Old Potato penetrated liy Ifootlel Fnn({iis urowinjr from Head of Caterpillar . Mary ICIi/aheth Lease .... Emma Willard George Kliot Frances Wlllanl Di.HlatTand .SpiiKlle Spinniiij; Wheel Primitive Hand l.oiiin Karly .Spinning .leiiiiy Giiniin); Ci'ttcpn. Old wiiv prim- to IHOd . Ginning; Cotton. New way .... The Modem Mule Hand Conili of the i:ii;lilc. inli Ci iitury \(dde Comb of 18!l(l Plain Power l.oonj, IS4I) .... Weavioff. The did \\'»y Weaviii;;. The New Way .... Loom of WM\ . . ' Jae(|uar(l Maehini' Smith and .Skinner Loom for .Moi|uetle Carpets Circular Loom The First Kniltinjt Machine, Lee Knitting in the Old Way .... Knitting in the New Way Ancient Hirmingham Meeting-house 108 1011 no 111 112 ll'l 11. 1 114 li- no 1-.>1 V2l ViV, iL'li 127 12H 120 120 MO 131 i;i2 1-J3 135 135 ]3(i 137 13!» 141 141 145 140 148 P. F:. Cathedral of St. .Iidin the Divine J.')0 F'ather Uuiiiieii, Missionary to Leper Colony 151 Salisbury Cathedral, Knglaud. J-'iiU jiuyt: 152 Young Men's Christian .\ssociation, Philadelphia 153 Baptist Mission Sehoid, .Japan 155 Methodist F^piscopal llospit!'! 1.57 The New Library of Congress, Washington, 1). C. Full jiai/e 101 Ridgwiiy Itranch of Philadelphia Library. Full pai/e l(i;j Public Library of the City of IJoston. lly permission of lihrnrian. Full page . . . 104 John Kussell Voung 100 Carnegie Free Library, Pittsburgh. Fullpiuje Iliil Arc de I'ttoilc, Paris 173 Natural History Museum, Kensington, London. Full pai/e 175 The White Hou.se, Washington, D. C. FuUpai;e 176 Glass Covered Arcjide, Milan 177 United States Capitol, Washington. O. C. Fill) piif/e 179 Library Building, University of Virginia 181 Trinity Church, New York. Fiillpiii/e 183 St. George's Hall, Philadelphia 185 Trinity Church, Boston .• 187 American Surely Company's Building, New York 188 Sir Humphrey IJavy 192 Micliael Faraday 197 William Crookes, F. K. S ' . .2(10 Sir Henry Bessemer / 202 Louis Jacques baguerre 203 Louis Pasteur ... - 205 Beethoven in Hi.s Study. Full page 208 Giuseppe Verdi 208 Grand Opera House, Paris 200 Metropolitan Opera House, New York 210 William Richard Wagner 211 Edwin Forrest 211 108 Km no 111 112 ii.i 11 :i 114 117 11!) IJt 1;>:| l;>)i u>t; 1-27 12K 12!t 12'J i;to 131 i;)2 ]« 135 135 13(i 137 13U 141 143 145 141! 148 150 151 152 153 155 157 101 1)13 llU inr> lli» 173 175 176 177 179 181 183 186 187 188 lit2 llt- 2IK) 202 203 205 208 208 20!) 210 211 211 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS "" Clmrlott« >,., ,„.„r. , ,,.,,^„„ «» H.on..s frmn : . , „«'« Romeo andJulkt. fidlpa!) "" tieiirnc Hi'i. .ji '"* JolirH;. \V|, . ,. , ai7 Altrid 'IVi.. M* H.'iiry \V. I. ■.,i..,|' V '.','.".'.'." *^' Hi'iijiiiniii Im,.' i !i, .... 222 Horiuc Crci I- • , ■ • • • 224 .lohn W. F,.; *2S .loscph MiMli 1 . ,'.".".".." "^ ^<<•^'>r^\\^»'Mv■x,l■..■M,U\yWH\.' Fu'uiM'ii: t^I. The "llla.kc II, .;,..•, ,,si,„i,„„„csi.r 11 ^A The Mdiiliiir M,,.,, . r„il,,„,,e *" Kiuiisof l-liil.,, l^^;... /.■„//'/»„/.- g,* So-lnilinn States" 275 Laboratory ise Harrow. H. P. Denocher & Co., Hamilton, Ont 314 Acme Harrow. I''urnislied by author • 315 Doiilde (Jorii Cultivator. I.oiifj-Alstatten Co., Hamilton, Ont « • 317 Modern Clover I liiller. (Jaar, Scoot & O., Richmond, Ind 319 Hereford Cow, " l.ady Laurel." Furnished by author 320 (iroup of Aberdeen-AuRus Cattle. Courtesy of D. Bradford & Son, Aberdeen, O. . . ■ . 321 Jersey Cow," Ida," of St. Lambert. Miller & Sibley, Franklin, Pa 322 Poland-China Hoj;. Furnished by author 323 Merino Sheep. John Pow & Son, Salem, 325 Double Com Planter. H. P. Denocher & Co., Hamilton, Ont. . 326 ZTi LIST OF ILLVSTRATIONS HhikI (iariltii I'low. II, I'. hfiin.li.T & ('..., Iliimillun, Out. «iiiie»i( Aiiti-»l(« \Vi'>'lii'il l>v iiiillnir . Uniiiklyii Sii.«lH'ii!'i()U lliiilK''. t'litl limjf .... Tilt' Ni'utjaiu ItuilwHv Arrli. ('ciiirt(«v df (iriiinl Trunk U. It. yilll /iili/r Tlif Kirlh (pf Knrlli Hridj."', (iciii'ral Vii'W. Civilil "l)ri(lK''N" CluraK". full /myi I'l'cdK Uivcr Viailiu'l Kciriiial (llifiiiii^ " I'ciwiliT ltla!.l iiiiiliT ( 'alilcway . Cnpyrijflil by ( 'harli's SlailliT, ( liifiitjn Anii'rii'aii I'mlal nf St. Clair Tiiiiiu'l. Ccinrli'ny nf (irand Trunk |{. It. Intcrliir nf St. Clair Tuniifl, Ciiurtt'Ky of Uraiiil Trunk K. 1{ Tliiiri)ii({lil'ri'il. Fiill /iiii/r AVatcriiifj tlic Cows A TcniiM-ranci' Siiiifly. (llTriii);) Art Crilics. ((iclilcr) Frcncli Coai'li-Ilorsp "(ilailiatur " •J'ai'intc lliir!-!' "Star I'ciinlcr." Tiinr lin. .Ml I-J» Autoniiiliili' iir llcirsi'lcs" Carriagi'. Ccpurlcsy nf KIctlrir .Viitiimubilc Co. . <'iiiniii<>i|iirt' Sti'|ili('ii Pi'iatur Ciiiiiinddiirc I'crry at KatlTc of l.akr Krii' Si'lii>i>li SaralMpi. Cuiirtrsy of l'liilaili'l|ilila Hiiurse Uuiik .... KoliiTt K. I.i'c at Hiillli' iif Clia|iiiltt'|ii'i'. Full /mye i'astlc William. .Military IViscin, New Vork Harlinr i'i'k of Ci-ni.tcr ('hii'iiK" DfWfv'.s (inns at Manila. Full /xi'ie iieneral .loscpli Wlict'ler Tlic Truce before .Santia),'o Agulnalilo, the Ta(;al l.ei::ler Napoleon, J814. (Melssoiiier.) Full jm;/^ Admiral Horatio Nelson NajKileon's Hetreat from Waterloo. Full jHiye Capture of the .Malakoff. ,Full jiiii/e Hattlc of Magenta. Full pa ye Loiii.s Adolphe Thiers Cavalry Charjfe at CJravelotte. Full jxiye Buttle of Yalu Kiver. Full jm ye Munich E.xposition, lS,'i4 New Orleans Kxposition. 1K84. Fulljiaye Kiffel Tower, I'aris Kxposition, 1888 i'ourt of Honor, Cliicaj;" Kxposition, ISil.'l Women's Uiiildin);, (Ihicago Kxposition, ]8!t.3 Agricultural Building, Atlanta Kxposition, 18!)5 Machinery Hall, Atlanta Kxposition, 18!)5 Winnen's Building, Nashville Kxposition, 18!H' Art Building, Nashville Kxposition, 18!)7 (iruiid Court, Omaha Kxposition, 18i)8. Photograph by H. C. Hcr.tey Nr.tional Kxport Kxposition, rhiladeljibia, .Sept. 14 to Nov. 30, 1899. Kleetro su Commercial Museum. Full /mye Old United States Mint, Philadelphia Nev Tnited States Mint, Philadelphia. Courtesy of Philadelphia Bourse Book. . Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia, First Site of First United States Bank. Full page <}irard Bank, Philadelphia, Second Site of First United .States Bank . . . Second Ignited States Bank, Philadelphia, now Custom House .... Bank of Kngland, London German Bank, Bremen The Bourse, Paris. Full paye New York Clearing Hou<>e 'ull piiyt Ful piiye pplied by '«// pa 'It .liT .-i:il :i:i,5 ;)4l :i4:i .144 :)4.'i ;i47 .1411 ■Ah\ ;i.Mi iini) Utiii iiti.^ ;«i7 :«i8 :iti9 :I71 ;i7;i ;i7ti 377 37!l 381 383 .385 387 389 .191 392 .393 394 .39.1 397 398 399 401 403 405 409 411 41.1 4lli 417 4;i.i 4-2.5 427 42!» 431 433 434 435 437 439 441 447 451 453 4.V) 457 403 404 404 408 l.i Oct Oil .Sii: Ai Kle (iol P( Till Wl Sti Til PI Si CI Pll LIST OF ILLUSrilATIONS 3i7 :iai ;i;i5 '141 ;i4;i :i44 ;i4:) ;)4: .■)4!t ■■m ■■w\ arm ar>it aiia .1115 .■)I17 aiM atii) a: I a:a ■■\->\ a:: arit ■m asa aHf) as7 ■■m ■m ■VM a!ia a»4 ail") 3!)7 aii8 401 4()a 405 41 « 411 4 If) 4ltl 417 423 426 4it7 439 431 433 434 43« 437 439 441 447 451 453 456 467 463 464 464 468 \ Ciirdaniil Tri'i', I'lilin DiMirli, Kill. I'liiit<>);rii|ili liy niilhcir. f'utt jiitr/f 473 I'ni'kiiiK ''i|i|'lt"» liir l''.x|Mirl, Si. ( iilhcTiiir^, Out, /•'nil /nit/r 477 Laily 111' t'oKily (ini|n>^, .Miin villc, « 'nl. I'liiildnriipli I'v iiullKPr. l-'iill puife .... 483 ()riiii);t' Orcliiii'il, .Siiiitnrd, Kla. I'IiijIci;{|'ii|iIi Iiv .iiillior 4N7 Olivi' Ori'liaril, Siiii ilii-r, (liil. riiiiti));ni|j|i li.v niitlinr 4HH riiii'ii|i|ili' I'ii'lil, ralni Iti'iii li, I'lii, l'lici|(iKni|j|i liy uiitlior 4811 A ClipiiiT Ship. IVniiiMiiiim uf Wliittukcr iV (Jo 41)3 Itnlli'l't I'llltoll 4114 Till' Clc'i'iiiiint, l''iiltnii'» Klr^t Hti'uiiiliiiiit 4UA S. ('niiiiril, h'linnili'r iif I'irnt (li'i'iiii Taiki'l l.iiH'. ('iitirti'»y of ('iiiiunl S. >S. (!o. , . . 41)7 Till' Uccaiiir, IS!l!( — |,ari{r«t Ship Alloal. Coiirti'sy of Wliiti' Slur Liin Full jmi/e . , 41)9 Straiiii I I 'ainpaiiiii, of (.'iinaril l.iiii'. < 'oiirli'sy of Ciiiuird H. S. (Jn. J-'iill /lai/f , , . 61)11 CraiMps' Shipyanl on till! |)i'la\vaic. l-'iill jiai/e 512 I'l'slaloz/.i, of VviTiliiii 617 I'rorlirl, I'oiiniliT of KiiiiliTKiU'li'iiH fill* Dr. I'lioniaN Ariiohl, l(iiul>y, KiiKlaml 5-iO An < >l>l l.of; .SrhoolhoiiHc . . , , 621 SrlioollioiiM' at Sli'i'py Hollow 5'24 InliTlor of Sli'i'py lliillow Srlioollioii«i' .VJ.'i Chilli's (iiiiilr. I'lill jiiii/f 527 Dr. Charlr!* \V. Kliol, I'rr-iili'iit of llarvaiil rii'viT-ily 531 William T. Harris 533 lili'al Srhoollioii-.(' ami (iionii'l- . . 634 SiiKKi'slioni for planting: a Srhipol(;roiiiiil 536 Xi'W Hi»;h Sriiool, I'hilaili'lphia. /■'nil /ini/e 537 Dr. Williani H. .Maxwi'li, Snpi'rinti'iiili'iit "(iri'atiT Xi'W York" Schiiol.i .... 6.38 llookiT T. Washington, I'rinripal Tiiskri;)')' Instiliiti' 639 Dr. K. Ilt'iij. Aiiihi'ws, Siiprrinlcniii'iit of SchooU, ChieHg;o, III 641 Karly Hand I'rinliiiK I'rrsH 543 Till' <'olunil)iaii I'ri'ss 545 Washington Hand I'lcsii 54tl Old Woodmi Kraiiii' Adams PrcMs .647 Doulili' ('yliniliT I'ri'ss 549 I'irsl I'l'rfic'iiiij? I'ri'ss 651 Kiiiir-rolliT rwii-Kuvoliitloii Press 553 I.itho^raphir I'ri'ss 555 Niimhi'rinn < 'aril I'ri'ss 6.57 I.inotypi' (Typi'-snttiiv) .Marhlni' — Knnit A'low 669 Oitiipli' StiTi'iitypc rt'rfi'riiiij; I'rpss and Folder. FiiUpni/e 6fi0 Outline of Tvpi'-si'ttinf; .Mailiinc 661 .Sinkiii);, Drifting, and Stopin^r In Milling; .573 Air Coinpri'ssor &"4 The "Serjeant" Hoek Drill . 675 Steain-Driven Air Compressor 676 Driving; a Kaihvay Tnniu'l. h'uU piiije 677 Straif;lit I.inv Air ( onipreHsor 678 Duplex Air Cominessor 679 Kleetric (.'iial-Miniiif; Machine. Full pn ye 681 Gold DredfjiiiK on Swan Kivcr, Colorado. Full page .583 Power Plant at .leroine Park .585 The Holy Women at the TomI) .589 Whispers of Love. (Honmiereau.) Full pa;ie .591 (Christmas Chimes. (Ulashlield.) Full page 592 (Jreek (iirls ])layinn at Hall. (Leighion) .593 Landseer and his Favorites. (By liimself.) Full pa ye 595 The Horse Fair. (Uosu Bnnhenr.) Full page 597 At tlij Shrine of Venns. (Alma Tadema) fiOl Napoleon I. (Cannva) 603 Statne of Kenjamin Franklin. (Hoyle) (i05 The Washington Moniimeiit, Fairmount Park 607 Photographic View of New York City till Surgiial OporatiiiK Room, Howard Hospital, Philadelphia 017 Clinical Amphitlieatie, Pennsylvania Hospital. Full page .021 Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia. From its " History," Full page .... 624 X-Kay Photograph of a Compound Fracture of Forearm " 628 3 xviU LIST OF ILI.ISTUATIONS X-Kiiy I'ii'liirc nf n DixliHiitiil I'.lliow. FhII /mi/t .• MS l»r. (IliviT Wiiiilill lluliiii- . . ' . BUT |)i'. Niilliiiri .Sriillli |iii\ i*, III r|ii('ii);ii. Cniirli'i-v nf |)r. |)iivi» ttliU Stalling .Mi'iljriil Ccillc);!' jiiiil St. h'niiii'i'< l|ii<|>iiiil, CiiIiiiiiIiiik, OIiIh. I'liiirtt'^y of S|iiilii' vV (ill'llll. /'«// /«!' I'luu'li ! M h'ii'-l Ti'iiin i>f Stcaiii <'iir» Mi A Itaihvay Train In llrl^'iiiiii 1147 l.iiii|i In till' S(>lklrk!>, ^liiiu III); hiiiir Trark>, Full piiiir (Ull KntraiK'i' to .St. (■iitliaril Tiiiiiicl, SwitziTJaiiil Hhl i{ulhva,\ Signals (lASi An .Aiiu'i'ii'iin Kxprc^^ l.tinniintivi- (Iftli An .Vincricaii KrclKliI l.iK'ninotivu HAS K.Ktcriiir of l.ati'?>aiiii!. Trial Sciiii' from " .Mircliant of Vi'iiu*." Full /lagr . . . . (I7R I'liyiiij; llii'ir Dili's. FktU iiinjr 070 First Itiiildin^ anil l.onii AxsiH'iatiiiii Ailvertii>>'iii(>iil (IHI Howof .tiiiK'i''' •. 712 Clara liartoii 7J:i Sir Walter Seott 71S ('harles Ditken.s 71G Lord Ilvrun 717 rr( K. WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY I. AT TIIK PAWN n top. This jar eoidd be charged or tilled with electric-ity from a common electric, and it had the power of retaining the charge till tin; knoi) on top was touclied by the kmickle, or some unelectrified substance, when a spai'k ensued, and the jar was said to l)e discharged. I>y conductors attached to the knob, guns were tiivd off at a distance by means of the spark, and it is said that Dr. Uenjannn Franklin ignited a glass of brandy at the house of a frieiul by means of a wire attached to a Leyden jar and stretched the full width (d' the Schuylkill IJiver at ri'iiladclpliia. At this stage in the history of eighteenth century electricity there enters a character whose experiments in electricity, and whose writ- ings upon the subject, not only brought him great renown at honu; and abroad, Init i)erha[)S did more to systematize the science and turn it to jir.U'tical account than those (d' any contemporary. This was the celebrati-d i)r. l>enjamin Franklin, of rhiladelphia, I'a. He showed to tiie world that electricity was not created by friction u))on an electric, but that it was merely gathered there, when friction was applH-d. from surrounding nature; iind in proof of his theory he invaded the clouds with a kite during a thunder-storm, and brought down electricity therefrom by means of the kite-string as a con- ductor. The key lit? hung on tlu> string became charged with the electric fluid, and on being touched by an unelectritied body, emitted sjiarks and produced all the effects commonly witnessed in the discharge of the Leyden jar. Franklin further established the difference between positive and negative electricity, and showed that the spark phenomenon on the discharge of the Leyden jar was due to the fact that the inside tinfoil was p(»sitively elec- trified and the outside tinfoil negatively. When the inside tinfoil was suddenly drawn upon by a conducitor, the spark was simiily the result of an effort upon the part of the two kinds of ele(>tricitv to maintain an eipiilib- rium. liy similar reasoning he accounted for the phenomenon of lightning in the clouds, and by ea.sy steps invented the lightniug-roJ, as a means of break- ing the force of the descending bolt, and carrying the dangerous fluid safely to the ground. Jlere we have not only a practical result growing out of elec- trical experiments, but we witness the dawn of an era wlien electricity was to be turned to profitable commercial account. The lightning-rod man has been abroad in the world ever since the days of Franklin. Thus far, then, electrical science, if science it could yet be called, had gotten on at the dawn of the nineteenth century. Xo electricity was really known but that jirodiiced by frii tion u)ioii glass, or some other convenient electric. Hence it was called frivt'tomil electricity by some, and sfatic electricity by others, because it was regarded as electricity in a state of rest. Though a thing fitted for curious e.x])eriiiieiit, and a constant invitation to scientific I'esearch, it had no use whatever in the arts. An excited electric could fur- nish but a trivial and temporary supply of electricity. It exhausted itself in the exhibition of a single spark. I NTUltY WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY 23 den in Holland, iut'oil to within eett'd ' y a oon- c knu ')n toj). I'oni ;i connuou rp till tilt' knob I'itit'd suhstunce, isc'luiryi'd. r>y ft' at ii distaiici' ijuinin l-'ranklin by means of a uli width of the electrieity there and whose wi'it- renown at honu! /e and tnin it to IS the celebrated o tiie world that lat it was merely ;■ natnre ; and in a thiinder-stiirm, e-string as a con- rt-ith the electric itted sparks and e of the Leyden ive and negative discharge of the s positively elec- side tinfoil was the resnlt of an intain an etinilib- m of lightning in means of break- iMous Huid safely I wing ont of elec- •n electricity was iiing-rod man has called, had gotten was really known invenient electric itlc electricity by (f rest. Thongh a ation to scientific electric could fnr- ?xhausted itself in II. THK NKW XIXKTKKXTH CKNTTKY KI.KOTKICITV. ]}y a hapi)y accident in 171)0, Galvani, of Uol&gna. Italy, while exi)eriment- iiig u]ion a frog, discovered that he could produce alternate motion between its nerves and muscles through the agency of a fluid generated by certain dissimilar metals when brought close together. I'hongh this mysterious fluid came to be known as the galvanic fluid, and though galvanism was made to perpetuate his name, it was not until 1800 that Volta, another Italian, showeil to the scientific world that really a new electricity had been found. Volta constructed what became known as the galvanic pile, but more KUANKI.IN IXSTITfTK, I'nn.AUKI.IMIIA. (From photo furnished by Institute.) largely since as the voltaic jsile, which he found would generate electricity strongly and continuously. Me used in its construction the dissimilar metals silver and zinc, cut into disks, and piled alternately one upon the other, but separated by ])ieces of cloth moistened with salt water. This simple gener- ator of electricity was the forerunner of the more powerful batteries of the present day, and which are still popularly known as voltaic cells or batteries. I)Ut the im])ortance of Volta's discovery did not lay more in the construc- tion <)f his electrical generator th.an in the great scientific fact that chemistry now became linked iiidissolubly with electricity and electrical effects. The two novel and charming sciences, hitherto separate, were henceforth to co- ojierate in those majestic revelations and magnificent possibilities which so signally distinguish the nineteenth century. By means of greatly improved ! 24 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY voltaic cells oi- batteries, that is, by jars containing acid in which were sus- pentleil dissimilar metals, electricity eoiihl be produced readily and in some- what continiu)us current. l>y increasing the number of these cells or jars or batteries, and connecting them with conductors, the current could be made stronger and more eft'ective. In contradistinction to the old frietional or static electricity , the new became known as ciiemical oi' current electricity. As was to have been expected, Volta's invcMition and discovery excited the whole domain of electrical science to new investigation, and brought in their train a host of wonderful results, growing more and more practical each year, and pointing the way more and more clearly to tiie commercial value of elec- tricity as a familiar, inexhaustible, and inesistibh; power. Thus, in 1801^ Nicholson showed that an tdectiic current from a voltaic pile would, when passed througii salt water, decomj)ose the water and resolve it into its two original gases, oxygen and hydrogen. In 1807, Sir Humphrey Davy, carry- ing electricity further into the donuiin of chemistry, showed, by means of the electric current, that various metallic substances embracHnl in the earth's crust, and before his time supj)osed to be elementary, were really dissoluble and easily resolved into their comjionent parts, whether solids, or gases, or both. Two years later, in l.SOi), lu- made the ecpuilly momentous discovery of something which was to prove a veritable .v/7 lux, " Let there be light,'' for the nineteenth century, and illuminate it beyond all others. Though it had been known almost from the date of the first voltaic pile that, when the ends of its two conducting wires were brought close together, a spark was seen ta leap in a curved or arc line from one wire to the other, which phenomenon was known as the voltaic arc, it remained for Davy to exhibit this arc in all the beauty of a brilliant light by using two charcoal (carbon) sticks or elec- trodes, instead of the wires, at the point of close approach. Here was the first principle of the after-evolved arc light to be found by the end of the century in every large city, and to prove such a source of comfort and s^iVty for their millions of inhabitants. This jjrinciple was simply that a stream of electricity jjouring along a conducting wire will, when interrujjted by ti substance such as carbon (cliarcoal), which is a slov^ conductor, throw off a bright light at the point of interruption. The ])henon)enon has been very aptly likened to a running stream of water in whose bed a stone has been placed. The stone obstructs the flow of water. The water remonstrates by an angry rip])le and excited roar. In Davy's experiment with the pi<'ces of charcoal, both became intensely hot while the electricity was making its bril- liant arc leap from one to the other, and would, of course, soon lie consumed. He, therefore, in showing the princi])le of a permanent biminant, failed to demonstrate its ])ractical i)ossibilities. These last were not to be attained till the nim teenth century was well along, and only after very numerous and very baffling attempts. Between 1810 and 18.30, many im])ortant laws governing electrical phe- nomena were discovered, which tended greatly to render the scieiuie more exact, and to give it commercial direction. Oersted, of Denmark, discovered a means of measuring the strength, and direction of an electric c\irrent. Amjiere, of France, discovered the identity of electricity and what had before been called galvanism. Kitchie, of England, made the first machine by which a continuous motion was produced by means of the attractions and WOMJERS OF ELECTRICITY 25 ri'jjiil.iions between tixeil luagiit'ts and electro-magnets. This machine was au curly suggestion of tiie ilynamo and motor of the coining years of the cen- tury. It meant that electricity was a source of power, as veil as of other jihcnomenal things. in speaking of the electro-nuignct in connection with liitchie's machine, it is proper to say that the electro-magnet was probably discovered between liSl.'."» and ISoO, but precisely by whom is not known. It differs from the natural magnet, or the ])ermant'nt steel horseshoe magnet, and consists sim- jily of a round piece of soft iron, called a core, around which are wrapped several coils of line wire. When an electric current is made to pass through tliis wrapping of wire, called the helix, the iron core becomes magnetized, and lias all the power of a permanent magnet. ]Uit as soon as the electric current ceases, the. magnetic power of the core is lost. Hence it is called an eit'ctio-magnet, or a temporary magnet, to distinguish it from a pernnment niagntit. While the discovery of the electro-magnet was very important in the respect that it afforded great magnetic power by the use of a limited or eco- nomic galvanic force, or, in oilier words, by the usi, of smaller and fewer \'oltai(! batteries, it was not until Faraday began his splendid series of elec- trical discoveries, in 18.'>1, that a new and exhaustless wellspring of electri- city was found to lay at the door of science. Faraday's prime discovery was I that of the induction of electric currents, or, in other words, of manufacturing electricity directly fum mag- netism. He began his experiments with what became known as an induction coil, which, though then crude in his hands, is the same in principle to-day. It con- ark, discovered INDUCTION COIL. 2G riilUMI'US A SI) noXDEJtS OF THE MX'" CENTUltr sists of ail iron core wrapped with two voils of insulated wire. One coil is of very lengtliy, thin wire, and is called the secondary coil. The other is uf short, thick wire, and is called the primary. When a niaf,'netic current is passed tlmmsjih tiii' i)riniary coil, with frecpient makes and breaks, it induces an alternating current of vciy high tension in the secondary coil, thus power- fully increasing its effects. In Faraday's further study of electric induction, he showed that wlien a condiict(>r (iarrying a current was brought near to a second conductor it induced or set up a current in this second. So niagni'ts were found to have a sim- ilar effect njjon one another. The se( ret of these i)henonu'iui was found to lie in the fact that a magnet, or a conductor carrying a current, was the centre of a Htdd of force of very c(>nsiderable extent. Such a iield of force c;iu be famil- iarly sJiowM by placing a piece of glass or white pajier sprinkled with fine iron iilings upon the poles of a magnet. The tilings will be drawn into concentric circles, whose (extent measures the mag- net'.s field of force. ' So also the extent of the field of force sur- rounding a conductor carrying a current may Ijc familiarlj' shown. In these instances the filings brought ■within the fields of force are magnetized. So would any other conducting substance be, and would become capable of carrying away as an independent current that Avhich had been induced in it. Here we have the essential ))rinciple of the modern dynamo-electric machine, commonly called simply dynamo. Faraday actually constructed a dynamo, which answered very well for his experiments, but failed in com- mercial I'esults because the only sinirce of energy he could draw upon in his time was that supplied by the rather costly voltaic cells. During Faraday's time and subsecpiently, electricians in Europe and the I'nited States were active in fornudating further laws relative to the nature, strength, and control of electrical currents, and each year was one of prepara- tion for the coming leap of electrical science into the vast realm of commer- cial convenience and i)rofit. III. Til?: TKLK '1 the Daniell's battery or cell, in IN.'U), by means of wliicii a constant electric current could be sustained for a long time. Mut even before these two indispensable requisites had been supplied by iiumau genius, much iuid been done to develop the mechanical methods of conveying intelligence. In llSKJ, lionalds, of England, constructed a tele- .urapli by means of wliich he operated a system of pith-ball signals which <'ould be understood. In bSL'O, Ampere suggested that the deflection of the iiiMgnetic 11 He by an electric current might be turned to account in impart- ing intelligence al a distance. In IcSL'S, Dyar, of New Y'ork, jierfected a tele- graph by means of wliicii he made ti-acings and sjjaces upon a piece of mov- ing litmus ])aper, which tracnngs and sjiaces could be intelligently interpreted tliroiigh a prearranged code. A little later, l.S.'JO, Uaroii Schilling constructed a telegraph which imparted motion to a set of needles at either end. From this time up to liS.S", which la.st year was: a memorable one in the history of telegraphy, the genius of such distinguished men as Morse in Amer- ica, Wheatstone and Cooke in England, and Steiuhill in ^Munich, was brought to bear on the further evolution of the telegraph. While all these names have been associated with the invention of the first jiractical telegraph, it is impos- sible, with justice, to rob that of Morse of the distinguished honor. Morse con- ceived his invention on board the ship Surry, wliile on a voyage from Havre to New York, in October, 1832. It con- sisted, as conceived, of a single circuit of conductors fed by some generator of electricity. He devised a system of ■;igns. which was afterwards improved into the Iforse alphabet, consisting 'it dots or points, and spaces, to represent numerals. These were impressed u]ion a strip of ribbon or paper by a lever which held at one end a iien or ii'Micil. The paper or ribbon was made to move along under the pencil or iii'ii at a regular rate by means of clockwork. In accordance svith these con- 'cptions, ilorse completed his instrument and p iblicly exhibited it in 1835. MOUSK TEl,EOR.\PH .\.S"U HATTKUY. 28 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY SAMUEIi FINI.KV HHKKSK MOUSE. He gavi: it f'urthor jiulilicity, in inucli iinpiovt'd i'onii. in 1837. In tliis form it was entirely original in tlie iniportiint rospccts tluit the ribbon or jiaiu'r was made to move by eloekworli, wJiile a pen or pencil gave tlie imiiressions, thus preserving a iiermanent record of the niessiige conveyed. Tlinwgh under systems less original and elt'eetive tiian that of Morse, a first actual telegraph had been operated between I'addington ami Drayton, Eng- land, a distance of ].'! miles, iu l.S.'{!>, and one at (.'alcutta, India, for a dis- tance of L'l miles, it was not until 1844 that the world's era of ])ra(!tical tele- graphy actually set in under tlie Morse sysLeni, which speedily superseded all others. In that year, amid the jeers of congressmen and the .adverse ])redictions of tli(i press, i\[orse erected the iirst American telegrapli line in America, between lialtiniore and Wasliington, a distance of 40 miles, and, to tlie eon- fusion of all detractors, sent the first message over it on Slay -7 of that year. From that date the fame of l\Iorse was established at home, aniis, mid tiiey were succeeded by under^'ronnd conihiits carrying iiisuhitel, a submarine cable was laid and siiciH-ssfully o))erated under the Kn^lish Channel. An enterpris- in;,' American, Cyrus \V. Field, of New York, now took up the subject of sub- marine telegraphy, and suggested a cable under the ocean betwcsen Ireland and Newfoundland. One was laid in isr.7, but it unfortunately parted at a ilistance of thn c luindred miles from land. A second was laid under Mr. Field's aus- pices in ISoH, but the insulation proved faulty, and after working imperfectly for a* month, it gave out entirely. 'i'hese disasters, though furnishing much •••aluable experience, checked the enterprise of submarine telegraphy for a number of years. Not until ISdl, when a deep-sea cable was successfully laid and operated be- tween Malta and Alexandria, and in l. A single company (the Western Unicm) in the United States ojier- ates SOO.OOO miles of wire, conveying (i( ).(»()( 1,0(10 messages per year, wliile throughout tho world more tlian 200,000,000 messages per year serve tlio ])nriK)ses of enlightened intercourse. Tlie capital employed reaches many hundreds of millions of dollars. The close of the nineteenth century opened possibilities in telegraphy that may be classed as startling in comparison with its ]irevions attainments. It would seem that the intervention of tlie familiar conducting wire is not abso- lutely necessary to the transmission of intelligence. The old and well-estab- lished principle of induced currents has lately been turned to account in what is termed "telegrajihy without wires," As an instance, a telegraph wire, when placed close alongside of a railroad track, will take u]> and con- vey to and from the stations the induced jjulsations of a magneto-telephone ])laced within a passing car, and connected to tlie metallic roof of the car. This system has been put to practical use on at least one railway, and pro- nounced feasible. lUit a greater marvel than this springs from the discovery of "Ier\';z, about 1800, that every electrical discharge is the centre of oscillations radiating indetinitely thrcmgh space. The phenomenon is likened to t!;" droi)ping of a stone in a placid lake. Concentric; undulations of the water are set up; — little waves, — which gradually enlarge in diameter, and affect iu greater or less degree the entire surface. Coidd an apparatus be invented to detect and direct the oscillatiowerful resistance to a passing current ; in other words, became p. very poor conduct^.. An electric; discharge or spark near the filings greatly decreased their resistance. If the filings were jarred, their (u-iginal resistance was restored. Branley ])laced his filings in a tube, into either end of which wires were passed. These were connected with a gjvl- vanometer. Ordinarily, the resistance of the filings was such as to prevent a current passing through them, and the galvanometer remained unaffected. But when an electric spark •. as emitted near the tube, the resistance was so V ^.: IRY \y win PI It'll two. tlin-i', •tfil t(i tho i)Vi>iiiij,' or jiiiphy. the iini(!)i iiKiro tt'lc^fiajiliy •iitiirv was I'lul of tlu) ^tll])(MllloUS inili'iij,'(' of biiiiii'iiic to tatcs ojier- koiir. wJiilt' scrvi' tim ulies many raphy tliat llU'lltS. It s not abso- wcll-cstal)- iiccount in tt'le},n'ai)h ]) and con- i-teli'plione if tlu' car, , and j)ro- ertz, about radiating l>pin;,' of a .set up,' — greater or detect and ) ])erceive, tlie lake's ther could ood a Con- ine filings in other park near rred, their tube, into ith a gal- prevent a inaffected. ice was so WONDERS OF ELKCTHICITY 31 niucii decrea.se(l tliat the nirreiit passed readily through the lilings, and was ilcti'i'ted by the galvanometer. This is simply equivalent to saying that tho ilisi'liarge of the eleetric. spark made the (iliiigs to cohere and become a better idiidiictor than wiien lying hiosely in the tui)c. Here, then, was opportunity lor an instrument which had but to regulate tiie luuubcr of sjjarks and iiuli- ciite the presence of the electric waves in lU'iler to produce dots and dashes similar to those used in the common t;clegraph. Such an instrument was liiiiii^'ht nearest to perfection by Signor .Marconi, a young Italian, in 1H!>0. Willi it he succeeded in sendi'ig electric waves through etiu'r or sjiace, and without the use of wires, a distance of four miles, upon Salislmry I'lain, Kng- li'iiil, li.'iter, lie transmitted messages by means of space (wireless) telo- THE OnEAT EASTERN LATINO AN OCEAN CAULE. graphy across Bristol Channel, a distance of 8.7 miles, and subsequently across the English Channel, a distance of 18 miles. Mr. W. J. Clarke, of America, has imjjroved ujion ^larconi's methods of space telegraphy, and shown some remarkable residts. Whether space telegraphy will eventually sii|icrse(le that by wires is one of the problems that time only can solve. Jiiit such are the iiossibilities of electrical science that we may well be pre- ])ared for more wonderful revelations than any yet nuule. IV. hello! hello! Telegraph (Gr. tele, far, and f/rap/tein, to write) implies the production of writing at a distance by means of an electric current upon a conductor. Telephone (Gr. tele, far, and photie, sound) implies the production of sound au a distance by the same means, though the word telei)hone was in early use to describe the transmission of sound by means of a rod or tightly stretched string connecting two diajjhragms of wood, membrane, or other substance. This last ]>lan of transmitting sound came to be known as the string telephone, and it retained this name until the invention of the electric telephone. S2 riilUMl'llS ASIt WoShKliS OF Tin-: A/.Y'" CKNTlltY Lik«' tlm plfictric tolcjfnipli, the olectric tch'phoiu' was ;iii evolution. Tlic fitriiiK tclf'plioiii', in tlic liaiids of Wliciitstdiic. sliowod, as early as IMI'.I, tliat tlic vibrations of tlic air in'odiict'd l»y a luuHical iiistiiinuMit wcrii Vfiy niimiti', and coukl hv tiaiiHiiiitti'd liiindii'ds of yards by means of a string armed with delicate diapiira^ms. iSiit wliiic tlie string tel(>|ihone served to eontirm tlie fact that sounds are vibrations of tlie atmosphere which alTect the tymjianum of th« ear, it remained but a toy or experimental device till after electric telegraphy became; an accepted science, that is, in the yeur iKM and subse- A A STIUNfl TKI.KI'IIOXK. (juently. One of the earliest steps to- ward the evolution of the electric tele- lilione was taken by Mr. Vage, of Salem, .Mass., in 18.">7, who discovered that a magnetic bar could »'niit sounds when rapidly magnetized and demagnetized; ,and that those .sounds corresponded with the iiuinb<-r 'if currents which jjroduced them. Thif. i.