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ETrf :
^H
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I
i%
Triumphs and Wonders
OF THB
i9TH Century
THE
TRUE MIRROR OF A PHENOMENAL ERA
A VOLUME OF ORIGINAL, ENTERTAINING AND INSTRUCTIVE HISTORIC
AND DK;SCRIPTIVE WRITINGS. SHOWING THE MANY AND
MARVELLOUS ACHIEVEMENTS WHICH DISTINGUISH
AN HUNDRED YBARS
OF
Matei^ial, IntBlIectuBi, ^ocia! and }l[m\ progfe^^
EMBRACING AS SUBJECTS ALL THOSE WHICH BEST TYPE THE GENIUS,
SPIRIT AND ENERGY OF THE AGE, AND SERVE TO BRING INTO
BRIGHTEST RELIEF THE GRAND MARCH OF IMPROVE-
MENT IN THE VARIOUS DOMAINS OF
HUMAN ACTIVITY.
BY
JAMES F». BOYD, A.M., L.B.,
Assisted by a Corps of Thirty-Two Eminent and Specially Qualified Authors.
Copiously an& fiDaanificcntl^ lIUuatrateD.
C. R. HARISH & CO.,
28 & 30 TORONTO ST.,
TORONTO, ONT.
■PMHIHVPiVipil ' I'""
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Copyright, 1899, by w. h. Isbistkr.
^// A'tff/i/s kiscrved.
16 3^^z.
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INTRODUCTORY
Mkasi'RINg epochs, or ems, by spaces of a Imndred years each, that which
€inhraces the nineteenth century stands out in sublime and encouraginij;
contrast with any that has preceded it. As the legatee of all prior cen-
turies, it has enlarged and ennobled its bequest to an extent unparalleled
in history; while it has at the same time, through a genius and energy
iw'culiar to itself, creiited an original endowment for its own enjoyment
and for the future richer by far than any heretofore recorded. Indeed,
without permitting existing and pardonable pride to endanger rigid truth,
it may be said that along many of the lines of invention and progress
which have most intimately affected the life and civilization of the world,
the nineteenth century has achieved triumphs and accomplished wonders
«qual, if not superior, to all other centuries combined.
Therefore, what more fitting time than at its close to pass in pleasing
and instructive review the numerous material and intellectual acliievements
that have so distinguished it, and have contributed in so many and such
marvelous ways to the great advance and genuine comfort of the human
race ! Or, what could prove a greater source of pride and profit than to
comi)are its glorious works with those of the past, the better to understand
and measure the actual steps and real extent of the progress of mankind !
Or, what more deliglitful and inspiring than to realize that the sum of
those wonderful activities, of which each reader is, or has been, a part, has
gone to increase the grandeur of a world era whose rays will penetrate and
brighten the coming centuries !
Amid so many and such strong reasons this volume finds excellent cause
for its being. Its aims are to mirror a wonderful century from the van-
tage ground of its closing year ; to faithfully trace the lines which mark
its almost magical advance ; to give it that high and true historic place
whence its contrasts with the past can be best noted, and its light upon
the future most directly thrown.
This task would be clearly beyond the power of a single mind. So rapid
has progress been during some parts of the century, so amazing have been
results along the lines of discovery and invention, so various have been the
fields of action, that only those of special knowledge and training could be
expected to do full justice to the many subjects to be treated.
Hence, the work has been planned so as to give it a value far beyond
what could be imparted by a single mind. Each of the themes chosen to
type the century's grand march has been treated by an author of special
u
INTllODUCTORY
\
•f
i
fitnesH, and hij,'h up in liiH or her protcssiou or calling, with a view to
securing for readers tlu' l)est tliouglits and lacts relating to the renuirkablo
events of an hundred jears. In this re8i)ect the vohunc is unitjue and ori-
ginal. Its authorship is not of one mind, but of a corps of minds, whose
union assures what tlie occasion demands.
The scope, character, and value of the volume further appear in its very
large number and practical feature of subjcuits selected to show the active
forces, the upward and onward movements, and the grand results that have
operated within, and triumphantly crowned, an era witlumt parallel. These
subjects embrace the ijciences of the century in their numerous divisions and
conquests; its arts and literature; industrial, commercial, and tinancial ]iro-
gress ; land and si-a jirowess ; educational, social, moral, ami reli<;ious growth ;
in fact, every Held of enterprise and achievement within the t-juice of time
covered by the work.
A volume of such variety of subject and great extent affords fine opportu-
nity for illustration. The publishers have taken full advantage of this, and
have beautified it in a manner which commends itself to every eye and taste.
Karely has a volume been so highly and elegantly embellished. Each sub-
ject is illuminated so as to increase the pleasure of reading and make an
ii.i2)ression which will prove lasting.
As to its aim and scojie, its number of sjiecially (jualified authors, its vigor
and variety of style and thought, its historic oomi)reh(!nsiveness and exact-
ness, its great wealth of illustration, its superb mechanism, its various other
striking features, the volume may readily rank as one of the century's tri-
umphs, a wonder of iiulustrious preparation, and acceptable to all. At any
rate, no such volume has ever mirrored any previous century, and none will
come to reflect the nineteenth century with truer line and color.
Not only is the work a rare and costly picture, filled in with inspiring
details by master hands, but it is equally a monument, whose solid base,
grand proportions, and elegant finish are in keej)ing with the s])irit of the
era it marks and the results it honors. Its every insciiption is a glowing
tribute to human achievement of whatever kind and wherever the field of
action may lie, and therefore a happy means of conveying to twentieth cen-
tury actors the story of a time whose glories they will find it hard to excel.
May this picture and monument be viewed, studied, and admired by all, so
that the momentous chapters which round the history of a closing century
shall avail in shaping the beginnings of a succeeding one.
AUTHORS AND SUBJECTS
JAMKS V. IIUYI), A. M., 1,. II.,
VVoMlKIlN OF I''.I,K( TUICITV.
UKAK-ADMIUAL OKOUCiK WAM-ACK MKl-VIU-K,
C/iiiJ 11/ /liiri'iiu 0/ Sliiim Knijiiinriiuj, Nui'ii Hejinrlmiiil, \\'<iiliini/tuit, J). C
TlIK ('E.NTlrltV'H NaVAI, I'lKXillKSN.
SKI.KKN .1. COI'l'IN, A. M.,
Prnfenmr iif .Utroiiiimij, /.n/tiyilte Cdllei/c, Kiinlon, Pa.
A»TltllN(lMV IICIIINO TIIK ('KNTl'llY.
THOMAS .mi:khan,
Vicv-Primhnl Aaitlmiij of Nttliinit .S'ci'i hcc,*, Philmhlphiti.
SrilliV OK I'l.ANT AMI Kl.oWKll.
MAiiV Ki.izAm/nr i.kask,
FirM Wimiiiu I'rtniiliiit nj' KiinndM Slalv Jiiuinl iif' Vlinritiei.
ritodllKSS OK WoMKN WITHIN llIK t'KNTIIIlV.
liollKHT 1'. HAIN'S,
• Pniiri/Kil h'xamimi' I'f TijIUi), I'liited tilateg I'ateiit Ojfici; Washint/ton, D.C.
TlIK CkNTKHY's TkXTILK I'llOURKMS.
CiKOHCJK KDWAIfl) IMCKI), S. T. I)., IJ.. 1).,
Prtmhnt nf llickiiisan Ciilleije, Cnrllflt', Pa.
TlIK ('KNTtllv's liKI.KtlolIS PuodllKHS.
■lAAlKS J'. IIOYI), A. jr., L. H.,
IJUKAT (illoWTII OK KlIlK Alii K.S.
WILLIAM MARTIN AIKK\, K. A. I. A.,
Former Uiillid Staled Sii/ierrhini/ Arfhilecl, Ti-iii»iirii Prjiartmrnt, Waghington, D. C.
I'HOIIIIKSH OK rilK CkNTIUY IN AllCIIITKt TUIIE.
HAItVEY \V. WILKV, M. P., I'H. I)., LL. I).,
Chiff i'hmilH of D!n'si(in 11/ Clinnhtry, Ar/riciiltural Department, Wa»hinijton, D. C.
TnK Ckntuky's I'ltodiiKs.i in C'iikmisthy.
KITEK KITZGEKALI), A. M.,
Dramatic Critic " Cily Item," Philadelphia.
TlIK ('ENTIHtY'.S Ml'.SIC AND DuAMA.
.lAMES v. HOYD, A. M., L. B.,
The C'entuky's Litkuatuhe.
MOURIS JASTUOW, JR., PH. D.,
Professor of Semitic Lanfjuarjes, Unirersitij of Pennsijhania.
The Rkcoiids ok the Past.
MAJOR HKNRY E. ALVORI), V. V.., LL. D.,
Chief of Dairy Division, United States De/iarlmeiil of Ai/ricultiire, Washington, D. C.
PlHKiliKSS IN DaIUY KahMING.
SARA Y. .STEVENSON, Sc. P.,
Secretary of Department of Archaiotony and Paleontology, Unirersity of Pennsylvania.
The CENTiiity'.s JIokai, I'itoGHKs.s.
CHARLES McINTIRE A. M., M. P.,
Lecturer on Sanitary Science, Lafayette College, Easton. Pa.
Phoohess of Sanitaky Science.
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL ARTHUR L. WAGNER,
Assistant Adjutant General United States Army.
The Centuky's Akmies ani> Arms.
JBsmmiM
Ir
AUTUUliS AND SUBJECTS
> I
WAI.DO I'. HUdWS,
Aiirieulfiiriil Hililnf " I'ini'iiiiinli <iii,illi,"
TlIK CuMlllV'h rillll.KI'.K- IN Alillll I I.TI'IO..
WAI.TKH I.OlUMi WKIIII, ( . 1,..
Auttliinl I'lii/'m/nr nf' Civil Kiii/imi riiii/, l'iiirii»ilij nf I'linifijlninid.
I'lKMillKHH IN Civil, KNIilNKKIIlMi.
I). K. HALMON, M. D ,
Chit/ 11/ Hunan nf Atiimnl Imliiflvii, Ai/riciillural /IfjiKrtinnil, Wiithiiiiitnu, D. C.
Till'. Cl-.MIIIV's rilllllKKKN IN rill'. AmM Al. Willn.li.
MA.ioii (iKNKitAi, .lu.sKi'ii \viii;i:i,i:if,
i'uiltil Sliittt Ai'iiiij, ""'/ .1/1 /«'/!/■ iij't'iiiii/niitj'riiiii Hiiililli Aiiil«imii hitlrirl,
I.KAIllNIi \VaII« (II IIIK. CKNTI IIV.
(iK()K(;K .1. IIACAII,
A'l/i'/iic 11/' A/i/irnillx In EiinjclniHulin Hiildiiiiivii.
TlIK ('KNTIUV's KaIIIH AMI I'.XI'dsl TKPNM.
IIUN. ItltAllKiltl) UlloDKS,
h'lliliir <;/'" Hiiiikir'n Mii'imiiir."
TlIK CKNTIHYN ritlllillKNS IN ClllNAliK, CrilllKNCV, AMI liANKINIi.
II. 11. VAN DK.MAN,
Lalt I'rnj'tuiir nj' /iutiiiii) niii/ I'lunliinl Nntiinillmi, Aiih/ikk Slnlv Af/ririillimil Collej/f.
TlIK {.'kntihy'h riiiKiiiKSK IS Fiinr (Jii.tiiik.
r.MOin" If. .lullXSON, A. M.,
AuiMitnt I'riij'rMur >;/' TrnnA/tiirliilinii anil I'lniiiin rn , I'liirn'tihi nf Ptnntylflini'l,
TlIK CKNTIIIY'.s CdMMKIK IAI, l'lll«il(l:».s.
FItAXKI.IX S. KItMdXDS, A. .M.,
Auittanl I'roffMiir iij' I'nlitiiiil Si'iriirr, f'tiitrnl /lii/li .S'i7/mi/, Pliil(iilel/)liia.
TlIK CKNTIIIY's AllVANt KH in KKrcATIllN.
THOMAS .1. I.IMiSKY,
Edilorldl SinjI' J'liiliiilil/iliiii " Kniiiiii/ /iiilhliii,''
"TlIK .\llT I'llKSKIlVATIVK."
(iKOKCi: A. I'ACKAIil),
Afrttilliiriiitl unit Miiiini/ Kni/liini'.
riKKlllKHS IN MlNKM A.NII MlNINIi.
JOHN V. SKAKS,
Art Crl'if riiHnilrlphiii " Erriimii TeUijrnph.'"
AllT I'HiMiHKSS (IF TlIK ('KNTI'HY.
.1. MAKISOX TAYKOK, M. 1)., and
.loHX II. GlltnoX, M. I).,
Surgtons Oiil-Pnlimln Drpurlmenls nf I'timfyltanin mid Cliitdrtn's Iloijiilals.
TlIK ("KNTUUV'm AkVANCE is SriKiKHY.
IKAXK C. HAMMOND, Al. I).,
Itutniclnr in Gi/Htecnlnijij, Jefftrsim Medical College.
I'KdOKKMS OK MkIIU'INK.
E E. Ur.SSEI.L THATMAX, C. E.,
Amitant Edilnr n/ " Eni/inerriii;/ j\ewt," Chieayo, III.
EvdI.UTION OK TlIK KaII.KOAII.
LUTHER E. HEWITT, L. H.,
Librarian nf Philadelphia Lata Association.
Advanck in Law and Justice.
MK'HAEL J. HUOWN,
.SVcre/ory of Jinildini/ Assvcialion Leai/ue of Pennsijlrania.
Pbookkss ok BfiLniNr, ani> Loan Associatioss.
REV. A. LEFKIXdWELL,
Rector Trinitij Church, Toledo, 0.
. -^. Erocii Makkrs ok tiik Ckntkiiv. •
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
WoNDKliS »IK K1.K( TltKITV
. ,\ r rm: Ii.vwn hi' niK tKNTiuv: - I'Jirlii'Kt Oli«rrvutioii» oii Kli'rlrU'ily — SHiily iif Ainhpr —
l'.ailii«l KliTirii' Miiiliiiii* --< 'iiiiiliiiMiiii cif KliMiririly 'I'lir I.i'ydi'ii .!ur — Frniiklhru IiisicivcrU'ii.
II. Nkw Ninkii;h..ntii <i,miiiv r.i.i.< tiik itv: — (tulviiiil>iii — The Vdlliiic Tili- |)iivv'» Arc-
li(;lit '\'hv I'.liilrii-iiiiiKiirl — I'liniiliiy'-. |li-i nviTii's • - Tln> IniliKliiiii ( nil — I'lrlils iif Kiircc. IM.
Till-; TKi.l',«iH.\i'ii: — I'lol Siiici'^liil Trliniuiiliy — 'I'lic Mursi' Systiiii— liiipnivciiiciitw in 'IVlc-
Hni|iliy — (di'iiii ri'li'({ni|ili\. IV. lli;i,r.i>I IIki.i.oI — liivciitinn df llic 'rilcplKirii' I'lincipli' (if
lllr- rili'|illiinr — Tnill^illlilliT mill ItririviT— l%i"« of the 'IVlrplliilli' — 'I'llv I'lldllciKnipIl, (Jrillll-
MpliiJiii', jiiiil (iiiipliiipliiiiii'. V. Dynamo vnh Mnroii: — 'I'lit' l''ii>t Mutur — I'l'rrt'iticm of tliu
l>wmiiiii — IIiiH il nc'iu'niti"< I'.liiiririty — I'riruipli' iiiiil I'sch nf tin' Motdi. VI. " Ami>tiiKIIK
w.vit l.KiiiT; "— Viiiiciiis l,i);litH nf llic I'lii-I — Km of KIcclrii- l.iKlilinK • Arc mul Iii(iin(l(">(i'Mt
l.iiuip!! — rriiicipli'x iif Kiicli — Viiliii' «( Klirtrif Liglit. VII. Ki.KcriiK' I,o< omotion; — I'li-iKlnt^
(if till' llor-i' anil 'rrmtiini t'lir — liitrinliiitiipn of the I'liillcy — Ki'iitiiri-s nf the I'.li'rtrlr Ui.ihvny
— Tilt' .StiiriiKi' Hiilliry iiiiii lliir»i'li">« Ciiriiiiu'c. VIII. 'I'iik X \t\^: — lii^cdvcr* (if — Wliiit tliu
X l{ny it— I'liiitiinriipliiin; liy Miiiii» nf ilii' .\ liny. IX. tlriiKn Ki.i-.cthicm. Wiinhkiis: —
Kk'ctric Clucks— Kk'ilriitypiiiK mill Kill triiplutiiiK, fti'. X. Ki.tiriiUAi, Lanoi ,\oK . .10-54
Tin; (KNTL'UV'S XAVAI, PUOCHKSS
. lN|."i.fKN<'K OK Ska I'owKii; — Si'a I'iiwith tlirmiKli'iiit tlic Wiirlil — Eiiiimcratinii "f flrcat
N'lival WiiT'*, II. TiiK ('kntuuv's (iKowtii in Navai. STiiKNiiTii; — .ViniiicHii Navii - at IMf-
fiTciit I'.ras^ r.iiroiM'aii KIcctH — Soiitli Aniciicaii and I'liinciK Navii's. III. Till; IIatti.khIIII'
I'ant a.n:i riii>KNT: — Tlic Old FIjtIitiiij; KriKiitc — l',^"l^ltlllll of llii' .Mmli'm Jlaii-nl-War — Cinii.
parisiin nf Kiijjati' wllli Irnnclail. IV. l'lio<;itKSM ok .Naval K.N(iiNKKItlN<i: — Ni'lsdu'i* Vi^ldll
The l4,.'ilK) .Miles Stcainlii); nf the Ori'Knii - Kuvnliitidii in Mccliuiiisni and Matprial — Types nf
liieat Hattleships — Iiitniduetidli and Advanlajjes (if Steam — Inveiitiiin (if the .Screw I'mpeller —
linprdvenient in Hdilers and Knjjines — The KcMilvinjf Turret — Crniscr and Tnriiedo Craft —
riieiuinienal .Speed. V. The (iiiowrii ok <>iiii.nax< k: — Deseriptidii df Varinns (inns and Pro-
jectiles — I'liwer of Mdilern K.splosives. VI. TiiK Kkvki.oI'Mknt ok Ahmoii; — Its Necessity
in Naval Warfare — Ilnw it is made, tested, and put (in. VII. TiiK Ham am. Toiii-kdo: —
Kvolution (if the Ham — Intniductidn of tlie T(ir|M'dd — Varinns Kinds df Turpcdnes. VIII. TllK
I'nitkI) Statk.s Fi.kkt; — Whence it spraii>r and hnw it has frniHii — Its Ships, OlHcers, and
Men — Ollicial Naval Hanks — The Naval .Vcadeniy — Tassa^e nf the United States to a World
I'dwer ' 66-80
ASTRONOMY DUKING THE CENTURY
. AsTHOsoMY A Centuhy ago: —Discovery of Uranus. II. How "Book's F,aw " promoted
Kehkahcii: — Further Discovery of Planets — Celestial Photography. III. How Neptu.ne wa.h
KoiTNii: — Ix! Vcrrier, "First Astronomer of the Ajfe." IV. Mktkohitks: — Meteoric Showers
— Various Large Mtdcorites. V. Do Metkohs oktk.n strike tiik Kaktii: — The "F'irc-hall"
(if 18t!0. VI. AsTitosoMicAl. Obhervatoiuks: — Thiir Equipment and Work — Number of Ob-
.-ervatorics. VII. Imi'Ro''ED In«thumknt.s: — Their F^ffect on the .Science. VIII. The Spec-
tkoscope: — Its Triumphs — Elements di.scovered. IX. Work i.n a Larok Observatory; —
Discovery of Comets and Nchulir. X. Wasiii.noto.n National Ohskrvatory: — Its Instru-
nients. XI, Star Maps .>Nn Catalixiues: — Numlier of Stars — The Planisphere. XII.
AsTitoxoMioAL liooKH ANi' iVriters: — Niiinberof Students of .Vstronomy. XIII. Practical
Uses of Astronomy: — It' Help in Navigation — U.ses in (Jeodesy. XIV. Notable Astro-
NOMicAL Epochs:— C;iocl. Ueijiilation -—Invention of Chronograph and Spectroscope — Great
Telescopes. XV. Disc \ri>ki> Theories: — Are Planets inhaliited?— The Orrery. XVI. Fu-
ture Astronomical Problems:— How long will the Sun endure? .. .87-104
vi ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
STOKY 01" IM-AXT AND FLOWER
Early History of Botnny — The FutlitT (if .ModcTii Untaiiy — lli)taiiy at tlie BcRinninp of the Niiie-
leeiitli Oiitiiry - Natural Systi'iii of ('la>sili(atiipii — AdvaiiiT' in Sliiily of I'laiit lli'liavior —
Illustrations from llio IVauut and (irapf-viiic — I'lant iMotious as ropards Forms — Ori;;iii and
Development uf I'lant Life — The Doelrine of Kvcjintion — Nutrition of I'laiits - Fertilization of
Flowers — Inseetivorous and t'rnel Plants — Ve);etalde I'h_vsiolof;y — Advance in Itelalimi to
Cryptoguniie I'lunts — Geographical liotany — llerliariuins and. liolanieal Gardens . . . 1U&-U4
PROGUKSS OF WO^IKX WITHIN' THK CKXTrRY
Woman's Miseonception of her liights — Fornnv ( )ppressiijn — ( 'osniie ami .Moral Processes — What
Christianity has done for Women — Hardship of the I'auline Crip — The True Mission of Wonwin
— Improvement in lier ICdiication — Fi^nnile Oeciipations — Competition with Men — Wonnin in
the Literarx Field — In Pliilanthidpy and Morals — Women's CInbs — Woman in Politics — The
constantly Hroadening Field of Woman's Intlueiiee 115-124
!'
: *)
THF, CKXrrUY'S TKXTILF PKOliUKSS
Antiquity of Textile Industry — The DistalY, Spindle, and Looni. anions Chinese, F'gyptians, and
Greeks — Introdnctioii of tin' Spinninfi-wheel — Loom of the ICi^ihteeiith Century — The Fly-
slmttle — Textiles at the Iteginuing of the Nim'teenth ('(■nlury - Invention of the Spinniiif; .Icunv
— Ark«ri}^hfs Drawing-rollers — Whitney's Cotton-;;in — Its Inttueuee — Inventicm of the Spin-
ning-mule — The Spinning-franu' — liapid linproveim'nis in Spinniii;; Machinery — Kvcdutiou of
the Spindle — Increase of Speed — Introdnctioii uf the Cardinfr-niaeliiiie — Cardinfj-combs — Ad-
vent of PoW' looms — Description of their Machineiy and Products — The .laci|nard Loom —
Of Pile Fabrics — The Ui^elow Loom — How Tufted Pile Fabrics are madi' — Weaving of Fancy
Cloths — Variou-^ Forms of Looms — Hair-clolli Looms — Weaving; of Tubular Fabrics — Intiiiitudc
of Uses to which the Loom can be put — The Comiiiff Automatic l.oiin — Advent of the Knitting-
machine — Its Wonderful Perfictioii and Products — The Century's Patents of Textile Machinery
— Beauty of Textile Art — Its Intluence on Taste ami Comfort 12."i 140
THE CENTUUY'S UELIGIOUS PROGRF„SS
Religious Status in Eighteenth Century, in England, France, and on the Continent — Condilion in
the United States — The Heigii of Skepticism — Doctrinal Divisions in the Churches — The Nine-
teenth Century Revival — Variety and Growth id' Religions in the United States — Fl-cdnm of the
Church — Kinship of Denoniiiiatimis — Increase in Material and .Spiritual Forces — (Church ICdi-
flces and Capacities — Religious Population — Number of Communicants — Distribution of Com-
municants — .Ministers and Organizations — Missionary Enterprises — Service of Religion in
Education, Philanthropy, iinl Reform — Gifts to Educational Institutions — Growth of Chari-
table Institutions — Religion and Republican Institutious . , 147-lb8
l
GREAT GROWTH OF LIBRARIES
Antiquity of Libraries — Evidences of Civilized Progress — Character of Ancient Writings — Books
of Clay — Meso|iotamian Literature — Egyptian Hieroglyphics — Papyrus Manuscripts — Sacred
Books of Thoth — Greek Libraries — Their Number and E.\tent — Roman Libraries — Imperial
Library of Constantino|)le — FtTccts of Christianity upon Literature — Church Book-making and
Collecting — All Books written or copied by Priests — Fate of Monastic Libraries — Early Libraries
in France — Royal Libraries in ICiirope — The French National Library — Introduction of Copy-
■ !ght — (ii'owth and Extent of Euro|)ean Libraries — Their Location ami Management — The Brit-
ish Museum — Libraries of (ireat Britain — Canadian Libraries — English Colonial Libraries —
Libraries of the Latin Republics — Phenomenal Growth of Libraries in the United States — Wide
Ramification of the System — The Oldest United States Library — Colonial Libraries — Libraries
of 1801) — Number fminded during the Century — State Libraries — School-district Libraries —
Library Systems — The Library of ( 'ongress — Its Vast Extent and New Repository — (^'opyright
System — United States Free Libraries — Noted Libraries of the Country — Libraries of over
100,000 Volumes — .Munificence of Library Founders — Noted tiivers to Libraries — Progress in
Library Management ^. 169-170
.
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
Tii
PROGRESS OK THE CENTURY IN ARCHITECTCRE
English Architecture at the Uoffiiminj; of the t'cntury — The (iueeii Anne Style — French Archi-
tecture and Arcliitects — Ariliiteetiinil Styles in (iernwmy, Austria, Italy, (Jrecce, Turkey, and
throughout Europe — Cunailiaii Styles and Notable Itiiildinns — Early Architecture ir. the United
States — Old New England and Soulliern Honu!< — The Culonial Styles — The White House and
United States Capitol - l'r(p),'icss in Public Uiiildiuf; Architecture — Notable Changes after the
War of 1812 — The (iotliic Cotliigcand Italian Villa — The I'irst School of Architecture — Compari-
son of Styles in Different Cities — Inlnidmtion of Iron — Styles for Holclsainl Summer Resorts —
Effect of Chicago and Huston Fires on Architecture — How the Centennial Exposition changed
Styles — Church ami l.iliniry Architeetnn — The C(Uigrcssi(Mial Library and Other Notable Speci-
mens of American Aiihitcclnre — Advent of the Sky-scraper — General Review of Architectural
Effects — Monumental Works the I'oetrv of Architecture 171~iaO
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY
Status of Chemical Science ■ ' Heiiiniiing of the Century — The (I'enlnry's Main Lines of Progress: I.
I.NonoA.MC AM> I'liYsicAi, ( 'iiK.MisTHV : — Lavoisicr's (Cardinal Propositions — Rapid Advance
of ('heniical Science — Sir Hnmplirey Davy's Achievements — Elementary Bodies of Eighteenth
Century — Same in Nineteenth Centnry. II. Puy.skai, ('mkmistkv; — Properties of F^lements
— (tf Matter and I'.ner(,'y — Rates of Reaction — Conditions of E(|nilibrium. HI. Okgamu
CiiEMisTKv: — Of Carbon Conipouiuts — Tlieorv of .Substitution — Atom in the Molecule — Space
Relatiiins — The Carbon Atom — TheCJrgaiiic l!ody. IV. Analytic ai, Ciikmisthy: — Develop-
ment of the Iilo\v-|iipe — (ias Aimlysis — IClectricity as a Factor — Discovery of .Spectrum Analysis.
V. Systiieticai. CnK>iisTi{v: — Building up of Com)ilex Forms — Synthesis of Coloring Mat-
ters and .Sugars — Future Food of Man. VI. .MKTAi.i.umiRAL Ciikmistuv: — Oldest Branch of
Chemical Science — Reduction of Ores — Advantage to Agriculture. VII. AciUicui.TUKAL
CirKMisTitv; — Utilization of Fertilizers — Nitrogen as a Plant Food — Advnn ages to Practical
Agriculture. VIII. (iHAi-iiie Ciikmistky: — Fundaniental Principles — iJaguerreotypc and
Photograph. IX. DinACTic Chkmistuy: — The Student and the Laboratory — Advantages of
Laboratory Training. X. Chkmistuy <ii' Fkhmkxtation: — Bacterial Action— Pi cess of Di-
gestion — Decay of Meats and Vegetables — .Sterilization — Ferigentation. XI. SIle/ 'io-Chem-
istry: — Combinat'on of Carbon with Metals — Uses of Electricity in Chemistry. Conclusion.
191-20G
THE CENTURY'S MUSIC AND DRAMA
I. Eighteenth Centiiuy Music: — Leading Composers — Nineteenth Century Music — The Great
Composers and their Works — Different Schools and Styles of Composition — .Analysis of Operas —
Musit.il Characteristics of the Nations — Verdi and Wagner compared — The American Opera.
II. The Dkama: — The Theatre of the Past — Great Modern Improvement — Scenery and Ap-
pointments — Actors and Actresses — The Century's Illustrious Role — Theatres in the United
States — Character of Actors — Public Estimation of the Drama 207-214
THE CENTURY'S LITERATURE
Contrast with Eighteentli Century Literature — Tone of Modern Literature — How it types Progress
-English Literature — Literature of Other Nations — Various Authors — English Criticism of
American Literature — Newspaper Literature — Evolution of the Newspaper — Newspapers of the
Nations — Nineteenth Century Journalism — Beginning of Newspaper Enterprise in the United
States — (Jolonial Papers— Papers of the Revolution — Appearance of the Daily — The Pcnnv
Press — Newspaper Growth up to 18(il — War Journalism — The Sunday Newspaper — Illustrated
.Fournalism — Reaction in Newspaper Prices — Cost of running a Newspaper — Number of World's
Newspapers — The Comic Paper — !•; volution of the Magazine — Growth of Magazine in the United
States — Character of Magazine Literature — Adveht of the Cheap Magazine — Features of
Publication " 215-230
y
THE RECORDS OF THE PAST
Extension of Knowledge into the Past — Spade of the Archieologist — General View of the Re\ela-
tions — Documents of Stone, Clay, and Papyrus — Assyrian Revelations — Egyptian Explorations
— Eloquence of Obelisk, Tomb, and Pyramid — Cuneiform Scripts of Babylon — Discovery of the
%.
VIU
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
Kdsettn Stniie — ('lu' •pullion's Ki'v — Slorv of the Kuiiis in (irt'ci'i' anil Konic — Revdaticm of
Tcnipli's uikI Stiitut's - I'lKmician Kcinaiiis — Tlii' MoaMto Sliinc — Kuins in I'ales-tini' — Uivi'la-
timis ill .Ifi'iisaluiii — llittite Ki'iiiains — <'iiiitiiniiiif; Interest in Arclia'olu(;icul DiscoviTv — Vast
Ini|iortuni.'(.' fmni an Historic I'oiiit of View 2!ll-244
rUOCKKSS IN DAIUY FARMING
Requisites for Suceessfiil Ilairviiif; — Knterprise of Dairying Districts — Atlvantafjes of Dairying; —
Dairying Areas — Da'"yin{; at the Heginningof the Century — Karly Methoils — The (ireat Chiiugc
niiihvay of tlie Century — Iniiirovenient in .Milch Cows — (irowtli of Clieese-Makiug — lustilutiou
of < leaineries — Application of Mechanics to Dairy inj; — Dairy Associations — Rest /)airy Rreeils
— Iiiveiitiou of the Separator — Its Operation anil Advantaijes — The Fat-test for Milk — (irowth
in liutter-inaking Illiistrated — Labor in Dairying — Dairy nnil Fooil Comniissions — Dairying
I'nhlications — City Milk Supplies — Annual I'roiluction of Cheese — Character of Cheeses —
Animal Butter I'roiluct ~- Hutter ami Cheese-proilucing States — Number and Value of Cows —
Dairy Values as compared with Value of Other Products — Necessity forguarding Dairy Interests.
245-26(>
THE CENTURY'S MORAL PROGRESS
Morals among the Ancients — Moral Precepts common to all Coninuinities — Kyoliition of I'^lliies —
Early Cliristian Morals — Spirit of the Reformation — Low Moral Condition of the Iviglitcenth
Century — Hirtli of a New Moral Epoch — A National Conscience — Abolition of Slavery — Larger
Applii.ition of the Principle* of Right and .lustice — How Women are alYected — Eft'ect of Inven-
tion anil Education on Social and Moral Conditions — Hroadeniiig of Woman's Sphere — Increase
of Self-respect — Inllueiice of Women on Moral Status — Legislation and Morals — How to meet
Ethical Problems — Uiisiness Success and the Moral State — Rights and Duties of Capital anil
Labor — Cruelties of War and Iflessings of Peace — The Century's Moral (iain — Changed Treat-
ment of Vice and Poverty — The Principle of Well-doing— Growth of Tolerance and Altriiisin —
A Higher Individual and Public Conscience '2(11-270
PROGRESS OF SANITARY SCIE'NCK.
Hygienic Code of Jloses — Hiiipocratcs and Disease — Sanitation and Sanitary Science — Founda-
tion Rules — Spirit, of Scientilic Investigation — Effect of .\ct of Parliament of 18:J7 — Value of
Oliicial Figures — The Riddle of Sa-iison — Health lieports in rniteil States — Duty of Separate
States — Mortality in London of Filth Diseases — Progress of Sanitation — Diminution of Scourges
— I^fTect of .Sanitation upon the Weak and Helpless — Value of Culture Tubes — Discovery of
Disease Causes — Of Trichimr in Pork — Communicable Diseases caused by Living Crganisnis —
Infectious and Contagious Diseas:^s — I'ses of Hiology In Sanitary Science — Piirilication of^
Waters — Of Consumption and Clioler:i — EtYccts of Filtration — What liacteria are — Of Isola-
tion and Disinfection — Modern (Quarantines — Fumigation of Shi| s — Lowering of Death liates
— Influence of the Sanitarium — Improved Construction of Divelling: Care for Paving and
Sewage — Disposal of Refuse — Of Food Inspecuon — State ItoariN of Health — Care of Eni]doves
— Of Play and Athletic (iroiinds — Public Hreathing Spaces — Duty of Caring for Personal
Health — Hearing of Public Health on Community and Nation 271-282
THE CENTURY'S ARMIES AND AR.MS
Armies and Arms of the Eighteentli Century — Alteration in War Methods — European Army Sys-
tems — Change-, made by Napoleon — Rattle Weapons and Tactical .Movements — Growing Use of
Cannon — The Congreve Rocket — Infantry Formations — The Introduction of the RiHe — The
Crimean War and Uitied Siege (Jims— The Italian War and RiHed Cannon — Advent of the
Hreech-loai'.er — Introduction of Heavy (inns — Arms and Tactics in the Civil War— Use of
Steam and Electricity in War — .Advantage of Railroad aiiil Telegraph — Introduction of Armored
Vessels — Siege Artillery — Advent of the Machine (Jun — New System of Enlrenclimcnt — Ger-
n* Military System — Coming of the Needle (inn — French .Military System - Comparison of
Russian and Turkish Methods - Strength of the World's .Armies — United States Army Organiza-
tion—Steel Guns and Smokeless Powder — Improvement in Mortars— The Dynamite (inn —
Modern Shrapnel — Hea-Coast (inns — Perfection of .Modern RiHes — Their (ireat Range and
Power — The (iatliiig (iun — The Maxim .Automatic — Introduction of the Torpedo — (ieneral
Review of the Increase in Military Efficiency 283-300
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
IX
evf'latiiiii of
If — Iti'Vi'la-
viTV — Vast
". 2;il-2U
Dairying —
real Cliiiiifjc
- Iiistitutidii
)airy Ilri'iMls
Ik — (ircwtli
— l>airyiii)j
: C'lu'i'sfs —
■ of C.'ciws —
rv Iiiti'ri'!-ts.
245-26(>
of Ktliics —
r,ij.'liti'fntli
I'ly — l,ar);rr
L'Ct of Iiivcn-
e — Increase
I low to iiK'et
(.'apital and
infill Trcal-
l Altruism —
. 2(il 270
TIIK CKNTUKY'S PKOGKKSS IX ACKICUUIRE
. Vicissitudes ok Kahly Fakminu: — First National Road — <:anal BuiUling — Coming of Rail-
roads — I'ainiiiiK Comlitions before t lie 50's~ Ilai.isliips of Marlteting. II. Imimioveiients in
Kahm Imi'I.k.mknts and Maciiinkhy: — Farmers' Draft upon Nature — Tlie Sickle, Flail, and
Cradle — (jiniiuf; of Harvesters— Imi'rov 'Uient in Threshers — I'ortalde and Traction Euuiuci'
Separators and Stackers — Iniproveni.nts in Other Implements. III. iMPltovioiKMT IN Stock:
— Various Hreeds of Caltle— Hrei(lin>; of Horses, Slieeji, and Swine— Best llreeds. IV. Im-
I'HoVKMKXT IN Faioiim; Mktiiods: — Iu Drainage — Care of Animals — Hams and Stabling-
Proper Food Hal ions — Fencing. I/. HoMK Imi'Hovemknt.s: — Home Architecture — The Yard
and (iardeu— Maintaining Soil Fertility — l'roi>er Manures — Soil -Vintlysis — Use of Modern
Fertilizers. VI. bifiiovKMKNT IN AoKicii.Tiu ' L Kxowi.Kixii:: — Agriiiiltural Literature —
Fanners' ( Mubs and Institutes — ( iranges — Agricultural » olleges — Fxperiniental Slationa — Tho
Department of .Vgricnltnn — lliireau of Animal Industry — Agricultural Newspapers and I'eri-
odieals — Siimnuiry of Agricultural Progress 307-33S
PRO(iRESS IN CIVIL ENGINKERING
. An Inthodittohv Vi!;\c: — Anti(|iiity of Engineering — Ancient Roads and Bridges — Nine-
teenth Ceiilnry Advances. II. BuiDdEs: — Primitive Bridges — Iron ami Steel Bridges — The
Brooklyn liriilgc— Niagara Suspension Bridge— Pecos River Viaduct — The Forth Bridge--Re-
markaliU' Arches— Stone Bridges. III. Caissons: — Invention of the Caisson— Its Principle
and I'se Caisson Adventures. IV. Canai-s: —The First Suez Camil —Nicaragua and Panama
Canals- Moilerii Suez Canal — The Manchester Canal — Chicago Ivrainage Canal— What it is
for. V. <;koi>i-;sv: —Ancient Mi'thods of Earth MeasuremeiUs — The Century's Advance in
Methods of .Measurement. VI. Raii.hoaii.s: — Their Invention and Development — Immense
Value. YII. Tinnki.s: - Ancii'iit Origin of-- Tunnels of Egypt, Babylonia, and India — Roman
Tunnels — Of the Modern T;innel — .\dvance in MachiiU'ry and (."onstructive Processes — Mount
Cenis Tunnel —Tunnel Surveying ami Excavating —The Hoosac Tunnel — St. Gothard Tunnel
— St. Clair Tuniud — Its Constrmtion ami Commercial Effects 3.'J9— 3tiO
ce — Founda-
37 — Value of
y of Separate
>n of Scourges
Discovery of
Organisms —
urilication of^
re— Of Is(dB-
f Death Rates
r Paving and
e of Employes
; for Personal
. . 271-282
an Army Sys-
rowing I'se of
le RiHe— The
\dvent of the
War — I'se of
nil of Armored
■linient — Ger-
t'omparison of
riny (Jrganiza-
laniite (inn —
at Range and
ledo — (leiieral
. . . 283-30O
THE CENTIRV'S PROGRESS IN THE ANIMAL WORLD
. Of Animal Diskasks: — Effect of Naiioleonic Wars — Various Animal Disease:! — How con-
trolled. II. Ix< KKAsK IN XiMiiKU OK Anijiai.s: — Showing in Europe, I'nited Slates, and
Other Countries. III. Imi'Iiovkmknt ok Bhkkds: — Shortening the Time of (irowth - Develop-
ment of Dairy and Heel' Breeds linpriivemeut in Wool Growing — Poultry Breeds — Thorough-
bred Horses — The .American Tnitter — Animal Expcu'ts — Foreign Animal Imports — Displaee-
inent of Horses by Mechaiii<'al Motors — Prices of Animal Products — American C<niimaiid of
World's Animal Marki'ts 3r)l-.374
LEADINtJ WARS OF THE CENTURY
■ V/ars ok the United States: — First War with Barbary States — Indian Wars — War of
1812 — Battles by Land and Sea — Exploits on the Lakes — Victory of New Orleans - Second
War with Barbary Slates — The Mexican War — (ieneial Taylor's Victories — Siege of Vera
Cruz —General Scott's March and Battles — Capture of Mexico — Results of the War — The Civil
War, 1861-65 — Secession of States — Calling out the Armies — Building of the Navies — The
First Battles — Opcraticnis in ISli2— Battles of 1S63 — The Emancipation Proclamation — The
Turning Point at (iettysbiirg — Opening of the Mississippi — Chickamanga and Missionary Ridge
— Battles of iSlU — Apjiomattox and Sirrender — The Spanish-American War — Its Causes —
Destruction of Spanish Fleet in Jlauila Bay — Destruction of Cervera's Fleet — Capitulation of
Santiago — Invasion of Porto Rico. II. Fokkkin Wahs: — Wars of Napoleon — Battle of Ma-
rengo — Treaty oi Amiens — Third Coalition against France — Battle of Austerlilz — Nelson's
Victory at Trafalgar — Wars of the Fourth Coalition — Wars of the Fifth Coalition — Wars of the
Sixth Coalition — Battle of Waterloo — Final Defeat of Napoleon — Greek Wars for Independence —
Battle of Navarino — Greek Indenendence — French Revolution of 1830 — Polish Insuri-cction —
England's Wars In India — French Republic of 1848 — Hungarian Wars for Independence — Italian
V/ars— The Crimean War — Sebastopol and Balaklava— Peace of Paris — The Indian Mutiny —
Wars of the Alliance against Austria — Battle of Solferino — Danish Wars — Wars for German
Unity — Verdict of Sadowa — The Franco-Prussian War — Siege and Capture of Paris —The French
Republic — The Turco-Riissian War — (,'hino-.T(;panese War — Greco-Turkish War — Interference
of the Powers — Wars in the Soudan — Review of the Centurv's Martial Results . . . .'175-420
X ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
THE CENTURY'S FAIRS AND EXPOSITIONS
The Primitive Fair— Growtli imil Iiillueiice of Fairs — Their History in Different Countries — Of
Agriiiiltnral Fairsi, Suiirtics, ami liistitiiles — Their t)rigin and Purpose — National and State
Agrieiilluinl Depailnients — Sanitary Fairs — Speeial Exiiiljitions — Evolution of Interiwitional
Expositiiins — The First World's Exposition at l.ondini — Expositions at Dublin, Paris, New
York — Continental Expo->it ions — Second and Third Expositions at London and I'aris — The
Vieiyia Expo>ilion — The Centennial at Philadelphia — Description of Subseipient Exjiositions at
Atlanta, l.<puisville, New Orleans, ('hieaf;o, Nashville, and ttnuiha — The American Commercial
Museums 4:21 •44-J
THE CENTURY'S PROGHESS IN COINAtiE, CU1!1!ENCY, AND liANKING
I. Banks and Hanking Kksouhcks: — Itanks as (Jaup's of Wealth —Civilization reflected in
Monetary JIai liinery — Featuves of United Stales l'"inaneinl Policy — Gold Store of Various
Countries — Itaiiixinf^ Resources — Number ami Resources of Itauks. II. ColNAtiK . M> Piioimc-
TioN OK PiiK<i(>is JIetai.s: — Why (Jokl is a Standard — liimitive Measures of Value — His-
tory of Coinage — First United States Mint — Coin Ratios — Gold and Silver Production and
Mintage — Exports and Imports of Precious Melals — Circulation per Capita — Coinage Act of
IhT^t. III. Eahlv Ha.nkini; in tiik Unitki) Statics; — First Hanking Associations - First United
States Bank ami its Branches — Early Slate Banks — Second United Slates Bank — How it fell —
Stale Banks and Ind(!pemlent Treasury. IV. HisTonv ok I,k<;ai, Tknuki: Notks: — The
Treasury Reserve — Treasury Notes — Manner of I>sne and Redcmiition. V. TiiK Nationai,
Bankin<i Sv.stkm: — F'ormation of National Banks — Laws ami Regulations — Number and
Circulation. VI. FourioN Bankino ani> Fixax<k: — Banks of ICngland and the Contnient of
Europe — Their Strenglh and Methods. VII. Uxitki> Statks Guvkuxmkxt Dkiit sixci: 18.")":
— Gross Rcceipis ami IC.xpenditnres — Interest Clsarges. VIII. Postal Savixos Banks;-- Why
they are not adopted in the United Slates. IX. Savixos Banks in tiik I'nitkh Statks: —
Their Number and Strength. X. Tiik Ci.earixc Hoisk; — How conducted — Its Economic
Usos. XI. Panus of tiik Ckntukv and TiiKiK Cak.ses 443-470
. h
THE CENTURY'S PROtiRESS IN FRUir CULTURE
Early Cultivation of Fruits — Beauty and Uses of Fruits — I'ruits brought lo the New "World —
Culture at the Begiiniing of the Cenlnry — I^arly Fruit Districts — The I'.xperinu'Rtal Stage —
Pioneers in Culture — The Age of Progress — First Commeriial Orchards — The Age of Triumph
— Spread of Culture in Various States and Areas — Kcvolution in Scie )f Fruit Growing —
■ Success and Failure of Different Species — Vine Culture — Improved Cullnre with Implements
— Hinne Consumption and ICxport of I'ruits — Our Fruits a Favorite in lUirope — Apple Culture
— Uses of Apples— Typical Orchards —Notable Varieties — lOxlent of Apiile Orchards — Apple
Exports — Progress in the (^ulture of Other Fruits — Varieties and Best Soils — History and Pro-
gress of Berry Culture — The Cjtrous FViiits — Where ami Imw grown — Their Great Value to
Man — General Review of Fruit Culture and F'ruits 47I-4!)0
THE CENTURY'S COMMERCIAL PROGRESS
I. Woiii.ii's Commkhpk at F^nd of Eic:hteenth Centkuy: -Methods of Traffic — Volume of
Trade. II. Rkvoiatiox in Comjieiick: — Change from Sails to Steam — F'irst Ocean Steamers
— Steamship Lines — Change from Wood to Iron — The Compound ICngine — Advent of Steel
Vessels — Tlie Twin Screw — Immense Size of Ships — Their (ireat Velocity — Appointment and
Service. HI. Imi-uovement i.n Commkikial Arxii iahies: — Betterment of Waterways — Ship
Canals — Harbor Improvements — Cable and Banking Facilities. IV. I;.\i>ansion ok Intek-
NATioNAi. Tuaiie: — I'uropeau Commercial Growth — Food Importations. V. Trade ok the
UnitkI) States: — Extent of Domestic and F'oreign — Vast Flxtension — Imports and ICxports —
Character of. VI. The American Makine: — Former Carrying Trade — Modern Carrying Trade
— Decline of United States Maritime Imp(n-tancc. VII. Amehican SiiirniTiLDiNo. VIII. Causes
Kou TiiE'CEXTrHv's CoMMKHciAi. PitofiHEss: — lu'onomic, Political, and Social Causes. IX.
The Twentieth Century Pkosi'Ect ; 4U1-614
^v
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS id
EUUCATIOX Dl KING TlIK CENTUKY
Education a Hin.li.il Years n^o — l'es'nl>"'i''' IiiHiii'iicu — Krocliel's Kinitcrt(arteu SvMtem — Its
liitrodiiitiiiii mill ihi; Liiitod Statt's — Kn^;li^ll and (iurinaii .Schoul.- — (jrcut Kurcipeaii Teufhers
— Fouudatl'ia nf I'ulilii; SoIkhiI Svstoins in llii' Tniti'd Slates — Tlie Hattle.s for I'ublie .Scluxds —
Immensity of roniriioii Selioid Svslenis — Xiiniher of Selmols and I'npils — Kxpenditnre for
Schools— rriniilivr Silioolliouses — Old-liine Teaeliers and Methods — Tlie Jlodern Sclioolliouse
— Iniprovi im 111- in IVaeliers and Metliods — Of the High Sehool — ( ollege and University —
T-'ai hers' ln-tiiii|.s — Stale AsMuialions — Sehool I'niiliealions — Xational linrean of Kdiivatiou —
Nornnd SehimN Tiaeliers' Salarie: (iirl>' Si minaries — Clnuige lo I'enmlu Teaclicr- — Modern
iSehool l'iiri:i-liiii:,' — I'exi-liooks — l'iiiv,T-ily ( 'ourse> (d I,e''tuies — Selniols of Mannal Training
and Uiisine" I'.ihiealim of the Negro Kaei — I'.xperinieiit id' Itnolier T. Washington — School
Funds — ConipulMiry Kducatiou . . . 515-512
"THK AKT l'l'.!:-;i.f!VATlVi:"
I. Tut riti.snxd I'nKss:— Printing Art in the Mighteenlh ("entnry — I'ranltlin's Intluenec — The
Hand I're> — V.iiioiis Ini;'roved I'resses- Condiig of tin' I'over I'ress — (Jrder of tlic t'ountries
in I'vintinir I'm^tri-^ — Impetus to Printing in the I'nited States — Wondtrfiil Improvement in
Presses - lliiw a Snifi-iootioni'd Press operali's -t^nadrnple Presses — Printing, Folding, and
Pasting — I'oniiiing ami Deliieiiiig —The Sextuple Press — Its Wonderful Achievements — Color
Printing Pre»-e>. !I. I'hk SKnixc; <ii- Tvi-i::- The Art at the Ueginning of the Century -Dawn
o{ Mechaiii al ("nipo-itiim — First Type-setting Machines — The Linotype — How it sets Type.