-d to the discovery, be- tween 1847 and IsriL', of several kinds of electric vibrators adajited to the produc- tion of musical sounds and their trans- mi.ssiou to a distance. All this was wonderful and mom«'ntous, but a little while had still to elapse before one arose bold enough to admit the possibility of transmitting human speech by electricity. He caim* in l.sr>4, in the person of Charles Kourseul, of Paris, who, though as if writing out a fanciful dream, said, " We know that sounds are produced by vibrations, and are adapted to the car by the same vibra- tions which are reproduced by the intervening medium. Hut the intensity of the vibrations diminishes very rapidly with the distance, .so that it is, even with the aid of si)eaking-tubes and trumpets, impossible to exceed somewliat narrow limits. Suppose that a num speaks near a movable disk, sufficiently flexible to lose none of the vibrations of the voice, that this disk alternately makes and breaks the current from a battery, you may have at a distance another disk, which will at the same time execute the same vibrations." liourseul further showed that the sounds of the voice thus reproduced would have the same pitch, but admitted that, in the then present state of acoustic science, it could not be attirmed that the syllables uttered by the human voice could be so reproduced, since nothing was known of them, except that some were uttered In- the teeth, others by the lips, and so on. The status of the telephone then, according to Bourseul, was that voice could l)e reproduced at a distance at the pitch of the speaker, but that something more was needed to transmit the delicate and varied intonations of human speech when it was broken into syllables and utterances. To transmit sim- 4. i» THOMAS AI.VA EDISON. , WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY 88 jly voice was one thing ; to transmit the timbre or quality of speech was inotlier. . Hour.si'ul made plain the problem that was still before the investigator. md now comes one of the most remarkable episodes in the history of elec- tu'Aty, — a chapter of mingled shame and glory. In the village of Eberly's lills", ("iimbevland County, I'a., lived a genius by the name of Daniel Draw- Laugli, who liad ni.'>de a study of telephony up to the very point Bourseul Lcrieft it. He had transmitted musical sound, sound of the voice, and other joumls in tlie same pitch. lie had said that this was all that could be done Kll some means was discovered of holding up the constant onward flow of le electric current along a conducting wire by introducing into such flow a Variable resistance such as would impart to simi)le i)itch of voice the quality br tlmlii-n of human speech. Drawbaugli achieved this in his simple work- [hop as early as ISoSMiO, according to evidence furnished to the United }tatvs Supreme Court at the celebrated trial of tlie cases which robbed him ff the right to Ids prior invention. He did it by introducing into the circuit small (piantity of jm^vdered charcoal (jontined in a tumbler, through which le ciincnt was passing. The cliarcoal, being a poor conductor and in small Jrains. oiTered just that kind of variable resistance to the current necessary n'pioduce tiie tones and syllables of speech. He transmitted si)eech Btwoon liis shop and house, and jjroved the suc(!ess he had met with before idiences in New York and Philadelphia. Hut he neglected to care for the jniniiMcial side of his discovery, though many of his jiatents antedated lost' which contributed to de])rive him of deserved honor and profit. Ju llSOl, lleis, of Germany, came into notice as the inventor of a telephone Hiich transmitted sound very clearly, but failed to reproduce syllabified pecih. However, the principle and shape of his transmitter and receiver ^ere accepted by those who followed him. Two men now came upon the cene x^ho had readied the conclusion already arrived at by Drawbaugh, and ^lio hccame rivals over his head for the honor and profit of an invention by jicaus of v»'luch the quality of tlie voice in speaking could be transmitted. fhcse two were Elisha Gray, of Chicago, and Alexander Graham Bell, of loston. Tlieir resjjective devices seem to have been akin, and to have been rescnteil to the patent office almost simultaneously ; so nearly so, at least, to make them a part of that long, costly, and acrimonious legal contention i^er priority of invention which did not end till 1887. 15oth liell and Gray reached the conclusion that the transmission of articu- ^te. speech was impossible unless they could produce electrical undulations jrresponding exactly witli the vibrations of the air or sound waves. Tliey rouglit this similaiity about by introducing a variable resistance into the ^ectric current by means of an interposing liquid, just as Drawbaugli had ane years before with his tumbler of powdered charcoal. Bell exhibited j|is inst'-uineut with com])arative success at tlie Centennial Exhibition in 1S7<) riiiludelphia; but much had yet to be done to perfect a telephone of real smmercial value. The years 1877-78 were years of great activity among electricians, whose rime object was to perfect a telej)hone transmitter and receiver, by means of ^hose mutual o^ieratious at opjiosite ends of a circuit all the modulations of peech could be preserved and passed. To this end Berliner introduced into 3 34 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY v^ a transmittcn- or semlor the then well-known principle of the microphone (Gr. ml/cms, small, /t/ioiic, sound), which magnitietl the faint sounds by the variation in eleetrieal resistance, caused b} variation of ])ressure at loose contact between two metal points or electrodes. Edison (juickly foUowed with a similar transmitter or sender, in which one of the electrodes was of soft carbon, the other of metal. Then came (1S78) IIui,dies and ]>lake with senders, in which both of the ehctrodes were of hard carbon. Suli-scfjuently came other and rapid modilications of the sender, both in the United States and Europe, till the fornr of telephone now in pojudar use was arrived at, and which, strange to say, is, in its leethod of securing tht? necessary vari- able resistance in the circuit, (juite like that emjiloyed by Mr. Drawbangh ; to wit, the introduction of fine carboii granules into a small metal cup just behind the vibrating diaiihragm or disk of the seniler. The circuit goes into the diaphragm in front, passing through the carbon granules and out through the back of the iu'-^rument. 'i'ht' action of talking into the sender causes tin g'anides to be ag.:ated, thus o]iening and closing the circuit and producing che .'onditions necessary to tlie transmissiou of articulate speech. The diaphragm or disk is the very thin covering of the cuj) coii^^aiuing the gran- ules. It is sometimes made of carbon, but generally of hard metal, as steel. On being struck by the sound waves of the voice, it vibrates to correspond. The same vibrations are reproduced in the receiver at the opposite end of the circuit, and thus one listens to the phenomenon of transmitte(l Iniman speech. The current for telephonic^ pur])oses is furnished by one or more batteries or cells, whose effect is heightened by the presence of an induction coil. The tendency now is to make "biiudars" — two contacts at the diaiihragm — in place of a single contact. This style is becoming more in vogue in order to meet the demands of long-distance work. To each telephone is attached a generator or dev^ice for ringing a little bell as a signal that some one wishes to comminiicate. To such perfection have telejiliones been brought that it is quite possible to converse intelligibly at the distance of a tho'usand miles, with a less satisfactory service at twice or thrice that distance. The possi- bilities of clear speech-transmission at indefinite distance are without mea- sure. Like the telegraph, the telephone has opened an immense and profit- able industry, involving hundreds of millions of dollars. At the end of the century it is, unfortunately, monopolistic ; but the time is near when a rea- sonable charge for service will enable every business house to communicate with its customers, and when even the remote corners of counties will be brought into tovudi with their cajiitals and with one another. Along the lines of civilizing contact the telephone fairly divides the wonders of the century with the telegra])h, while for intimate intellectual communication it is a trium])h of genius without parallel. It is the dispenser of speech in city, town, and village ; in factory and mine, in army and navy ; throughout gov- ernment deiKirtments ; and in Budapest, Hungary, it is a purveyor of general news, like the ncwspai)er, for the "Telephone (iazette " of that city has a list of regular subs(!ribers. to whom it transmits, at private houses, clubs, cafes, restaurants, and public buildings, its editorials, telegrams, local news, and advertisements. A very natural outgrowth of the telejdione was that curious invention known as the phonograph (Gr. phone, sound, and ijra2)hein, to write). It is CENTURY WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY 35 )t' tho micropUoiii' iut sounds by th(! ])res.sun> at loose 1 (juickly followed e electrodes was ol les and lUake with )on. Subseriuently 1 the United States ise was arrived at, the neeessary vari- )y ^Ir. Drawhangh; all metal cup just he eireuit goes into [es and out through e sender causes tin •cuit and producing late sjieech. The (in^^aining the gran- lard metal, as steel, rates to correspond, ojrposite end of the itteil Inuuan speech. )r more batteries or ndiiction coil. The the diai>hragm — in n vogiu' in order to ihone is attached a lat some one wishes n brought that it is a tho'usand miles, istance. The possi- ;e are without mea- immense and protit- \t the end of the is near when a rea- use to communicatt' of counties will be lother. Along the the wcmders of the al communication it ier of speech in city, y ; throughout gov- purveyor of generid of that city has a ivate houses, clubs, egrams, local news, t curious invention ?.in, to write). It is A (lUAPnoiMIONE. •:f not only an instrument lor writing or preserving sound, but for reproducing it. As a sim])le recorder of soiuul, it was an instrument dating as far back as ^ISO". when Dr. V'oung showed how a tuning-fork might be made to trace a ■5 record uf its own vibrations. J Jut Young's Ithonght had to go through more than half :§% ct'Utury of slow evolution before the mod- ^ern |ilionograph was reached; for in the %'honautograph of Scott, the logographs of pHarlow and lUake, and the various other MBttenipts up to 1.S77 to make and preserve ^tracings of sjieech, there were no success- ful nii'Mi's of reproducing speech from those A|trucings liit upon. i In that year (1S77), Edison, in striving to J^iake a si'lf-rccording telejdioue by connect- '^ng witli its (li:iphragm or disk a stylus or iietal [loint which would record its vilirations upon a strip of tinfoil, accident- [felly revciscd the motion of the tinfoil so that the tracings upon it affected the Istylus or tracing-point in an o|)posite direction. To his surprise, he found that |his reverse motion of the tinfoil, tickling, as it were, the stylus oppositely, e]iro(liici'd the sounds which had at first agitated the diaphragm. It was but step now to the production of his matured phoiujgrapii in 1878. He made cylinder with a grooved surface, over which he sjjread tinfoil. A stylus r tini' metal point was made to rest ui)on the tinfoil, so as to produce a racing in it. followit'g the grooves in the .-ylinder when the latter was made revolve. This stylus was connected witli the diaphragm of an ordinary tele- lone transmitter. When one sjioke into tlie transmitter, that is, set the i;ililinigni to vibrating, the stylus impressed the vibratory motions of thedia- lii,ii,Mii. or, in crher words, the waves of the exciting sound, in light indenta- iciiis upon the tinfoil. In order to reproduce the sounds thus registered in he tintoilof the cyliiuler, it was nuide to revolve in an opposite direction mlcr the ])oint of ilie stylus, and as the stylus was now affected by jjrecisely ihe same indentations it had first m.ado in the tinfoil, it carried the identicl ibrations it had recorded back to the diaphragm of the telephone, and tnus •eprodueed in audible form the speech that had at first set the diaphragm to ilirating. The speech thus reproduced was that of the origiral speaker in itcii and quality. Ingenious and wonderful as Edison's machine was, it waa iiseeiitihle of improvement, and soon liell and others came forward with a lionograph in which the recording cylinder was covered with a hardened ax. This was called the graphophone. Again, Berliner improved upon ihe phonogra])]! by using for his tracing surface a horizontal disk of zinc cov- re(l witli wax. ]iy chemical treatment, the tracings made in the wax were tclied into the zinc, and thus nuide permanent. Edison -nade further and ingenious improvements upon his i)honograph by attaching liearing tubes for ihe ear to the sound receiver, and by the employment of an electric motor revolve the wax cylinder, liy the attachment of enlarged trumpets and ther devices, every form of modern phonograph has been rendered capable f reprodiie.ing in great jierfection the various sounds of speech, song, and nstrument, and has become a most interesting source of entertainment. 36 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XJX^" CENTURY V. DYNAMO AMI MOToK. I)3'naiiio is from tlio (Jieek i/iini(>iry of the induction coil and the principles of nuigncto-electric indui.'tion. In l.S.'U, he invented a simple yet, for that date, wonderful machine, which was none the less the first dynamo in principle, because he modestly called it •' A New Electrical IVtachine." Ho mounted a thin disk of copper, about twelve inches in diam- eter, upon a central axis, so that it would revolve between the opposite pol".s of a permanent nuignet. As the disk revolved, its lower half cut the field of force of the magnet, and a current was induced which was carried away by means of two collecting br\ishes. fastener which worked ingenicusly, but was still open to the objection of cost in supply- ing the necessary electric current for the electro -magnets. Though various inventions came about having for their object a commercially successful motor, such a thing was im])ossible till (iranime produced his improved and effective dynamo in 1S71. This dynamo was found to work equally well as a motor, and hence it became necessary for electricians to greatly enlarge their iniderstanding of the n.ature of electro-magnetic induction. They soon dis- covered many curious things respecting the behavior of induced currents, with the result that rapid and simultaneous improvements were made in both dynamos and motors. One of the most curious of these discoveries was that a motor automatically regulates the amount of current that passes through its circuit in proportion to the work it is called upon to do ; that is, if the work the machine iias to do is decreased, the motor attains a higher specci, which higher s])eed induces a counter electro-motive foree sufficient to check up the amount of current jiassing through the motor. So when the motor is required to do increased work, the machine slows up; but with this slowiii\' up, the counter electro-motive force decreases, and consequently the curreit passing tiirough the motor increases. S » CENTURY of the framework I ill ii circle ujioii a isc ill front of tli'^ I tiiercliy iiuluciiii,' lally of a series ol 1111(1 insulated from ,e ariuatiires to tlic iiiiutatorelianges it iiplisiied. (4.) The brought to bear at ;li each coil or sets >ide line or lines, ho motor. (G.) The leam jiower used is the dynamo, as its lectricity sent to it. mo. at least in its r to the machinery » water-wheel is ti) m the dynamo, but til the dynamo Iiail reed that the first lacobi. throui^h the ;wo sets of electio- Ision he rotated a n. But asJaeobi's them, and as there le costly use of the onstructed a motor n of cost in supply- Though various lercially successful 1 his improved and k equally well as a ■eatly enlarge their 1. They soon dis- induced currents, were made in botii liscoveries was that lat passes throuf;li do ; that is. if th(> IS a higher si)eeii, sufficient to check when the motor is i with this slowiii,' uently the curreit WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY :«» For this reason it has become As witli the dynamo, one of tlie marvels of the motor is its efficiency. In perfect niacliiues, ninety to ninety-tivo iier cent of the electrical energy sup- plied can be converted into mccluinical energy. . ii competitor with, and even successor of, " .steam i'l countless cases, and especially where i wiiter-jKiwer can be commanded. A prime ■ motor, in the shape of a water-wheel, may be made to drive scores of secondary motors in ;• places hundreds of miles away. The power .; rajiid and radical than in th(! a(la]itation of lamps to the various combustible fluids that iiave bid I'oi- favor. While the various oils, aninud and vegetable. were almost sohdy in vogue as ilhiminauts at the be- ginning of the century, they were largely .superseded at a later period by the burning-tluid known as cam- pliene. Tins wa.s a iiuritied oil of turpentine, wliich touud great favor on aecount of its economy, con- venicnee, cleaidiness, and brilliancy of light. Ibit it was very volatile, and its vifiors fornu'd with air a dangerously explosive mixture. Yet with all this it might have ludd its own for a long time, had not Gesner, in 1840, discovered that a sujierior mineral oil, which he ealh^l -'kerosene," could be readily and ])rotitably distilled fr(uu the (^oal found on Prince Edward Lsland. This kerosene (u- hydrocarbon oil speedily displaced camphene as jin illumiiuint. Its manufacture rapidly developed into an important .industry in the I'nited States, ami large distilling establishments arose, both on the Atlantic coast, where foreign coal Wiis used, and throughout the country, wherever eannel or other convertible coal was found. With the discovery of jx'troleum in pay- ing (pumtities on t)il Creek, Pa., in 18oU, there came about a great (diange in kerosene lami>lighting. It was foiuid. upon analysis, that crude ])etroleum contained about fifty-five per cent of kerosene, which constituted its most in^portant product. The manufactories of kerosene from eannel or other coal, therefore, went out of existence, and new ones, larger in size and greater in numbei-, sprung tip for the maiuifactuve of kerosene MODERN LAMP. popularly speaking, petrc "1 CENTURY ill 17S."., bv Legcr. wliicli li(> |iassi'(l ;i ill 17iS4 In- AigaiKi. I l)iu'ii('r ('(lusistiii',' WCfll Wllicll pilSSCll it'r tube was ]icrtn- . draught til' uii- In Ic 111' till' wirk. ill fiailll' nil t ill' IMII- ti'il tlic lain)) I'iiiiii- a crudi' tiling ni gave \.a_v to tlir up to lilC pl'I'SI'llt It tonus. ilcsigiKMJ nnil)iistioii and a iijiiting d\iriiig tlir of invent inns, all icanty. and so on. mil radical tliaii in tliat iiavf i)id lor WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY 41 MODERN LAUP. ed about fifty-fivi; ;ant product. Tlio efore, went out of )ei', sprung up for il, from i)etroleuni. This illuniiiiant canif into almost universal favor for lamp use, owing to its fiiiMpni'ss and brilliant!}'. It is not frt'i; from tlangt-r wht'ii iiniiropi-rly ilistillcd, but iindt'r tlu' tipi-ration of slringt-nt laws gi iiiiiig its preparation and Ifsting. ilangi'r from its use has bei'n retluced to ,i ininiinnm. in rural districts, in sinalli'r towns and villages, wherever economy and convenience are essentials, and when beaut} in lami) effects is desirable, the kerosene illuiiiinaiit has become indisitensable. 'i'iic iliscovervof petrolfiim bellied further to light the world and distin- guish t lie century. It gave us gasolene, naiihtna, gas tiil, astral oil, anil the very effective " nuiieral sjierm," which is almost universally used in liglit- hmists and as headlights for loenuioiives. With the addition of keroseiu'. a favorite light of the beginning of the century — tlie tallow tlip of our grand- iiintheis — began to fall into disuse. The himielike pictures of housewives at their annual candle-dippings, or in the manipulation of their moulds, became veiieialile antiiiucs. Candle-light [lalcd in the presence of tin- higlier illuniiiiaiits. Tliougii still a cimvenieut light umh'r certain circumstances, it jilays a gradually diminishing part amid its sii|ieriors. t)nenf the signal triiiiiiplis of the century has lieen tiie introduction of gas- lightiiig. 'i'lioiigli ilbiminating gas made from coal was kntjwn as early as ICi'.tl. it did not (!o:iie into use, e.\et!pt for experiments or in a very special way, until the beginning of the niiusteenth century. In ISO!*, a few street lamps were lit with gas in London. An unsiictu'ssfid attempt was made to introduce gas into lialtimore in ISL'l. lietweeu ].S1.'2 and l.SL'7, the gas-light began to have a fticble foothold in Moston and New Vork. Otlun- cities be- gan to introiliice it as an illuminant in streets ami, eventually, in houses. l>iit the jirotjess was very slow, owing to intense opposition on the part of both saiiints and common people, who saw in it a sure means of tlestruc- tinu liy poison, explosion, or fire. It was not much before the midtlle of the century that prejudice against illuminating gas was sufliciently allayetl to admit of its general use. lUit meanwhile many valuable ex])eriments as to its iiroihiction and adaptation were going on. The mt)st i)roiluctive source of illuminating gas was found tr- be bituminous coal. Thotigh gas coultl be pro- duced l)y distillation froia other substances, such as shale, lignite, petroleum, water, turf, resins, oils, and fats, none could compete in quality, (juantity, and economy with what is known as ordinary coal gas, at least, not until the time came, quite late in the century, when it was found that non-luminous gases, such as water gas, could be rendered luminous by impregnating them with hyilrocarbou vapor. This became known ct)mmercially as water gas, and it is now largely usetl in place of ctjal gas, because it is cheaper and, for the most part, equally effective as a luminaiit. Gas-lighting has, of course, its limitations. It is not adapted for use beyond the range of cities or towns whose populations are sufficient to war- rant the large ex])enditures necessary for gas plants. It is a special rather than general light. Yet within its limited domain of use it has proved of wonderful utility, — a source of cheer for millions, a clean, safe, and economic light, a convenience far beyontl the candle, the lamp, or any previous lighting appliance. In the street, it is a source of safety against thieves and way- layers. In the slums, it is both policeman and missionary, baffling the wrong- doer, exposing the secrecy that conduces to crime, laying bare the hotbeds of r '^ •fj THIUMI'HS A XI) }V0XI)1:J{S of Till-: XIX'" cKxruitv wliiimo. It is ;is woll a soui'ih' id liciit ii.s li^l't. ii""l ft>ii,s(M[ueiitly coiivi'itibli into power for liylit iiii'cliiiiiical jmrposi's. in tiin kitfiien, it is nioic aiKi jiiori' hci:oniiiiff a lioon to tlic liousfwirt', wlio l)_v means of tiic ^jas raiiK' fscapcs, in I'ookin-, nuicii of tlic dust, sinoivc. worry, ami cvt-n fxpcnsi- of tlif coal oiioii stovo and lan^'c. In tlit parlor, lihiary, or sick-room, it is achccrfui anil cffcctivit snl)stitutc for the coal ;;rate, and may he niaile to assume the ('os\ (]uaiiti('s and fantastic shapes of the old-fashioned wood tire. C'oincideni with the discovery of |petroUnnn, its inseparaiile companion, natural i,'as, canir into prominence us a source of hotli lij;ht and heat, or this i)e(;;ime true, ai least, after it was ascertained that natural ^as rej^ions existed which could ix' tapped hy wells, and made to j^ive forth tlndr !,Mse(ius jiroduct independent ol the oil that may have at one time I'xisted near or in connecliou with it. This natural source of light and iieat became as iuteiestin,i,' to the f^eologist, explorer, and capitalist as the sourci' of petroleum itsidf. and soon every likeiv section was prospected, with tlie hope dl tindinj^and tai)pin;;thuse mystei'inu^ caverns of c irth in 'vhich the pent-uji iuminaut ahonnded in paying (pian- tifies It was found that workahle natural gas regions were niniierous in the I'nited States, especially in proxindty to petroleum (M' liitnmiuous coal «le})osits, and little time was lost in tlieir development. As if \>y magic, a new anil ))rotital>le industry sprang into existence. 'L'hc natural gas w; 11 l)ecanu' almost as ciuiimon as the oil well, and at times far more awe-inspiiiug as it shot into sjiace its volcanic blasts which, when ignited through care- lessness, as sometimes happened, cari'ied to the vicinage all the dangers and terrors of Vesuvius or Stiondxili. I'owcrlul as wrs the lorce with whidi natural gas sought its freedom, wonderful as was the plienomenoii of its escape from the s\djterranean alend)ic in which it was distilled, inimaii genius cpdckly harnessed it hy api)liances for conservation and carriage tn l)laces where it could be utilized. Sometimes great industries sprang up contiguous to the wtdls ; at others, it A\as carried through pipes to (dties nianymi'- s distant, where it became a light for street, home, and store, and a ])rodigious energy in factory, furnace, forge, and rolling-mill. In fact, no marvel of the century has been at once .so weird and inscrutable in its origin as natural gas. or more ])otential as an agency within the areas to whicli its use is limited. 'l"he fpiesti(»n is ever upi)crmost in connection with natural gas, will it last',' The gas springs of the (Caucasus Mountains have been burning for centuries. lUit that is where nature's internal forces liav(' their correlations and compens.tions. \^'here it is quite otherwise, that is. wliere the vents of natural gas reservoirs are abnormally numerous, or where those reservoirs are drained to the extreme for commercial jinrposes, not to say through sheer wastefidness, the geologist is reae- came known as are lighting and incandescent lighting, r.v [S7'.i-S(l, the are light was siiHiciently advanced to meet with lavor as an illuminant for streets, railway stations, markets, and any large s])aces, in which places it liecauie a substitute for gas and other lights. The I'sseutial features of the arc light are : (1.) Tiie dynamo machine, situated in some central idaee, for the gen- eration (d' electricity. (L'.) Coiidueting wires to carry the electricity throughout the areas or to tho places to be lighted. (.'5.) The arc lamp, which may be sus- pended ii]ioii jioles in the streets, or ujion wires in .stores aiui other covered places. Its mechanism con- sists of two [)encils or candles of graphite carbon, very hard and incombustible, adjusted above and be- low each other .so that their tii)S or ends are very- close together, b . not in conta.^t. IJy means of a clockwork or simph gravity device these carbon tips arc brought into contact at the moment the electric current is turned on, and then are slightly separated as soon as the current has heated them. The air between the heated tips, having also reached a high temperature, becomes a eoiiductor, and the electricity leaps in the form of an arc or curve through it, rendering it brilliantly incandescent. Should the current be diminished in strength for any reason, the above-mentioned clockwork or gravity device rings the carbons a little closer together; and should the current be increased, the carbons are separated a little wider; thus the steadiness of the light is regulated. There are iilsf) various automatic devices for thus regulat- ing the jiroximity of the carbons and maintaining the evenness of the glow. The power of an arc light is measured by candles. An ordinary arc light under two amperes of current gives a light equal to twenty-five candles, Avhile under fifty amperes of current it gives a light equal to twenty thousand candles. In searchlights on board vessels, and >vhere very large areas are to be lighted, both heavier currents and larger carbons are used than in the arc ELECTRie AllC I.IOIIT. 44 ritii'Mrns .\.\h wositKUs of rin-: v/.v" cEsrvin- \ W ll laiii|is lor ordinary .striTt imrposi's. No li^lit siii|i!ims('s tin' arc \\^\\i in biilli;iii('\. I'xri'iitiiiK liif iMiii,'iitsiiiiii li^lit. TluTc nn- lew citifs in liii- ooiint.ry iiml l'Jii'o|ic tlial do not cmiiloy tlii' \i\v l:iMi|) ii.s ii niianH of Htrt'ct. station, and iai'i;)--ai-i-a li;{iitin^', owin^' to its siipt'iioritA' as an illiin'inant ami til)' wondi'i'tiil |iolicin^ t>tlf(,t it lias njioii tin* ^ liini sections. Till' iiKMi. .csccnt lamp, or clcctrii' li;,'litin.i^ liy inrandcsccuci', niidiTwcni II soiai>\vliat lon^'rr rvolulioii at tin- hands of iiivcntois than the arc lamp, owiiiy to the ditliciilty of liniliiif; a siilistancc snitalili' for the jirodiiction ot tin' ni'ccssary },do\v. 'I'hc discovery of siicii snbstaiici' may he accredited tc Kdison more fully than to any other. 'I"he incandescent or glow lamp is .1 glass bulb from which the air is exhausted. There passes into the bulb a tila niciil of v'arbon, which, after a turn or two inside the hnlb, passes out at t!ii' end tlirou;,di which it entered. When a current from a voltaic battery is sent through this carbon lilament, it brings it, in the .ibseiieu of oxygen witliiii the bulb, to a high white heat without comltustion. The portion id' this liiL;li white heat which is radiated is the light-giving energy of the incandescent lamp. Metal tilameiits were at Krst tried in the bulb, but they (piickly burned out Carbon lilaments were at length found to be the only ones capable ol resisting the heat. They moreover had the advantage of cheapness, and of greater radiating energy than metals. .Many substunees, such as silk, cotton, hai'", etc., were used in the preparation is a gentler glow arly resenihles the eeilily hecaiiic for arc light became I'ormer outstripped ise to. lily. In the incan- may last for (juil(^ uf oxygen. If the it of its use, rested [uestion would give Id continue, if the ghthouses and like- rate a thick atnio- il lamp. But the id etticiency of the )ard, and the thoii- !eined an essential of production and ilispensability. of locomotion, tho ge-coach, the prim- -hoss shay." Tlu: universal energy was tlie lioise. A new energy eaiiio with the application ot steam, and will, ii new vehicular hmoniotion, — easier, swifter, Htroiiger, for tlie mo^l part clieaiier, rendering possible what was liitlcrtct impossilile as to time and di>tani'i'. Tliis signal Irliiiiiph td the eentiiry may not have been eclipsed by the iiitiodncti il snlisi'i|ncnt locomotive idiaiiges. but il was to be supiilcmented bv \\lial..ii the beginning, would have ]iassed lor the idle dn am n| a vision- arv. '\'\\*' hoise-car came, had its brief day. and went out with all its ineon- vciiienci s. crndtics. and horrors betcu'e. in part, the traction-ear, and. in jiart, the rapidly revolnlioni/.ing energy of electricity. \ KI.K( 'rillC l.<>< OMOTIVK. 'I'he first conce])tion of a railway to be o]>eiated by electricity dates from rtlMiiii is;;."), when 'riionias l)aven[)ort. of IJrandon. Vt.. contrived and moved a small car by means of a current from voltaic cells placed within it. In IS.M. I'lob'ssor Page, of the Smithsonian Institution, ran .i car ])ro])elled by electricity upon the steam railway between Washington and lialtimore, but though he obtained a high rate 01 speed, the cost of sujiplying the current by means of batteries — the only means then known — prohibited the commer- <'ial use of his method. A\ith the invention of the dyn.amo .as an economic and ))o\verful generator of electricity, and also the invention of the motor as a means of turning electrical ciie"gy to mechanical account, the way was ojien, both in the I'nitcd St.ites and Europe, for more active investigation of the question of electric car jiropulsion. lietween 1871.' and 1S87, different inventors, at home 1 46 TRIUMPHS AXD nOXDEIlS OF THE XIX'" CEyTUHY and abroad, placed in operation several experimental electric railways. Few of them proved practical, though each inrnishcd a fund of vahiahle experi- ence. An imderground electric street railway was operated in Denver ;is early as 1X8.J ; out tlic one u|)(in tiie trolley jdan, wiiioh proved snlKciently suc- cessful to warrant its being calh'.t the first oj)erated in the United States, was liuilt in Hichmond, Va., in 18S.S. It gave such impetus to electric rail- wa\' construction that, in live years' tijue, enormous capital was embarkdl. anil the ;U'w nnuuis of pro|)idsiou was generally accepted as convenient, sale, and profitable. The essential features of the electric railway are : (1.) The tr.ack of t\\i> rails, similar to tlu' steam railway. (2.) The cars, lightly yet strongly built. (,"{.) The jiower-house, containing the dyu: los which generate the electri(Uty. (4.) The feed-Avire, usually' of stout C( pper, running the length of the track" of the system, and su])ported on poles or laid in conduits. (">.) The trollcv- wire over the centre of the track, supportt'd by insulated cross-wires passing from poles on ojjposite sides of the tracks, and connected at jjroper inter- vals with the feed-wire. ((».) The trolley-i)ole of metal jointed to the top nf the car, ami iitted with a sjiriug which presses the wheel on the e:'i' df the pole up against the trolley-wire w ith a force of about tifteen pounds, ami which also serves to conduct the electricity down througli the car to the motor. (7.) The motor, which io suspended from the car truck, and passes its power to the car axle by means of a spur gearing. The jiowcr reipiisite fur an ordinary trolley-car is about fifteen liorse-power. The speed of troUe^'-cars is reguli.ted in cities to Ironi five to seven miles per hour, but they may lie run, under favorable conditions, at a speed equal to, or in excess of, that of the steam-car. As a means of city transit, and of rai)iu, corvenient, and ticonomic inter- course between sidxuban localities and rural towns and villages, the electric traction system ranks as one of the greatest wonders of the centiny. Tlie speed witli which it found favor, tlie enornu)US capital it jirovokedto activity, the stimulus it gave to further study and invention, the surprising number of passengers carried, go to make one of the most interesting chapters in electric annals. 