III. (tniii. i.vi.NTs IX riiK PicixriMi I,ix!,:— Old Methods of spreading News — Modern
F^iectric Mi llmiN — (aides and Overland Wires — \asl F.xtent of Newspapers — (Nxle Systems.
IV. TviK-MAKiM., STKitKoTYfixci, .\M> Pi( TiiiK-M AKtx<i ! — From Wood to Metal Type — Intro-
duction of the Type Koni:di\ The Slrreotyping Process — How it iirescrvcs Tyjie — Introduction
of F^lectrotyping — lis Advantages in Printing — Hisappearance of Wood ICngraving — The Art of
Illustration — Triuinpl- of Mechanical Processes in Printing — Tendency ot the Future . 543-570
PI!0(;lii;SS IN MINKS AND MINING
Search for Amerieaii Mines — Progress (d Mining prior to 1800 — Methods at Beginning of the Cen-
tury — Coal Mining Methods — Hoisting and Ventilation — Introduction of Steam — European
and South .Vnn riean Mines — Mining in tlie I'nited States — Opening of Mines — Various Work-
ing Appliances — Invention cd Davy's Safety Lamp — The Safety F'use — Mine Elci'ators —
Mining at the Miiiill. of the Century — (told and Copper Mines of United States — Uses of Man
F^ngine — lliii~ling Maihines — Pnniiiing F^ngines — Introduction of Machine and Dynamite —
Uses id Compressed Air — Mine Ventilation — Improved Fans — Coal-cutting Machines — Placer
and Hydraiilie Mining for (;idd — The Tiniljcring of Mines — Lake Superior Iron Mining — Koom
Mining — If i^e of Mining Schools and Smieties — Mining Laws in England and United States —
Unwise Action of Congress — Mining Claims and Rights — Miners' Qualitications . . . 571-586
ART PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY
. Paixtixi;: — KtTeet of the French Revolution on Fine Art — Rapid Advance ot French Art —
Artists and their Winks — Revolution of 18.10 — F-nglish Art and Artists — Landscape Art — Mil-
let's "Angeliis' — The Ijindseer Family — Ruskin's Intlnence on English Art — Edwin Abbey as
a Colorist —Works of Rosa Bonhenr — Later F^nglish Masters — Continental Artists — American
Masters — Rise of American Art Schools — Their Influence on Art - Some Distinguished School*
— ICra of Excessive ( 'oloring — American Landscapes — Women Artists of America — Their Style
and Intluenee — Siandinavian Artists — Modern Art in Scotland — Masterpieces in European Gal-
leries — Masters of Current Art in America — Some of their tireat Works. H. Scui^I'TURE: —
Old World Sculptors at Ueginning of Century — Centres of the Art — Advance in Different Coun-
tries — Masterpiece: — Anu'rican Sculpture — Notable Artists and their Works — ('haracteristics
of Sculptors — Eft'ect of the Columbian Flxposition — Names and Works of Modern Sculptors.
587-«14
THE CENTURY'S ADVANCE IN SURGERY
Surgery at the Dawn of the Century — SIcthods in Early Part of the Century — Discovery of Anaes-
thesia — Its Great Advantages — Antiseptic Surgery — Healing by First Intent — Setting of F'rac-
Zll
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS
tures — Modem Trciilniont of Bone Diseases — <K Amputations — Control of HfniorrliaKOH —Ad-
vance in Wound Trciitnii'iit — SiirfjiTV of tlic Aliniuntary Canal — Sloniaeli Surgery — Kiilncy and
Bladder Surgery — Hernia or Uupture — Of Diseases of Female Organs — Modern Drain Surgery
— Its Wonderful Advauie — Astounding Operations — The Ki'mtgeM or X Hays — Tlieir Value in
Surgery — Uviicral Uevitw of Surgical I'rogress tilb-Olil}
PKOGKESS OK MKDICINE
Early Medical Science — Trogress to lleginning cif Nineteenth Century — FamnuH Ancient Phyni-
cians — Note<l Schoids of Medicine — Medical Charlatans — Kvcdution of Jledienl I{cnu'dies —
Important Changes in Treatnieiit — Kirst Ainencan Selmols of Medicine — Advance in JIatcria
Medica — (Jrowth of Medical Associations — Medical Literature — High Standard of Modern Mi'd-
ical Kducation- Students and Colleges — Tendency to Special I'ractitc — Greai, Importance of
Modern Medical Discoveries — I'se of Aniestlietics in Medicint — Advance in Physiology ami
Anatomy — Im|)oriance of Trained Xurses — Review of Medical Progress <j.'ll-<i'12
5,
KVOLLTION OF THK RAILWAY
First Railways — Vast Development - I'ses of Railways — Importance to T'grmers and Producers —
Various Railway Systems — linvcrnnu'nt Ownership and Operation — Mileage of Railways — The
■World's (ireat Railways — Methods of building and operating Railways in DilTerent Countries —
Bridge Structures — I'se of Steel Riiils — Railway Signals — The Block Svstem — Single and
Double Tracks — Kirst Steam Locomotives — Weight and Power of Modern I.oconuitivcs — The
Old-fashioned Passenger Car — Luxury of the Modern Palace Car — ImproveuuMit in Freight Cars
— The Modern Air-brake — Advance in Train Ivpiipment ami Service — Rates al Speed — Railway
Mail Service — Passenger and Freight Rates — Railway as compared with Water Transportation
— Railway Labor — Relief Associations and Insurance — Mountain Railways — Rapid Transit —
Military Railways — Portable and Ship Railways Ii4^-ti(i4
ADVANCK IX LAW AND .U'STICK
Progress in International Law - Its Subdivisions — Law-making Bodies — Powers and Duties of
Legislators — Courts of .lustiie — Diilies of Judges — Of .Inrors — Of Civil Procedure — Codilica-
fion of Laws — Criminal .luris|irud(iii e — Puiislnneiits for Crinu's — Capital Punishment — Po-
lice Powers — Rights of Married Wiimen under Law — Laws regarding Parents and Ohildrcu —
Transfer of Heal Kstate — Co|iyriglit Laws— Their Kffcet on Publication — Admiralty I^ws — Of
Seamen and Shipping — Advance in ( orporntion Laws — Laws relating to Religion — Of Religious
Freedom — General Review of Legal Progress 605-071}
EVOLUTION OK BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS
I. General Pbintii'i.ks: — Objects and Uses of Building Associations — Explanation of the System
— The Various Plans of Operation — Loan Series — Maturity ami Payment of Shares — C»st of
Shares and Loans — Fjjrly History of Thi'se Associations — Their Charnctcr abroad — History
of American Associaticuis — The First Founded — Kuhigiesof Building Societies — Vast Membership
and Capital — Maiuigcment in Respective States — Amounts retnrne<l to Members — Teachers of
Practical Thrift — Value of One's Own Home — (Jomfort for Those of Modest Means — Makers
of Better Citizens — Duties of OHiccrs and Members — Responsibility of Members — Size and Cost
of Houses usually built — Typical Houses- The Social I'cafurcs of Building Societies . 677-6iK>
I i1
EPOCH-MAKERS OF THE CENTURY
Statesmen, Orators, and Jurists — Great Generals — Naval Heroes — Noted Preachers and Teachers
— Eminent Historians — Distinguished Editors — Noted Scientists— Leading Philanthropists —
Famous Inventors — Popular Novelists — Greatest Poets — Best Actors and Lyric Dramatists.
691-720
'iiiorrliafjfs — Ad-
'TV— Kiiliipv and
'11 Jtraiii SiirjttTv
— Tlifir Value iii
. . «I5-6.t()
" Aiicipiif riiysi-
lii'.:l IJcnii'ilics —
iiiicf ill Mali'iia
1 of Mddcrii jMciI-
a^ IiiipDrlaiii'i' of
I'liysidl.i^M- and
• . . 6;)l-ti42
niid I'rodiu'iTs —
r KailwavM — The
ri'iit (' tries —
111 — .Siii>,'lr and
M'Clllllllivi's — Tlio
t ill Freiftlil ('«is
Speed — Uaihvay
•r Tiaiis|j()rtali(.ii
Hapid Trx.nsit —
• . . Ii4;i-li(i4
rs and Duties „(
LMliire — (,'o,|iii(.„.
"iiislmitMif — I'o.
and Cliildrcii
inilty I^ws — f(f
11 — Of KHipiDus
• . . 6G5-076
11 of the System
hares — ('«st of
iroad — History
'ast Membership
•^ — Teachers of
leans — Makers
— Size and Cost
ties . 677-690
rs and Teachers
lilanthropists
riu Uraniatists.
691-7a»
UST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
'liiial .Maehiue
I'liiladelphia
All Ocean r,ipyli..ui!.| —Steamship St. Lnuis
I'mk
Ol.l l''raniiliii \:\
I.eyilen .liir
Kranklin liisiiiutc
Indiietidii ( (ill
MaKlietie [''ii'lil-, ■,!' I'lii'ce . ,
Daiiicll's fells ....
Jlorse Tele(,'ra|ili iiiid Hnt|ei-y .
Siiniiiel I''iiilcv IliiM-e .Mcnx"
Cyrils W. I'ielil
tdeiiii Ciilple
Great Kasteni laying an Uecan Cable
A String Telcpliniie
ThoniHs Alva I'.ili-oii. Full jiaye
A (Jrapli(p|ili(pne ....
A DynaiiKi
The (ioldeii Caiidlesliek
An Aneient l,anii
A Tallow Dip ....
Modern l.aiii|
Kleetrie Are Liglii
Kleetrie l.oioinotive. I'nnn KUrlrical Ayi
Eleetric Uaihvay -Third liail .System
tieissler's Tubes
Seiagraph or Shadow Picture
An August Aloniing with Fariagiit
British Hattlesliip Majestic .
French IJattleship .Magenta
(ierman Hattleship Woerth .
Italian Hattleship Sardegna
Nelson's Flagship Victory ' .
Constitution (1812) under Sail. I'erinission
Side View of Constitution. Full pni/e ,
The IJ, S. Steamship Oregon. Copyright by
Action between Monitor and Mcrriinac
The Tiirbinia — Fastest Craft aHoat. I'ermission of S. S
Engine of U. S. .Steamship Powhatan, A. u. 1849. Full pa^
Engine of \'. S. Steamer Kriccson ....
Battle of Trafalgar. Full paije ....
The (irowth of Ordnance. Four cuts. Full page .
Tlie Distribution of Armor, Twelve cuts. Full page
The Growth of Armor. Eight cuts. /'«// page
The Movement of Uranus and Neptune
Professor James H. Cottiu
The Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, Cal. Full page
The Spectroscope
Yerkes Telescope, University of Chicago. Full page ,
Professor William Harkness
Zenith Telescope, madt; for University of Pcnivj'lvania
Three-inch Transit. By Warner & Swasey
Carolus Linnieus of Sweden
The Green Rose
Head of White Clover, with Branch from Centre •
W.
of the artist
H. Ran
Full page
Full page
McClure C
ge .
PAdE
Frontifpiece
lit
■20
22
2:t
25
2fi
27
27
2H
28
29
n
32
32
35
37
39
30
40
40
43
45
47
49
50
56
57
57
58
59
60
61
63
65
66
67
68
71
73
18-79
81
89
91
93
94
95
97
100
103
105
106
107
i
J
I
;■;
."i
I
ZIV
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
The IVamit-Pml Majjiiilicd
Oiitliiiu of Whiti' Il(i);wiMiil KIhwit
Yi'llow Toail-Klax in IVInriu Slate .
Grained (.'oni-Tassel
lianunu Flowers
The Cruel Plant
Old Potato penetrated liy Ifootlel
Fnn({iis urowinjr from Head of Caterpillar .
Mary ICIi/aheth Lease ....
Emma Willard
George Kliot
Frances Wlllanl
Di.HlatTand .SpiiKlle
Spinniiij; Wheel
Primitive Hand l.oiiin
Karly .Spinning .leiiiiy
Giiniin); Ci'ttcpn. Old wiiv prim- to IHOd .
Ginning; Cotton. New way ....
The Modem Mule
Hand Conili of the i:ii;lilc. inli Ci iitury
\(dde Comb of 18!l(l
Plain Power l.oonj, IS4I) ....
Weavioff. The did \\'»y
Weaviii;;. The New Way ....
Loom of WM\ . . '
Jae(|uar(l Maehini'
Smith and .Skinner Loom for .Moi|uetle Carpets
Circular Loom
The First Kniltinjt Machine, Lee
Knitting in the Old Way ....
Knitting in the New Way
Ancient Hirmingham Meeting-house
108
1011
no
111
112
ll'l
11. 1
114
li-
no
1-.>1
V2l
ViV,
iL'li
127
12H
120
120
MO
131
i;i2
1-J3
135
135
]3(i
137
13!»
141
141
145
140
148
P. F:. Cathedral of St. .Iidin the Divine J.')0
F'ather Uuiiiieii, Missionary to Leper Colony 151
Salisbury Cathedral, Knglaud. J-'iiU jiuyt: 152
Young Men's Christian .\ssociation, Philadelphia 153
Baptist Mission Sehoid, .Japan 155
Methodist F^piscopal llospit!'! 1.57
The New Library of Congress, Washington, 1). C. Full jiai/e 101
Ridgwiiy Itranch of Philadelphia Library. Full pai/e l(i;j
Public Library of the City of IJoston. lly permission of lihrnrian. Full page . . . 104
John Kussell Voung 100
Carnegie Free Library, Pittsburgh. Fullpiuje Iliil
Arc de I'ttoilc, Paris 173
Natural History Museum, Kensington, London. Full pai/e 175
The White Hou.se, Washington, D. C. FuUpai;e 176
Glass Covered Arcjide, Milan 177
United States Capitol, Washington. O. C. Fill) piif/e 179
Library Building, University of Virginia 181
Trinity Church, New York. Fiillpiii/e 183
St. George's Hall, Philadelphia 185
Trinity Church, Boston .• 187
American Surely Company's Building, New York 188
Sir Humphrey IJavy 192
Micliael Faraday 197
William Crookes, F. K. S ' . .2(10
Sir Henry Bessemer / 202
Louis Jacques baguerre 203
Louis Pasteur ... - 205
Beethoven in Hi.s Study. Full page 208
Giuseppe Verdi 208
Grand Opera House, Paris 200
Metropolitan Opera House, New York 210
William Richard Wagner 211
Edwin Forrest 211
108
Km
no
111
112
ii.i
11 :i
114
117
11!)
IJt
1;>:|
l;>)i
u>t;
1-27
12K
12!t
12'J
i;to
131
i;)2
]«
135
135
13(i
137
13U
141
143
145
141!
148
150
151
152
153
155
157
101
1)13
llU
inr>
lli»
173
175
176
177
179
181
183
186
187
188
lit2
llt-
2IK)
202
203
205
208
208
20!)
210
211
211
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ""
Clmrlott« >,., ,„.„r. , ,,.,,^„„ «»
H.on..s frmn : . , „«'« Romeo andJulkt. fidlpa!) ""
tieiirnc Hi'i. .ji '"*
JolirH;. \V|, . ,. , ai7
Altrid 'IVi.. M*
H.'iiry \V. I. ■.,i..,|' V '.','.".'.'." *^'
Hi'iijiiiniii Im,.' i !i, .... 222
Horiuc Crci I- • , ■ • • • 224
.lohn W. F,.; *2S
.loscph MiMli 1 . ,'.".".".." "^
^<<•^'>r^\\^»'Mv■x,l■..■M,U\yWH\.' Fu'uiM'ii: t^I.
The "llla.kc II, .;,..•, ,,si,„i,„„„csi.r 11 ^A
The Mdiiliiir M,,.,, . r„il,,„,,e *"
Kiuiisof l-liil.,, l^^;... /.■„//'/»„/.- g,*
So-<alle.l SaH-.,i,|,„;.,,;(.f Alcximil.TthciJmit f.'*^
Cuiu'iform l.i|i,.rs|n..,i l.a.liish *"
Archc.f Tilu-, |;„„io f'*^
Hiltite liisnipii.,:! iiniii.liialiis. Full /in ye gj'
A Typi.nl Daily laim. l-'ull iHiije g*J
MoiliTU ('ivaiih.iVMHi Clues,. Kilctorv ,;,
ATyiii.al llaiiyC.„v — A.Mvhiiv. " ■ ' ' " ' ovi
Centrifugal I nam S,.|,i,iator;:i Operation. Full pant iJ'^
Milk Tester (U|„„, ..;... 284
Hiilter-niakiii;;,,,, jarni — TheOld AVav. Fiilljmije ...•.■•■ 265
Hiittei-nuiliiiiy Ih, S,w Way . '. ^"'^
The Dairy Mail!. Full ,,„,,,■ '. 2^*
Czar Alexander II., (,f Kus-ia ^"^
Sir Kdwaiil lliilwir *'•*
Captain Alfred Dnyfiis ^"P
Mortality Chart 2'^''
Map Showiii}; "I!e(;i>lnilinn States" 275
Laboratory <pf the Cniver-itv of I'uniisvlvnnitt. Full puijt 277
.Snud Kill.r llrd ..",.■ 27»
A (JimraiiiiiH. Station 281
(»ld Style Shrapnel . . • ^84
Consreve Itncket '^^^
Miiiki Hall . • 286
United States Hilli' .Musket, 18.J5 280
Arnistrong I'ield (Jim 287
Kodinan (iun 288
(■enenil Winlield .Seott. Full page 288
OhI Sniooth-hore Mortar . . ' 289
■Spencer Carliine 291
Metallic Cartridge of 1«(!4-C5 292
Prismatic I'nwder 298^
Mortar on Hevolviiij; Hoist. Full page 299
Modern Shrapnel . • ''"l
Kra);-.lor(5ensen Kille •'02
I'enetratiiiK I'ower of (Jims and Bullets. Full page ''**•'
(JatlinK (iun 3W
Nordeiifeldt Kapid Kire (inn 305
Soil Pulverizer, I'liriiished by author 309
Columbia Harvester and Hinder, Furnished by author 311
Improved Thresher, with Hlo*er and Self-feeder. Furnished by author , . , . 312
Autoniatie Stacker with Folding Attachment. F'urnished by author 313
I>ise Harrow. H. P. Denocher & Co., Hamilton, Ont 314
Acme Harrow. I''urnislied by author • 315
Doiilde (Jorii Cultivator. I.oiifj-Alstatten Co., Hamilton, Ont « • 317
Modern Clover I liiller. (Jaar, Scoot & O., Richmond, Ind 319
Hereford Cow, " l.ady Laurel." Furnished by author 320
(iroup of Aberdeen-AuRus Cattle. Courtesy of D. Bradford & Son, Aberdeen, O. . . ■ . 321
Jersey Cow," Ida," of St. Lambert. Miller & Sibley, Franklin, Pa 322
Poland-China Hoj;. Furnished by author 323
Merino Sheep. John Pow & Son, Salem, 325
Double Com Planter. H. P. Denocher & Co., Hamilton, Ont. . 326
ZTi
LIST OF ILLVSTRATIONS
HhikI (iariltii I'low. II, I'. hfiin.li.T & ('..., Iliimillun, Out.
«iiiie»i( Aiiti-»l(« \Vi'>'<l<T. It. V. Iliill<.rk & (•"., Vcirk, I'll.
A»|iiiiwiill I'dliiiii I'laiitcr. Fiiriii>lii'il l>v iiiillnir .
Uniiiklyii Sii.«lH'ii!'i()U lliiilK''. t'litl limjf ....
Tilt' Ni'utjaiu ItuilwHv Arrli. ('ciiirt(«v df (iriiinl Trunk U. It.
yilll /iili/r
Tlif Kirlh (pf Knrlli Hridj."', (iciii'ral Vii'W. Civilil "l)ri(lK''N" CluraK". full /myi
I'l'cdK Uivcr Viailiu'l
Kciriiial (llifiiiii^ <if Sill'/ I'uiial
Maiirliiiiitrr Sliiji Canal
C'iiiiii<li'lc' Kiiik Cm ChicH),'" PrainaKf Canal. Coiirtfsy of LiilKiTwinpil .Man. Co.
All " .\lla> " I'ciwiliT ltla!.l iiiiiliT ( 'alilcway . Cnpyrijflil by ( 'harli's SlailliT, ( liifiitjn
Anii'rii'aii I'mlal nf St. Clair Tiiiiiu'l. Ccinrli'ny nf (irand Trunk |{. It.
Intcrliir nf St. Clair Tuniifl, Ciiurtt'Ky of Uraiiil Trunk K. 1{
Tliiiri)ii({lil'ri'il. Fiill /iiii/r
AVatcriiifj tlic Cows
A TcniiM-ranci' Siiiifly. (llTriii);)
Art Crilics. ((iclilcr)
Frcncli Coai'li-Ilorsp "(ilailiatur "
•J'ai'intc lliir!-!' "Star I'ciinlcr." Tiinr lin. .Ml I-J»
Autoniiiliili' iir llcirsi'lcs" Carriagi'. Ccpurlcsy nf KIctlrir .Viitiimubilc Co. .
<'iiiniii<>i|iirt' Sti'|ili('ii Pi'iatur
Ciiiiiinddiirc I'crry at KatlTc of l.akr Krii'
Si'lii>i>li<lii|> SaralMpi. Cuiirtrsy of l'liilaili'l|ilila Hiiurse Uuiik ....
KoliiTt K. I.i'c at Hiillli' iif Clia|iiiltt'|ii'i'. Full /mye
i'astlc William. .Military IViscin, New Vork Harlinr
<icni'rals Unlirrt K. Lcc ami .Stniicwall .iHcksiiii
(ii'iicral lllysi's S. (iranl. Full imiir
SluTiiian's Marcli to tin: Sea. Full pmje . •
J.t'e'A .Snrrt'inlt'r at A|i|ioniatto.\
Morro Castle, Santiago Ilarlio'-
Ailiiiiral (icorp' Dewey. Full jxii/e
Main l>i'i'k of Ci-ni.tcr ('hii'iiK"
DfWfv'.s (inns at Manila. Full /xi'ie
iieneral .loscpli Wlict'ler
Tlic Truce before .Santia),'o
Agulnalilo, the Ta(;al l.ei::ler
Napoleon, J814. (Melssoiiier.) Full jm;/^
Admiral Horatio Nelson
NajKileon's Hetreat from Waterloo. Full jHiye
Capture of the .Malakoff. ,Full jiiii/e
Hattlc of Magenta. Full pa ye
Loiii.s Adolphe Thiers
Cavalry Charjfe at CJravelotte. Full jxiye
Buttle of Yalu Kiver. Full jm ye
Munich E.xposition, lS,'i4
New Orleans Kxposition. 1K84. Fulljiaye
Kiffel Tower, I'aris Kxposition, 1888
i'ourt of Honor, Cliicaj;" Kxposition, ISil.'l
Women's Uiiildin);, (Ihicago Kxposition, ]8!t.3
Agricultural Building, Atlanta Kxposition, 18!)5
Machinery Hall, Atlanta Kxposition, 18!)5
Winnen's Building, Nashville Kxposition, 18!H'
Art Building, Nashville Kxposition, 18!)7
(iruiid Court, Omaha Kxposition, 18i)8. Photograph by H. C. Hcr.tey
Nr.tional Kxport Kxposition, rhiladeljibia, .Sept. 14 to Nov. 30, 1899. Kleetro su
Commercial Museum. Full /mye
Old United States Mint, Philadelphia
Nev Tnited States Mint, Philadelphia. Courtesy of Philadelphia Bourse Book. .
Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia, First Site of First United States Bank. Full page
<}irard Bank, Philadelphia, Second Site of First United .States Bank . . .
Second Ignited States Bank, Philadelphia, now Custom House ....
Bank of Kngland, London
German Bank, Bremen
The Bourse, Paris. Full paye
New York Clearing Hou<>e
'ull piiyt
Ful
piiye
pplied by
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'It
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:i:i,5
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377
37!l
381
383
.385
387
389
.191
392
.393
394
.39.1
397
398
399
401
403
405
409
411
41.1
4lli
417
4;i.i
4-2.5
427
42!»
431
433
434
435
437
439
441
447
451
453
4.V)
457
403
404
404
408
l.i
Oct
Oil
.Sii:
Ai
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(iol
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PI
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CI
Pll
LIST OF ILLUSrilATIONS
3i7
:iai
;i;i5
'141
;i4;i
:i44
;i4:)
;)4:
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■■m
■■w\
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.■)I17
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a: I
a:a
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arit
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as7
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a»4
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3!)7
aii8
401
4()a
405
41 «
411
4 If)
4ltl
417
423
426
4it7
439
431
433
434
43«
437
439
441
447
451
453
456
467
463
464
464
468
\
Ciirdaniil Tri'i', I'lilin DiMirli, Kill. I'liiit<>);rii|ili liy niilhcir. f'utt jiitr/f 473
I'ni'kiiiK ''i|i|'lt"» liir l''.x|Mirl, Si. ( iilhcTiiir^, Out, /•'nil /nit/r 477
Laily 111' t'oKily (ini|n>^, .Miin villc, « 'nl. I'liiildnriipli I'v iiullKPr. l-'iill puife .... 483
()riiii);t' Orcliiii'il, .Siiiitnrd, Kla. I'IiijIci;{|'ii|iIi Iiv .iiillior 4N7
Olivi' Ori'liaril, Siiii ilii-r, (liil. riiiiti));ni|j|i li.v niitlinr 4HH
riiii'ii|i|ili' I'ii'lil, ralni Iti'iii li, I'lii, l'lici|(iKni|j|i liy uiitlior 4811
A ClipiiiT Ship. IVniiiMiiiim uf Wliittukcr iV (Jo 41)3
Itnlli'l't I'llltoll 4114
Till' Clc'i'iiiiint, l''iiltnii'» Klr^t Hti'uiiiliiiiit 4UA
S. ('niiiiril, h'linnili'r iif I'irnt (li'i'iiii Taiki'l l.iiH'. ('iitirti'»y of ('iiiiunl S. >S. (!o. , . . 41)7
Till' Uccaiiir, IS!l!( — |,ari{r«t Ship Alloal. Coiirti'sy of Wliiti' Slur Liin Full jmi/e . , 41)9
Straiiii I I 'ainpaiiiii, of (.'iinaril l.iiii'. < 'oiirli'sy of Ciiiuird H. S. (Jn. J-'iill /lai/f , , . 61)11
CraiMps' Shipyanl on till! |)i'la\vaic. l-'iill jiai/e 512
I'l'slaloz/.i, of VviTiliiii 617
I'rorlirl, I'oiiniliT of KiiiiliTKiU'li'iiH fill*
Dr. I'lioniaN Ariiohl, l(iiul>y, KiiKlaml 5-iO
An < >l>l l.of; .SrhoolhoiiHc . . , , 621
SrlioollioiiM' at Sli'i'py Hollow 5'24
InliTlor of Sli'i'py lliillow Srlioollioii«i' .VJ.'i
Chilli's (iiiiilr. I'lill jiiii/f 527
Dr. Charlr!* \V. Kliol, I'rr-iili'iit of llarvaiil rii'viT-ily 531
William T. Harris 533
lili'al Srhoollioii-.(' ami (iionii'l- . . 634
SiiKKi'slioni for planting: a Srhipol(;roiiiiil 536
Xi'W Hi»;h Sriiool, I'hilaili'lphia. /■'nil /ini/e 537
Dr. Williani H. .Maxwi'li, Snpi'rinti'iiili'iit "(iri'atiT Xi'W York" Schiiol.i .... 6.38
llookiT T. Washington, I'rinripal Tiiskri;)')' Instiliiti' 639
Dr. K. Ilt'iij. Aiiihi'ws, Siiprrinlcniii'iit of SchooU, ChieHg;o, III 641
Karly Hand I'rinliiiK I'rrsH 543
Till' <'olunil)iaii I'ri'ss 545
Washington Hand I'lcsii 54tl
Old Woodmi Kraiiii' Adams PrcMs .647
Doulili' ('yliniliT I'ri'ss 549
I'irsl I'l'rfic'iiiij? I'ri'ss 651
Kiiiir-rolliT rwii-Kuvoliitloii Press 553
I.itho^raphir I'ri'ss 555
Niimhi'rinn < 'aril I'ri'ss 6.57
I.inotypi' (Typi'-snttiiv) .Marhlni' — Knnit A'low 669
Oitiipli' StiTi'iitypc rt'rfi'riiiij; I'rpss and Folder. FiiUpni/e 6fi0
Outline of Tvpi'-si'ttinf; .Mailiinc 661
.Sinkiii);, Drifting, and Stopin^r In Milling; .573
Air Coinpri'ssor &"4
The "Serjeant" Hoek Drill . 675
Steain-Driven Air Compressor 676
Driving; a Kaihvay Tnniu'l. h'uU piiije 677
Straif;lit I.inv Air ( onipreHsor 678
Duplex Air Cominessor 679
Kleetric (.'iial-Miniiif; Machine. Full pn ye 681
Gold DredfjiiiK on Swan Kivcr, Colorado. Full page .583
Power Plant at .leroine Park .585
The Holy Women at the TomI) .589
Whispers of Love. (Honmiereau.) Full pa;ie .591
(Christmas Chimes. (Ulashlield.) Full page 592
(Jreek (iirls ])layinn at Hall. (Leighion) .593
Landseer and his Favorites. (By liimself.) Full pa ye 595
The Horse Fair. (Uosu Bnnhenr.) Full page 597
At tlij Shrine of Venns. (Alma Tadema) fiOl
Napoleon I. (Cannva) 603
Statne of Kenjamin Franklin. (Hoyle) (i05
The Washington Moniimeiit, Fairmount Park 607
Photographic View of New York City till
Surgiial OporatiiiK Room, Howard Hospital, Philadelphia 017
Clinical Amphitlieatie, Pennsylvania Hospital. Full page .021
Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia. From its " History," Full page .... 624
X-Kay Photograph of a Compound Fracture of Forearm " 628
3
xviU
LIST OF ILI.ISTUATIONS
X-Kiiy I'ii'liirc nf n DixliHiitiil I'.lliow. FhII /mi/t .• MS
l»r. (IliviT Wiiiilill lluliiii- . . ' . BUT
|)i'. Niilliiiri .Sriillli |iii\ i*, III r|ii('ii);ii. Cniirli'i-v nf |)r. |)iivi» ttliU
Stalling .Mi'iljriil Ccillc);!' jiiiil St. h'niiii'i'< l|ii<|>iiiil, CiiIiiiiiIiiik, OIiIh. I'liiirtt'^y of S|iiilii' vV
(ill'llll. /'«// /«!</( "... tUO
.1. Million .Siiiio, .A. It., .M. II., .Ni'w Vi.rk. rmnK-y nf Win. WihkI &.{i< 1141
Till' (Mil SttiK>' I'luu'li ! M
h'ii'-l Ti'iiin i>f Stcaiii <'iir» Mi
A Itaihvay Train In llrl^'iiiiii 1147
l.iiii|i In till' S(>lklrk!>, ^liiiu III); hiiiir Trark>, Full piiiir (Ull
KntraiK'i' to .St. (■iitliaril Tiiiiiicl, SwitziTJaiiil Hhl
i{ulhva,\ Signals (lASi
An .Aiiu'i'ii'iin Kxprc^^ l.tinniintivi- (Iftli
An .Vincricaii KrclKliI l.iK'ninotivu HAS
K.Ktcriiir of l.ati'?<t Siri'|iiii|; Car . OIMI
Interior of I'lillnian Sli'i'iiln^ Cur ' . . lift?
Kailway Siif|ii'ii''i"ii llriilK"'. Ma^jara Kail From Anu'rii'nii 8tH'lc(y nf ('ivil Knuiin'crn. Full imijr )I6U
llaKcrnian Van* on Colorailo .Mlillanil It. It « (lilt
View near Vi'rrnnas, on lliii' of Oroya Kullway, IVni ...<•.... ilfli)
Iiiili'|H'iiil('ii('i' Hall anil Sc|iiar(' -~ Winter .Sicni' . . . . ' (Hit)
Hon. .Milvillc Kiillir, Cliicf .lin-tici' I'. S. Siipri'ini' Court (I6U
8tali', War, anil Navy liiiililiii);, Wa'^liiii);! I). (' 073
I'ortia anil lla>>aiiii!. Trial Sciiii' from " .Mircliant of Vi'iiu*." Full /lagr . . . . (I7R
I'liyiiij; llii'ir Dili's. FktU iiinjr 070
First Itiiildin^ anil l.onii AxsiH'iatiiiii Ailvertii>>'iii(>iil (IHI
Howof .<iil4(M) llonsi's ilHfl
rian nf .«I4(H) Honsi'S (iH7
HiilliliiiK AsMK'iatinn Kani|iU't. Full jxti/r (IH!)
.Miraliani Lincoln (Itll
.ii'tTiTsnii D.ivis tma
AVillliini K. (ilailslniiu (IICl
Thomas .lefferson mi."i
(Hto v.. I,. Von llismarrk (Ht?
William M.'Kinlcy (IIW
tirant's Tonili, Itivorsiile Drive, New York Vity (i!l!t
Dnke of WelliiiKlon " 7(M»
Connt Von Moltke 701
fieiieral (iinseiiiii! Garibaldi 7(1!)
Charles H. S|iiir(;eon 705
William Wilherforce 70fl
Thomas It. .Miiiaiilay 707
Flori'iiee Nif;l>tiiiK'i''' •. 712
Clara liartoii 7J:i
Sir Walter Seott 71S
('harles Ditken.s 71G
Lord Ilvrun 717
rr( K.
WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY
I. AT TIIK PAWN <IK THK rKXTl'KY.
WiiKN, in his •• .Midsiiininpr Ni<,'ht's Dmiiii." Shakespeare placed in the
mouth of I'lKik, prince of fiiiries, the phiyfnl speech, —
"I'll put II n'niUf roiinil about the csrth
In t'lirly iniinitcs,"
lie iiiul no thouylit thiit the undertakin},' of a boastful and prankish sprite
could over be outdone by human agency. Could the immortal bard have lived
to witness the time when the girdliu)^ of the earth by means of the electrio
current became easier and swifter than elHn proi-ise or jmssibility, he must
have speedily remodeled his splendid comedy and denied to the world its
deli<,'htful, fairy-like features.
An old and charming story runs, that Aladdin, son of a widow of Bagdad,
beciiuie owner of a magic lamp, by means of whose remarkable powers he
could bring to his instant aid the services of an all-helpfiil genie. When
Aladdin wished for aid of any kind, he had but to rub the lamp. At once
the genie appeared to gratify his desires. By means of the lamp Aladdin
could hear the faintest whisper thousands of miles away. He could annihi-
late both time and space, and in a twinkling could transfer himself to the
tops of the highest mountains. How the charm of this ancient story is lost
in the presence of that marvelous realism which marks the acliievements of
nu)dern electrical science !
The earliest known observations on that subtle mystery which pervades all
nature, that silent energy whose phenomena and possibilities are limitless,
and before which even the wisest must stand in awe, are attributed to
Thales, a scholar of Miletus, in Greece, some GOO years b. c. On rubbing a
piece of amber against his clothing, he observed that it gained the strange
property of at first attracting and then repelling light objects brought near
to it. His observations led to nothing practical, and no historic mention of
20
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A'/A'"' CENTURY
electrical phenomena is found till the time of Theo])hrastus (». c. JUl), who
wrote that amber, when rubbed, attracted "straws, small sticks, and even
thin pieces of copper iind iron." Hoth Aristotle and I'liny speak of the elec-
tric eel as having ])ower to benumb animals with which it comes in contact.
Thus far these sim])le phenomena only had been mentioned. There was no
study of electric force, no recognition of it as svich, or as we know it and turn
it to practical account to-day.
This seems (piite strange when
we consider the culture and
power to investigate of the Egyp-
tians, Phoenicians, Greeks, and
Itomans. True, a few fairy-like
stories of how certain persons
emitted sparks from their bod-
ies, or were cured of diseases by
shocks from electric eels, are
found scattered througli their ] it-
eratures, but they failed to fol-
low the way to electrical science
pointed out to them by Tliales.
Even in the Midtlle Ages, when
a few scientists and writers saw
fit to speak of electrical phenom-
ena as observed by the ancients,
and even ventured to speculate
upon them in their crude way,
there were no practical additions
made to the science, and the
ground laid as fallow as it had
done since the creation.
After a lapse of more than two
thousand years from the experi-
ment of Thales, Dr. Gilbert, phy-
.sician to Queen Elizabeth (a. d.
liKi.'i-KtO.'i), took up the study of
amber and various other sub-
stances which, when subjected to
friction, acquired the proj)erty of
first attracting and then repelling
ligiit bodies brought near them,
lie imblished his observations in
a little book called " De Mag-
nete, in the year a. n. 1000, and thus became the first author of a work
upon electricitj'. In this unicjue and initial work u])on simple electrical ef-
fects, the author added greatly to the number of substances that could be
electrified by friction, and succeeded in establishing the differsnt degrees of
force with which they could be made to attract or repel light bodies brought
near them.
Fortunately for electrical science, and for that matter all sciences, about
OLD FHANKMN EI.Ef'TKirAL MACHIXi-:.
(By permission of Franklin Institnte.)
*
4
I
KNTURY
WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY
21
(K. c. 341), who
sticks, and even
)eak of the elec-
ucs ill contact.
. There was iio
enow it and turn
ccouiit to-day.
B strange wlieu
e culture and
ate of the Egyp-
IS, Greeks, and
fi few fairy-like
'eitain persons
'rom their bod-
of diseases by
'ctric eels, are
iroiigh their lit-
V fiiiled to fol-
Bctrical science
em by Thales.
lie Ages, when
lid writers saw
itrical phenom-
Y the ancients,
;1 to speculate
ir crude way,
tieal additions
■nee, and the
low as it had
ition.
more than two
•m the experi-
. Gilbert, phy-
izabeth (a. d.
p the study of
s other sub-
1 subjected to
le property of
then repelling
it near them.
)servations in
d "De Mag-
or of a work
electrical ef-
;hat could lie
it degrees of
•dies brought
iences, about
this time the influence of Lord Jiacon's Inductive I'hilosophy began to be felt
bv investigators and scientific men. Before that, the causes of natural
liheiiomeiia had not been backed up by rejjeated experiments amounting to
priu'.tical i)roofs, but had been accounted foi', if at all, by sheer guesses or
whimsical reasons. Uacon's method introduc^'d hard, cold, constant experi-
ment as the only sure means of finding out exactly the causes of natural
plieiiomeiia; and not only this, but the necessity of series upon series of
exjieriiiuMits, each based upon the results of the fonr"r, and so continuing,
link liy link, till, from a c()nii)arison of the whole, some general principle or
truth could be drawn that apjjlied to all. This inductive method of scicmtitic
research gave great impetus to the study of every brancli of science, and
especially to the unfolding of infallible and practical laws governing the
;; iilienoiiieiia of nature.
:? I'or very many years electrical experiments followed the lines laid down by
Dr. (iilbert; that is, the tinding of substances that could be excited or elec-
trilied by friction. By and by such substances came to be called electrics,
and it became a part of the crude electrical science of the time to compute
tlie force with which these electrics, when excited, attracted or repelled other
substances near them. Among the ablest of these investigators were Kobert
i lioyle, author of "Experiments on the Origin of Electricity," Sir Isaac New-
J ton, Otto von (xuericke, and Francis Hawksbee, the last of whom conimuni-
■f eated his experiments to the English Royal Society in 1705. Otto vcii Gue-
ricke used a hard roll of sulphur as an electric. He caused it to revolve rap-
idly while he rubbed or excited it with his hand. Newton and Hawksbee
used a revolving glass globe in the same way, and thus became the parents of
the modern and better equipped electrical machine used for school purposes.
The next step in electrical discovery, and one which marks an epoch in the
history of the science, was made by Stephen Gray, of England, in 1729. To
him is due the credit of tinding out that electricity from an excited glass
i-ylinder could be conducted away from it to objects at a remote distance.
Though he used only a packthread as a conductor, he thus carried electricity to
a distance of several hundred feet, and his novel discovery opened up what,
Inr the time, was a brilliant series of experiments in England and through-
out I'rance and (Termauy. Out of these experiments came the knowledge
that some substances were natural conductors of electricity, while others were
non-conductors; and that the non-conductors were the very substances —
glass, resin, sulphur, etc. — which were then in popular use as electrics.
Hen; was laid the foundation of those after-discoveries which led to the
selection of copper, iron, and other metals as the natural and therefore best
eoiidiictors of electricity, and glass, etc., as the best insulators or non-
conductors.
Up to this time an excited electric, such as a glass cylinder or wheel, had
furnished the only source whence electricity had been drawn for purposes of
experiment. But now another great step forward was taken by the momentous
discovery that electricity, as furnished by the excited but quickly exhausted
electric, could, be bottled up, as it were, and so accumulated and preserved in
large quantities, to be drawn upon when needed for experiment. It is not
known who made this important discovery ; but by common consent the
storage apparatus, which was to play so conspicuous a part in after-investiga-
'.II
■'^
:■■?..
4
M
22
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
I i
tions, was named th^ Lci/ileii Jor or I'/ilof, from the city of Lcydeu in Holland.
It consisted of a simple glass jar lined inside and ont with tinfoil to within
an inch or two of the top, the tinfoil of the inside being connected ' y a con-
ductor passing up through the stojiper of tlie jar to a metallic kno '>n top.
This jar eoidd be charged or tilled with electric-ity from a common
electric, and it had the power of retaining the charge till tin; knoi)
on top was touclied by the kmickle, or some unelectrified substance,
when a spai'k ensued, and the jar was said to l)e discharged. I>y
conductors attached to the knob, guns were tiivd off at a distance
by means of the spark, and it is said that Dr. Uenjannn Franklin
ignited a glass of brandy at the house of a frieiul by means of a
wire attached to a Leyden jar and stretched the full width (d' the
Schuylkill IJiver at ri'iiladclpliia.
At this stage in the history of eighteenth century electricity there
enters a character whose experiments in electricity, and whose writ-
ings upon the subject, not only brought him great renown at honu;
and abroad, Init i)erha[)S did more to systematize the science and turn it to
jir.U'tical account than those (d' any contemporary. This was the celebrati-d
i)r. l>enjamin Franklin, of rhiladelphia, I'a. He showed to tiie world that
electricity was not created by friction u))on an electric, but that it was merely
gathered there, when friction was applH-d. from surrounding nature; iind in
proof of his theory he invaded the clouds with a kite during a thunder-storm,
and brought down electricity therefrom by means of the kite-string as a con-
ductor. The key lit? hung on tlu> string became charged with the electric
fluid, and on being touched by an unelectritied body, emitted sjiarks and
produced all the effects commonly witnessed in the discharge of the Leyden
jar.
Franklin further established the difference between positive and negative
electricity, and showed that the spark phenomenon on the discharge of the
Leyden jar was due to the fact that the inside tinfoil was p(»sitively elec-
trified and the outside tinfoil negatively. When the inside tinfoil was
suddenly drawn upon by a conducitor, the spark was simiily the result of an
effort upon the part of the two kinds of ele(>tricitv to maintain an eipiilib-
rium. liy similar reasoning he accounted for the phenomenon of lightning in
the clouds, and by ea.sy steps invented the lightniug-roJ, as a means of break-
ing the force of the descending bolt, and carrying the dangerous fluid safely
to the ground. Jlere we have not only a practical result growing out of elec-
trical experiments, but we witness the dawn of an era wlien electricity was
to be turned to profitable commercial account. The lightning-rod man has
been abroad in the world ever since the days of Franklin.
Thus far, then, electrical science, if science it could yet be called, had gotten
on at the dawn of the nineteenth century. Xo electricity was really known
but that jirodiiced by frii tion u)ioii glass, or some other convenient electric.
Hence it was called frivt'tomil electricity by some, and sfatic electricity by
others, because it was regarded as electricity in a state of rest. Though a
thing fitted for curious e.x])eriiiieiit, and a constant invitation to scientific
I'esearch, it had no use whatever in the arts. An excited electric could fur-
nish but a trivial and temporary supply of electricity. It exhausted itself in
the exhibition of a single spark.
I
NTUltY
WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY
23
den in Holland,
iut'oil to within
eett'd ' y a oon-
c knu ')n toj).
I'oni ;i connuou
rp till tilt' knob
I'itit'd suhstunce,
isc'luiryi'd. r>y
ft' at ii distaiici'
ijuinin l-'ranklin
by means of a
uli width of the
electrieity there
and whose wi'it-
renown at honu!
/e and tnin it to
IS the celebrated
o tiie world that
lat it was merely
;■ natnre ; and in
a thiinder-stiirm,
e-string as a con-
rt-ith the electric
itted sparks and
e of the Leyden
ive and negative
discharge of the
s positively elec-
side tinfoil was
the resnlt of an
intain an etinilib-
m of lightning in
means of break-
iMous Huid safely
I wing ont of elec-
•n electricity was
iiing-rod man has
called, had gotten
was really known
invenient electric
itlc electricity by
(f rest. Thongh a
ation to scientific
electric could fnr-
?xhausted itself in
II. THK NKW XIXKTKKXTH CKNTTKY KI.KOTKICITV.
]}y a hapi)y accident in 171)0, Galvani, of Uol&gna. Italy, while exi)eriment-
iiig u]ion a frog, discovered that he could produce alternate motion between
its nerves and muscles through the agency of a fluid generated by certain
dissimilar metals when brought close together. I'hongh this mysterious
fluid came to be known as the galvanic fluid, and though galvanism was made
to perpetuate his name, it was not until 1800 that Volta, another Italian,
showeil to the scientific world that really a new electricity had been found.
Volta constructed what became known as the galvanic pile, but more
KUANKI.IN IXSTITfTK, I'nn.AUKI.IMIIA.
(From photo furnished by Institute.)
largely since as the voltaic jsile, which he found would generate electricity
strongly and continuously. Me used in its construction the dissimilar metals
silver and zinc, cut into disks, and piled alternately one upon the other, but
separated by ])ieces of cloth moistened with salt water. This simple gener-
ator of electricity was the forerunner of the more powerful batteries of the
present day, and which are still popularly known as voltaic cells or batteries.
I)Ut the im])ortance of Volta's discovery did not lay more in the construc-
tion <)f his electrical generator th.an in the great scientific fact that chemistry
now became linked iiidissolubly with electricity and electrical effects. The
two novel and charming sciences, hitherto separate, were henceforth to co-
ojierate in those majestic revelations and magnificent possibilities which so
signally distinguish the nineteenth century. By means of greatly improved
!
24
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
voltaic cells oi- batteries, that is, by jars containing acid in which were sus-
pentleil dissimilar metals, electricity eoiihl be produced readily and in some-
what continiu)us current. l>y increasing the number of these cells or jars or
batteries, and connecting them with conductors, the current could be made
stronger and more eft'ective. In contradistinction to the old frietional or
static electricity , the new became known as ciiemical oi' current electricity.