'i"he end of the century sees thousands of these electric roads iu existence; a comparatively new industry involving over .$l(Xt,eo])le ; a prospect that the trolley will sticceed the steam-car for all utili/able jmrjioses within the gradually extending influence of cities and towns upon their rural surroundings. In speaking of the passing of the h(n'.se-car and its substitution by tlic trolley, a distinguished writer h;i-; well said: "Humanity iu an electric-car differs widely from that in the horse-car, pro])elled at the expense of animal life. It is more cheerful, mort! confident, more awake ♦^o the energy at com- mand, more indiued with the subtlety and nuijesty of tlie propelling force. The mot(u- confirms the ethical fact that each introfhiction of a higher material force into tlic daily uses of hum.'inity lifts it to a broader, brighter plane, gives its cai)abilities freer and more wholesonio play, and opens fresh vistas for all ])ossibilitics. We ai)])laud Kranklin for seizing the lightning in the heavens, dragging it down to eartli, and subjugi'ting it to num. Lei this pass as part of the jtoetry of physics. Hut when ethics comes to ])oetize, h t it be said that electricity p an ai)])lied force lifts man up toward heaven, ' cEyrunr WOyDERS OF ELECTllICITY 47 !tric railways. Fow ut' valuable exi)eii- rated in Ih'uvt'r as DVt'il siilHcieiitly suc- i till' United State-, 'tiis to electric rail- pital was enibarkeil. as couvc;Ment, salr. I.) The track of two y yet strt)ngly built, lerate the electricity, lentjth of the track' ts. (").) The trollt'i'- I cross-wires passiii;,' ted at i)roj>er inter- ninted to tho top of .het'l on the (••.'d of : fifteen pounds, and iiiijih tlu* ear to tlie truck, and passes its power reipiisite for speed of troUey-cais lur. bi expense of animal > the energy at coni- ;he propelling force, action of a higher o a broader, brighter lay, and opens fresh dug the lightning in it to num. Let tiiis comes to jroetize, h t II up toward heaven, ([uickcus all his api>reeiations of divine energy, draws him irresistibly toward the centre and source of nature's forces. There is no dragging ilown anil subjuiiMlion of 11 physical force. There is only a going out. or up. of genius to meet and to ;,'iasp it. Its universal application means tlu' raising of man- kind to its jilane. If electricity be the jirinciple of life, as sonu; suppose, wiiat woii(h-r that we all feel better in an electrie-<'ar than any other? The motor h..(oiiies a sublime n'otive. (iod himself is tugging at the wheels, and we are riding ^vith the Infinite." Entluisiasts say the trolley is only the beginning of electric locomotion, and that there is already in rapid evolution an electric system which will supersede steam even for trunk-line purposes. In vision, it presumes ii speed of i/iie hun- ili-ed and twt'uty-tive miles an hour instead of forty ; greater safety, cleanli- ness, and comfort; and what is nu)st momentous and startling, an economy in constiuction anil operation whi(di will warrant the sacritice of the billions of dollars now invested in steam-railway iirojierties. The jjroposition is not to sacritice the steam-railway track, but to achl to it a third rail, which is to carry t!u' eleetric current. Then, by means of feed-conduits alongside of the tr.ack, and specially constructed electric locomotives and cars, the .system is 8ui> poseil to reach the i)ractical jHirfection clainu'd for it. Kxperiments with such an electrical system, made u))on branch lines of some of our trunk-line rail- 48 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY ,i* ways, as tlie I'eiinsylvania, >ie\v York Ci'iitral. and Nt'w Haven & Ilartfoid, give inucli eiicouragi'inont to the liyiiotln'sis tliat it may become the next great stej) in the evolntion of eh'ctrieal .scienee. Another means of eh'ctrie projiulsion was j)rovide(l by the investigations of J'hinte, wliieh resulted in his invention of the "aeeumulator " or "storai^e battery," in liSo!). Jlis battery eonsists of jdates of h'ad immersed in dihite sulphuric acid. l»y tlie passage oi an electric current tiirough the acid, it is electrolytically decomjiosed. I>y continuing the current for a time, lirst in one direction and then in another, the lead jdates become changed, the one ;it the point where the current leaves the cell taking on a deiiosit of spongy lead, and the one at the point where the current enters the cell taking on a coating of oxide of lead. When in this condition, the battery is said to be ■stored, and is capable of sending out an electric current in any circuit witii which it maybe connected. After exhausting itself, it cm be re-stored or re- charged in the sanu^ way as at tirst. Faure greatly improved on I'lante'.s storage battery in l.SMO, by spreading the oxide of lead over the i)lates, tluis greatly reducing the time in fiuining the plates. Sid)se(piently, further improvements were made, till l)atteries came into existeni c capable of su])])]y- ing a current of many hundred amperes for several hours. One of the tii>t practical uses to which the storage battery was ])ut was in the propulsion nt street-cars; but its weight proved a drawback, it was found better adapted for the runniui' of boats on rivers, and, in the busi'ness of water-freighta''e for short distances, has in many instances become a riviii of steam. It found one of its most int or electrode of a galvanic battery, or. in general, the terminal of the con- ductor by which a current enters an electrolytic cell ; and the cathode being the negative jwde or electrode by which a current leaves said cell. (li'issler followed I'araday with an improved system of tubes for contain- ing raretied gases for experimentation. He partially e.vhansted Ids tubes issler tube, the current dois not pass directly from i.ne platinum point or electrode to the other, but. instead, illuminates the entire atmospheric space. ' CESTURY WOMJERS OF ELECTRICITY 49 Haven & Hartford, iiy become the next y the investigations lulator ■■ or "stora<:;o I innuersed in dilnte rough the acid, it is ; for a time, first in ■ changed, tiie one at a (U'liosit oi' sjjongy he cell taking on a lattery is said to lu' ; in any circuit with im bi' re-stored or re- iproved on Thint(''s iver the jihites, tlnis ibseciuently, furtlicr c capabh' of su))iily. s. One of the first n the i)i'oi)ulsion of found i)etter adajitcd of water-freightage i of steam. It found solve the problem of uire purposes or for e century, an active " is rapidly coming trong and persistent d in its great weight. 1st j'ears of the een- lentgen ray. A hint nvestigation of the e also invented the al use in connection eing the j)ositive pole terndnal of the con- id the cathode being said cell. ;)f tubes for contain- hausted his tubes of n electrodes, and pm- 'd by connecting tlic inducti(m coil, which ler effects, just as his I'd atmosphere of tlie ne ])latinuni point or re atmospheric space. oeissleh's TUnE8. , When other gases are introduced iu rarefied form, they are similarly illumi- i nated. hut in colors corresi)onding to their ct)mposition. In his fuither experi- ments, (Teissier noted that the gases in tin- ttdie l)ehaved differently at the anode, or positive terminal, and the eathoile, or negative I terminal. A beautiful bluish light appeared at the cath- ■ode, while the anode assunu'd the same color as the Ulluminati'd space in the tube. It was also noted that laftcr the electric discharge within the tube, there re- bnained ujion the inner surface of the glass a fluorescent for p]ios)ph(ni's('ent glow, which was attributed to the leifect of tin' catiiode. Tliis brought the study of the catlnxl" rays into jjromi- ncnce. and tlii'ough the investigations of I'rofessor Wil- •••liani Crooiies. in 1S7!) and afterwards, a conclusion was rcai'iied tliat a •• Fourth State of Matter" really existed. He perfected tidies of very high vacuum, by nu-ans of which he showed that molecules of gas jirojei^ted from the cathode moved freely aiul with gre.at velocity among one another, and so bombarded the inner walls of the tube as • to render it Huoresctuit. .>^nl)sc(|nently, Hertz showed that the (tathodio rays would penetrate thin 8hiits of nu'tal jdaced within the tube or bulb; and soon after, I'aul Lenard (1S!I4) demonstrated that the cathodic ray could be investigated as well out- side of the tube or bulb as within it. Me set an alumin\im ]date in the glass wall of the bulb op|)osite the catlnxh-. Though ordinary light could not penetrate the aluminum jdate. it was readily jtierced by the cathodic rays, to a ili^tiuice of three iiudies beyond its (uitside surface. With these rays, thus freed fiom their inclosure, he i)rod(iced the .same fluorescent effects as had been noted within the bulb, and even secured some photographic effects. fhese cutiiodic rays produced no effect on the eye, which proved their dissim- iarity to iigiit. Lenard showed furtin'r that the cathodic rays outside of tie tube could be detiected from their straight course by a nmgnet, that bey might pass through substances opa(|ue to light, ami that in so ]>.assing hey niiglit cast a shadow of objects less opa(pie, which shadow could be pvitographid. Now I'rofessor Roentgen came upon the scene. He had been pndncting his experiments in (Jermany. along the same lines as Lenard, ami Vl reached |)raetically the same results as to tlie jienetrative, fluorescent, ad photographic effectx of the cathodic rays. lint he had gone still fur- |ler, and, in iSiHi, fairly set the scientific world afianu' with the announce- fcent that ail the effects produced by Lenard in the limited space of a few liches could also be ])roduced at long distances from the tube, and with ^fficient intensity to depict solid substances within or behind other sub- anees sufficiently solid to be impermeable by light. I'rofessor Koent- bn claims tJiat Ins X ray is ditt'ei'cnt from the 'cathodic rav of Lenard and |;hers, i)ecause it cannot be defieeted by a magnet. This idaim has givi-n Be to nmch controversy respecting the real nature of the X rav, a contro- irsy not likely to end soon, yet one full of insi)iration to further inves- gation, iThe essential features of the best approved apparatus designed to produce le X ray and to secure a photograph of an invisible object, are : (L) A bat- I ilii;! ■■"' 'I fill I 00 TRIUMPHS AND U'ONDEItS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY Hi tcry or light dynamo as a gem'rator ot tiu* electric (.'urrcnt, accompanied, of course, by the necessary induction coil, wliich shoidil be so wound as to give a spark of at least two inches in lengtli in the t\d)e where a i>icture of a sim- ple object, as a coin in a imrso. is desirecl ; a spark of four inches in length where ])ictures of tiie bones of tht^ hands, feet, or arms are d»'sired; and a spark of from eight to ten inches in length where inside views of the chest, thighs, or abdomen are desired. C2.) The second essential is the glass tube. i'lie one in common use is the Crookes tid)e, usually jiear- shaped, and resting upon a stand. Into it is insert.'d two ahimmum electrodes or er distance from the Crookes tube. Current is now turned into the tube, the X ray is develoj)ed, the film is exposed to its I'tfects. and tlie result is a negative siiowing the interior struc- ture of the hand. — the bones or any foreign object therein. This negative is developed as in ordinary photograidiy. The discovery ;ind ap]ilic,'itiy its means the physici;iu is enabled tf) carry on far-reat hing diagnoses, and to ascertain witli certainty the wh(de internal striu'tnre of the human lody. Fractures, di.slocations, deformities, and di>- eases of the bones may lie Icicated and their character and treatment decided U]>on. In dentistry, the teeth may Iw photographed by means of the X r.-iy. even bef(ue they come to the s\irface. and broken fangs and hidden fillin^is may be located. Foreign olgects in tlu; body, as bullets, needles, calculi iii sri.\(;KAPii on sHAnow ritTriu:. Hy X Hay proci'ss. WOXDEHS OF ELECTRICITY 51 till' liladili'f. <'tL'.. may Ih" ItMjalizeii, and the surgery necessary for their safe removal greatly siniplitied. The beating of the he.art, moveujent of the riba ill Lsjiiration. and outline of the liver may lie exhibited to the eye. It has licfu lioldly suggestetl that in the X ray will be found an agent capable of (lestritving the various baeilli which infest the human system, and become m'tiiis ol such destructive diseases as cholera, yellow fever, typhoid fever, (li|i|iilintre.s of astronomi- cal ami otiicr observations, as at (Jreenwich ami Washington. At such cen- tres the astronomical time-keejier is set up so as to run as infallibly as possii)le. This central time-ket per, say at Washington, is electrically connected with other clocks, at observatories, signal-service stations, railway stations, clock- stores, city halls, etc., throughout the countrj-. S'uould any of these clocks lose or gain the miinitest fraction of time as compared with that of the cen- tral timckee|)er, the electric current corrects such loss or gain, and so keeps all the clocks at a time uniform with one am>ther ami with the central one. Klcctrical devices are also often attached to iiulividual clocks, as tho.se upon city liall towers and in exposed places, for the purpose of meeting and cor- recting ine(|ualities of time occo-sioned by weather exposure, expansion and contraction by h<'at and cold, etc. liie latherhood of the very use fid and elegant arts of electrotyping and electroplating is in disptite. I'aniell, while perfecting his battery, noticed that a rill rent of electricity woidd cause aileposit of cojiper. In IS.'Jl, Jacobi, of ."^t. I'etersliurg, called attention to the fact tiiat the copper deposited on his plates of eopjjer by galvanic action could be removed in a i)erfect sheet, which jucsciUed in rtdief, and most accurately, every accidental imlentation Oil the oriifinal plates. Following this up, he employed for his battery au engraved cop|M'r plate, can.sed the deposit to be fornu'd upon it, removed the deposif. itnd found that the engraving w;;s impressed on it in relief, and with Mitlieient lirmness and sharpness to enabb; him to print from it. .lacobi called his discfiverj- galvanoplasty in the jiublieation of his observations in IS.';".». It w;is liut a stej) from this discovery to the ajiplication of the electro- 'M'big i)rocess to the art of printing. .V mould of wax, jdaster, or other suit- aiile substance is made of au enj^'raving or of a ])age of type. This moidd is covered with iK)wdered graphite (black lead) so as to make it a conductor ot electricity. It is then inserted in a bath containing a solution of sulphate of copper. An electric current is passed through the bath, and the copper is 62 rniUMPUs AM) woyjjKRs of the \/x"' cExruny *■} '111;' I depfisitt'd on tlic iiidiild in siitticiciit ([iiantity to j^ive it a hanl snrfiice capalil.' of ott't'iirij; s^icatiT rcsislaiici- in printin;^ tlian tlic tvpfs tlii'msflvi's, aiul also of producing a clcart-r impression. In tdi'(!troi)lating, practically the sauic jirinciplc is .'n'.plovcil. Tlit' bath is made to contain a scdntion of watci, cyanide of potassium, and whatever nictal — gold, silver, jilatinum. etc. — it is designed to pv.'cipitate on the article to he electrojilated. The current is then passed through the hath, and the article — spoon, knife, fork. etc. — to he electroplated receives its coating of gold, silver, (ierman silver, plali- inim, or wlnitever has heen made the thir. It is a stimulus to the growth oi certain jdants. and has given rise to a new science called Klectro-horticidture. It nia}' he made a iirolitic source of Iient for farming cars, and even for the welding (»f iron and steel. The electric fan cools our parlors and ottices in simmer, and the electric bell simplitio household service. In fact, it would appear that, in eoiitr.isting the electrical beginnings with the electrical endings of the nineteenth century, the space of a thousand rather than a hundred years had intervened, and that in measuring the agents which conduce to human comfort and convenience, electricity is easily the most potential. X. Ki.Ki run Ai. i.A\t electric power. l"or a time, various n.-itions measured and applied by meaii> of terms chosen by themscdves. This led to a jargon vi>rv confusing ii> writers and inve.'iigators. It i)ecame needful to have a language more in com- mon, as in pharmacy, so that all nations could undei'stand one another, could compute alik<'. ami especially impart their meauing to those whose duty it became to ajiply discovered laws aiul actual calcidations to pract'cal electric ojjerations. This was a difficult undertaking, owing to the tenacity with whirli nations (dung to their own nomenclatures and terminologies. liut the dritt. though slow, finally ended at the Klectrical ('ongress in Paris in 1S81. in tlic atloptiou of a uniform system of measurements of ele(;tric force, and ;iii agreement upon terms ftir laws and tludr application, which all could under- stand. Three fundamental uints of measurement were first agreed upon. — tin' Ci'iitimrfrr ( ..'t'.tl in.) as a uiut of length; the (Iniitime ( 1 i».4.'{ troy grains; ;!•< a unit of mass : the Srvomt {^ of a minute) as a unit of time. These thiic cEXTunr WOXhhliS OF KLKCTli'IC/TY 88 units ln'ciuiio, w hi'ii ii't'circd to t(i,y;ftlit'r 1)V their initial lottcrs, the basis of ilio ('. (i. S. syslciii (it units. Now hy tiicsf units of incasuit'iuent sonie- tiiiii"' nnist 1h' nn'.tsiin'd. as. for instance, the electri(! forie ; and whoa so ':.e:i>;;'ed. an al)sohite unit cd' foree must lie tiiu result. |)v,ii;; — This is Imt a eontiaetion of id(hices eh'ctrical i uirent. Current must he nicas\ireil and an alisolute unit ot ei rrent strengtii agreed upon. The •• Al>s' centre. Hut tlie absolute unit of current as thus obtained was dci-ided to be ten times too great lor practical purposes. So a practical uiut of cuirent was fixeij upon, whiidi is just one tenlii part of the above ab.so- luie \uiii cd current. This practical unit of current was called the ampere, in linunr of the celebrated l''rencli electrician, .\mpere. It may be ascertained in other ways, as wiien a current is of suilicii'nt strength to deposit in a ciippei' electrolytic cell 1.171 granuues (IS.lKi grains) of copjier in an hour, such (in rent is said to be of one ampere strengtn ; or a current of one ampcif strengtii is su(di a one as wipuld be given by an electro-motive force (it ene Vdlt tlirough a wire offering one ohm of resistance. Viii.T; — 'I'his was named from Volta, the celebrated Italian electrician, and was agreed upon as the unit of electro-motive force. It is tluit elec- tin-uidtivc l(uce whicdi would be generated l)y a conductor cutting across loii.uoii.ddo C. (i. S. lines in a fitdd of foree per second; or it is that electro- motive torce which woidd carry one amiiere of current against one ohm of resistance. Oum: — So callcr, lor Kesistaiiee Electro-motive foree = Current x Kesisti'iice Kesistance = ^:^lectro-m otive force Current. •I m 54 TRIUMPHS ASD WOM)EHS OF TllK XJX'" VEM'UHY Kitu ; — I'riiin the .,'"»(it» er|,'s. Cau<1{ik:— Liiiin ni/nr, tif at, is the unit of lieut: being tlie lunount of heat ieiiuiie de Loulonili, of France. It is the practical nnit of (|nantity i.i measuring; electricity, and is the amount conveyed by one aniiiere in one second. Kauad: — From Fakahay, the physicist. It is the unit of electric rajia- city, and is thi oai.acity of a condenser that retains one coulomb of diarge with one volt ditierence of jtotential. Gaiss: — Fiom ( arl F. (iau.ss (ITS.Vl.sr*."*). Tlie V. C. S. unit r)f Hux density, or the unit iiy which the intensity of magnetic fields are measured. It e(pials one welx-r pt normal scpiare centinu'tre. (iii.iiKitr : — The unit for measuring magneto-motive force, being produced by .7'.>">.S ampere-turn a|iproximately. IIknuv: — Fr()i;i Joseph Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution, Washing- ton, I). C. The practical unit for measuring the induction in a circuit when the 'lectro-motive force induced is one international volt, while the inducing current varies at the rate of one ampere ))er second. .loci.i;: — The ('. (J. S. unit of practical energy, bein,^' e(piiv. '-nt to the work done in keeping u]) tor one second a current of one an:p.-ie against a resi.stance of one ohm. Nanu'd from .1. 1'. doule, of Knglaud. ()>:iisri:i> : — From OiM'sted. the electrician. It is the pi'actical unit for measuring electrical reluctance. Watt: — The practical electrical unit of the rate uf working in a circuit, when the electr.i-inotive lorce is oui- volt, and tlie inieiisity of current is one ampere. It is e(]iial to li*7ergs ]ier second, or .0(i,,'i4 Imrse-power persecoiicl. Named from .lames Watt, of Scotland. Wkiiki! : — T ;e ]iriictical unit for measuring iiia'^netic tlux. Named from W \^'eber, of (iermaiiy. .TaMKS 1". lioYD. '■■::1 I THE CENTURY'S NAVAL PKOGKESS ct', liciiif,' prnducpil I. INKHKN(K OK SKA I'OWKK. TiiK share of navies in the great inoveiiients which liave inouhhnl Iminaii ilfstiny uiul shajifd tin' world's ,/Vogn'ss, altli<)iif,'li long obsciirt' and und»'i'- valiifd, liiis met in our tinif ftiU recognition. Within a decade the intliieiice of sea |Miwer upon history has hecionie the Ireiitient tlienie of historians and essayists wlio. in dear and strilting form, have siiown tiie cardinal im|>ortaiice, lM)th in war and commerce, of the tlect — the nation's right arm on the .lea. It is fitting, rlierefore, that in the retrospect of a hundred years navies should have theii' jilacc ; that, in looking backward with history's unclouded vision, we ^;hould mark, not only their growth and change, but, as well, their achievement in some of tlie mo.st memorable confii(!ts of our race. 'riiciTiitury luxd liut begun when, at ('oi)enhagen. Nelson, with one titanic Mow, shattered the naval strength of Denmark and the coalition of the Northern jjowers. His signal tliere, ever for "closer battle," told in few words the life story of the CJreat Adminil, and foreshadowed his end. Four yeais Intel-, at Trafalgar, the desire of his eager heart was satisfied, when he met III liank Hght the fleets of France and S])ain. Amid the thundering cannonade of that last victory his life-tide ebbed, bearing with it the ])ower of Fiaiici,' upon the seiis and the broken fortunes of Napoleon. In the war of bsll,'. i)ur disasters upon the land met compen.sation in victory afloat. The liiiteil States was then aiuong the feeb 'st of maritime powers; and yet Mac- dnnoiii^di and Ferry on the lakes and our few frigates on the ocean opposed, with siK'cess, tlie swarming scpiadrons of a nation whose naval glory, as llallam says, can be traced onward " in a continuous track of light " from the (lays of the Commonwealtli. The ojipression of the Sultan was ended for a tuii" when, in ISL'T, the Turkish and Fgyjjtian fleets were annihilated, in suildeii fury. !)}• the allied squadrons in that brief ingagemcnt whi(di Welling- ton termed tlie "untoward event " of Navarino. A geneiation later, the command of the sea enabled Kngland and France til dtspatch, in unarmed transports. Oii.OOtt men and 12H guns to the Crimea, ami to land them, withovit opposition, for the red carnage of the Alma. F>ala- klava, Iiikerman, and Sebastojiol. Following closelv upon the disease and death, tlie fatuity and the glory, of the(Jriniea, came tlrj great war of modern times, ill which the gun afloat iilaycl such a gallant jiart, as the blockade, with its const ricting coils, slowly starved and .strangled the Confederacy to death, and Farragut, on inland waters, sjilit it in twain. Passing over the .sea- iiglits of Lissa, — in which imperial Venice was the stake, — of South America and thr Valu. we note, lastly, the swift and fatcd'ul actions off Santiago .and m ^Manila 15ay, which destroyed once again tlie sea power of Si)ain, won dis- tant territory for the I" aited States, and oi)ened up for us a noble pathway of coniir.ercial expansion to the uttermost island of the broad Pacific and the 06 Tim Ml' US AM> \voym:its of the a/.v" cii.srunY vast Asiiiii littoni' lu'Voiul. Who will sjiy. in tlif n'tnts|ii'ct ot tlu' ci'iitiir}. that tlic th'i'ts III lilt' Wdilil ha.'.' iitit hail thfir lull .sharu in tho luakiii^; of its history ".' II. Ilir. <|-.NIIIi\"s (.Iti'WIII IN \ W \l. SIKKMilll. Tin' I'liitcd States tlci't. in tlif year ISno. niniinisfd .'l.l vessels. 10 of which were rrit,'!U<'s iiionntinj,' .'!'_' k"""< '"' ii">re. In IM'J. America enlered the lists against a navy of a thoi'.sand sail, with a fleet of hnt "Jfl Nhips. the largest of which was a I l-!,'ini frij,'al( ri le (Jlier ;itions of I he civil War wt'ie lM'''nn with liiit SL' vessels. IS ot which were sailiic,' cralt. liefoic tlii' close of tint i;ii,'antic A.N Al ursr MIHINIMi wnil FAltllAnrchase, 074 stoamers. Tn 1S'.)S. (lnrini< the war with Sp.iin. there were l)oriu' on tlie Naval Uojjister, as hnililiiit; or in servite. l.'I hattleships ami 17(i other vessels, ineludiii}^ torpedo craft, with iL'.'t converted nieichantnien. The total naval force (hiring liostil- ities was L'L'.S.'il' men and L'.'iNl' otticers. exchidiui,' tlie .Marine Corps. .\t London, in Hi.V!, there was printed "A Jjst of the <"omnioiiwealth of Kn^dand's Navy at Sea. in their ( ."vpedition in May, H\~t'.\. nnder the command of tiie Ui},dit Ilonorai)le Ctdonel iJiehai'd I>eane and Colonel (Jeorge Monk, Ks(|nires. (Jenerals, and .\diuirals.'' This (jnaint record of that early time gives the force atloii as lo."> shi]is. .').S4»» f,'nn.s, and lO.iiCt'.) men. In Britain's strife for that ocean em]iire, which is world empire, th:it fleet had grown, by the year l.S(H», to 7"»7 vessels, Imilt or building, with an aggregate toiuiage of (■(1.".>.LM 1. and carrying L'(>.rt.">l,' guns. '.M'uiW otticers, and ']0,0(K> meu. Tlin stately three-decker, w ith its snowy canvas and ma/e of r'gging, has vanished with the past; but, despite time and change, that mighty heet still dtmiinatc^ I 1 i:.\rri:y (it tlif cciitiin. till' making' of it- N FHEXrn BATTI.ESniP MAGENTA. M TlltUMI'ltS A,\D WOXDKUS Of THE A/A'" VENTUltY i kl/ii ;:i a: U, tlu' HCiia. Its stnMit,'tli. on Ffliriiarv 1. IH'.tH, whs (i|."i vcsmcIh — (11 ot wliicli wt'it! Icittit'sliijiH, — ciuryiiifj a tdtiil fonc oi ll(»,(''"'<* "fhct'is and nu-ii. ('(r, luiuiil Krantc witli a IVw olil ami rotten vt'ssds. and left \wy witli a nolih- Hfi-t td' 4t" sliips (d' tilt- lin«- Hnd fill trigatt-s, wlii(di, under D'Estrio. .lean Kurt. Tour- viih', and Uuiinesne. rarrifd her tla>,' to every sea. A state i»a|)t;r ot the time j^ives the toree at the liej,'inninK of this century as (51 ships of the line, IL' corvettes, and a iniuicrous. although unini|)ortant. tlotilla of small craft. U iti' Alioukir and Trafaliiar. the maritime iM)wcr of France wasted away; and, li.\ the year I.S;!',», there wt-re aHoat hut three elective sail of the line. In tSld. OKIUIAX IlATTI.KSIIie WOKIITU. however, the revival Ih-^mu. and duriiii; the mixh-rn era the French fleet has. at times, heen a formidahle rival of that of Kngland. It com prised, in ]8'.t.\ 44(» vessels, inehidinj,' tor|K>do enift, !.'(» of the total l)eing battleships. Tin force afloat nundM-red 7(».'.H'."f. of all ranks and ratin>,'s. (icrmany's navy is id' modern creation. It began, a little less than halt ;i century ago, with one sailing corvette and two gunboats; and. in 1808. coi, . jirised l.'i battleships and \~\) other vessels of all types, carrying L'.'V*"-' «>tticers and men. The Hect (», that Italian national life Ijegan with the a.scension of the throne by Victor Knnnaiinel. From the beginnin . the kingth)m has Ix-cn lavish with its fleet, its cxjienditures within tlie Hi \ six years reaching .S(M».0(M),(M)O. In l.S<.»K there were in the Italian navy L'<;."» vessels of all ty]ies. 17 of wliich were battleships. The force afloat w: s 24,2(M), of all ranks and ratings. ■////•; cfiMUitys \AiAL j'j{0(;tn:ss m Tlic I'riiiit'iiii war rithi>r on tho Itlm^k S«>a ID' till' llaltif, in the siilistitution of sti-ani lor sail. Sine*' that tiiuc, liow- pM-r. sill' lias I'l'-crcatcil Imt battle tli'ft, wliicli is imw csiH'cialiy stn)n^' in tilii cralt and cniiscrs ot ^rcat steaming' radius, lici navy, in 1H*J battleships and T'.i torpedo erat't. Holland's ton-e was isr. vessels. .'1 heins; hattleshiy.s and O.". torpedo cralt. The Beets of 'I mke\, (livfce. Spain, and l'ortu;j:al are •• pa|ier-navies " mainly. Norway and Sweden have acondiined stren>:th ol' 171 vessids t>i all types.' lienniark, wliM-l: l,e-;an the century with overwlndniin;.,' naval disaster at Co )enha<,'en. has iio\v;i I,,!,.,. ,,f ;^()()(( uHMi borne on od vesstds. halt' of whi(di are torpedo cralt. .\ri,'entina. Hrazil. and Chili have afloat 1(»L' torjiedo vessels and 4".l of other typ(!.s. The vast j,'rowth in naval arnnnnents durinj; the century may be nieiisnred from the fact that tht personnel of the leadin;.,' navies of Hur'ope, with those of dajjan and the Cnited States, comprised, in the year LSUiS, •;'h\<»1.'.s officers and men, with a total force of l.'74<.» vessels of' all types, iiicliidini,' torpedo craft. 0(1 TJiJLMpns AM) woxiU'nis OF nil-: a/.V" cEsruny III. Tlir. IIMTI.K.XIIII'. PAST \XI> I'liKSKN T. In tiacinji tin- I'vulutinii ol' tin' iiiiMlcrii miiii-nt-wai'. it will he instructive to comiiaro uitli \\v\- tin- t\ |u' ui tlic sailmj,' a,!,'f. 'riitMc arc two ships ol tlic old tinu' which hold clii<'l' places in the nicmorv of the .\iij,'lo-Saxon race — tin- Victory, Nelson's tlai,'sliip at Trataljiar. and the Constitution, whose achieve- ments ui der Hidl. jiainlirid^'t'. and Stewart, raii),' around the world. There were, even het'ore the days id steam, war-vessels Iwii-e as lari,'e and powei lul as •• Old Ironsides." hut over no sea. in any a^e. lias there sailed a ship with a more ;,'allant recortl. I 'late I >\\ ows lier as slie w as in her prii I let oil the wind, with all sail set. < in j'late 11 there is !,'iven a side view o| h er • ■*• 1 T ■\l 1^ , NKI.soN s HVfiMlir VMIOIIV I hull, which is of historic interest, in tliat it is reproduced liom the ori<;inaI drawiiiL: made in <>ctolier. IT'.lll. When licr powi^r and dimensions are coiiiparen with those (d' the Ore^^ou. our sea-fi^;hter ol to-da". <.ne «ees wlmt tiiiii' has wron-^'ht. Tiie Irijjate ear ried l.">() men. the armor-clad. ."ilMi; and yet. with this a]iproximately eipial foire. the (>re|,'on has a displacement *i.|, times that ol her lamed predi opssor; andalthoii^di the niinil»er of tin* ^{Uiis — IJ — is tlie sunu' in each, she discharges a hroadside S,.'! times heavier ami in enerfiy overwlielmin^l^ superior. 'I"he speed (d' the liattlesliij" is one half (greater thin that of tie- Constitntioii. and she ca"ries armor varying I'rom IS inidies to 4 iiudies thick. wlii(di the frigate wholly lacked. Tlie lon^;itiidinal section td' tlie (devoir indicates the immense advance in other directions. Iler hull is, for Hafet\ . minutely iubdividod, and is jtrovided with engines for juopulsion, 8t«>eriiiu. ^:.\rui{y l)f instiiutivi' li> slii])s (if till* olil tixt'ii race. — tlit> , wlitisf ai'lii'.'vi'- ic world. 'I'lifii- ■\:>' and |>ii\vi'i lul lUcd a >lii|' « iili v jiiinii' — liidiiic >id(' vit'w 111 lin from tho orijjiiial sc of tho tJn-Koii. Tlic frij;ati' car i]ii(ixiiiiat(dy iMHial licr faiiH'd pri'df ■ saiiu' in i-afli. slir \- ovi'nvlu'huiiiK'l> tlnn that of tin- 1 to 4 tnclics tliitk. idU of tlie Ort'^iiiii hull is, for siifrlN. •opulHitm, sttH'riiiu'. 02 TRIUMPHS AND ]VU.\DERS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY lighting', drainage, ami ventilation, nuniboiing in all S4, with miles of jnping and hundreds of valves. The time-honored frigate was but a sail-propelled gun-plutforni. whose wants were as few as her construetion was simple; the steel-clad battleship is a mass of mechanism, a iioating maehine-plant, which for full etticieney must be manned by a personnel not only brave and daring as of old, but expert in many arts and sciences, which in the age of sail were but rudimentary or unknown. IV. rUK I'l{(Hil!KSS OK NAVAL K.XOIXKKIJIXO "■[hare Jiisf rend t/ic /n'o/ni of Clfizfii Fitlfon, Jintfi'iierr, trhirh i/oii Inu si'tif me witch tnu luff, ni'ifr If is one ir/n'r/i iii'i;/ I'/iaiii/f f/wjUrt', oft/n- irofhi."' So, in the begin ning o f tl le century, wrote the first Napoleon from 1 ins Imperial camp at l>(Julogne. Wrapped in his day-dream of a descent upon tiieTlianu's, he saw, with projihetic vision, in the jilans of the American enj^iucer, the future of navigation, and lie strove to grasp — but too late — the opportunity which might liave made his armada victoricnis overwind and tide. His words, however, rang truer than he knew. On the sea, as on the land, the engineer has indotd '• changed the face of the world ; " and in no depart- ment of human jirogress has his influence been mort; radical or more far- reaching than in the mechanism, the scope, and the strategy of naval war. Fleets move now with a swiftness and surety unthought of in the ilays of sail. Over the same western ocean which Xelson. in his eager chase of \'ille- neuvp, crossed at but four knots an hour, the I'nited States cruiser Columbia swept, nil ety years later, at a speed nearly four and three (pmrters times that of his lagging craft. When, in IS'.tS, v.ar came, the great battleshij) Oregon, although far to the northward on our western C(Kist, was needed in the distant battle-line off the ('ul)an shore. In "!> days she steamed 14,o(tO miles, mak ing a run which is without i>arallel or approach by any warshiii of any navy in the world's history. The maguiticciit manhoftd, tlie uncompierable pluck, the engineering skill, which brought her just in time off Santiago, won their reward when the Colon struck her Hag. Speed has been a (h-termining factor in many a naval action, It was that which gave the power to take and hold the old-time '* weather-gauge."' None knew it.s value better than Nelson, the chief tighter of the age of sail. Once he said that thei-e wotdd Im fo'ind, stamped wnm his lu'art, "the want of frigates," the swift and nimble "eyes of the fleet "' in his day. If his career in warfare on the .sea had been a cen- tury later, he would be fouiul foremost among the advocates of high-sjieed battleships and true that, during tlie era of transition, sail an 1 steam were both ajjidied t' iron-clads — this absunlity reaching its c]ima> in the British Agincourt ami her sisters, which were 400 feet long, lo,()(M» ton.s' displacement, and wen fitted with five masts. It is said that a merch;\nt steamer narrowly escape \i't 'ESrURY X miles of piping t a sail-pvopi'lk'd I was simple ; the hine-plant. whicli brave and dariii;,' 3 age of sail were •, wliirli you hcn-f (•(! of till- irorlil," apoleoii from liis f a descent upon of the American — b\it too liite — ms over wind and ea, as on the land, and in no dejiart- ical or more far- I'gy of naval war. of in the days of ger chase of Ville- i crniser Cohunliia [Uarters times that l)attleship Oregon, ■(h'din tlie distant I4,."»