As was to have been expected, Volta's invcMition and discovery excited the
whole domain of electrical science to new investigation, and brought in their
train a host of wonderful results, growing more and more practical each year,
and pointing the way more and more clearly to tiie commercial value of elec-
tricity as a familiar, inexhaustible, and inesistibh; power. Thus, in 1801^
Nicholson showed that an tdectiic current from a voltaic pile would, when
passed througii salt water, decomj)ose the water and resolve it into its two
original gases, oxygen and hydrogen. In 1807, Sir Humphrey Davy, carry-
ing electricity further into the donuiin of chemistry, showed, by means of the
electric current, that various metallic substances embracHnl in the earth's
crust, and before his time supj)osed to be elementary, were really dissoluble
and easily resolved into their comjionent parts, whether solids, or gases, or
both. Two years later, in l.SOi), lu- made the ecpuilly momentous discovery
of something which was to prove a veritable .v/7 lux, " Let there be light,'' for
the nineteenth century, and illuminate it beyond all others. Though it had
been known almost from the date of the first voltaic pile that, when the ends
of its two conducting wires were brought close together, a spark was seen ta
leap in a curved or arc line from one wire to the other, which phenomenon
was known as the voltaic arc, it remained for Davy to exhibit this arc in all
the beauty of a brilliant light by using two charcoal (carbon) sticks or elec-
trodes, instead of the wires, at the point of close approach. Here was the
first principle of the after-evolved arc light to be found by the end of the
century in every large city, and to prove such a source of comfort and s^iVty
for their millions of inhabitants. This jjrinciple was simply that a stream
of electricity jjouring along a conducting wire will, when interrujjted by ti
substance such as carbon (cliarcoal), which is a slov^ conductor, throw off a
bright light at the point of interruption. The ])henon)enon has been very
aptly likened to a running stream of water in whose bed a stone has been
placed. The stone obstructs the flow of water. The water remonstrates by
an angry rip])le and excited roar. In Davy's experiment with the pi<'ces of
charcoal, both became intensely hot while the electricity was making its bril-
liant arc leap from one to the other, and would, of course, soon lie consumed.
He, therefore, in showing the princi])le of a permanent biminant, failed to
demonstrate its ])ractical i)ossibilities. These last were not to be attained
till the nim teenth century was well along, and only after very numerous and
very baffling attempts.
Between 1810 and 18.30, many im])ortant laws governing electrical phe-
nomena were discovered, which tended greatly to render the scieiuie more
exact, and to give it commercial direction. Oersted, of Denmark, discovered
a means of measuring the strength, and direction of an electric c\irrent.
Amjiere, of France, discovered the identity of electricity and what had before
been called galvanism. Kitchie, of England, made the first machine by
which a continuous motion was produced by means of the attractions and
WOMJERS OF ELECTRICITY
25
ri'jjiil.iions between tixeil luagiit'ts and electro-magnets. This machine was
au curly suggestion of tiie ilynamo and motor of the coining years of the cen-
tury. It meant that electricity was a source of power, as veil as of other
jihcnomenal things.
in speaking of the electro-nuignct in connection with liitchie's machine,
it is proper to say that the electro-magnet was probably discovered between
liSl.'."» and ISoO, but precisely by whom is not known. It differs from the
natural magnet, or the ])ermant'nt steel horseshoe magnet, and consists sim-
jily of a round piece of soft iron, called a core, around which are wrapped
several coils of line wire. When an electric current is made to pass through
tliis wrapping of wire, called the helix, the iron core becomes magnetized,
and lias all the power of a permanent magnet. ]Uit as soon as the electric
current ceases, the. magnetic power of the core is lost. Hence it is called an
eit'ctio-magnet, or a temporary magnet, to distinguish it from a pernnment
niagntit.
While the discovery of the electro-magnet was very important in the
respect that it afforded great magnetic power by the use of a limited or eco-
nomic galvanic force, or, in oilier words, by the usi, of smaller and fewer
\'oltai(! batteries, it was not until Faraday began his splendid series of elec-
trical discoveries, in 18.'>1, that a new and exhaustless wellspring of electri-
city was found to lay at the door of science. Faraday's prime discovery was
I that of the induction of electric currents, or, in other
words, of manufacturing electricity directly fum mag-
netism. He began his experiments with what became
known as an induction coil, which, though then crude
in his hands, is the same in principle to-day. It con-
ark, discovered
INDUCTION COIL.
2G
riilUMI'US A SI) noXDEJtS OF THE MX'" CENTUltr
sists of ail iron core wrapped with two voils of insulated wire. One coil is of
very lengtliy, thin wire, and is called the secondary coil. The other is uf
short, thick wire, and is called the primary. When a niaf,'netic current is
passed tlmmsjih tiii' i)riniary coil, with frecpient makes and breaks, it induces
an alternating current of vciy high tension in the secondary coil, thus power-
fully increasing its effects. In Faraday's further study of electric induction,
he showed that wlien a condiict(>r
(iarrying a current was brought near
to a second conductor it induced or
set up a current in this second. So
niagni'ts were found to have a sim-
ilar effect njjon one another.
The se( ret of these i)henonu'iui
was found to lie in the fact that a
magnet, or a conductor carrying a
current, was the centre of a Htdd of
force of very c(>nsiderable extent.
Such a iield of force c;iu be famil-
iarly sJiowM by placing a piece of
glass or white pajier sprinkled with
fine iron iilings upon the poles
of a magnet. The tilings will
be drawn into concentric circles,
whose (extent measures the mag-
net'.s field of force. ' So also the
extent of the field of force sur-
rounding a conductor carrying a
current may Ijc familiarlj' shown.
In these instances the filings
brought ■within the fields of force
are magnetized. So would any
other conducting substance be, and
would become capable of carrying
away as an independent current
that Avhich had been induced in
it. Here we have the essential ))rinciple of the modern dynamo-electric
machine, commonly called simply dynamo. Faraday actually constructed a
dynamo, which answered very well for his experiments, but failed in com-
mercial I'esults because the only sinirce of energy he could draw upon in his
time was that supplied by the rather costly voltaic cells.
During Faraday's time and subsecpiently, electricians in Europe and the
I'nited States were active in fornudating further laws relative to the nature,
strength, and control of electrical currents, and each year was one of prepara-
tion for the coming leap of electrical science into the vast realm of commer-
cial convenience and i)rofit.
III. Til?: TKLK<iKAI'n.
From the date of the discovery that electricity could be conducted to a
distance, dreams were indul ^'cd that it could be made a means of communi-
MAOXETIC FIKLDS OF FOKCK.
UHY
yiie coil IS of
•' other is of
c furiviit is
i«, it iiuluoes
tllllS IMJWci'.
•io iiuliictioii,
a ••niidiictcr
l)riiUf,'litin'iu-
it iiidncod or
s socoiul. So
Iiiivc a siiu-
Dtiier.
pliciioiiuMia
I' tact that a
r carrying a
' of a Hdil of
rablo extent,
ail be I'amil-
g a piece of
iriiikled witii
II the poh's
filings will
itric circles,
<'s the luag-
So also the
)f force s!ir-
' carrying a
iarl^^ shown,
the filings
ilds of force
would any
;ance be, and
of carrying
lent current
induced in
lanio-clectric
onstriicted a
iled in com-
upon in his
•0]ie ami the
• the nature,
! of prepara-
of conimer-
iucted to a
f communi-
WONDEItS OF ELECTRICirY
27
DAMKI.I, S CKI.I.S,
eating intelligence. In the eighteenth century, inan}' attempts were made to
carry intelligent signals over electric wires. Some of these were (juite ingen-
ious, but ill the end I'ailiires, because the old-fashioned frictional electricity
was the nid;y kind then known and em-
|(loyed. Kven after the discovery of the
voltaic cell or battery, which afforded an
ample sujiply of clieniical electricity to
operate a telegrai)hic aiiparatiis,tlie time
was not ripe for successful telegraphy, for
\ip till fcS;i() no battery had been ju-oduced
th'it was sufficiently constant in its opera-
tion to supply tlie kind of current re-
(juired. For tVasibh; iclejcraphy, two im-
portant stejis wi'.YO yi't necessary. One
was the discovery of tlii^ electro-magnet.
lSL'."i-;)tt. The other was the discovery > '1 the Daniell's battery or cell, in
IN.'U), by means of wliicii a constant electric current could be sustained for a
long time.
Mut even before these two indispensable requisites had been supplied by
iiumau genius, much iuid been done to develop the mechanical methods of
conveying intelligence. In llSKJ, lionalds, of England, constructed a tele-
.urapli by means of wliich he operated a system of pith-ball signals which
<'ould be understood. In bSL'O, Ampere suggested that the deflection of the
iiiMgnetic 11 He by an electric current might be turned to account in impart-
ing intelligence al a distance. In IcSL'S, Dyar, of New Y'ork, jierfected a tele-
graph by means of wliicii he made ti-acings and sjjaces upon a piece of mov-
ing litmus ])aper, which tracnngs and sjiaces could be intelligently interpreted
tliroiigh a prearranged code. A little later, l.S.'JO, Uaroii Schilling constructed
a telegraph which imparted motion to a set of needles at either end.
From this time up to liS.S", which la.st year was: a memorable one in the
history of telegraphy, the genius of such distinguished men as Morse in Amer-
ica, Wheatstone and Cooke in England, and Steiuhill in ^Munich, was brought
to bear on the further evolution of the telegraph. While all these names have
been associated with the invention of
the first jiractical telegraph, it is impos-
sible, with justice, to rob that of Morse
of the distinguished honor. Morse con-
ceived his invention on board the ship
Surry, wliile on a voyage from Havre to
New York, in October, 1832. It con-
sisted, as conceived, of a single circuit
of conductors fed by some generator of
electricity. He devised a system of
■;igns. which was afterwards improved into the Iforse alphabet, consisting
'it dots or points, and spaces, to represent numerals. These were impressed
u]ion a strip of ribbon or paper by a lever which held at one end a iien or
ii'Micil. The paper or ribbon was made to move along under the pencil or
iii'ii at a regular rate by means of clockwork. In accordance svith these con-
'cptions, ilorse completed his instrument and p iblicly exhibited it in 1835.
MOUSK TEl,EOR.\PH .\.S"U HATTKUY.
28
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
SAMUEIi FINI.KV HHKKSK MOUSE.
He gavi: it f'urthor jiulilicity, in inucli iinpiovt'd i'onii. in 1837. In tliis form
it was entirely original in tlie iniportiint rospccts tluit the ribbon or jiaiu'r was
made to move by eloekworli, wJiile a
pen or pencil gave tlie imiiressions, thus
preserving a iiermanent record of the
niessiige conveyed.
Tlinwgh under systems less original
and elt'eetive tiian that of Morse, a first
actual telegraph had been operated
between I'addington ami Drayton, Eng-
land, a distance of ].'! miles, iu l.S.'{!>,
and one at (.'alcutta, India, for a dis-
tance of L'l miles, it was not until 1844
that the world's era of ])ra(!tical tele-
graphy actually set in under tlie Morse
sysLeni, which speedily superseded all
others. In that year, amid the jeers of
congressmen and the .adverse ])redictions
of tli(i press, i\[orse erected the iirst
American telegrapli line in America,
between lialtiniore and Wasliington, a
distance of 40 miles, and, to tlie eon-
fusion of all detractors, sent the first message over it on Slay -7 of that year.
From that date the fame of l\Iorse was established at home, an<l soon became
world-wide. His sy^.tem of telegraphy, with slight modifications, becanie tliat
of all civilized countries.
As was to be expected in a century so
full of enterprise as tlu^ nineteenth, a
science so attractive, so useful to civili-
zation, so commercially valuable, so full
of possibilities, as telegraphy, could not
remain at rest. Everywhere it stim-
ulated to improvement and new invcsn-
tion and discovery ; and as the century
progressed, it witnessed in steady succes-
sion the wonders of what became known
as duplex telegrai)hy, that is, the send-
ing of different messages over the same
wire at the same time. Again, the
century witnessed the invention of
quadruplex telegraphy, that is. the send-
ing of four separate messages over the
same wire, two in one direction and
two in another. This was followed by CYnus w. kiki.d.
the invention of Gray's harmonir. sijs-
tern, by means of which a number of messages greater tlian four are trans-
mitted at the same time over the same wire; and this again by Delaney's
synchronous multiplex si/striii, by means of which as many as 72 separate
messages have been sent o"er the same wire at the same time, either all in
one direction, or some in oi e direction and the rest in an opposite.
WONDERS UF ELECTItlCITY
29
WSSl
For 11 tiino siicccsst'iil t'^lff^nipliy was liinitcd to ovcrliiiKl spacps, the conduct-
ors or wires, coiisistiiij,' of iron or copin-r, lu'iii^' insiiliitcd where they passed
the supporting,' poles. In tlie cities, supporting,' jioh's i)roved to l)e unsi<,'htly
and dan;^'en>iis, mid tiiey were succeeded by under^'ronnd conihiits carrying
iiisuhite<l wires. In l.S.'iK, we n-ad of what may be reckoned tiuf first success-
ful expcM'inient in ti'lcLcnipliin-,' under water l)y means of an insuhited wire, or
cable, as a conduclor. The c.xperiuient was tried at Calcutta, and under the
river Hii<,'li. fn ISfL', Morse experimented at New York with an under-wator
cable, and sliowcd lliat a successful sidnnarine tele},'i'aphy was in-actical. In
1S4.S, a cable, insulated with yutta-jierchu, was laid under water between New
York and Jersey (.!ity, and siuu'cssfully operated. In lHr>l, a submarine cable
was laid and siiciH-ssfully o))erated under the Kn^lish Channel. An enterpris-
in;,' American, Cyrus \V. Field, of New York, now took up the subject of sub-
marine telegraphy, and suggested a cable under the ocean betwcsen Ireland
and Newfoundland. One was laid in isr.7, but it unfortunately parted at a
ilistance of thn c luindred miles from land.
A second was laid under Mr. Field's aus-
pices in ISoH, but the insulation proved
faulty, and after working imperfectly for a*
month, it gave out entirely.
'i'hese disasters, though furnishing much
•••aluable experience, checked the enterprise
of submarine telegraphy for a number of
years. Not until ISdl, when a deep-sea
cable was successfully laid and operated be-
tween Malta and Alexandria, and in l<S(it,
when one was laid across the Tersiau (lulf,
did enter])risc gain sutticieut courage! to dare
another attempt to cable the Atlantic. In
ISC)"), that atti'mi)t was nuide. Again the
cable l)roke, but this did not dissuade from
another and successful attempt in 18()().
Thio signal triumph was the forerunner of
others, etpially important to interni'tional
commerce and the world's diplomacy. Coun-
tries far apart, and isolated by ocean ■, have,
by means of deep-sea cables, been Iremght
into intimate relation, and nuide slurers of
one another's intelligence, enterprise, and
civilizing instincts. \Vhat the overland
telegraph has done toward bringing local
states and connnunities into contact, the
submarine cable has done for the remote
nations.
In form, an ocean cable differs much
from the simple wire Avhich constitutes
the conductor of an overland (u- even underground telegraph. It is made
in many ways, but mostly with a central core of numerous copper wires,
which are more flexible than a single wi,-e. Tl 'se are thickly covered with
OCEAN CABLE.
J
-V-
30
TRIUMPHS ANIi WONUKRS OF THE XIX'" CKNTUllY
an inHulatiiif? niattdial, such as mitta-perelui, after Hist being lunivily wnii)iii'(l
in tarred canvas or like niut«'rial. Tlie (XMitral cores may be one, two, three,
or even more in number. Wliere a eabh; is likely to bo subjected to tho
abrasion of ship-liottoms, rocks, or anciiors, it has an outer covering or
guard composed of closely united steel wires. In submarine telegraphy, the
instruments nscd in sending and rtu-eiving the message are very iinich more
ingenious, delicate, and costly tiian iu overland telegrapiiy.
Whereas at the Iteginning (d' the nineteenth century electric telegraphy
was an unknown science, and even np to the middle of the century was
of linnted use and doubtfid commercial value, nevertheless the end of the
century witnesses in it.t growth and application one of its most stupendo\is
marvels. From the few miles of overland win-:, in 1844, the total mileage of
the centtlry has expanded to approximately o.OOO.OOO, and the submarine to
17(MM'I>. A single company (the Western Unicm) in the United States ojier-
ates SOO.OOO miles of wire, conveying (i( ).(»()( 1,0(10 messages per year, wliile
throughout tho world more tlian 200,000,000 messages per year serve tlio
])nriK)ses of enlightened intercourse. Tlie capital employed reaches many
hundreds of millions of dollars.
The close of the nineteenth century opened possibilities in telegraphy that
may be classed as startling in comparison with its ]irevions attainments. It
would seem that the intervention of tlie familiar conducting wire is not abso-
lutely necessary to the transmission of intelligence. The old and well-estab-
lished principle of induced currents has lately been turned to account in
what is termed "telegrajihy without wires," As an instance, a telegraph
wire, when placed close alongside of a railroad track, will take u]> and con-
vey to and from the stations the induced jjulsations of a magneto-telephone
])laced within a passing car, and connected to tlie metallic roof of the car.
This system has been put to practical use on at least one railway, and pro-
nounced feasible.
lUit a greater marvel than this springs from the discovery of "Ier\';z, about
1800, that every electrical discharge is the centre of oscillations radiating
indetinitely thrcmgh space. The phenomenon is likened to t!;" droi)ping of a
stone in a placid lake. Concentric; undulations of the water are set up; —
little waves, — which gradually enlarge in diameter, and affect iu greater or
less degree the entire surface. Coidd an apparatus be invented to detect and
direct the oscillati<ms made in space by an electric generator, — to perceive,
as it were, the ether undulations, just as the eye notes those on the lake's
surface ?
In 18i)l, I'rofessor liranley fcund that the electric vibrations in ether could
be detected by means of tine metallic filings. No matter how good a con-
ductor of electricity the metal ui mass might be, when reduced to fine filings
or powder it offered ]>owerful resistance to a passing current ; in other
words, became p. very poor conduct^.. An electric; discharge or spark near
the filings greatly decreased their resistance. If the filings were jarred, their
(u-iginal resistance was restored. Branley ])laced his filings in a tube, into
either end of which wires were passed. These were connected with a gjvl-
vanometer. Ordinarily, the resistance of the filings was such as to prevent a
current passing through them, and the galvanometer remained unaffected.
But when an electric spark •. as emitted near the tube, the resistance was so
V
^.:
IRY
\y win PI It'll
two. tlin-i',
•tfil t(i tho
i)Vi>iiiij,' or
jiiiphy. the
iini(!)i iiKiro
tt'lc^fiajiliy
•iitiirv was
I'lul of tlu)
^tll])(MllloUS
inili'iij,'(' of
biiiiii'iiic to
tatcs ojier-
koiir. wJiilt'
scrvi' tim
ulies many
raphy tliat
llU'lltS. It
s not abso-
wcll-cstal)-
iiccount in
tt'le},n'ai)h
]) and con-
i-teli'plione
if tlu' car,
, and j)ro-
ertz, about
radiating
l>pin;,' of a
.set up,' —
greater or
detect and
) ])erceive,
tlie lake's
ther could
ood a Con-
ine filings
in other
park near
rred, their
tube, into
ith a gal-
prevent a
inaffected.
ice was so
WONDERS OF ELKCTHICITY
31
niucii decrea.se(l tliat the nirreiit passed readily through the lilings, and was
ilcti'i'ted by the galvanometer. This is simply equivalent to saying that tho
ilisi'liarge of the eleetric. spark made the (iliiigs to cohere and become a better
idiidiictor than wiien lying hiosely in the tui)c. Here, then, was opportunity
lor an instrument which had but to regulate tiie luuubcr of sjjarks and iiuli-
ciite the presence of the electric waves in lU'iler to produce dots and dashes
similar to those used in the common t;clegraph. Such an instrument was
liiiiii^'ht nearest to perfection by Signor .Marconi, a young Italian, in 1H!>0.
Willi it he succeeded in sendi'ig electric waves through etiu'r or sjiace, and
without the use of wires, a distance of four miles, upon Salislmry I'lain, Kng-
li'iiil, li.'iter, lie transmitted messages by means of space (wireless) telo-
THE OnEAT EASTERN LATINO AN OCEAN CAULE.
graphy across Bristol Channel, a distance of 8.7 miles, and subsequently
across the English Channel, a distance of 18 miles. Mr. W. J. Clarke, of
America, has imjjroved ujion ^larconi's methods of space telegraphy, and
shown some remarkable residts. Whether space telegraphy will eventually
sii|icrse(le that by wires is one of the problems that time only can solve.
Jiiit such are the iiossibilities of electrical science that we may well be pre-
])ared for more wonderful revelations than any yet nuule.
IV. hello! hello!
Telegraph (Gr. tele, far, and f/rap/tein, to write) implies the production of
writing at a distance by means of an electric current upon a conductor.
Telephone (Gr. tele, far, and photie, sound) implies the production of sound au
a distance by the same means, though the word telei)hone was in early use
to describe the transmission of sound by means of a rod or tightly stretched
string connecting two diajjhragms of wood, membrane, or other substance.
This last ]>lan of transmitting sound came to be known as the string telephone,
and it retained this name until the invention of the electric telephone.
S2
riilUMl'llS ASIt WoShKliS OF Tin-: A/.Y'" CKNTlltY
Lik«' tlm plfictric tolcjfnipli, the olectric tch'phoiu' was ;iii evolution. Tlic
fitriiiK tclf'plioiii', in tlic liaiids of Wliciitstdiic. sliowod, as early as IMI'.I, tliat
tlic vibrations of tlic air in'odiict'd l»y a luuHical iiistiiinuMit wcrii Vfiy niimiti',
and coukl hv tiaiiHiiiitti'd liiindii'ds of yards by means of a string armed with
delicate diapiira^ms. iSiit wliiic tlie string tel(>|ihone served to eontirm tlie
fact that sounds are vibrations of tlie atmosphere which alTect the tymjianum
of th« ear, it remained but a toy or experimental device till after electric
telegraphy became; an accepted science, that is, in the yeur iKM and subse-
A
A STIUNfl TKI.KI'IIOXK.
(juently. One of the earliest steps to-
ward the evolution of the electric tele-
lilione was taken by Mr. Vage, of Salem,
.Mass., in 18.">7, who discovered that a
magnetic bar could »'niit sounds when
rapidly magnetized and demagnetized;
,and that those .sounds corresponded with
the iiuinb<-r 'if currents which jjroduced
them. Thif. i.-d to the discovery, be-
tween 1847 and IsriL', of several kinds of
electric vibrators adajited to the produc-
tion of musical sounds and their trans-
mi.ssiou to a distance. All this was
wonderful and mom«'ntous, but a little while had still to elapse before one
arose bold enough to admit the possibility of transmitting human speech by
electricity. He caim* in l.sr>4, in the person of Charles Kourseul, of Paris,
who, though as if writing out a fanciful dream, said, " We know that sounds
are produced by vibrations, and are adapted to the car by the same vibra-
tions which are reproduced by the intervening medium. Hut the intensity of
the vibrations diminishes very rapidly with the distance, .so that it is, even
with the aid of si)eaking-tubes and trumpets, impossible to exceed somewliat
narrow limits. Suppose that a num speaks near a movable disk, sufficiently
flexible to lose none of the vibrations of the voice, that this disk alternately
makes and breaks the current from a battery, you may have at a distance
another disk, which will at the same time execute the same vibrations."
liourseul further showed that the sounds of the voice thus reproduced
would have the same pitch, but admitted that, in the then present state of
acoustic science, it could not be attirmed that the syllables uttered by the
human voice could be so reproduced, since nothing was known of them,
except that some were uttered In- the teeth, others by the lips, and so on.
The status of the telephone then, according to Bourseul, was that voice could
l)e reproduced at a distance at the pitch of the speaker, but that something
more was needed to transmit the delicate and varied intonations of human
speech when it was broken into syllables and utterances. To transmit sim-
4.
i»
THOMAS AI.VA EDISON.
,
WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY 88
jly voice was one thing ; to transmit the timbre or quality of speech was
inotlier. .
Hour.si'ul made plain the problem that was still before the investigator.
md now comes one of the most remarkable episodes in the history of elec-
tu'Aty, — a chapter of mingled shame and glory. In the village of Eberly's
lills", ("iimbevland County, I'a., lived a genius by the name of Daniel Draw-
Laugli, who liad ni.'>de a study of telephony up to the very point Bourseul
Lcrieft it. He had transmitted musical sound, sound of the voice, and other
joumls in tlie same pitch. lie had said that this was all that could be done
Kll some means was discovered of holding up the constant onward flow of
le electric current along a conducting wire by introducing into such flow a
Variable resistance such as would impart to simi)le i)itch of voice the quality
br tlmlii-n of human speech. Drawbaugli achieved this in his simple work-
[hop as early as ISoSMiO, according to evidence furnished to the United
}tatvs Supreme Court at the celebrated trial of tlie cases which robbed him
ff the right to Ids prior invention. He did it by introducing into the circuit
small (piantity of jm^vdered charcoal (jontined in a tumbler, through which
le ciincnt was passing. The cliarcoal, being a poor conductor and in small
Jrains. oiTered just that kind of variable resistance to the current necessary
n'pioduce tiie tones and syllables of speech. He transmitted si)eech
Btwoon liis shop and house, and jjroved the suc(!ess he had met with before
idiences in New York and Philadelphia. Hut he neglected to care for the
jniniiMcial side of his discovery, though many of his jiatents antedated
lost' which contributed to de])rive him of deserved honor and profit.
Ju llSOl, lleis, of Germany, came into notice as the inventor of a telephone
Hiich transmitted sound very clearly, but failed to reproduce syllabified
pecih. However, the principle and shape of his transmitter and receiver
^ere accepted by those who followed him. Two men now came upon the
cene x^ho had readied the conclusion already arrived at by Drawbaugh, and
^lio hccame rivals over his head for the honor and profit of an invention by
jicaus of v»'luch the quality of tlie voice in speaking could be transmitted.
fhcse two were Elisha Gray, of Chicago, and Alexander Graham Bell, of
loston. Tlieir resjjective devices seem to have been akin, and to have been
rescnteil to the patent office almost simultaneously ; so nearly so, at least,
to make them a part of that long, costly, and acrimonious legal contention
i^er priority of invention which did not end till 1887.
15oth liell and Gray reached the conclusion that the transmission of articu-
^te. speech was impossible unless they could produce electrical undulations
jrresponding exactly witli the vibrations of the air or sound waves. Tliey
rouglit this similaiity about by introducing a variable resistance into the
^ectric current by means of an interposing liquid, just as Drawbaugli had
ane years before with his tumbler of powdered charcoal. Bell exhibited
j|is inst'-uineut with com])arative success at tlie Centennial Exhibition in 1S7<)
riiiludelphia; but much had yet to be done to perfect a telephone of real
smmercial value.
The years 1877-78 were years of great activity among electricians, whose
rime object was to perfect a telej)hone transmitter and receiver, by means of
^hose mutual o^ieratious at opjiosite ends of a circuit all the modulations of
peech could be preserved and passed. To this end Berliner introduced into
3
34
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
v^
a transmittcn- or semlor the then well-known principle of the microphone
(Gr. ml/cms, small, /t/ioiic, sound), which magnitietl the faint sounds by the
variation in eleetrieal resistance, caused b} variation of ])ressure at loose
contact between two metal points or electrodes. Edison (juickly foUowed
with a similar transmitter or sender, in which one of the electrodes was of
soft carbon, the other of metal. Then came (1S78) IIui,dies and ]>lake with
senders, in which both of the ehctrodes were of hard carbon. Suli-scfjuently
came other and rapid modilications of the sender, both in the United States
and Europe, till the fornr of telephone now in pojudar use was arrived at,
and which, strange to say, is, in its leethod of securing tht? necessary vari-
able resistance in the circuit, (juite like that emjiloyed by Mr. Drawbangh ;
to wit, the introduction of fine carboii granules into a small metal cup just
behind the vibrating diaiihragm or disk of the seniler. The circuit goes into
the diaphragm in front, passing through the carbon granules and out through
the back of the iu'-^rument. 'i'ht' action of talking into the sender causes tin
g'anides to be ag.:ated, thus o]iening and closing the circuit and producing
che .'onditions necessary to tlie transmissiou of articulate speech. The
diaphragm or disk is the very thin covering of the cuj) coii^^aiuing the gran-
ules. It is sometimes made of carbon, but generally of hard metal, as steel.
On being struck by the sound waves of the voice, it vibrates to correspond.
The same vibrations are reproduced in the receiver at the opposite end of the
circuit, and thus one listens to the phenomenon of transmitte(l Iniman speech.
The current for telephonic^ pur])oses is furnished by one or more batteries or
cells, whose effect is heightened by the presence of an induction coil. The
tendency now is to make "biiudars" — two contacts at the diaiihragm — in
place of a single contact. This style is becoming more in vogue in order to
meet the demands of long-distance work. To each telephone is attached a
generator or dev^ice for ringing a little bell as a signal that some one wishes
to comminiicate. To such perfection have telejiliones been brought that it is
quite possible to converse intelligibly at the distance of a tho'usand miles,
with a less satisfactory service at twice or thrice that distance. The possi-
bilities of clear speech-transmission at indefinite distance are without mea-
sure. Like the telegraph, the telephone has opened an immense and profit-
able industry, involving hundreds of millions of dollars. At the end of the
century it is, unfortunately, monopolistic ; but the time is near when a rea-
sonable charge for service will enable every business house to communicate
with its customers, and when even the remote corners of counties will be
brought into tovudi with their cajiitals and with one another. Along the
lines of civilizing contact the telephone fairly divides the wonders of the
century with the telegra])h, while for intimate intellectual communication it
is a trium])h of genius without parallel. It is the dispenser of speech in city,
town, and village ; in factory and mine, in army and navy ; throughout gov-
ernment deiKirtments ; and in Budapest, Hungary, it is a purveyor of general
news, like the ncwspai)er, for the "Telephone (iazette " of that city has a
list of regular subs(!ribers. to whom it transmits, at private houses, clubs,
cafes, restaurants, and public buildings, its editorials, telegrams, local news,
and advertisements.
A very natural outgrowth of the telejdione was that curious invention
known as the phonograph (Gr. phone, sound, and ijra2)hein, to write). It is
CENTURY
WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY
35
)t' tho micropUoiii'
iut sounds by th(!
])res.sun> at loose
1 (juickly followed
e electrodes was ol
les and lUake with
)on. Subseriuently
1 the United States
ise was arrived at,
the neeessary vari-
)y ^Ir. Drawhangh;
all metal cup just
he eireuit goes into
[es and out through
e sender causes tin
•cuit and producing
late sjieech. The
(in^^aining the gran-
lard metal, as steel,
rates to correspond,
ojrposite end of the
itteil Inuuan speech.
)r more batteries or
ndiiction coil. The
the diai>hragm — in
n vogiu' in order to
ihone is attached a
lat some one wishes
n brought that it is
a tho'usand miles,
istance. The possi-
;e are without mea-
immense and protit-
\t the end of the
is near when a rea-
use to communicatt'
of counties will be
lother. Along the
the wcmders of the
al communication it
ier of speech in city,
y ; throughout gov-
purveyor of generid
of that city has a
ivate houses, clubs,
egrams, local news,
t curious invention
?.in, to write). It is
A (lUAPnoiMIONE.
•:f
not only an instrument lor writing or preserving sound, but for reproducing
it. As a sim])le recorder of soiuul, it was an instrument dating as far back as
^ISO". when Dr. V'oung showed how a tuning-fork might be made to trace a
■5 record uf its own vibrations. J Jut Young's
Ithonght had to go through more than half
:§% ct'Utury of slow evolution before the mod-
^ern |ilionograph was reached; for in the
%'honautograph of Scott, the logographs of
pHarlow and lUake, and the various other
MBttenipts up to 1.S77 to make and preserve
^tracings of sjieech, there were no success-
ful nii'Mi's of reproducing speech from those
A|trucings liit upon.
i In that year (1S77), Edison, in striving to
J^iake a si'lf-rccording telejdioue by connect-
'^ng witli its (li:iphragm or disk a stylus or
iietal [loint which would record its vilirations upon a strip of tinfoil, accident-
[felly revciscd the motion of the tinfoil so that the tracings upon it affected the
Istylus or tracing-point in an o|)posite direction. To his surprise, he found that
|his reverse motion of the tinfoil, tickling, as it were, the stylus oppositely,
e]iro(liici'd the sounds which had at first agitated the diaphragm. It was but
step now to the production of his matured phoiujgrapii in 1878. He made
cylinder with a grooved surface, over which he sjjread tinfoil. A stylus
r tini' metal point was made to rest ui)on the tinfoil, so as to produce a
racing in it. followit'g the grooves in the .-ylinder when the latter was made
revolve. This stylus was connected witli the diaphragm of an ordinary tele-
lone transmitter. When one sjioke into tlie transmitter, that is, set the
i;ililinigni to vibrating, the stylus impressed the vibratory motions of thedia-
lii,ii,Mii. or, in crher words, the waves of the exciting sound, in light indenta-
iciiis upon the tinfoil. In order to reproduce the sounds thus registered in
he tintoilof the cyliiuler, it was nuide to revolve in an opposite direction
mlcr the ])oint of ilie stylus, and as the stylus was now affected by jjrecisely
ihe same indentations it had first m.ado in the tinfoil, it carried the identicl
ibrations it had recorded back to the diaphragm of the telephone, and tnus
•eprodueed in audible form the speech that had at first set the diaphragm to
ilirating. The speech thus reproduced was that of the origiral speaker in
itcii and quality. Ingenious and wonderful as Edison's machine was, it waa
iiseeiitihle of improvement, and soon liell and others came forward with a
lionograph in which the recording cylinder was covered with a hardened
ax. This was called the graphophone. Again, Berliner improved upon
ihe phonogra])]! by using for his tracing surface a horizontal disk of zinc cov-
re(l witli wax. ]iy chemical treatment, the tracings made in the wax were
tclied into the zinc, and thus nuide permanent. Edison -nade further and
ingenious improvements upon his i)honograph by attaching liearing tubes for
ihe ear to the sound receiver, and by the employment of an electric motor
revolve the wax cylinder, liy the attachment of enlarged trumpets and
ther devices, every form of modern phonograph has been rendered capable
f reprodiie.ing in great jierfection the various sounds of speech, song, and
nstrument, and has become a most interesting source of entertainment.
36
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XJX^" CENTURY
V. DYNAMO AMI MOToK.
I)3'naiiio is from tlio (Jieek i/iini(>i<!.i, iiieiining ptnvcr. !Motor is from tlio
Latin mot IIS, or inoi'fo, to move. Dynamo is thv every-ilay term api)lie(l totlic
dynamo-oleetric macliiue. Motor is tiit' evcry-day term applieil to tli« elec-
trio motor. The dynamo and motor are (Hiite alike in jirinciple of constrnc-
tion, yet direct opposites in ohjeet and effect. I'erliaps it might be well to
designate both as dynamo-electric machines, and to say that, when such
machine is used for the conversion of mechanical energy or ])ower of any
kind into electrical energy or power, it is a dynamu. When a reverse result
is s(mght, that is, when electrical energy or jwwer is to be converted into
mechanical energy or i)o\ver, ilie machine that is used is a motor. In practical
use for most purposes they are brought into coiipciation, the dynamo bein;.,'
at one end of an electric system, making and sending forth electricity, the
motor being at the other end, taking np sm-h electricity and running machin-
ery with it. Both nnichines were epoch-making in the midst of a wondrous
century, and both were results of those nnii'velous evolutions in electrical
science which char.acteri/.ed the earlier years of the century.
We have seen hov," the simple glass cylinder f)r suljihur roll became, wlien
rubbed, a generator of electricity. In a later (^hajjter of electrical history,
we saw a new and more i)owerful generator of electricity in the voltaic cell,
by means of ojjposing metals ;icted upon chemically by aciils. The greatest,
grandest, most in)werful, and most economic of .all generators of electri-
citj' was yet to ctmie in the shajte of the dynamo. We see its beginnings in
those investigations of Faraday which led to the discov(>ry of the induction
coil and the principles of nuigncto-electric indui.'tion. In l.S.'U, he invented
a simple yet, for that date, wonderful machine, which was none the less the
first dynamo in principle, because he modestly called it •' A New Electrical
IVtachine." Ho mounted a thin disk of copper, about twelve inches in diam-
eter, upon a central axis, so that it would revolve between the opposite pol".s
of a permanent nuignet. As the disk revolved, its lower half cut the field of
force of the magnet, and a current was induced which was carried away by
means of two collecting br\ishes. fastene<l respectively to the axis and circum-
ference of the disk. This was the first electric current ever jiroduced by ii
permanent magnet. The Faraday machine and others that derived the
mechanical isiergy which was converted into electric current from a perma-
nent magnet were classed as magneto-generators. Soon the electro-magiu't
took the place of the permanent magnet, because it produced a much stronger
field of force. Hut then the electro-magnet had to have a current to excite it.
This current was snp])lied by a magneto-generator, placed somewhere on the
dynamo. Now came the thought, suggested by I?rctt in 1S48, that the induced
currents of the dynamo con il themstdves be turned to account for increasini,'
thestrengtli of the electro-magnets used in inducing ther.i. This was a most
progressive step in the history of the dynamo. It led to nipid inventions,
whose i)rinciple was based on the fact that every dynamo carried within the
cores of its magnets enough of uiuised or residual magnetism to render the
magnets self-exciting the moment the machine started. So the outside means
of magnetizing the fields of force of the dynamo passed away.
The dynamo speedily grew in size and importance. The electro-magnets
CENTURY
^lotor is from tlift
tt'l'lll lll)l)li(Ml to till'
aiijilieil to tlio pUm'-
iiiciple of consti'uc-
it iniyht be well to
y that, when such
fy or ])o\vei' of any
len a reverse result
) be e( inverted into
motor. Inpraotioiil
. the dynaiiu) beiui;
orth electricity, the
nd running raachin-
lidst of a wondrous
lutions in electrical
ry.
r roll became, when
if electrical history,
y in the voltaic cell,
iciils. The greatest,
iiierators of electri-
ee its beginnings in
cry of the induction
11 1831, he invented
us none the less the
" A New Electriciil
dve inches in diani-
n the opposite pol".s
half cut the field of
Avas carried away by
the axis and circuni-
t ever jjroduced b}' a
s that derived the
rent from a perma-
1 the electro-magnet
iceil a much stronger
I current to excite it.
id somewhere on the
■(48, that tlie induced
icount for increasinj;
I. This was a nuist
to rajjid inventions,
lo carried within tiie
letism to render tlie
"^o the outside means
away.
The electro-magnets
I
WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY
37
or fields of force were greatly increased in number, size, and power. There
were great improvements in "the construction anil efficiency of the wire coils
or armatures which cut the fields of force, and a corresponding increase
in their number, (.ommutators and brushes underwent like improvement.
So, at last, the well-nigh perfect and all-powerful dynamo of the end of the
century was evolved, with a capacity for delivering, in the form of electricity,
ninety per cent of the nu'chanical energy which set it in moticm. In the
lajiplication of steam to machinery, eighty per cent, and sometimes more, of
the energy supplied by a ton of coal is lost.
4* KXTT^-*, ^^.'
A DYNAMO.
With the perfection of the dynamo, its uses multiplied. It became a prime
factor in electric lighting. Trolley systems sprang up in city, town, and
Hllage, taking the place of horse and traction cars. In certain jdaces, as in the
$alt' nore tunnel, the dynamo superseded the engine for hauling freight and
^.asst'uger cars. The miglity dynamos which convert the inexhaustible energy
Jf Niagara Falls into electricity send it many miles away to Buffalo, to be
Ipplied to lighting and to every form of matdiinery. The end of the century
bees a pcv/er plant in operation in New York city capable of furnishing
)ne hundred thousand horse-power, or enough to supply the lighting, rapid
insit, and thousand and one mechanical needs of the entire municipality.
The essential parts of an ordinary dynamo are : (1.) The electro-magnets, which,
38
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A7A""' CENTURY
howovcr miiiicriMis. arc arruiij,'t'(l in circiihir I'orin upon imit of the traniowork
of tlie luacliiiH'. (!'.) Tlic iioii i-oils cv ai'iiiatiircs, nioiiiiti'd in a ciicli' ujKin i
wheel. When the wlieel revolves, the ainiatures pass elose in front of tlir
electro-magnets, cntlinij throuj,'li their lie Ids of foree, ami tiierehy in(lucin„'
electric eurrent. (.'t.) 'I'he commutator, which consists usually of a series ol
copper blocks arraii^'ed around the axle of the armatures, and insulated from
the axle and from each otlu'r. The current ])asses from the armatures to tin'
commutator. If the current oe an alternating one, the commutator changes it
into a continuous one. and the reverse may also hi! accomplished. (4.) The
brushes, which are thin strii)s of coj)per or carbon, are lii'ought to bear at
proper points upon the commutator, making connection with each coil or sets
of coils. They carry the corrected current to the outside line or lines,
(o.) The outside line or lines, to carry the current away to the motor. (0.) The
pulley for i.trap-belting. by means of which the water or steam jKJwer used is
made to turn the dynamo maciiine.
Ibit we must not forget the motor as a comi)anion of the dynamo, as its
indispensable brother, in t\irning to i)ractical account the electricity sent to it.
As we have seen, the motor is the reverse of the dynamo, at least in its
effects. It is fed by the dynamo, ami it imparts its power to the machinery
which it is to set in motion. It is to the dynamo what the water-wheel is to
the water. In one sense it is an even older invention than the dynamo, but
its extended commercial ai'jilication was not jMjssiblc until the dynamo Iiail
reached certain stages of ]K'rfection. It is generally agreed that the first
motor of importance was that constructed by Professor Jacobi. through the
liberality of the ("zar Nicholas, of llussia. -lacobi used two sets of electro-
magnets, by means of whose mutual attraction and repulsion he rotated a
wheel on a boat with a jiower equal to that of eight oarsmen. But as Jacobi's
electro-magnets recpiired an electric current to magnetize them, and as there
were then no means of producing such current except by the costly use of the
voltaic battery, his invention was unrii)e as to time.
In 18")0. Professor I'age. of the Smithsonian Institution, constructed a moti>r
which worked ingenicusly, but was still open to the objection of cost in supply-
ing the necessary electric current for the electro -magnets. Though various
inventions came about having for their object a commercially successful
motor, such a thing was im])ossible till (iranime produced his improved and
effective dynamo in 1S71. This dynamo was found to work equally well as a
motor, and hence it became necessary for electricians to greatly enlarge their
iniderstanding of the n.ature of electro-magnetic induction. They soon dis-
covered many curious things respecting the behavior of induced currents,
with the result that rapid and simultaneous improvements were made in both
dynamos and motors. One of the most curious of these discoveries was that
a motor automatically regulates the amount of current that passes through
its circuit in proportion to the work it is called upon to do ; that is, if the
work the machine iias to do is decreased, the motor attains a higher specci,
which higher s])eed induces a counter electro-motive foree sufficient to check
up the amount of current jiassing through the motor. So when the motor is
required to do increased work, the machine slows up; but with this slowiii\'
up, the counter electro-motive force decreases, and consequently the curreit
passing tiirough the motor increases.
S
»
CENTURY
of the framework
I ill ii circle ujioii a
isc ill front of tli'^
I tiiercliy iiuluciiii,'
lally of a series ol
1111(1 insulated from
,e ariuatiires to tlic
iiiiutatorelianges it
iiplisiied. (4.) The
brought to bear at
;li each coil or sets
>ide line or lines,
ho motor. (G.) The
leam jiower used is
the dynamo, as its
lectricity sent to it.
mo. at least in its
r to the machinery
» water-wheel is ti)
m the dynamo, but
til the dynamo Iiail
reed that the first
lacobi. throui^h the
;wo sets of electio-
Ision he rotated a
n. But asJaeobi's
them, and as there
le costly use of the
onstructed a motor
n of cost in supply-
Though various
lercially successful
1 his improved and
k equally well as a
■eatly enlarge their
1. They soon dis-
induced currents,
were made in botii
liscoveries was that
lat passes throuf;li
do ; that is. if th(>
IS a higher si)eeii,
sufficient to check
when the motor is
i with this slowiii,'
uently the curreit
WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY
:«»
For this reason it has become
As witli the dynamo, one of tlie marvels of the motor is its efficiency. In
perfect niacliiues, ninety to ninety-tivo iier cent of the electrical energy sup-
plied can be converted into mccluinical energy.
. ii competitor with, and even successor of,
" .steam i'l countless cases, and especially where
i wiiter-jKiwer can be commanded. A prime
■ motor, in the shape of a water-wheel, may be
made to drive scores of secondary motors in
;• places hundreds of miles away. The power
.; <leveloiicd by tiie waterfall at Lauffen, Ger-
)| iiiaiiy. is transmitted one liundred juiles to
% iMviikfoit, witli a loss of only twenty-Hvc per
■^^oeut of the original hor.e-iiower.
Ill its adaptation for ])ractical use, the
motor, like the (lyiiaiiio. assiiuies all sizes and
/•eiiil races a host of ingenious devices, yet its
;;\ jiowcr and usefulness always centre around,
vjor arc contained in. its two efficient ]iarts,
■; its armatures and iiclds of torce. We have
:'.|sceii iiow in the dynamo the armatures
t became the source of induced currents by being made to cut the fields of
'j force (d' electro-magiu'ts. Now, a dynamo can be made to work in an oppo-
Isite way ; that is, by making the magnetic fields of force rotate in front of
I the coils or armatures, la the motor, the ticdd of force is mostly established
■3. by tiie current directly from the dynamo. This current i)asses also through
§the arm iture, which begins to rotate, owing to the force of the field upon it.
rotation of the armature through the field of force produces in the arnaa-
tiire conductors an electro-motive force, which is the measure of the power
|H)f the motor, be the same great or small.
rilK (lOI.UKX CANUI.KSTICK.
VI. '• AXD TIIKKi: WAS LHMIT."
]\Iention of the "candlestick of pure gold" (Ex. xxv. 31) may lead to the
[^inference that the primitive artificial light was that of the candle. But
ji'*'candlesti(!k " in connection with the lighting of the temple is clearly a mis-
nomer. The lani]) was the original artifi-
cial light-giver, unless we choose to except
the torch; and if less indis])eusable than
in patriarchal times, it is still a favorite
dis]icnser of nightly cheer. Prior to the
middle of the eighteenth century, the lamp
had practically no evolution. It was tht
same in ])rinci])le at that date as when it
illuminated the desert tabernacle. Even
the sjilendid enameled glass or decorated
l'e;sian pottery lamps of Damascus and
t^airo, and the magnificent brass or bronze
laiiiiis of (ireece, Rome, and the European cathedrals, gave forth their dull,
unsteady Hame and noisome smoke by means of a crude wick lying in a saucer
I or similar receptacle of melted lard, tallow, oil, or some such combustible
ANCIKNT LAMP.
"^
40
TRIUMPHS AND WON DE IIS OF THE A' /A'"' CESTURY
I
I
Al.l.nw DIf.
I
li(|ui(l. A ]iriin(' iiiii)r()verneiit was made in laiiiii-li<<litiii|.' in ITS.'!, bv Lfgcr.
r'" Paris, who devised tlit; Hat, metallic burner, tlirouf^ii whicli lie passed :i
iK.itly piejiared \vi;'U. A furtlier improvement was made in 17.S-t by Arj^and.
of Paris, wlio introducud a burner eonsistim,'
of two circular tubes, lietween wliicli passed
a eircidar wick. 'I'ln- iiinei' tid)e was pcrtn-
rated so as to admit of a. drau;j;iit of air In
feed tlio Hame on tlie inside id' the wick, in
order to siuiilarly feed the tianie on the oiH-
side of tiie wick, lie imcidcd the lamp chini-
ney, which was at tirst a crude thin,i; of
nu'tal. It. however, soon i^.'ivo \,ay to tiic
;^lass (dnniiiey, \vlii(di has up to the present
taken on many improved forms, desivtned
to secure more ]i(M'feet cond)ustion and a
brij^htei'. steadiiu' .^low.
Improvement in lampdi,i,ditin;^ ihii'iiifj the
nineteenth century has consisted of an im.'. uinte nund)er of inventions, all
aiming at economy, brilliancy, steadiness, convenience, beauty, and so oii.
But in no respect has this improvcnu'Ut been mor(> rajiid and radical than in
th(! a(la]itation of lamps to the various combustible fluids that iiave bid I'oi-
favor. While the various oils, aninud and vegetable.
were almost sohdy in vogue as ilhiminauts at the be-
ginning of the century, they were largely .superseded
at a later period by the burning-tluid known as cam-
pliene. Tins wa.s a iiuritied oil of turpentine, wliich
touud great favor on aecount of its economy, con-
venicnee, cleaidiness, and brilliancy of light. Ibit it
was very volatile, and its vifiors fornu'd with air a
dangerously explosive mixture. Yet with all this it
might have ludd its own for a long time, had not
Gesner, in 1840, discovered that a sujierior mineral
oil, which he ealh^l -'kerosene," could be readily
and ])rotitably distilled fr(uu the (^oal found on Prince
Edward Lsland. This kerosene (u- hydrocarbon oil
speedily displaced camphene as jin illumiiuint. Its
manufacture rapidly developed into an important
.industry in the I'nited States, ami large distilling
establishments arose, both on the Atlantic coast,
where foreign coal Wiis used, and throughout the
country, wherever eannel or other convertible coal
was found. With the discovery of jx'troleum in pay-
ing (pumtities on t)il Creek, Pa., in 18oU, there came
about a great (diange in kerosene lami>lighting. It
was foiuid. upon analysis, that crude ])etroleum contained about fifty-five
per cent of kerosene, which constituted its most in^portant product. The
manufactories of kerosene from eannel or other coal, therefore, went out of
existence, and new ones, larger in size and greater in numbei-, sprung tip for
the maiuifactuve of kerosene
MODERN LAMP.
popularly speaking,
petrc
"1
CENTURY
ill 17S."., bv Legcr.
wliicli li(> |iassi'(l ;i
ill 17iS4 In- AigaiKi.
I l)iu'ii('r ('(lusistiii','
WCfll Wllicll pilSSCll
it'r tube was ]icrtn-
. draught til' uii- In
Ic 111' till' wirk. ill
fiailll' nil t ill' IMII-
ti'il tlic lain)) I'iiiiii-
a crudi' tiling ni
gave \.a_v to tlir
up to lilC pl'I'SI'llt
It tonus. ilcsigiKMJ
nnil)iistioii and a
iijiiting d\iriiig tlir
of invent inns, all
icanty. and so on.
mil radical tliaii in
tliat iiavf i)id lor
WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY
41
MODERN LAUP.
ed about fifty-fivi;
;ant product. Tlio
efore, went out of
)ei', sprung up for
il, from i)etroleuni.
This illuniiiiant canif into almost universal favor for lamp use, owing to
its fiiiMpni'ss and brilliant!}'. It is not frt'i; from tlangt-r wht'ii iiniiropi-rly
ilistillcd, but iindt'r tlu' tipi-ration of slringt-nt laws gi iiiiiig its preparation
and Ifsting. ilangi'r from its use has bei'n retluced to ,i ininiinnm. in rural
districts, in sinalli'r towns and villages, wherever economy and convenience
are essentials, and when beaut} in lami) effects is desirable, the kerosene
illuiiiinaiit has become indisitensable.
'i'iic iliscovervof petrolfiim bellied further to light the world and distin-
guish t lie century. It gave us gasolene, naiihtna, gas tiil, astral oil, anil the
very effective " nuiieral sjierm," which is almost universally used in liglit-
hmists and as headlights for loenuioiives. With the addition of keroseiu'. a
favorite light of the beginning of the century — tlie tallow tlip of our grand-
iiintheis — began to fall into disuse. The himielike pictures of housewives
at their annual candle-dippings, or in the manipulation of their moulds,
became veiieialile antiiiucs. Candle-light [lalcd in the presence of tin- higlier
illuniiiiaiits. Tliougii still a cimvenieut light umh'r certain circumstances, it
jilays a gradually diminishing part amid its sii|ieriors.
t)nenf the signal triiiiiiplis of the century has lieen tiie introduction of gas-
lightiiig. 'i'lioiigli ilbiminating gas made from coal was kntjwn as early as
ICi'.tl. it did not (!o:iie into use, e.\et!pt for experiments or in a very special
way, until the beginning of the niiusteenth century. In ISO!*, a few street
lamps were lit with gas in London. An unsiictu'ssfid attempt was made to
introduce gas into lialtimore in ISL'l. lietweeu ].S1.'2 and l.SL'7, the gas-light
began to have a fticble foothold in Moston and New Vork. Otlun- cities be-
gan to introiliice it as an illuminant in streets ami, eventually, in houses.
l>iit the jirotjess was very slow, owing to intense opposition on the part of
both saiiints and common people, who saw in it a sure means of tlestruc-
tinu liy poison, explosion, or fire. It was not much before the midtlle of the
century that prejudice against illuminating gas was sufliciently allayetl to
admit of its general use. lUit meanwhile many valuable ex])eriments as to
its iiroihiction and adaptation were going on. The mt)st i)roiluctive source of
illuminating gas was found tr- be bituminous coal. Thotigh gas coultl be pro-
duced l)y distillation froia other substances, such as shale, lignite, petroleum,
water, turf, resins, oils, and fats, none could compete in quality, (juantity,
and economy with what is known as ordinary coal gas, at least, not until
the time came, quite late in the century, when it was found that non-luminous
gases, such as water gas, could be rendered luminous by impregnating them
with hyilrocarbou vapor. This became known ct)mmercially as water gas,
and it is now largely usetl in place of ctjal gas, because it is cheaper and, for
the most part, equally effective as a luminaiit.
Gas-lighting has, of course, its limitations. It is not adapted for use
beyond the range of cities or towns whose populations are sufficient to war-
rant the large ex])enditures necessary for gas plants. It is a special rather
than general light. Yet within its limited domain of use it has proved of
wonderful utility, — a source of cheer for millions, a clean, safe, and economic
light, a convenience far beyontl the candle, the lamp, or any previous lighting
appliance. In the street, it is a source of safety against thieves and way-
layers. In the slums, it is both policeman and missionary, baffling the wrong-
doer, exposing the secrecy that conduces to crime, laying bare the hotbeds of
r
'^
•fj
THIUMI'HS A XI) }V0XI)1:J{S of Till-: XIX'" cKxruitv
wliiimo. It is ;is woll a soui'ih' id liciit ii.s li^l't. ii""l ft>ii,s(M[ueiitly coiivi'itibli
into power for liylit iiii'cliiiiiical jmrposi's. in tiin kitfiien, it is nioic aiKi
jiiori' hci:oniiiiff a lioon to tlic liousfwirt', wlio l)_v means of tiic ^jas raiiK'
fscapcs, in I'ookin-, nuicii of tlic dust, sinoivc. worry, ami cvt-n fxpcnsi- of tlif
coal oiioii stovo and lan^'c. In tlit parlor, lihiary, or sick-room, it is achccrfui
anil cffcctivit snl)stitutc for the coal ;;rate, and may he niaile to assume the ('os\
(]uaiiti('s and fantastic shapes of the old-fashioned wood tire. C'oincideni
with the discovery of |petroUnnn, its inseparaiile companion, natural i,'as, canir
into prominence us a source of hotli lij;ht and heat, or this i)e(;;ime true, ai
least, after it was ascertained that natural ^as rej^ions existed which could ix'
tapped hy wells, and made to j^ive forth tlndr !,Mse(ius jiroduct independent ol
the oil that may have at one time I'xisted near or in connecliou with it. This
natural source of light and iieat became as iuteiestin,i,' to the f^eologist,
explorer, and capitalist as the sourci' of petroleum itsidf. and soon every likeiv
section was prospected, with tlie hope dl tindinj^and tai)pin;;thuse mystei'inu^
caverns of c irth in 'vhich the pent-uji iuminaut ahonnded in paying (pian-
tifies It was found that workahle natural gas regions were niniierous in
the I'nited States, especially in proxindty to petroleum (M' liitnmiuous coal
«le})osits, and little time was lost in tlieir development. As if \>y magic, a
new anil ))rotital>le industry sprang into existence. 'L'hc natural gas w; 11
l)ecanu' almost as ciuiimon as the oil well, and at times far more awe-inspiiiug
as it shot into sjiace its volcanic blasts which, when ignited through care-
lessness, as sometimes happened, cari'ied to the vicinage all the dangers and
terrors of Vesuvius or Stiondxili. I'owcrlul as wrs the lorce with whidi
natural gas sought its freedom, wonderful as was the plienomenoii of its
escape from the s\djterranean alend)ic in which it was distilled, inimaii
genius cpdckly harnessed it hy api)liances for conservation and carriage tn
l)laces where it could be utilized. Sometimes great industries sprang up
contiguous to the wtdls ; at others, it A\as carried through pipes to (dties
nianymi'- s distant, where it became a light for street, home, and store, and
a ])rodigious energy in factory, furnace, forge, and rolling-mill. In fact, no
marvel of the century has been at once .so weird and inscrutable in its origin
as natural gas. or more ])otential as an agency within the areas to whicli
its use is limited. 'l"he fpiesti(»n is ever upi)crmost in connection with
natural gas, will it last',' The gas springs of the (Caucasus Mountains have
been burning for centuries. lUit that is where nature's internal forces liav('
their correlations and compens.tions. \^'here it is quite otherwise, that is.
wliere the vents of natural gas reservoirs are abnormally numerous, or where
those reservoirs are drained to the extreme for commercial jinrposes, not to
say through sheer wastefidness, the geologist is rea<l_y to surmise that the
natural gas supply cannot be a iier])etual one.
Hut one of the most magnificent triumphs of the century in the jnatter of
light came about through the agency of electricitj-. We have already seen
the beginnings of ehictric lighting in the discovery of Sir Humjjhrey Davy,
in 180!), that when the ends of two conducting wires, nnmnted with charcoal
pieces, were brought close together, a brilliant light, in the shape of an arc
or curve, leaped from one piece of charcoal to the other. Davy's charcoal
pieces or carbons were consumed by the tierce heat evolved ; but the princi-
ple was established that an electric current, so interrupted, was a vivid light-
%
■^
KNTUUY
L'litly coiivi'itil)!!'
. it is IIKMC iUlli
l| tllC ^'IIS lllllj,'!
'II fXlM'llSC (if till'
111, it is 11 t'lit'iTl'iil
liissiiiiif tlu; ('()s\
tiic. Cuiiicideiii
iiiitiiriil j,'as, caiiii'
s hiM'aiiic trill', ill
■d wliicli could 1)1'
■t iiiil('iii'ii(l('iit (il
nil with it. 'I'lii^
to till' f;('oloi,'isl.
soon t'Vi'fv liki'lv
;llios(' laystrriiiii^
ill |i!iyin<; qiuin-
cri' iiiiiiu'rons in
r iiituiiiiiioiis eoiil
U if i(y niiigii', a
natural 5,ms \vi 11
oif awi-inspirinn
I'll tliroiij,'li rari'-
tlu' ilau^'i'i's juiil
fori'o with \vlii,-li
hoiionii'iion of its
cli.stillcil, iiuinaii
II anil carriage tn
istries spraiij,' up
;li pipes to cities
lie, and store, and
mill. In fact, no
:able in its origin
le areas to which
connection with
i Mountains have
ernal forces have
otherwise, that is,
inierous, or whero
I purposes, not to
surmise that the
in the matter of
lave already seen
Huni])hrey Davy,
ited with charcoal
f shajie of an arc
Davy's charconl
I; but the priuci-
was a vivid light -
woNhKits or ELKCrniClTY
43
I
iiiodMccr. .mil might lie inadc pcniiiuiently so if a .substance capable of resist-
ing the heat could be suiistitulcd for his charcoal tips, and a gi'iicrator of
cliM'tricitv of suiliciciit power and economy in use could he substituted for
his voltaic lotteries or cells.
Ipoii these two essentials hung the future of the electric light. The first
essential, that of a substaiice at the ends of the wires or in the midst of tho
fleet rie circuit which would resist the heat, was soon
met bv the use of specially pri'iiared and hard gra-
phite carbon tips, in the shape of candles. Kut the sec-
ond essential, a geiieratoi of electricity cheaper and
more jpowerlul than the voltaic cell, was not met witii
till the dynamo machine reached an advanced stage
of |ierfection; that is, about 1S()7.
The two grand essentials now being at command,
invention o[ electric light appliances went on rai)idly
u| two lines, eventuating in two sy.steins, which l>e-
came known as are lighting and incandescent lighting,
r.v [S7'.i-S(l, the are light was siiHiciently advanced to
meet with lavor as an illuminant for streets, railway
stations, markets, and any large s])aces, in which places
it liecauie a substitute for gas and other lights. The
I'sseutial features of the arc light are : (1.) Tiie dynamo
machine, situated in some central idaee, for the gen-
eration (d' electricity. (L'.) Coiidueting wires to carry
the electricity throughout the areas or to tho places
to be lighted. (.'5.) The arc lamp, which may be sus-
pended ii]ioii jioles in the streets, or ujion wires in
.stores aiui other covered places. Its mechanism con-
sists of two [)encils or candles of graphite carbon,
very hard and incombustible, adjusted above and be-
low each other .so that their tii)S or ends are very-
close together, b . not in conta.^t. IJy means of a
clockwork or simph gravity device these carbon tips
arc brought into contact at the moment the electric
current is turned on, and then are slightly separated
as soon as the current has heated them. The air
between the heated tips, having also reached a high temperature, becomes a
eoiiductor, and the electricity leaps in the form of an arc or curve through it,
rendering it brilliantly incandescent. Should the current be diminished in
strength for any reason, the above-mentioned clockwork or gravity device
rings the carbons a little closer together; and should the current be
increased, the carbons are separated a little wider; thus the steadiness of the
light is regulated. There are iilsf) various automatic devices for thus regulat-
ing the jiroximity of the carbons and maintaining the evenness of the glow.
The power of an arc light is measured by candles. An ordinary arc light under
two amperes of current gives a light equal to twenty-five candles, Avhile under
fifty amperes of current it gives a light equal to twenty thousand candles.
In searchlights on board vessels, and >vhere very large areas are to be
lighted, both heavier currents and larger carbons are used than in the arc
ELECTRie AllC I.IOIIT.
44
ritii'Mrns .\.\h wositKUs of rin-: v/.v" cEsrvin-
\
W
ll
laiii|is lor ordinary .striTt imrposi's. No li^lit siii|i!ims('s tin' arc \\^\\i in
biilli;iii('\. I'xri'iitiiiK liif iMiii,'iitsiiiiii li^lit. TluTc nn- lew citifs in liii-
ooiint.ry iiml l'Jii'o|ic tlial do not cmiiloy tlii' \i\v l:iMi|) ii.s ii niianH of Htrt'ct.
station, and iai'i;)--ai-i-a li;{iitin^', owin^' to its siipt'iioritA' as an illiin'inant ami
til)' wondi'i'tiil |iolicin^ t>tlf(,t it lias njioii tin* ^ liini sections.
Till' iiKMi. .csccnt lamp, or clcctrii' li;,'litin.i^ liy inrandcsccuci', niidiTwcni
II soiai>\vliat lon^'rr rvolulioii at tin- hands of iiivcntois than the arc lamp,
owiiiy to the ditliciilty of liniliiif; a siilistancc snitalili' for the jirodiiction ot
tin' ni'ccssary },do\v. 'I'hc discovery of siicii snbstaiici' may he accredited tc
Kdison more fully than to any other. 'I"he incandescent or glow lamp is .1
glass bulb from which the air is exhausted. There passes into the bulb a tila
niciil of v'arbon, which, after a turn or two inside the hnlb, passes out at t!ii'
end tlirou;,di which it entered. When a current from a voltaic battery is sent
through this carbon lilament, it brings it, in the .ibseiieu of oxygen witliiii the
bulb, to a high white heat without comltustion. The portion id' this liiL;li
white heat which is radiated is the light-giving energy of the incandescent
lamp. Metal tilameiits were at Krst tried in the bulb, but they (piickly burned
out Carbon lilaments were at length found to be the only ones capable ol
resisting the heat. They moreover had the advantage of cheapness, and of
greater radiating energy than metals. .Many substunees, such as silk, cotton,
hai'", etc., were used in the preparation <d' the "arbon lilaments, but it was
found that strips cut from the inside bark id the bamboo gave, when brought
to a white heat by un eleetric oiirreiit and then properly treated, the most tena-
cious and best coiidueting carlion filament.
The ipiality of light jirodueed by an incandescent lamp is a gentler glow
than that produeeil by the arc lamp, and in color more nearly resembles the
light of gas or the oil lamji. The incandescent light speedily became for
the home, hotel, hall, and limited covered area what the arc light became
for the street and railway station, and, if anything, the former outstripped
the latter in the extent and value of the industry it ga"o rise to.
Ill the iirc lamp, the carbon jiencils have to lie renewed daily. In the incan-
descent lamp, the carbon filament, though very delicate, may last for quite
a time, because incandescence takes place in the abseiu^e of oxygen. If the
favor in which the electric ligiit is held, and the great extent of its use, rested
solely on the question of cheapness of production, such question would give
rise to interesting debate. And, indeed, the debate would continue, if the
question were the siiperiv^r fitness of electric lighting for lighthouses and like
service, where c^ treme brilliancy does not seem to penetrate a tliick atmo-
sphere as effectively as the more subdued glow of the oil lamp. But the
debate ceases when the question is as to the beauty and efficiency of the
electric light in the home, street, station, mine, on shipboard, and the thou-
sand and one other placi's in which it has come to be deemed an essential
equipment. In all such places the question of economy of production and
use is subordinate to the higher question of utility and indispensability.
VII.
klectrk; locomotion.
The dawn of the nineteenth century saw, as vehicles of locomotion, the
saddled hackney, the clumsy wagon, the ostentatious stage-coach, the prim-
itive dearborn, tlie lumbering carriage, the poetic "one-hoss shay." Tins
rKsrvny
\Vi)SI)KHS OF KLKcrniriTY
Vt
till' lire \\\i,\\i in
ovv citii'H ill tliis
1
I iiu;ms of strci'l.
an illnipinaiit aim
sci'iicf, uniliTwi'iii
liiiii till* arc lamp,
tilt; pfodiictioii (il
y 1)0 aciM'iMliti'il \i<
ir glow lamp is .1
nto the luilli a tila-
jiasscs out at tin-
taic Itatlfi'V is sent
oxygen witliin tlu'
utioii of tliis lii',;!!
:' ti.c incaiiili'sci'iil
icy (piickly liiinicil
ily ones capable of
dicapiK'ss. ami o'
lU'h as silk, cotton,
uneiits, liiit it was
;ave, when bronglit
itcil, the most tena-
> is a gentler glow
arly resenihles the
eeilily hecaiiic for
arc light became
I'ormer outstripped
ise to.
lily. In the incan-
may last for (juil(^
uf oxygen. If the
it of its use, rested
[uestion would give
Id continue, if the
ghthouses and like-
rate a thick atnio-
il lamp. But the
id etticiency of the
)ard, and the thoii-
!eined an essential
of production and
ilispensability.
of locomotion, tho
ge-coach, the prim-
-hoss shay." Tlu:
universal energy was tlie lioise. A new energy eaiiio with the application
ot steam, and will, ii new vehicular hmoniotion, — easier, swifter, Htroiiger, for
tlie mo^l part clieaiier, rendering possible what was liitlcrtct impossilile as to
time and di>tani'i'.
Tliis signal Irliiiiiph td the eentiiry may not have been eclipsed by the
iiitiodncti il snlisi'i|ncnt locomotive idiaiiges. but il was to be supiilcmented
bv \\lial..ii the beginning, would have ]iassed lor the idle dn am n| a vision-
arv. '\'\\*' hoise-car came, had its brief day. and went out with all its ineon-
vciiienci s. crndtics. and horrors betcu'e. in part, the traction-ear, and. in jiart,
the rapidly revolnlioni/.ing energy of electricity.
\
KI.K( 'rillC l.<>< OMOTIVK.
'I'he first conce])tion of a railway to be o]>eiated by electricity dates from
rtlMiiii is;;."), when 'riionias l)aven[)ort. of IJrandon. Vt.. contrived and moved
a small car by means of a current from voltaic cells placed within it. In
IS.M. I'lob'ssor Page, of the Smithsonian Institution, ran .i car ])ro])elled by
electricity upon the steam railway between Washington and lialtimore, but
though he obtained a high rate 01 speed, the cost of sujiplying the current by
means of batteries — the only means then known — prohibited the commer-
<'ial use of his method.
A\ith the invention of the dyn.amo .as an economic and ))o\verful generator
of electricity, and also the invention of the motor as a means of turning
electrical ciie"gy to mechanical account, the way was ojien, both in the
I'nitcd St.ites and Europe, for more active investigation of the question of
electric car jiropulsion. lietween 1871.' and 1S87, different inventors, at home
1
46
TRIUMPHS AXD nOXDEIlS OF THE XIX'" CEyTUHY
and abroad, placed in operation several experimental electric railways. Few
of them proved practical, though each inrnishcd a fund of vahiahle experi-
ence. An imderground electric street railway was operated in Denver ;is
early as 1X8.J ; out tlic one u|)(in tiie trolley jdan, wiiioh proved snlKciently suc-
cessful to warrant its being calh'.t the first oj)erated in the United States,
was liuilt in Hichmond, Va., in 18S.S. It gave such impetus to electric rail-
wa\' construction that, in live years' tijue, enormous capital was embarkdl.
anil the ;U'w nnuuis of pro|)idsiou was generally accepted as convenient, sale,
and profitable.
The essential features of the electric railway are : (1.) The tr.ack of t\\i>
rails, similar to tlu' steam railway. (2.) The cars, lightly yet strongly built.
(,"{.) The jiower-house, containing the dyu: los which generate the electri(Uty.
(4.) The feed-Avire, usually' of stout C( pper, running the length of the track"
of the system, and su])ported on poles or laid in conduits. (">.) The trollcv-
wire over the centre of the track, supportt'd by insulated cross-wires passing
from poles on ojjposite sides of the tracks, and connected at jjroper inter-
vals with the feed-wire. ((».) The trolley-i)ole of metal jointed to the top nf
the car, ami iitted with a sjiriug which presses the wheel on the e:'i' df
the pole up against the trolley-wire w ith a force of about tifteen pounds, ami
which also serves to conduct the electricity down througli the car to the
motor. (7.) The motor, which io suspended from the car truck, and passes its
power to the car axle by means of a spur gearing. The jiowcr reipiisite fur
an ordinary trolley-car is about fifteen liorse-power. The speed of troUe^'-cars
is reguli.ted in cities to Ironi five to seven miles per hour, but they may lie
run, under favorable conditions, at a speed equal to, or in excess of, that of
the steam-car.
As a means of city transit, and of rai)iu, corvenient, and ticonomic inter-
course between sidxuban localities and rural towns and villages, the electric
traction system ranks as one of the greatest wonders of the centiny. Tlie
speed witli which it found favor, tlie enornu)US capital it jirovokedto activity,
the stimulus it gave to further study and invention, the surprising number of
passengers carried, go to make one of the most interesting chapters in electric
annals. 'i"he end of the century sees thousands of these electric roads iu
existence; a comparatively new industry involving over .$l(Xt,<M)0,000 ; a pas-
senger traffic running isito the billions of ]>eo])le ; a prospect that the trolley
will sticceed the steam-car for all utili/able jmrjioses within the gradually
extending influence of cities and towns upon their rural surroundings.
In speaking of the passing of the h(n'.se-car and its substitution by tlic
trolley, a distinguished writer h;i-; well said: "Humanity iu an electric-car
differs widely from that in the horse-car, pro])elled at the expense of animal
life. It is more cheerful, mort! confident, more awake ♦^o the energy at com-
mand, more indiued with the subtlety and nuijesty of tlie propelling force.
The mot(u- confirms the ethical fact that each introfhiction of a higher
material force into tlic daily uses of hum.'inity lifts it to a broader, brighter
plane, gives its cai)abilities freer and more wholesonio play, and opens fresh
vistas for all ])ossibilitics. We ai)])laud Kranklin for seizing the lightning in
the heavens, dragging it down to eartli, and subjugi'ting it to num. Lei this
pass as part of the jtoetry of physics. Hut when ethics comes to ])oetize, h t
it be said that electricity p an ai)])lied force lifts man up toward heaven,
' cEyrunr
WOyDERS OF ELECTllICITY
47
!tric railways. Fow
ut' valuable exi)eii-
rated in Ih'uvt'r as
DVt'il siilHcieiitly suc-
i till' United State-,
'tiis to electric rail-
pital was enibarkeil.
as couvc;Ment, salr.
I.) The track of two
y yet strt)ngly built,
lerate the electricity,
lentjth of the track'
ts. (").) The trollt'i'-
I cross-wires passiii;,'
ted at i)roj>er inter-
ninted to tho top of
.het'l on the (••.'d of
: fifteen pounds, and
iiiijih tlu* ear to tlie
truck, and passes its
power reipiisite for
speed of troUey-cais
lur. bi<t they may lie
in e.\eess of, th.at of
and economic inter-
villages, the electric
f the century. The
provoked to activity,
(urprising number of
g chapters in electric
L'se electric roads in
51(XMMX),000; a pas-
))rct that the trolley
kitliin the gradually
surroundings,
substitution by the
ty in an electric-ciu-
> expense of animal
> the energy at coni-
;he propelling force,
action of a higher
o a broader, brighter
lay, and opens fresh
dug the lightning in
it to num. Let tiiis
comes to jroetize, h t
II up toward heaven,
([uickcus all his api>reeiations of divine energy, draws him irresistibly toward
the centre and source of nature's forces. There is no dragging ilown anil
subjuiiMlion of 11 physical force. There is only a going out. or up. of genius
to meet and to ;,'iasp it. Its universal application means tlu' raising of man-
kind to its jilane. If electricity be the jirinciple of life, as sonu; suppose,
wiiat woii(h-r that we all feel better in an electrie-<'ar than any other? The
motor h..(oiiies a sublime n'otive. (iod himself is tugging at the wheels, and
we are riding ^vith the Infinite."
Entluisiasts say the trolley is only the beginning of electric locomotion, and
that there is already in rapid evolution an electric system which will supersede
steam even for trunk-line purposes. In vision, it presumes ii speed of i/iie hun-
ili-ed and twt'uty-tive miles an hour instead of forty ; greater safety, cleanli-
ness, and comfort; and what is nu)st momentous and startling, an economy in
constiuction anil operation whi(di will warrant the sacritice of the billions of
dollars now invested in steam-railway iirojierties. The jjroposition is not to
sacritice the steam-railway track, but to achl to it a third rail, which is to carry
t!u' eleetric current. Then, by means of feed-conduits alongside of the tr.ack,
and specially constructed electric locomotives and cars, the .system is 8ui>
poseil to reach the i)ractical jHirfection clainu'd for it. Kxperiments with such
an electrical system, made u))on branch lines of some of our trunk-line rail-
48
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY
,i*
ways, as tlie I'eiinsylvania, >ie\v York Ci'iitral. and Nt'w Haven & Ilartfoid,
give inucli eiicouragi'inont to the liyiiotln'sis tliat it may become the next
great stej) in the evolntion of eh'ctrieal .scienee.
Another means of eh'ctrie projiulsion was j)rovide(l by the investigations
of J'hinte, wliieh resulted in his invention of the "aeeumulator " or "storai^e
battery," in liSo!). Jlis battery eonsists of jdates of h'ad immersed in dihite
sulphuric acid. l»y tlie passage oi an electric current tiirough the acid, it is
electrolytically decomjiosed. I>y continuing the current for a time, lirst in
one direction and then in another, the lead jdates become changed, the one ;it
the point where the current leaves the cell taking on a deiiosit of spongy
lead, and the one at the point where the current enters the cell taking on a
coating of oxide of lead. When in this condition, the battery is said to be
■stored, and is capable of sending out an electric current in any circuit witii
which it maybe connected. After exhausting itself, it cm be re-stored or re-
charged in the sanu^ way as at tirst. Faure greatly improved on I'lante'.s
storage battery in l.SMO, by spreading the oxide of lead over the i)lates, tluis
greatly reducing the time in fiuining the plates. Sid)se(piently, further
improvements were made, till l)atteries came into existeni c capable of su])])]y-
ing a current of many hundred amperes for several hours. One of the tii>t
practical uses to which the storage battery was ])ut was in the propulsion nt
street-cars; but its weight proved a drawback, it was found better adapted
for the runniui' of boats on rivers, and, in the busi'ness of water-freighta''e
for short distances, has in many instances become a riviii of steam. It found
one of its most int<!resting ai)plieations in htdping to solve the problem of
tlie tnifonHi/ii/i; or ''horseless carriage," either for iile.'sure purposes or for
street traffic. In this probleui it has. at the end of Uie centurj', an active
rival in compressi'd air ; but as the •• horseless carri.ige '' is rapidly coming
into denuiiid, means may soon be found to utilize the strong and persistent
energy of the storage battery, without the drawback found in its great weight.
VIII. TMK X RAY.
An astounding electrical revelation came during the last j'ears of the cen-
tury through the discovery of the X, or imknown, or Roentgen ray. A hint
of this discovery was given by F'araday during Ins investigation of the
effect of electric discharges within rarefied gases He also invented the
terms iukkIi' and nif/ioi/i: both of which are in uni\-ersal use in connection
with instruments for i)rodueing the X rays; the anode being the positive polt>
or electrode of a galvanic battery, or. in general, the terminal of the con-
ductor by which a current enters an electrolytic cell ; and the cathode being
the negative jwde or electrode by which a current leaves said cell.
(li'issler followed I'araday with an improved system of tubes for contain-
ing raretied gases for experimentation. He partially e.vhansted Ids tubes <it
air, introduced into them permanent and sealed ])latinum electrodes, and pm-
duced those wonderful effects by the discharge obtain 'd by connecting tlie
electrodes with the terminals of an electric machine oi' induction coil, whii li
from their novelty and beauty became known as (Jeis^ler effects, just as his
tubes became known as (Jeissler tidies. In the attenua'cd atmos])hcre of tiie
(i(>issler tube, the current dois not pass directly from i.ne platinum point or
electrode to the other, but. instead, illuminates the entire atmospheric space.
' CESTURY
WOMJERS OF ELECTRICITY
49
Haven & Hartford,
iiy become the next
y the investigations
lulator ■■ or "stora<:;o
I innuersed in dilnte
rough the acid, it is
; for a time, first in
■ changed, tiie one at
a (U'liosit oi' sjjongy
he cell taking on a
lattery is said to lu'
; in any circuit with
im bi' re-stored or re-
iproved on Thint(''s
iver the jihites, tlnis
ibseciuently, furtlicr
c capabh' of su))iily.
s. One of the first
n the i)i'oi)ulsion of
found i)etter adajitcd
of water-freightage
i of steam. It found
solve the problem of
uire purposes or for
e century, an active
" is rapidly coming
trong and persistent
d in its great weight.
1st j'ears of the een-
lentgen ray. A hint
nvestigation of the
e also invented the
al use in connection
eing the j)ositive pole
terndnal of the con-
id the cathode being
said cell.
;)f tubes for contain-
hausted his tubes of
n electrodes, and pm-
'd by connecting tlic
inducti(m coil, which
ler effects, just as his
I'd atmosphere of tlie
ne ])latinuni point or
re atmospheric space.
oeissleh's TUnE8.
, When other gases are introduced iu rarefied form, they are similarly illumi-
i nated. hut in colors corresi)onding to their ct)mposition. In his fuither experi-
ments, (Teissier noted that the gases in tin- ttdie l)ehaved differently at the
anode, or positive terminal, and the eathoile, or negative
I terminal. A beautiful bluish light appeared at the cath-
■ode, while the anode assunu'd the same color as the
Ulluminati'd space in the tube. It was also noted that
laftcr the electric discharge within the tube, there re-
bnained ujion the inner surface of the glass a fluorescent
for p]ios)ph(ni's('ent glow, which was attributed to the
leifect of tin' catiiode.
Tliis brought the study of the catlnxl" rays into jjromi-
ncnce. and tlii'ough the investigations of I'rofessor Wil-
•••liani Crooiies. in 1S7!) and afterwards, a conclusion was
rcai'iied tliat a •• Fourth State of Matter" really existed.
He perfected tidies of very high vacuum, by nu-ans of which he showed that
molecules of gas jirojei^ted from the cathode moved freely aiul with gre.at
velocity among one another, and so bombarded the inner walls of the tube as
• to render it Huoresctuit.
.>^nl)sc(|nently, Hertz showed that the (tathodio rays would penetrate thin
8hiits of nu'tal jdaced within the tube or bulb; and soon after, I'aul Lenard
(1S!I4) demonstrated that the cathodic ray could be investigated as well out-
side of the tube or bulb as within it. Me set an alumin\im ]date in the glass
wall of the bulb op|)osite the catlnxh-. Though ordinary light could not
penetrate the aluminum jdate. it was readily jtierced by the cathodic rays, to
a ili^tiuice of three iiudies beyond its (uitside surface. With these rays, thus
freed fiom their inclosure, he i)rod(iced the .same fluorescent effects as had
been noted within the bulb, and even secured some photographic effects.
fhese cutiiodic rays produced no effect on the eye, which proved their dissim-
iarity to iigiit. Lenard showed furtin'r that the cathodic rays outside of
tie tube could be detiected from their straight course by a nmgnet, that
bey might pass through substances opa(|ue to light, ami that in so ]>.assing
hey niiglit cast a shadow of objects less opa(pie, which shadow could be
pvitographid. Now I'rofessor Roentgen came upon the scene. He had been
pndncting his experiments in (Jermany. along the same lines as Lenard, ami
Vl reached |)raetically the same results as to tlie jienetrative, fluorescent,
ad photographic effectx of the cathodic rays. lint he had gone still fur-
|ler, and, in iSiHi, fairly set the scientific world afianu' with the announce-
fcent that ail the effects produced by Lenard in the limited space of a few
liches could also be ])roduced at long distances from the tube, and with
^fficient intensity to depict solid substances within or behind other sub-
anees sufficiently solid to be impermeable by light. I'rofessor Koent-
bn claims tJiat Ins X ray is ditt'ei'cnt from the 'cathodic rav of Lenard and
|;hers, i)ecause it cannot be defieeted by a magnet. This idaim has givi-n
Be to nmch controversy respecting the real nature of the X rav, a contro-
irsy not likely to end soon, yet one full of insi)iration to further inves-
gation,
iThe essential features of the best approved apparatus designed to produce
le X ray and to secure a photograph of an invisible object, are : (L) A bat-
I
ilii;!
■■"' 'I
fill
I
00
TRIUMPHS AND U'ONDEItS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY
Hi
tcry or light dynamo as a gem'rator ot tiu* electric (.'urrcnt, accompanied, of
course, by the necessary induction coil, wliich shoidil be so wound as to give
a spark of at least two inches in lengtli in the t\d)e where a i>icture of a sim-
ple object, as a coin in a imrso. is desirecl ; a spark of four inches in length
where ])ictures of tiie bones of tht^ hands, feet, or arms are d»'sired; and a
spark of from eight to ten inches in length where inside views of the chest,
thighs, or abdomen are desired. C2.) The second essential is the glass tube.
i'lie one in common use is the Crookes
tid)e, usually jiear- shaped, and resting
upon a stand. Into it is insert.'d two
ahimmum electrodes or <lisks, the one
through the smalh'r end of the tube be-
nig used as the cathode, and the one
from below and neai the large end be-
ing used as the anode. (.'{.) A Huoroscopc
with which to observe the coiulitions
inside the tube necessary to the j)roduc-
tion of the X ray, to decide njion its
proper intensity, and to establish the
projK'r degree of fluorescence. The fa-
vorite tluoroscope for this purjiose is
the one invented by Kdison. It is in
the form of a stereopticon, in which
is a dark cluunber after the nuinner of
a camera. In front are two openings,
admitting of a view within of both
eyes. .\t the ojjpositc. .'uul greatly
enlarged, end is a screen wiiich is reii-
ilered tluorescentby means of a new snb-
stani^e (tungstat<i of calcium) disenvered by .Mr. Ivlison after some eighteen
hundred experiments. Such is the power of this tluoroscope that it maybe
used as an independent instrument in cases of minor surgery to locate bullets
or other objects buried in tlie th-sli. even before a jihotograph has been taken.
(4.) The photogiaphic ]ilate. wliJcli is prepared with ;i sensitized film and
mounted in a frame as in (M'dinary photography. I'pon this film the object
to be ]ihotographed is laid, say. for instance, the human hand, care l)eini;
t'lken to have the film or plate at a proj>er distance from the Crookes tube.
Current is now turned into the tube, the X ray is develoj)ed, the film is
exposed to its I'tfects. and tlie result is a negative siiowing the interior struc-
ture of the hand. — the bones or any foreign object therein. This negative is
developed as in ordinary photograidiy.
The discovery ;ind ap]ilic,'iti<in of the X ray has proved of immense value
in medicine and suig<'ry. l>y its means the physici;iu is enabled tf) carry on
far-reat hing diagnoses, and to ascertain witli certainty the wh(de internal
striu'tnre of the human lody. Fractures, di.slocations, deformities, and di>-
eases of the bones may lie Icicated and their character and treatment decided
U]>on. In dentistry, the teeth may Iw photographed by means of the X r.-iy.
even bef(ue they come to the s\irface. and broken fangs and hidden fillin^is
may be located. Foreign olgects in tlu; body, as bullets, needles, calculi iii
sri.\(;KAPii on sHAnow ritTriu:.
Hy X Hay proci'ss.
WOXDEHS OF ELECTRICITY
51
till' liladili'f. <'tL'.. may Ih" ItMjalizeii, and the surgery necessary for their safe
removal greatly siniplitied. The beating of the he.art, moveujent of the riba
ill Lsjiiration. and outline of the liver may lie exhibited to the eye. It has
licfu lioldly suggestetl that in the X ray will be found an agent capable of
(lestritving the various baeilli which infest the human system, and become
m'tiiis ol such destructive diseases as cholera, yellow fever, typhoid fever,
(li|i|iili<Mia. and consumption. Kven if this be spccvdative as yet. there is
still room for marvel at the actual results of the discovery of the X ray, anfl
its t'litiii.' stuily ojiens a held full of the grandest possibilities.
IX. MTllKU EI.KDTKICAI, WONDKHS.
i'lie novel idea of keeping time by means of electricity originated quite
I'arly in tlic century, and culminated in two kinds of electric clocks, one
u'i.vid (lirectiV by the electric cunent, the other moved by weights or springs,
Imt regulated liy electricity. The former have the advantage of running a
vfiy long time without attention, but as it is imjiossible to keep up an unvary-
ing electric current, they are not so accurate as the latter in kee|)ing time.
Tliough tlie latter are popularly called electric clocks, they are really only
docks regulated by electricity, and in such regulation the clectrir; current
comes to lie a most important agent, as is pro\eil at all c<>ntre.s of astronomi-
cal ami otiicr observations, as at (Jreenwich ami Washington. At such cen-
tres the astronomical time-keejier is set up so as to run as infallibly as possii)le.
This central time-ket per, say at Washington, is electrically connected with
other clocks, at observatories, signal-service stations, railway stations, clock-
stores, city halls, etc., throughout the countrj-. S'uould any of these clocks
lose or gain the miinitest fraction of time as compared with that of the cen-
tral timckee|)er, the electric current corrects such loss or gain, and so keeps
all the clocks at a time uniform with one am>ther ami with the central one.
Klcctrical devices are also often attached to iiulividual clocks, as tho.se upon
city liall towers and in exposed places, for the purpose of meeting and cor-
recting ine(|ualities of time occo-sioned by weather exposure, expansion and
contraction by h<'at and cold, etc.
liie latherhood of the very use fid and elegant arts of electrotyping and
electroplating is in disptite. I'aniell, while perfecting his battery, noticed
that a rill rent of electricity woidd cause aileposit of cojiper. In IS.'Jl, Jacobi,
of ."^t. I'etersliurg, called attention to the fact tiiat the copper deposited on
his plates of eopjjer by galvanic action could be removed in a i)erfect sheet,
which jucsciUed in rtdief, and most accurately, every accidental imlentation
Oil the oriifinal plates. Following this up, he employed for his battery au
engraved cop|M'r plate, can.sed the deposit to be fornu'd upon it, removed the
deposif. itnd found that the engraving w;;s impressed on it in relief, and
with Mitlieient lirmness and sharpness to enabb; him to print from it. .lacobi
called his discfiverj- galvanoplasty in the jiublieation of his observations in
IS.';".». It w;is liut a stej) from this discovery to the ajiplication of the electro-
'M'big i)rocess to the art of printing. .V mould of wax, jdaster, or other suit-
aiile substance is made of au enj^'raving or of a ])age of type. This moidd is
covered with iK)wdered graphite (black lead) so as to make it a conductor
ot electricity. It is then inserted in a bath containing a solution of sulphate
of copper. An electric current is passed through the bath, and the copper is
62
rniUMPUs AM) woyjjKRs of the \/x"' cExruny
*■}
'111;'
I
depfisitt'd on tlic iiidiild in siitticiciit ([iiantity to j^ive it a hanl snrfiice capalil.'
of ott't'iirij; s^icatiT rcsislaiici- in printin;^ tlian tlic tvpfs tlii'msflvi's, aiul also
of producing a clcart-r impression. In tdi'(!troi)lating, practically the sauic
jirinciplc is .'n'.plovcil. Tlit' bath is made to contain a scdntion of watci,
cyanide of potassium, and whatever nictal — gold, silver, jilatinum. etc. —
it is designed to pv.'cipitate on the article to he electrojilated. The current
is then passed through the hath, and the article — spoon, knife, fork. etc. —
to he electroplated receives its coating of gold, silver, (ierman silver, plali-
inim,
or wlnitever has heen made the thir<l agent in the hath
Tl
le varn
tus modern suhmarin" devices for the destruction o
f shi
known as torpedoes, suhnuiriue iniues. etc., depend upon » lectrieity for their
etficienc^'. It is the lighting or tiring agent, and is carried to the torpeilo
or mine hy nieitns of stout wiios or cables frc::)
ohservation.
s^!iie safe shore-point df
In railroading, electricity has lieconie an indispensable agent for the
operation of signal systems, opening and closing (d' switches, and liniitation
of safety sections. It moves the drill in the mine, sets off the blast, and
suj jdies the light. It enables the dentist to maniptdate his most delieali-
tools and do his cleanest and least jiainful work. In medicine it is a healing',
sootlnng agent, boundless in variety of a]ti)lii"ation and wondrous in result.>.
It is a stimulus to the growth oi certain jdants. and has given rise to a new
science called Klectro-horticidture. It nia}' he made a iirolitic source of Iient
for farming cars, and even for the welding (»f iron and steel. The electric
fan cools our parlors and ottices in simmer, and the electric bell simplitio
household service. In fact, it would appear that, in eoiitr.isting the electrical
beginnings with the electrical endings of the nineteenth century, the space
of a thousand rather than a hundred years had intervened, and that in
measuring the agents which conduce to human comfort and convenience,
electricity is easily the most potential.
X. Ki.Ki run Ai. i.A\<iiA(iK.
Out of the various discoveries and apjiliiations of electricity almost a new
hmguage has s))ruug. This is especially so of terMs expressive of the mca-
suremeids <d' electric <Miergy, and td' the laws governing the application i>t
electric power. l"or a time, various n.-itions measured and applied by meaii>
of terms chosen by themscdves. This led to a jargon vi>rv confusing ii>
writers and inve.'iigators. It i)ecame needful to have a language more in com-
mon, as in pharmacy, so that all nations could undei'stand one another, could
compute alik<'. ami especially impart their meauing to those whose duty it
became to ajiply discovered laws aiul actual calcidations to pract'cal electric
ojjerations. This was a difficult undertaking, owing to the tenacity with whirli
nations (dung to their own nomenclatures and terminologies. liut the dritt.
though slow, finally ended at the Klectrical ('ongress in Paris in 1S81. in tlic
atloptiou of a uniform system of measurements of ele(;tric force, and ;iii
agreement upon terms ftir laws and tludr application, which all could under-
stand.
Three fundamental uints of measurement were first agreed upon. — tin'
Ci'iitimrfrr ( ..'t'.tl in.) as a uiut of length; the (Iniitime ( 1 i».4.'{ troy grains; ;!•<
a unit of mass : the Srvomt {^ of a minute) as a unit of time. These thiic
cEXTunr
WOXhhliS OF KLKCTli'IC/TY
88
units ln'ciuiio, w hi'ii ii't'circd to t(i,y;ftlit'r 1)V their initial lottcrs, the basis of
ilio ('. (i. S. syslciii (it units. Now hy tiicsf units of incasuit'iuent sonie-
tiiiii"' nnist 1h' nn'.tsiin'd. as. for instance, the electri(! forie ; and whoa so
':.e:i>;;'ed. an al)sohite unit cd' foree must lie tiiu result.
|)v,ii;; — This is Imt a eontiaetion of <///««/«, foieo. It was ailoptcd as
tiie name uf tlie •• .Vhsohite I'uit of l-'iii-ee," or tiiu ('. (i, S. Unit of foree, .and
is that force wliicii. if it act for a second on one gramme of matter, gives to
it a veUieitV of one centimetre per second.
V^ii-Kiii; : — Kiectrical lo-ce i>id(hices eh'ctrical i uirent. Current must
he nicas\ireil and an alisolute unit ot ei rrent strengtii agreed upon. The
•• Al>s<ilnte I'nit of Current" was settl' d as one of siudi strength as that
wiii'ii one centimetre length of its circuit is lient into an ar< of one centi-
metre radius, thecui'i'cnt in it exerts a force oi one dyne on a unit magnet-
pole placed at t!i>' centre. Hut tlie absolute unit of current as thus obtained
was dci-ided to be ten times too great lor practical purposes. So a practical
uiut of cuirent was fixeij upon, whiidi is just one tenlii part of the above ab.so-
luie \uiii cd current. This practical unit of current was called the ampere, in
linunr of the celebrated l''rencli electrician, .\mpere. It may be ascertained
in other ways, as wiien a current is of suilicii'nt strength to deposit in a
ciippei' electrolytic cell 1.171 granuues (IS.lKi grains) of copjier in an hour,
such (in rent is said to be of one ampere strengtn ; or a current of one
ampcif strengtii is su(di a one as wipuld be given by an electro-motive force
(it ene Vdlt tlirough a wire offering one ohm of resistance.
Viii.T; — 'I'his was named from Volta, the celebrated Italian electrician,
and was agreed upon as the unit of electro-motive force. It is tluit elec-
tin-uidtivc l(uce whicdi would be generated l)y a conductor cutting across
loii.uoii.ddo C. (i. S. lines in a fitdd of foree per second; or it is that electro-
motive torce which woidd carry one amiiere of current against one ohm of
resistance.
Oum: — So callc<l from Ohm, a (ierman (dectrician. It is the unit of
resistance offered by a conductor to the pa.s.sage of an electrical current. As
an absolute unit of resistance, it is e(pml to !.(Mt(»,0()(t.(MM) C. (J. fs. units of
resistance. .Vs a jiractical unit, and as agreed upon at the Inte'-natioiial
Congress i,f Klcctrieians (Chicago. IS'.i;')), it represents the resistance offered
to an electric current at the temperature of nudting ice by a c(dumn of nu'r-
•airy ll.l.'.l grammes in mass, of a constant cros.s-scctional are.a, and l(l(i.3
centimetres in length. This is called the international ohm. The resistance
citfered by 4(1(1 b'ct of ordinary telegraiili wire is about an (dim.
ihese three units — ampere, volt, and ohm — are the factors in Ohm's
laiuoiis law that the current is directly proportional to the electro-motivo
torce exerteil iu a circiut. and invers.dv i)roportioiial to the resistance of tlie
<-ircuit; that is, —
Current = ''''''•'t''"-'""*'^'*' force
' «>r,
lor
Kesistaiiee
Electro-motive foree = Current x Kesisti'iice
Kesistance = ^:^lectro-m otive force
Current.
•I
m
54
TRIUMPHS ASD WOM)EHS OF TllK XJX'" VEM'UHY
Kitu ; — I'riiin the <iit'fk I'rt/iiii, work, is tlic unit of work re(|iiin'(l to iiiovi
a force of one dyne one centinietie. One foot-ponnd epulis l;>.,'"»(it» er|,'s.
Cau<1{ik:— Liiiin ni/nr, tif at, is the unit of lieut: being tlie lunount of
heat ieiiuiie<l to raise tlie teni|)eratm'e of one kiloijram of water one det^rer
ceiitigriide.
('iiiTi.u.Mii : — In honorof ('. A> de Loulonili, of France. It is the practical
nnit of (|nantity i.i measuring; electricity, and is the amount conveyed by one
aniiiere in one second.
Kauad: — From Fakahay, the physicist. It is the unit of electric rajia-
city, and is thi oai.acity of a condenser that retains one coulomb of diarge
with one volt ditierence of jtotential.
Gaiss: — Fiom ( arl F. (iau.ss (ITS.Vl.sr*."*). Tlie V. C. S. unit r)f Hux
density, or the unit iiy which the intensity of magnetic fields are measured.
It e(pials one welx-r pt normal scpiare centinu'tre.
(iii.iiKitr : — The unit for measuring magneto-motive force, being produced
by .7'.>">.S ampere-turn a|iproximately.
IIknuv: — Fr()i;i Joseph Henry, of the Smithsonian Institution, Washing-
ton, I). C. The practical unit for measuring the induction in a circuit when
the 'lectro-motive force induced is one international volt, while the inducing
current varies at the rate of one ampere ))er second.
.loci.i;: — The ('. (J. S. unit of practical energy, bein,^' e(piiv. '-nt to the
work done in keeping u]) tor one second a current of one an:p.-ie against a
resi.stance of one ohm. Nanu'd from .1. 1'. doule, of Knglaud.
()>:iisri:i> : — From OiM'sted. the electrician. It is the pi'actical unit for
measuring electrical reluctance.