(>(l miles, mak rsiiip of any navv 'onciuerable pluck, intiago. won their iletermining factor ■ to take and hold ■V than Nelstm, tin' e would be found, and nimble " eyes (ea had been a cen :ates of high-speed im and mechanism t of the battleshiji at of lier heaviest iigth of Indl, it is [iiate and untrust ht of armor. It i> re both applied t" tish Agincourt ami ar^aient, and were r narrowly escapci' :N'*^ =h^ D 1 i i. - ■■£ S z c ^ i. -5? li M i 64 Tin UM I'll S AM) WO.SDHItS OF TIIK \L\"' (KyiluY t!iilli. .oil 111 iii.i,'lit witli one (if tlu'Sf vfssfls. Iiflicviiii,' tinm lii'i liMii;tli iinn ri<,'j;iii;; tliiif tluTc wcit fim Hliips aliead. U'lvvt't'ii which slie eonld pass. \\ li;i: these iai')^t,' (lis|ilaceiiieMls mean, ill I'ontrast wifli tliose (if jiast davs, will lif. lierliaps, liest illiistial.il li\ the •.tateimiit that the Italia of l.'l.tMMt tons- il ship with which, in her day. Italv cliillen.ued the criticism of t lie world — cjinics on her deck a wei;{lit. in armor and armament, of iTiOO tons, or oic foiirtii more than that of Nelson's tla,i;>hip \'ietoiy. Aj,'aiM. the lar^'cst naval u'lin in the year ISIKI was one tiriiiir Imt a IL'-) loiinu shot, while in the I'liiteil States navy we have now the l.'i-ineh rifle of do tons, with a projectile of I1 iioiinds, and (ireat IJritain lias afloat ISHO poniHlcr lireecli-loaders which wei;,'h 1 1 1 tons. Itefore monster (jrdnance siidi as this, the >t ren^th uf man, nnaided, is Imt crude and futile, lie must call to his help — as he has done — steam as the source of power for the electric, hydraulic, or ]>nenmati(' cn^'ines. whicli load, elevate, and train the^un. In summing,' up the service of st- am, directly or indirectly, to the shiji-ot- war, it will he seen that the spw«l of the battleship has lieen increased l>y fully .V> per cent., and that at' the cruiser has heen doiihled : that the dis. placement of the hattleship is now tlir"e and one half times that of her sail- in;; predecessor ; and that, since the century's liirtli. the fjnii has grown to such extent that the projectile for the Orei^oii's main iiattery weighs I'd times that of the hea\ ie ' shot in the year 1S(HI. This, however, is not all. .Steam acts priiiiarih', a> well, to laise the anchor, to steer the ship, and to effect her li.Llhtin;,'. hi-atiiiii. diaina^je, and ventilation. To the i,'eniiis of .lames Watt there must lie ascrilied the possiliility for the j^rowtli and change which have pro(lucc(l the modern man-of-war. Closely allied \\ itli mechanism in this evolution, has heeii the transformation of the structiirai material of the hull, which has passed fnuii the hands of the shipwright in wockI to the engineer who works with steel. The reasons for this are not far to seek. They lie. firstly, in the greater strength of the metal construction to withstand the vilnation of swift and heavy ma- chinery, and the strains arising from the unei|ual listrilsution of massixc weights in a hull which pitches or rolls with the waves. With wooden sliip^. the present proportions would have hecii unattaiuahle. .\gain, tiiere is a marked saving in the weight of the hull proper of the steel vessel, which is not only stronger Imt liLjhter. This weight in the days of timhcr nverageil fully one half of the displacement ; while in the t >regon, whose tonnage, at normal draught, is ln.'JS.S. the hull |M'rceiitage is 41. (Ml. leaving a gain over the wooden vessel of (ill tons to Iw applied to .'iriiior. armament, or e(pii|>- ment, , I'inally, the diiraliility of the metal vessel, with ade(piate care, greatly exceeds that of the wooileii war steamer, whose average li*'e was lint l.'lyeai^. The creation of the steam niachinerv of navies has lieeji the acliie\i'- iiieiit of the c'lgineers of practically Imt three great nations. The daring 'f l-'raiice. the iint'iitivi- genius of .\merica. and the wide experience and soiiinl judgment of (ireat I' itain, have united in this work. Our eomitry has h d tiiiio and again ii. the march of improvement; although onr jirogress Ins lieeii fitful, since, more than a generation ago. we turneil from the sea to tlic d(>velopment of the internal resources of this contiiuMit. Limits of space p< i- niit hut hrief review of a history which has had its full share of triunipl •«. not only in battle, hut over wave ami wind. II licr li'ip.^tli ami coiilil |ias.s. \\ lij' |iiist (lays, will 1m . .it' i;;ynMi ti>ii>- III ot till' world — iTiUO tons, or oii'' 111',' liiit a I'J-iioiiiicl i;!.iiii'li lit!.' ot tlo 1 lias atloat l.S("" stcr onliiaiirt' smli I'. Ill' must call to IT tor till' eh'i'trii'. rain tilt' K"'i- tly,to the sliiii-ol- lii'i'u int'ivast'd liy lilfil : tliat till' lli^■ I's that ol' lifi- sail- jj\m has yrowii to n wcijihs I'd tinu'^ . is not all. StiMu; ji. ami to C'tfi'ct Inr US ot .laiiu's \\ att •ham,'!' which liavi- till' transl'ormatiiiii mni till' hands ot ^ll•('l. The n-a^oiis ,'ii'att'r .strciitrth o| iit and licavy mii hntioii ol nia>si\i' A'ith wooden slii|i>, .\j,'ain. tliere is a I'l vcssi'l. which 1- of tiipber aveiii'^'iil whose tonnage, at caving a f^ain ovri- •manient, or ei|iiii'- i'(|nate care, jireatly 'V was hnt 1.'{ veai-. been the achie\'- iiis. The uuritiK ■ f lierii'iicc and sommI nr country l»as I'd h our progress h is roiii the sea to tlir Limits of sjiacc |» i- share of tritiinpl^. 60 TliirMI'HS AM) WOMiKns OF Till-: MX'" CESTUIIY A C(mtt'iii|ioriiiv aiitlmrity statt-s tliat. wlicii I'.rilisli Admiral Sir .lolm IJi.rlasc Warrt-ii ascfiiiletl the I'litoiiiaf llivi-r. during the war of 1S|L>, lii^ exjifditiiin was nTummitn'd li\ an AiiuMicaii stcaiiicr. 'I'lii.s ajipfars to hr tin- tirst record ot tlie iisi' ol' micIi cralt lor military iniriioscs. In ISM tin I' nitfd States built tlii" lirst steam war-vessel in l lie world's history. She was called the I)einolo-4os. later the i'ultoii. and her eoniiiletion marked truly, as her commi>sioiiers said. -an era in warfare and the arts." She was a doulih^-mh-d. twin-hulled float inj; hattery of '.'»7."< tons, carrying,' twenty '.'C pdr. ),'uns. jiroteeted hy \ ft. 10 in. (d' solid timber. She was driven hy a sin- ^de i-entral jiaddle-wheel ; her speed was '>\ miles per hour; and she wa- Ixith handy and seaworthy. France, in JS'JO. sent a commission to Anu-rica to report upon steam vessels of war: and in ls;;() the Fremdi liad nine armed .st^-amers athiat and nine Imildiug. In ISL'I, the Comet, a small side-wheeler, Al rioN lll.lWI.l.N MllMKll! \Ml Ml.ltlllMAI. was eonimissioiied as the lirst steam war-ship in the I'ritisli mivy, ami iu ISld. at the hoiuhardment of .Vcre, steam vessels fouj;ht their tirst battle. Tlie growth of steam iu uavie.s had iK'eii retarded by its applieatiou solely to piuldle craft, wiiose wheels and machinery were incapable of protection in action, jluriu^ the \ears ISIL'-I.'I, however, the l' idted States built tlie sloo|i- of-war I'riiu-otoii, of S^'A tons. This vessel was tiie product of the genius ot John Kricsson. the ablest marine eni,'ineer the world has ever seen. She was the lirst screw-propelled ^tcam warship ever built, ami. in other resi)eet8, fore- shadowed tiie advances which were to come. Thus, her juaoliinery \va.s the first to 1)0 placed wliody below the water-line beyond the i"uA\ of hostile shot; her enj^iue was the tirst to 1m- coupled directly to the screw shaft, and blowers, for forced draft, were with her tirst used in naval jiractice. Sin' was virtually the herald of the modern era. The I'rinceton was followed -11 the I'remdi tl-i^'un fri(,'ate I'onumo was fitted with pro|Kdlers. In ls|;{. also, the Kn(,dish IVneloi)e was the first man- of-war to be ('(piipped with tubnlar boilers, and the year lS4r> was not.'ible for the building of tlie ill-fated Hirkeidiead, the first iron vessel of the Hritish liuiiiil Sir .John Sill- of ISl'J, his is ;iiii»';irs to \w *,.s. In ISl J the I's history. Sho inn niarkfil truly, Its." she was a lyiuK' twenty .">-- s driven by ii sin- uir ; anil shf was ission til .Vnii-riea li had nine aruieii nail side-wiieeler, 77//i rA'.vrr/i I'.s .v.ir.iz, rnoaiiKss 07 itish navy, and iu leir first hatth-. applifation solely e of iMiiteetion in ites built the sloi>i>- t of the KeniuH \ Iti iiilsiciii. I'laih in IS.VI, laid tin- keels of iniir ariiiiued batteries, three of which. luriiiin;; the first ironclad sipiadron in history, went into action a year later iimliT tlie tolls of Kiiibiini in the ( 'limea. 'I'hey were of KiiMi tons' displaco- nieiit. carried )', iiieh aniior and sixteen 'iS-pdr. ijiins. and had a speed of tmii knots. In ISdU, Kriesson hinnclied the famous .Monitor, the first sea- j;oiMu' iri'iielad with a levolviiitr tiirrel, and an "eii;;ineers' ship" fir.iii keel to tiiri''! top. The ('i\ il War found us with a sailing navy, ami left us one of steam. TiiK rritinM.\. I'ussiii'.; iiver its victories, in which sfeann-rs played .always the chief part on sea aiKJ liver, we lonu' to that most notable triumph of Chief Knuineer Isher- «|'imI. the cruiser Wampanoaf,' of -HMK) tons' displacement. This vessel, I'lii iioiiieiial in lier day. steamed in Fcbniary. l.SCiS, from !'arnei,'at to Savau- iiili. over a stormy seii. in .'i.S hours. Her average was 1(1. ti knots for the run, and 17 knots diiringa period of six con.secutive hours — a speed which for 11 yais tlieicafter was uiiapproached. by liner or by warship, in IST'.I, tlie Hritish disjialeh vessel .Merc\iry. of ."7.'tn tons and IS.,S7 knots, wrested the palm from .\iiierica; but. in l.S'.C!. it was won again for the rnited States by tiie triple- si rew fliers ('olumbia and .Minneaiiolis of 7l7."i tons, with speeds respectively of ■."-'..^and -'.'».( 17." knots. The laurels rest now with the Ituenos .Vyrcs, which, .m ////■; (i:\iri;ys .viri/. i'i;(niiii:ss 00 1^?' n. Its -,'.'•;■' I .Ji.a^ tlmii'^li liiiilr ill Kii^'liiiid ill lN'.i.'». Hies ilic ll:i|,' of Ai%'iMitiii;i. Slif lias ji tmi- ,i:i,_;,. ,,| I.VMi anil a s|m(m1 t.l L'.'I.L'OL' kimts. Till' Itriti^li ii'niii'lail I'all.is, niiii|ilrt<'i| in \Si]C,, was rcinarkahle for Iiavin;^ till- lii>t ^mrcs^liil naval cnjiiiics nn tlic i'iiiii|ii>iinil |iri!ici|ilc, in wliifli tin' stfaiii i- .iilniiiic'ii al liiu'li in'cssiirt' tn a sniaii r_\ lintlcr. and |>itss('s tlirnrc to a larvriT I'lic w iiidi it tills hy its i'X|iaiisii)n. 'l\> ( in-at Mritaiii '' i' world owes aNi' tlif di'Vi'liiiiiiit'iil of Irijilc ('X|pansioii, i. r.. tln' use of st n .•• 'cssividy ill tiiii'i' cvliiidri's. 'I'liis sy>|i'ni was iiiaiiL;iiratcil ni iiav^'i t :i}^'' ; liy tlir I'.rili^li. in lSS.1 s<>. and is now iiiii\('rsally ciniiloyt'd. I'rio o IN ■ lif lioil- ns III' all iiiodmi wai'-vcssfls had Iicfii iIkisc of the Sci, |, V|ii', in whiidi till' tlann' passes tliion.;li iiiln's jixcd in a i-\ lindiical sli . oi:, lining; water. Ill iliat yi'ar. lioweMi-. l' ranee iiei^aii a revolution in tlie -iteai jje leratoi's «d' navies liy eijni|i|iiii.y: a dis|paleli-vess('l witli the I'lellevil' ■ tiilnilons boiler, in wlneli ill" Wilier to lie eva|ioiateil is eiinlaiiieil witliin ' .: '■- .airroiiiult'd liy tl.iiiie euiitiiieil ill an miler ea^in.;-. I'he \\ alei-liilie |irinei|ile. also, bids fair to ri.vri-; i\. km.im; or r. r.IiK SSON. Iit'i'iiiri' ot universal a|)|ilieatioii. It lias had its most, nntewnrtliy naval iiistallaiioii in the IJritish cruisers I'owerliil and '!'• rriMe. of I I.L'tMl ions and LTlSSI; lii)|se-|uiwer. eonipleled ill !.S'.l."i. The Use (it mole tliaii one screw I'or |)ro|iiilsioii dates hack to IS,";.'!. I)iiriii}^ i"ii- Civil War nir'.liiile screws tiiinred. to a small extent, in the "tin elads" ami hiiu'er iiidiiiinrs. '{'he a|i|ilical imi of twin screws, in llio niodorii ei'a, hf^iiis uith the r.r':li>li ironclad l'eiielo|ie of JSCS. i''raiici'. ill the years l,''> ^Iciii. how ever, altliiiii;.;li 111' niiich \ .iliie. I roiii ein,Miieeiiii;,' and tactical [ioints I'l view, was nut ai|o|ited in lai'^e. lii;.;h-|iiiwercd vc>>els until I he ad vent of tin; I niicli ariiioied eniiser Unpiiy de i.nnic in iMld. and the |iidteetcd cruisers Ci'liiiiilii.i and .Minneaiiolis of the riiiteil Stales navy in lS".i;!. It has now Willi lull a|i|iriival in the na\ ies of eoiitiiicntal l''.iiio|pe, and lri|ile-..crcw ships, ai,",'re;.'atiiiy; .".(KMlHii tuns, are l.iiill or Imildiie,' tlieie. I'lic limits (if space loriiid more than a iias>iie^ note of the triumphs of the cii-uieer ill torpedo craft, the li;^dit cavalry of the sea. W iih steamers of iior- iiial pidpiirtinti.s, the speed and power depend lai'^'dy niion, and increase with, the displacenient. .\s has hceii stated, the maxininin performance nf largf i-niiM-rs i.s now :.'."> knots on a toiina!,'e of |,"i(Mi. These particulars '.tivo a faint ■-liiiipM' (if the eN'raonliiiar\ piolilem w hich has cnnlroiitiil the toriiedo-lioat 70 Tim MI-US AMI ivi>Mii:i:.s or tiik a/.v" centluy (■/• (losijjiiri ill ilriviii,' Inills mI. nt im'sciit, ii'.ioiit t.*)ii \\>us at ;i s] il wliich iidu apiiroximatcs ti' .in kn"!^. With lltf iirilliant ircnnl ol siirccs^ in (iii.s task, tlicre will 1m' liiikcil always tiic iianifs nt N aimw aiifil uf over •!! knnts. lias drawn tlic atti-ntinn (if ciii^'iiifri^ tlif wiiilrl (urr to tilt' iiussil^ilitics iif tlif steam tiirliiiif on tli.' sea. This |m-i rorniaiicf is |ihi'iioiiii'iial with siiih a ilis|ilan'iiii'nt. 'I'lir I'mirli Foiliaii, of l.'Mt ttiiiH, lias niailf .'M.'-' knots, and a ri'iiortcil spci'il of ."."i knot j;i\('s a Scliii'Iiaii Imat luT ti'iiipoiarv laurels as tlif fastest craft atloat. V liiii'f j;laiiiT at the ini|iioveiii4'iits which have made jiissiiile these extrein.' H]M't'ds in eriiisers and tor|iedo craft will 1 f interest. 'I'lii' progress wliidi li.as lieeii made lias Iteen. firstly, in th oiioi.iy in the use of steam arisin,' from hi'.,her |ii'essiires and miilti|ile ex|iansioii; secondly, in the reduction ot \veij,dit, per horse |iower. due to iiicre;ise in streiiijtli of materials and in j'n>;ine-s|M'ed with the employment of forced draft — which was reintiodiu'' 1 by ]■' ranee — and tlu' water-tiihe hoiler; and. tinally. in the application o| a more eHiciciit propellini,' instniment. The advances of half ;i century in pi pellin^' maehinery are shown, in some respects, liy I'latcs III and IV. wliirli contrast, on the same scale, the side wlioel maeliinery of the I'nited .*»tati^ war-steamer I'owh.itaii. snic. •.'.'id Ills.; wei^dit of m;ichinery jier horse-power, ."id Uis. riiis coin- p:iiiM>ii. hiiwever. must he ipialilicd liy the statement that thn older engiiM' .v;is lor ,1 ste;imer in ilis|placenicnt. The conti-ist lies, theri'fore. nnly in the redii 1 weit,'iii i.| iii:iteri:il jiei horse-power developed and in the inciTused .steiim pressiiie, which, however, are in themselves most strikiii;^. v. TIIK OlloWrn OK olUiNWCK. At Tr;if;ili,':ir. the N'ictory drifted liefme the w inli llii'^. What ;i contrast the hitest .seii-ti:.ilit of the eeiitnry presents in the power of modern ordiiiince as com pared with tlie pnny ^nns of Nelson's time ! ( inr li;ittlesliip ( »rej,'on, jit a ran^jo of nearly five miles, with one 1 HMi-poiind shell, drove the ( 'ohm. an armored I'riii.ser, not only shorewiiid. but to surrender, straiidinir. ;ind wreck. The l;ii>.'est n;iv;il ;;iins in the year I.SOO were the loiii; '.VI iiiid I'J-ponndi is, smootli-lMiie miiz/le-loaders. with :i liui^'e of about !'.'( Ml yards. (';irroiiiiil.s — short piec-es with a heavy shot but limited riinp' — found favor iil-u, t'speeiiilly with Hritisli s:iilors. eai,'er for that elose-ipiarter linhtinK in wliili the " Siiiiisliei'' — as (Jeiieiiil .Midville called his earronade — would be ni'st etVeetive in shatti'iiie,' timbers jind in seiidiiii; clouds of s|ilinters anioni; t'lO foe. Tin- projectiles were spherical shot. c;inisfer. and grape, the di:ilK>l! il shriek of the shell lieing yet uiihc;ird. Hotli gun ;ind shot were of east luei -1, spi'i'il wliich liiiw ccs.s in this tiisk. it'll >H in I'limlaiiil. iiiliii'Vciufiit \>u 'arsoiirt, ill i^iviii',' iwii tlif atti'iiticiii a tui'liiin' oil ill' lent. 'I'lu' iMfiii li jiiTii i>r .">.'> kiiiit > •rait alioat. ilili' these I'xtri'iiii- lit' jinijii'i'ss whitli !■ (pI sti'aiM arisin,' II tlic rfiliii'tii>ii 111 iiiatt'i'ials ami in was ri'iiitriiiliiiTil II' applifatiiiii ni a I II fi'iitnrv in ]ii"- III anil IV. whiili tlic I'liitfil Stati - rniti'd Stati'S tm vessel arc : hor^i'- y |M'r linrse-iiiiwi'i' iiiwer, iSOd; steam V; His. This ei'lii- ; the nliler eni,'in<' (i.at is but I'-'O tun-. reiluoeil \veii,'h' ■■! I'll steam iiressiiii'. c'tidii. Ill her slnw >ut 1-'linters amoni,' the ^'i-ape. the dialxili 'ill it were of east met il. 7» THlLMrns AM) iVnXDKns <»/' 77/ A' A7.V'" (IC.XTniV 't I anil till* iiiiMiiit WiiH a \v tiiiiiiin^, or ||oi; /ollliki ;ill'4l>' ot till- '^llll, \\a» I'lVirli'il li\ |o|h> t.irklrs, ailiiioii ol a "i|iiiiiii," or wooilni wt'tlj^i', tlini>l Jn'nt'atli tin- liiiiM-li. Tin- ircoil was liinit'il li\ ro| liKrch U\)t," |'a>>iiiu llii'oiiyli t !n' immmU-1. — ;t knoii IhIuihI i In- lni'frli, ^ uml mmmiii'iI til lin^ IhiIIs ill til)' -liiji's >\i\f. I'Ik- i;iiii was liiiiinsxil, as a lioi.si- is, in tin- nliattM. Aiming was Iaij,'i'l\ a iM-rlumtoi y |l^o(•l•^s, IIHT till' ^iMi liail no si'^'lits atnl till' .•■hot liuil i'M'i>»iM' " wimla'^i'," its raiiltii- linni; Inmi oik- lilili tooiii' tliinl iiii'li !i'SH than tin* Immc, niakin^; i\» mitwanl |iasrio|iositioii to iisr si','lils was niaili' lo Loi'.l Ni'ImpII. lie. JloWfVi'l, IfjiTtnl It witll till' Wolds: — •' 1 iio|ii' we sliall III' alili'. as usual, to j^i-t so ihisi' to oiii I'liciiiics tiial oiir siiiit laniiot miss tlu' oliji'i't." His lilimi roiiia',;" in t.'iis cost his I'oiintrx ni>'n ihailv w Inn, in !S|l.'-| |, thi-ii sliot tli'W Willi, wliili' their shi|>H wi'ic linlii-il ami their ^Mliaiit taii fill liolon the then sii^llli'il ■,'Ulis of the Initeil States, To i^'iiite llie ehai'^'e the slow-ni;ileh was still iiseil. as is shown liy the sliarii wonls of a sailor of that time. Ilaihil in the ilarkiies.H liy 11 Hrili^li ship aU'l orileri'il to ■.eml a Imat, his i|uii'k aii'-urr was : — " This is the I'liiti'il States Iri'^Mte i oioiitiiiion, I'jlwanl i'relile, niiimiodoii'. eoiiiiiiandiiii:, and I "11 he d-d if I send .1 hoal I" 'I'lii'ii to his men, silent and ea'^er liy tiie shrouded li.ittle laiiteins : — " I'dow your mati'hes, 1mi\> I " A full erew lor a ."i'_'-|M>uiiiler eoiisisti'd of II lueii. An old rule as to ihi-- was one man to every .'HKt-llis. vvei-^hl ol tjie ijiin, which would i,'ive the t Me- llon I toil uii'ii to I'aiidii' lie' jour l.'>-im •li liiles of her main liatlery, or more than twice her whole crew. Sii-am and mechanism have wroujjhl a nuu;ic chaii',.;!' ill this. 'I'lie slow-match remained in use until well into the iiiiieteeuth ceiiturx althoii;;li, until IM'.', the Hint lock was j;eiicrally em|.|oyed in tiie Hritisli navy, havin;,^ lepl ned the [.riniiie^ horn and match in ITStt. In 1.S(l7 there was discovered a coiu|Bisit inn which could lie i','iiiled by friction or eoncussioii. and in iS.'lUthe I'reiich had adopted the |iereiission lock, wliieh exploded tlic cap and leliacted, uiicoveiiiii: tlie Vent JHfore the liackward rush of the i,ms could strike It. Later, a similareompo'^itiun was used with " friction-primers," or tiilit's tilled with nnaled powder and capiied with composition, the tul»' lorminv; .i train leadiie^ to the ehar<,'i', and the composition liein a resistance to the eh-elrie current, is heated therdiy. ij^nites tli mposition, and tiles the j;un. The idder type of the ea»t iron sim'otli-lMU'c ^iin for solid shot reached its ultimate devidopment in the <>S. pounder, wiiieh endured until the advptit ol armor. In Isl'.t the system of liiin-^ shells loaded with t;uiipowder from smooth-bore '..'uiis was sn-.j-jested hv tieneral I'aixhaiis. id )''raiiee, InlSL'l. ' it: K\rinY ti'uiiiiiiK- "■' Ix'i i< IlllliilUlt ol I'll • •ill," or widhIi'ii liv rii|M' " liri'iM'li ll, — 1111(1 Sfrltri'.l I Imrsi* \h. ill till' *to^ iiiil III) ^4i'4lltH iili'l lilih titouc tliinl III ri'lMiiiinU iiikI , MilS fsM'lll iill \<> aiiit'trr i>r rcil-lii'i a.H iiuiilf I" l.oi'i riii'iiiU's tliat oiii .in iSlL'-lUli.'ii lit tan I'll ligloi"' 4 JiA»*/»>»" **C/iil' 'Sin *wrp/»-Ai»» "tuitlr taatlir is slniwii liy till' iifss l>v ii l>riti>li rrlili'. I'liirimiidiirp. liiiiti'i'iis: — )1<1 mil' as til ill', iilil \i\sc the (Mf- liattl'I'V. nr llinl'' w ri>iij,'lil a maul'' lirli'i'Iltll rrllllll\ ll ill llic I'lrili-li 11. Ill isnT tliii' lull nr rulicUSsii'li. Iiii'ii i'X|iliHi('il till' I riisii nt till- :,M- lvii-tioii-i>iiiui'rs." icisiliiHI. tin' till"' lirilli,' lili'il It.v til'- isiuii iiml liii'tii'i. IT. wliicli rimsist-" i-lily iiillaiiiiiialil'' urii'iit. is iicati'l ' , — 1_ t:-!--— _ 1- H. zrw ^ null <'M(lrnt\lrcni^ five pjr iTim Rtjit. BrrrcX loadl^ % b!lESIEI U S naval llCOpdr /Mn *yte arm:>i taaJtr Wftftit teftmi. muiilt I Trnfy Mttl rat-^mt It:. . 3 1 >li(it rt'aclu'il i'^ lutil till' atlvciit nt ','iiii]i<)\V(lt'r troiii TAe Growth of Crdnanct I'l.ATK V. »■!. I >" 7j mil Mriis .\.\h \\(i.\m:i;s or the .v;a"' cESTLiiY was iiiti'iiilMi'i'il into iIk' i'lriuli navv, and aimiit l.S|i) into that ot tin- I'liii. il Stall's. At Sin(i|pf. m ,n."i.'>. tln' tiiiililr rHVi-t i>l .slirll tin- u|>nn wouilfn rliijs tartli'il till' St a pilil. v\l<"i a l;ii>.>iaii lli'i'l ili'>trn\iM| al>sn|iiifl\ II 'rmkisli \. si'ls. w itii tliiir tmi'i III !<•<'•' nun. 'I'lir I'aixlians ;;iin \\a.-< nii>ilitici| anil tiiini U'i|iri'\iil lis Ailnilial l>alii^;irn. I . S. N., ami in the lati' .'Mt'., tin- aiiiM- nirnl — ilrsiyiiril li\ liHii -id I niti'd Stall's \i',ssrls \va> .Mi|M-ricir In that 'I any iitlii'f in tin- wuild. Tin' '.*. 1 1, and I.Vini-ii i>alil;,'rrn> Icirnird llir Imlk ■! our K'i'is aliiiat dnrini; tlic ( ivil \\ ai. llir ii'maindtT iM-ing aliuust wliolly »iti'> III till' I'an'nll ty|ii'. Tlir iTsi.stanri' w liirli >|ilirriial iiniji'dili's nii't linni tin' air. Ilii-if drviati •ii ill Hii,'lil. iiwin^ III till' lri'i|Ui'iil lark id ciiini'iili'iiri' nl tlir ri'iitri's id' k'"'*''*' and Imni. tlnii- i'Xi-i'ssi\i' •' winda'^r," and I In-ir In^lil \vri;,dil n'lati\i'ly In rali- lii'i', li'd to till' ai|o|i|ion III till' I'illi'il i^'iin and tlic I'vlindriral iiriijrrtili'. Tin' |irinii|iii' id ihc jornii'r — inakiiiL; tin' >lioi ;ici as a scrcwdKilt and tlii- Imiit as a Mii'W -t lui'ad — i-' vrry old. llirrc ln'ini; at W'onlw jidi a liaiirl id llii> t\]iO liiann',' dali' id i.-il". 'I'lif olijccis aiini'd at m ntliiii; an' to j^iM- a |ioinii'il rylindi'iial sliot rotation on its axis lliat it may V.vv\i .steady liiiriii;; llit^lit, and siToiidly, to oli rlon','.ii. d lonn. As to tlic lattrr I'linsidrration. it nia\ lir noted I li.it tin- idd .'Il.'-iioini'i r .siiioiitlidMiic Was id (i-imli ealilire, v.lnle ilie rniti'd ."^lati^ I'l-imli iillc nt to-day throws a shot id Ino lli>, wei'^hl. I''rani'i', dniini,' the ('liiiiean War. liion;,dil out the lii'-l heavy lilieil j,'ii!i. In JSi'dt-Cd, Ai'iiistrmiu ritles were intiodni'ed in the Itrilisl, navy, 'riie lali.!, ot l\rn|i|i mel ^ui'li Mieeess that al i'ari>. ill ISti". he exiiiliiled a ritle weij;li;ii.; Tilt tons with a iMojeetile id Id.Sd |MMind>. The I'anoll lille wa> liroiiv,dit ..iit aliont IS.'ttl in the Inited States, and wa* so developed that in l.sCrj it wa> iln' most |>nwerl'iil \i\\\\. for it.s wei^jht and si/e. in ixistfiiee. The adnption "I ritliiiu' was the lirst ;,'ii'iit slep nil the load w'liih eii^'ineerinu had laid tow. ml the i-'i'iiwlh in jiower id iiiiMlern nrdnain'e. Having thus .seeiired a iirojectile id ^'reat weiijlil and nioilirate ealil'ii' whii'h w'oii'.d Wore tliroii^di tin- air a true |iath to tlie liisi.int mark, th 'ir remained to seek Iml tour cliiet elements in the in.i^'nitii'<'nt advance m.iii' wiiliin a iLjeni'ialion hy the naval artillery id our ila_\. These laetors wii-' l>t Inereased strength in the inalirial of tlie ^iin. L'd. A niethiHl ol i n strni'tion wliieli wmdd not only |n'rniil eiiormons |ni'ssiiris in the |io\\ciei- ehamliiT, Imt would make possilile the eonlinnons ai leratioii of the |ii-ojei!ilc' during its passaui' ihioni;h the hoie. .'Id. .\n explosive whieli wouM satidv the Mlijeets id the method of ('oli--l I'Uet loii ; and. Itli. A system of loail !i,' wliii'h would enalile :.,'iins of jjreat leie^'tli to he eharjjed with ease. iln' iiioinitiii>{ of ordnam f any wei^dit. its eontiol. ami it.s nipitl iimi fa ili- liaiidliii'.,' Were lint minor matters ol eii'^'ineeriie.;. In a paper smh as this, ol limited len;.;tli and addressed to !ay:ui'ii, r '.^ jMissiltle to ^.'ive liiit a K'laiii'e at tlie proj-n'ss in X\w vurioiiH olt'iiitMits of -:ii!i- eoiistrui'tioii wliii'h have lieen noted. < )f material, little need 1h> said. Ili" ille id ('lime, in days wasa easidro". pieee; I'arrott oidiianeo was ol east imI wroiiijlit iron; and tin first .Vrinstroii^ ^iiii was hiiilt of wroiiKld ii'»l> 'H'l steed, ('list and eompoiiid materials, however, have vanislied with the i i-t Stefd — hardened and toui^dielied lo the List di'i;ree li\ ever\ retinelnel III [innfardiire - foriiLS the " reeking; tulie" Im tlie"iioii sliard "' of the 111 lUl V ,S close, CESTUnV Tin: cKsri nvs amima I'Hohukss 7ft . tliat t>l till' I'liit' d ll|Mi|| WoiilllMI sllll'H cly 1 1 'riiikisli V. ,. as iiiMilillt'il mill N ' lull' rii>\ till- aril ,1- Mi|ii'i'iiM' til tlial "f Inn I till' Ixilk >! aliiiiist wlmlly litl' > ■ air. tlii'ir tli'\ iaii'ii V fviitrcs III ^'ra\ nv lit iflativi'ly til ,',, Il- eal lirnjri'tilf. 'I ill' Imlt ai|i| till- liili' ,l> liaml lit llii> 1^ !'•' I'c 111 i^ivf a iiiM!:'' ■! tfaily ilmiii:.,' Ili'.lct. • Iriiiii \\- fl(iii),'aii'il t till' (lid :!L'-|Hiiiiiiii'r lati'^ (iimli lilli' nf v| licavy rilifil :.,'iiii, .1, navy. 'I'ln' laii' :• nti'il a ritlr wi-ii^ii n,' ilii- \va> lii'ini.nlil "lit at ill !•*<<■>- it «:•- '•"• '. 'I'll!' ailu|.tiiiii "I I'ilij; li III laitl tuw.inl | ml iiHHlriati' caliiii'i' (liht.iiit mark, tlnu' iiii'i'iit ailvaiicf iiiaili' TIh'm' lai'liirs wtn*: 1. \ llictllllll 111 I'lll' aiii'N ill tlif iiiiwiliT- ilimi III till- iiriiji'i'iili' wliifli winiM hati^fy \ systt'iii of Itiailiii),' ;'i'il vvitli ciiHi". Tlu' its liipiil mill la iK- •hhimI to iiiyiui'ii. I > mils olcini'iils of ni- I' lu'i'il Ik- saiil. 1 1"' iiaiico was ol cast iIhI of \vriiii),'lit irmi H'l niisla'il witli till' I 1-^' y i'v«'ry rctiiM'iiu'ii n' 11 shanl " of till' -11 r \v ini't iim I III I'rll'^tllli'tliill IS tln' !iiiill-iili" in'iii'i'.-^s, ^liiiwii li\ till' pai'lial si'cliiiii nil I'latr \'.,llii' liaiii'l lii'iii« I't'iiiforciMl liy tiiU's wliirli art- sluiiiiU on ■ likr t III' till' of a V. a;.,'i)n-wliiTl — so as In |ii'(iiliiri' initial i'iini|iii-ssiiin. Tln' 1 \|ilii^iiiii ill till' |io\vili'r rlianilirr .strains ami t'\|iaiiiis li'iiijiiiraiil\ llif liani'l. ami till' a|i|iiii'atiiiii ol tlir slirinka'^i- |ii'ini'i|ili' ciialilivs a portion cil the sUi'ii^ili I'l till' mill's til III- ('iii|iliiyi'il ill |iii'liniiiiary iiiti'iiial |irt'ssiin'. 'riic liallrl llllis sll|i|iiil'!i'i| ran 1m' sllailinl li.\ tin' cliai'j,'!', lint nIlls In it'' own liiiiil iilsal "Iv. lint loan aildilioiial ainonni iMjiial to this initial t'iiiii|irt's.sion. TIn' all si' t'l, linilt-ii|' i,'iiii lias a |iossilili' rival in wiii'-woninl oiilnaiirc. a sy.simi li ii'|ilaii'.-« till' liilirs, to a v;i'rati'r or ll•s^ cxtrnl, !>y la\rrs of wire, woiiihI Ullll'i wliilt' 111 li'iision ai'oiinil tlu' liarirl. I'iivmIit is the soul of till' .1,'nii : it traiisliuni.-. tin' liii^'i> ini'rl ina-s intu a llaiiiiii^' I'lijiiiM' of ili'atli. 'I'lll' ^ii'al ili'Vi'lii|init'nt of fxpliisivi's lii'>,'aii Imt a Till' I'l'siarrlii's ol liiiiiins ami Itiinilui'il in tin' I ist I'ciitiirv. i;i'iii'ralioii siiifv, ami nf iliittoii ill till' ilavvii of tliis, lunm'il llii' worlil's kmiwlcil^'f nl ihr ^miii's iiili'Viial liallislit's until llir year l>>7", Tn tin- p-niiis nl Nolili' ami .Mn'l is illli- till' sliliillliis til i,M'ii\vlli silirr iIh'Ii. 'I'Ih' ll.'I'S I lavi' '|it Willi i,'iiii-t'(iiiNUiiriinn in its atlvaiirc. 'I'lii' imnasi'il .>tri'nuili of tlic clianiln'i lias Im'cii iiii'I liy lifaviiT ainl slow-liiiinin^j >'liarjal liinar liiiii'iisiiiii ami |Hi\M iliTI 1 ''iin-". Initi; II |i 'llir liail its limit ; ailv:im lay I'lily in tin: huli.si'nui'iit aci'i'leruliua yivi-u by late it{iiillim ol ii iiortimi • >l Ihi' liai'Ui'. (i'liilH.wili'r. liiiwi'Vi-r. afti'i' a ifi'^-n of nioii' lliaii tlvi- liiimli'i'd years, lias been ili'tlii'i'iii'i ■r\ \ lllallinl|'< sail |ielte i I till' iiiniik, Willi its allies, eliarenal ami Mil|i|iiir, \ lelds imw In niim eiini|ii.mii|s. whii-li priiiin -e nnt mily far ,'ii'ali'i' iiii'i,'V, but are as well snmk riie sea-li'4lits 111 iiiir war willi Spain saw till' last ninlenilin^' lle.'ts In be wiappeil in a elmiil. lin^eiin^ and lialltill^Mil tlii'irnwii niaklle^ ( 'niillle.one nl lliese enni|Hi|inds ill Use abl'nad. il- ls prepaii'il III loiii; new sliiiikeless "pnWiler liniii di-iiiirni'i'lhilnse and nilio->;l_\ei'iini'. 'I'lie if till' i inled ."^tall's ' ivy is made lioni nitrn- i'liiilose ili>solved ill ellnr aleolini. I''r.inee was ibe lii'st in i'm|ilnyiii^ e\|i|>isives Mieli as tliese. wliieli. Ill lliell' nrieiisive alld lat'tleal ail\ aill,l!,-i's. Iiirill iille III the silj'lial tlilllnplls n! Ilie eeiilHiv's last \eals. Till' ImiK ;,'nn n| niiidern days is nl m ssi!\ breeeli |nadin>{. Tlic dovtdop- laeiii III (iilier elements j^ave, as a I'l'siillain. ','reat leiiijtii ; and lliis. in turn. r'i|iiiriil a svsteiii nf eliar>,'inv! wliieli wmild permit pmleelinn lor tlie men ^v)llll• Inailiii)^, and would ob\iate th)' inloleiablc iin'onveiiii'iiee nf lanimiiiK liiiiuc pmvdor and shot in a Imi'.,' mii/'/lediiader — an npeialion wlneli was, in l.l'l. illlpnssibli; Iwyiiml a eerlain limit o| len>,'tll. 'I'lie aihoeales nl llie nlder I imstriii'iinii, espi'ciaUy in Kn|,daiid, iir;;ei| Inii),' and cariieslly its simplieily Hill tin superior sfri'ii^jlli of a solid brcc'eli ; but tlie lnj;ie 1)1 events was I liiisf tiieiii, and Ilif bieei'lidnader Willi a I'omplete irinmpli. It is worthy 'I' that it, like rilliiii,' and the prineiple nf buihliiiK' up, was but a revival. Ill the warship .Mary l{ose, sunk in I.Vb'i in ailioii oil .Spiiliead, tln'ie were 'Vi led in |h;I('. a number of |i,niiis, .smne o| whieh are nf wmn^ilit iron, li'iill !i|i ami bieeclidoadiiiK'. 'Ihere are in use lw(( methods of closiiiK' the I' li 7G TiiiUMi'iis AM) noyjfhiis or rm-: a/a'" rEsiiuv liiiccli wlii'ii tlif i;mi i> Inmli'il tiuiii llic ri'ar. In l"ii iirli. l'',iij,'lisli, auil Aiiifricim iiidiiaiicc ;iii asial >ricu-|ilii-,' is iiiMiicd ; in ilif l\rn|iii >\ >ti in .i I'viindi'ii-i'iisnial ic, lufrcli-lilnck >li(|t's in a linri/imt.il n|icnin.;cni across tin' lime. 'I'lic liiiiiii'r. HI inti'nii|itiil srit-w nu'iliaiii>ni. was lirsi set ioiili in tin" IJnitcil Stall's" |.ati'nl I'l l.sl'.l t.i ( 'hanilHTs. Ill iniiji'rt ill's till' ti'iiili'iifV lit till' nii'ili'iii (Til has Im-i'm tciwanN -.iiniililii a- timi. ISai'-slmt. I'liain-slmt, ami ;^'ra|>c liavi- ilisa|i|H'ai'i'il. wiiili' raiiisti'i ami siiiiil sliut, ail' lii'i-niiiiiivc iiiisi'ii'li'. Tlii'ii' ii'iiiain s1iim|iiii'I as llu' •• man- killi-r" III' llii-^ a ■_;<•. ami i'S,|ilii.-ivi' sin '11. ilirii'ii'iilMli'ii int., ai iiiiir-|>ii'iriny ami flial Inr allai'k nil iiiiariiinii'il stnirlnii's. I.iriili'iiani >lira|im'l. I'l 17'.Mi. in. vi'iiii'il till' |iiii|i'i'!ili' w liirli lii'ais liis naiiH'. In it> nimli'in Ikiiii. ii rniisists lit a sti'i'l I'asi' riiiitainiii!.; Icail nr ii'mi lialls ami a li^'lit liui'^tiii'; cliar^i' nl' piiwdi'i'. i.uniti'il liy a liini-liisi' rariiril in the iii-ad. Tliis [nnji'i'tili' is iin f toriiiiilalili' ai^aiiist Imdii's oj nun. Imats. and llir I'liiltrasiiri's i>t' I'm'ts. siini', wlirii it is rii|itiii'cd, tlir lialls ;iii' dis|i('i'S('ii. cuM'iiii;.; a widi- aira. Till' iisi' Iff i'X|iliisivi' siirji ill liii,'li-aii:4li' disrliar;^'i' dates liaek tn tlir litti'rnili eeiilnrv. l'"riiiii raixliaiis' wiirks. •• l.a Nmivelle Aiiiie." imlilislied in iS'Ji, caiiii' till' stiiniiliis tn its di'Ve|ii|iiiient and li> its deadly service, in mir tiiin', ill Innizniital lire. Tin' •• I'nniiiinii .-lull" tm- tlie I'liiteil States l.'Uiiieli ntle is iiiadi' lit t'iiri,'eil steel, wei'^lis lino |iiiiiiids, and lariies within it a liiusliiii,' ehar'.,'!' Ill' ."id |iiiiiiiils III |iii\vi|ei-. i'^iiiii'd liv a iieri'iissinn tiise set ill its Im-i'. It will |ieiii'trati' (i nr 7 iin-lies nt aiiiim- and then eX|i|iiili' within the >li;ii. The I'liited States •• ariiiiir-|iiei'i'iiii; shell '" is inaniilaetiiied tnun eriieilile sti el, allnyeil with ehlnlililini : it is telii|iel'ed In extielile haidliess at the |iiiilit. wiiieli can' s a i'lvi's nl iiiiiili iia|iiirtaii • (iiiii rarriaires. ni' mniints. are iinw intricate niechanisiiis, ]iractically thewli".'' servi •!' Ill lar'.,'e niileaiicc lieiic,' iicrrnrmed liy electric and liydiaiilic iiiacliin- ery. The rapid tire |iriiici|ili' h is lieeii exlemled tn |iii'ees nt (iiiicli cali'.'ic, and liids lair in pass lie\iinil thai limit. Its success in increasiic^ lar-^'eK ' i' niiiuliei nl shuts within a '^ivin time lies in s|ii'iial liieeeh-lilncks. aiiiiiii!,' dc vices, and |iri'|iaieil cartriil'.4es. Machine '.