Watt: — The practical electrical unit of the rate uf working in a circuit,
when the electr.i-inotive lorce is oui- volt, and tlie inieiisity of current is one
ampere. It is e(]iial to li*7ergs ]ier second, or .0(i,,'i4 Imrse-power persecoiicl.
Named from .lames Watt, of Scotland.
Wkiiki! : — T ;e ]iriictical unit for measuring iiia'^netic tlux. Named from
W \^'eber, of (iermaiiy.
.TaMKS 1". lioYD.
'■■::1 I
THE CENTURY'S NAVAL PKOGKESS
ct', liciiif,' prnducpil
I. INKHKN(K OK SKA I'OWKK.
TiiK share of navies in the great inoveiiients which liave inouhhnl Iminaii
ilfstiny uiul shajifd tin' world's ,/Vogn'ss, altli<)iif,'li long obsciirt' and und»'i'-
valiifd, liiis met in our tinif ftiU recognition. Within a decade the intliieiice
of sea |Miwer upon history has hecionie the Ireiitient tlienie of historians and
essayists wlio. in dear and strilting form, have siiown tiie cardinal im|>ortaiice,
lM)th in war and commerce, of the tlect — the nation's right arm on the .lea.
It is fitting, rlierefore, that in the retrospect of a hundred years navies
should have theii' jilacc ; that, in looking backward with history's unclouded
vision, we ^;hould mark, not only their growth and change, but, as well, their
achievement in some of tlie mo.st memorable confii(!ts of our race.
'riiciTiitury luxd liut begun when, at ('oi)enhagen. Nelson, with one titanic
Mow, shattered the naval strength of Denmark and the coalition of the
Northern jjowers. His signal tliere, ever for "closer battle," told in few
words the life story of the CJreat Adminil, and foreshadowed his end. Four
yeais Intel-, at Trafalgar, the desire of his eager heart was satisfied, when he
met III liank Hght the fleets of France and S])ain. Amid the thundering
cannonade of that last victory his life-tide ebbed, bearing with it the ])ower
of Fiaiici,' upon the seiis and the broken fortunes of Napoleon. In the war
of bsll,'. i)ur disasters upon the land met compen.sation in victory afloat. The
liiiteil States was then aiuong the feeb 'st of maritime powers; and yet Mac-
dnnoiii^di and Ferry on the lakes and our few frigates on the ocean opposed,
with siK'cess, tlie swarming scpiadrons of a nation whose naval glory, as
llallam says, can be traced onward " in a continuous track of light " from the
(lays of the Commonwealtli. The ojipression of the Sultan was ended for
a tuii" when, in ISL'T, the Turkish and Fgyjjtian fleets were annihilated, in
suildeii fury. !)}• the allied squadrons in that brief ingagemcnt whi(di Welling-
ton termed tlie "untoward event " of Navarino.
A geneiation later, the command of the sea enabled Kngland and France
til dtspatch, in unarmed transports. Oii.OOtt men and 12H guns to the Crimea,
ami to land them, withovit opposition, for the red carnage of the Alma. F>ala-
klava, Iiikerman, and Sebastojiol. Following closelv upon the disease and
death, tlie fatuity and the glory, of the(Jriniea, came tlrj great war of modern
times, ill which the gun afloat iilaycl such a gallant jiart, as the blockade,
with its const ricting coils, slowly starved and .strangled the Confederacy to
death, and Farragut, on inland waters, sjilit it in twain. Passing over the .sea-
iiglits of Lissa, — in which imperial Venice was the stake, — of South America
and thr Valu. we note, lastly, the swift and fatcd'ul actions off Santiago .and
m ^Manila 15ay, which destroyed once again tlie sea power of Si)ain, won dis-
tant territory for the I" aited States, and oi)ened up for us a noble pathway
of coniir.ercial expansion to the uttermost island of the broad Pacific and the
06
Tim Ml' US AM> \voym:its of the a/.v" cii.srunY
vast Asiiiii littoni' lu'Voiul. Who will sjiy. in tlif n'tnts|ii'ct ot tlu' ci'iitiir}.
that tlic th'i'ts III lilt' Wdilil ha.'.' iitit hail thfir lull .sharu in tho luakiii^; of its
history ".'
II. Ilir. <|-.NIIIi\"s (.Iti'WIII IN \ W \l. SIKKMilll.
Tin' I'liitcd States tlci't. in tlif year ISno. niniinisfd .'l.l vessels. 10 of which
were rrit,'!U<'s iiionntinj,' .'!'_' k"""< '"' ii">re. In IM'J. America enlered the lists
against a navy of a thoi'.sand sail, with a fleet of hnt "Jfl Nhips. the largest of
which was a I l-!,'ini frij,'al(
ri
le (Jlier
;itions of I he civil War wt'ie lM'''nn with
liiit SL' vessels. IS ot which were sailiic,' cralt. liefoic tlii' close of tint i;ii,'antic
A.N Al ursr MIHINIMi wnil FAltllA<frT.
iKattli'iif Miibilv lluv.i
stni{r(,'lc there were luhh'tl, by cotistraetion or i>nrchase, 074 stoamers. Tn
1S'.)S. (lnrini< the war with Sp.iin. there were l)oriu' on tlie Naval Uojjister, as
hnililiiit; or in servite. l.'I hattleships ami 17(i other vessels, ineludiii}^ torpedo
craft, with iL'.'t converted nieichantnien. The total naval force (hiring liostil-
ities was L'L'.S.'il' men and L'.'iNl' otticers. exchidiui,' tlie .Marine Corps.
.\t London, in Hi.V!, there was printed "A Jjst of the <"omnioiiwealth of
Kn^dand's Navy at Sea. in their ( ."vpedition in May, H\~t'.\. nnder the command
of tiie Ui},dit Ilonorai)le Ctdonel iJiehai'd I>eane and Colonel (Jeorge Monk,
Ks(|nires. (Jenerals, and .\diuirals.'' This (jnaint record of that early time
gives the force atloii as lo."> shi]is. .').S4»» f,'nn.s, and lO.iiCt'.) men. In Britain's
strife for that ocean em]iire, which is world empire, th:it fleet had grown, by
the year l.S(H», to 7"»7 vessels, Imilt or building, with an aggregate toiuiage of
(■(1.".>.LM 1. and carrying L'(>.rt.">l,' guns. '.M'uiW otticers, and ']0,0(K> meu. Tlin
stately three-decker, w ith its snowy canvas and ma/e of r'gging, has vanished
with the past; but, despite time and change, that mighty heet still dtmiinatc^
I 1
i:.\rri:y
(it tlif cciitiin.
till' making' of it-
N<iTII.
ssfls, |(t (if wliiili
I t'litcrcd the lists
|is. tlif liii'm'st (if
1- were licjinu willi
ISC (if tint ijiv'aiitii
(»74 stpamers. Tn
Naval Kp^ister, as
iiicliulinj,' torpedo
toire (luring liostil-
iie Corps.
< 'oimiioiiwealth of
uidcr the command
111(0 (icorge Monk,
of that early time
men. In Britain's
leet had grown, l).v
[gregate tonnage nf
<10,mK» men. Tim
^ging, has vanished
heet still dominatt >
FHEXrn BATTI.ESniP MAGENTA.
M
TlltUMI'ltS A,\D WOXDKUS Of THE A/A'" VENTUltY
i
kl/ii
;:i
a:
U,
tlu' HCiia. Its stnMit,'tli. on Ffliriiarv 1. IH'.tH, whs (i|."i vcsmcIh — (11 ot wliicli
wt'it! Icittit'sliijiH, — ciuryiiifj a tdtiil fonc oi ll(»,(''"'<* "fhct'is and nu-ii.
('(<!'iM!rt when tin* (iraiul .Monarch was at tint /.tMiitli of his )iowi>r, luiuiil
Krantc witli a IVw olil ami rotten vt'ssds. and left \wy witli a nolih- Hfi-t td' 4t"
sliips (d' tilt- lin«- Hnd fill trigatt-s, wlii(di, under D'Estrio. .lean Kurt. Tour-
viih', and Uuiinesne. rarrifd her tla>,' to every sea. A state i»a|)t;r ot the time
j^ives the toree at the liej,'inninK of this century as (51 ships of the line, IL'
corvettes, and a iniuicrous. although unini|)ortant. tlotilla of small craft. U iti'
Alioukir and Trafaliiar. the maritime iM)wcr of France wasted away; and, li.\
the year I.S;!',», there wt-re aHoat hut three elective sail of the line. In tSld.
OKIUIAX IlATTI.KSIIie WOKIITU.
however, the revival Ih-^mu. and duriiii; the mixh-rn era the French fleet has.
at times, heen a formidahle rival of that of Kngland. It com prised, in ]8'.t.\
44(» vessels, inehidinj,' tor|K>do enift, !.'(» of the total l)eing battleships. Tin
force afloat nundM-red 7(».'.H'."f. of all ranks and ratin>,'s.
(icrmany's navy is id' modern creation. It began, a little less than halt ;i
century ago, with one sailing corvette and two gunboats; and. in 1808. coi, .
jirised l.'i battleships and \~\) other vessels of all types, carrying L'.'V*"-'
«>tticers and men. The Hect <d' united Italy had its inception, also, within iU
age of steam It was on March 17. l.S(>(», that Italian national life Ijegan
with the a.scension of the throne by Victor Knnnaiinel. From the beginnin .
the kingth)m has Ix-cn lavish with its fleet, its cxjienditures within tlie Hi \
six years reaching .S(M».0(M),(M)O. In l.S<.»K there were in the Italian navy L'<;."»
vessels of all ty]ies. 17 of wliich were battleships. The force afloat w: s
24,2(M), of all ranks and ratings.
■////•; cfiMUitys \AiAL j'j{0(;tn:ss
m
Tlic I'riiiit'iiii war r<iiiiiil Russia Imt littli- ailvuiicfd, i>ithi>r on tho Itlm^k
S«>a ID' till' llaltif, in the siilistitution of sti-ani lor sail. Sine*' that tiiuc, liow-
pM-r. sill' lias I'l'-crcatcil Imt battle tli'ft, wliicli is imw csiH'cialiy stn)n^' in
t<ir|ii>ilii cralt and cniiscrs ot ^rcat steaming' radius, lici navy, in 1H*J<S, coni-
|iiistd L'O liattli'sliips and I'fi.'t ntlior vessidH, ivitli a forco of :VJ,\7' ottici'is and
iiii'ii. Japan ln'j,'an Iht tlfct in iHiKi with ti; ■ ]inrcliast' of an aiinoi-clad truni
tin- Initi'd Status. In l.S"»8, slic had a t« tul ot 14.*) vcssols, Imilt and hnild-
in^: — 8 of which were \)attlt'shipH — rnrryinK L'.'MHM* inon of nil ranks and
ratMij,'s.
(•I linor navies littlo nond ho 8nid. Austria liad, in l.SOS. a floot id 11,"
IIAI.IAN IlATri.Ksnil' SAIlUKIiNA.
vfssfU ot all types, including !.'> battleships and T'.i torpedo erat't. Holland's
ton-e was isr. vessels. .'1 heins; hattleshiy.s and O.". torpedo cralt. The Beets of
'I mke\, (livfce. Spain, and l'ortu;j:al are •• pa|ier-navies " mainly. Norway
and Sweden have acondiined stren>:th ol' 171 vessids t>i all types.' lienniark,
wliM-l: l,e-;an the century with overwlndniin;.,' naval disaster at Co )enha<,'en.
has iio\v;i I,,!,.,. ,,f ;^()()(( uHMi borne on od vesstds. halt' of whi(di are torpedo
cralt. .\ri,'entina. Hrazil. and Chili have afloat 1(»L' torjiedo vessels and 4".l of
other typ(!.s. The vast j,'rowth in naval arnnnnents durinj; the century may be
nieiisnred from the fact that tht personnel of the leadin;.,' navies of Hur'ope,
with those of dajjan and the Cnited States, comprised, in the year LSUiS,
•;'h\<»1.'.s officers and men, with a total force of l.'74<.» vessels of' all types,
iiicliidini,' torpedo craft.
0(1
TJiJLMpns AM) woxiU'nis OF nil-: a/.V" cEsruny
III.
Tlir. IIMTI.K.XIIII'. PAST \XI> I'liKSKN T.
In tiacinji tin- I'vulutinii ol' tin' iiiiMlcrii miiii-nt-wai'. it will he instructive to
comiiaro uitli \\v\- tin- t\ |u' ui tlic sailmj,' a,!,'f. 'riitMc arc two ships ol tlic old
tinu' which hold clii<'l' places in the nicmorv of the .\iij,'lo-Saxon race — tin-
Victory, Nelson's tlai,'sliip at Trataljiar. and the Constitution, whose achieve-
ments ui der Hidl. jiainlirid^'t'. and Stewart, raii),' around the world. There
were, even het'ore the days id steam, war-vessels Iwii-e as lari,'e and powei lul
as •• Old Ironsides." hut over no sea. in any a^e. lias there sailed a ship with
a more ;,'allant recortl. I 'late I >\\
ows lier as slie w
as in her prii
I let oil
the wind, with all sail set. < in j'late 11 there is !,'iven a side view o| h
er
•
■*•
1
T
■\l
1^ ,
NKI.soN s HVfiMlir VMIOIIV
I
hull, which is of historic interest, in tliat it is reproduced liom the ori<;inaI
drawiiiL: made in <>ctolier. IT'.lll.
When licr powi^r and dimensions are coiiiparen with those (d' the Ore^^ou.
our sea-fi^;hter ol to-da". <.ne «ees wlmt tiiiii' has wron-^'ht. Tiie Irijjate ear
ried l.">() men. the armor-clad. ."ilMi; and yet. with this a]iproximately eipial
foire. the (>re|,'on has a displacement *i.|, times that ol her lamed predi
opssor; andalthoii^di the niinil»er of tin* ^{Uiis — IJ — is tlie sunu' in each, she
discharges a hroadside S,.'! times heavier ami in enerfiy overwlielmin^l^
superior. 'I"he speed (d' the liattlesliij" is one half (greater thin that of tie-
Constitntioii. and she ca"ries armor varying I'rom IS inidies to 4 iiudies thick.
wlii(di the frigate wholly lacked. Tlie lon^;itiidinal section td' tlie (devoir
indicates the immense advance in other directions. Iler hull is, for Hafet\ .
minutely iubdividod, and is jtrovided with engines for juopulsion, 8t«>eriiiu.
^:.\rui{y
l)f instiiutivi' li>
slii])s (if till* olil
tixt'ii race. — tlit>
, wlitisf ai'lii'.'vi'-
ic world. 'I'lifii-
■\:>' and |>ii\vi'i lul
lUcd a >lii|' « iili
v jiiinii' — liidiiic
>id(' vit'w 111 lin
from tho orijjiiial
sc of tho tJn-Koii.
Tlic frij;ati' car
i]ii(ixiiiiat(dy iMHial
licr faiiH'd pri'df
■ saiiu' in i-afli. slir
\- ovi'nvlu'huiiiK'l>
tlnn that of tin-
1 to 4 tnclics tliitk.
idU of tlie Ort'^iiiii
hull is, for siifrlN.
•opulHitm, sttH'riiiu'.
02 TRIUMPHS AND ]VU.\DERS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY
lighting', drainage, ami ventilation, nuniboiing in all S4, with miles of jnping
and hundreds of valves. The time-honored frigate was but a sail-propelled
gun-plutforni. whose wants were as few as her construetion was simple; the
steel-clad battleship is a mass of mechanism, a iioating maehine-plant, which
for full etticieney must be manned by a personnel not only brave and daring
as of old, but expert in many arts and sciences, which in the age of sail were
but rudimentary or unknown.
IV.
rUK I'l{(Hil!KSS OK NAVAL K.XOIXKKIJIXO
"■[hare Jiisf rend t/ic /n'o/ni of Clfizfii Fitlfon, Jintfi'iierr, trhirh i/oii Inu
si'tif me witch tnu luff, ni'ifr If is one ir/n'r/i iii'i;/ I'/iaiii/f f/wjUrt', oft/n- irofhi."'
So, in the begin
ning o
f tl
le century, wrote the first Napoleon from 1
ins
Imperial camp at l>(Julogne. Wrapped in his day-dream of a descent upon
tiieTlianu's, he saw, with projihetic vision, in the jilans of the American
enj^iucer, the future of navigation, and lie strove to grasp — but too late —
the opportunity which might liave made his armada victoricnis overwind and
tide.
His words, however, rang truer than he knew. On the sea, as on the land,
the engineer has indotd '• changed the face of the world ; " and in no depart-
ment of human jirogress has his influence been mort; radical or more far-
reaching than in the mechanism, the scope, and the strategy of naval war.
Fleets move now with a swiftness and surety unthought of in the ilays of
sail. Over the same western ocean which Xelson. in his eager chase of \'ille-
neuvp, crossed at but four knots an hour, the I'nited States cruiser Columbia
swept, nil ety years later, at a speed nearly four and three (pmrters times that
of his lagging craft. When, in IS'.tS, v.ar came, the great battleshij) Oregon,
although far to the northward on our western C(Kist, was needed in the distant
battle-line off the ('ul)an shore. In "!> days she steamed 14,o(tO miles, mak
ing a run which is without i>arallel or approach by any warshiii of any navy
in the world's history. The maguiticciit manhoftd, tlie uncompierable pluck,
the engineering skill, which brought her just in time off Santiago, won their
reward when the Colon struck her Hag. Speed has been a (h-termining factor
in many a naval action, It was that which gave the power to take and hold
the old-time '* weather-gauge."' None knew it.s value better than Nelson, the
chief tighter of the age of sail. Once he said that thei-e wotdd Im fo'ind,
stamped wnm his lu'art, "the want of frigates," the swift and nimble "eyes
of the fleet "' in his day. If his career in warfare on the .sea had been a cen-
tury later, he would be fouiul foremost among the advocates of high-sjieed
battleships and <piick-flring g\ins.
It is, however, not oidy in the speed of warships that sti-am and mechanism
have rPV(dutioni/.e<l fleets. For exam]ile, th • displacement of the battleship
of to-day is fully three and one half times gi <ater than that of her heaviest
ancestor of the sailing age. With due limita*ion as to length of hid), it is
evident that the wind uould lie, at best, a w'lolly inadequate and untrust
worthy motor f(U' this huge structure with it great weight of armor. It i>
true that, during tlie era of transition, sail an 1 steam were both ajjidied t'
iron-clads — this absunlity reaching its c]ima> in the British Agincourt ami
her sisters, which were 400 feet long, lo,()(M» ton.s' displacement, and wen
fitted with five masts. It is said that a merch;\nt steamer narrowly escape
\i't
'ESrURY
X miles of piping
t a sail-pvopi'lk'd
I was simple ; the
hine-plant. whicli
brave and dariii;,'
3 age of sail were
•, wliirli you hcn-f
(•(! of till- irorlil,"
apoleoii from liis
f a descent upon
of the American
— b\it too liite —
ms over wind and
ea, as on the land,
and in no dejiart-
ical or more far-
I'gy of naval war.
of in the days of
ger chase of Ville-
i crniser Cohunliia
[Uarters times that
l)attleship Oregon,
■(h'din tlie distant
I4,."»(>(l miles, mak
rsiiip of any navv
'onciuerable pluck,
intiago. won their
iletermining factor
■ to take and hold
■V than Nelstm, tin'
e would be found,
and nimble " eyes
(ea had been a cen
:ates of high-speed
im and mechanism
t of the battleshiji
at of lier heaviest
iigth of Indl, it is
[iiate and untrust
ht of armor. It i>
re both applied t"
tish Agincourt ami
ar^aient, and were
r narrowly escapci'
:N'*^
=h^
D
1
i i.
- ■■£ S z
c ^
i. -5?
li M
i
64
Tin UM I'll S AM) WO.SDHItS OF TIIK \L\"' (KyiluY
t!iilli. .oil 111 iii.i,'lit witli one (if tlu'Sf vfssfls. Iiflicviiii,' tinm lii'i liMii;tli iinn
ri<,'j;iii;; tliiif tluTc wcit fim Hliips aliead. U'lvvt't'ii which slie eonld pass. \\ li;i:
these iai')^t,' (lis|ilaceiiieMls mean, ill I'ontrast wifli tliose (if jiast davs, will lif.
lierliaps, liest illiistial.il li\ the •.tateimiit that the Italia of l.'l.tMMt tons-
il ship with which, in her day. Italv cliillen.ued the criticism of t lie world —
cjinics on her deck a wei;{lit. in armor and armament, of iTiOO tons, or oic
foiirtii more than that of Nelson's tla,i;>hip \'ietoiy.
Aj,'aiM. the lar^'cst naval u'lin in the year ISIKI was one tiriiiir Imt a IL'-)
loiinu
shot, while in the I'liiteil States navy
we
have now the l.'i-ineh rifle of do
tons, with a projectile of I1<M> iioiinds, and (ireat IJritain lias afloat ISHO
poniHlcr lireecli-loaders which wei;,'h 1 1 1 tons. Itefore monster (jrdnance siidi
as this, the >t ren^th uf man, nnaided, is Imt crude and futile, lie must call to
his help — as he has done — steam as the source of power for the electric,
hydraulic, or ]>nenmati(' cn^'ines. whicli load, elevate, and train the^un.
In summing,' up the service of st- am, directly or indirectly, to the shiji-ot-
war, it will he seen that the spw«l of the battleship has lieen increased l>y
fully .V> per cent., and that at' the cruiser has heen doiihled : that the dis.
placement of the hattleship is now tlir"e and one half times that of her sail-
in;; predecessor ; and that, since the century's liirtli. the fjnii has grown to
such extent that the projectile for the Orei^oii's main iiattery weighs I'd times
that of the hea\ ie ' shot in the year 1S(HI. This, however, is not all. .Steam
acts priiiiarih', a> well, to laise the anchor, to steer the ship, and to effect her
li.Llhtin;,'. hi-atiiiii. diaina^je, and ventilation. To the i,'eniiis of .lames Watt
there must lie ascrilied the possiliility for the j^rowtli and change which have
pro(lucc(l the modern man-of-war.
Closely allied \\ itli mechanism in this evolution, has heeii the transformation
of the structiirai material of the hull, which has passed fnuii the hands of
the shipwright in wockI to the engineer who works with steel. The reasons
for this are not far to seek. They lie. firstly, in the greater strength of
the metal construction to withstand the vilnation of swift and heavy ma-
chinery, and the strains arising from the unei|ual listrilsution of massixc
weights in a hull which pitches or rolls with the waves. With wooden sliip^.
the present proportions would have hecii unattaiuahle. .\gain, tiiere is a
marked saving in the weight of the hull proper of the steel vessel, which is
not only stronger Imt liLjhter. This weight in the days of timhcr nverageil
fully one half of the displacement ; while in the t >regon, whose tonnage, at
normal draught, is ln.'JS.S. the hull |M'rceiitage is 41. (Ml. leaving a gain over
the wooden vessel of (ill tons to Iw applied to .'iriiior. armament, or e(pii|>-
ment, , I'inally, the diiraliility of the metal vessel, with ade(piate care, greatly
exceeds that of the wooileii war steamer, whose average li*'e was lint l.'lyeai^.
The creation of the steam niachinerv of navies has lieeji the acliie\i'-
iiieiit of the c'lgineers of practically Imt three great nations. The daring 'f
l-'raiice. the iint'iitivi- genius of .\merica. and the wide experience and soiiinl
judgment of (ireat I' itain, have united in this work. Our eomitry has h d
tiiiio and again ii. the march of improvement; although onr jirogress Ins
lieeii fitful, since, more than a generation ago. we turneil from the sea to tlic
d(>velopment of the internal resources of this contiiuMit. Limits of space p< i-
niit hut hrief review of a history which has had its full share of triunipl •«.
not only in battle, hut over wave ami wind.
II licr li'ip.^tli ami
coiilil |ias.s. \\ lij'
|iiist (lays, will 1m .
.it' i;;ynMi ti>ii>-
III ot till' world —
iTiUO tons, or oii''
111',' liiit a I'J-iioiiiicl
i;!.iiii'li lit!.' ot tlo
1 lias atloat l.S(""
stcr onliiaiirt' smli
I'. Ill' must call to
IT tor till' eh'i'trii'.
rain tilt' K"'i-
tly,to the sliiii-ol-
lii'i'u int'ivast'd liy
lilfil : tliat till' lli^■
I's that ol' lifi- sail-
jj\m has yrowii to
n wcijihs I'd tinu'^
. is not all. StiMu;
ji. ami to C'tfi'ct Inr
US ot .laiiu's \\ att
•ham,'!' which liavi-
till' transl'ormatiiiii
mni till' hands ot
^ll•('l. The n-a^oiis
,'ii'att'r .strciitrth o|
iit and licavy mii
hntioii ol nia>si\i'
A'ith wooden slii|i>,
.\j,'ain. tliere is a
I'l vcssi'l. which 1-
of tiipber aveiii'^'iil
whose tonnage, at
caving a f^ain ovri-
•manient, or ei|iiii'-
i'(|nate care, jireatly
'V was hnt 1.'{ veai-.
been the achie\'-
iiis. The uuritiK ■ f
lierii'iicc and sommI
nr country l»as I'd
h our progress h is
roiii the sea to tlir
Limits of sjiacc |» i-
share of tritiinpl^.
60 TliirMI'HS AM) WOMiKns OF Till-: MX'" CESTUIIY
A C(mtt'iii|ioriiiv aiitlmrity statt-s tliat. wlicii I'.rilisli Admiral Sir .lolm
IJi.rlasc Warrt-ii ascfiiiletl the I'litoiiiaf llivi-r. during the war of 1S|L>, lii^
exjifditiiin was nTummitn'd li\ an AiiuMicaii stcaiiicr. 'I'lii.s ajipfars to hr
tin- tirst record ot tlie iisi' ol' micIi cralt lor military iniriioscs. In ISM tin
I' nitfd States built tlii" lirst steam war-vessel in l lie world's history. She
was called the I)einolo-4os. later the i'ultoii. and her eoniiiletion marked truly,
as her commi>sioiiers said. -an era in warfare and the arts." She was a
doulih^-mh-d. twin-hulled float inj; hattery of '.'»7."< tons, carrying,' twenty '.'C
pdr. ),'uns. jiroteeted hy \ ft. 10 in. (d' solid timber. She was driven hy a sin-
^de i-entral jiaddle-wheel ; her speed was '>\ miles per hour; and she wa-
Ixith handy and seaworthy. France, in JS'JO. sent a commission to Anu-rica
to report upon steam vessels of war: and in ls;;() the Fremdi liad nine armed
.st^-amers athiat and nine Imildiug. In ISL'I, the Comet, a small side-wheeler,
Al rioN lll.lWI.l.N MllMKll! \Ml Ml.ltlllMAI.
was eonimissioiied as the lirst steam war-ship in the I'ritisli mivy, ami iu
ISld. at the hoiuhardment of .Vcre, steam vessels fouj;ht their tirst battle.
Tlie growth of steam iu uavie.s had iK'eii retarded by its applieatiou solely
to piuldle craft, wiiose wheels and machinery were incapable of protection in
action, jluriu^ the \ears ISIL'-I.'I, however, the l' idted States built tlie sloo|i-
of-war I'riiu-otoii, of S^'A tons. This vessel was tiie product of the genius ot
John Kricsson. the ablest marine eni,'ineer the world has ever seen. She was
the lirst screw-propelled ^tcam warship ever built, ami. in other resi)eet8, fore-
shadowed tiie advances which were to come. Thus, her juaoliinery \va.s the
first to 1)0 placed wliody below the water-line beyond the i"uA\ of hostile
shot; her enj^iue was the tirst to 1m- coupled directly to the screw shaft, and
blowers, for forced draft, were with her tirst used in naval jiractice. Sin'
was virtually the herald of the modern era.
The I'rinceton was followed <losely by the Katthv, the first screw vessel
of the lirifish Heef. and in 1SI.'>-11 the I'remdi tl-i^'un fri(,'ate I'onumo was
fitted with pro|Kdlers. In ls|;{. also, the Kn(,dish IVneloi)e was the first man-
of-war to be ('(piipped with tubnlar boilers, and the year lS4r> was not.'ible for
the building of tlie ill-fated Hirkeidiead, the first iron vessel of the Hritish
liuiiiil Sir .John
Sill- of ISl'J, his
is ;iiii»';irs to \w
*,.s. In ISl J the
I's history. Sho
inn niarkfil truly,
Its." she was a
lyiuK' twenty .">--
s driven by ii sin-
uir ; anil shf was
ission til .Vnii-riea
li had nine aruieii
nail side-wiieeler,
77//i rA'.vrr/i I'.s .v.ir.iz, rnoaiiKss
07
itish navy, and iu
leir first hatth-.
applifation solely
e of iMiiteetion in
ites built the sloi>i>-
t of the KeniuH <it
ver seen. She was
ther respects, fon-
naehinery was tin'
."U.h of hostile
screw shaft, ami
ival practice. SI"'
' first screw vessl
ii,'ate I'onuino was
was the first num-
<.t."» was notable fnr
isel of the Hriti-h
fleet. Ill lS."t(t. wlieii the l''ri'iieli eunslnieled ihu screw line-of-battle .ship
Napiileon. the Kn;.;lish became alanneil, and be^;an with vipir the renovation
t ilieir navy with le^'unl to screw \<\i>\
Iti
iiilsiciii.
I'laih
in IS.VI, laid tin- keels of iniir ariiiiued batteries, three of which.
luriiiin;; the first ironclad sipiadron in history, went into action a year later
iimliT tlie tolls of Kiiibiini in the ( 'limea. 'I'hey were of KiiMi tons' displaco-
nieiit. carried )', iiieh aniior and sixteen 'iS-pdr. ijiins. and had a speed of
tmii knots. In ISdU, Kriesson hinnclied the famous .Monitor, the first sea-
j;oiMu' iri'iielad with a levolviiitr tiirrel, and an "eii;;ineers' ship" fir.iii keel
to tiiri''! top.
The ('i\ il War found us with a sailing navy, ami left us one of steam.
TiiK rritinM.\.
I'ussiii'.; iiver its victories, in which sfeann-rs played .always the chief part on
sea aiKJ liver, we lonu' to that most notable triumph of Chief Knuineer Isher-
«|'imI. the cruiser Wampanoaf,' of -HMK) tons' displacement. This vessel,
I'lii iioiiieiial in lier day. steamed in Fcbniary. l.SCiS, from !'arnei,'at to Savau-
iiili. over a stormy seii. in .'i.S hours. Her average was 1(1. ti knots for the run,
and 17 knots diiringa period of six con.secutive hours — a speed which for 11
yais tlieicafter was uiiapproached. by liner or by warship, in IST'.I, tlie Hritish
disjialeh vessel .Merc\iry. of ."7.'tn tons and IS.,S7 knots, wrested the palm from
.\iiierica; but. in l.S'.C!. it was won again for the rnited States by tiie triple-
si rew fliers ('olumbia and .Minneaiiolis of 7l7."i tons, with speeds respectively
of ■."-'..^and -'.'».( 17." knots. The laurels rest now with the Ituenos .Vyrcs, which,
.m
////■; (i:\iri;ys .viri/. i'i;(niiii:ss
00
1^?'
n.
Its -,'.'•;■'
I
.Ji.a^
tlmii'^li liiiilr ill Kii^'liiiid ill lN'.i.'». Hies ilic ll:i|,' of Ai%'iMitiii;i. Slif lias ji tmi-
,i:i,_;,. ,,| I.VMi anil a s|m(m1 t.l L'.'I.L'OL' kimts.
Till' Itriti^li ii'niii'lail I'all.is, niiii|ilrt<'i| in \Si]C,, was rcinarkahle for Iiavin;^
till- lii>t ^mrcs^liil naval cnjiiiics nn tlic i'iiiii|ii>iinil |iri!ici|ilc, in wliifli tin'
stfaiii i- .iilniiiic'ii al liiu'li in'cssiirt' tn a sniaii r_\ lintlcr. and |>itss('s tlirnrc to
a larvriT I'lic w iiidi it tills hy its i'X|iaiisii)n. 'l\> ( in-at Mritaiii '' i' world owes
aNi' tlif di'Vi'liiiiiiit'iil of Irijilc ('X|pansioii, i. r.. tln' use of st n .•• 'cssividy
ill tiiii'i' cvliiidri's. 'I'liis sy>|i'ni was iiiaiiL;iiratcil ni iiav^'i t :i}^'' ; liy tlir
I'.rili^li. in lSS.1 s<>. and is now iiiii\('rsally ciniiloyt'd. I'rio o IN ■ lif lioil-
ns III' all iiiodmi wai'-vcssfls had Iicfii iIkisc of the Sci, |, V|ii', in whiidi
till' tlann' passes tliion.;li iiiln's jixcd in a i-\ lindiical sli . oi:, lining; water.
Ill iliat yi'ar. lioweMi-. l' ranee iiei^aii a revolution in tlie -iteai jje leratoi's «d'
navies liy eijni|i|iiii.y: a dis|paleli-vess('l witli the I'lellevil' ■ tiilnilons boiler, in
wlneli ill" Wilier to lie eva|ioiateil is eiinlaiiieil witliin ' .: '■- .airroiiiult'd liy
tl.iiiie euiitiiieil ill an miler ea^in.;-. I'he \\ alei-liilie |irinei|ile. also, bids fair to
ri.vri-; i\. km.im; or r.
r.IiK SSON.
Iit'i'iiiri' ot universal a|)|ilieatioii. It lias had its most, nntewnrtliy naval
iiistallaiioii in the IJritish cruisers I'owerliil and '!'• rriMe. of I I.L'tMl ions and
LTlSSI; lii)|se-|uiwer. eonipleled ill !.S'.l."i.
The Use (it mole tliaii one screw I'or |)ro|iiilsioii dates hack to IS,";.'!. I)iiriii}^
i"ii- Civil War nir'.liiile screws tiiinred. to a small extent, in the "tin elads"
ami hiiu'er iiidiiiinrs. '{'he a|i|ilical imi of twin screws, in llio niodorii ei'a,
hf^iiis uith the r.r':li>li ironclad l'eiielo|ie of JSCS. i''raiici'. ill the years l,''<Sl-
N.'i. hla/eil the Way foraiiolher naval advance of iiiiich iiii|iortanee in con liict-
iii;,' a sciio III trials with the laiiiieh ( 'ar|ie. ei|iii|i|ied wiili t rijile screws. The
>> ^Iciii. how ever, altliiiii;.;li 111' niiich \ .iliie. I roiii ein,Miieeiiii;,' and tactical [ioints
I'l view, was nut ai|o|ited in lai'^e. lii;.;h-|iiiwercd vc>>els until I he ad vent of tin;
I niicli ariiioied eniiser Unpiiy de i.nnic in iMld. and the |iidteetcd cruisers
Ci'liiiiilii.i and .Minneaiiolis of the riiiteil Stales navy in lS".i;!. It has now
Willi lull a|i|iriival in the na\ ies of eoiitiiicntal l''.iiio|pe, and lri|ile-..crcw ships,
ai,",'re;.'atiiiy; .".(KMlHii tuns, are l.iiill or Imildiie,' tlieie.
I'lic limits (if space loriiid more than a iias>iie^ note of the triumphs of the
cii-uieer ill torpedo craft, the li;^dit cavalry of the sea. W iih steamers of iior-
iiial pidpiirtinti.s, the speed and power depend lai'^'dy niion, and increase with,
the displacenient. .\s has hceii stated, the maxininin performance nf largf
i-niiM-rs i.s now :.'."> knots on a toiina!,'e of |,"i(Mi. These particulars '.tivo a faint
■-liiiipM' (if the eN'raonliiiar\ piolilem w hich has cnnlroiitiil the toriiedo-lioat
70
Tim MI-US AMI ivi>Mii:i:.s or tiik a/.v" centluy
(■/•
(losijjiiri ill ilriviii,' Inills mI. nt im'sciit, ii'.ioiit t.*)ii \\>us at ;i s] il wliich iidu
apiiroximatcs ti' .in kn"!^. With lltf iirilliant ircnnl ol siirccs^ in (iii.s task,
tlicre will 1m' liiikcil always tiic iianifs nt N aimw aii<l 'I'liDinycrnit in Kni,'lanil.
of Sriiii'liaii ill ( ii'i'iiiaiiv. aii<i of Niinnanil in l''raiii'i'. 'I'Ih' ailiirvi'iiiciit Ini;
r('cciitl\ cif a iliiiisli iii\"iit'«r. tiir linn. ( iiarlfs AltftTiii'ii I'ar.sniis, in .i,'ivin,'
till' i'lii'liinia of ||.<*i tons a s|i<>fil uf over •!! knnts. lias drawn tlic atti-ntinn
(if ciii^'iiifri^ tlif wiiilrl (urr to tilt' iiussil^ilitics iif tlif steam tiirliiiif on tli.'
sea. This |m-i rorniaiicf is |ihi'iioiiii'iial with siiih a ilis|ilan'iiii'nt. 'I'lir I'mirli
Foiliaii, of l.'Mt ttiiiH, lias niailf .'M.'-' knots, and a ri'iiortcil spci'il of ."."i knot
j;i\('s a Scliii'Iiaii Imat luT ti'iiipoiarv laurels as tlif fastest craft atloat.
V liiii'f j;laiiiT at the ini|iioveiii4'iits which have made jiissiiile these extrein.'
H]M't'ds in eriiisers and tor|iedo craft will 1 f interest. 'I'lii' progress wliidi
li.as lieeii made lias Iteen. firstly, in th oiioi.iy in the use of steam arisin,'
from hi'.,her |ii'essiires and miilti|ile ex|iansioii; secondly, in the reduction ot
\veij,dit, per horse |iower. due to iiicre;ise in streiiijtli of materials and in
j'n>;ine-s|M'ed with the employment of forced draft — which was reintiodiu'' 1
by ]■' ranee — and tlu' water-tiihe hoiler; and. tinally. in the application o| a
more eHiciciit propellini,' instniment. The advances of half ;i century in pi
pellin^' maehinery are shown, in some respects, liy I'latcs III and IV. wliirli
contrast, on the same scale, the side wlioel maeliinery of the I'nited .*»tati^
war-steamer I'owh.itaii. <d I.Sj'.l. with the eie^'ines of the I ' nited . 'States tor-
pedo lM)at luicssoii of to-day. The data of the former vessel are: linrM-
power, IIT'J: steam pressure l."il!...; \vpij;ht of mafliiiieiy |M'r horse-power
07L.' Ills.: while, for the I'licssoii, the li'_'ures are: liorsi'-power, I.SIMI; ste;iiii
|iie>snic. •.'.'id Ills.; wei^dit of m;ichinery jier horse-power, ."id Uis. riiis coin-
p:iiiM>ii. hiiwever. must he ipialilicd liy the statement that thn older engiiM'
.v;is lor ,1 ste;imer <d iiliollt .'mCiO tons, while the torpedo ijoat is lint r_'n toii>
in ilis|placenicnt. The conti-ist lies, theri'fore. nnly in the redii 1 weit,'iii i.|
iii:iteri:il jiei horse-power developed and in the inciTused .steiim pressiiie,
which, however, are in themselves most strikiii;^.
v. TIIK OlloWrn OK olUiNWCK.
At Tr;if;ili,':ir. the N'ictory drifted liefme the w in<l into action. Tn lier slow
advance, at ,i ^jteed of one ;inil one li:ill knots thioiiudi Imt l-tMi y;irds, sin-
was for liiilf an hour under the prolonj.;ed fire o| LMMlmms, and yet she clos .d,
practically iinhnit. with her toes, and lived, not only to win the d;iy, Inil M
hriiii; iiiidnii;,' !;loiy to the l'!ni,di>li llii'^. What ;i contrast the hitest .seii-ti:.ilit
of the eeiitnry presents in the power of modern ordiiiince as com pared with
tlie pnny ^nns of Nelson's time ! ( inr li;ittlesliip ( »rej,'on, jit a ran^jo of nearly
five miles, with one 1 HMi-poiind shell, drove the ( 'ohm. an armored I'riii.ser, not
only shorewiiid. but to surrender, straiidinir. ;ind wreck.
The l;ii>.'est n;iv;il ;;iins in the year I.SOO were the loiii; '.VI iiiid I'J-ponndi is,
smootli-lMiie miiz/le-loaders. with :i liui^'e of about !'.'( Ml yards. (';irroiiiiil.s
— short piec-es with a heavy shot but limited riinp' — found favor iil-u,
t'speeiiilly with Hritisli s:iilors. eai,'er for that elose-ipiarter linhtinK in wliili
the " Siiiiisliei'' — as (Jeiieiiil .Midville called his earronade — would be ni'st
etVeetive in shatti'iiie,' timbers jind in seiidiiii; clouds of s|ilinters anioni; t'lO
foe. Tin- projectiles were spherical shot. c;inisfer. and grape, the di:ilK>l! il
shriek of the shell lieing yet uiihc;ird. Hotli gun ;ind shot were of east luei -1,
spi'i'il wliich liiiw
ccs.s in this tiisk.
it'll >H in I'limlaiiil.
iiiliii'Vciufiit \>u
'arsoiirt, ill i^iviii','
iwii tlif atti'iiticiii
a tui'liiin' oil ill'
lent. 'I'lu' iMfiii li
jiiTii i>r .">.'> kiiiit >
•rait alioat.
ilili' these I'xtri'iiii-
lit' jinijii'i'ss whitli
!■ (pI sti'aiM arisin,'
II tlic rfiliii'tii>ii 111
iiiatt'i'ials ami in
was ri'iiitriiiliiiTil
II' applifatiiiii ni a
I II fi'iitnrv in ]ii"-
III anil IV. whiili
tlic I'liitfil Stati -
rniti'd Stati'S tm
vessel arc : hor^i'-
y |M'r linrse-iiiiwi'i'
iiiwer, iSOd; steam
V; His. This ei'lii-
; the nliler eni,'in<'
(i.at is but I'-'O tun-.
reiluoeil \veii,'h' ■■!
I'll steam iiressiiii'.
c'tidii. Ill her slnw
>ut 1-'<M» yards, sh..
anil yet she elns il,
,vin the tlay, hut in
t the latest 8eii-ti:4l"t
V as eidnparetl wiih
at a raii^e ol nearly
arniDred cruiser, imt
^2 and 4'.'-i)ounih'is,
yards. (.'arninaili'S
— i'Diiml favtir ai^o,
IT livfhtinj,' in whiiU
,le — would be ninst
s]>linters amoni,' the
^'i-ape. the dialxili 'ill
it were of east met il.
7»
THlLMrns AM) iVnXDKns <»/' 77/ A' A7.V'" (IC.XTniV
't I
anil till* iiiiMiiit WiiH a \v<hm|i'|| iMiriai^r on tii\v tnnks. riii> tiiiiiiin^, or ||oi;
/ollliki ;ill'4l>' ot till- '^llll, \\a» I'lVirli'il li\ |o|h> t.irklrs, ail<l till' .llliolllit ii| i'|i
vatiMii of Its IIIII//I" i|<'|HMii|)'il ii|ioii lln- |io>iiioii ol a "i|iiiiiii," or wooilni
wt'tlj^i', tlini>l Jn'nt'atli tin- liiiiM-li. Tin- ircoil was liinit'il li\ ro| liKrch
U\)t," |'a>>iiiu llii'oiiyli t !n' immmU-1. — ;t knoii IhIuihI i In- lni'frli, ^ uml mmmiii'iI
til lin^ IhiIIs ill til)' -liiji's >\i\f. I'Ik- i;iiii was liiiiinsxil, as a lioi.si- is, in tin-
nliattM.
Aiming was Iaij,'i'l\ a iM-rlumtoi y |l^o(•l•^s,
IIHT
till' ^iMi liail no si'^'lits atnl
till' .•■hot liuil i'M'i>»iM' " wimla'^i'," its raiiltii- linni; Inmi oik- lilili tooiii' tliinl
iiii'li !i'SH than tin* Immc, niakin^; i\» mitwanl |iasr<a;;i) a Mfi-ii-N ol iclHuinils ami
its linal iliiiM'tioii a iiKittcr of riiain-i'. " NN'indaiir." Iiowi'vcr, was rssi'iitial i'
lai'ilitatc 11111//I1' Io.mIiiii; ami to |ii'i)\iiii' lor tin' i'\|iam!nl liianirtrr of ri'il-hni
sliot. It. is trni' that in IX*'! a |>io|iositioii to iisr si','lils was niaili' lo Loi'.l
Ni'ImpII. lie. JloWfVi'l, IfjiTtnl It witll till' Wolds: —
•' 1 iio|ii' we sliall III' alili'. as usual, to j^i-t so ihisi' to oiii I'liciiiics tiial oiir
siiiit laniiot miss tlu' oliji'i't."
His lilimi roiiia',;" in t.'iis cost his I'oiintrx ni>'n ihailv w Inn, in !S|l.'-| |, thi-ii
sliot tli'W Willi, wliili' their shi|>H wi'ic linlii-il ami their ^Mliaiit taii fill liolon
the then sii^llli'il ■,'Ulis of the Initeil States,
To i^'iiite llie ehai'^'e the slow-ni;ileh was still iiseil. as is shown liy the
sliarii wonls of a sailor of that time. Ilaihil in the ilarkiies.H liy 11 Hrili^li
ship aU'l orileri'il to ■.eml a Imat, his i|uii'k aii'-urr was : —
" This is the I'liiti'il States Iri'^Mte i oioiitiiiion, I'jlwanl i'relile, niiimiodoii'.
eoiiiiiiandiiii:, and I "11 he d-d if I send .1 hoal I"
'I'lii'ii to his men, silent and ea'^er liy tiie shrouded li.ittle laiiteins : —
" I'dow your mati'hes, 1mi\> I "
A full erew lor a ."i'_'-|M>uiiiler eoiisisti'd of II lueii. An old rule as to ihi--
was one man to every .'HKt-llis. vvei-^hl ol tjie ijiin, which would i,'ive the t Me-
llon I toil uii'ii to I'aiidii' lie' jour l.'>-im
•li liiles of her main liatlery, or more
than twice her whole crew. Sii-am and mechanism have wroujjhl a nuu;ic
chaii',.;!' ill this.
'I'lie slow-match remained in use until well into the iiiiieteeuth ceiiturx
althoii;;li, until IM'.', the Hint lock was j;eiicrally em|.|oyed in tiie Hritisli
navy, havin;,^ lepl ned the [.riniiie^ horn and match in ITStt. In 1.S(l7 there
was discovered a coiu|Bisit inn which could lie i','iiiled by friction or eoncussioii.
and in iS.'lUthe I'reiich had adopted the |iereiission lock, wliieh exploded tlic
cap and leliacted, uiicoveiiiii: tlie Vent JHfore the liackward rush of the i,ms
could strike It. Later, a similareompo'^itiun was used with " friction-primers,"
or tiilit's tilled with nnaled powder and capiied with composition, the tul»'
lorminv; .i train leadiie^ to the ehar<,'i', and the composition liein<r tired hv the
friciiiiii III a roiiLjh wire dr.iwn hrisklx throui;h it. I'ei'ciissioii and Irictioi.
liave Im'i'U in turn lai;;ely displaeeil hy the eieetrie ]ii'imer, whicli eoiisisl-
I'sseiitially of a tine wire, or •• iaidvje," passin;; thioiiLrh a lii:.;lily intiammalil"
mixture. The liridt;e o||er> a resistance to the eh-elrie current, is heated
therdiy. ij^nites tli mposition, and tiles the j;un.
The idder type of the ea»t iron sim'otli-lMU'c ^iin for solid shot reached its
ultimate devidopment in the <>S. pounder, wiiieh endured until the advptit ol
armor. In Isl'.t the system of liiin-^ shells loaded with t;uiipowder from
smooth-bore '..'uiis was sn-.j-jested hv tieneral I'aixhaiis. id )''raiiee, InlSL'l. '
it:
K\rinY
ti'uiiiiiiK- "■' Ix'i
i< IlllliilUlt ol I'll
• •ill," or widhIi'ii
liv rii|M' " liri'iM'li
ll, — 1111(1 Sfrltri'.l
I Imrsi* \h. ill till'
*to^
iiiil III) ^4i'4lltH iili'l
lilih titouc tliinl
III ri'lMiiiinU iiikI
, MilS fsM'lll iill \<>
aiiit'trr i>r rcil-lii'i
a.H iiuiilf I" l.oi'i
riii'iiiU's tliat oiii
.in iSlL'-lUli.'ii
lit tan I'll ligloi"'
4 JiA»*/»>»" **C/iil' 'Sin *wrp/»-Ai»» "tuitlr taatlir
is slniwii liy till'
iifss l>v ii l>riti>li
rrlili'. I'liirimiidiirp.
liiiiti'i'iis: —
)1<1 mil' as til ill',
iilil \i\sc the (Mf-
liattl'I'V. nr llinl''
w ri>iij,'lil a maul''
lirli'i'Iltll rrllllll\
ll ill llic I'lrili-li
11. Ill isnT tliii'
lull nr rulicUSsii'li.