^iims nt ritle-calilne. pari !y or w h> 'Iv ail.nmatic, Iia\i' lieell sn devi'lnpiil as tn he capalile nl tirihif I'.'dO rnliniN ] ■ 1 iiiiniile. The dischar'.,'e nt hijjh explosives in lar!,'e ipiantity w;i.s pttVci-il with success liv the I'liited States steailier Vesuvi iitT Santiago. T tcrpedn-i^'iiii atinat. Imwcver, wniild appe.ir to he still in a tentative ditinii. \ lirief lapse iiiln icchiiieal leniis nny he permitted in siiniiiiariziii'^- 'ln' tiiin's i;rnwlli in pnwcr. The term •• inu/zle ciuMi^y " is iised to descrilie :iii' Wnik which the plniectile is e.lpalile ot pcrfol'inini,' when it leaves the hell'. ih.M rny iii'li. Kiij,'lisli, ami «• Ixiiiiip systfiii a 1111:4 flit across llif rst set lortli in llii> tiiwanl^ >imi>lirna- vliili' (•alii>I('r ami III'! a> tlu' •• mail- aniiiir-iiii'iciii;,' ami a|iiii'l. in IT'.m;. ill- ill lllllll. It l'llll>l--'-i l)iiistiii'< cliarj^f I't pnijci'l ill' is III I ii'i's (it torts, siiiii", Ic aii'a. lack to till' tiltcciiili imlilislii'il in ls".'l. civifc. in I'ur lini'', Siatrs l.">-iiicli nlli' iviliiin it a l)iir>tiii!,' I'lix' si't in its lia^i". li' williiii lilt' sliiii. lllllll rrncililc stt I'l, iliif>s at tin- iiniiit. lalti-r wiiiild a|i|iiar c. «!' is a luliiic lilt run . in tlic altarli •_' strain in its pa^s- )(• so thick tliat 111' till- slicU is tiii'il .nine extent liiii^t- . jiiVriti', 111' liiilH' lull passiiii,' iii'ii- iiiiii'ii iiiijMirtaiKi'. iractiiMlly tlic wlu'lr I liytliaiiiic iiiacliiii- ■s of (liiidi caiil'ic. ■rcasinv; lar^'cK iln' i-liliicks. aiiuiii'4 'I'- lie. |iari!y or '.vii' Mv 1,1,' !•_'(»(( idunils 11 antity was cITni'il i|V Saiitiat,'!!. 'lit'- in a tentative <■. a- -^iiiiiiiiari/iii'-; ''i'' iM'il ti) (leserilie : in' it leaves till' 111'!''. ////•; r/;.v/7 7M.v .v.ir.i/. ri:()(;i:h:ss 77 ll IS eXlil'e>seil 111 tunt -lulls, i.e.. tile nilllilier nt tiilis wiiiili the energy sliU'cil in llie >li"l wii'.ilil lit' '" ii lici!L,'iil ni line iiint. The li^'ures as In this jnr the t'llie century's bc^innin;,', Inr liie I'liiliii States j.'l-inch ritle ami II lull Kii'^lish f,'nn. are, res|ieclively. lilJ. .'l.'S.iiL'". anil ."ii.fl'.Hi toot- .■iL,'-|iiiiiniii'r II till ill! tons. .Viiain. the riiiiml till' a .hi.t ti Dili the .'!L'-|iiiniiili'l' li.st lllllll i.ic resistance i if if. in a l'aii;,'e nl IL'IIO yanls. 7<> |ier lelit nl its cllelj^y ; wilile l!li> liiss, uillillie I'liili'il States l.">-ilicli. in a laliL;!- nl IHIHI \ aids, is hut II per cent. I'liialU . ir t lie casl-iri'ii simt nl t lie ."L'-jiniinilcr were lireil ay:ainst ai'iii(>i'-|ilati', 11 wiiiiiil lnse. in lireakini,' itsell iiji. 1\mi t hinls ul its reinainiii;.; cnei'Lry. leav iiig at l-itlt vanls hut ."il loot-tuns hir elTectivc wnrk ; while with tlie niinlcni ,11 liiiil'-liicn'ili;.; shell tiie entire enel';-;y left at theel.il ni the raiiu'e is cx|itnileil ii|Hiii the ainiiii'-jiiate. ll uill he seen then that tlic iniiiieasiirahlc sn|icriiirily ol niiKlcin iiiins is hiitli III their j^rcat increase i.i eiieri^y ainl In their wiser ilis|iiisit inn of t\\\ III'. Ihat utile '11 attaiiieii. 'I'he 14:1111 lias iiiainlaiiieil hilly iluiiii^' the I'cn- !iir\ its |iniii.icy MinoiiL,' naval wcajioiis. It is true that, in tlienry ami nn jiaiiii. lis .sii|ireiiiacy has at times lieeii i|iiestii>neil ; hut as to ils two rivals, till' lain woiilil seem to he rather the \vi'a|iiin ol aceiileiit than action, ami iliti ii.iliiiln has \ei In .-riiie ill hattlc af^aiiisl ships i-i iiintion. while the prt'cision, i;'liiilit\. anil power nl the ;,'nii i,'rnw more ileinlly with every passiii;.,' year. \i. riii: i>i:vi:i.o|'mi;nt oi' .MiMois. .Viiimr .iiiil the Ljiin are natiifal ami now hcieilitaiy Iocs 'I'he iiimlion of the line is In rcsi>l. that nf the ntlni e\er to attack. Since the he,!,'iiiiiiii}4 of tile iiiiiili'iii era in navies, there has iiccn ceaseless strife foi' mastery ho- tueeii tlice I w ii elements of Warship ilcsiifii, the film cvci' hccomiiii; nior'a jH'Wiitiil. ami I he anmir — at tii>t thiiiiij.;h ixrowiiij; thickness ami later tliiiiu;.,'li iiiiprnveil inatci'ial — opposiiii; a steailily more stnhhorn front. 'I'll!' nllirial report of an i''iii,'lish comiiiitlee niaile in the year 1S(>(I states tliat.— " N'cssiU 1-lntlicil in rnlliil-iroii plates of four ami a hall indies' thickness arc til all piacliiahle purposes invnlnerahlc at;aiiist any projectile that can he hinii-lii tn hear a^'ainst lliciu at any taii},'!'." Till' aihaiicc which forty years have seen may he shown hytlie sin.ijle statc- iiniit tli.it the Kmpp l."i.?-incli },'iiii ilcvelops siiHicient i iit'r;,'y to |ieni'tiatc at till' imi//|e 17 inches of w roii;^ht iron. 'I'lic halllcship is at hest Imt a series j lit luiiipiniiiiM's. each lactnr of tile st I'lictiiie yiehliiiv; or ifiowin^ as the skill Ol' wliiiii nl her ilesi;,'iier may iiiilicate. In the present staue nf this iiiiceas- iii',' cliain,'!', IliL' ^1111 wiiiilil appear to lie the victor, ami the power of this iiii'-rlily l.'Vj-tiin rjHc seems scareeh iiecilci' on the sea. 'I'he ilistiic^iiishcil cliiel III niiliiaiice of the liiiteil Slates navy, in his annual report for IS'IS, .says: — " I he ili'M'liipiiient nf tile I'J-iiich '^iiii has lii'c!! so Krcat ami its power sii iiiiirli incieascil that the liiiican is of ii|iinioii that herealter it will he till' iiiaNiiiiMiii calihi'c Ihat it will he ailvisahle to install on future hattle -'lii|i>." \\itl; aiiunr. as with the torpcilo. the talent of Kiirope leapeil where the '^^'iiiiis of .\iiicri('a had sown, .lohn Stevens of New .lerscy was the (irst Mivcntiir of mnilern times to sn',"4e>t the application of ainmr to a tlnatiiii; 1 :1 :i ^ 1 i: ;!• i' n . k ; 1 ■1 !' 1 !' ; ihi U/arrtOi' i 1859 9gOO 1861 ftfonareh 1866 J "" ^ 1867 Qudaciott,» SM J *o/o ^ 1869 B^lll IIIIH II ',f'[, dtaitantl 1873 . . PrATJ. VI. TIIK ni»*THIHI*TU»N OK AllMOR. 1874 In/UnbU -S «afic 1894 ^ ■ < ■■■ -i fci < i V7rf ( , I I r . 07nMwt 1897 ^^f^ ifwi^ . nm..... f»»SO ri.ATK VII rilK lU-TUnil TItiN OK AltMOII •t^Mi m rit/iMrii < AM> MOMihus or hie a/.V" cKsrrny *.*y^ lialtiTV. Ill> |ll.lll^ I MM in; >lllillllltr(l 1(1 I lie I'lllli'd St,itf.> i,'i I veil line 111 iltlMllJi tl I to I- I'illK wur of |S|'.'. Tlii-y rrcrivfil. Iiouivi 1, nil M riiiiis iiiii.siili'niliini.ain l'iirt\-t\vi> yrars lali-r, li-ll tin' Imiinr nt iillaiimij,' llir lii"! piai-tical ri'sull> in I lie lillllilllli; )>t' iriilichlils. .Mrllllirl> laillilN . ImUi'MT, niMt illUi ,1 till- f\|>i*i'iiiii-iits III it> liiiiMiliT. iiiiiil li\ tlirvi'ai' INII lIu'V liail ili'trriniiit <| till' tliii'l' l\iii'-<> II t null iirn-ssaiy tn nIiiji >|iliri'iral |iri>ii'rlili'> at |>iiiiit lihi lair^r, ami tin- riiiii|iai'at ivr ri-si>tiiii; jinwi' il irmi ami nak. TIu'm' ii-mi. liil til an a|i|ii-ii|iriatiiiii liv ('niiyn ^n, in |S."i|. nj .sriltii.iHHi in liciiiii wmk ii|" n ail iriiiirlaii. — tin- Sti'vrii> lialliTV . - ■ w liirli si'sm'I, liii\vr\rr, ih'MT li-it tin- wa\N ami ua^ rvi'iitiially lunki'ii ii|i. (trmral I'aixliaii^, wlm it'Siiliitinni/cil naval aitilliMV liy tlir iini'iitimi n| tl"' lllitili'in sllrll, |i|ii|illi'>li'il. ill an nllirial li'ttrr tu llir |-'l'i'lirll ^iiMTIllin-Ilt III INI'I. that til w iiriiji'i'! ill' \\iinli| juri'i' tin- rii-atinii nl ariinni'il >lii|is. In IKII he it*riiiiiiii<'iiili'i'l> with inui armiM'. a> ;i |iriiti'i'i'.iiii ai;aiii-t liisuwn iiii.s>ili's ; ami iii IS.V! Iiis wnnls nl wai'iiiii^' im't i'iiiu|i|i'tr ami ti'iriMi- liillilliiii'iit in tin' aniiiliilalinii liv shrll l;iiii> nl iIh- ■n II-* art Inn W a> t lir lllllliri liat I' t'aiiM' I >l II llllK 'riirki-^li fli'i't at Sinn|i( 'hirtinn lit animr in niniii'ni navio. Till' id'ili^li ailniii illy, in Isl.'t, hail (|ii|ilii'ali >! iIh' Strvrii-^ rs|ii'nnii'iit>, lisill;,' .; laiv,'rt nl' tl Jilati'S nl linilrr il'iill livi'tfll tn^ri'tll'T, wlllrll Ijavi' a tnl.il tliirkiii's>> tit li UM'lir^ : aiiil i'\|ii'i'iiin'iit> mi laiiiinali-il |iiat iiii; li.nt U'cn a!-' laiiiiiiis naval arrliiti-i't. siilimitti'il In tin- I'li-iirh '^nvi'innii'iit tlir lii~! riirn|M-aii ili'sit;!: Inr an ariiini'i-il I'liviati'. His |ilan ami (illlv with till- nilllnrak iii thi' ( I s Wi'li' hnW I'Vcr. I'l-jt't'li 'I. inii'iiii W II '.\as lllf rnnsll'lli'tlnii i.| ariiiiir.-il ^^'^. !> Iii'j,'iiii. (in ni'tnlicr 17. iS.Vi. thr thiri' l-'rinrh liattii Wllirh WtTf till- first I'l'slllls n| till ||•^ s ni'W ili-|iarliii'i' went inln ai-tinii nil Km- liiini. in till' t'riinea. silfiii-iii),' in Innr liniii-. Imts whii'h had In-hl at liay the I'luiiiiiiiiil Ilii t.> nl Kn;,'laml ami i'laiii'i' Aiiiinr had wnii its first vii'tniy, ami had slmwii innst «i;:iially its |insitinii asniK- nt ihriiiain lai'lnr> in tin- \vai>lii|i tli'si),'ii (if tin- yi-ars whirli witi' In cnnii'. Tln-M' vcxsids. wiili thiic similar iialti'iii's rniisi i iii'ii'd iiiiinrdiati-lv tlii'if- aliir \>y tin- I'.iitish jfiiM-riinniil. wi-n- ilad with snlid iinn jilalis I.', iiirin's tliK'k, liiirkfil liy -"ij iiiflii's III nak iii|>iuativ(' ••xin'riiiiiMits at X'inn'iiiu's, !''i°anr<', hav iii'„' slinun thr marki'd sii|n'riiiiity nf snlid nvcr laiiiinati'd |ilatiii','. Tl |i'\ Wi'l'i', linwt'Vrr. in lint It a liin>l lim ili'd ^I'l isi' .•.i'a-;,'niiij{ slii|is. their N|M'fd iiiiii ofher iiilfrinr i|iialitii's lii'in^; ladiral dilirfs as to this. Fi-iUirt* h'tl ill a riiillni- advaiin . lH'j»iniiiiii; in iN.'iT and i'iiiii|i|i'tini; in I.S.V.I tin- traiisfnriii- aliiin nf tin- wiwHlfii lini'-nf-fiMttIr shi|i Na|Mili'iiii inin Ihi- aiirnrcd vcsvl nt .'iiMHi tuiw. \vlii«'li. a.s I,a ♦lUHrt*. w fanmns a- tin' iiisi si'a-i,'i«t«.i; 'Miiolad. »»h»' f.iirii-d a stiak«- nf IJ-im-h |iiiiriiijr it \\\v w.w.v iii..-. nid '!i,-iii(M , 'atfs iu u.ikr nf fhi' li.iltfn Kniilaiid -tiiswi-ifd the chalhii!,'!' t»f In-r liiM-cdilary !•# with tin- WarrwH-. an mmhi v»'*mw1 of'UL'lO fmis. i'uiii|i|ftiMl in l.sril. Wliil*- Iht rival ha .'tSd liit .1 h-n tli carrii'd |ilatiii;;. It.-. il»iiki.*'->s was |^ imh.'-^ At thf niitlin-ak ..f th<' Civil War Mi the riiit«>ii Stntt-s. tlii> )(riiiii' nt ai|i|Niiiit'-|tiiii'i|iiiri'd inllid Millar nf »nli»| iron, w}. .^t- ?l 1% .Miiimiit during' ti,.' Iinii, ami to Kiiiii' lii;icti('iil rt'suli- 11 liuufVfr. cuiitiiiw. .1 IfV liail lIl-tl'IIIIMn <1 ;ilfs at |iiiiiit lila:.k ■ak. 'I'lifsi' rt'sii u 111 lic^'iii work up u •viT, iifvcr It'll liii' ly till- itivciitii'ii i.t 'iirli ^(ivrriiiiii'iit 111 ariiiiir<'tl slii|ts. In nil null aiiirir. ■' i Ills III waniiuj,' nut sllfll liUllS t>l till- 1' caiisr ul tlir inl h- i\rlis l'X|M-lilll''lil-, , v\ liiili Ljavr a ti'Ial iiij; liail Iwrii al->"> ;it hl|iiiv ill' l.iiiin', I ill' iVfiniiiiMit llif lii'-t , liuWcViT. rrjfcli'il; tin- I'linslnictitMi ul !•(■ l-'ifiii'li liattiiK's into aclinii lii|i I iimiu'tliatily llnic- riiii I. lairs \\ iin'lii'S iin-iits at \ iiiri'iiiii^, •V laiiiiiiati'il |ilatni|;. liiijj; ships, tln'ir i"*' < t(i thin. KriiiM""' Ifil I 1S."»5» till' triiiisliMiii- li»- anrut't'il vrsM'I i»f i;(itti'_' '•iiiiclail. '^Iit' ml 'l.iiicii j 'ut.s iu rif htr htTcilitury f»# 111 Isr.l. Whih- lu-r ■- .■'.HO liM't .1 l.'Ii til litis, thf p>v»'inni' lit s nf inmi'lail.s. i I'** i th#' irtati> of arnurf ! nf «<.!ul imn, wt^'W Lit f Unity' tfntruft /^H? ^^r^IfllD m\\\ tiv't > r. M/t t.ut'iifuitftl f ' S .ihnttar 'fusaaii '.im 1 1< i n-i ./rmor /"ii» lliii Lomitiatni /.I//. ,,/./, (f.uji.tnj I /.I.V. t 'I %i iiniM.lnru; Inn, .•>iiiuti,ii hfil '"■/ M.J H»>;*yr,l Mfiri J)|«^ Jol.d ri UK VKI. TIIK (iHUWTir .>!• MlM.in. te rnu'Mi'iis AM) \\n.\mn:s or inh: xix" chMi /:) iiiiiiii tliii'kiu'ss \vii> I'. imli>'^. Kricssiurs Mmiitm. linwrviM. ran: I Uniiiuifoxl |ilatinu' ti •^M li mil- ntM'li tliii I'll ."( til •'■ lllclk»'S tlllik nil llfV low .^lilt's, illlil II l.i\i JH-I' lilllrl. rili.s r'lll.'lllli-luni. wllirli till' dlllirlllt; rl in riir iiiaiii' ilaflurr I'l xiliil jilali' "t- "sitati'il. mail)' iIm- ii'i'tinl ot ciiiliiia: III' t(lii« ty|»i' t'lir Iriuii h " I- lllll^ lit wlilcli, tls III)-' t'it' M nil \ iiili'iici- w lii'ii I 111' ai'iimr wa- ■ tatal missiles anaiiwt ilmsr witliiii tli*- tiiiTfts, In i . n- tl'lM«t Willi tins, till- lU'liavior nl tin* N'rw IninMiIrs, "•Inlln-d willi snliil aiiii' i, WiiK most •■M-fllriit >f .'WV Imm tlkf (n'rjM'iiHifiilar, Km' two yais she wax .•.iiliirrtnl tu |||K»'IIMwt •i-viMt' ti-st tlii#.«> wai'-M'sscI iiiii.^l im-iM. llif Ios.sIiil,' ami stiaiiiiii;; hI HitiTlcLiili ,vnH\ ami Mh* lit'iv; '•'I'dcal "I closi' ai-tioii willi lorliliratimis. hi om- • ' >iisla ot tlu' linl-i .larliof. ainl, ,<*liiSUuit);li stiiicK 'ii Iht «itl<' anmu- sixtv Iihh'-. i tit*' .itnijii;!*' iiiiliii*^ riif rt'i'oi'il hI ilii> sliiji is onf wliicli li' ■ ^ (•aiif* .►♦»< ■*! IlDI KM' H Til IM<^t lit 11 two ai'llior, w;i- . .-'.in. most liiiiiti'il ;-.olat' III till' II iiistaiKM* — w I'll oil with tilt' liori/ ;iM! .iii.'it ii. till' lilr ol till' ^I^^f^ito^ ; ,,i liiM'll liscil in till' llrlirh >Hf hct'ii (lilTcri'iit I'lvi TV lair tlii'oii^rh till' ai'iiioi', anil >!ii\<'ii Auain. tin' aiiiior of llif .Mlanui witli till' •.nlcsoj tlici'iiaili'! inrlini' i siiHii'ii'iitlv sfiniij;. w itii iln' lonm'v \r I i.iiftnU'iiwv ; tills war. in tin- niattci nt itli iron woiT'li alimist ii -^ wi-iijlrt in ;.'n|i!. amlwiili laiiurai'tiirin'^. tli»'V \*^ -ih'ccciIi'iI in fon>trm'tiii}; iilr iroiK'luH.- >A iIm'II' ila* Tin- Mi'iriiiia"'. lor liars. .ii an aii^h' of ,.■ to lii'i |ilatiiii; limi' WljiT ■•fol'V WomIiI li;i\t' irjt»' (»t' 'M llt.s. uf i^o 'I a -olc cuiitlil s alMiiit ti>>' liatli ■\.il <1. at .".I- iril- .Mill. '1i • • lattri flic .- ill' liroUi' tlii'i ^ HI |ira' ■ ' ii** •T of til'- II 1 1-iiirli |iriijri'tili' lircii with shot )i arlicallya' llif iiiii/./h', .-It iiiiiiu'li the ('oIll|il('trl\ ill liot \i rasrs. It is iinni'i'i'ssary to lollow in lirtail. tliroi!L,'h it- ailvani'c o| iron aiiiior. Its •,'rowtli in stifiinlli. (l('vcloi«'il. caiui' almost soh'ly Iroiti increase in thick • >' its iiiaxiiiiiim w itii the Itritish InHexihle. i'oiii|ilcti'il - ■! i t'i'om Hi to L'l inches of iron on her licit ami citadel. -<■ \< ever, i.s disiiled and "samlwichcd " with wood, tliei-e heiiij. - : skill, (» inches of teak, tlnn |'J inches iro!i. II inches teak, aim '< inch |ilatc. .\s ariiioi', iron icccivcij ils death-hlow in the laiin >. S|M'zia. Ital.\. during' tie' aiitniiiii oi |H7(i. when the ItHi-toii k'ih. with * cliai'!,'!'. at a laiiKcol l1 tar);;ets of steel — the sini^le or a};K''''K"''' tliickiicss ol' niiiaJ iron ami si ill each c; desire to I. woi Steel jK'zia III ;ioll in^ -L' inches. These trials were nmlerlakeii tliroiif^h Italv's II the Diiilio and Uamlolo, the most lormidahlc vessels all' it. iv. a!nl the roar c! that iiiif,'hty f^iiii, tlmiideriiifj from lit' siiuiiilcii till' knell of iron armor, dejirived the as ft ml, rA'.v ///;»■ ■////•; (i:\rri! Y's xtvu. /'iiimiiHss M linwrvi'l'. I'iini •! ICS, illlll 1 I 1 l\> ell till- illlliriiil ^ curd nl I'liilm;!! •■ li laHtfiiin;; ImiI , <|i' iiitiiiir. iinil I '!•■ •umr w;ir ^Inirk l'\ iif liiricts. Ill !■• II- willi Miliil ;inii"r, I' witli iiiinriii i| mill till' i-itaili-l..it. !• \\;|S >l|llilTtl'll III IIL! :tii)i >tr:iiiiiii'^ <>t 'itiratioiis. Ill oil)' ii'tl firi' ot tilt' I'liit-; niiinr >ixlv tiiip . IS (ilir W llii'll li' ' , , ill tin- iiiatliT I'l it ill hkU\. aiul Willi ji-rl ill I'ltiiwtnii-tiMK rin- .Mi'ii'iiiiar. i'>r ar>. irf all aii^l'' "f to liiT |ilat'iiiK lii'ii' I .Ml llis. Ill' |*i>\V(lcr iDifrfirv wo'ilii li:i\i' ;i Mill' riiimilf-ti'ly II ! ..•• Iiatl<'r\- ■ mat I'll ' I' ii'ii :y«v> artl>. .Jl* Im- lattfl rlic .s, ■ill' iiiuki 1 1 ill-nil ■ I'll' ' h.' \ I 1 III' Ill 'I'l- VCUf'li .■-' * 1 '1 1, Ml nfi.''''Ai'<^f»r tit* ' , aii*l . ■ 'fftfv lie lanii'ii- ••^» HI Klin, witli . iiiwicli " tarn»i tliirkllt'SS of II!' ki'ii thrill, ^li Itii' ilalili' vcsst'ls all uiiilt'iiiij; lidiii |i'|irivi',lrf •j;immiKs wr lid, datiii;^' liark at least t<» ill** y<'ar l.'^'i". I'Ih' lir^t iiri'l'i'rlrd i'ni'i|Hiiiiiil jilatr. iiiadr li\ I 'aiiiiiicl iSi Cii,, 111 Kii'^laiid, wiiM lisii'd at Sliui'liiirs nrss in I.s77. It was ('iiiii|HiM'd uf .'i iih'Im" <•( it'iiii wit li a l-iiii'li lari' III nIi-i'I: tlir iiuu licin^r raisi'd In a wcliliii^ Ili';ll .ilid till- llinlti'll ^ti'i'l |i>Mlli'd mi its lii|i. T It liiat |iartiall,v fiim>il ilii> i'iiiita<'t ta<'>', till' iwii iiii'lai> wni' iiiiirrd. and tin' rninliin.ii inn was as^iin-il liv iiiiiiii'iiiali' riilliii<^'. < 'iiiii|iiiiinii |>la'. I'laii^' III |.Si I Irmii nliMiiiily to |Hi|iiiiai'it,v ; liy 1S7".* irmi .nnim- had iH't'oiiic ulMtilctr with |ir(i);i'<*ssivi- naval |iii\M'i's, Mini, ill I.SSII, liutli i-iiiii|Miuiid ;ini! sti'i'l pliiti'^ had n','ii'hi"l snrli dcvi-1- ii|i|ii('iit that llii'\ wrirrliiM- rivals. iIh- li'adin;; i'iiiii|irliluis Im-iii^' ( 'aiiiiiii'l in Kii:;l.iiiil and Sidiin'idt'f in I'lanci'. St.cil. Iniwcvri. slnwlv lni'iii'd alii'ad diir' III'.; ilir iirxl di-rade ; and. at its rlnsi', cniiipniind ainmr was iir.'tclirallv mil nf tlif ran-. In stctd's viftnrv. its allnv with lurki'l. in niinnti' |iiii|iiiiiii.iis. has iii;iti'ii,ill\ aidi'd : th •iiihinatinii iiii|iai-tiiiK hardiifsM uitlmiit > id' till' |ilat.«'. This niiitfiial yaxr Mqn'rinr it'siilts Irdin tin- ln'^in- iinn;, it> liist |ilatf, tcsti-fl in liSS't. was !(\ inidii's tliiik; if was |ii<'iiM'd hv Molt/ 'ihidl, w'hiisi> lindv did nut |iass whnllv lliriiii'.,di and wIiuki' cidtuv «ii< l.il iiiiii's that just iiiTi'ssarv In iifrtmati' a wriiiinlil-iitni platf id' tin- •iiiiiH' iliirkiii's.s. In till' iiHii'asi'd >licnutli ,!,'ivfii hv iiifkcl thi'ii' has hi'i'ii iiilili'il .1 liiilhcr ^{jiiii lliiniii;h till' aii|ilii'afinn nl rai'i'liaidfiiiiif,' |iini'i'SHi's — >iirli as thill nf tin- Aiiifiiraii, llarvi'V — whirh |irndnn' Mi|ii'iti('ial raihnni/a- linn, tniiishiiiiiiii^,' till* siirt'iiri' iiitn a liiwii uraih' nl mtx hard sti-i'l, wilhniit. till' |>riini>iiiiri'i| |iliini> nt' driiiarratinii lictui'i'ii thr Iwn i|iialitirs id' iiu'tal. as III tlii'Wflil lit till' i'niii|»nii!id |ilati'. A l«>j-iiii'h iiirkfl sti'i'l llarvi'vi/.i'd |iliili', ti'-ti'ihii till' Indian llt-ad I niviiijj ,'th whii'li M<'-. ■ i'l-V.'I lli'IJH ii'iiinr ' iiiid in'vi'f lii'i'ii iijiiah'd in tin' liislnrv id' aininr, and rslahlishcil ir>lnin thi'\alin' "f thi' raci'-hanh'iiinK prnri'ss, which, hy varinim :i|i|»licd In the iiick»»l-stt'el iilatin^ of to-day. 'I'lic distrihnlinii nf lit Mil' dcvcln|inn'iii nf iiiii-'lcshiji I'l'iisi iiiclinii is shnwii hy the shaih'il M'i'titiiis im f'latcs \'l and \'ll. ;m>i its irliitivf ihickncsscs, nii v dwiiit; thi« j»i'(ijfn'ss. hy 1*1, itc VIIC lllOlUi VL'hhl! iH t 1 ■ >'lllt ct 1 ■ .M./rr VI'l. ril'K HAM ^>' I' nit iMKl'llin, •1 y«*ars ihc i.nii — thf fl*/i>r-«'«iy«!il •• hcak " nf the ^wift ^{alley ' \M';i|iun. With the iidvfiit nf sail-|in\vei'aiid the eni|iliKll of 'i .'h t^t^t-il. ■'^-'■■-*. hN(.r <^imti n^,vim4 t>f m'rvicc in ai-tinii, while in iuci- h^jM! mumf tUiMi irtwe »|>)ialliii^ disaster. The imn- xanti -iNMlr m Miitiiifftnn Itnads. in .March. I.S«i'_'. ti>«- . „ , ^,^,^.1(1,^ Cinwti^i-land, whicl., niirlfr the '/.illstnt 'l«^M ' thiiiwW'i'in^r and cnsiyu ti^'Jng. Un July I'll, ¥ I (I ! I ii A4 riULMi'iis AMI uo\iti:i:s oi- ////■; a/.v" cum lid \st',lt, ■Imiim I III' :ii'liiiii oil III- i.-.|.itiil ot l.i>>a, III tlif Aili'i.itii', tin- Aiistiitii llii^tliiii I'l-nliiiaiiil .Maxiiiiiliaii laiiiiiiiil tlic Italian aiiii>>irlait l{<- il' llai.i, w hicli, with iiiaiiyor Ih-i- mini iimmi, naiik witli a .swittiii'x.s that t-hillnl tin- hln m| i>r tlii)si> will) walriii'il. I.iki* tlii>, ill its Miil.irii lia'.'filv , wa^ llif )li'>irii<-li'>ii 1*1 till* Itiitinli lialtl>'.Hlii|i \'ii tmia li; Ikt fiiii>nit, tlir i aiiipcnlnw ii, i>H 'l'n|i< n, Syria, in tlic ->uiiiiiii-i' Miiiii.,'lit dI a tliiiu* ilav in IH'.KI. The ram of tlic lati ami iaial ^m^Ii in tin- \'ict<>i'ia. wiiicli within trii iiiinnto tiinii'il liuttniii ii|i\\.iiil ami vM-nt iIuvmi, Imtv lii>>t. iH-aiin^' w ith lu-r .'SLII and iiii'ii, wliiwi* iintaltciiii^ iliM'i|iiiiii> piv<' a lii-iuic s|ili>mlrs|iiti' tlu'si' iircasiniial iiisianri's ol' its ih-aillv imwcr, tin ram lii>lii> a si'cniiil- at'\ plai'i- aiiiiiiiu na\al wi'a|iiiii>. 'I'm strike a niiMJi'iii Vf>M-l at liiKh .'<|h'i-iI will i'i>i|iiii'c iniH)- than tin- ^kill nl tlit> swDiiUnian. Till- tnr|ii'(li>. likf tlif irmnlail. was an Anniiraii inviiitinn, wliii>.c nf^'jiit li\ till' I iiitiil Stitf* uitvi'innii'iil liinii;rhi iciiilinlinn wlifn this fai's tn havf invcntctl hotli the siil>- iiiai'iiii> linat ami tin- niaiiii)- tiii'|i<'iln, th<- lalti-r lii-in!^ tii'*-)l liy ilnrk-wnrk. I'liltoii al>o iiii-t Miri't'ss in .-iniilai' wmk iliiiin^' tin- |i ri'n:iir\ , mint' ill.' t Ml'Oriloi*^ M Ol Ntationai\ (ritluT i>iii' ilay arc |ii'artii'all\ ol' Imi two I'lasso : tin •' hiiovaiit " or •• y;riiiiml," a> its |io>itiiiii in iIh- water liftiTiniiii's). ami il aiitiiiiiiiiiilc. or •' lish " tiir|ii'i|ii. Tin' Iihiimm t\|ic is tiifil cithi-r li\ i'lo>ii an rli'i'tiif rii'i'iiil in a >t ilinii mh simrf. or Ity tin- sliip iii-isfH in niiitai'l. ■. in I'li'ctrir flosi iMinii',' till- Civil War ihmiIv ihirtv vcssrls Wfi-r sin mini's, ii>ii,ilh \NiMM|i'n liarn'is lilli'il with ','iiii|ii>\>iii'r ainl tiri'il li\ iiaulin^ lin or » low-1 iiiniiii'.' III-.I' It was a niim '-ti.'I.l ovi'l whirli !•• lI'Ml'Jiit »'liar;,'i'i| at Moliili' i'.a\, vvlii'ii \\r iitli'irij lus laimms natli am! wi-nt "inH sjii'i'il ahi'ail," with till' ra>i'> ot llir loi'iiiiiat>'l\ ini|"iti'i>t tiir|M'cliM'N si liliu'^ till' llai'ltonrs liiittoiii ; it was a iiiiiii' whirli. it i> rlainn'il. sunk tin' .Maiii<': ami it was a iiiiiii'-lii'M wliirli l\r|il Sainiison's liatllr>lii|is froni I'lili'iiiiir iln' harlior uf ."saiit iM'.,'ii ilr (iilia. Tin' sl.it iniiarv tiir]Hili' is now rliar^fi-il "ilii l,'llll roltoll or iitlii'l' lli.!,'ll r\|ilosivi'. Till' ori};in of thr nio>.t |iidiiiiiii'iii nt llir aiitonioliili' torpiMhics is iliii' to ('a|itain !.ii|iiii'- nl thr All^tlian iiavv. ami its ili'Vi'Iii|iim'nt lioni l.Slil miw inl to \\ hiti'hi'ail. an lln^'lisliniaii. it is a l'i^'ar-s|la|M'll siilinia riiii' Vi'ssi'l tl' II to t'.) imhi's niaxiiiiiiiii iliainctiM' ainl tfoiii I I to ]*.) Iict loii^'. wliirli liiown Iroiii a torin'ilo-tiilif or unii witliiii tin' ^lii|i \>y rnmiin'ssi'il ,111 an ini|iiils(' rliar'.,'i> ot )4nii|ii'i'ssi'i| air stori-il in a ri'scrvuir thi'irin it at alMiiil thirty knots s|m'«'i1 throiiyli an I'tlVitivi' r.in^ji' of (MHl yahl^ III it s nosi' III' " war-iii-ail " tln-ir is rarrii'ij a lar;;f riiar^c of ^1111 r III I nil or iitlii'i' iii'^h i'\|iliisivi'. whii'h is tin-il hy i-ontart with tl m'lny's li ill. It is proviili'il with Imth liori/ontal anil vi>rti'al riiili|i't>. tin' ih'|itli ot 1111- ini'i'sion lii'iiii: ri'iriilatril hy iiitriiato niarliimry rontaini-d in tin' ••Italaini'- rliaiiilirr." Till' W'iiiti'lii'ail lias a soiiii'wliat fdrniidahli' rival in tin- I'liili''! .•stall's in till' tor|ii'do invi'iitrd hy Ki'ar Admiial liowfll. [' . S. N. lin' aiitoiiioliili' torjM'do has iirvtr yi't scoii'd in liattli* against ships in iiiot 'ii. !v%;i;: THE cEyriiiys A.ir.iz, I'JiotmEss w li.itii'. ihf Aiistii.iii Mii'lail !{•■ •!' iMiui, iit rhillfil til.' IiI.'hI was tin- tli">inii'iMii KMilnWU, kII 'l'ri|" ii, In- ram of tin- laiN r aitlim trii luiiiiii.'x Mtll 1HT .">-l nlll" l> iMItlol' til tlli-il •ixl. ram lils ■' hi'i'i;l>(t II tliis (Icaillv fiiKiiic i.iii llaK'. r>ii>liin'll I'liti'd iiotli tlif sill.. lili'll liV clnck-ttnlk. iutl rxtfiiiliii^,' tmm wallari'. cxi'i'iilllr,' lllnlivc jMiWcr, li.nl Till' |n||M'c|lll'v lli III ^lalii'iiaix (I'itlitT I'triiniiifsi. :iii«l llii' I'll citlHT li\ rli'MIl),' fisflt ill riiiitaiM, or »'«si'ls wi'ii- Miiiik liv ml tiivil l>y luiiiiiiiu' <•!• wliicli Kairayiit latli am! went ••lull t tiir|ii'iliii's stiil;iiij{ •il. sunk tl.f Maim-; •s irom niti-rin^r tin' s now rliai'v'fil "itli tr es etiMtaineil wiiliiii Hliip ami ii.'W. Till' i|.'V.'lii|>mi'iit III til.' siilimarini' liiriii'iln-linat. wlmsc \\<'a|iiin i«i the \\ ii;||'!ii'ail. lias in r.'r.-iit _\.'ars ii'c.'ivcil miirli atti'iitnui tlii'iuiKh tli.' IuImii-s ot till' Aiiu'rican ll.illami aii.l uth.'rs. Kiance, in tin- (iitstavns /e.le, ol' I'lill ti'iis, lias a .living' Imat nl this rliaiarti'i', tnr wlii.-h niii.'h is i-laimeil. VIII I 111 I SI I III s| MK.s KI.KKi. I'lilil ill.' ailv.'iif .it till' ii.iiii'lail. the shijis >aliti.'s tn any in tli.' wnrl.l. Till' lii;,'li staiiilai'il si'i liy ili.' ('nn.-«littitiiM> _\i'ars; ami. i's|iii'iall\ ihiiiii'^' tli.' iii'iiml I'liim j.SKitn jHiiO, il tliti'i's anil men nf tli.- I'liitt'il Stat.-s navy timl the .l.-eks nf the lin.'st ships illiiat. 'riii'\ I'l'lt — as tli.'ir siieeessiii's leil — thal.tiiii fur tun ami k'I'h jor '^'iiii. ilii'\ hail nil In.' tii lear. 'I'll.* .-arly steamers nf th.- rnwhatan elass Imill III the lite Ill's w.'i'.' il credit In the natinii; the liv.' ser.-w rriy:at.'s nf the Merriiiia.' typ.- ( IH"!**-.**?) amnseil th.- a.lniii'atimi ami imitati.ui nf fnreijfii .•Xjiflls, ami till' liv.' .'nrv.'ttes which fnllnweil them in l.s."i.S-,V.I-(i(t, nf which the imlilc llarttiuil was tl liief. Imri' their lull shar.- in the war which was so Hiinii til cniiii'. The ^;allant Kcarsar^e wi'.s liii.'.'il ill I.S.V.I. liiiiiii),' the t'ivil War twn v.-ss.'ls, tli.' Mnnitm ami the N.'w Ii'.uisiih'H, .i|i|icaii'il uliicli have I. 'It last iii^ trac.'s nil all liatth'ship .'niistriictinii since their .lay. 'i'lic j;r.'at th-et nf iiiniiit.irs, •• tiii-ela.ls," ••',M|.i|ay ^iinlinals," ••(liiiilile-ehijeis." aiiil the like, which |ii'ee.'(li'il ami fnllnw.'.! them tliiiin^^ tliiise ilaik v.'ars. s.-rv.'.l tli.'ir cniintry wi'll. With the .'mliiiK' '.>. I.ii tli eels are the cotninaml.'rs. navi^'atnrs, i,'imiii'rs. ami, hv r. nt law. the eie^.jiie.'rs .if niir ships nf war. Marine njlicers have cliarn.' .if the iMilit'iiii; nf s|ii|iK ami shore-stations iiml nl the i;niis nf li^;ht ealiltre iitlnal. riie iluties nf the retiiaiiiiiii; nllicers ar.' imlicat.'il liy their titles. The titl.-s "I lii Itiieis ami their r.-lative rank, as cimiiar.'il with that of ntlic.'is of tho aiin\, are; — MlMV. .\illiiinil . Ki'iii- Ailiiiirul *';i|il;iiii . . ('iiiiiiiiiiiul.'r . ITIll l.ii'iitfimni ((minmiKU'r .Maji Mii|iir nr Mrliru.li.r U.'iiiTiil. Ccilllllll. l.ieiiteiiant-Colonel. IMAGE EVALUATK3)N TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 2.2 lit 12.0 m IL25 1111114 ii.6 6" I 7 '^ V Sciences Corporation ^\ '^, <> v\ 23 WBT MAIN STRHT WiBSTEII,N.Y. MSM (716)t72-4S03 '^ Is ^ li H*»3 I! ■■■! 86 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF Till-: XIX'" CENTURY iJi'iiUfiiiint Ciiptaiii. Lii'iiteijuiit Junior Grade First Lieut I'imiit. Knsign Sl'CoikI Lit'Utt'imnt. Line ami marine otHeers ami naval constructors are educated at the rnitcd States Naval Academy ; all other officers are a])])ointed from civil lite. Tiic Academ_v was founded in l.S4r»and is located at Annapolis, Md. The cotnse comprises four years at the school and two years at sea on a naval vessel. The ininiber of cadets at Annapolis is usually about 'JCtO. It is by reason of wars that navies exist, and a few words as to our — now liappily ended — conflict with Spain, may fitly close this review of imval pro- gress. The military lessons of that struggle have been fully set forth Ijy able writers. ^lore important, byfav, than these is its teaching as regard to our state and future as a nation. The world has learned that the i)eoi)lc of these United States are stirred still by the same stern and dauntless sjiirit which, in Kevolution and Civil War. has made and ke])t us a nation. I'lir- thermore, with one swift ,-,croke, the boumls which in theory and in territory circumscribed u.s iiave been swept away, and the United States have passed from a continental to a world power. This is not chance. It is but the leaii- ing onward to a destiny whose sj»lemh)r we may not measure now, whose liglit and peace and prosperity shall traverse a hemisphere. The one note of sad- ness in it all is the memory of the gallant dead, of the heroes who fell that this might be. To them, in C'td)a and the Philippines, Columljia — witli a smile of pride and a sob of pain — drinks in the wine of tears to-day. as tlic smoke of battle fades. GKOKtiK Wali.A( K Mklvm.i.i:. CENTURY LLAt'K Mklvii.i.i:. ASTRONOMY DURING THE CENTURY ITS PROGRESS, ACI1IEVP:MEXTS, AND NOTABLE RESULTS AsriioMiMv, tlie oldest of all the family of spiences, is not a whit behiiul its sister hniiiclu's in activity of research and hrilliance of discovery. The assiduity and zeal of its devotees are marvelous. The celestial field is so wide, tiie dei)ths of space between the stars so vast, that no assurance eau ever he j,nven to an astronomer that a lifetime of faithful and intelligent research will be rewarded with even a single discovery of importance. In this respect it (litters materially from other branches of science. Nevertheless the j)atient labor of those who serve in its temple has rarely failed to receive an adeipiate reward. The discovery made in August, 1877, by Professor Asaj)li Hall, of Washington, that the planet Mars is attended by two satellites, is a convincing illustration of this ])ecuharity of the pur- suit of astronomy as a study. An indefatigable watcher of the skies for many years, I'rofessor ILall, looking at this planet at its opposition in 1877, when it was unusually near to the earth, was surprised to note two tiny points of light qiiite close to it ; seeing them again the next evening, changed iu their jiositions relative to Mars, it flashed ujwn him that the firm tradition that Mars had no moons was now disproved. His name will be forever associati.'d with these two bodies, Deimos and IMiobos, as their discoverer, althougli they are but wee orbs, only seven miles in diameter. I. ASTUONO.MY A ('KNTIKV A(iO. The end of the eighteenth century found the Copernican theory of astronomy well established, the ])rinciples laid down by Kepler and Newton fully eliihorated, and the application of the higher mathematics to the needs of astronomy complete, lint there were, as yet. no large telescopes, and observatories were few. In CJevmany, a great dis])osition to make observa- tions in this science and in meteorology was displayed in 1783 and for a few- years following, and the records then made have proved of much value in contiriiiiiig discoveries announced at later periods. Wiicn Sir William Herschcl, on INIarch l.S, 1781, poinled out a little star ill the coiistellatiou of the Twins, and found that it had a jjcrceptible disk and a slight motion, and was therefore not a star, but a newly found planet, to wiiicli the name Uranus was soim given, a careful insi)ection of the note- books ol' previous observers showed that Uranus had been observed and ri'i'ordi'il as a fixed star on twenty ])revious occasions in that centurj'. One man liad seen it twelve times, and made his record of it on a paper bag jnir- cliased at a perfumer's. Had he been a man of sufficient order and method to have jicnned what he saw on the regular recor "s of his observatory, to him Would have come the glory of the great discovery of that century. i?'! ^ 88 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY II. now " bodk's law " promoted reseakch. An erroneous guess, if it is a good guess, sometimes produces excellent- results. In 1778, ISode, of I>erlin, published a "law" that states the dis- tances of the various planets from the sun. It is often expressed simply in this way : Set down 4, and add to it successively the numbers 3, 0, lU, 24, etc., and the sums obtained, viz., 4, 7, 10, 16, L'S, etc., represent the relative distances of all the planets from the sun, viz., Jlercury 4, Venus 7, Earth 10, Mars 1(>, [Asteroids L'S ], Jujnter ~>'2, etc. In reference to all the jylanets then known to exist, the correspontlence of the alleged law to the facts was remarkable. The one point in which the alleged system uttei'ly failed was in requiring the existence of a ])lanet to till the gap between ^lars and tlnpi- ter. So boldly did liitda press his convictions of the correctness of this law upon tlio notice of his fellow-workers, that they resolved, in 1800, to divide the zodiac into twenty-fonr zones, to be apportioned among them, for the express purpose of searcliing for undiscovered i)lanets. This well-organized ert'ort was, erelong, ^rewarded by the surprising discovery of four new planets, the first one on the first night of the new century, January 1, 1801, and three more soon after. As no more seemed to be forthcoming, the search was relinquished in 181(5. A fifth was found in 184"), and nearly five hun- dred since. Since 1891 photography has been wondrously serviceable in finding these bodies. A sensitive plate, on being exposed toward that part of the sky which it is desired to examine, will record all the perceptible stars as round disks ; while any planets that appear in the field of view will, by their motion, leave their trace in the form of elongated trails or streaks, thus betraying themselves at once on the photographs. In this way Charlois, of Nice, Italy, has found nearly ninety small planets. All tliese planetoids, as the minor planets are often termed, are quite small, being but twenty to one hundred miles in diameter, and not consequential members of tlie solar system. Bode's law thus fulfilled its temporary mission ; but egregiously failed when Neptune claimed admission to a place in the solar system, for its distance from the sun was utterly out of harmony with that required by the law of Bode. III. now XEI'TUNK WAS FOUND. The patience of Job had a strong parallel in the labors of those tireless toilers to whose minute computations we owe our knowledge of Neptune's path in the skies. For this far-off planet was discovered not by the use of a telescope, or any optical instrument, but simply by a process of mathemati- cal reasoning. The story is simply this. For sixty years after Uranus was recognized, there were irregularities in its motion that could not be satis- factorily accounted for. In the orbit that it was believed to pursue, it was sometimes in advance of its proper position, and sometimes it seemed to fali behind. Sometimes it appeared to be drawn a little to the right, and at other times as far the other way. The thought at last came separately to several penetrating minds, not thai the observations of its position were in error, but that l^ranus must be drawn away from its supposed path by the attraction exercised upon it by some unseen body. And if such an object existed, was it a planet ? Where was it ? How large was it ? "What was its path in the far-off ether ? ENTURY ASTROyOMY DURING THE CENTURY 89 In tlio year 1S42, the Koyal Society of Sciences of Giittingeu proposed as a prize (piestion the full discussion of the theory of the motions of Uratuis. It was specially soiight to learn the cause of the large and increasing error of IJdUvard's Tables that had been relied upon to show its motion and its precist> position at any time. Several able mathematicians undertook this iiitrioiite problem. Among them were .John C. Adams, of Cambridge Uni- versity. England, Sears C. Walker, of Washington, a man whose sad fate it was to pass away ere his nuigniticent abilities could receive extended recog- I82i 1830 ,,-^- 1 ~~"~~'^^. ifllO y y^ "v • A ,r\ 18 40 / A 1 \ i \ 1 Riir \ ^ ''"''^22 ~~^^ \ loUlj /■ \ \ / 1830 laiff* 1 / 4 \ ^ 1840 c ) / il781 I 5uN - 1 SOOT ^ -^ \ \ ly / \ \^ ^y / \^ .