Iiii'ii i'X|iliHi('il till'
I riisii nt till- :,M-
lvii-tioii-i>iiiui'rs."
icisiliiHI. tin' till"'
lirilli,' lili'il It.v til'-
isiuii iiml liii'tii'i.
IT. wliicli rimsist-"
i-lily iiillaiiiiiialil''
urii'iit. is iicati'l
' , — 1_
t:-!--— _ 1-
H.
zrw
^
null <'M(lrnt\lrcni^ five pjr iTim Rtjit. BrrrcX loadl^
% b!lESIEI
U S naval llCOpdr /Mn *yte arm:>i taaJtr
Wftftit teftmi. muiilt I Trnfy Mttl rat-^mt
It:. .
3
1 >li(it rt'aclu'il i'^
lutil till' atlvciit nt
','iiii]i<)\V(lt'r troiii
TAe Growth of Crdnanct
I'l.ATK V.
»■!.
I >"
7j mil Mriis .\.\h \\(i.\m:i;s or the .v;a"' cESTLiiY
was iiiti'iiilMi'i'il into iIk' i'lriuli navv, and aimiit l.S|i) into that ot tin- I'liii. il
Stall's. At Sin(i|pf. m ,n."i.'>. tln' tiiiililr rHVi-t i>l .slirll tin- u|>nn wouilfn rliijs
tartli'il till'
St a
pilil. v\l<"i a l;ii>.>iaii lli'i'l ili'>trn\iM| al>sn|iiifl\ II 'rmkisli \.
si'ls. w itii tliiir tmi'i III !<•<'•' nun.
'I'lir I'aixlians ;;iin \\a.-< nii>ilitici| anil
tiiini U'i|iri'\iil lis Ailnilial l>alii^;irn. I . S. N., ami in the lati' .'Mt'., tin- aiiiM-
nirnl — ilrsiyiiril li\ liHii -id I niti'd Stall's \i',ssrls \va> .Mi|M-ricir In that 'I
any iitlii'f in tin- wuild. Tin' '.*. 1 1, and I.Vini-ii i>alil;,'rrn> Icirnird llir Imlk ■!
our K'i'is aliiiat dnrini; tlic ( ivil \\ ai. llir ii'maindtT iM-ing aliuust wliolly »iti'>
III till' I'an'nll ty|ii'.
Tlir iTsi.stanri' w liirli >|ilirriial iiniji'dili's nii't linni tin' air. Ilii-if drviati •ii
ill Hii,'lil. iiwin^ III till' lri'i|Ui'iil lark id ciiini'iili'iiri' nl tlir ri'iitri's id' k'"'*''*'
and Imni. tlnii- i'Xi-i'ssi\i' •' winda'^r," and I In-ir In^lil \vri;,dil n'lati\i'ly In rali-
lii'i', li'd to till' ai|o|i|ion III till' I'illi'il i^'iin and tlic I'vlindriral iiriijrrtili'. Tin'
|irinii|iii' id ihc jornii'r — inakiiiL; tin' >lioi ;ici as a scrcwdKilt and tlii- Imiit as
a Mii'W -t lui'ad — i-' vrry old. llirrc ln'ini; at W'onlw jidi a liaiirl id llii> t\]iO
liiann',' dali' id i.-il". 'I'lif olijccis aiini'd at m ntliiii; an' to j^iM- a |ioinii'il
rylindi'iial sliot rotation on its axis lliat it may V.vv\i .steady liiiriii;; llit^lit,
and siToiidly, to oli<ain iniTi'asi'd \\rii,dit in tin- inoji'i't ili- liom il> rlon','.ii. d
lonn. As to tlic lattrr I'linsidrration. it nia\ lir noted I li.it tin- idd .'Il.'-iioini'i r
.siiioiitlidMiic Was id (i-imli ealilire, v.lnle ilie rniti'd ."^lati^ I'l-imli iillc nt
to-day throws a shot id Ino lli>, wei'^hl.
I''rani'i', dniini,' the ('liiiiean War. liion;,dil out the lii'-l heavy lilieil j,'ii!i.
In JSi'dt-Cd, Ai'iiistrmiu ritles were intiodni'ed in the Itrilisl, navy, 'riie lali.!,
ot l\rn|i|i mel ^ui'li Mieeess that al i'ari>. ill ISti". he exiiiliiled a ritle weij;li;ii.;
Tilt tons with a iMojeetile id Id.Sd |MMind>. The I'anoll lille wa> liroiiv,dit ..iit
aliont IS.'ttl in the Inited States, and wa* so developed that in l.sCrj it wa> iln'
most |>nwerl'iil \i\\\\. for it.s wei^jht and si/e. in ixistfiiee. The adnption "I
ritliiiu' was the lirst ;,'ii'iit slep nil the load w'liih eii^'ineerinu had laid tow. ml
the i-'i'iiwlh in jiower id iiiiMlern nrdnain'e.
Having thus .seeiired a iirojectile id ^'reat weiijlil and nioilirate ealil'ii'
whii'h w'oii'.d Wore tliroii^di tin- air a true |iath to tlie liisi.int mark, th 'ir
remained to seek Iml tour cliiet elements in the in.i^'nitii'<'nt advance m.iii'
wiiliin a iLjeni'ialion hy the naval artillery id our ila_\. These laetors wii-'
l>t Inereased strength in the inalirial of tlie ^iin. L'd. A niethiHl ol i n
strni'tion wliieli wmdd not only |n'rniil eiiormons |ni'ssiiris in the |io\\ciei-
ehamliiT, Imt would make possilile the eonlinnons ai leratioii of the |ii-ojei!ilc'
during its passaui' ihioni;h the hoie. .'Id. .\n explosive whieli wouM satidv
the Mlijeets id the method of ('oli--l I'Uet loii ; and. Itli. A system of loail !i,'
wliii'h would enalile :.,'iins of jjreat leie^'tli to he eharjjed with ease. iln'
iiioinitiii>{ of ordnam f any wei^dit. its eontiol. ami it.s nipitl iimi fa ili-
liaiidliii'.,' Were lint minor matters ol eii'^'ineeriie.;.
In a paper smh as this, ol limited len;.;tli and addressed to !ay:ui'ii, r '.^
jMissiltle to ^.'ive liiit a K'laiii'e at tlie proj-n'ss in X\w vurioiiH olt'iiitMits of -:ii!i-
eoiistrui'tioii wliii'h have lieen noted. < )f material, little need 1h> said. Ili"
ille id ('lime, in days wasa easidro". pieee; I'arrott oidiianeo was ol east imI
wroiiijlit iron; and tin first .Vrinstroii^ ^iiii was hiiilt of wroiiKld ii'»l> 'H'l
steed, ('list and eompoiiid materials, however, have vanislied with the i i-t
Stefd — hardened and toui^dielied lo the List di'i;ree li\ ever\ retinelnel III
[innfardiire - foriiLS the " reeking; tulie" Im tlie"iioii sliard "' of the
111
lUl V ,S close,
CESTUnV
Tin: cKsri nvs amima I'Hohukss
7ft
. tliat t>l till' I'liit' d
ll|Mi|| WoiilllMI sllll'H
cly 1 1 'riiikisli V. ,.
as iiiMilillt'il mill N
' lull' rii>\ till- aril ,1-
Mi|ii'i'iiM' til tlial "f
Inn I till' Ixilk >!
aliiiiist wlmlly litl' >
■ air. tlii'ir tli'\ iaii'ii
V fviitrcs III ^'ra\ nv
lit iflativi'ly til ,',, Il-
eal lirnjri'tilf. 'I ill'
Imlt ai|i| till- liili' ,l>
liaml lit llii> 1^ !'•'
I'c 111 i^ivf a iiiM!:'' ■!
tfaily ilmiii:.,' Ili'.lct.
• Iriiiii \\- fl(iii),'aii'il
t till' (lid :!L'-|Hiiiiiiii'r
lati'^ (iimli lilli' nf
v| licavy rilifil :.,'iiii,
.1, navy. 'I'ln' laii' :•
nti'il a ritlr wi-ii^ii n,'
ilii- \va> lii'ini.nlil "lit
at ill !•*<<■>- it «:•- '•"•
'. 'I'll!' ailu|.tiiiii "I
I'ilij; li III laitl tuw.inl |
ml iiHHlriati' caliiii'i'
(liht.iiit mark, tlnu'
iiii'i'iit ailvaiicf iiiaili'
TIh'm' lai'liirs wtn*:
1. \ llictllllll 111 I'lll'
aiii'N ill tlif iiiiwiliT-
ilimi III till- iiriiji'i'iili'
wliifli winiM hati^fy
\ systt'iii of Itiailiii),'
;'i'il vvitli ciiHi". Tlu'
its liipiil mill la iK-
•hhimI to iiiyiui'ii. I >
mils olcini'iils of ni-
I' lu'i'il Ik- saiil. 1 1"'
iiaiico was ol cast iIhI
of \vriiii),'lit irmi H'l
niisla'il witli till' I 1-^'
y i'v«'ry rctiiM'iiu'ii n'
11 shanl " of till' -11
r
\v ini't iim
I III I'rll'^tllli'tliill IS tln'
!iiiill-iili" in'iii'i'.-^s, ^liiiwii li\ till' pai'lial
si'cliiiii nil I'latr \'.,llii' liaiii'l lii'iii« I't'iiiforciMl liy tiiU's wliirli art- sluiiiiU on
■ likr t III' till' of a V. a;.,'i)n-wliiTl — so as In |ii'(iiliiri' initial i'iini|iii-ssiiin. Tln'
1 \|ilii^iiiii ill till' |io\vili'r rlianilirr .strains ami t'\|iaiiiis li'iiijiiiraiil\ llif liani'l.
ami till' a|i|iiii'atiiiii ol tlir slirinka'^i- |ii'ini'i|ili' ciialilivs a portion cil the
sUi'ii^ili I'l till' mill's til III- ('iii|iliiyi'il ill |iii'liniiiiary iiiti'iiial |irt'ssiin'. 'riic
liallrl llllis sll|i|iiil'!i'i| ran 1m' sllailinl li.\ tin' cliai'j,'!', lint nIlls In it'' own liiiiil
iilsal "Iv. lint loan aildilioiial ainonni iMjiial to this initial t'iiiii|irt's.sion. TIn'
all si' t'l, linilt-ii|' i,'iiii lias a |iossilili' rival in wiii'-woninl oiilnaiirc. a sy.simi
li ii'|ilaii'.-« till' liilirs, to a v;i'rati'r or ll•s^ cxtrnl, !>y la\rrs of wire, woiiihI
Ullll'i
wliilt' 111 li'iision ai'oiinil tlu' liarirl.
I'iivmIit is the soul of till' .1,'nii : it traiisliuni.-. tin' liii^'i> ini'rl ina-s intu a
llaiiiiii^' I'lijiiiM' of ili'atli. 'I'lll' ^ii'al ili'Vi'lii|init'nt of fxpliisivi's lii'>,'aii Imt a
Till' I'l'siarrlii's ol liiiiiins ami Itiinilui'il in tin' I ist I'ciitiirv.
i;i'iii'ralioii siiifv,
ami nf iliittoii ill till' ilavvii of tliis, lunm'il llii' worlil's kmiwlcil^'f nl ihr ^miii's
iiili'Viial liallislit's until llir year l>>7", Tn tin- p-niiis nl Nolili' ami .Mn'l is
illli- till' sliliillliis til i,M'ii\vlli silirr iIh'Ii. 'I'Ih'
ll.'I'S I
lavi'
'|it
Willi
i,'iiii-t'(iiiNUiiriinn in its atlvaiirc. 'I'lii' imnasi'il .>tri'nuili of tlic clianiln'i lias
Im'cii iiii'I liy lifaviiT ainl slow-liiiinin^j >'liarj<i's — I'lima, brown pri.siiiaiii'. am!
till- iiki' — vvliii'li liavi' ^'ivi'ii not only ^n-ati-r initi.ii M'lm'iiy. Imi a roniinnoiis
ari'i'li'ialinii llirmi^'li Imics wIiom- maxiniuni li'iiytli li;is rxi'i'i'ilnl 17 fi'i'l.
Iiiilii'il. Ill llir |ii'iM|iii'lion of this lin^'i'i'iii^' rniiilnistioii is iliir tlif ;;n>al liinar
liiiii'iisiiiii ami |Hi\M
iliTI
1 ''iin-".
Initi;
II |i
'llir liail its limit ; ailv:im
lay I'lily in tin: huli.si'nui'iit aci'i'leruliua yivi-u by late it{iiillim ol ii iiortimi
• >l Ihi'
liai'Ui'.
(i'liilH.wili'r. liiiwi'Vi-r. afti'i' a ifi'^-n of nioii' lliaii tlvi- liiimli'i'd years, lias been
ili'tlii'i'iii'i
■r\
\ lllallinl|'< sail |ielte i
I till' iiiniik, Willi its allies, eliarenal
ami Mil|i|iiir, \ lelds imw In niim eiini|ii.mii|s. whii-li priiiin -e nnt mily far
,'ii'ali'i' iiii'i,'V, but are as well snmk
riie sea-li'4lits 111 iiiir war willi
Spain saw till' last ninlenilin^' lle.'ts In be wiappeil in a elmiil. lin^eiin^ and
lialltill^Mil tlii'irnwii niaklle^ ( 'niillle.one nl lliese enni|Hi|inds ill Use abl'nad.
il-
ls prepaii'il III loiii;
new sliiiikeless "pnWiler
liniii di-iiiirni'i'lhilnse and nilio->;l_\ei'iini'. 'I'lie
if till' i inled ."^tall's ' ivy is made lioni nitrn-
i'liiilose ili>solved ill ellnr aleolini. I''r.inee was ibe lii'st in i'm|ilnyiii^
e\|i|>isives Mieli as tliese. wliieli. Ill lliell' nrieiisive alld lat'tleal ail\ aill,l!,-i's.
Iiirill iille III the silj'lial tlilllnplls n! Ilie eeiilHiv's last \eals.
Till' ImiK ;,'nn n| niiidern days is nl m ssi!\ breeeli |nadin>{. Tlic dovtdop-
laeiii III (iilier elements j^ave, as a I'l'siillain. ','reat leiiijtii ; and lliis. in turn.
r'i|iiiriil a svsteiii nf eliar>,'inv! wliieli wmild permit pmleelinn lor tlie men
^v)llll• Inailiii)^, and would ob\iate th)' inloleiablc iin'onveiiii'iiee nf lanimiiiK
liiiiuc pmvdor and shot in a Imi'.,' mii/'/lediiader — an npeialion wlneli was, in
l.l'l. illlpnssibli; Iwyiiml a eerlain limit o| len>,'tll. 'I'lie aihoeales nl llie nlder
I imstriii'iinii, espi'ciaUy in Kn|,daiid, iir;;ei| Inii),' and cariieslly its simplieily
Hill tin superior sfri'ii^jlli of a solid brcc'eli ; but tlie lnj;ie 1)1 events was
I liiisf tiieiii, and Ilif bieei'lidnader Willi a I'omplete irinmpli. It is worthy
'I' that it, like rilliiii,' and the prineiple nf buihliiiK' up, was but a revival.
Ill the warship .Mary l{ose, sunk in I.Vb'i in ailioii oil .Spiiliead, tln'ie were
'Vi led in |h;I('. a number of |i,niiis, .smne o| whieh are nf wmn^ilit iron,
li'iill !i|i ami bieeclidoadiiiK'. 'Ihere are in use lw(( methods of closiiiK' the
I'
li
7G
TiiiUMi'iis AM) noyjfhiis or rm-: a/a'" rEsiiuv
liiiccli wlii'ii tlif i;mi i> Inmli'il tiuiii llic ri'ar. In l"ii iirli. l'',iij,'lisli, auil
Aiiifricim iiidiiaiicc ;iii asial >ricu-|ilii-,' is iiiMiicd ; in ilif l\rn|iii >\ >ti in .i
I'viindi'ii-i'iisnial ic, lufrcli-lilnck >li(|t's in a linri/imt.il n|icnin.;cni across tin'
lime. 'I'lic liiiiiii'r. HI inti'nii|itiil srit-w nu'iliaiii>ni. was lirsi set ioiili in tin"
IJnitcil Stall's" |.ati'nl I'l l.sl'.l t.i ( 'hanilHTs.
Ill iniiji'rt ill's till' ti'iiili'iifV lit till' nii'ili'iii (Til has Im-i'm tciwanN -.iiniililii a-
timi. ISai'-slmt. I'liain-slmt, ami ;^'ra|>c liavi- ilisa|i|H'ai'i'il. wiiili' raiiisti'i ami
siiiiil sliut, ail' lii'i-niiiiiivc iiiisi'ii'li'. Tlii'ii' ii'iiiain s1iim|iiii'I as llu' •• man-
killi-r" III' llii-^ a ■_;<•. ami i'S,|ilii.-ivi' sin '11. ilirii'ii'iilMli'ii int., ai iiiiir-|>ii'iriny ami
flial Inr allai'k nil iiiiariiinii'il stnirlnii's. I.iriili'iiani >lira|im'l. I'l 17'.Mi. in.
vi'iiii'il till' |iiii|i'i'!ili' w liirli lii'ais liis naiiH'. In it> nimli'in Ikiiii. ii rniisists
lit a sti'i'l I'asi' riiiitainiii!.; Icail nr ii'mi lialls ami a li^'lit liui'^tiii'; cliar^i' nl'
piiwdi'i'. i.uniti'il liy a liini-liisi' rariiril in the iii-ad. Tliis [nnji'i'tili' is iin f
toriiiiilalili' ai^aiiist Imdii's oj nun. Imats. and llir I'liiltrasiiri's i>t' I'm'ts. siini',
wlirii it is rii|itiii'cd, tlir lialls ;iii' dis|i('i'S('ii. cuM'iiii;.; a widi- aira.
Till' iisi' Iff i'X|iliisivi' siirji ill liii,'li-aii:4li' disrliar;^'i' dates liaek tn tlir litti'rnili
eeiilnrv. l'"riiiii raixliaiis' wiirks. •• l.a Nmivelle Aiiiie." imlilislied in iS'Ji,
caiiii' till' stiiniiliis tn its di'Ve|ii|iiiient and li> its deadly service, in mir tiiin',
ill Innizniital lire. Tin' •• I'nniiiinii .-lull" tm- tlie I'liiteil States l.'Uiiieli ntle
is iiiadi' lit t'iiri,'eil steel, wei'^lis lino |iiiiiiids, and lariies within it a liiusliiii,'
ehar'.,'!' Ill' ."id |iiiiiiiils III |iii\vi|ei-. i'^iiiii'd liv a iieri'iissinn tiise set ill its Im-i'.
It will |ieiii'trati' (i nr 7 iin-lies nt aiiiim- and then eX|i|iiili' within the >li;ii.
The I'liited States •• ariiiiir-|iiei'i'iiii; shell '" is inaniilaetiiied tnun eriieilile sti el,
allnyeil with ehlnlililini : it is telii|iel'ed In extielile haidliess at the |iiiilit.
wiiieli can' s a <a|i nl sntt nn'lal. The tiiiictinii id the latter wmihl aiipear
to lie thai of a sil|i|iiirt tn the shuill'li'l- lit the IHiijectile s a llllnicilil
theretn. since, will I il a|i. the shell is lunkeii or detiiriiH , in the att.ck
nil arninr nf suitace haidiiieil steel. Tn resist the crnsliiiiv' stfaili in its pass-
ai;e lliiuiit,'h inassi\e plale. the walls nl this shell iinist Iw sn thick tiiaf in'
ehai'irc lit' ;,'iin|inwilei- will Imist it. Hence, as a rule, the shell is tinil
lllllnaded. altlinlli^ll licelitiy tlnre have 1 II adi'iited tn snine exteli; lilii-t-
iiiU' chalices id sniiie lii'.;li exiilusive. sinh as 1,'mi-iiittiiii. jnxeite. nr |iii Ill-
acid.
Ill ciiisiii;.,' this lirii't review 111 liie |irnL;ress nj nrdnaine. iml |iassiiii; iii' ii-
tinii can lie ii;adi' nl matters minir. Iml in tlii'iii>i'lvi's nl iiiiiili iia|iiirtaii •
(iiiii rarriaires. ni' mniints. are iinw intricate niechanisiiis, ]iractically thewli".''
servi •!' Ill lar'.,'e niileaiicc lieiic,' iicrrnrmed liy electric and liydiaiilic iiiacliin-
ery. The rapid tire |iriiici|ili' h is lieeii exlemled tn |iii'ees nt (iiiicli cali'.'ic,
and liids lair in pass lie\iinil thai limit. Its success in increasiic^ lar-^'eK ' i'
niiiuliei nl shuts within a '^ivin time lies in s|ii'iial liieeeh-lilncks. aiiiiiii!,' dc
vices, and |iri'|iaieil cartriil'.4es. Machine '.^iims nt ritle-calilne. pari !y or w h> 'Iv
ail.nmatic, Iia\i' lieell sn devi'lnpiil as tn he capalile nl tirihif I'.'dO rnliniN ] ■ 1
iiiiniile. The dischar'.,'e nt hijjh explosives in lar!,'e ipiantity w;i.s pttVci-il
with success liv the I'liited States steailier Vesuvi
iitT Santiago. T
tcrpedn-i^'iiii atinat. Imwcver, wniild appe.ir to he still in a tentative
ditinii.
\ lirief lapse iiiln icchiiieal leniis nny he permitted in siiniiiiariziii'^- 'ln'
tiiin's i;rnwlli in pnwcr. The term •• inu/zle ciuMi^y " is iised to descrilie :iii'
Wnik which the plniectile is e.lpalile ot pcrfol'inini,' when it leaves the hell'.
ih.M rny
iii'li. Kiij,'lisli, ami
«• Ixiiiiip systfiii a
1111:4 flit across llif
rst set lortli in llii>
tiiwanl^ >imi>lirna-
vliili' (•alii>I('r ami
III'! a> tlu' •• mail-
aniiiir-iiii'iciii;,' ami
a|iiii'l. in IT'.m;. ill-
ill lllllll. It l'llll>l--'-i
l)iiistiii'< cliarj^f I't
pnijci'l ill' is III I
ii'i's (it torts, siiiii",
Ic aii'a.
lack to till' tiltcciiili
imlilislii'il in ls".'l.
civifc. in I'ur lini'',
Siatrs l.">-iiicli nlli'
iviliiin it a l)iir>tiii!,'
I'lix' si't in its lia^i".
li' williiii lilt' sliiii.
lllllll rrncililc stt I'l,
iliif>s at tin- iiniiit.
lalti-r wiiiild a|i|iiar
c. «!' is a luliiic lilt
run . in tlic altarli
•_' strain in its pa^s-
)(• so thick tliat 111'
till- slicU is tiii'il
.nine extent liiii^t-
. jiiVriti', 111' liiilH'
lull passiiii,' iii'ii-
iiiiii'ii iiiijMirtaiKi'.
iractiiMlly tlic wlu'lr
I liytliaiiiic iiiacliiii-
■s of (liiidi caiil'ic.
■rcasinv; lar^'cK iln'
i-liliicks. aiiuiii'4 'I'-
lie. |iari!y or '.vii' Mv
1,1,' !•_'(»(( idunils 11
antity was cITni'il
i|V Saiitiat,'!!. 'lit'-
in a tentative <■. a-
-^iiiiiiiiari/iii'-; ''i''
iM'il ti) (leserilie : in'
it leaves till' 111'!''.
////•; r/;.v/7 7M.v .v.ir.i/. ri:()(;i:h:ss
77
ll IS eXlil'e>seil 111 tunt -lulls, i.e.. tile nilllilier nt tiilis wiiiili the energy sliU'cil
in llie >li"l wii'.ilil lit' '" ii lici!L,'iil ni line iiint. The li^'ures as In this jnr the
t'llie century's bc^innin;,', Inr liie I'liiliii States j.'l-inch ritle ami
II lull Kii'^lish f,'nn. are, res|ieclively. lilJ. .'l.'S.iiL'". anil ."ii.fl'.Hi toot-
.■iL,'-|iiiiiniii'r II
till ill!
tons. .Viiain. the riiiiml
till' a
.hi.t ti
Dili the .'!L'-|iiiniiili'l' li.st lllllll i.ic resistance i
if
if. in a l'aii;,'e nl IL'IIO yanls. 7<> |ier lelit nl its cllelj^y ; wilile l!li> liiss,
uillillie I'liili'il States l.">-ilicli. in a laliL;!- nl IHIHI \ aids, is hut II per cent.
I'liialU . ir t lie casl-iri'ii simt nl t lie ."L'-jiniinilcr were lireil ay:ainst ai'iii(>i'-|ilati',
11 wiiiiiil lnse. in lireakini,' itsell iiji. 1\mi t hinls ul its reinainiii;.; cnei'Lry. leav iiig
at l-itlt vanls hut ."il loot-tuns hir elTectivc wnrk ; while with tlie niinlcni
,11 liiiil'-liicn'ili;.; shell tiie entire enel';-;y left at theel.il ni the raiiu'e is cx|itnileil
ii|Hiii the ainiiii'-jiiate.
ll uill he seen then that tlic iniiiieasiirahlc sn|icriiirily ol niiKlcin iiiins is
hiitli III their j^rcat increase i.i eiieri^y ainl In their wiser ilis|iiisit inn of
t\\\ III'.
Ihat utile
'11 attaiiieii. 'I'he 14:1111 lias iiiainlaiiieil hilly iluiiii^' the I'cn-
!iir\ its |iniii.icy MinoiiL,' naval wcajioiis. It is true that, in tlienry ami nn
jiaiiii. lis .sii|ireiiiacy has at times lieeii i|iiestii>neil ; hut as to ils two rivals,
till' lain woiilil seem to he rather the \vi'a|iiin ol aceiileiit than action, ami iliti
ii.iliiiln has \ei In .-riiie ill hattlc af^aiiisl ships i-i iiintion. while the prt'cision,
i;'liiilit\. anil power nl the ;,'nii i,'rnw more ileinlly with every passiii;.,' year.
\i. riii: i>i:vi:i.o|'mi;nt oi' .MiMois.
.Viiimr .iiiil the Ljiin are natiifal ami now hcieilitaiy Iocs 'I'he iiimlion of
the line is In rcsi>l. that nf the ntlni e\er to attack. Since the he,!,'iiiiiiii}4 of
tile iiiiiili'iii era in navies, there has iiccn ceaseless strife foi' mastery ho-
tueeii tlice I w ii elements of Warship ilcsiifii, the film cvci' hccomiiii; nior'a
jH'Wiitiil. ami I he anmir — at tii>t thiiiiij.;h ixrowiiij; thickness ami later
tliiiiu;.,'li iiiiprnveil inatci'ial — opposiiii; a steailily more stnhhorn front.
'I'll!' nllirial report of an i''iii,'lish comiiiitlee niaile in the year 1S(>(I states
tliat.—
" N'cssiU 1-lntlicil in rnlliil-iroii plates of four ami a hall indies' thickness
arc til all piacliiahle purposes invnlnerahlc at;aiiist any projectile that can he
hinii-lii tn hear a^'ainst lliciu at any taii},'!'."
Till' aihaiicc which forty years have seen may he shown hytlie sin.ijle statc-
iiniit tli.it the Kmpp l."i.?-incli },'iiii ilcvelops siiHicient i iit'r;,'y to |ieni'tiatc at
till' imi//|e 17 inches of w roii;^ht iron. 'I'lic halllcship is at hest Imt a series
j lit luiiipiniiiiM's. each lactnr of tile st I'lictiiie yiehliiiv; or ifiowin^ as the skill
Ol' wliiiii nl her ilesi;,'iier may iiiilicate. In the present staue nf this iiiiceas-
iii',' cliain,'!', IliL' ^1111 wiiiilil appear to lie the victor, ami the power of this
iiii'-rlily l.'Vj-tiin rjHc seems scareeh iiecilci' on the sea. 'I'he ilistiic^iiishcil
cliiel III niiliiaiice of the liiiteil Slates navy, in his annual report for IS'IS,
.says: —
" I he ili'M'liipiiient nf tile I'J-iiich '^iiii has lii'c!! so Krcat ami its power
sii iiiiirli incieascil that the liiiican is of ii|iinioii that herealter it will he
till' iiiaNiiiiMiii calihi'c Ihat it will he ailvisahle to install on future hattle
-'lii|i>."
\\itl; aiiunr. as with the torpcilo. the talent of Kiirope leapeil where the
'^^'iiiiis of .\iiicri('a had sown, .lohn Stevens of New .lerscy was the (irst
Mivcntiir of mnilern times to sn',"4e>t the application of ainmr to a tlnatiiii;
1 :1
:i
^
1
i:
;!•
i'
n .
k ;
1
■1
!'
1
!'
;
ihi
U/arrtOi'
i
1859
9gOO
1861
ftfonareh
1866
J "" ^
1867
Qudaciott,» SM
J *o/o ^
1869
B^lll IIIIH II
',f'[,
dtaitantl
1873 . .
PrATJ. VI. TIIK ni»*THIHI*TU»N OK AllMOR.
1874
In/UnbU
-S
<T.
m -L
tttto
C»llirtgytao4 ■
-^
1880
°^'<J_Ji --^-S.
^^£^;<;r«^«a?7glfegi . — ^<#.
9SOO
3
Tmfal§aT
1886
^a>«afic
1894
^ ■ < ■■■ -i fci < i V7rf ( , I I r
. 07nMwt
1897
^^f^ ifwi^ . nm.....
f»»SO
ri.ATK VII rilK lU-TUnil TItiN OK AltMOII
•t^Mi
m
rit/iMrii < AM> MOMihus or hie a/.V" cKsrrny
*.*y^
lialtiTV. Ill> |ll.lll^ I MM in; >lllillllltr(l 1(1 I lie I'lllli'd St,itf.> i,'i I veil line 111 iltlMllJi tl
I to I-
I'illK
wur of |S|'.'. Tlii-y rrcrivfil. Iiouivi 1, nil M riiiiis iiiii.siili'niliini.ain
l'iirt\-t\vi> yrars lali-r, li-ll tin' Imiinr nt iillaiimij,' llir lii"! piai-tical ri'sull> in
I lie lillllilllli; )>t' iriilichlils. .Mrllllirl> <it llir S|.'M'Ii> laillilN . ImUi'MT, niMt illUi ,1
till- f\|>i*i'iiiii-iits III it> liiiiMiliT. iiiiiil li\ tlirvi'ai' INII lIu'V liail ili'trriniiit <|
till' tliii'l'
l\iii'-<> II
t null iirn-ssaiy tn nIiiji >|iliri'iral |iri>ii'rlili'> at |>iiiiit lihi
lair^r, ami tin- riiiii|iai'at ivr ri-si>tiiii; jinwi'
il irmi ami nak. TIu'm' ii-mi.
liil til an a|i|ii-ii|iriatiiiii liv ('niiyn ^n, in |S."i|. nj .sriltii.iHHi in liciiiii wmk ii|" n
ail iriiiirlaii. — tin- Sti'vrii> lialliTV . - ■ w liirli si'sm'I, liii\vr\rr, ih'MT li-it tin-
wa\N ami ua^ rvi'iitiially lunki'ii ii|i.
(trmral I'aixliaii^, wlm it'Siiliitinni/cil naval aitilliMV liy tlir iini'iitimi n|
tl"' lllitili'in sllrll, |i|ii|illi'>li'il. ill an nllirial li'ttrr tu llir |-'l'i'lirll ^iiMTIllin-Ilt III
INI'I. that til w iiriiji'i'! ill' \\iinli| juri'i' tin- rii-atinii nl ariinni'il >lii|is. In
IKII he it*riiiiiiii<'iiili'<l iiflii'iallv liir rintliiiii; nl' vi's>i'l> with inui armiM'. a> ;i
|iriiti'i'i'.iiii ai;aiii-t liisuwn iiii.s>ili's ; ami iii IS.V! Iiis wnnls nl wai'iiiii^' im't
i'iiiu|i|i'tr ami ti'iriMi- liillilliiii'iit in tin' aniiiliilalinii liv shrll l;iiii> nl iIh-
■n
II-* art Inn W a> t lir lllllliri
liat
I' t'aiiM' I
>l II
llllK
'riirki-^li fli'i't at Sinn|i(
'hirtinn lit animr in niniii'ni navio.
Till' id'ili^li ailniii illy, in Isl.'t, hail (|ii|ilii'ali >! iIh' Strvrii-^ rs|ii'nnii'iit>,
lisill;,' .; laiv,'rt nl' tl Jilati'S nl linilrr il'iill livi'tfll tn^ri'tll'T, wlllrll Ijavi' a tnl.il
tliirkiii's>> tit li UM'lir^ : aiiil i'\|ii'i'iiin'iit> mi laiiiinali-il |iiat iiii; li.nt U'cn a!-<n :iT
this tuiif f-ariiril nil at tiasii's. in |''i'am'i' In Isl'i |tii|iny ih- I.iiiim-, tii>'
laiiiiiiis naval arrliiti-i't. siilimitti'il In tin- I'li-iirh '^nvi'innii'iit tlir lii~!
riirn|M-aii ili'sit;!: Inr an ariiini'i-il I'liviati'. His |ilan
ami (illlv with till- nilllnrak iii thi' ( I
s Wi'li'
hnW
I'Vcr. I'l-jt't'li 'I.
inii'iiii
W
II '.\as lllf rnnsll'lli'tlnii i.|
ariiiiir.-il ^^'^. !> Iii'j,'iiii. (in ni'tnlicr 17. iS.Vi. thr thiri' l-'rinrh liattii
Wllirh WtTf till- first I'l'slllls n| till
||•^
s ni'W ili-|iarliii'i' went inln ai-tinii nil Km-
liiini. in till' t'riinea. silfiii-iii),' in Innr liniii-. Imts whii'h had In-hl at liay the
I'luiiiiiiiiil Ilii t.> nl Kn;,'laml ami i'laiii'i' Aiiiinr had wnii its first vii'tniy, ami
had slmwii innst «i;:iially its |insitinii asniK- nt ihriiiain lai'lnr> in tin- \vai>lii|i
tli'si),'ii (if tin- yi-ars whirli witi' In cnnii'.
Tln-M' vcxsids. wiili thiic similar iialti'iii's rniisi i iii'ii'd iiiiinrdiati-lv tlii'if-
aliir \>y tin- I'.iitish jfiiM-riinniil. wi-n- ilad with snlid iinn jilalis I.', iiirin's
tliK'k, liiirkfil liy -"ij iiiflii's III nak iii|>iuativ(' ••xin'riiiiiMits at X'inn'iiiu's,
!''i°anr<', hav iii'„' slinun thr marki'd sii|n'riiiiity nf snlid nvcr laiiiinati'd |ilatiii','.
Tl
|i'\ Wi'l'i', linwt'Vrr. in
lint
It a liin>l lim
ili'd
^I'l
isi' .•.i'a-;,'niiij{ slii|is. their
N|M'fd iiiiii ofher iiilfrinr i|iialitii's lii'in^; ladiral dilirfs as to this. Fi-iUirt* h'tl
ill a riiillni- advaiin . lH'j»iniiiiii; in iN.'iT and i'iiiii|i|i'tini; in I.S.V.I tin- traiisfnriii-
aliiin nf tin- wiwHlfii lini'-nf-fiMttIr shi|i Na|Mili'iiii inin Ihi- aiirnrcd vcsvl nt
.'iiMHi tuiw. \vlii«'li. a.s I,a ♦lUHrt*. w fanmns a- tin' iiisi si'a-i,'i«t«.i; 'Miiolad. »»h»'
f.iirii-d a stiak«- nf IJ-im-h |iiiiriiijr it \\\v w.w.v iii..-. nid '!i,-iii(M , 'atfs iu
u.ikr nf fhi' li.iltfn Kniilaiid -tiiswi-ifd the chalhii!,'!' t»f In-r liiM-cdilary !•#
with tin- WarrwH-. an mmhi v»'*mw1 of'UL'lO fmis. i'uiii|i|ftiMl in l.sril. Wliil*- Iht
rival ha<! a fully arinnrcW si<|i'. Imt Jtl,' < f tli. \N arrinr'> .'tSd liit .1 h-n tli
carrii'd |ilatiii;;. It.-. il»iiki.*'->s was |^ imh.'-^
At thf niitlin-ak ..f th<' Civil War Mi the riiit«>ii Stntt-s. tlii> )(<iv«>riiiii' nt
ai|i|Niiiit'-<i a sjM'iial iiu\al cnnniiittiT In M-|mrt ii|inn ly|M's nf irniii'lu<ls. TIh'
ri»i»i'!ii<.iiHM <»f this Imard air nf intfrist. in slmwint' flu- wtati' nl ari.Dt
ilfV«-l<>|tiii<Mit .it fhwf |i»T»«*l. Tin \ >i'i|iiiri'd inllid Millar nf »nli»| iron, w}. .^t-
?l
1%
.Miiimiit during' ti,.'
Iinii, ami to Kiiiii'
lii;icti('iil rt'suli- 11
liuufVfr. cuiitiiiw. .1
IfV liail lIl-tl'IIIIMn <1
;ilfs at |iiiiiit lila:.k
■ak. 'I'lifsi' rt'sii u
111 lic^'iii work up u
•viT, iifvcr It'll liii'
ly till- itivciitii'ii i.t
'iirli ^(ivrriiiiii'iit 111
ariiiiir<'tl slii|ts. In
nil null aiiirir. ■' i
Ills III waniiuj,' nut
sllfll liUllS t>l till-
1' caiisr ul tlir inl h-
i\rlis l'X|M-lilll''lil-,
, v\ liiili Ljavr a ti'Ial
iiij; liail Iwrii al->"> ;it
hl|iiiv ill' l.iiiin', I ill'
iVfiniiiiMit llif lii'-t
, liuWcViT. rrjfcli'il;
tin- I'linslnictitMi ul
!•(■ l-'ifiii'li liattiiK's
into aclinii <itl Kill-
had iu'lil al l.a.v llic
its lirst virion , ami
n'lms ill tlif war>lii|i
I iimiu'tliatily llnic-
riiii I. lairs \\ iin'lii'S
iin-iits at \ iiiri'iiiii^,
•V laiiiiiiati'il |ilatni|;.
liiijj; ships, tln'ir i"*'
< t(i thin. KriiiM""' Ifil
I 1S."»5» till' triiiisliMiii-
li»- anrut't'il vrsM'I i»f
i;(itti'_' '•iiiiclail. '^Iit'
ml 'l.iiicii j 'ut.s iu
rif htr htTcilitury f»#
111 Isr.l. Whih- lu-r
■- .■'.HO liM't .1 l.'Ii til
litis, thf p>v»'inni' lit
s nf inmi'lail.s. i I'**
i th#' irtati> of arnurf
! nf «<.!ul imn, wt^'W
Lit f Unity' tfntruft /^H?
^^r^IfllD
m\\\
tiv't > r. M/t t.ut'iifuitftl
f ' S .ihnttar 'fusaaii '.im 1 1< i n-i ./rmor
/"ii» lliii Lomitiatni
/.I//. ,,/./, (f.uji.tnj I /.I.V.
t 'I %i iiniM.lnru; Inn, .•>iiiuti,ii hfil
<l'
.
^^
x
^
\
$■
1
^::^'
""'""" * ■'"^ >'"■/ M.J H»>;*yr,l Mfiri J)|«^ Jol.d
ri UK VKI. TIIK (iHUWTir .>!• MlM.in.
te
rnu'Mi'iis AM) \\n.\mn:s or inh: xix" chMi /:)
iiiiiiii
tliii'kiu'ss \vii> I'. imli>'^. Kricssiurs Mmiitm. linwrviM. ran: I
Uniiiuifoxl |ilatinu' ti
•^M
li mil- ntM'li tliii
I'll
."( til •'■ lllclk»'S tlllik nil llfV low .^lilt's, illlil II l.i\i
JH-I' lilllrl. rili.s r'lll.'lllli-luni. wllirli till' dlllirlllt;
rl
in riir iiiaiii'
ilaflurr I'l xiliil jilali' "t-
"sitati'il. mail)' iIm- ii'i'tinl ot ciiiliiia:
III' t(lii« ty|»i' t'lir Iriuii h<mi(1. IIh' ilit.ii la\ niaiiilv wifli rastt'iiin;,' Im
wlm-'ii lii'okc IVi'niii'iitlv . llms liinNfiiiii;,' m ilrlacliiii',' llif .siili' ariiinr. ami i'
n'aii> "
I- lllll^ lit wlilcli, tls III)-' t'it' M nil \ iiili'iici- w lii'ii I 111' ai'iimr wa- ■<I riir
I; i.\
Mlint, U'l'anu' snilK-itdAiM' > tatal missiles anaiiwt ilmsr witliiii tli*- tiiiTfts, In i . n-
tl'lM«t Willi tins, till- lU'liavior nl tin* N'rw IninMiIrs, "•Inlln-d willi snliil aiiii' i,
WiiK most •■M-fllriit ><Im' was a i-as<-matf<l irum-lail dii^ati' \t illi iiiiai iiuh' i|
■owlMt'litT iilaliiiK vviiM #^ iiiolii«H tliick, ami iin'hm-il llii-iMiir|iiMil tlti- ■■itailil..it
■^tHkUftlf" i>f .'WV Imm tlkf (n'rjM'iiHifiilar, Km' two yais she wax .•.iiliirrtnl tu
|||K»'IIMwt •i-viMt' ti-st tlii#.«> wai'-M'sscI iiiii.^l im-iM. llif Ios.sIiil,' ami stiaiiiiii;; hI
HitiTlcLiili ,vnH\ ami Mh* lit'iv; '•'I'dcal "I closi' ai-tioii willi lorliliratimis. hi om-
• ' >iisla<m-tl diSiMiv a t^ltt a^iiiiist tlic i omiiiiii'tl liri> ot tlu' linl-i
.larliof. ainl, ,<*liiSUuit);li stiiicK 'ii Iht «itl<' anmu- sixtv Iihh'-.
i tit*' .itnijii;!*' iiiiliii*^ riif rt'i'oi'il hI ilii> sliiji is onf wliicli li' ■ ^
(•aiif* .►♦»< ■*!
IlDI
KM'
H
Til
IM<^t lit
11 two
ai'llior, w;i- . .-'.in.
most liiiiiti'il
;-.olat' III till' II
iiistaiKM* — w I'll
oil with tilt' liori/ ;iM! .iii.'it ii.
till' lilr ol till' ^I^^f^ito^ ; ,,i
liiM'll liscil in till' llrlirh >Hf
hct'ii (lilTcri'iit I'lvi TV lair
tlii'oii^rh till' ai'iiioi', anil >!ii\<'ii
Auain. tin' aiiiior of llif .Mlanui
witli till' •.nlcsoj tlici'iiaili'! inrlini' i
siiHii'ii'iitlv sfiniij;. w itii iln' lonm'v \r
I i.iiftnU'iiwv <liiiiii>; tills war. in tin- niattci nt
itli iron woiT'li alimist ii -^ wi-iijlrt in ;.'n|i!. amlwiili
laiiurai'tiirin'^. tli»'V \*^ -ih'ccciIi'iI in fon>trm'tiii};
iilr iroiK'luH.- >A iIm'II' ila* Tin- Mi'iriiiia"'. lor
liars. .ii an aii^h' of
,.■ to lii'i |ilatiiii; limi'
WljiT
■•fol'V WomIiI li;i\t'
irjt»' (»t' 'M llt.s. uf i^o
'I a -olc cuiitlil
s alMiiit ti>>' liatli
■\.il
<1. at .".I-
iril-
.Mill.
'1i
• • lattri flic .-
ill' liroUi' tlii'i
^ HI |ira' ■ ' ii**
•T of til'- II
1 1-iiirli |iriijri'tili' lircii with
shot )i arlicallya' llif iiiii/./h', .-It iiiiiiu'li the
('oIll|il('trl\ ill liot \i rasrs.
It is iinni'i'i'ssary to lollow in lirtail. tliroi!L,'h it-
ailvani'c o| iron aiiiior. Its •,'rowtli in stifiinlli.
(l('vcloi«'il. caiui' almost soh'ly Iroiti increase in thick • >'
its iiiaxiiiiiim w itii the Itritish InHexihle. i'oiii|ilcti'il - ■! i
t'i'om Hi to L'l inches of iron on her licit ami citadel. -<■ \<
ever, i.s disiiled and "samlwichcd " with wood, tliei-e heiiij. - :
skill, (» inches of teak, tlnn |'J inches iro!i. II inches teak, aim '<
inch |ilatc. .\s ariiioi', iron icccivcij ils death-hlow in the laiin >.
S|M'zia. Ital.\. during' tie' aiitniiiii oi |H7(i. when the ItHi-toii k'ih. with *
cliai'!,'!'. at a laiiKcol l<i(l yanls, attacked .solid and •• sandwich" tuifjei <>1
tar);;ets of steel — the sini^le or a};K''''K"''' tliickiicss ol' niiiaJ
iron ami si
ill each c;
desire to I.
woi
Steel
jK'zia III
;ioll
in^ -L' inches. These trials were nmlerlakeii tliroiif^h Italv's
II the Diiilio and Uamlolo, the most lormidahlc vessels all' it.
iv. a!nl the roar c! that iiiif,'hty f^iiii, tlmiideriiifj from lit'
siiuiiilcii till' knell of iron armor, dejirived the as ft
ml,
rA'.v ///;»■
■////•; (i:\rri! Y's xtvu. /'iiimiiHss
M
linwrvi'l'. I'iini •!
ICS, illlll 1 I 1 l\>
ell till- illlliriiil ^
curd nl I'liilm;!! •■
li laHtfiiin;; ImiI ,
<|i' iiitiiiir. iinil I '!•■
•umr w;ir ^Inirk l'\
iif liiricts. Ill !■• II-
willi Miliil ;inii"r,
I' witli iiiinriii i|
mill till' i-itaili-l..it.
!• \\;|S >l|llilTtl'll III
IIL! :tii)i >tr:iiiiiii'^ <>t
'itiratioiis. Ill oil)'
ii'tl firi' ot tilt' I'liit-;
niiinr >ixlv tiiip .
IS (ilir W llii'll li' ' ,
, ill tin- iiiatliT I'l
it ill hkU\. aiul Willi
ji-rl ill I'ltiiwtnii-tiMK
rin- .Mi'ii'iiiiar. i'>r
ar>. irf all aii^l'' "f
to liiT |ilat'iiiK lii'ii'
I .Ml llis. Ill' |*i>\V(lcr
iDifrfirv wo'ilii li:i\i'
;i Mill' riiimilf-ti'ly
II ! ..•• Iiatl<'r\-<l< !•!«.
h r> ■ mat
I'll '
I' ii'ii :y«v><ll
al
,it .VH»'>
artl>.
.Jl*
Im- lattfl
rlic .s,
■ill' iiiuki
1
1 ill-nil
■ I'll' '
h.'
\ I 1
III'
Ill
'I'l-
VCUf'li
.■-'
* 1 '1
1, Ml
nfi.''''Ai'<^f»r tit* '
, aii*l . ■ 'fftfv
lie lanii'ii- ••^»
HI Klin, witli .
iiiwicli " tarn»i
tliirkllt'SS of II!'
ki'ii thrill, ^li Itii'
ilalili' vcsst'ls all
uiiilt'iiiij; lidiii
|i'|irivi'<l tlif as
iif
,lll.lllUi
ill'Ct-SS,
lii'il liiHi'Xiiili' 111 I
111-
'I'liwii 111 iii\ iiliii'ralnlitv . and dfiiiaiidi'd,
Willi
rfVohitiiMi ill iIm' iMPinr iiiaiiiiiiU'Uiri' (il Kiiru|i
As .1 i'(iiii|iriiiiiis<'. ciiiiiiiiiiiiid ai Illlll', i, c, iinii tiici'd willi strii, liiraiiii' |i<'|i-
iilai tor a Iiiih-
it I
I ,>,lrf
•j;immiKs wr
lid, datiii;^' liark at least
t<» ill** y<'ar l.'^'i". I'Ih' lir^t iiri'l'i'rlrd i'ni'i|Hiiiiiil jilatr. iiiadr li\ I 'aiiiiiicl iSi
Cii,, 111 Kii'^laiid, wiiM lisii'd at Sliui'liiirs nrss in I.s77. It was ('iiiii|HiM'd uf
.'i iih'Im" <•( it'iiii wit li a l-iiii'li lari' III nIi-i'I: tlir iiuu licin^r raisi'd In a wcliliii^
Ili';ll .ilid till- llinlti'll ^ti'i'l |i>Mlli'd mi its lii|i. T
It liiat |iartiall,v fiim>il
ilii> i'iiiita<'t ta<'>', till' iwii iiii'lai> wni' iiiiirrd. and tin' rninliin.ii inn was as^iin-il
liv iiiiiiii'iiiali' riilliii<^'. < 'iiiii|iiiiinii |>la'.