^^ .„^___^ 1781 ^^ ^ THE MOVEMENT OF URANUS AND NEPTUNE. The inner circle shows tlie position of Uranus at various dates; the outer circle the position of Neptune. Tlie arrows sliow the direction toward wliicli Uranus was drawn. nition. and M. Le Verrier, of Paris. Working unknown to each other, they reached similar conclusions almost at the same time. Though not the first to solve the problem, the brilliant Frenchman was the fii'st to announce his result, which he did by writing a letter to Dr. (ialle, of the Berlin Observa- tory, wliere there was one of the largest telescopes in Europe, and asking liim to search for his computed planet, and assigning its supposed place in the he;iv(;ns. The very night he received the letter ])r. Galle found the I'lanet within one degree of the point designated. The next night it had moved one minute of space, and was also seen to have a perceptible disk. riiis -settled the question, and stamped it as a planet. Le Verrier well meriteii the title bestowed upon him, " First astronomer of the age." 90 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX"' CENTURY IV. MKTK(»UITKS. The iiiiieteeiith (•cntiirv will be forever iiiemonible for its wittiessiii",' tlm closiiif^ (;iireer and tiiiiil destnictioii of a famous eoinet. First noticed in France, in 1772, and rediscovered, in l.Sli(», by an Austrian otHcer nauied lUela, it bears his name. His computation showed that it traversed its orbit in si.\ and one half years. When it reapiieared in 17 pounds. On April iS, IHWA, an aerolite fell near Osawatomie, Kansas, and struck the monument to John Brown that had been erected through the efforts of Horace Greeley in 18()8. The meteor broke off the left arm of the statue. A Texas meteorite, owned by Yale University, weighs KIM') pounds. A meteorite that fell in Jiminez, in 1892, now deposited in the city of Mexico, weighs twenty tons ; and one lying on the coast of Labrador, which it is proposed to bring to the United States, is said to be still more massive. f,l V. DO METKORS OFTKX STKIKK THE EARTH ? It must not be thought that meteors usually strike the earth. In truth, but few of them do. The earth is surrounded by them, cold, dark, invisibk', because unillumined. It is only when they become he.ated by rapidly im- pinging on the atmosphere that they can be seen at all ; and unless tlicy come near enough to become su))ject to the dominant power of the eartir,s attraction, they pass off into space unnoticed, and their jnesence unsuspected. A case in point is the brilliant "tire-ball" of July 20, 1S(50. that moved rapidly over the United States, from Wisconsin to ('ape Cod, and then passed off into the skies. The entire time of its visible flight over a path of thir- teen hundred miles was about two minutes. It was seen about ten o'clm'k in the evening. It was estimated to be from one Imndred to live hundred feet in diameter, allowing for an increase as it expanded by reason of its striking with such velocity the lower and denser layers of the air. Its size and brilliancy were such as to arrest the attention of hundreds of persons, some of whom crouched in fear, and even alleged that they heard it hiss as it flew over their heads. Some lishermen in Lake Huron had ropes over the sides of their boat, ready to spring into the water if it came too near. James H. (,'ottin, LL. 1)., then Professor of Astronomy in T.,afayette College, made an exhaustive study of this unusual phenomenon, and, under the ]iat- ronage of the Smithsonian Institution, published a volume containing many observations that he collected, with the mathematical results derived f r mi CENTURY ASTliUSUMY Dt'niNG THIi CliNTUltY 91 tliciii. I'lol'essor ,1. Ilium, of Vii'inia. tlie hislH'st anthority on this subject, Miiil that it was thti most compivlu'ii- sivr Ntudy of a iiu'teor's path ever ac- comiilislicd. Si.v yt^ars were sjuMit in luakiiij,' tiie eomiuitatioiis. Si'lt-illmniiu'd l)y tlic licat evolved in stiikinj,' tlie various layers of tlie earth's atini>si)here, it became sutticiently bright to be first seen when seventy miles above the surface of the earth. It was within forty miles of touchini; ns at the time it was over the JIndson IJiver. when the <,'reat heat a('(iuired by its rapid transit caused it to burst into two masses, which — like i'iela's comet — coiitimicd to jmrsne .sejiarate courses, side by side, until they were lost to view in tlieir ascendin.!;' tlii,dit, beinti; last seen from the deidc of a vessel ofl' the island of Nantucket. No part of the fire-ball struidv the earth. Its orbit was an hyi)erbola. a curve not often fotind in nature, and such that it can never conu' near us again uidess, by the superior attracition of some celestial body, its course may be changed, and a new orbit result. . .JAMES H. COFFIN. I.iile I'lofi'ssor of Astronnriij', LafuyeUe College, IvistDii, Pu. VI. ASTKOXOMK'AIi OHSKKVATORIES. Tlie Ivoyal Observatory, at (Ireenwich, England, was founded by Charles the Second in 1()7.'>. Its main purpose was to extend astronomical know- ledge, so that navigators might better find the position of their ships at sea. This institution retains its prominence. All the longitudes on our maps are reckoned from it, and (ireenwich time is used on every ship that traverses the ocean. The "Nautical Almanac," issued by the Observatory, was an indispensable part of the outfit of every sea captain until, in 1852, the United States provided its own American Ephemeris, a collection of tables of the motions and places of the sun, moon, and planets for every day and hour, and occultations of the stars, with rules for calculating longitude anil tlie like. .Many valuable observations of the transit of Venus in 1769 were made at points near Philadelphia; but ahnost seventy years ensued before America witnessed the erection of any permanent Imildings devoted to the purposes of tills science. iMvsident John (^uincy Adams, who was highly versed in science, and held the position of ])resident of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in liostou lor twenty years, often urged this matter on the attention of Con- gress, I)ut without success. I'l' ^ident Thonuis Jefferson, who Avas also a man of no small scientific infill Illation, as evidenced in his keeping a systenuitic weather record at his 02 TRIUMPHS ASH WONDERS OF THE XL\"' CENTURY hoiiit' in ^rontieello. \'irj.:iiii;i. iirojioscd an eliil)(irato survi-y of the national coast. This was anthoii/.fd hy (.'(iu^mvss in 1S07. In the year IH'.VJ, in vevivin}^ an act tor tlie contiiuianct' of tlie Coast Survey, (.'onj^ress was cait - fill to apjieiul the in'ovi^so •• tiiat notiiint,' in tiie act slionkl he eonstrneii to anthorize the erection or maintenance of a iiernianent astronomical chservatory." Tiie exjiecteil retnrn of Ilallcy's comet in 1,S.'>"» aj^aiu stinuihiteil ])ojiiil;ir interest in tiie sciencie. and aronsed an intense desire to provide serviceahle instrnnients, and to establish hnildinj^s suitable for tiieir cai'e and use. 'I'n Williams College. Massachusetts, belongs the honor of erecting, in iSliit, tiic first astronomical observatory on this continent. Under its revolving dome was mounted an Ilerscheliaii telescope of ten feet focus, wiiicli later became the property of Lafayette College, where it is still preserved. In 1H4.S, Jolni Quincy Adams laid the corner-stone of the Longworth ( >bscrvatory in Cin- cinnati, and delivered a eonimenKU'ative address, his last great oration. Tiie construction of the United States Naval Observatory at Washington soon followed, and before IH'A) there were fourteen observatories estal)lished in this country. Nearly all the instrunu'uts they eont;iined were made abroa.' chiefly in ^lunich and London. Since then the number has risen to two hundred recognized observatories, of which twenty-four are of superior order, where systematic work is daily pursued, and the results are I'egularly published in book form. About two hundred observatories exist iu other nations. m IH VII. IMPKOVEl) IXSTKIMKNTS; TIIEIH EKFKCT ON TIIE SCIENCE. Tlie great improvoments in teleseoites made during the century have been fruitful in two ways ; a better knowledge of the surface of the moon and of the planets has been gained, and we liave been enabled to learn with pre- cision the exact motions and times of revolution of tliese bodies and of tlieir accompanying moons. This information, by tlie use of the laws ascertained by Kepler and La I'lace. gives us their exact distance, dimensions, and mass. With the increase of telescopic jjower, the census of tlie starry host has been so augmented thtit the number of stars within reach of our modern instru- ments exceeds 12.").000.0(M). liut we had gone little beyond this sort of information until the invention of the spectroscope. Previous to the year LSoO a few meteors, composed chiefly of stone or iron, some of which had been actually seen to fall from the sky, had been subjected to chemical analysis ; but outside of this naught was known of the physical constitution of other worlds than ours. Our ignorance on this point was complete. All our attemjits to become better acquainted with the struc- ture of the planets, the composition of the sun, and the nature of the fixed stars would jirobably have been in vain but for the invention of the spectro- scope. This surprising instrument is a master-key with which to unlock many of Nature's mysteries ; her recesses are brought to view, and the farthest star is subjected to an accurate chemieal analysis, so far as the light that comes from it is sufficient to disclose the materials of which it is composed. The wondrous use of electricity as an agent for the production of light. heat, and power is no greater achievement, in its v/ay, than is Spectrum iiii^ ,- \ y i)i the natioiiiil he year 1K.'W, in '()n,t,'ress was ciiit- uhl he eoustrueil ent asti'ouoinieal ;iimihite(l i)0])iil;ii' oviile serviceahlc •are and use. Tk ting, ill lf any luminous body, after it has passed through a prism, is said to be the spectrum of that body. 11" VIII. rilK SPKCTKOSCOl'K AM) ITS TKIIMPIIS. The spectroscope consists essentially of three tubes joined in the form of the letter Y, one of which is a small telescope, in the focus of -which a narrow slit is placed to admit the ray of light that is to be examined; a prism, or a ruled grating that disperses the light, so as to form a spei;- trum ; and a view telescope, with which to observe the various parts of the sj)ectriim. By using a small teleseojie to view the s])ectrum of the sun, Fraunhofer. a German optician, in 1814, discovered that the whole length of the spectrum was crowded with dark lines, very narrow, indeed, but scattered all through the seven hues. He found that sunlight, wliether taken directly or reflected CESTUHY ik ul' til" Diviiiu jry of tliu M|ii'L't!(p- I'ly this : A my if iiildw .sliiittci. |nci- 1,'las.s prism licM l)o\v liiu's. It' the iiicii lii^li iintl one ;uli' to pass ill sue. ic 1)1111(1 will he so ciui be llioniiii^liiy till' iiaiiii^ di' till' ly huniiious body, tiiiiii of that body. PHS. lied in tlie form of focus of which a 5 to be examined ; as to form a speo irious jiarts of the sun, Fraunhofer. a h of the spectniiu attered all throu.<,'h lirectly or reflecti'd -i^ if T Di Si i' -to -i . kv ^i_ '-^■^^„ ^•T»fl?^ '--n 'iR^> >V: ■■9»ff?^^''-k^?' YERKES TELESCOPE, UNIVKUSITY OF CHICAGO. Largest in the World. 96 rniUMI'llS A sit WOSDKliS OF rilK XIX'ii CESTUUY from rlouds or tnnii tlic iikkiu or pliiiicts, inviuiiiltly Kiivf tlit* mimo sjK'Ctniiii; l)iit in no niHc tliil \\'^\\l from tliu stavH givf ii .spt'ctnim of the Hurnu sort ,is that Iroiii till' sun. Dr. Kirclilioff, ol' llcidcllH'rf;. in IN.V.), cxplaini'd the origin of thi- (lii:k lini's, anil hIiowi'iI tliat, tlirii- an- tliriM' kinds of s|it'i'tra: lir.sl, that ol nu incanilcsctMit solid or liquid, wliiuli is alwa^vs pcrfei'tly continuous, showinij n«;itlii'r dark lines nor brij^dit; second, tlic spt'ctruni of a glowing j^a.s, which consists of lM'if,'lit lines oi' iiands separated hy dark spaces. 'I'liese lines iuc characteristic of tlio elieniical elements that cause them; ami so, from tlie cuniposition of the liri^'ht lines in a s|iectrum, it is poHHilile to tell tlnir origin. Third, a spectrum crossed liy dark lines ; which occurs when an ini;iii- ,^ ^descent solid is viewed throii^'h alisorhent vapors. In the sohir eclipse id l.SO.S, M. .lanssen first noticed that the sniar prominences gave a spectrum of the second kind, and thus proved that the jirominences consist of glowing gas. Since that time the marcii of discoveiy has boon ex(;eedingly rapid. This simple instrument has thus led the way to a knowledge of the ele- ments composing every heavenly body, no matter what its distance. pro\ idcil only it is giving out light intense enough to reaidi our ga/.e. For the jierlec- tion l)otli of the telescope and spectroscoiic we owe much to the optical skill and mechanical dexterity of the ('larks iind Itowhind. Hastings iiiid Urashear, all .Americans. About forty chemical elcnu'iits have now been recognized in the sun. The most iiromiueiit are iron, calcium, hydrogen, nickel, and sodium. A distnr- tion, or dis]ilacement, of souh! of the lines in the spectrum enables lis to cal- culate the speed at which the gasi's are rushing toward or from us. A given line in the spectrum of Aldebaran is disjilaced toward the violet in sucii a way as to show that the star is apiiroaching the sun at the rate of thirty miles a second ; while a similar line, in the case of Altair, so deviates toward the red end of the spectrum as to prove that it is receding from the solar system at a vidocity of twenty-four miles a second. I>y this ]irinciple. recog- nized by l)()]i]iler in IHH'. the motions of about one hundred stars toward or from the solar .system liave been ascertained. There is no question but that the solar system, as a wliole, is steadily moving away from Sirius, and toward the constellation of Hercules; whether faster than at a rate of twelve miles every second is still scarcely decided ; but this rate would be about a milli.iu miles a day, or three hundred ami seventy million miles a year. IX. WHAT IS DOXK IN' A l-AliCiK OHSF.H V ATOI! Y ; ITS WOKK. A visitor who wants to know what is done in a great observatory mi^lit go to Harvard some evening. He would jirobably find tlie large refractor pointed toward the satellites of .f npiter, Uramis. or Neptune, with a view of noting their ])recise jdaces, so as to cominite tables of their exact motions; or he might find a laboriotis observer wiitching such double stars as have cim- siderable jjrojier morion, and making drawings of conspicuous nebuliv, so that future astronomers may be able to decide whether time has wrought any changes in their constitution or figure. The great glass at Princeton, under the charge of Professor Charles A. Young, is largely used for si)ectrosco;'ip ASTUOyoMY DVniStJ THE CENTUUY \n work, exuiiiiuiiiK tl>*' '^uii's |>h(>tiis|ihfre by iliiy, ami iiutiii^' thu Hpuetni of tlm Htiii'i lit iii^'lit. Spfctnil observiitiiiii is lui iiiiiiurtuut |iui't uf the ruutine lit the \ iiki's Olwi'ivatory in WiMciinsiii. Maiiv t'iiiiit ciiiiit't.s Imvc hct'ii suwcsslully iilu)t.'{, Sir William llorseiud tiist iMiiioiuiced the existence (d' sidereal systems composed of two stars, one rcvdlviiij,' around the other, ')r both moving al)out a common centre. Sonut of tlii'sc binary Hystems have jieriods of as great a length as fifteen hundred veins ; and sonu' are as l)rief as four, and even two days. .Sonm of them utTonl curious instanees (d contrastcil colors, the larger star red or orange, and the smaller star blue or green. X. VWV. XATIO.V.M, onSKUVAroUV AT WASIIIMJTON. I'lofessor William Harkiu'ss, U. S. N., JM. I).. \Au |).. is widely known as tlie author of numerous astronomical . . .. ^ iuul jijiysical papers and books, lie has also designed a number of iniitrunuMits and made im])ortant discoveries, lie Ims long been connected with the Unit- ed Stattfs Naval Observatory, and now holds the jKisition of Astronomical Di- rector. His report for the year IH'.tS sliows tliat the twenty -si.x indi reflector at Washington is now nightly engaged in ma|iping the relative jjositions of Hhea and lapetiis, the fifth and eighth satel- liti'S of Saturn, with the intention of securing a new and final deternnnation LM of the sun. The twelve-inch telescope is chiefly employed in studying (omets and asteroids, and on Thursday t-ven- ings is at the service of the jniblic. I n tiie year 181)8, .S778 observations were made with the lune-inidi transit circle, for which two nu'U were detailed, witli tile services of five com]>uters. A transit circle and an altazimuth instrument, each t\irned out of s(did stiH'l, liave recently been added to the eipiipnuMit. and are cd' a workm.'inship that coiujjares favor.ably -with anything ever nuunifactured in Europe. It is as.sertcd that the latter instrunumt will give more accurate measurements of declination than a transit circle, which is an innovation on long-cherished ideas. rrott'ssor Simon Newcomb, of the United States Xavy, is about to issue I'llOl.'F.ssoii Wir.T.IAM nAltKNI'.ss, lV^tl'llll<>lllie.ll l>ii('i't(ii' v. S. Naviil Olmervatoiy, Wifliiiitftoii, I). C. 98 riUUMPHU AND WONDERS OF THE A/A™ CENTURY new tables of Mars, Uranus, and Xcptune, and a "Catalogue of Fundamental Stars for the Epo(!h 19(H)."' During the year IHUiS three thousand copies of the American Nautical Almanac were published. This is but an illustratiim of the seientilic labor accomplished at this busy hive of industry. During the yejir this observatory issued to the navy 'SoO chronometers, 200 sextants and octants, and 1400 otlier nautical instruments of value. XI. STAR MAI'S AM) CAT ALiXUKS. In the year 12S n. c. Hipparclnis jnit o\it a catalogue of 1025 stars observed at Khodes. Twenty such works succeeded this up to the year 1801, when Lalandc. of Paris, brought out a list of 47,390 stars. It will be remeri.bered that few stars have nanu-s, except those known to the Arabiiiiis of old, but are designated by their positions in the heavens. It is custoniaiy to refer to them by their declinations and right ascensions, as so many degrees north or south of the celestial equator, and so many degrees, or hours, east of the vernal equinox — fifteen degrees being the eipiivalent of an hour of right ascension — just like the latitude and longitude of cities on a common glol>e. During the nineteenth century many celestiial atlases and astronomical catalogues have been jmblished. These contain lists of comets and nebula-, and the places of the double stars and of the fixed stars. Of the latter alone over one hundred have ai)pearcd, of which Argelander's is by far the largest, as it contains the places of more than 310,000 stars. The catalogue prepared by the British Associaticm in 1845 is of great value, containing 8377 stars. Yarnall's, of 10,G58 stars, pid)lished in AVashington in 1873, is most acces- sible to us. Professor ('. H. F. Peters, of the Hamilton College Observatory, Clinton, N. Y.. the discoverer of so many asteroids, has prepared a valuable series of star charts. By dividing the heavens into small squares and carefully photo- graphing each of them, the places of a vast number of stars can be recorded with far greater accuracy than by the old plan of a separate instrumental measurement of the position of the stars. P)y the use of microscoi)es tiie determination of their positions can be made with precision. These plates are preserved with care, and when those of the same region of the skies, made in different years, are compared, any variation in the relative positions of the objects can be detected with certainty. The perfection of this metiiod of star-mapping is justly deemed one of the most imiiortant achievements of the century. For an amateur star-gazer who is not provided with a set of maps, Whitall's Planisphere is a very ready aid, as it can be instantly adjusted to any day and hour. The inexperienced, and those who have no instruments, can use it with ease and satisfaction to locate a thousand of the most conspicuous stars. XII. A.STROXOMKAIi HOOKS AND THEIR WRITER.S. In England this attractive study has been popularized chiefly by the inter- esting works of the two Herschels. who were voluminous writers, the lectuies of Proctor, and the admirable compend of facts so assiduously gathered l)y G. F. Chambers in his delightful treatise on astronomy. I I .- CENTURY ASTRONOMY DURING THE CENTURY IH) III iMir own country tht^ heights of tlicoreticiil astronomy have been scaled liv siiih minds as JJenjaniiu Tierce, the profound niatliematician of Harvard riiiviTsity ; James C. Watson, of Ann Arbor, whose early death was a great lipss til science; and Simon Neweomb, the genial savant of Washington, ('iiiiiivciiet and Loomis iiave tauglit us the meaning of practical astronomy; iiiiil (fjiiisti'd, Young, Todd, and not a few others of distinction liave prepared text-lHMiks that fully present tlie elements of tlie science. N(ir is this fascinating study limited to the students of the 484 colleges and universities of the land. The last report of the United States Cumniis- sidiier of Kducation slu)\vs that in the public and private high schools of tiie nation there are over nine thousand boys and sixteen tluusand girls pursuing tiiu study of astronomy. XIII. rUK PRACTICAL USKS OK ASTRO.NOAIV AS .\X All) TO X.VVIGATIOX AND liEOUKSV. Tiie ])raetii'al value of this science is best appreciated by the navigator, whd sees in the sun and moon his clock, and in thd stars and planets the ready means of learning his latitude and longitude. It is one of the first tasiis (if the midsliiinnan to become familiar with the use of the sextant, by whit'ii lie works out the problem of ascertaining the exact place of the ship upon tiie ocean. Navigation is helpless without the assistance of astronomy. Yet it is only the A, B, C of the science that the sailor has any use for : its liiglier mysteries are away beyond his needs and of no practical profit to him. Nathaniel Bowditch, of Salem, Mass., in 1X02, issued a book entitled " The New American Practical Navigator," which is still a standard treatise for seamen. His rare acquireUieuts as a mathematici.an were signally displayed, aiul ill a form that has proved enduring, when, in 1814-17, he translated into English, accompanied with copious notes of his own, the profound work, "Celestial Mechanics," penned by the gifted La Place in 175)9. Although in name a translation of a foreign book with a commentary, it is in many resjieets an orig'nal work. Professor Elias Loomis, who left to Yale Uni- versity tiiree hundred thousand dollars as an endowment fund to aid in prcseciiting astronomical research, said of him, in 1850, "Bowditch has prol)- ably ilone more for the improvement of physical astronomy than all other Americans combined." Dr. Bowditch published the work in four ponderous ijiiarto volumes wholly at his own private cost. I'hese volumes he did not expose for sale, but generously gave them to such persons as proved to him tlieir ability to appreciate and comprehend them. This outlay impaired the lortunes of his family, but became his own unitpie monument. Tills work remains one of the most profound efforts of mathematical reseaiili on record. Bowditeh's accuracj' has passed into a jjroverb. He gave till- latitude of all the principal seaports of the world with marked jire- ei.siou : wliile some of the longitudes are now found to be rdiglitly in error, it IS sm|irising that his determinations of those of Boston and Philadelphia slioulii be exactly the same as those obtained by the best methods in use to-day. But he makes San Francisco and Halifax seven miles too far to the east, and New l''ork eight miles too far Avest. But we are to remember that for tliH computation the best available instruments were the chronometers of a ci'iitury ago, and that lunar observations were made with the old-time sextant. 100 TRIUMPHS AXl) WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY As applied to s[efidesy, astronomy lias added a process of ascertaining yco- grapliical latiti .le \vitii marvelous accuracy and speed by the use ot tlic zenith telescope, an instrument devised by ^lajor Talcott in 1885. This instrument can be set in a vertical direction with ease, and be ])ointed alui- ZKxri'u Tf;i,KS('oPE. Miuli' fur Uiiivorsiiy of Pennsylvania l>y Wainer & Swasey. nately to two stars that cross the meridian at a brief interval of time, the I'lie r.;th and the other south of the zenith. Difficulties that arise from ref tac- tion are avoided, and the resulting latitude is (piickly computed. 'Iliis method is largely employed in the survej-s of the piddic lands, as also in estal)lishing the boinidarj- between the United States and British America CENTURY ASTRONOMY DURING THE CENTURY 101 XIV. NOTABLE EPOCHS I.V TItE XIN'ETEEXTH CENTURY. Worth mai'kiiig as epochs of the nineteenth century were such dates as Oetuber 10, liS4(), when the Hrst tleterniination of difference of longitude of two phices was made by tlie use of the telegraph wire. Sears C. Walker, in Wiisliington, and E. (,)tis Kendall, in I'hiladelphia, compared their clocks by iiitcnlianging telegrajjliic! signals, and thus found their respective longitudes. In l.Si")!), Professor William V. Bond, of Harvard College, invented the chiiiudgraph. Through tiio urgency of Sir David Hrewster, it was shown in tilt' great exhibitiiiii of that year in London, where a medal was awarded for it. The chronograph was speedily adopted throughout Europe, and together with otlnn- apparatus made by IJond constituted what there became known as tlie •■ American nu'tliiHT'of recording observations. Through it tlie errors for wliich the "personal equation" is a partial remedy are largely elimi- nated, and a superior detiniteness of record is obtained. On August 7, 1S()1>, tlie tirst api)li('ation of the spectroscope to the examina- tion of the corona of the sun was the beginning of the revelation of the inner mysteries of the constitution and activities of tlu^ great luminary. The tran- sit of Venus that occurred on December (J, iSiSL', was fruitful in measure- ments, by which the estimates of the distance of the sun were reduced from the long-accepted Hgures, 9."> to 92 millions of miles. Yet this loss of three millions of miles resulted from the apparently trifling change of reckoning tlie sun's parallax at S.SL'", instead of iS./iT". An occurrence of vast i)ractical ailvantage to the whole nation was that of November 18, 1883, when the four standard meridians of railroad time were adopted and put into use. From that (lay the clocks of the Union were set to keep either Eastern, Central, Mountain, or I'aciHc Coast time. Professor Edward E. IJarnard had used the magnificent telescope of thirty- six inches ajierture, belonging to the Lick Observatory in California, but a short time before he astonished the world by discovering a fifth satellite of Jupiter, although it appeared as but a faint speck of light, liesides other honors for this achievement, in 1804 the French Academy of Sciences awarded him the Arago medal, of the value of a thousand francs, a distinc- tion given but twice before, first to Le Verrier, for the discovery of Neptune in 1S4(), and to Asajjh Ifall, for flr.ding the two moons of ^larsin 1877. "i'ersonal equation"' is the name given to the amount of error to which any person is habitually liable in attempting to note the time of a fixed ociMineuce. When the astronomer looks at a star passing the cross-wires of his transit, he is likely to make the record one or two tenths of a second after the true time, or possibly a like small amount of time before the actual occurrence, by anticipation. This is not a matter of wrong intention, nor due to willfulness. Ibit in precise observations, especially where compari- sons are to be made between the records of several persons, the " personal equation" must be determined, if possible, and allowed for. Various mt'tliods of correcting tiiis inaccuracy have been used. Hut the best is that of iMank n. Bigelow, of the Nautical Almanac Office, Washington, who, in 1891'. ilevised a jirocess of taking star transits by photography. It entirely does away with this source of error, and has proved of great value. 102 TRIUMPHS AXD WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY XV. MSCAKPEP DOCTRIXES AXD AHAXDONKD IDEAS. A few generations ago an eight-day clock was to be found only in tlic homes of well-to-do ])('oi)le, and a gold watch was a syndwl of wealth, siidi as to subject its wearer to a special tax. In this age of dollar clocks ami Waterbury watches, almanacs are no longer indispensable. We do not regu- late our time-pieces by the rising and setting of the sun; nor can a futuie Jay Gould lay the foundation of his fortune, as did the one best known liy that name, by setting up rural noon-marks for a fixed fee. Some pleasant dreams of ])ast decades have vanished in the light of recent knowledge. The nebular hypothesis, that wondrous conception of SwedtMi- borg, elaborated by La Place and espoused by \\'illiam Jlerschel and so many others, as aftnrding a full explanation of the method by which our worlds were shaped into their present forms, has ceased to have general acceptanbservatory in liS4(», had a firm persuii- sion that the collective body of stars visible to us has a movement of revolu- tion about a centre situated in the group of the l^leiades, and corresi)onding to the star Alcyone. But this notion of a central sun around wliich all the solar system is circling has lost ground. The distortion in the orbit of the planet Mercury has been accounted for bj' the urgent suggestion that there must be some planet, as yet undiscovered, that disturbs the regularity of AFereury's movements, but whose orbit is so near to the sun as to bafHe all ordinary efforts to see it. It has received, by anticipation, the prenatal name of ^'ulcan. Many eyes have peered most intently into the region indicated, and some few have imagined they Inid found what they sought. A physician of the village of Orgeres. France. M. Lescarbaidt by name, on jVIarch 26, isr»l(. saw such an object pass over the sun's disk. The skillful Ls Verrier was nmch im])ressed by this j)hysi- cian's minute account of the occurrence. Jiut there was no cjufirmation <'t the alleged discovery. At the time of suliseiiuent ecli))ses that part of tin' heavens has been repeatedly examined closely, but in vain. So we must wait longer before believing that Vulcan does exist. "When, in 1877, Professor Hall, through the powerful telescope at Wash- ington, saw that !Mars was attended by two tiny satellites, he put a perma- nent injunction on the further use of the once favorite i)hrase, "Tlic snowy poles of nioinilpss Miirs." And SO of the question oft discusssed in the old-time debating societies, " Ave the jdanets iidud)ited ? " It may still be left in the hands of young collegians, notwithstanding the fact that our largest telescopes give only negative testimony. In a solar eclipse in February. 173f!. that was annular in shape, just before the sini was completely hidden, the narrow horn of light seemed to breiik into a series of dots, or luminous ])oints, which, when noted again a centur\ later and described by Francis Haily, received the name of " Haily lieads." It was attem])ted to explain this as caused by the moon's mountains cuttini; off the last rays of sunlight, or else as jn-oduced by irradiation. liut with the advent of stronger telescopic power the ])henomenon has come to an emi. David Rittenliouse, of Xorristown, whom Thom.as Jefferson considered "se - ASTROS OMY DURING THE CENTURY 108 011(1 111 no astronomer living,'' built an ornny worth a thousand dollars, to ilhistniti' niccihaniciilly the motions of all the j)lanets, and though t?.ie instru- iiH'iil is still treasured in the University of I'ennsylvania, and its dui)licate at rriiiceton, amon;,' tiie rpli(!S of a past age, it is assigned to the category e light of recent >tion of SwediMi- liel and so many hieli our worlds neral acceptance, d a firm persua- einent of revolu- id corresi)ondiiig md which all tlie >n accounted fur ret undiscovereii, I'hose orbit is so has received, by ive peered most agined they had Orgeres, France, object pass over d by this ])hysi- [) c'jniirmation id' that part of tlic n. So Ave must escope at Wash- he put a perma- ie, d)ating .societies, hands of youiii; copes give oidy hape, just before seemed to break again a centur\ ■ " Baily lieads." ountains cuttini; ition. liut with come to an end. considered "se - 'rilllKlMN'CU TIt.\SSIT. IIY WAKNKli & SW.ASKV. of tovs. Mural circles, much depended upon to measure the declination of lieaveniy bodies, have fallen into disuse, supidanted by improved transit iiistiiiiiients. XVI. rUOBIiKMS FOU Kl'TlKK STUDY. JliHiy iiroblems are in store for the future. The field fo'- research still opens wide. How the solar activity is to be maintained was answered by Xi'wtoii in the suggestion that comets falling into it kept up its supply of matter and energy. Waterston, in isr).'?, ijroimunded the thought that mete- oric matter may be the aliment of the sun. Now the prevalent theory is 104 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY that a contraction of tlie snn's volume, constantly in progress, but so slijjlit as to be invisible to the most jiowerful telescope, is competent to furnisli u heat supi)ly equal to all tliat can liave been emitted during historic periods. l^rofessor Newconib answers the (juestion, " How long will the sun en- dure ?" by saying, "The physical conclusion to which we are led by a stiuly of the laws of nature is that the sun, like a living l)eing, must have a birtli and will have an end. From tlie known amount of heat which it radiates uf can, even in a rude way, calculate tiie probable length of its life. Fidui fifteen to twenty millions of years seems to be tlic linut of its age in the jnist, and it may e.\ist a few millions of years, jjcrhaps five or ten, in tlie future." SeLDK.V J. CoKKI.N. CENTURY DEX J. CoKFIX. cAuor.rs i,iNX.«r» of swkdf.n, fatiiku of modeun hotant. This illnslrntinn was prppnivrl In- a S\vi'(li-;|i society, niid represents the fninmis liotniiist after his return frnin tlie exploration uf Lapliuid, ami witli a biincli of his favorite tlower {Lianaiu bore- (illsi ill hi.