I'laii^' III |.Si I Irmii nliMiiiily to
|Hi|iiiiai'it,v ; liy 1S7".* irmi .nnim- had iH't'oiiic ulMtilctr with |ir(i);i'<*ssivi- naval
|iii\M'i's, Mini, ill I.SSII, liutli i-iiiii|Miuiid ;ini! sti'i'l pliiti'^ had n','ii'hi"l snrli dcvi-1-
ii|i|ii('iit that llii'\ wrirrliiM- rivals. iIh- li'adin;; i'iiiii|irliluis Im-iii^' ( 'aiiiiiii'l in
Kii:;l.iiiil and Sidiin'idt'f in I'lanci'. St.cil. Iniwcvri. slnwlv lni'iii'd alii'ad diir'
III'.; ilir iirxl di-rade ; and. at its rlnsi', cniiipniind ainmr was iir.'tclirallv mil nf
tlif ran-. In stctd's viftnrv. its allnv with lurki'l. in niinnti' |iiii|iiiiiii.iis. has
iii;iti'ii,ill\ aidi'd : th •iiihinatinii iiii|iai-tiiiK hardiifsM uitlmiit <li'iM'i-asiii<,' the
iiiii|4liiif>> id' till' |ilat.«'. This niiitfiial yaxr Mqn'rinr it'siilts Irdin tin- ln'^in-
iinn;, it> liist |ilatf, tcsti-fl in liSS't. was !(\ inidii's tliiik; if was |ii<'iiM'd hv
Molt/
'ihidl, w'hiisi> lindv did nut |iass whnllv lliriiii'.,di and wIiuki' cidtuv
«ii< l.il iiiiii's that just iiiTi'ssarv In iifrtmati' a wriiiinlil-iitni platf id' tin-
•iiiiiH' iliirkiii's.s. In till' iiHii'asi'd >licnutli ,!,'ivfii hv iiifkcl thi'ii' has hi'i'ii
iiilili'il .1 liiilhcr ^{jiiii lliiniii;h till' aii|ilii'afinn nl rai'i'liaidfiiiiif,' |iini'i'SHi's —
>iirli as thill nf tin- Aiiifiiraii, llarvi'V — whirh |irndnn' Mi|ii'iti('ial raihnni/a-
linn, tniiishiiiiiiii^,' till* siirt'iiri' iiitn a liiwii uraih' nl mtx hard sti-i'l, wilhniit.
till' |>riini>iiiiri'i| |iliini> nt' driiiarratinii lictui'i'ii thr Iwn i|iialitirs id' iiu'tal. as
III tlii'Wflil lit till' i'niii|»nii!id |ilati'. A l«>j-iiii'h iiirkfl sti'i'l llarvi'vi/.i'd |iliili',
ti'-ti'ihii till' Indian llt-ad I niviiijj <lriiiiiids m ISU'J. slmwcil a str(n>,'th whii'li
M<'-. ■
i'l-V.'I
lli'IJH
ii'iiinr
' iiiid in'vi'f lii'i'ii iijiiah'd in tin' liislnrv id' aininr, and rslahlishcil
ir>lnin thi'\alin' "f thi' raci'-hanh'iiinK prnri'ss, which, hy varinim
:i|i|»licd In the iiick»»l-stt'el iilatin^ of to-day. 'I'lic distrihnlinii nf
lit Mil' dcvcln|inn'iii nf iiiii-'lcshiji I'l'iisi iiiclinii is shnwii hy the shaih'il
M'i'titiiis im f'latcs \'l and \'ll. ;m>i its irliitivf ihickncsscs, nii v
dwiiit; thi« j»i'(ijfn'ss. hy 1*1, itc VIIC
lllOlUi VL'hhl!
iH
t 1
■ >'lllt
ct 1
■ .M./rr
VI'l. ril'K HAM ^>' I' nit iMKl'llin,
•1 y«*ars ihc i.nii — thf fl*/i>r-«'«iy«!il •• hcak " nf the ^wift ^{alley
' \M';i|iun. With the iidvfiit nf sail-|in\vei'aiid the eni|il<iy-
\;illishei iniii the s«'a« ; lint tn |'ea|i|ii';ir wlieii the
' '11' ''; ..i'le |irn|Milsinn. Ill |. "S.V.I there \va^ hiiilt
! ,ii . sjiiir. — the tii'st iiindern ram. liritish
I I III lie VViirrinr dnwii, Ims alsn recn^ni/ed
ii. rfitul It U* UfrMtny ^ fuv'lni-. .odfhnii^h .i Inilinl' niie. ill the de>iKll of
'i .'h t^t^t-il.
■'^-'■■-*. hN(.r <^imti n^,vim4 t>f m'rvicc in ai-tinii, while in iuci-
h^jM! mumf tUiMi irtwe »|>)ialliii^ disaster. The imn-
xanti -iNMlr m Miitiiifftnn Itnads. in .March. I.S«i'_'. ti>«-
. „ , ^,^,^.1(1,^ Cinwti^i-land, whicl., niirlfr the '/.illstnt
'l«^M ' thiiiwW'i'in^r and cnsiyu ti^'Jng. Un July I'll,
¥
I
(I
! I
ii
A4
riULMi'iis AMI uo\iti:i:s oi- ////■; a/.v" cum lid
\st',lt, ■Imiim I III' :ii'liiiii oil III- i.-.|.itiil ot l.i>>a, III tlif Aili'i.itii', tin- Aiistiitii
llii^tliiii I'l-nliiiaiiil .Maxiiiiiliaii laiiiiiiiil tlic Italian aiiii>>irlait l{<- il' llai.i,
w hicli, with iiiaiiyor Ih-i- mini iimmi, naiik witli a .swittiii'x.s that t-hillnl tin- hln m|
i>r tlii)si> will) walriii'il. I.iki* tlii>, ill its Miil.irii lia'.'filv , wa^ llif )li'>irii<-li'>ii
1*1 till* Itiitinli lialtl>'.Hlii|i \'ii tmia li; Ikt fiiii>nit, tlir i aiiipcnlnw ii, i>H 'l'n|i< n,
Syria, in tlic ->uiiiiiii-i' Miiiii.,'lit dI a tliiiu* ilav in IH'.KI. The ram of tlic lati<r
vtn.M'l iMit a i|i')'|> ami iaial ^m^Ii in tin- \'ict<>i'ia. wiiicli within trii iiiinnto
tiinii'il liuttniii ii|i\\.iiil ami vM-nt iIuvmi, Imtv lii>>t. iH-aiin^' w ith lu-r .'SLII <itli<<i<>
and iiii'ii, wliiwi* iintaltciiii^ iliM'i|iiiiii> piv<' a lii-iuic s|ili>ml<ir to thcii iinl.
I>rs|iiti' tlu'si' iircasiniial iiisianri's ol' its ih-aillv imwcr, tin ram lii>lii> a si'cniiil-
at'\ plai'i- aiiiiiiiu na\al wi'a|iiiii>. 'I'm strike a niiMJi'iii Vf>M-l at liiKh .'<|h'i-iI
will i'i>i|iiii'c iniH)- than tin- ^kill nl tlit> swDiiUnian.
Till- tnr|ii'(li>. likf tlif irmnlail. was an Anniiraii inviiitinn, wliii>.c nf^'jiit
li\ till' I iiitiil Stitf* uitvi'innii'iil liinii;rhi iciiilinlinn wlifn this <li'aill\ riiyiiic
111 war in Istil ("..*» ilrstiovi'il not a li'
w wai'-vt'sst
Is H
yiii',' our fiaj,'.
ISllsIl
III'
ol t'linniM-tit'iit iliii'iti',' tin- ltr\n|iitinii a|)|>fai's tn havf invcntctl hotli the siil>-
iiiai'iiii> linat ami tin- niaiiii)- tiii'|i<'iln, th<- lalti-r lii-in!^ tii'*-)l liy ilnrk-wnrk.
I'liltoii al>o iiii-t Miri't'ss in .-iniilai' wmk iliiiin^' tin- |i<TiiMl fxtfiulin^' li'im
ISdj III Isli', All III the fh-niciits ol iiiiiilrin tiir|M'i|i. warlair. fxi'r|iti!i,'
till' IIM' II
I
t Ntf.ini, riiiii|ii'i'ssril ail', or cli-clririty a.-, a nintixf powtT. li.ul
K'I'll lllll
iiiriM\i-<l lis ihr I'.'irh il.'iwn ol tl
ii> ri'n:iir\ ,
mint'
ill.' t
Ml'Oriloi*^ M
Ol Ntationai\ (ritluT
i>iii' ilay arc |ii'artii'all\ ol' Imi two I'lasso : tin
•' hiiovaiit " or •• y;riiiiml," a> its |io>itiiiii in iIh- water liftiTiniiii's). ami il
aiitiiiiiiiiiilc. or •' lish " tiir|ii'i|ii. Tin' Iihiimm t\|ic is tiifil cithi-r li\ i'lo>ii
an rli'i'tiif rii'i'iiil in a >t ilinii mh simrf. or Ity tin- sliip iii-isfH in niiitai'l. ■.
in I'li'ctrir flosi
iMinii',' till- Civil War ihmiIv ihirtv vcssrls Wfi-r sin
mini's, ii>ii,ilh \NiMM|i'n liarn'is lilli'il with ','iiii|ii>\>iii'r ainl tiri'il li\ iiaulin^
lin
or »
low-1
iiiniiii'.' III-.I'
It
was a niim
'-ti.'I.l
ovi'l whirli
!••
lI'Ml'Jiit
»'liar;,'i'i| at Moliili' i'.a\, vvlii'ii \\r iitli'irij lus laimms natli am! wi-nt "inH
sjii'i'il ahi'ail," with till' ra>i'> ot llir loi'iiiiiat>'l\ ini|"iti'i>t tiir|M'cliM'N si liliu'^
till' llai'ltonrs liiittoiii ; it was a iiiiiii' whirli. it i> rlainn'il. sunk tin' .Maiii<':
ami it was a iiiiiii'-lii'M wliirli l\r|il Sainiison's liatllr>lii|is froni I'lili'iiiiir iln'
harlior uf ."saiit iM'.,'ii ilr (iilia. Tin' sl.it iniiarv tiir]Hili' is now rliar^fi-il "ilii
l,'llll roltoll or iitlii'l' lli.!,'ll r\|ilosivi'.
Till' ori};in of thr nio>.t |iidiiiiiii'iii nt llir aiitonioliili' torpiMhics is iliii' to
('a|itain !.ii|iiii'- nl thr All^tlian iiavv. ami its ili'Vi'Iii|iim'nt lioni l.Slil miw inl
to \\ hiti'hi'ail. an lln^'lisliniaii. it is a l'i^'ar-s|la|M'll siilinia
riiii' Vi'ssi'l tl'
II to t'.) imhi's niaxiiiiiiiii iliainctiM' ainl tfoiii I I to ]*.) Iict loii^'. wliirli
liiown Iroiii a torin'ilo-tiilif or unii witliiii tin' ^lii|i \>y rnmiin'ssi'il ,111
an ini|iiils(' rliar'.,'i> ot )4nii|i<i
ilir. Tw ill■^'l■ll'W i'ii','iin's coiitaini'il wiilnii
Its liiill, ami iliivi'ii liv i'oiii|>i'i'ssi'i| air stori-il in a ri'scrvuir thi'irin
it at alMiiil thirty knots s|m'«'i1 throiiyli an I'tlVitivi' r.in^ji' of (MHl yahl^
III it
s nosi' III' " war-iii-ail " tln-ir is rarrii'ij a lar;;f riiar^c of ^1111 r
III I nil
or iitlii'i' iii'^h i'\|iliisivi'. whii'h is tin-il hy i-ontart with tl m'lny's li ill.
It is proviili'il with Imth liori/ontal anil vi>rti'al riiili|i't>. tin' ih'|itli ot 1111-
ini'i'sion lii'iiii: ri'iriilatril hy iiitriiato niarliimry rontaini-d in tin' ••Italaini'-
rliaiiilirr." Till' W'iiiti'lii'ail lias a soiiii'wliat fdrniidahli' rival in tin- I'liili''!
.•stall's in till' tor|ii'do invi'iitrd hy Ki'ar Admiial liowfll. [' . S. N. lin'
aiitoiiioliili' torjM'do has iirvtr yi't scoii'd in liattli* against ships in iiiot 'ii.
!v%;i;:
THE cEyriiiys A.ir.iz, I'JiotmEss
w
li.itii'. ihf Aiistii.iii
Mii'lail !{•■ •!' iMiui,
iit rhillfil til.' IiI.'hI
was tin- tli">inii'iMii
KMilnWU, kII 'l'ri|" ii,
In- ram of tin- laiN r
aitlim trii luiiiiii.'x
Mtll 1HT .">-l nlll" l>
iMItlol' til tlli-il •ixl.
ram li<il>ls ■' hi'i'i<iii|.
I'.ssi'l at Imk'' •'l'''''l
it inn, wliiiM' iic>;l>(t
II tliis (Icaillv fiiKiiic
i.iii llaK'. r>ii>liin'll
I'liti'd iiotli tlif sill..
lili'll liV clnck-ttnlk.
iutl rxtfiiiliii^,' tmm
wallari'. cxi'i'iilllr,'
lllnlivc jMiWcr, li.nl
Till' |n||M'c|lll'v lli
III ^lalii'iiaix (I'itlitT
I'triiniiifsi. :iii«l llii'
I'll citlHT li\ rli'MIl),'
fisflt ill riiiitaiM, or
»'«si'ls wi'ii- Miiiik liv
ml tiivil l>y luiiiiiiiu'
<•!• wliicli Kairayiit
latli am! went ••lull
t tiir|ii'iliii's stiil;iiij{
•il. sunk tl.f Maim-;
•s irom niti-rin^r tin'
s now rliai'v'fil "itli
t<ir|H'(liii's is ihii' to
lit Iri'iii l'*«»J (inwiiil
I una li 111' vessel limii
teet Inlij:. wliii'li is
y enm|iressril aii i>r
es etiMtaineil wiiliiii
<iMV(ii! tlli'irill, ilnvi'
,iii-i' lit lltHl yanls.
liarv'e "t irun i-nttmi
til tl iH'iiiy's li ill.
•I-. till' (li'iitli 111 nil-
ni'il ill the •• lialiini'C-
• rival ill tin- rnili'il
.wi'U. r. S. N. ill.'
Hist sliips ill milt "II.
||.
I"
^iliiiii in tilt) naval wai'tar.* .i| tli.' tiiliin- is Mt iiiitix.il. Tlie one cer-
tainly is. that its lil.iw when stnt.-k li.tnie is alm.ist sni.'ly tatal t.> Hliip ami
ii.'W. Till' i|.'V.'lii|>mi'iit III til.' siilimarini' liiriii'iln-linat. wlmsc \\<'a|iiin i«i the
\\ ii;||'!ii'ail. lias in r.'r.-iit _\.'ars ii'c.'ivcil miirli atti'iitnui tlii'iuiKh tli.' IuImii-s ot
till' Aiiu'rican ll.illami aii.l uth.'rs. Kiance, in tin- (iitstavns /e.le, ol' I'lill
ti'iis, lias a .living' Imat nl this rliaiarti'i', tnr wlii.-h niii.'h is i-laimeil.
VIII
I 111 I SI I III s| MK.s KI.KKi.
I'lilil ill.' ailv.'iif .it till' ii.iiii'lail. the shijis <il' the rnite.l Stat.'s were ei|iiiil,
It nil! Mi|ii'niir. in s.'.iwnrtliini'ss iml ti;.;htinK' i|>>aliti.'s tn any in tli.' wnrl.l.
Till' lii;,'li staiiilai'il si'i liy ili.' ('nn.-«littiti<in ami her class nl I7*.l7 was main-
t.iiiK'ii lnr >iM> _\i'ars; ami. i's|iii'iall\ ihiiiii'^' tli.' iii'iiml I'liim j.SKitn jHiiO,
il tliti'i's anil men nf tli.- I'liitt'il Stat.-s navy timl the .l.-eks nf the lin.'st
ships illiiat. 'riii'\ I'l'lt — as tli.'ir siieeessiii's leil — thal.tiiii fur tun ami k'I'h
jor '^'iiii. ilii'\ hail nil In.' tii lear. 'I'll.* .-arly steamers nf th.- rnwhatan elass
Imill III the lite Ill's w.'i'.' il credit In the natinii; the liv.' ser.-w rriy:at.'s nf
the Merriiiia.' typ.- ( IH"!**-.**?) amnseil th.- a.lniii'atimi ami imitati.ui nf fnreijfii
.•Xjiflls, ami till' liv.' .'nrv.'ttes which fnllnweil them in l.s."i.S-,V.I-(i(t, nf which
the imlilc llarttiuil was tl liief. Imri' their lull shar.- in the war which was
so Hiinii til cniiii'. The ^;allant Kcarsar^e wi'.s
liii.'.'il ill I.S.V.I.
liiiiiii),' the t'ivil War twn v.-ss.'ls, tli.' Mnnitm ami the N.'w Ii'.uisiih'H,
.i|i|icaii'il uliicli have I. 'It last iii^ trac.'s nil all liatth'ship .'niistriictinii since
their .lay. 'i'lic j;r.'at th-et nf iiiniiit.irs, •• tiii-ela.ls," ••',M|.i|ay ^iinlinals,"
••(liiiilile-ehijeis." aiiil the like, which |ii'ee.'(li'il ami fnllnw.'.! them tliiiin^^
tliiise ilaik v.'ars. s.-rv.'.l tli.'ir cniintry wi'll. With the .'mliiiK' <if that war,
ill the internal task nf recniistrii 'tiiui ami ileve|n|imeiit, mir iiiaiitiin.' {mwer
was ii.'ijl.'cteil ami niir fli'.'l I wimlleil away. Its fiiiiilMsnii-r ilates fmni
the a|iiiuiiiiiiii'iit nf the lirst Naval Aihismy jtnaril in .liiiie, I.SSl. 'I'll.'
;;rii\vtli since then has liceii sn iiiiich a matter nf national intcr.'st ami |iriil.'
that it iic'ils nil iletaili'il reciuintiiiK her.'; its r.-siilts liav.' been siimmari/eil
the leailer nf a new class iiiti'i-
iislv I
lelclll.
'I'lie scai,'iiinj,' |i.'r.sniin.'l nl th.' liiite.! ."states navy iiiclml.'s the line, meil-
nal, |iay, ami iiniriiie nflic.'rs. the elia|ilaiiis ami warrant ottieers — a total on
.March 1. IM.i'i, ,,f l.-iS'l. with an .'iilistcil f.-rce nf l7,l'Mi l.liit'-iackets ami
'.ir.i
I iiiariiiev.
The iiUicers whn serv
e nil s
Imre are the naval const riiclnr;
civi
i'ii','iiieei's, ami the |iriifessors of inatheiiiatit'S, a total of ('>'.>.
I.ii tli
eels are the cotninaml.'rs. navi^'atnrs, i,'imiii'rs. ami, hv r. nt
law. the eie^.jiie.'rs .if niir ships nf war. Marine njlicers have cliarn.' .if the
iMilit'iiii; nf s|ii|iK ami shore-stations iiml nl the i;niis nf li^;ht ealiltre iitlnal.
riie iluties nf the retiiaiiiiiii; nllicers ar.' imlicat.'il liy their titles. The titl.-s
"I lii Itiieis ami their r.-lative rank, as cimiiar.'il with that of ntlic.'is of tho
aiin\, are; —
MlMV.
.\illiiinil .
Ki'iii- Ailiiiirul
*';i|il;iiii . .
('iiiiiiiiiiiul.'r .
ITIll
l.ii'iitfimni ((minmiKU'r .Maji
Mii|iir nr Mrliru.li.r U.'iiiTiil.
Ccilllllll.
l.ieiiteiiant-Colonel.
IMAGE EVALUATK3)N
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
1.0
I.I
2.2
lit
12.0
m
IL25 1111114 ii.6
6"
I
7
'^
V
Sciences
Corporation
^\
'^,
<>
v\
23 WBT MAIN STRHT
WiBSTEII,N.Y. MSM
(716)t72-4S03
'^
Is
^
li
H*»3
I! ■■■!
86 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF Till-: XIX'" CENTURY
iJi'iiUfiiiint Ciiptaiii.
Lii'iiteijuiit Junior Grade First Lieut I'imiit.
Knsign Sl'CoikI Lit'Utt'imnt.
Line ami marine otHeers ami naval constructors are educated at the rnitcd
States Naval Academy ; all other officers are a])])ointed from civil lite. Tiic
Academ_v was founded in l.S4r»and is located at Annapolis, Md. The cotnse
comprises four years at the school and two years at sea on a naval vessel.
The ininiber of cadets at Annapolis is usually about 'JCtO.
It is by reason of wars that navies exist, and a few words as to our — now
liappily ended — conflict with Spain, may fitly close this review of imval pro-
gress. The military lessons of that struggle have been fully set forth Ijy
able writers. ^lore important, byfav, than these is its teaching as regard to
our state and future as a nation. The world has learned that the i)eoi)lc of
these United States are stirred still by the same stern and dauntless sjiirit
which, in Kevolution and Civil War. has made and ke])t us a nation. I'lir-
thermore, with one swift ,-,croke, the boumls which in theory and in territory
circumscribed u.s iiave been swept away, and the United States have passed
from a continental to a world power. This is not chance. It is but the leaii-
ing onward to a destiny whose sj»lemh)r we may not measure now, whose liglit
and peace and prosperity shall traverse a hemisphere. The one note of sad-
ness in it all is the memory of the gallant dead, of the heroes who fell that
this might be. To them, in C'td)a and the Philippines, Columljia — witli a
smile of pride and a sob of pain — drinks in the wine of tears to-day. as tlic
smoke of battle fades.
GKOKtiK Wali.A( K Mklvm.i.i:.
CENTURY
LLAt'K Mklvii.i.i:.
ASTRONOMY DURING THE CENTURY
ITS PROGRESS, ACI1IEVP:MEXTS, AND NOTABLE RESULTS
AsriioMiMv, tlie oldest of all the family of spiences, is not a whit behiiul
its sister hniiiclu's in activity of research and hrilliance of discovery. The
assiduity and zeal of its devotees are marvelous. The celestial field is so
wide, tiie dei)ths of space between the stars so vast, that no assurance eau
ever he j,nven to an astronomer that a lifetime of faithful and intelligent
research will be rewarded with even a single discovery of importance. In
this respect it (litters materially from other branches of science.
Nevertheless the j)atient labor of those who serve in its temple has rarely
failed to receive an adeipiate reward. The discovery made in August, 1877,
by Professor Asaj)li Hall, of Washington, that the planet Mars is attended
by two satellites, is a convincing illustration of this ])ecuharity of the pur-
suit of astronomy as a study. An indefatigable watcher of the skies for
many years, I'rofessor ILall, looking at this planet at its opposition in 1877,
when it was unusually near to the earth, was surprised to note two tiny
points of light qiiite close to it ; seeing them again the next evening, changed
iu their jiositions relative to Mars, it flashed ujwn him that the firm tradition
that Mars had no moons was now disproved. His name will be forever
associati.'d with these two bodies, Deimos and IMiobos, as their discoverer,
althougli they are but wee orbs, only seven miles in diameter.
I. ASTUONO.MY A ('KNTIKV A(iO.
The end of the eighteenth century found the Copernican theory of
astronomy well established, the ])rinciples laid down by Kepler and Newton
fully eliihorated, and the application of the higher mathematics to the needs
of astronomy complete, lint there were, as yet. no large telescopes, and
observatories were few. In CJevmany, a great dis])osition to make observa-
tions in this science and in meteorology was displayed in 1783 and for a few-
years following, and the records then made have proved of much value in
contiriiiiiig discoveries announced at later periods.
Wiicn Sir William Herschcl, on INIarch l.S, 1781, poinled out a little star
ill the coiistellatiou of the Twins, and found that it had a jjcrceptible disk
and a slight motion, and was therefore not a star, but a newly found planet,
to wiiicli the name Uranus was soim given, a careful insi)ection of the note-
books ol' previous observers showed that Uranus had been observed and
ri'i'ordi'il as a fixed star on twenty ])revious occasions in that centurj'. One
man liad seen it twelve times, and made his record of it on a paper bag jnir-
cliased at a perfumer's. Had he been a man of sufficient order and method
to have jicnned what he saw on the regular recor "s of his observatory, to
him Would have come the glory of the great discovery of that century.
i?'!
^
88 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY
II. now " bodk's law " promoted reseakch.
An erroneous guess, if it is a good guess, sometimes produces excellent-
results. In 1778, ISode, of I>erlin, published a "law" that states the dis-
tances of the various planets from the sun. It is often expressed simply in
this way : Set down 4, and add to it successively the numbers 3, 0, lU, 24,
etc., and the sums obtained, viz., 4, 7, 10, 16, L'S, etc., represent the relative
distances of all the planets from the sun, viz., Jlercury 4, Venus 7, Earth 10,
Mars 1(>, [Asteroids L'S ], Jujnter ~>'2, etc. In reference to all the jylanets
then known to exist, the correspontlence of the alleged law to the facts was
remarkable. The one point in which the alleged system uttei'ly failed was
in requiring the existence of a ])lanet to till the gap between ^lars and tlnpi-
ter. So boldly did liitda press his convictions of the correctness of this law
upon tlio notice of his fellow-workers, that they resolved, in 1800, to divide
the zodiac into twenty-fonr zones, to be apportioned among them, for the
express purpose of searcliing for undiscovered i)lanets. This well-organized
ert'ort was, erelong, ^rewarded by the surprising discovery of four new
planets, the first one on the first night of the new century, January 1, 1801,
and three more soon after. As no more seemed to be forthcoming, the search
was relinquished in 181(5. A fifth was found in 184"), and nearly five hun-
dred since. Since 1891 photography has been wondrously serviceable in
finding these bodies. A sensitive plate, on being exposed toward that part
of the sky which it is desired to examine, will record all the perceptible stars
as round disks ; while any planets that appear in the field of view will, by
their motion, leave their trace in the form of elongated trails or streaks, thus
betraying themselves at once on the photographs. In this way Charlois, of
Nice, Italy, has found nearly ninety small planets. All tliese planetoids,
as the minor planets are often termed, are quite small, being but twenty to
one hundred miles in diameter, and not consequential members of tlie solar
system. Bode's law thus fulfilled its temporary mission ; but egregiously
failed when Neptune claimed admission to a place in the solar system, for its
distance from the sun was utterly out of harmony with that required by the
law of Bode.
III. now XEI'TUNK WAS FOUND.
The patience of Job had a strong parallel in the labors of those tireless
toilers to whose minute computations we owe our knowledge of Neptune's
path in the skies. For this far-off planet was discovered not by the use of a
telescope, or any optical instrument, but simply by a process of mathemati-
cal reasoning. The story is simply this. For sixty years after Uranus was
recognized, there were irregularities in its motion that could not be satis-
factorily accounted for. In the orbit that it was believed to pursue, it was
sometimes in advance of its proper position, and sometimes it seemed to fali
behind. Sometimes it appeared to be drawn a little to the right, and at
other times as far the other way.
The thought at last came separately to several penetrating minds, not thai
the observations of its position were in error, but that l^ranus must be drawn
away from its supposed path by the attraction exercised upon it by some
unseen body. And if such an object existed, was it a planet ? Where was
it ? How large was it ? "What was its path in the far-off ether ?
ENTURY
ASTROyOMY DURING THE CENTURY
89
In tlio year 1S42, the Koyal Society of Sciences of Giittingeu proposed as
a prize (piestion the full discussion of the theory of the motions of Uratuis.
It was specially soiight to learn the cause of the large and increasing error
of IJdUvard's Tables that had been relied upon to show its motion and its
precist> position at any time. Several able mathematicians undertook this
iiitrioiite problem. Among them were .John C. Adams, of Cambridge Uni-
versity. England, Sears C. Walker, of Washington, a man whose sad fate it
was to pass away ere his nuigniticent abilities could receive extended recog-
I82i
1830 ,,-^-
1
~~"~~'^^. ifllO
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18 40 /
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.„^___^ 1781 ^^
^
THE MOVEMENT OF URANUS AND NEPTUNE.
The inner circle shows tlie position of Uranus at various dates; the outer circle the position of
Neptune. Tlie arrows sliow the direction toward wliicli Uranus was drawn.
nition. and M. Le Verrier, of Paris. Working unknown to each other, they
reached similar conclusions almost at the same time. Though not the first
to solve the problem, the brilliant Frenchman was the fii'st to announce his
result, which he did by writing a letter to Dr. (ialle, of the Berlin Observa-
tory, wliere there was one of the largest telescopes in Europe, and asking
liim to search for his computed planet, and assigning its supposed place in
the he;iv(;ns. The very night he received the letter ])r. Galle found the
I'lanet within one degree of the point designated. The next night it had
moved one minute of space, and was also seen to have a perceptible disk.
riiis -settled the question, and stamped it as a planet. Le Verrier well
meriteii the title bestowed upon him, " First astronomer of the age."
90
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX"' CENTURY
IV. MKTK(»UITKS.
The iiiiieteeiith (•cntiirv will be forever iiiemonible for its wittiessiii",' tlm
closiiif^ (;iireer and tiiiiil destnictioii of a famous eoinet. First noticed in
France, in 1772, and rediscovered, in l.Sli(», by an Austrian otHcer nauied
lUela, it bears his name. His computation showed that it traversed its
orbit in si.\ and one half years. When it reapiieared in 1<S4<), and again in
IHii'J, it was seen to have sj)lit into two unequal frajiments. It has not been
seen since ; but at every time when its return should have taken place tlic
earth has passed through sliowers of meteors supposet' to be its constituent
particles, and to indicate its entire disintegration.
During the meteoric shower of LSS"), on the l.'7th of November, a large iron
metPorite fell in IMazapil, ilexico, and chemical and physical investigation
joined to pronounce it a jiart of the lost Uiela's comet.
The large cabinets of the world contain hundreds of si)ecimens of mei. ■ •
ites, known to be such by their chemical com])osition, but only a few have
actually been seen to fall. The most remarkable fall ever witnessed was
that of May 10, lcS79, in Iowa, in which the heaviest stone weighed 4.">7
pounds. On April iS, IHWA, an aerolite fell near Osawatomie, Kansas, and
struck the monument to John Brown that had been erected through the
efforts of Horace Greeley in 18()8. The meteor broke off the left arm of
the statue. A Texas meteorite, owned by Yale University, weighs KIM')
pounds. A meteorite that fell in Jiminez, in 1892, now deposited in the
city of Mexico, weighs twenty tons ; and one lying on the coast of Labrador,
which it is proposed to bring to the United States, is said to be still more
massive.
f,l
V. DO METKORS OFTKX STKIKK THE EARTH ?
It must not be thought that meteors usually strike the earth. In truth,
but few of them do. The earth is surrounded by them, cold, dark, invisibk',
because unillumined. It is only when they become he.ated by rapidly im-
pinging on the atmosphere that they can be seen at all ; and unless tlicy
come near enough to become su))ject to the dominant power of the eartir,s
attraction, they pass off into space unnoticed, and their jnesence unsuspected.
A case in point is the brilliant "tire-ball" of July 20, 1S(50. that moved
rapidly over the United States, from Wisconsin to ('ape Cod, and then passed
off into the skies. The entire time of its visible flight over a path of thir-
teen hundred miles was about two minutes. It was seen about ten o'clm'k
in the evening. It was estimated to be from one Imndred to live hundred
feet in diameter, allowing for an increase as it expanded by reason of its
striking with such velocity the lower and denser layers of the air. Its size
and brilliancy were such as to arrest the attention of hundreds of persons,
some of whom crouched in fear, and even alleged that they heard it hiss as
it flew over their heads. Some lishermen in Lake Huron had ropes over the
sides of their boat, ready to spring into the water if it came too near.
James H. (,'ottin, LL. 1)., then Professor of Astronomy in T.,afayette College,
made an exhaustive study of this unusual phenomenon, and, under the ]iat-
ronage of the Smithsonian Institution, published a volume containing many
observations that he collected, with the mathematical results derived f r mi
CENTURY
ASTliUSUMY Dt'niNG THIi CliNTUltY
91
tliciii. I'lol'essor ,1. Ilium, of Vii'inia. tlie hislH'st anthority on this subject,
Miiil that it was thti most compivlu'ii-
sivr Ntudy of a iiu'teor's path ever ac-
comiilislicd. Si.v yt^ars were sjuMit in
luakiiij,' tiie eomiuitatioiis.
Si'lt-illmniiu'd l)y tlic licat evolved in
stiikinj,' tlie various layers of tlie earth's
atini>si)here, it became sutticiently bright
to be first seen when seventy miles
above the surface of the earth. It was
within forty miles of touchini; ns at
the time it was over the JIndson IJiver.
when the <,'reat heat a('(iuired by its
rapid transit caused it to burst into two
masses, which — like i'iela's comet —
coiitimicd to jmrsne .sejiarate courses,
side by side, until they were lost to
view in tlieir ascendin.!;' tlii,dit, beinti; last
seen from the deidc of a vessel ofl' the
island of Nantucket.
No part of the fire-ball struidv the
earth. Its orbit was an hyi)erbola. a
curve not often fotind in nature, and
such that it can never conu' near us
again uidess, by the superior attracition of some celestial body, its course
may be changed, and a new orbit result. .
.JAMES H. COFFIN.
I.iile I'lofi'ssor of Astronnriij', LafuyeUe College,
IvistDii, Pu.
VI. ASTKOXOMK'AIi OHSKKVATORIES.
Tlie Ivoyal Observatory, at (Ireenwich, England, was founded by Charles
the Second in 1()7.'>. Its main purpose was to extend astronomical know-
ledge, so that navigators might better find the position of their ships at sea.
This institution retains its prominence. All the longitudes on our maps are
reckoned from it, and (ireenwich time is used on every ship that traverses
the ocean. The "Nautical Almanac," issued by the Observatory, was an
indispensable part of the outfit of every sea captain until, in 1852, the
United States provided its own American Ephemeris, a collection of tables
of the motions and places of the sun, moon, and planets for every day and
hour, and occultations of the stars, with rules for calculating longitude
anil tlie like.
.Many valuable observations of the transit of Venus in 1769 were made at
points near Philadelphia; but ahnost seventy years ensued before America
witnessed the erection of any permanent Imildings devoted to the purposes
of tills science.
iMvsident John (^uincy Adams, who was highly versed in science, and held
the position of ])resident of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in
liostou lor twenty years, often urged this matter on the attention of Con-
gress, I)ut without success.
I'l' ^ident Thonuis Jefferson, who Avas also a man of no small scientific
infill Illation, as evidenced in his keeping a systenuitic weather record at his
02
TRIUMPHS ASH WONDERS OF THE XL\"' CENTURY
hoiiit' in ^rontieello. \'irj.:iiii;i. iirojioscd an eliil)(irato survi-y of the national
coast. This was anthoii/.fd hy (.'(iu^mvss in 1S07. In the year IH'.VJ, in
vevivin}^ an act tor tlie contiiuianct' of tlie Coast Survey, (.'onj^ress was cait -
fill to apjieiul the in'ovi^so •• tiiat notiiint,' in tiie act slionkl he eonstrneii
to anthorize the erection or maintenance of a iiernianent astronomical
chservatory."
Tiie exjiecteil retnrn of Ilallcy's comet in 1,S.'>"» aj^aiu stinuihiteil ])ojiiil;ir
interest in tiie sciencie. and aronsed an intense desire to provide serviceahle
instrnnients, and to establish hnildinj^s suitable for tiieir cai'e and use. 'I'n
Williams College. Massachusetts, belongs the honor of erecting, in iSliit, tiic
first astronomical observatory on this continent. Under its revolving dome
was mounted an Ilerscheliaii telescope of ten feet focus, wiiicli later became
the property of Lafayette College, where it is still preserved. In 1H4.S, Jolni
Quincy Adams laid the corner-stone of the Longworth ( >bscrvatory in Cin-
cinnati, and delivered a eonimenKU'ative address, his last great oration. Tiie
construction of the United States Naval Observatory at Washington soon
followed, and before IH'A) there were fourteen observatories estal)lished in
this country. Nearly all the instrunu'uts they eont;iined were made abroa.'
chiefly in ^lunich and London. Since then the number has risen to two
hundred recognized observatories, of which twenty-four are of superior
order, where systematic work is daily pursued, and the results are I'egularly
published in book form. About two hundred observatories exist iu other
nations.
m
IH
VII. IMPKOVEl) IXSTKIMKNTS; TIIEIH EKFKCT ON TIIE SCIENCE.
Tlie great improvoments in teleseoites made during the century have been
fruitful in two ways ; a better knowledge of the surface of the moon and of
the planets has been gained, and we liave been enabled to learn with pre-
cision the exact motions and times of revolution of tliese bodies and of tlieir
accompanying moons. This information, by tlie use of the laws ascertained
by Kepler and La I'lace. gives us their exact distance, dimensions, and mass.
With the increase of telescopic jjower, the census of tlie starry host has been
so augmented thtit the number of stars within reach of our modern instru-
ments exceeds 12.").000.0(M). liut we had gone little beyond this sort of
information until the invention of the spectroscope.
Previous to the year LSoO a few meteors, composed chiefly of stone or
iron, some of which had been actually seen to fall from the sky, had been
subjected to chemical analysis ; but outside of this naught was known of the
physical constitution of other worlds than ours. Our ignorance on this point
was complete. All our attemjits to become better acquainted with the struc-
ture of the planets, the composition of the sun, and the nature of the fixed
stars would jirobably have been in vain but for the invention of the spectro-
scope. This surprising instrument is a master-key with which to unlock
many of Nature's mysteries ; her recesses are brought to view, and the
farthest star is subjected to an accurate chemieal analysis, so far as the
light that comes from it is sufficient to disclose the materials of which it is
composed.
The wondrous use of electricity as an agent for the production of light.
heat, and power is no greater achievement, in its v/ay, than is Spectrum
iiii^
,- \
y i)i the natioiiiil
he year 1K.'W, in
'()n,t,'ress was ciiit-
uhl he eoustrueil
ent asti'ouoinieal
;iimihite(l i)0])iil;ii'
oviile serviceahlc
•are and use. Tk
ting, ill l<S;j(!, tlif
ts revolving (h)nie
hieh later heeanie
1. In lH4.'i, .lohii
jservatory in Cin-
eat oration. The
Washington soon
ies estahlished in
rere made ahroa.'
has risen to two
are of superior
lults are I'egularly
es exist in other
IIK Sf'IENCE.
•entury have been
f the moon and of
to learn with pre-
lodies and of their
e laws ascertained
ensions, and mass,
irry host has been
)nr modern instru-
•ond this sort of
hiefly of stone or
the sky, had been
was known of the
ance on this point
ted with the strue-
lature of the fixed
ion of the spectro-
i which to unlock
to view, and tiie
sis, so far as the
rials of which it is
•oduction of light,
than is Spectrum
04
TnWSlPllS AM) WOXDKltS OF THE XIX'" CEXTUUY
Analysis in lirin^'inj; to omv ciirtlily iiibiinitorics tin- wurli of tli" Divine
Hand pcrt'ornu'd in distiint ici^iuns of siJiicc. Vet tiie story of tlio s|u'utici-
s('o|ic is easily told. In its essential elements it is merely tliis : A ray df
li;,'lit, entering' a darkened room tiiron^di a li(ile in flie window siintter. |mo-
dnees a bri^dit beam on tlit! oiijiosite wail. .V trianj,'nlar j;lass prism lielil
close to the creviee turns this beam into a liaiid id' rainliow lines. If tin-
hole I'an be ehanged into a small slit, say one fonitli of an incdi hi^li and one
fiftieth of an inidi wide, and if the lij^'iit eaii further be nnnh' to jiass in snc
cession thron.u;h several prisms, instead of thron,y:ii one, the bainl will be so
elontjated thereby that its various and suri)rising markings can be thoroughly
traeed and fidly studied.
To this band of bright colors Sir Isaac Newton gave the name (d' tlie
THE Sl'ECTIlOSCOPK.
solar spectrum. The innige formed by the light i>f any luminous body,
after it has passed through a prism, is said to be the spectrum of that body.
11"
VIII. rilK SPKCTKOSCOl'K AM) ITS TKIIMPIIS.
The spectroscope consists essentially of three tubes joined in the form of
the letter Y, one of which is a small telescope, in the focus of -which a
narrow slit is placed to admit the ray of light that is to be examined;
a prism, or a ruled grating that disperses the light, so as to form a spei;-
trum ; and a view telescope, with which to observe the various parts of the
sj)ectriim.
By using a small teleseojie to view the s])ectrum of the sun, Fraunhofer. a
German optician, in 1814, discovered that the whole length of the spectrum
was crowded with dark lines, very narrow, indeed, but scattered all through
the seven hues. He found that sunlight, wliether taken directly or reflected
CESTUHY
ik ul' til" Diviiiu
jry of tliu M|ii'L't!(p-
I'ly this : A my if
iiildw .sliiittci. |nci-
1,'las.s prism licM
l)o\v liiu's. It' the
iiicii lii^li iintl one
;uli' to pass ill sue.
ic 1)1111(1 will he so
ciui be llioniiii^liiy
till' iiaiiii^ di' till'
ly huniiious body,
tiiiiii of that body.
PHS.
lied in tlie form of
focus of which a
5 to be examined ;
as to form a speo
irious jiarts of the
sun, Fraunhofer. a
h of the spectniiu
attered all throu.<,'h
lirectly or reflecti'd
-i^
if
T
Di
Si
i'
-to
-i
. kv
^i_
'-^■^^„
^•T»fl?^
'--n
'iR^>
>V:
■■9»ff?^^''-k^?'
YERKES TELESCOPE, UNIVKUSITY OF CHICAGO.
Largest in the World.
96
rniUMI'llS A sit WOSDKliS OF rilK XIX'ii CESTUUY
from rlouds or tnnii tlic iikkiu or pliiiicts, inviuiiiltly Kiivf tlit* mimo sjK'Ctniiii;
l)iit in no niHc tliil \\'^\\l from tliu stavH givf ii .spt'ctnim of the Hurnu sort ,is
that Iroiii till' sun.
Dr. Kirclilioff, ol' llcidcllH'rf;. in IN.V.), cxplaini'd the origin of thi- (lii:k
lini's, anil hIiowi'iI tliat, tlirii- an- tliriM' kinds of s|it'i'tra: lir.sl, that ol nu
incanilcsctMit solid or liquid, wliiuli is alwa^vs pcrfei'tly continuous, showinij
n«;itlii'r dark lines nor brij^dit; second, tlic spt'ctruni of a glowing j^a.s, which
consists of lM'if,'lit lines oi' iiands separated hy dark spaces. 'I'liese lines iuc
characteristic of tlio elieniical elements that cause them; ami so, from tlie
cuniposition of the liri^'ht lines in a s|iectrum, it is poHHilile to tell tlnir
origin. Third, a spectrum crossed liy dark lines ; which occurs when an ini;iii-
,^ ^descent solid is viewed throii^'h alisorhent vapors.
In the sohir eclipse id l.SO.S, M. .lanssen first noticed that the sniar
prominences gave a spectrum of the second kind, and thus proved that the
jirominences consist of glowing gas. Since that time the marcii of discoveiy
has boon ex(;eedingly rapid.
This simple instrument has thus led the way to a knowledge of the ele-
ments composing every heavenly body, no matter what its distance. pro\ idcil
only it is giving out light intense enough to reaidi our ga/.e. For the jierlec-
tion l)otli of the telescope and spectroscoiic we owe much to the optical skill
and mechanical dexterity of the ('larks iind Itowhind. Hastings iiiid Urashear,
all .Americans.
About forty chemical elcnu'iits have now been recognized in the sun. The
most iiromiueiit are iron, calcium, hydrogen, nickel, and sodium. A distnr-
tion, or dis]ilacement, of souh! of the lines in the spectrum enables lis to cal-
culate the speed at which the gasi's are rushing toward or from us. A given
line in the spectrum of Aldebaran is disjilaced toward the violet in sucii a
way as to show that the star is apiiroaching the sun at the rate of thirty
miles a second ; while a similar line, in the case of Altair, so deviates toward
the red end of the spectrum as to prove that it is receding from the solar
system at a vidocity of twenty-four miles a second. I>y this ]irinciple. recog-
nized by l)()]i]iler in IHH'. the motions of about one hundred stars toward or
from the solar .system liave been ascertained.
There is no question but that the solar system, as a wliole, is steadily
moving away from Sirius, and toward the constellation of Hercules; whether
faster than at a rate of twelve miles every second is still scarcely decided ;
but this rate would be about a milli.iu miles a day, or three hundred ami
seventy million miles a year.
IX. WHAT IS DOXK IN' A l-AliCiK OHSF.H V ATOI! Y ; ITS WOKK.
A visitor who wants to know what is done in a great observatory mi^lit
go to Harvard some evening. He would jirobably find tlie large refractor
pointed toward the satellites of .f npiter, Uramis. or Neptune, with a view of
noting their ])recise jdaces, so as to cominite tables of their exact motions;
or he might find a laboriotis observer wiitching such double stars as have cim-
siderable jjrojier morion, and making drawings of conspicuous nebuliv, so that
future astronomers may be able to decide whether time has wrought any
changes in their constitution or figure. The great glass at Princeton, under
the charge of Professor Charles A. Young, is largely used for si)ectrosco;'ip
ASTUOyoMY DVniStJ THE CENTUUY
\n
work, exuiiiiuiiiK tl>*' '^uii's |>h(>tiis|ihfre by iliiy, ami iiutiii^' thu Hpuetni of tlm
Htiii'i lit iii^'lit. Spfctnil observiitiiiii is lui iiiiiiurtuut |iui't uf the ruutine lit
the \ iiki's Olwi'ivatory in WiMciinsiii.
Maiiv t'iiiiit ciiiiit't.s Imvc hct'ii suwcsslully iilu)t<iB'''M'l'«3(l at tlui Lick nlwpr-
viitdn, on Mituiit llaiiiiltini, Calitiniiiii, and t-lsewliere by tliu use of very
st'iisitivc platt's aiitl a \^n\\^ cxpoHuic.
S, W. Itiiniluiiii, (»t' ('liicaKo, is fanu'd for iiiH acutuncHS of vision, testfd in
li:iviiit,' (It'ti'ctt'd and nifasiintd over one thousand d()iil)h' stars wliicii to otiicr
cyt's iuid appeared only as sinf,'le stars. Tiie discovery of tiieso objocts
lifldii^js wliolly to tint nineteontii century; for in l.S(>.'{, Sir William llorseiud
tiist iMiiioiuiced the existence (d' sidereal systems composed of two stars, one
rcvdlviiij,' around the other, ')r both moving al)out a common centre. Sonut
of tlii'sc binary Hystems have jieriods of as great a length as fifteen hundred
veins ; and sonu' are as l)rief as four, and even two days. .Sonm of them
utTonl curious instanees (d contrastcil colors, the larger star red or orange,
and the smaller star blue or green.
X. VWV. XATIO.V.M, onSKUVAroUV AT WASIIIMJTON.
I'lofessor William Harkiu'ss, U. S. N., JM. I).. \Au |).. is widely known as
tlie author of numerous astronomical . . .. ^
iuul jijiysical papers and books, lie has
also designed a number of iniitrunuMits
and made im])ortant discoveries, lie
Ims long been connected with the Unit-
ed Stattfs Naval Observatory, and now
holds the jKisition of Astronomical Di-
rector. His report for the year IH'.tS
sliows tliat the twenty -si.x indi reflector
at Washington is now nightly engaged in
ma|iping the relative jjositions of Hhea
and lapetiis, the fifth and eighth satel-
liti'S of Saturn, with the intention of
securing a new and final deternnnation
<if till' nuiss of that planet, whiidi has
bfiMi lieretofore reckoned as one .'{l!>LM
of the sun. The twelve-inch telescope
is chiefly employed in studying (omets
and asteroids, and on Thursday t-ven-
ings is at the service of the jniblic. I n
tiie year 181)8, .S778 observations were
made with the lune-inidi transit circle, for which two nu'U were detailed,
witli tile services of five com]>uters.