-i haiiil. STORY OF PLANT AND FLOWER PxiiANY, in its general sense, signifies the knowledge of plants. In the earlier periods of human history i)lants appealed to mankind as material for fodd or medicine; and down to comparatively recent times botanical studies were pursued mainly in these directions. Diosctn'ides, a Greek, who lived in the Hist century of the Christian era, is the earliest writer of whom we have kiKiwlcdge that can lay a claim to botanical distinction, but the medical property of plants was evidently the chief incentive to his task. It was not until the beginning of the sixteenth century that botany, in its broad sense, became a study, and Le Cluse, a French physician, who died in KiOO, may he regarded as one of its patriarchs. Still the medical uses of plants were steadily kept in view. The English botanist. John (ierarde, who was a coiiteni]iorary of Le Cluse, or Clusius, as botanists usually call him, wrote a remarkable work on botany, — remarkable for his time, — but this was styled a " Herbal," as were other famous botanical works down to the begin- niii!,' of the present century. 106 TRIUMPHS AND WOXDHRS OF TllK A7A'" (ESTUHY Following the year 1700, tlie knowledge of jilaiits iiulividuuU} became so extended that systematic arranjjcment became desirable. The first real advance in tliis direction was niacU' by Carl Von Linnc, commonly known by its Latin form, Linnieiis, a Swede, born in 1707. and whose talents for hotani- cal ac(jnireiiu'nts seeme(l almost in- nate. In iiis twenty-third year \\i- saw tiie need of a better .system, and commcncjed at once the j^rcai work of botanical reform. He saw that iilants with a certain nnnd)cr of St aniens and ]iistils were corre- lated, and he founded classes and orders on them. Flowers with five stanu'ns or six stann-ns would be- long to his class jientandria or hex- andria, respectively, and those with five ])istils or six pistils ]ienta- gynia. or hexagynia, accordingly ; and so on \\\> to polyandria. or polygynia — man}' stamens or pis- tils — of which our common liut- tercup is an illustration. He fur- ther showed that two names only were all that is necessary to de- note any plant, the generic name and its adjective, as, for instance. Ci'i'iuis a 11/(1, the white Dogwood; and that the descriptions should be brief, covering only the essen- tial ]H)ints wherein one sjiecies of plant differed from another. This became known iis the sexiiai sys- tem. It fairly eleiti'illed intelligent circles. People generallj- took td counting stamens and i>istils, and large numbers took ])ride in bein^ botanists because they could trace so easily the classes and orders of the plants they met. The grand old man died in 1778, and though his artificial system had to give way to a more natural method, he is justly regarded a> the father of modern botany. With the incoming of the nineteenth century, botany took a rapid start. It ceased to be a mere handmaid to the study of medicine. Chemistry, geo- grajihy, teleology, and indeed the chief foundations of biology had become closely interwoven with botanical studies ; and thus the progress of botaii} through the century has to be viewed from many stand])oints. In classification, what is known as the natural system has replaced th'' sexual. Plants are grouped according to their apparent relationships. Those resembling in general character the Kose form the order Hosucea- ; the Lily. Lillucea'. Sometimes, however, a striking characteristic is adopted for the TITE OHEEN IIOSE. Flower with leaves for petals. STOliy OF PLANT AND FLOWEli 107 iiiiiuly iiiuiie, as Coiii/iimlfn', or coinpomiil flower, for the daisy and aster- Houi ifd jjlants ; Citifw/ltfrnr, or umbcl-HoweriiiK, as in oarrot or parsley; h'l/initiiinsiv, liaving tiie seed vessels as le<,'iinies. like peas and beans. ClassiHeation has, howe'* r, derived much assistance from a wholly new brani'li of the science knoN^ii as Morpiiolof^y. This teaches that all parts of lilauls are modifications of other parts. What Nature may have intended to lie II leaf may become a stem ; the outer series of fioral envelopes, or caly.x, limy lic(!ome i)etals ; petals may become .stamens; and even pistils may be- coiiH' h'lives, or even branches. The green rose of the florists is a case in wiiicli the leaves that should iiave been changed into petals to form a jierfect rose Hower have persisted in continuing green leaves, thougli masipicrading as jietals; and it is not uinisual to find in the ro.se cases where the pistils have reverted to their original destination as the analogue of branches, and have started a growth from the centre of the fiower. So in an orange, the carpels, or divisions, are metamorphosed primary leaves. Two series of five eacii make the ten divisions. Sometimes the axis starts to make another growth, as noted in the rose, but does not get far before it is arrested, and tiiuu we have a small orange inside a larger one, as in the navel orange. Just the reverse occurs sometimes. The lower series is suppressed, and only the upper one devel- ops to a fruiting stage, when the small red oranges known as tiie Tangerines are the results. Illustrations of these transformations of one organ to another are frequent if we look for them. The annexed illustration shows a condition of the white clover, which, instead of the usual round head, has started on as a raceme or spike. rii(S(? wanderings from general forms were formerly regarded as monsters, of no particular use to the botani- cal student, but are now welcomed as guiding stars to till' central features of Morphology. The importance of tills branch of botanj-, in connection with classification, can readily be seen. Tlic studies in the behavior of plants have made re- raaikable progress during the century, and this also de- rives nuich aid from morphology. The strawberry sends out runners from which new plants are formed ; but, tir- ing I if this, eventually sends the runner ujjward to act as a Hiiwt'r stalk. What might have been but a bunch of leaves and roots at the end of the runner is now con- verted into a mass of flowers and pedicels at the end of a coiuiiion peduncle. In some cases Nature reverses this Jilaii. After starting the structure as an erect fruit-bear- ing stem, it sends it back to pierce the ground as a root shoukl do. I'liis is well illustrated by the peanut. In the common Yucca, the more tropical species have erect stems ; but in the form known in gardens as Ad- am's needle and thread — Yitrrfi filinnentos(i — the erect stem is sent down under the surface of the ground, and is then a rhizome, instciul of a caudex, or stem. HEAD OF WniTK CLO- VER, WITH A BRANCH EUOM THE CENTRE. 108 TJilUMPnS AND WOMJEliS OF THE XIX'" VESTURY Modification in connection witli l)cliiivior i.s furtlu'r illuHtmtoii by tlic graiievine and Virginia creeper. The whole leading; shoot i.s iicro puslicd aside by the develojinicnt of a itnd at the liase of tlie leaf, that takes the iiliicc of a leading shoot. The original leader tiien becomes a tendril, and serves in the economy of the plant by clinging to tree? or rocks, or in coiling aronml PE.KNrr. A poll magnified. other plants in sujiport. Great ])rogress has been made in this department of bf)tany within recent years. Darwin has shown that the tendrils of some plants continue in motion for some time in order to find something to cling to. The graj)evine especially spends a long time in this labor if there is ditHcnlty in reaching a host. The plant preserves vital power all this time, b\it no sooner is support found, than nutrition is cut off, and the tendril dit s, though, hard and wiry, it serves its parent plant as a support better de;id 'ENTUJiY STOHY or PLANT AND FLOWER UW tliaii ulivc. Till' lunoiiiit of luitiitioii Mpuiit in niistaiiiiii^? motion is louiid to 111' ciioiinons. A vine that oiin timl rtiiitiy means of supiioi't j,'rows with a miirh molt' lu'altliy vi/iror tlian ont' that Ims ditticulty in tiiuling it. Many jiliiiils prt'sent illiistnitions. Much advance lias been made in the knowledge of the motions of plants as ri'vMi'ils tln'ir various forms. (Jrowtli in plants is not i-ontinuons ; hut is a st'iiis of rests and advances. In other words it is rhythmic. The nodes, or knots, in the stems of grasses are rest- iiij,'-plaees. When a rest occurs, energy may he nxerted in a dift'erent direc- tiiin, iuid a change of f(jrm result. Tills is well illustrated by the com- 111011 Dogwood of northern woods. C'or- niis Jl'irti/i' on the eastern, and I'oniiis yiittii/m on the western slope of the American continent. On the approach of winter the leaf is reduced to a bud scale, and then rests. Wiieii spring re- turns these scales resume growth and appear as white bracts. In the annexed illustration the scales that served for winter protection to the buds are seen at the a)ie.\ of the bracts. In other species of Dogwood the bud scales do not resume growth. Energy is s])ent in another direction. In this manner we have an insight as to the cause of variation, which was not perceived even ,so recently as Darvvin's time. \\\> now say that variation results from vary- ing degrees of rhythmic growth — force ; and that this again is governed by varying powers of assimilation. The Darwinian view, that form results from external conditions of which the plant avails itself in a struggle for existence, is still widely accei)ted as a leading factor in the origin of species. Those which can assume the strongest weapons of defense continue to exist under the changed conditions. The weaker ones do not survive, and we only know of them as fossils. This is termed the doctrine of natural selection. Tile origin and development of jdant-life, or, as it is termed, evolution, has made rajjid ad\ancemeiit as a study during the century. That there has been au adaptation to conditions in some respects, as contended by Mr. Darwin ami his followers, must be correct. The oak and other species of trees must have l)een formed before mistletoe and other parasites coidd grow on them, lu the common Dodder — sjieeies of Ciisciifa — the seeds germinate in the ground like ordinary plants. As soon as they find something to attach them- selves to, they cut loose from mother earth and live \\ holly on the host. Ag a spieulation it seems plausible that all parasites have arisen in this way. Sonic, like the mistletoe, having the power, at length, to have their seeds germinate on the host-plant, have left their terrestrial origin in the past unei'vtain. A number of parasites, however, do not seem to live wholly on OUTLINE OK A WIIITK DOIiWOOI) KI.OWKll {('iiliniK Jhiri(lil), SHOWING nUDSl'AI.KS DKVKl.OPKU TO HKACT8. 110 iHiiMi'iis ASh woshKiis OF I III-: \i\iii chyruitr tlif plants tlu'v iitiiuli lliciiiHihcs 1(1, 'llii'sc iiic usually ilrstitnti' dl' giv( II i>ii|ali ■ lu'ss. Tlu'sc pliiiits lijivc litlli riiiliuiiiicfdiis luattci' in llirir Htnicturc, aii>l Ih'Ikh' ai't> it'^'ardt'd as having,' tiniiu'd a kind of |)aitni'rslii|i w itii lim^i. This is known now as synd)iosis, or living; to^'ctlar i>i dissimilar or^ranisnis, carii dc|icndi'nt niuliiaUy. 'I'lic iun,i,'Ms and tlit' ihiweriiiK' I'lanI in tlicsc cases arr nfct'ssarv to tin- existi'iu f each other. Tlii'V demand nitroj^en instead "t earhonhvdroids. 'i'he S([iuiw rooi, ('niiit/i/ni/ls .liinriraiiii, tlion^h attached to the sidplerraneiin portions (d the trunks of trees, is prohaldy sustained liy the tMn>,Mis material in the old hark, or cvi'U in the wood, rather than hy the ordinary food ol tlowerinn plants. I.iciiens. as d is now wi 11 known, are ;i comiMiiind id fungi iind water weeds (alj,'a'). and this (hx'trine of synd)iosis is lejiarded as one id' the j,'reat advances (d' the century. It is hut fair to say that tlio doctrine of eso- hition hy the inllncnce id' external conditions m the ehan^;c of form. thon;,di widtdj accepted at this time, is jiot witiiout strong? opiionents, who jioini to the occasional development or suppres- sion of parts on the same plant, though the exter- nal conditions must hu the same. Fur instance, there are flowers that liave all their parts re^'ii- lar. as in the ]ietals of a Imttereup; and irregular, as in the snaiwlragou or fox-gh)ve. |5ut it has heen noted that irrci;idar Howers have pendulous stalks, while thi^ regular (uies are usually creel. I$ut once in a while, on the .same plant, flowers nornuilly droojdng will heconie erect. lu these cases the flowers are regular. In the wild snap- dragon or yellow toad-Hax, Lltnirii nih/iiri.i, one of the petals is dcvelojied into a long spur; the other four petals have, in early life, l)oeonurred flower as continuous in a wild snaixlragoM as in a columbine. Many similar facts are used by those who question th • Darwinian law of development. That nutrition has more to do in the evolution of form than extern;'! YKI.I.OW TOAD-KI.AX. Flower in the peloria state. STOlty OF I'l.WT AMI ri.owi:/! Ill full ( > tlllK-' iiul.ili llMCi il ImiIIH' Sll| dm .Iv nllly lllillr llnwcrH IIH' pro- -f^ '■) 11 than extern; liiis it'i'fivt'tl niiu'li uiil, iiM il tlii'oi-y, tinm tin- ailviuicf (Imiiin n'ci'iit III II Mtiiily of tli<> Nt>{iiinitH Ht*xt>H (if tlowfi-M. On riiiiif«>i'()UM treox, v tilt- lii-*, piiH's. and s|iniccH, tin- iiiali' ami IViiialf tluwcis urn pro- si'paiati'ly. Tlit' ffinalf. wliicli Hiiallv vii'ld tlif nmcH, are iihvayrt nil tlic iiKiNt vigorous liiaiiclicH. WIdmi tlicsc lirancliPH liavo their iif iiiitritinii hIiiu'Ii'iii'iI and Intihiii' weak. ( hi till- iitlirr hand, liiiUii'lii'H nnrnially weak will ;il times ;,'aiii iiirreasi'd sti'i'ii^'tli, and tlii'ii tli<> male rtiiwiTs give icmalo ones. Tiiis is (iftcn seen in corn ticids. 'riii'K'''i''iiill.y weak tiissi'l will have ^riiins of I'di'ii thmu^di it. It is nut :iilit(|\u!nt to Hnd what should normally lit! pertert cars on stalks weaker than usual. In these eases tho upper portion of the ear will have iiialo flowers only. In eonneetion with the (Idctriiie of development, iinii'h attention lias Wen ^{iven dnriiig the century to Fertilization of flowers iind the agency of iuseets ill eonneotion tlierewith. On the one hand it is con- tended that in all probability the flowers in the earlier periods of the world's liistory iiad neither c(dor nor fragrance. In this condition they were self-t'er- tili/eis, that is, were foenndated by their own pollen. In modern phraseology they were in and in bretulers. When the struggle for existence became neces- sary, those which could get a cross with outside races became more vigorous in their jirogeny, and thus had an advantage in the struggle. In brief, witho\it an occasional introduction of new blood, as it might be termed, there was danger of a race dying out. To support this view, Mr. l>arwin published the resiilt of a number of exjjcriments. Many of them favored eitlu.'r side, but the aver- ivge was in favor of the view th.it crossing was advantageous. Against this it has lieen in-ged that an average in such cases is not !y of man, have been continued by offsets and are as strong and vigor- ous lis ever. The lianana is an illustration. ITnder cultivation it produces only seedless fruits. It is raised wludly from young suckers or offsets from the roots. Mythology gives it a prominent place in the (iarden of Eden, and its botanical name, Musa paradlsiaca, originated in this legend. OHAINKD rORNT.\SSKL. 112 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY Though imieh lias been vecovded in this line to weaken the force of tla- speculations that Howers lati- in the history of the earth develojicd color and sweet secretions in order to attract insects to aid in eross-fertilizatiou, tin y are stronglj' supjjorted Ity the fact that a hirge number of sjjecies, notably nf orchids, are seldom fertilized without insect aid in pollination. But there are anomalies even here. fSonie iilants capture and literally cat the insects that should be regarded as their benefactors. These are classiticd as insectivorous plants. Some seem to catch the insects in mere sport, while in the act of conveying pollen to them. These are known as cruel plants. There are numerous illustrations of this among the families of Asclfjiias and ^■iliitci/iium, the milk-weed fam- ily. In our gardens a Brazil- ian clind)er. Anivrju, or Phi/si- anthus ranclu's in a horizontal direction, or that can lift or overturn huge rocks, or split them a]iart as the lightning rifts a tree trunk, is yet unknown. *Mi the opposite page is an illustration of a circumstance frecpuMitly observed, wherein even a delicate root fibre can jiierce a potato ver forty thousaml species have alieady been describeil, and we may fairly say that there are nearly half as many forms of vegetable life nivisible to the naked eye as can l)e seen by our unaided visual organs. Their wants and behaviors are very much the same as in the flowering jilants or higher orders, as they arc usiuiUy termed. But there is one great diffe rem e in this, that they feed mainly on nitrogen, and have no use for carbon. Tlnv U.VNANA l'"I.OWr,HS. ENTURY STORY OF PLANT AND FLOWER 113 THK CnUEL-PT.ANT. Butterriy cniiglit in the flower. cart' little for light, but yet have an upward tendency under certain forms, as do those which seek the light. The agarics that revel in the dark- ness (pf a coal mine, yet curve ujiward as lirartily as a corn sprout in the ojK'ii air. Just as in Hnwering plants, also, they are mostly innocuous, and indeed many absolutely beneficial to nuui, a very small portion only being poisonous, or connected with the dis- eases of the human race. Even in these cases their power is closely guarded by nature. The spores of fungi are found to require such a nice cond)ination of conditions before they germinate, that, unless these occur, they will retain their vegetative power many years in a state of absolute rest. The mycelium of the mushroom, as the real plant — the cobwebby portion under ground — only starts tt> grow when just so many degrees of heat, neither more nor less, with just so nuich mois- ture, and the i)ro[)er food, are all at hand together ; and large num- bers are known to be very select in the kind of food they will make use of at all. One genus, known as C'ovdypeps, will only start when the sjiore comes in contait with the head of a cater- pillar. And various species of the genus will avoid a kind of caterpillar that aiiother would enjoy. In our own country we have one that feeds on the larvae of the jMay Beetle, and is known as Cnrdi/ri'jiH Jfelohtit/ia: In Australia is a very pretty spe- cies, which takes on the appear- ance of the antlers of a deer. This is known as Cordi/rejis An- (Iri'irni'l. The most minute of these are known as nncrobes. They are chiefly composed of a single cell, in the midst of which is the ]iro- to]ilasm. or material in which lift' resides, but the exact na- ture of which is still a mys- tery. One of the most useful and fascitiiiting studies in modern times is Geographical l^otany. It is found to 8 OLD I'OTATO PENETRATED BY ROOTLET WITH A NEW POTATO. 114 TRIUMPHS AMJ WONDEUS OF THE .Y/A'"' CENTURY have a close relation to the history of man, and to the changes which have occurred on the surface of the earth. I'huits fol- low man wherever he wanders ; and though every other trace of man shoukl he abolished on the American continent, the plants that came witli liim from the ( tld World wo\ild enable the fiitiirr historian to follow his tracks here pretty well. No one has any historical evidence that what is now the Pacific ( >cean was on(!e land, and that the area between the Pacific ( >cean and the Mis- sissippi was once a huge .sea. but botany tells the plain story. Only for botany we slioulil not know that the land now serving as the poles was once within the tropics; and mainly by fossil gum trees on the American continent, and the existence still of a few jilants common to Aus- tralia, have we the knowledge of some land con- nection between these distant shores, island floras, some of the species of which are now found only in very limited areas, tell of large tracts submerged of which only the mountain peaks are left a.s small islands, lonely in a wide exjianse of water, while other islaiuls, witli only a limited number of well known specie.-., tell of new u])lieavals within modern times. It is in these lines chiefly that botany has advaTiced dur- ing the cen- tury. Herbari- ums for dryand botanic gar- dens for living plants are essential. The latter are not as necessary to the study as formerly, as the facilities for travel bring the votaries of the science to distant places in a short time. Nature furnishes the living material for study at a less outlay of time and money than in the old way of growing the plants for the juirpose. Few uiodern botanic gardens have the fame of those of the j.ast. It is the great Herbariiini of Kew, rather than the living plants. that makes that famous spot the great school for botany to-day. In our own country, the Herbariums of Candiridge. Mass. ; Columbia College, New York ; the National at Washington ; and that of the Academy of Natural Sciences of riiiladelphia, are the most famous in America. Thomas Meehax. A FUNGUS {Cordyceps Andivimi) ouowiNO FilOM the hkad of a CATEUPILLAn. PROGRESS OF WOMEN WITHIN THE CENTURY iOM THE HEAD UMAS MeKHAN. 'I'liE whole woman (luestion may be briefly summed up as a century-old stni^'gle between conservatism and progress. Women are moving irregularly, 1111(1 iierliajis illogicaliy, along certain lines of development toward a point tliiit. will jiroliably be reached; while conservatism, halting and fearful, is struggling blindly to hold points and maintain lines that must be given up. I'll fortunately for the rapidity of women's advancement, women them- selves Iiave no thoroughness, no clearness, as to the fundamental cause of tlieir grievances or the ends to be attained, and are not yet alive to a con- scidusness of the fact that the fp.iestion of woman's rights is simply and imrely a question of human rights, the basic solution of which, ou the broad plane of justice, will solve all the social, political, .and industrial problems of wliicli the woman ([uestion forms a jiart. 'I'lie time when woman suffered silently and toiled jiatiently without once iiuestioning the justice of her lot has happily passol forever, t'onfusion and antagonism are engendered because of misunderstanding of the real move- ment. Women are consciously or unconsciously struggling for that selfhood which has hitherto been denied them, and are seeking for opportunity to develop that iiersonality which Browning, Kuskin. and other broad thinkers (leeliire "is the good of th.e race." The most discouraging feature of the situation is the fact that women as a whole do not realize that a politically interior class is a degraded class ; a disfranchised class, an oppressed class ; and that her economic dependence upon man is the basic caiise of her inferiority. The grievances openly proclaimed by the advocates of woman suffrage as causes of hostility are too fre([uently childish, unreasonable, and unworthy (if serious attention. In the majority of cases they centre around some faii('i(!d wrong that is a result rather than a cause. The keynote not only to tlie woman (luestion, but to the labor (piestion may be found in the words of tliat deep thinker and able writer, A\ignst Hebel : "The basis of all oppres- sidu is economic dependence ui)on the oppressor." The widespread discon- tent with present social conditions is an augury of hope for the future. There is no element in the unrest wliich need excite grave apprehension. Tlidughtful people perceive clearly that women are intensely human, nothing iiioic, and that as human beings they are entitled not only to food, clothes, and shelter, but to an opportunity for development. It is only as we are familiar witli the oppression that has been the common lot (pf women since the beginnin:; of time that we can realize that her lot has been sweetened, her condition ameliorated, .and her progress within the cen- tiiiv marvelous indeed. The woman ipiestion, Instorically considered, con- tains all the physical subjug.ation and consequent inferiority which consti- tuted all the dift'erentiation between the physical .and mental powers of men 116 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY and wonu'ii. It contains all tlie humiliation, uncertainty, and ultimate hoj..' of her future. The history of the woman qiu'stion is analogous with tlir history of the labor question, with the ditterenee that woman slavery had its oiigin in the ijeculiarities ol her sexual being, wliile the laborer's slavery began when he was robbed of the land which is the birthriglit of every human being. It will be seen, tlierefore, that woman's slavery antedates tlic thralldom of the thrall, and •• was more humiliating, more degrading, because she was treated and regarded by the laborer as his servant, his inferior." This condition largely i)revails among laborers to-day. and was indirectly given utterance to a few weeks ago, when some of the members of tiic American Federation of Labor fornudated a traditional resolution demanding that " women be excluded from all jiublic work and relegated to the home," — a demand that would be to some extent reasonable, and no doubt accejitaljlf. to the great army of working-women, had the chivalrous laborers who fornui- lated the demand the .ability and industry to in-ovide a home for the women whom they would render paupers by dej)rivation of work, and for the chil- dren for whom their fathers were unable to provide. It is gratifying to know that this resolution w.as lost in the committee room, and th.at its formulation was greeted by the press of the whole country with a storm of deserved disapproval. Inasmuch as the rapidh' increasing number of bread-winners among women makes it evident that men are either un.able' or incompetent to provide for them, it remains for the working-women of the countrj' to formulate a reso- lution demanding that men be excluded from all work that has hitherto been considered as belonging to or peculii-rly adapted to women. What an army of mosquito-legged men from the eating-houses, laundries, and dry-goods establislnnents would rise up to proclaim the idiocy of women and protest against such injustice ! On the threshold of the world's morning, says a distinguished writer and ■worker in the German Keiehstag of to-day, we may correctly assume that woman was man's equal in mental and physical power. But she became his inferior ])hysically, and consequently dej)eiulent upon his bounty, during periods of pregnancy, childbirth, and child-rearing, when her lielplessness forced her to look to him for food and shelter. In the childhood of the race might made right ; brute strength was the standard of superiority ; tlio struggle for existence was crude and savage ; and thus tliis occasional help- lessness became the manner of lier bondage. That natui'e is primarily responsible for the centuries of wom.an's enslave- ment there can be no doubt. And as nature's laws are unclianging. tlir advocates of woman's jKditical advancement would do well to remendjer that woman's greatest importance as a public factor can only begin when tin- function of motlierhood cc.ises. ''In a real sense, as a factory is meant tn turn out locomotives or vlocks. the machinery of nature is designed in tlu' last resort to turn out nuitliers. Life to the luiman species is not a random series of random efforts; its course is set as rigidly as the pathw.ay of thf stars ; its laws are as inimutable as the laws of the Medes and Persians. " ( Drumniond's Ascent of ilan.) Nature's great work for the individual is reproduction and care of tli speciee. The first, Drummond terms the cosmic process; the second, th' ENTURY PROGRESS OF WOMEN WITHIN THE CENTURY 117 )d ultimate liojic ilogous -with till' u slavery hail it s laborer's slavery ;hriglit of every •ry antedates tlu' 'grading, becausi' lit, his inferior." d was indirectly members of the uticiii demanding,' I to the home," — loubt aecej>tabli', arers who formu- e for the women :ind for the chil- is gratifying to m\, and that its ■ with a storm of rs among women it to provide for formulate a reso- las hitherto been Wliat an army 3, and dry-goods men and protest ished writer and ^tly assume that t she became his i bounty, during her lielplessness hood of the race superiority ; tlio occasional lielii- ivonian's enslavi ■■ unchanging, the remember that begin when tin- tory is meant tu designed in tlir is not a random pathway of tlir 1 and Persians. " and care of tli the second, tli' nioial process. Statistics show that one child out of every three dies before iiialiu'ity, and nature's task is incomidete unless at least two children be reiiri'd to the adult age by every family. Kvery conjile, then, at i< cross tlie line which lioary prophets and jiatriarchal slaveholders had markivl across her })ath ; suljject to man's wiiim and caprice; her physical develo|i- nient, in time, became meagre and cripjtled. And as her mental faculties were repressed and inqtrisoned in the narrowest circle of feminine o])inions, it becanu^ ditticult for her to rise above the most comnHiiiplace tiivialities ol life. Thus it came about that the term "Weaker Sex," originally used tn convey only the acknowledged truth that women are inferior to men in piiysical strength, canu' to include the mind as well as body, lie this as it may, the jiosition of women for long centuries was inevitably one of extreme cruelly and oppression. Countless bitter and unnecessary limitations hedged her pathway and obstructed her development from the cradle to the grave. It is not to be wondered at that she in time became so inured to her degrad- ing servitude as to accept it as her natural ]>osition. Madame De Staiil h;is truly said. -Of all the gifts and faculties wiiich nature has lavishly bestowed upon woman, she has been allowed to exercise fully but one. the faculty to suffer." Tlie extent of this suffering and the deteriorating influence whicdi it has exerted upon the race can never be estimated till Finis is written to the story of humanity. In the noonday of (Jrecian pow^r and learning, woman trod not beside man as helpmate and comi)anion. but followed as his slave. Demosthenes defines the wife as the -bearer of children, the faithful watch-dog who guards the house for her master."' At the Council of ^lacon, held in tlic sixtii century, the (piestion of the soul and humanity of women was gravely weighed and debated, profound doctors of theology maintaining that " woman is not a subject but an object for uian's use and pleasure." For conturies theological divines whetted their wit on heljdiss woman; and the church in holy zeal persecuted the woman who was guilty of a fault as a "daughter of the devil,'' and held her up to public contumely as the concentration of all evil. Christianity, indeed, offered emancij/ation to women. It proclaimed a startling doctrine. — the equality of the rich and the poor, the weak aiul tlic strong, in the sight of God the Father. .\nd it became evident that such teachings would inevitably break down the barriers of class and caste, eliminate injustice, and usher in a time when all should stand equal before the law. lUit alas, the world, with the excejition of isolated and individual instances, has never been offered an opportunity to test tlte eiticacy of the all-corrective princijiles of the religion which Christ gave to the world. The repression of women biased the reformatory tendencies of Christianity, and rendered it as ineffective as a medium of relief to tin; oppressed as our one- sided political system of to-day. Christianity, under masculine domiuatioii. was lost in the rubbish of churchianity, which, professing but failing to i)rai tice the religion of Christ, has held woman in the same contempt in whi( i PlWailESS OF WOMEN WITl/lN THE CENTUltY 119 sill lias been held by nil the aiuiient luid idolatrous vel'V-ioiis of tlie world. Yet d<'sj)ite the tact tliat the great Mijster, were He to come to-tlay, would scMicely recognize in the churclK s a trace of the code wliich He lived and dird to exemplify, it must not be forgotten that the vital principle of religion never dies. It eventually attains f.dlest devclopnunit, and becomes identified wilii the progress of oivili/.jition and the highest purpose of .i i)eo])le. There- fdic. we may reverently believe tliat in the ultimate triumph and reiiiibilitation of practical (Jhris- tiiiiiity lies the hope of the oij- ])nssed, and true liberty not only tor women, but for every human being. I'',ven now the mists are lifting. The great change in the position of wonuMi — legal, social, and edu- ('utional — within w. hundred years is breaking even the hard shell of orthodox usage. Whole denomi- nations ha%'e dropped the word " obey ■■ from the nuirriage service. Jhmy ministers frecpiently omit it. or. if administered, it is pro- nounced l>y the bride with mental reservation and looked upon as a word that has only the most re- mote and shadowy signitica.ice. The new wine is breaking the old bottles; the spirit of the nine- teenth century is too progressive foi' the usages and traditions of the eleventh century. Modern churehianity, realizing that women constitute three fo\irths of its membershi}), no longer Avages a merciless warfare upou them. It has relaxed its Pauline grip upon her throat, " I suffer not a woman to speak in the churches." .Vnd the more advanced theological bodies have offered her the intellectual hospitality of the jnilpit, where her eliKiuence is a pleasing change to those who have grown tired of preachers' platitudes. Clerical decrees are no longer hurled at her defenseless head. The doors of churches, schools, and colleges are swinging wide at her apiii'oacdi, though they sometimes creak on their hinges. The ministers no longer o))enly advocate that the gates of opi)ortunity be bolted and barred against her. There is everything to stimulate hoi)e ; the wings of feminine natiu-e have expanded till a return to the chrysalis is impossible. 1 1 is true that a very large number yet profess to believe that a woman fill tills her whole mission in the world when she makes herself as pretty and agreeable as possible, and devotes all her time and attention to the discharge of domestic duties. Hut there has been a wonderful modification of opinion since Schopenhauer declared that " woman is not called to great things. S'le pays her debt to life by the throes of birth, care of the children, and 120 rniUMPIiS ASn \V0M)KRS of the XlXr" CENTURY siibjectioii to her liushiunl." T\V(t things Inivo tfiiilcd to bring about this iiioditication of oiiinioii ; the broaiU'i^i'ihication and incrcasfd (H>|)ortunitii's for devtdopniunt atti-udaut uijon thi- growtii of individual libt-rty and repub- liL'an forms of govornnuMit ; and the capability of self-maintenance due to improved meehanical apjiliani't's. It is not mere inclination on the part ol the individual, nor is it the voice of the agitator, that is bringing alwjut tlu'se changes; it is the irresistible logic of events. One hnndri'd years ago the education of women in the nu)st ]irogressive and wealthy families went little beyond reading and writing. In LSI"), when Mrs. Emma Willard issued an atldress to the mend)era of the New York legislature advocating the entUtwment of an institution for the higher education of wonu'u, there was not a college in the country for girls. In ISilL'. the colleges of the I'nited States numbered more than ."ilt.dOO female students. In ISSS. the ratio of female students to the who)" nund)er of students pursuing a higher course of education in universities and colleges in this country was 2'.>..'i per centum, or a little more tiian one fourth. At the same time the ratio in Englaml was 11 per centum; in France, '2 per centum; while in (Jermany, Austriii, aiul Italy the ratio wa.s so slight as to be but a mere fraction of 1 \wv centum. Siu'h a thi)ig as a fennde president of a college was unknown and probably undreamed of in the eighteenth century; but we learn from the Report of the Commissioner of Education for liSiST-.S.S that there are in the United States forty-two colleges and institutions for the sujjerior instruction of women having a ■wouuin for president. In the liigh iind secondary- schools, in 18S.S. over one half of the students were girls. And in the same y<:ir, tabulated statistics reveal that 08 per centum of the teachers were women. And this percentage Mill become greater and grenter as we grasp the truth that woman is, by gift of gre;iter intuition and sympathy, the natural instructor of the luuuau race. The salaries paid to women teachers are grossly unfair when compared to the pay of male teachers for the same or less work, liut as the difference in compensation is growing smaller every decade, there is at least room for hope that this injustice will soon be righted. The law of evolution is the discoverer and formulator of woman's advance- ment. ■ The invention and use of gunpowder placed the jjcasant on an equal war-footing with the mailed knight. The enormous increase in meehanical appliances and productive uiachinery has taken woman out of the rank of unpaid menials, has given her leisure for mental development, opportunity to receive recompense for toil, and is largely breaking down the physical barriers which had hitherto been considered unsurmountable. Statistics show that there are forms of machinery in the operation of which the production of a woman is even greater than that of a man, thus furnishing an actual proof of the falsity of the idea that woman is incapacitated for competition with man in the physical world. And the trend of events is indicated by the statistics given in the Heportof the Commissioner of Labor, from which we learn that in some trades and proftssions the percentage of women engaged has increased fivefold in the last decade. While woman's work has always been a recognized factor in the world's progress, yet her admittance to the field of remunerative work is limited to NTUHY liii),' about this (1 iiiiportuuitu's ii'ity and ivimb- ittMlillKJl' duo to on tilt? part ot ;ing about these lost pi'()j,'i'»'s,sive In I.SIU, wlieu tlu> New York tor the hi;j;her )■ for girls. In 1 r.(),(KIO tVniale iHi)" number of es and colleges ine fourth. At 1 France, - per so slight as to n ami probably u the Report of in the United instruction of of the students eal that G.'i per :e will become gift of greater an race. The •mpared to the le difference in ; room for hope man's advance- mt on an equal in mechanical of the rank of lit, opportunity n the physical )le. Statistics of Avhich the hus furnishing capacitated for id of events is ioner of Labor, percentage of i"k is limited to PltO(JHESS OF WOMEN WITHIN THE CENTURY 121 till' last one hundred years; is, in fact, tb.e prominent feature of the niue- tiMiith century. There is overwhelming evidence that her work in every (li'|iartniciit to which she has been admitted is as capable, accei>table, and in every way as faithfully pcrt'orined as the work of her brother man. In the la^t centuiy it is estimated that not more than 1 per centum of artists and tiacliers of art were women ; while in l.S!)(l women compris.'d 4iS.(>S per ciiituni. or nearly mie half of that professiun. Nearly the same proportion (i| increase is found in the ranks of teacher.s and musicians, — women now fdiiuing over (!0 p"r centum of the teachers of the I'liitcd States. There are now about three millinii wnmen and girls in this country who earn their own livelihood. And the eleventh census reveals the startling information tiiat in the city of New Vork there are tweiity-severi thousand men wlio are supjiortcd by their wives, ^'ct these men, useless to society, a liiirch'ii to the women who supjiort them, are permitted the immunities and privileges of law and custom, while women have equality only in the duties and punishments. .Vt the beginning of the eighteenth century there were but few occu|)ation3 iu which women were permitted to engage. Their abilities and ambitions were restricted to the school and the home. In the latter they received food and shelter as compensation: in the former, but one half (U- one third the salary allowed to male teachers. The first noticeable change in woman's (■(indition, when she became something more than a mere household drudge, whoso busy hands carded and wove, spun and knit, the family supply of cloth, (kites from the first bale of cot- ton grown in this conntrv in the early years of the eigliteenth century, in that bale of cotton lay the seed.s of not only a new movement in labor, but the lieginning of a new epoch lor woman, iu which her work and wages were des- tined to take coherent shape and form, hi all industrial progress since that time women have taken an active part while receiving a meagre share of the product. Forced by the course of events to emerge from seclusion and repres- sion, she has passed from one stage of ilevelopment to another, always a stej) or two behind man in the ])rogres3 of social evolution, till the close of the nineteenth century reveals myriad changes and the actual realization of Tennyson's prophetic lines iu the •• I'rincess," " We have i)rudes for proctors, dowagers for deans." One hundred years ago it was the dutv of a woman to efface herself. She >vas expected to make of lierself a mental blank-book upon which lier hus- I'and juight inscribe what he would. Thus it is only lately that women have I'cguu actively to com{)ete with men in expression of any kind. Indeed, pre- vious to that time, with a few notable exceptions, they were denied recog- ^ ' 'Irl t m GEORGE ELIOT. 122 TltlUMl'IlS AND WONDKRS OF THE A7A'" CENTUIIY iiituni ol iiidiviiliiiil lit'o. 'Vhv woman, if imiiiiin'it'd, was iiu'i},'*'il in tin- I'amily, ni, if mai-fied, niorgcd in tlic imshand. llcv nanus \\vv i(dij,M(in, licr gods, woi'f clianyod on niarria},'c. I5nt. married or Hinglc, tiie altsorption was coniiiictf. So it lias hapiKMicd that woman, tiirobhing witli jtot'tii' sym- pathy, has, with tlin fxcfption of Sapplio, iiriidnct'd htss liigli and unmis- takable jujetry than man. With more iiarmony, more music in Iut nature, lier very soul attuned to sym|iiiony and riiytiim, she has been litth* known as ii comjiospr. Witii iar vision and (dear literary insij^ht, slie has been su])pressed in art and literature, (ieorj^e I'lliot gave her sublime literary produetions to the world under a masculine imm dc jiliimv, because of tlie prejudice of oven that ,iot remote day. Fanny MencUdssohn was comptdled by her family to publisli her musical compositions as her brother's. Mary Simierville met only discouragement and ridicule in her nuithematieal studies. In every sphere, in every department of science and art. abuse, injustice, and the Cloaking of r>'actionary frogs have greeted each steji of her upward way. The wonder is, then, not that she has accomplished so little, but that she is not in tlie samt! condition to-(hiy that she was when I'aul tlirust a gag in her mouth in the sha])o of a (.'orinthian text, •• And if a woman would learn any- thing, let her ask her husband at lioiue." it will i)e seen, therefore, that the oft-repeated assertion that wonu'U have not given to the world as much evidence of genius as men is a Lillij)\itian r.ssertion tainteil somewhat with envy. "There has been no Shakes])eare among women," says the advocates of man's supremacy. With all the world as their own, aiul the gates of bouiulless opp(utumties swinging wide, there* has been but one Shakesj)eare .among men. It has been asserted that (Jeorge Eliot is the Shakespeare among women and ^Frs. IJrowning the eonnter))art of Uaoon. I'ut their immortality lias not been ti'sted. They lived but a little while ago. Hut there is one Avoman. at least, who has established lier claim thoroughly, and whose genius twenty -five ci'iituries have tested. Sappho is truly immortal. Her fame and genius have been sealed by the approval of ;» 1 tie great literati of the centuries, ('oleridge, who occui)ies no uncertain jdace in the world of letters, s.ays of her, "Uf all the poets of the world, of all the illustrious artists of all literature, Sappho is the one whose every word has a ]ieculiar and unmistakable ])oetie perfume, a seal of ab.solute jjerfection and illimitable grace." Swinburne, the greatest living master in the world of verbal music, declares that. "Her verses are the supreme success, the final achievement, of poetic art." Sappho's claim to immortality exceeds that of Shakesj)eare's by twenty -three hundred years. Men, viewing the literary ])roductions of women, are apt to give them the color and l)ias of masculine thought. As instance the poetic critic of a New Yoik ])eriodical. wlio wantonly affronts the gifted author of "I'oems of Vassion '' by declaring that her " fervent verses are but the burning of unseendy stubble that fails to give forth light or heat." Yet Ella "Wheeler Wilcox, all fair-minded critics will admit, has won a place in the ranks of poetic genius. Her poems throb with hum.an sympathy, and from the exalted plane of her sjdendid womanhood she reaches down, fulfilling the law of Chribtly service, to lift uj) the fallen and soothe and bind the bruised and bleeding. Such masculine criticism is dying out, but it has not been uncom- mon in the past. Mrs. Browning and Jane Austen were accused of " breaking 'TURY iii'i'gt'il ill the r religion, her lie !ilis()r|)ti()ii til jKietiir sviii- ;li and iiiiiuiK- iii hiT iiiiiun', I little known she lias lieeil hlinie literary leeanse of the was ''ompelled other's. Mary latieal studies. , injustice, and r upward way. lut that she is ^t a gag in le-r uld learn any- therefore, that ■orld as niueh ioniewliat with the advocates the gates of iO ShakesjH'are L! Shakespeare in. J>ut their ile ago. lint oroughly, and ruly immortal. i» 1 tie great n ])lace in the Id, of all the e every word lute jierfeetion f in the world e success, tlie •tality exceeds live them the ;ic critic of a or of "Poems lie burning of ; Ella Wheeler 1 the ranks of )m the exalted ng the law of e bruised and fc been iincom- l of " breaking I'JWGllHSS or WOMKN WITHIN TU/i CHNTUHY I'.'.'l liiiwn by their writings tlie .safeguards cd' society." and they were adnnniished lu "cea.se their literary elforts and devote themselves to sewing and washing ilishes if tlioy would retain the chivalrous respect (d' men." "Jane Kyre" was pronounced too imunual to he ranked as decent literature. " Adam Kedt^" was chissed as the " vile oiitpniirings of a lewd woman's mind." Vet(.'harh>tt(* i'.ninti-. (ic(U'ge Kliot, Mrs. Itrowning, and .lane .Austen have won an exalted mid enviable place in the ranks of literature. Their writings have thrilled, uplifted. anr was creattul liy a woman. In all literature, no liiiok since the lUhle has been so widely circudated. so extensiv(dy translated, or has so thoroughly commanded the ])roh)und attention (d' all das.ses as Ilarr'et Meechcr Stowe's '• I'ncle Tom's (,'abin." .Mrs. Stowe impiessed her genius ujioii tlu^ race and time, and marked a new ei)och for freedom. Pre- vious to the publication of her book only a U^w men recognized slavery as wrong, but a woman's sympathetic heart iind throhbing genius laid bare the evil and disclosed to a liorritied world the wnuig underlying slavery. In iihilanthro]«y and the domain of morals there is none who is doing more heroic and effective work than Mrs. Kliz- .ihetli 1>. (irannis. She deals not with theories, but with real conditions. Her sympathies, her broad work, her mani- tdld charities, go out to Hesli and Idood. iiuMi and wonuMi. She has the intuitive faculty of jirobing deep into human na- ture, leading -hose she wcnihl reform to mourn real defects, rejoice in real victo- ries, and hope and struggle for better things. The constantly broadening sphere of woman's usefulness is in a large mea- sure due to the organized forms of intel- lectual activity among women known as (dubs. Half a century ago dub-life for women was unknown. Their social sympathies were limited to the jioliti- ( al jiarty that claimed the franchise of their nude relatives, or the church at whose shrine the women worshiped. IJut su rapid has been woman's develoi»ment in this direction that to-day women's chibs form a chain from (ict-'iu to ocean, binding them as one great whole. The effect upon the mem- bers is magical ; nature is enlarged ; charity broadened ; capacity for judg- ment increased ; and hitherto unsuspected faculties are called into life and jKiwer. The lirst organized demand Ijy women for political recognition in the I'nited States was made in 1848, at what was known as the Seneca Falls ( 'onvention. llidiculed, persecuted, kicked like a football from one geuera- 1 ion to another, this brave demand for political recognition was destined to KltANCKS WFI.I.AllU. 124 THifMJ'ns AM I \\o\nh:iis or nil-: a/a*"' CKsrvitY iH'cuint' an a^ji'iicy tliut wuiild woik ii |iciict'l'iil rfvolutioii, That tin- iiiiivc- int'iit in iirDK'ri'ssiiiK, ami will I'vi'iitiially Huweuil, is evincoil Ity tlif ivcoitl nt hall' a fi'iitiiry. in that tiiiif sih>inl siifTiano lias Immmi ^'niiitcd in twenty-three States and Tenitories, pailial Mitlra^ie Uw pnlili« iminnvenn'Uts in three Mtiites, iuuiiici|ial Hut!ra^'e iit ime, and in tonr Stattm full pnlitieal e<|iiality. ^Vy()nlin^; was the first State to aeemil eit/enship ti> her wonuMi, and ^he liears testimony to its elllcaey in the jiro^'ress, honor, and soliriety (d' her people. In 1K".».'{, th»! Wyoming,' Htatf le^'islature passed resolutions highly eommemlattiry of woman siilTiaije and its results, and anion;,' otiier things said, •• We |Miint with pride to I lie laet that alter nearly Iwenly-tive years of woman sutTra^je. not oiu' county in Wyoming' has a jioor-honse. that our jails are almost empty, and crimp, except that ly strangers in the State, is almost unknown. " i''rom the hanks of the tar-oll N'olga come the ^;ood tidin;,'s that even KuMsia is prcparin;^ to take a great step in advance hy granting to wimen many legal anri'ukiiig lulin iiikI clear." Maky Eliz.vbetu Lease. ,4h THE CENTURY'S TEXTILE PROGRESS An '•Kji'iTV <'(>M('ciil8 notliiiif,' imnv i' anil spindle, and in every cottage and palace it became an indisi)ensal)le articde of household ecjuiiJUient. The young women in all walks of life were taught to spin. Spinning became the female oecupntion of the age. and it is interesting to note that the modern term sjiinster, meaning an nnnuirried wonum ut ailvaneed age, here had its origin. The spiiuiing-wheel, though superior to the distaff and spindle, wfs yet a crude machine. It consisted of a staiul on which was mounted in horizontal hearings a spiiullo driven by a band from a large wheel jiropelled by hand or foot, and as twi;>t was imparted to the fibre drawn through the fingers, the residting yarn was wound on the spindle. The art of weaving was not more advanced. It is true that the middle of t!ie eighteenth century found the hand loom developed from the original Indian structure to contain many of the essentials of the modern ]>ower loom. It embodied the heddles, the lay, the take-up and let-off beams, the slmltle for passing the weft, aijd in 1740, .lohu Kay added the fly shuttle motion, whereby the shuttle was thrown through the shed by a sudden pull on the picking stick; then in 17(!(), Robert Kay. ,son of .John Kay, invented the drop box, whereby several colors of tilling might be em])loyed. I Hrilliaiit as these achievements were, the hand loom remained the crude ft embodiment of the simple priiicijdes of weaving until near the dawn of the nineteenth century, when, by the invention of Cartwright, a period of development was introduced in all lines of textile manufacture unsurpassed in the annals of industrial progress. The first great stride, and that which opened the door for further advance, was the creation of the spin .'"-jenny, I'M TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A7A'"' CENTURY DISTAFF \NI) SI'IXDI.K. in England, by Hargreaves, about 1 7()7, whereby eight or ten yarns couhl be spun at one time. Drawint; roUers were subseciuently adch'd by Arkwright, and tlien traverse motion was given the bobbins in ortU'r to automatically build the yarn into a cop. It has developed since that the drawing-rollers con- stituted one of the most important I'undamental ini- ])rovements in the spinning art. Their function was to draw out the fibres into a proper size of roving, and to feed this to be spun. Without tiiem the modern spinnijig-franu' would not liave been possi- ble. Arkwright s drawing-rollers and Hargreaves's spinning-jenny combined under the invention of <"rompt(tn to produce, in princijile at least, the mod- ern spinning-mule. Fairly good machines were thus provided on the advent of the nineteenth c(?htury for spinning unlim- it«'d (piautities of yarn, but this, in turn, recjuired proper looui Ktructvires to use the same and a cor- responding supply of raw material. Inventive genius was abroad, and the necessity met by Eli Whitney, who. wlule at the Jionu' of (ieneral (Jreene, of Georgia, biult the first practical machine for separating cotton fibre from its seed. Whitney's gin Uixs constructed on the broad and simple principle that cot- ton fibre could be drawn through a smaller space than the atta<'hed seed, and this same principle is the soul and spirit of every saw-gin (if the present day. I'rior to Whitney's gin, cotton fibre was separated from the seed by liand, a day's work being represented by two or three pounds of cleaned fibre. Tlie daily product of the gin now reaches between three and four thousand j)onnds. Such figures demonstrate the important jtosition taken liy the cotton gin among the dcvelojjing agents of the cotton growing States. It has rendered ])ossil)le and i)roHtable the cultivation of large dis- tricts of otherwise waste lands ; it has stim- ulated cotton ])roduction ; given emi)lovment to thousands of idle haiids; cheapened tiie price of cotton cloths, and jilaced withii the reach of the lunnblest people wearing avparel of tine and beautifid texture. Unlimited su])])ly of raw material being thus provided, attention reverted to perfect- ing the machines for si>inniiig it, and under '/ ^^s^fti^ - •• \' the magical touch of Hichard I^oberts, of Manchester, Englaml, in lS;5(t, the crude mule of Crom]iton look practicid shape. He gave to it the (piadrant winding motion, provided for tlie iiarmonious working of tiie counter and copjiing faller wires, perfected the "l)acking off" and "drawing u])" mechanisms, and gave attention to constrection (»f details that placed the mule before the world a.s a ])ractical success. Equipped in its present form, the self-acting mule i)resents one «f the SPIX.MXO WHKEl THE CEyTUHi'S TEXTILE PROGRESS 127 iuii.>-t striking ('xanii)les of complex automatic mechanisms that can be found in tlie industrial world. Tho work of the attendant is contined to piecing l)n>ki'n ends and supjilying roving, the machine passing through the entire (vcle of its complicated iiiovenu'uts without human direction. An idea may lie liad of its delicate and accurate oi)eratioti Avhen it is considered that one pound of cotton has been spun by it into a thread one hundred and si.xty- scven miles long. Improvements have lieen made, indeed, on Roberts's nuile, lint aside from changes in details and form, the nuichiue, as it left the hands of this meciianiL'al genius in I80O, remains unchanged. J)uring this jjcriod, the fly frame was developed from the machines of its one <'f the I'UIMITIVK HAND I.OOM. Ilargreaves and Arkwright, but while it constituted a great ad\ance over these machines, it presented no radical departure in ])rinciple. We m.iy pause here, as we jiass through the third decade of the present century, to witness the introduction of a Fjiiuniug-frame, which, for origi- nality of concejiMon and far reaching influence on the textile industry, closely .iliproximates the achievements of the pioneev inventions of this art. Refer- ence is maile to the ring frame in which the flyer is omitted, the bobbin being attached to the sjiindle and revolving with it. On the traverse rail, and surrounding each bobbin, is secured a flanged ring having loosely sprung thereon a light travv;l?r, through which the yarn, as it comes from the draw- ing-rolls, is led to the bobbin. Revolution of the bobliin carries the traveler around the ring imparting twist to the yarn, and as it is spun it is wound on the bobbin in jiropin-tion to the feed of the drawing-rolls. The invention of this machine is attributed to John Tlnn'pe, of Rhode Island, in 1828, and so popular did it become by reason of decreased power necessary to drive it, incidental to the (jmission of the flyers, and good 128 TRIUMPHS ASD WOSDERS OF THE A7A"' CENTURY quality of yarn produced, that, between 1860 and 180"), it nearly replaced all other machines in America tor spinning cotton. The speed of the ring tranie. as well as its output, appeared unbounded ; but at high speeds, under unbalanced loads, the s'^ndles were found to vibrate in their bearings, and the ipuility of yarn, in consecpuMiee, degener- ated, the spindle bearings became w(jrh, and the limit seemed to be reached at five thousand revolutions i)er minute. A careful examination of the ring frame revealed no vulnerable part of its general structure t)iat could be improved so as to readily secure increased speed and steadiness of the K.\«I.Y SPINNING .IKNNV. spindles when unevenly loaded ; but with admirable foresight, developing intellects set to im]>rove the spindles themselves, and, in 1871, Jacob H. Sawyer introduced and jiatented a spindle and bearing, whicli was one of the most important improvements in the ring frame. He chambered the bobbin, and by carrying the bolster T well u]) inside supported the former near its load centre. Tlie evolution of the spindle was not yet complete. The Sawyer type, at more tlian seven thousand revolutions, woidd vibrate, and of the many attem])ts to cure tlio defeat none succeeded fully until the very simple change made by Mr. Itabbcth in 1S78. He gave the S|)indle a small amount of play by m.iking the bolster loose in its supporting case, and jjlaced a pack- ing between t!:^' two. A. H. Sherman improved u])on the Rabbeth structure by making the bol- ster and step in one piece and omitting the packing, the cushioning being dependent uix)n the lubricating oil. (llNMNd COTTON. Till-; Ol.l) WAY, IMMOU TO l.SOO. wyer tvi)e. at of the many very simple small amount )laceil a pack- ikinp the bol- liouiug being OI.NMMi COITON. TllK M:\V WAY. 130 TRIUMPHS AND V/ONDKRS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY The acme of development- in tliis small but most important i)ait of the ring frame was now reached ; and in its approved form it eml)odi('s the sleeve whirl exti-ndint,' into the hohhiii, the loose, yet adjustable bolster, tapering spindle, n'mnviil)le step, and lubricating reservoir. Such spindb'S are capable of unlimited speeds. — twenty tliousand ri'vohitions jier minute have been given, — and under absurdly unbalanced loads tiiey run steadily and with less expenditure of power tlian the older forms at their slower speeds. Increased speed in the s,)indles. however, brought inerensed breakage in the yarn, and iilthough stoji motion devices had been employed b)r several vears. yet economy demanded ready means of piecing broken ends. This has been ])rovided recently by mounting the stoj) clump upon the roving rod well u)) near the first pair of drawing rolls, so that on pulling the sto[) wire into place the roving is at once fed between the drawing rolls and issues in front, over the spindle, to be easily pieced by one hand. I'rior to this, the TUK MODKKN MII.K. Operative was rerpiired to reach over the machine, feed the roving to the rolls with one hand, hold the stop wii'e down with the other, and the broken end of yarn in his teeth. Excessive ballooning was also incidental to the use of high speed spindles, and, while inventive skill has never mastered it, yet the injurious eib rts liave been obviated by an ingenious mounting of separators, one between each two si)indles. .Vside from nunor details j)erfecting tin; mechaiueal construction, such has been the evolution of the modern spinidng frame. In 18.'{(l, it re(iuired the constant attention of one sjtinner to oversee twenty slow-running spindles, whereas, in ISiMI. tlie same iittenda it could, with less effort, "tend" seventy- tive or more of tlic high speed type; and whereas, in 17iH), when the first .\merican cotton mill was established bj' Samuel Slater in Khode Island, there were only seventy-five s])indles on cotton fibre, in 1;4. ami in bSlJO, to 14,lS.S,l(i;;. Under such comiietition no wonder the spinning-wheel of our grand- mothers has folhnved the economic law, that tlu.' fittest alone survive, ami rilE CENTURrS TEXTILE PROGRESS 131 h;is been reloyuteil to the wood-iiile or garret, or, bedecked with ribbons, finds a rohtiiig-iihicc in the chimney-corner as a decorated curiosity. Its mighty riv;il is lierc. Its attendants have been liberated to nun-e ennobling pursuits. 'I'lie homespun has been replaced by beautiful fabrics, and the monster s])in- ning frames of to-day pour forth tlieir hourly jn-oduct in miles of spun fibre, where the wheels of our grandmothers were taxed tt) the utmost to produce a very small fra(;tiou reciate the wonderful change, pause beside the domestic wheel used within the memcuy of the living, and compare its ''whirr," in slowly producing its single thread, to the "buzz" of tlie modern spinning frame turning out its product from a thousand spiiulles. The production of yarn required something more than spinning. Tlie HAND rOMH OF THE EKUITEENTn CENTURY. such has Hired the spindles, seventy- the first (' Island, mlier Iniit liiv grauil- •vivc. iuiil fibres in the massed cotton or wool, as delivered to the manufacturer, must be opened, untangled, straightened out, and laid parallel by a series of pre- paring machines prior to being spun, among which the carding engine ranks first. In the inci])ient form, this machine dates as far back as the middle of the eighteenth century, when, by hand manipulation, two cylinders covered with small te;}th and working in close ])roximity disintegrated the fibrous mas" ; but the fibres Avere much broken aiul not evenly arranged. The .dditiou of the workers and stripj)ers around a rapidly revolving swift gave increased utility to th'^ macliine, and liramwell's feed, in 1.S71, so regulated the amount of fibre ted at intervals that the resulting la]) possessed the desired even character. This feed weighs the fibre as it is fed, stops the lifting apron while the scale ])an dumjis its load, resets the scale pan, and a\ilins. JIc constructed !i device NOItl.K COMIt OF 189f». on this principle, and in a developed form it is used still iind known ;is the Heilmau or nip cond). In lsr».".. .lames Nobh' gave to the world the circle comb, wherein two Hat circidar rings, having jirojecting from one face vertical ])ins. were mounted, one eccentrically within the other, and revolved in the same direction, the object being to dab the fibre on t\w rings where they met ; and then as they revolved and se]iarnt('d the shoit fibre would be di'awn otT the large ring, leaving the hmg fibre freed from tiie sii(u-t. Tlu'se ma hands of a weaver or ensj;ineer, but from Dr. Cart- wri,i,dit, a clerjjyman in the churcii of nn.uhind. It was not snrjjrising that tliese looms failed of their expectations, for the slnittle would frequently get trapped in the shed, the driven power-lay would break out tiie warp threads, the take-up and let-otf motions were not graduated to compensate for tlie decrease of the warp and increase of the cloth beams, resulting in thin and thick places in the cloth, lint this application of power to the loom was the initial step in the industrial supremacy of the machine, which to-day works with the perfect cadence of an automaton. i;u TlUUMl'IIS AM) WoyDEnS OF Till-: XIX'" VEXTUIIY Th( first yf'iirs of the invsciit ccntiiry were ol' uiisurpiissod activity in the invent'"-" licld. The spinufrs were putting lurtii more yarn than tlio liand- huiins V (lid uso. It reinaint'il lor the loom to keep pace with the times. MiHer, in 1S(H». Todd and llorrocks in 1S(»;>, .lohnston in I .S(»7. Cotton m 181(1, Taylor in l.Sl.">. and many others, concentrated their et't'orti to develop the plain power-loom ; l)nt the second decade of the jjresent centnrv saw the old hand-loom with its slow and cumbrous iuovements still mistress of the art. TJie name of liichard Koberts stands preeminent at this perioil. between ISL'O and lSl,',"i, as t,''^''":^ to the jiower-loom several perfectinj; touches in the means for letting; otf tiie warp the small anu>iiut necessary at each pick, the means for takiuij; up the tinished cloth, the means for sheddinf^ the warj' for the passaf;e of the shuttle, and the adaiitation of tin; stop motions of his jtredecessors. 'I'licsc cliani,'es ^Mve ])ractical life to the macliine. and over- threw the barrier that obMrncted the advance of the textile industry. They were, however, only a few of the improvements added in jierfectini; the power-loom, such as the automatic temple to hold the cloth extende(l and pre- vent drawiu}^ of the weft, the shuttle-guard Lo , r^'i'ent accidental jumping of the shuttle from the race, the j)erfect weft-stop to bring the loom to a stand on breakage or failure of the weft, the protec»^or mechanism to obviate a '• sm;ish ■■ when the shuttle failed to Imx. and the loose reed, ail cf which standout in bold relief as evidences of the progressive tendencies of the age, and combined in about the year IS.'W. more than a half century after Cart- wright's first conception of tln^ idea, to eomiilete iiie ])ractieal power-loom. The loom had not reached a stage of mechanical perfection ; much yet remained to be done, but the plain jwwer-loom of this period was both a practical and financial success. \\\ its immediate iiredecessor. the hand- loom, a gooil weavci' and assistant could work from forty to fifty ]iicks per minute, and wyave plain cloth. i>y the ])ower-loom of l.S4(t. one weaver coidd "tend" two looms running irom 1<»() to IL'O jiicks per miinite anil jiro- duce the same cloth. Without passing through the various steps whicli cid- minated in the jiower-loom for plain cloth, now in use, and tracing the can.ses that led to jjerfection of details, the amazing advance from the ancitMit and l WKAVINC TlIK OI,l) WAY. 1 ^Sb^S^^^^^^^K ^Bii—^^^fl^fl^l^^^^^^^^^^^ i r y x^ '^-^^.^g nI ^'A f--^ '^^SfipiUIESS^^'' . '-I^TO WEAVl.Nt.. Tin. .NKW WAV. 13«S riuuMi'iis AX J) woMiHiis or the XIX"' ckxtury of the f«'\v hcddlt's. Imt witli tlie iiitnuluctidn of tlit' "(It)!!!)!!'." (ir Unit part of tilt' loom wliicli niisi's ami lowers tlu^ lianii'ss-lraincs, a iit'W era in fancy weaving was ina>ii,'nrate(l. I5y this in^'cuious dcviff as many as thirty-six or even forty ln'ildlt's could he used and raised at will to form liKures. Tiie crea- tion of the dohliic l)elon,!^s to tiie lUth century, ami it is fo\ind in |iiactica] form al)out 1S(').'I in tiic United St;:tes under the nanu; ol tiie American or Kiiowh's dohliie. 'I'he essentials are tic two cylinder gears revolving cnn- LOOM OK 1800. stantly, the vibrating gears, carried on the end of pivoted arms and having teeth on a part of their periiihery, the hiiruess jacks connected to the heddle frames, and the links ijoining the vihratiiig gears and harness jacks in Ruch manner that part revolution of the ftu'nier (>anscs the latter to move the con- nected heddle frame, and consecjuently the warp threads, up or down. A. pattern chain determines what vibrator gears shall engage the cylinder gears, and. once tlie chain is fitted to the design to be woven, nothing remains for the loom tender but to oversee the operation of the machine. Another form of dobbie, not les& jtopidar than the Knowles, developed into a perfect automatic device about fifty years ago in E'lgland. Here two THE cEMUJii's ri:xriLh: I'liouiuiss 137 rccipi'dcatiiiK' kiiivfs an- t'liKiW'l. "lulur tlu^ (lirt'ctit)ii of a iiattcin cliaiii. Ity one of two hdokfil jacks (Miimcctfd to tlu) lianuMS levers, ami tlio sIumI is a^aiii tnriiKMl witlmiit limiiaii iiitt rvciitinn. Other forms of dobliie structures have Ijccii evolved during the last lifty years. Imt these two, with sonic niodi- tications and aihlitions of details, have (ronie extensivcdy into practical use, and represent the zcnitii of development at the present tinu". Ity their aid >,Mciit viirietv is rendered possiiile in the desiy;!! on the res\dtin.i,' fabric. The tiuured tablecloths, damasks, twills, satins, bordered and cros>' -bordered i'ab- .lAI Ijl Alii) MA( Ml.NK. ries, are now possible at a cost of a tlumsandth part only of that incurred when jjrodueed by any of the old tyi)es of machines. Tilt! subject of sheddiufj, i. e., of o])ening the warp-threads to afford a ]»assagc for the shuttle, is so insep.araldy eonuectcd -with the name of ,Iac- ([uard, that attention is now carried to that wonderful invention evolved in the first few years of the ])resent century, and by the use of which it may truly be said that anythini,' can be woven as figure in a fabric that can be designed by the hand