A transit circle and an altazimuth instrument, each t\irned out of s(did
stiH'l, liave recently been added to the eipiipnuMit. and are cd' a workm.'inship
that coiujjares favor.ably -with anything ever nuunifactured in Europe. It is
as.sertcd that the latter instrunumt will give more accurate measurements of
declination than a transit circle, which is an innovation on long-cherished
ideas.
rrott'ssor Simon Newcomb, of the United States Xavy, is about to issue
I'llOl.'F.ssoii Wir.T.IAM nAltKNI'.ss,
lV^tl'llll<>lllie.ll l>ii('i't(ii' v. S. Naviil Olmervatoiy,
Wifliiiitftoii, I). C.
98
riUUMPHU AND WONDERS OF THE A/A™ CENTURY
new tables of Mars, Uranus, and Xcptune, and a "Catalogue of Fundamental
Stars for the Epo(!h 19(H)."' During the year IHUiS three thousand copies of
the American Nautical Almanac were published. This is but an illustratiim
of the seientilic labor accomplished at this busy hive of industry. During
the yejir this observatory issued to the navy 'SoO chronometers, 200 sextants
and octants, and 1400 otlier nautical instruments of value.
XI. STAR MAI'S AM) CAT ALiXUKS.
In the year 12S n. c. Hipparclnis jnit o\it a catalogue of 1025 stars
observed at Khodes. Twenty such works succeeded this up to the year
1801, when Lalandc. of Paris, brought out a list of 47,390 stars. It will be
remeri.bered that few stars have nanu-s, except those known to the Arabiiiiis
of old, but are designated by their positions in the heavens. It is custoniaiy
to refer to them by their declinations and right ascensions, as so many
degrees north or south of the celestial equator, and so many degrees, or
hours, east of the vernal equinox — fifteen degrees being the eipiivalent of
an hour of right ascension — just like the latitude and longitude of cities
on a common glol>e.
During the nineteenth century many celestiial atlases and astronomical
catalogues have been jmblished. These contain lists of comets and nebula-,
and the places of the double stars and of the fixed stars. Of the latter alone
over one hundred have ai)pearcd, of which Argelander's is by far the largest,
as it contains the places of more than 310,000 stars. The catalogue prepared
by the British Associaticm in 1845 is of great value, containing 8377 stars.
Yarnall's, of 10,G58 stars, pid)lished in AVashington in 1873, is most acces-
sible to us.
Professor ('. H. F. Peters, of the Hamilton College Observatory, Clinton,
N. Y.. the discoverer of so many asteroids, has prepared a valuable series of
star charts. By dividing the heavens into small squares and carefully photo-
graphing each of them, the places of a vast number of stars can be recorded
with far greater accuracy than by the old plan of a separate instrumental
measurement of the position of the stars. P)y the use of microscoi)es tiie
determination of their positions can be made with precision. These plates
are preserved with care, and when those of the same region of the skies,
made in different years, are compared, any variation in the relative positions
of the objects can be detected with certainty. The perfection of this metiiod
of star-mapping is justly deemed one of the most imiiortant achievements of
the century.
For an amateur star-gazer who is not provided with a set of maps, Whitall's
Planisphere is a very ready aid, as it can be instantly adjusted to any day
and hour. The inexperienced, and those who have no instruments, can use
it with ease and satisfaction to locate a thousand of the most conspicuous
stars.
XII. A.STROXOMKAIi HOOKS AND THEIR WRITER.S.
In England this attractive study has been popularized chiefly by the inter-
esting works of the two Herschels. who were voluminous writers, the lectuies
of Proctor, and the admirable compend of facts so assiduously gathered l)y
G. F. Chambers in his delightful treatise on astronomy.
I I .-
CENTURY
ASTRONOMY DURING THE CENTURY
IH)
III iMir own country tht^ heights of tlicoreticiil astronomy have been scaled
liv siiih minds as JJenjaniiu Tierce, the profound niatliematician of Harvard
riiiviTsity ; James C. Watson, of Ann Arbor, whose early death was a great
lipss til science; and Simon Neweomb, the genial savant of Washington,
('iiiiiivciiet and Loomis iiave tauglit us the meaning of practical astronomy;
iiiiil (fjiiisti'd, Young, Todd, and not a few others of distinction liave prepared
text-lHMiks that fully present tlie elements of tlie science.
N(ir is this fascinating study limited to the students of the 484 colleges
and universities of the land. The last report of the United States Cumniis-
sidiier of Kducation slu)\vs that in the public and private high schools of tiie
nation there are over nine thousand boys and sixteen tluusand girls pursuing
tiiu study of astronomy.
XIII. rUK PRACTICAL USKS OK ASTRO.NOAIV AS .\X All) TO X.VVIGATIOX
AND liEOUKSV.
Tiie ])raetii'al value of this science is best appreciated by the navigator,
whd sees in the sun and moon his clock, and in thd stars and planets the
ready means of learning his latitude and longitude. It is one of the first
tasiis (if the midsliiinnan to become familiar with the use of the sextant, by
whit'ii lie works out the problem of ascertaining the exact place of the ship
upon tiie ocean. Navigation is helpless without the assistance of astronomy.
Yet it is only the A, B, C of the science that the sailor has any use for : its
liiglier mysteries are away beyond his needs and of no practical profit to him.
Nathaniel Bowditch, of Salem, Mass., in 1X02, issued a book entitled " The
New American Practical Navigator," which is still a standard treatise for
seamen. His rare acquireUieuts as a mathematici.an were signally displayed,
aiul ill a form that has proved enduring, when, in 1814-17, he translated into
English, accompanied with copious notes of his own, the profound work,
"Celestial Mechanics," penned by the gifted La Place in 175)9. Although in
name a translation of a foreign book with a commentary, it is in many
resjieets an orig'nal work. Professor Elias Loomis, who left to Yale Uni-
versity tiiree hundred thousand dollars as an endowment fund to aid in
prcseciiting astronomical research, said of him, in 1850, "Bowditch has prol)-
ably ilone more for the improvement of physical astronomy than all other
Americans combined." Dr. Bowditch published the work in four ponderous
ijiiarto volumes wholly at his own private cost. I'hese volumes he did not
expose for sale, but generously gave them to such persons as proved to him
tlieir ability to appreciate and comprehend them. This outlay impaired the
lortunes of his family, but became his own unitpie monument.
Tills work remains one of the most profound efforts of mathematical
reseaiili on record. Bowditeh's accuracj' has passed into a jjroverb. He
gave till- latitude of all the principal seaports of the world with marked jire-
ei.siou : wliile some of the longitudes are now found to be rdiglitly in error, it
IS sm|irising that his determinations of those of Boston and Philadelphia
slioulii be exactly the same as those obtained by the best methods in use
to-day. But he makes San Francisco and Halifax seven miles too far to the
east, and New l''ork eight miles too far Avest. But we are to remember that
for tliH computation the best available instruments were the chronometers
of a ci'iitury ago, and that lunar observations were made with the old-time
sextant.
100
TRIUMPHS AXl) WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
As applied to s[efidesy, astronomy lias added a process of ascertaining yco-
grapliical latiti .le \vitii marvelous accuracy and speed by the use ot tlic
zenith telescope, an instrument devised by ^lajor Talcott in 1885. This
instrument can be set in a vertical direction with ease, and be ])ointed alui-
ZKxri'u Tf;i,KS('oPE.
Miuli' fur Uiiivorsiiy of Pennsylvania l>y Wainer & Swasey.
nately to two stars that cross the meridian at a brief interval of time, the I'lie
r.;th and the other south of the zenith. Difficulties that arise from ref tac-
tion are avoided, and the resulting latitude is (piickly computed. 'Iliis
method is largely employed in the survej-s of the piddic lands, as also in
estal)lishing the boinidarj- between the United States and British America
CENTURY
ASTRONOMY DURING THE CENTURY
101
XIV. NOTABLE EPOCHS I.V TItE XIN'ETEEXTH CENTURY.
Worth mai'kiiig as epochs of the nineteenth century were such dates as
Oetuber 10, liS4(), when the Hrst tleterniination of difference of longitude of
two phices was made by tlie use of the telegraph wire. Sears C. Walker, in
Wiisliington, and E. (,)tis Kendall, in I'hiladelphia, compared their clocks by
iiitcnlianging telegrajjliic! signals, and thus found their respective longitudes.
In l.Si")!), Professor William V. Bond, of Harvard College, invented the
chiiiudgraph. Through tiio urgency of Sir David Hrewster, it was shown in
tilt' great exhibitiiiii of that year in London, where a medal was awarded for
it. The chronograph was speedily adopted throughout Europe, and together
with otlnn- apparatus made by IJond constituted what there became known as
tlie •■ American nu'tliiHT'of recording observations. Through it tlie errors
for wliich the "personal equation" is a partial remedy are largely elimi-
nated, and a superior detiniteness of record is obtained.
On August 7, 1S()1>, tlie tirst api)li('ation of the spectroscope to the examina-
tion of the corona of the sun was the beginning of the revelation of the inner
mysteries of the constitution and activities of tlu^ great luminary. The tran-
sit of Venus that occurred on December (J, iSiSL', was fruitful in measure-
ments, by which the estimates of the distance of the sun were reduced from
the long-accepted Hgures, 9."> to 92 millions of miles. Yet this loss of three
millions of miles resulted from the apparently trifling change of reckoning
tlie sun's parallax at S.SL'", instead of iS./iT". An occurrence of vast i)ractical
ailvantage to the whole nation was that of November 18, 1883, when the four
standard meridians of railroad time were adopted and put into use. From
that (lay the clocks of the Union were set to keep either Eastern, Central,
Mountain, or I'aciHc Coast time.
Professor Edward E. IJarnard had used the magnificent telescope of thirty-
six inches ajierture, belonging to the Lick Observatory in California, but a
short time before he astonished the world by discovering a fifth satellite of
Jupiter, although it appeared as but a faint speck of light, liesides other
honors for this achievement, in 1804 the French Academy of Sciences
awarded him the Arago medal, of the value of a thousand francs, a distinc-
tion given but twice before, first to Le Verrier, for the discovery of Neptune
in 1S4(), and to Asajjh Ifall, for flr.ding the two moons of ^larsin 1877.
"i'ersonal equation"' is the name given to the amount of error to which
any person is habitually liable in attempting to note the time of a fixed
ociMineuce. When the astronomer looks at a star passing the cross-wires of
his transit, he is likely to make the record one or two tenths of a second
after the true time, or possibly a like small amount of time before the actual
occurrence, by anticipation. This is not a matter of wrong intention, nor
due to willfulness. Ibit in precise observations, especially where compari-
sons are to be made between the records of several persons, the " personal
equation" must be determined, if possible, and allowed for. Various
mt'tliods of correcting tiiis inaccuracy have been used. Hut the best is that
of iMank n. Bigelow, of the Nautical Almanac Office, Washington, who, in
1891'. ilevised a jirocess of taking star transits by photography. It entirely
does away with this source of error, and has proved of great value.
102
TRIUMPHS AXD WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
XV. MSCAKPEP DOCTRIXES AXD AHAXDONKD IDEAS.
A few generations ago an eight-day clock was to be found only in tlic
homes of well-to-do ])('oi)le, and a gold watch was a syndwl of wealth, siidi
as to subject its wearer to a special tax. In this age of dollar clocks ami
Waterbury watches, almanacs are no longer indispensable. We do not regu-
late our time-pieces by the rising and setting of the sun; nor can a futuie
Jay Gould lay the foundation of his fortune, as did the one best known liy
that name, by setting up rural noon-marks for a fixed fee.
Some pleasant dreams of ])ast decades have vanished in the light of recent
knowledge. The nebular hypothesis, that wondrous conception of SwedtMi-
borg, elaborated by La Place and espoused by \\'illiam Jlerschel and so many
others, as aftnrding a full explanation of the method by which our worlds
were shaped into their present forms, has ceased to have general acceptan<c.
JI. Maedler, director of the Dorpat t>bservatory in liS4(», had a firm persuii-
sion that the collective body of stars visible to us has a movement of revolu-
tion about a centre situated in the group of the l^leiades, and corresi)onding
to the star Alcyone. But this notion of a central sun around wliich all the
solar system is circling has lost ground.
The distortion in the orbit of the planet Mercury has been accounted for
bj' the urgent suggestion that there must be some planet, as yet undiscovered,
that disturbs the regularity of AFereury's movements, but whose orbit is so
near to the sun as to bafHe all ordinary efforts to see it. It has received, by
anticipation, the prenatal name of ^'ulcan. Many eyes have peered most
intently into the region indicated, and some few have imagined they Inid
found what they sought. A physician of the village of Orgeres. France.
M. Lescarbaidt by name, on jVIarch 26, isr»l(. saw such an object pass over
the sun's disk. The skillful Ls Verrier was nmch im])ressed by this j)hysi-
cian's minute account of the occurrence. Jiut there was no cjufirmation <'t
the alleged discovery. At the time of suliseiiuent ecli))ses that part of tin'
heavens has been repeatedly examined closely, but in vain. So we must
wait longer before believing that Vulcan does exist.
"When, in 1877, Professor Hall, through the powerful telescope at Wash-
ington, saw that !Mars was attended by two tiny satellites, he put a perma-
nent injunction on the further use of the once favorite i)hrase,
"Tlic snowy poles of nioinilpss Miirs."
And SO of the question oft discusssed in the old-time debating societies,
" Ave the jdanets iidud)ited ? " It may still be left in the hands of young
collegians, notwithstanding the fact that our largest telescopes give only
negative testimony.
In a solar eclipse in February. 173f!. that was annular in shape, just before
the sini was completely hidden, the narrow horn of light seemed to breiik
into a series of dots, or luminous ])oints, which, when noted again a centur\
later and described by Francis Haily, received the name of " Haily lieads."
It was attem])ted to explain this as caused by the moon's mountains cuttini;
off the last rays of sunlight, or else as jn-oduced by irradiation. liut with
the advent of stronger telescopic power the ])henomenon has come to an emi.
David Rittenliouse, of Xorristown, whom Thom.as Jefferson considered "se -
ASTROS OMY DURING THE CENTURY
108
011(1 111 no astronomer living,'' built an ornny worth a thousand dollars, to
ilhistniti' niccihaniciilly the motions of all the j)lanets, and though t?.ie instru-
iiH'iil is still treasured in the University of I'ennsylvania, and its dui)licate
at rriiiceton, amon;,' tiie rpli(!S of a past age, it is assigned to the category
e light of recent
>tion of SwediMi-
liel and so many
hieli our worlds
neral acceptance,
d a firm persua-
einent of revolu-
id corresi)ondiiig
md which all tlie
>n accounted fur
ret undiscovereii,
I'hose orbit is so
has received, by
ive peered most
agined they had
Orgeres, France,
object pass over
d by this ])hysi-
[) c'jniirmation id'
that part of tlic
n. So Ave must
escope at Wash-
he put a perma-
ie,
d)ating .societies,
hands of youiii;
copes give oidy
hape, just before
seemed to break
again a centur\
■ " Baily lieads."
ountains cuttini;
ition. liut with
come to an end.
considered "se -
'rilllKlMN'CU TIt.\SSIT. IIY WAKNKli & SW.ASKV.
of tovs. Mural circles, much depended upon to measure the declination of
lieaveniy bodies, have fallen into disuse, supidanted by improved transit
iiistiiiiiients.
XVI. rUOBIiKMS FOU Kl'TlKK STUDY.
JliHiy iiroblems are in store for the future. The field fo'- research still
opens wide. How the solar activity is to be maintained was answered by
Xi'wtoii in the suggestion that comets falling into it kept up its supply of
matter and energy. Waterston, in isr).'?, ijroimunded the thought that mete-
oric matter may be the aliment of the sun. Now the prevalent theory is
104
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
that a contraction of tlie snn's volume, constantly in progress, but so slijjlit
as to be invisible to the most jiowerful telescope, is competent to furnisli u
heat supi)ly equal to all tliat can liave been emitted during historic periods.
l^rofessor Newconib answers the (juestion, " How long will the sun en-
dure ?" by saying, "The physical conclusion to which we are led by a stiuly
of the laws of nature is that the sun, like a living l)eing, must have a birtli
and will have an end. From tlie known amount of heat which it radiates uf
can, even in a rude way, calculate tiie probable length of its life. Fidui
fifteen to twenty millions of years seems to be tlic linut of its age in the
jnist, and it may e.\ist a few millions of years, jjcrhaps five or ten, in tlie
future."
SeLDK.V J. CoKKI.N.
CENTURY
DEX J. CoKFIX.
cAuor.rs i,iNX.«r» of swkdf.n, fatiiku of modeun hotant.
This illnslrntinn was prppnivrl In- a S\vi'(li-;|i society, niid represents the fninmis liotniiist after his
return frnin tlie exploration uf Lapliuid, ami witli a biincli of his favorite tlower {Lianaiu bore-
(illsi ill hi.-i haiiil.
STORY OF PLANT AND FLOWER
PxiiANY, in its general sense, signifies the knowledge of plants. In the
earlier periods of human history i)lants appealed to mankind as material for
fodd or medicine; and down to comparatively recent times botanical studies
were pursued mainly in these directions. Diosctn'ides, a Greek, who lived in
the Hist century of the Christian era, is the earliest writer of whom we have
kiKiwlcdge that can lay a claim to botanical distinction, but the medical
property of plants was evidently the chief incentive to his task. It was
not until the beginning of the sixteenth century that botany, in its broad
sense, became a study, and Le Cluse, a French physician, who died in KiOO,
may he regarded as one of its patriarchs. Still the medical uses of plants
were steadily kept in view. The English botanist. John (ierarde, who was a
coiiteni]iorary of Le Cluse, or Clusius, as botanists usually call him, wrote
a remarkable work on botany, — remarkable for his time, — but this was
styled a " Herbal," as were other famous botanical works down to the begin-
niii!,' of the present century.
106
TRIUMPHS AND WOXDHRS OF TllK A7A'" (ESTUHY
Following the year 1700, tlie knowledge of jilaiits iiulividuuU} became so
extended that systematic arranjjcment became desirable. The first real
advance in tliis direction was niacU' by Carl Von Linnc, commonly known by
its Latin form, Linnieiis, a Swede, born in 1707. and whose talents for hotani-
cal ac(jnireiiu'nts seeme(l almost in-
nate. In iiis twenty-third year \\i-
saw tiie need of a better .system,
and commcncjed at once the j^rcai
work of botanical reform. He saw
that iilants with a certain nnnd)cr
of St aniens and ]iistils were corre-
lated, and he founded classes and
orders on them. Flowers with five
stanu'ns or six stann-ns would be-
long to his class jientandria or hex-
andria, respectively, and those with
five ])istils or six pistils ]ienta-
gynia. or hexagynia, accordingly ;
and so on \\\> to polyandria. or
polygynia — man}' stamens or pis-
tils — of which our common liut-
tercup is an illustration. He fur-
ther showed that two names only
were all that is necessary to de-
note any plant, the generic name
and its adjective, as, for instance.
Ci'i'iuis a 11/(1, the white Dogwood;
and that the descriptions should
be brief, covering only the essen-
tial ]H)ints wherein one sjiecies of
plant differed from another. This
became known iis the sexiiai sys-
tem. It fairly eleiti'illed intelligent
circles. People generallj- took td
counting stamens and i>istils, and
large numbers took ])ride in bein^
botanists because they could trace so easily the classes and orders of the
plants they met. The grand old man died in 1778, and though his artificial
system had to give way to a more natural method, he is justly regarded a>
the father of modern botany.
With the incoming of the nineteenth century, botany took a rapid start.
It ceased to be a mere handmaid to the study of medicine. Chemistry, geo-
grajihy, teleology, and indeed the chief foundations of biology had become
closely interwoven with botanical studies ; and thus the progress of botaii}
through the century has to be viewed from many stand])oints.
In classification, what is known as the natural system has replaced th''
sexual. Plants are grouped according to their apparent relationships. Those
resembling in general character the Kose form the order Hosucea- ; the Lily.
Lillucea'. Sometimes, however, a striking characteristic is adopted for the
TITE OHEEN IIOSE.
Flower with leaves for petals.
STOliy OF PLANT AND FLOWEli
107
iiiiiuly iiiuiie, as Coiii/iimlfn', or coinpomiil flower, for the daisy and aster-
Houi ifd jjlants ; Citifw/ltfrnr, or umbcl-HoweriiiK, as in oarrot or parsley;
h'l/initiiinsiv, liaving tiie seed vessels as le<,'iinies. like peas and beans.
ClassiHeation has, howe'* r, derived much assistance from a wholly new
brani'li of the science knoN^ii as Morpiiolof^y. This teaches that all parts of
lilauls are modifications of other parts. What Nature may have intended to
lie II leaf may become a stem ; the outer series of fioral envelopes, or caly.x,
limy lic(!ome i)etals ; petals may become .stamens; and even pistils may be-
coiiH' h'lives, or even branches. The green rose of the florists is a case in
wiiicli the leaves that should iiave been changed into petals to form a jierfect
rose Hower have persisted in continuing green leaves, thougli masipicrading
as jietals; and it is not uinisual to find in the ro.se cases where the pistils
have reverted to their original destination as the analogue of branches, and
have started a growth from the centre of the fiower. So in an orange, the
carpels, or divisions, are metamorphosed primary leaves. Two series of five
eacii make the ten divisions. Sometimes the axis starts to make another
growth, as noted in the rose, but does not get far before it is arrested, and
tiiuu we have a small orange inside a larger one, as in the
navel orange. Just the reverse occurs sometimes. The
lower series is suppressed, and only the upper one devel-
ops to a fruiting stage, when the small red oranges known
as tiie Tangerines are the results. Illustrations of these
transformations of one organ to another are frequent if
we look for them. The annexed illustration shows a
condition of the white clover, which, instead of the usual
round head, has started on as a raceme or spike.
rii(S(? wanderings from general forms were formerly
regarded as monsters, of no particular use to the botani-
cal student, but are now welcomed as guiding stars to
till' central features of Morphology. The importance of
tills branch of botanj-, in connection with classification,
can readily be seen.
Tlic studies in the behavior of plants have made re-
raaikable progress during the century, and this also de-
rives nuich aid from morphology. The strawberry sends
out runners from which new plants are formed ; but, tir-
ing I if this, eventually sends the runner ujjward to act as
a Hiiwt'r stalk. What might have been but a bunch of
leaves and roots at the end of the runner is now con-
verted into a mass of flowers and pedicels at the end of
a coiuiiion peduncle. In some cases Nature reverses this
Jilaii. After starting the structure as an erect fruit-bear-
ing stem, it sends it back to pierce the ground as a root
shoukl do. I'liis is well illustrated by the peanut.
In the common Yucca, the more tropical species have
erect stems ; but in the form known in gardens as Ad-
am's needle and thread — Yitrrfi filinnentos(i — the erect
stem is sent down under the surface of the ground, and is then a rhizome,
instciul of a caudex, or stem.
HEAD OF WniTK CLO-
VER, WITH A BRANCH
EUOM THE CENTRE.
108
TJilUMPnS AND WOMJEliS OF THE XIX'" VESTURY
Modification in connection witli l)cliiivior i.s furtlu'r illuHtmtoii by tlic
graiievine and Virginia creeper. The whole leading; shoot i.s iicro puslicd
aside by the develojinicnt of a itnd at the liase of tlie leaf, that takes the iiliicc
of a leading shoot. The original leader tiien becomes a tendril, and serves
in the economy of the plant by clinging to tree? or rocks, or in coiling aronml
PE.KNrr.
A poll magnified.
other plants in sujiport. Great ])rogress has been made in this department
of bf)tany within recent years. Darwin has shown that the tendrils of some
plants continue in motion for some time in order to find something to cling
to. The graj)evine especially spends a long time in this labor if there is
ditHcnlty in reaching a host. The plant preserves vital power all this time,
b\it no sooner is support found, than nutrition is cut off, and the tendril dit s,
though, hard and wiry, it serves its parent plant as a support better de;id
'ENTUJiY
STOHY or PLANT AND FLOWER
UW
tliaii ulivc. Till' lunoiiiit of luitiitioii Mpuiit in niistaiiiiii^? motion is louiid to
111' ciioiinons. A vine that oiin timl rtiiitiy means of supiioi't j,'rows with a
miirh molt' lu'altliy vi/iror tlian ont' that Ims ditticulty in tiiuling it. Many
jiliiiils prt'sent illiistnitions.
Much advance lias been made in the knowledge of the motions of plants as
ri'vMi'ils tln'ir various forms. (Jrowtli in plants is not i-ontinuons ; hut is a
st'iiis of rests and advances. In other
words it is rhythmic. The nodes, or
knots, in the stems of grasses are rest-
iiij,'-plaees. When a rest occurs, energy
may he nxerted in a dift'erent direc-
tiiin, iuid a change of f(jrm result.
Tills is well illustrated by the com-
111011 Dogwood of northern woods. C'or-
niis Jl'irti/i' on the eastern, and I'oniiis
yiittii/m on the western slope of the
American continent. On the approach
of winter the leaf is reduced to a bud
scale, and then rests. Wiieii spring re-
turns these scales resume growth and
appear as white bracts. In the annexed
illustration the scales that served for
winter protection to the buds are seen
at the a)ie.\ of the bracts. In other
species of Dogwood the bud scales do
not resume growth. Energy is s])ent
in another direction. In this manner
we have an insight as to the cause of variation, which was not perceived even
,so recently as Darvvin's time. \\\> now say that variation results from vary-
ing degrees of rhythmic growth — force ; and that this again is governed by
varying powers of assimilation.
The Darwinian view, that form results from external conditions of which
the plant avails itself in a struggle for existence, is still widely accei)ted as
a leading factor in the origin of species. Those which can assume the
strongest weapons of defense continue to exist under the changed conditions.
The weaker ones do not survive, and we only know of them as fossils. This
is termed the doctrine of natural selection.
Tile origin and development of jdant-life, or, as it is termed, evolution, has
made rajjid ad\ancemeiit as a study during the century. That there has been
au adaptation to conditions in some respects, as contended by Mr. Darwin
ami his followers, must be correct. The oak and other species of trees must
have l)een formed before mistletoe and other parasites coidd grow on them,
lu the common Dodder — sjieeies of Ciisciifa — the seeds germinate in the
ground like ordinary plants. As soon as they find something to attach them-
selves to, they cut loose from mother earth and live \\ holly on the host. Ag
a spieulation it seems plausible that all parasites have arisen in this way.
Sonic, like the mistletoe, having the power, at length, to have their seeds
germinate on the host-plant, have left their terrestrial origin in the past
unei'vtain. A number of parasites, however, do not seem to live wholly on
OUTLINE OK A WIIITK DOIiWOOI) KI.OWKll
{('iiliniK Jhiri(lil), SHOWING nUDSl'AI.KS
DKVKl.OPKU TO HKACT8.
110
iHiiMi'iis ASh woshKiis OF I III-: \i\iii chyruitr
tlif plants tlu'v iitiiuli lliciiiHihcs 1(1, 'llii'sc iiic usually ilrstitnti' dl' giv( II
i>ii|<ir. Till' liiiliaii |ii|)i-, snow |iliiiit nf the I'licitic Cuast, aiul Sijiiaw riiot ol
tJu' Kastfiu Statt's iiri' rxaiii|plt's ; llir luriufi railed nliKst-Hnwcr (roiu its |>ali ■
lu'ss. Tlu'sc pliiiits lijivc litlli riiiliuiiiicfdiis luattci' in llirir Htnicturc, aii>l
Ih'Ikh' ai't> it'^'ardt'd as having,' tiniiu'd a kind of |)aitni'rslii|i w itii lim^i. This
is known now as synd)iosis, or living; to^'ctlar i>i dissimilar or^ranisnis, carii
dc|icndi'nt niuliiaUy. 'I'lic iun,i,'Ms and tlit' ihiweriiiK' I'lanI in tlicsc cases arr
nfct'ssarv to tin- existi'iu f each other. Tlii'V demand nitroj^en instead "t
earhonhvdroids. 'i'he S([iuiw rooi, ('niiit/i/ni/ls .liinriraiiii, tlion^h attached to
the sidplerraneiin portions (d the trunks of trees, is prohaldy sustained liy
the tMn>,Mis material in the old hark, or cvi'U in the wood, rather than hy the
ordinary food ol tlowerinn plants. I.iciiens. as d is now wi 11 known, are ;i
comiMiiind id fungi iind water weeds (alj,'a'). and this (hx'trine of synd)iosis
is lejiarded as one id' the j,'reat advances (d' the
century.
It is hut fair to say that tlio doctrine of eso-
hition hy the inllncnce id' external conditions m
the ehan^;c of form. thon;,di widtdj accepted at
this time, is jiot witiiout strong? opiionents, who
jioini to the occasional development or suppres-
sion of parts on the same plant, though the exter-
nal conditions must hu the same. Fur instance,
there are flowers that liave all their parts re^'ii-
lar. as in the ]ietals of a Imttereup; and irregular,
as in the snaiwlragou or fox-gh)ve. |5ut it has
heen noted that irrci;idar Howers have pendulous
stalks, while thi^ regular (uies are usually creel.
I$ut once in a while, on the .same plant, flowers
nornuilly droojdng will heconie erect. lu these
cases the flowers are regular. In the wild snap-
dragon or yellow toad-Hax, Lltnirii nih/iiri.i, one
of the petals is dcvelojied into a long spur; the
other four petals have, in early life, l)oeon<e con-
nate and transformed into parts of the llowei
wholly unlike ordinary petals. ]!ut now and then
the original ])etals will all develop spurs, result-
ing in the condition technically known as peloria.
Liniueus gave this name to this condition he-
cause it was sui)poscd to be "monstrous," or some-
thing opposetl to law and order. Through tln'
advance in morphological botany we have leanuil
to regard it as the result of some normal law of
development, innate to the plant, and which could
as well be the regular as the occasional condition.
In other words, there is no reason why Naturr
might not make the live-s]>urred flower as continuous in a wild snaixlragoM
as in a columbine. Many similar facts are used by those who question th •
Darwinian law of development.
That nutrition has more to do in the evolution of form than extern;'!
YKI.I.OW TOAD-KI.AX.
Flower in the peloria state.
STOlty OF I'l.WT AMI ri.owi:/!
Ill
full ( >
tlllK-'
iiul.ili
llMCi il
ImiIIH'
Sll|
dm
.Iv
nllly lllillr llnwcrH IIH' pro-
-f^
'■)
11 than extern;
liiis it'i'fivt'tl niiu'li uiil, iiM il tlii'oi-y, tinm tin- ailviuicf (Imiiin n'ci'iit
III II Mtiiily of tli<> Nt>{iiinitH Ht*xt>H (if tlowfi-M. On riiiiif«>i'()UM treox,
v tilt- lii-*, piiH's. and s|iniccH, tin- iiiali' ami IViiialf tluwcis urn pro-
si'paiati'ly. Tlit' ffinalf. wliicli Hiiallv vii'ld tlif nmcH, are iihvayrt
nil tlic iiKiNt vigorous liiaiiclicH. WIdmi tlicsc lirancliPH liavo their
iif iiiitritinii hIiiu'Ii'iii'iI and Intihiii' weak.
( hi till- iitlirr hand,
liiiUii'lii'H nnrnially weak
will ;il times ;,'aiii iiirreasi'd
sti'i'ii^'tli, and tlii'ii tli<> male
rtiiwiTs give icmalo ones.
Tiiis is (iftcn seen in corn
ticids. 'riii'K'''i''iiill.y weak
tiissi'l will have ^riiins of
I'di'ii thmu^di it. It is nut
:iilit(|\u!nt to Hnd what
should normally lit! pertert
cars on stalks weaker than
usual. In these eases tho
upper portion of the ear will
have iiialo flowers only.
In eonneetion with the
(Idctriiie of development,
iinii'h attention lias Wen
^{iven dnriiig the century
to Fertilization of flowers
iind the agency of iuseets
ill eonneotion tlierewith.
On the one hand it is con-
tended that in all probability the flowers in the earlier periods of the world's
liistory iiad neither c(dor nor fragrance. In this condition they were self-t'er-
tili/eis, that is, were foenndated by their own pollen. In modern phraseology
they were in and in bretulers. When the struggle for existence became neces-
sary, those which could get a cross with outside races became more vigorous in
their jirogeny, and thus had an advantage in the struggle. In brief, witho\it an
occasional introduction of new blood, as it might be termed, there was danger
of a race dying out. To support this view, Mr. l>arwin published the resiilt
of a number of exjjcriments. Many of them favored eitlu.'r side, but the aver-
ivge was in favor of the view th.it crossing was advantageous. Against this it
has lieen in-ged that an average in such cases is not <!onclusive. If a num-
ber, though the minor nuud)er of cases, showed superiority by close breeding
in liis limited experiments, a new set of observations might have changed the
averages, so as to nuike the minor figures in one instaiu^e the major in others.
Again, it is contemled thiit to increase a plant by other means thiin by seeds
must be the closest kind of reproduction ; yet some plants, coeval with the
hist(>!y of man, have been continued by offsets and are as strong and vigor-
ous lis ever. The lianana is an illustration. ITnder cultivation it produces
only seedless fruits. It is raised wludly from young suckers or offsets from
the roots. Mythology gives it a prominent place in the (iarden of Eden,
and its botanical name, Musa paradlsiaca, originated in this legend.
OHAINKD rORNT.\SSKL.
112 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
Though imieh lias been vecovded in this line to weaken the force of tla-
speculations that Howers lati- in the history of the earth develojicd color and
sweet secretions in order to attract insects to aid in eross-fertilizatiou, tin y
are stronglj' supjjorted Ity the fact that a hirge number of sjjecies, notably nf
orchids, are seldom fertilized without insect aid in pollination.
But there are anomalies even here. fSonie iilants capture and literally cat
the insects that should be regarded as their benefactors. These are classiticd
as insectivorous plants. Some seem to catch the insects in mere sport, while
in the act of conveying pollen to them. These are known as cruel plants.
There are numerous illustrations of this among the families of Asclfjiias and
^■iliitci/iium, the milk-weed fam-
ily. In our gardens a Brazil-
ian clind)er. Anivrju, or Phi/si-
anthus <i//ii'iis, is frequently
grown for its waxy Howers
and delicious odor, but the
treacliprous blossoms are fvc-
rpicntly strung with the in-
sects it has caught.
In the northern part of
America a common wild flower
of one of these families, Ajxin/-
tnim (iii(/rosiii(rfii/!iim, has this
insect-catching habit. Xunu i-
oiis small insects meet deatli,
and hang to the flowers like
scalps to the wild Indian.
Considerable advance has
been made in vegetable i)hysi-
ology. though no one has as
yet been able to re;icli the ori-
gin of the life-j(ower in plants.
The power that enables an oak
to maintain its huge l>ranclu's
in a horizontal direction, or
that can lift or overturn huge
rocks, or split them a]iart as
the lightning rifts a tree trunk, is yet unknown. *Mi the opposite page is an
illustration of a circumstance frecpuMitly observed, wherein even a delicate
root fibre can jiierce a potato <ir other struetures.
I'ossibly the greatest botanical advance of the century is in relation to
cryi)toganii(^ phints, those low organisms which as mildews and moulds are
most familiar to people generally. .\s microscopes increase in power, iww
forms are discovered. ( >ver forty thousaml species have alieady been describeil,
and we may fairly say that there are nearly half as many forms of vegetable
life nivisible to the naked eye as can l)e seen by our unaided visual organs.
Their wants and behaviors are very much the same as in the flowering jilants
or higher orders, as they arc usiuiUy termed. But there is one great diffe rem e
in this, that they feed mainly on nitrogen, and have no use for carbon. Tlnv
U.VNANA l'"I.OWr,HS.
ENTURY
STORY OF PLANT AND FLOWER
113
THK CnUEL-PT.ANT.
Butterriy cniiglit in the flower.
cart' little for light, but yet have an upward tendency under certain
forms, as do those which seek the light. The agarics that revel in the dark-
ness (pf a coal mine, yet curve ujiward
as lirartily as a corn sprout in the
ojK'ii air. Just as in Hnwering plants,
also, they are mostly innocuous, and
indeed many absolutely beneficial to
nuui, a very small portion only being
poisonous, or connected with the dis-
eases of the human race. Even in
these cases their power is closely
guarded by nature. The spores of
fungi are found to require such a nice
cond)ination of conditions before they
germinate, that, unless these occur,
they will retain their vegetative power
many years in a state of absolute rest. The mycelium of the mushroom, as the
real plant — the cobwebby portion under ground — only starts tt> grow when
just so many degrees of heat, neither more nor less, with just so nuich mois-
ture, and the i)ro[)er food, are all
at hand together ; and large num-
bers are known to be very select
in the kind of food they will
make use of at all. One genus,
known as C'ovdypeps, will only
start when the sjiore comes in
contait with the head of a cater-
pillar. And various species of
the genus will avoid a kind of
caterpillar that aiiother would
enjoy. In our own country we
have one that feeds on the larvae
of the jMay Beetle, and is known
as Cnrdi/ri'jiH Jfelohtit/ia: In
Australia is a very pretty spe-
cies, which takes on the appear-
ance of the antlers of a deer.
This is known as Cordi/rejis An-
(Iri'irni'l.
The most minute of these are
known as nncrobes. They are
chiefly composed of a single cell,
in the midst of which is the ]iro-
to]ilasm. or material in which
lift' resides, but the exact na-
ture of which is still a mys-
tery.
One of the most useful and
fascitiiiting studies in modern times is Geographical l^otany. It is found to
8
OLD I'OTATO PENETRATED BY ROOTLET WITH
A NEW POTATO.
114 TRIUMPHS AMJ WONDEUS OF THE .Y/A'"' CENTURY
have a close relation to the history of man, and to the changes which have
occurred on the surface of the earth. I'huits fol-
low man wherever he wanders ; and though every
other trace of man shoukl he abolished on the
American continent, the plants that came witli
liim from the ( tld World wo\ild enable the fiitiirr
historian to follow his tracks here pretty well.
No one has any historical evidence that what is
now the Pacific ( >cean was on(!e land, and that
the area between the Pacific ( >cean and the Mis-
sissippi was once a huge .sea. but botany tells the
plain story. Only for botany we slioulil not
know that the land now serving as the poles was
once within the tropics; and mainly by fossil
gum trees on the American continent, and the
existence still of a few jilants common to Aus-
tralia, have we the knowledge of some land con-
nection between these distant shores, island
floras, some of the species of which are now
found only in very limited areas, tell of large
tracts submerged of which only the mountain
peaks are left a.s small islands, lonely in a wide
exjianse of water, while other islaiuls, witli only
a limited number of well known specie.-., tell of
new u])lieavals within modern times.
It is in these
lines chiefly
that botany has
advaTiced dur-
ing the cen-
tury. Herbari-
ums for dryand
botanic gar-
dens for living plants are essential. The latter are not as necessary to the
study as formerly, as the facilities for travel bring the votaries of the science
to distant places in a short time. Nature furnishes the living material for
study at a less outlay of time and money than in the old way of growing the
plants for the juirpose. Few uiodern botanic gardens have the fame of those
of the j.ast. It is the great Herbariiini of Kew, rather than the living plants.
that makes that famous spot the great school for botany to-day. In our own
country, the Herbariums of Candiridge. Mass. ; Columbia College, New York ;
the National at Washington ; and that of the Academy of Natural Sciences
of riiiladelphia, are the most famous in America.
Thomas Meehax.
A FUNGUS {Cordyceps Andivimi) ouowiNO FilOM the hkad
of a CATEUPILLAn.
PROGRESS OF WOMEN WITHIN THE CENTURY
iOM THE HEAD
UMAS MeKHAN.
'I'liE whole woman (luestion may be briefly summed up as a century-old
stni^'gle between conservatism and progress. Women are moving irregularly,
1111(1 iierliajis illogicaliy, along certain lines of development toward a point
tliiit. will jiroliably be reached; while conservatism, halting and fearful, is
struggling blindly to hold points and maintain lines that must be given up.
I'll fortunately for the rapidity of women's advancement, women them-
selves Iiave no thoroughness, no clearness, as to the fundamental cause of
tlieir grievances or the ends to be attained, and are not yet alive to a con-
scidusness of the fact that the fp.iestion of woman's rights is simply and
imrely a question of human rights, the basic solution of which, ou the broad
plane of justice, will solve all the social, political, .and industrial problems of
wliicli the woman ([uestion forms a jiart.
'I'lie time when woman suffered silently and toiled jiatiently without once
iiuestioning the justice of her lot has happily passol forever, t'onfusion and
antagonism are engendered because of misunderstanding of the real move-
ment. Women are consciously or unconsciously struggling for that selfhood
which has hitherto been denied them, and are seeking for opportunity to
develop that iiersonality which Browning, Kuskin. and other broad thinkers
(leeliire "is the good of th.e race." The most discouraging feature of the
situation is the fact that women as a whole do not realize that a politically
interior class is a degraded class ; a disfranchised class, an oppressed class ;
and that her economic dependence upon man is the basic caiise of her
inferiority.
The grievances openly proclaimed by the advocates of woman suffrage as
causes of hostility are too fre([uently childish, unreasonable, and unworthy
(if serious attention. In the majority of cases they centre around some
faii('i(!d wrong that is a result rather than a cause. The keynote not only to
tlie woman (luestion, but to the labor (piestion may be found in the words of
tliat deep thinker and able writer, A\ignst Hebel : "The basis of all oppres-
sidu is economic dependence ui)on the oppressor." The widespread discon-
tent with present social conditions is an augury of hope for the future.
There is no element in the unrest wliich need excite grave apprehension.
Tlidughtful people perceive clearly that women are intensely human, nothing
iiioic, and that as human beings they are entitled not only to food, clothes,
and shelter, but to an opportunity for development.
It is only as we are familiar witli the oppression that has been the common
lot (pf women since the beginnin:; of time that we can realize that her lot has
been sweetened, her condition ameliorated, .and her progress within the cen-
tiiiv marvelous indeed. The woman ipiestion, Instorically considered, con-
tains all the physical subjug.ation and consequent inferiority which consti-
tuted all the dift'erentiation between the physical .and mental powers of men
116 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
and wonu'ii. It contains all tlie humiliation, uncertainty, and ultimate hoj..'
of her future. The history of the woman qiu'stion is analogous with tlir
history of the labor question, with the ditterenee that woman slavery had its
oiigin in the ijeculiarities ol her sexual being, wliile the laborer's slavery
began when he was robbed of the land which is the birthriglit of every
human being. It will be seen, tlierefore, that woman's slavery antedates tlic
thralldom of the thrall, and •• was more humiliating, more degrading, because
she was treated and regarded by the laborer as his servant, his inferior."
This condition largely i)revails among laborers to-day. and was indirectly
given utterance to a few weeks ago, when some of the members of tiic
American Federation of Labor fornudated a traditional resolution demanding
that " women be excluded from all jiublic work and relegated to the home," —
a demand that would be to some extent reasonable, and no doubt accejitaljlf.
to the great army of working-women, had the chivalrous laborers who fornui-
lated the demand the .ability and industry to in-ovide a home for the women
whom they would render paupers by dej)rivation of work, and for the chil-
dren for whom their fathers were unable to provide. It is gratifying to
know that this resolution w.as lost in the committee room, and th.at its
formulation was greeted by the press of the whole country with a storm of
deserved disapproval.
Inasmuch as the rapidh' increasing number of bread-winners among women
makes it evident that men are either un.able' or incompetent to provide for
them, it remains for the working-women of the countrj' to formulate a reso-
lution demanding that men be excluded from all work that has hitherto been
considered as belonging to or peculii-rly adapted to women. What an army
of mosquito-legged men from the eating-houses, laundries, and dry-goods
establislnnents would rise up to proclaim the idiocy of women and protest
against such injustice !
On the threshold of the world's morning, says a distinguished writer and
■worker in the German Keiehstag of to-day, we may correctly assume that
woman was man's equal in mental and physical power. But she became his
inferior ])hysically, and consequently dej)eiulent upon his bounty, during
periods of pregnancy, childbirth, and child-rearing, when her lielplessness
forced her to look to him for food and shelter. In the childhood of the race
might made right ; brute strength was the standard of superiority ; tlio
struggle for existence was crude and savage ; and thus tliis occasional help-
lessness became the manner of lier bondage.
That natui'e is primarily responsible for the centuries of wom.an's enslave-
ment there can be no doubt. And as nature's laws are unclianging. tlir
advocates of woman's jKditical advancement would do well to remendjer that
woman's greatest importance as a public factor can only begin when tin-
function of motlierhood cc.ises. ''In a real sense, as a factory is meant tn
turn out locomotives or vlocks. the machinery of nature is designed in tlu'
last resort to turn out nuitliers. Life to the luiman species is not a random
series of random efforts; its course is set as rigidly as the pathw.ay of thf
stars ; its laws are as inimutable as the laws of the Medes and Persians. "
( Drumniond's Ascent of ilan.)
Nature's great work for the individual is reproduction and care of tli
speciee. The first, Drummond terms the cosmic process; the second, th'
ENTURY
PROGRESS OF WOMEN WITHIN THE CENTURY
117
)d ultimate liojic
ilogous -with till'
u slavery hail it s
laborer's slavery
;hriglit of every
•ry antedates tlu'
'grading, becausi'
lit, his inferior."
d was indirectly
members of the
uticiii demanding,'
I to the home," —
loubt aecej>tabli',
arers who formu-
e for the women
:ind for the chil-
is gratifying to
m\, and that its
■ with a storm of
rs among women
it to provide for
formulate a reso-
las hitherto been
Wliat an army
3, and dry-goods
men and protest
ished writer and
^tly assume that
t she became his
i bounty, during
her lielplessness
hood of the race
superiority ; tlio
occasional lielii-
ivonian's enslavi ■■
unchanging, the
remember that
begin when tin-
tory is meant tu
designed in tlir
is not a random
pathway of tlir
1 and Persians. "
and care of tli
the second, tli'
nioial process. Statistics show that one child out of every three dies before
iiialiu'ity, and nature's task is incomidete unless at least two children be
reiiri'd to the adult age by every family. Kvery conjile, then, at i<arriage,
assumes the responsibility to society and posterity ot bringing three children
into the world. Woman's part in the stupendous economy of nature is first
ami distinctively most important, that of niotlierhood. She can only jiay her
del It to nature, fultill her mission to the world, and discharge her obligations
MAIIT ELIZABETH LEASE
to iiunianity by faithfully discharging the duties of motherhood. But as the
fiuii'tiim of motherhood ceases when the woman is in the prime of life,
lilMMii'd by experience and fortified by maternal ties, she may yet have ample
oiiliortunity to exert her far-reaching influence in jmblic work when she has
exemplified in h6r own life the words, Home, Love, ^[other. And there is,
tlirri' can be, no rational objection to granting the fullest suffrage to woman
iit tills period.
Having located the l)asic cause of her dependence, it will be seen that the
only solution ])ossible for the comiilete emancipation and mental and physi-
cal lU'velopmeiit of woman is to render her, through industrial freedom, so
economically independent in every way of man's grudging bounty that she
118
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
will scoi-n liis pity, resent his abuse, and claim her right to fullest iudividuiil-
ity and opijortunity as a human lieing.
For coiuitlcss ages women were separated from the world by a barrier a-;
effective as the myriad-niiled wall of China; vacillating between the eon-
dition of slave and superintendent of the kitidien; tauglit nothing but those
Himsy accomplishments tliat would catch the eye of tiie prospective husband
and master; sneered at, ridiculed, and abused, whenever she attempted \><
cross tlie line which lioary prophets and jiatriarchal slaveholders had markivl
across her })ath ; suljject to man's wiiim and caprice; her physical develo|i-
nient, in time, became meagre and cripjtled. And as her mental faculties
were repressed and inqtrisoned in the narrowest circle of feminine o])inions,
it becanu^ ditticult for her to rise above the most comnHiiiplace tiivialities ol
life. Thus it came about that the term "Weaker Sex," originally used tn
convey only the acknowledged truth that women are inferior to men in
piiysical strength, canu' to include the mind as well as body, lie this as it
may, the jiosition of women for long centuries was inevitably one of extreme
cruelly and oppression. Countless bitter and unnecessary limitations hedged
her pathway and obstructed her development from the cradle to the grave.
It is not to be wondered at that she in time became so inured to her degrad-
ing servitude as to accept it as her natural ]>osition. Madame De Staiil h;is
truly said. -Of all the gifts and faculties wiiich nature has lavishly bestowed
upon woman, she has been allowed to exercise fully but one. the faculty to
suffer." Tlie extent of this suffering and the deteriorating influence whicdi
it has exerted upon the race can never be estimated till Finis is written to
the story of humanity.
In the noonday of (Jrecian pow^r and learning, woman trod not beside
man as helpmate and comi)anion. but followed as his slave. Demosthenes
defines the wife as the -bearer of children, the faithful watch-dog who
guards the house for her master."' At the Council of ^lacon, held in tlic
sixtii century, the (piestion of the soul and humanity of women was gravely
weighed and debated, profound doctors of theology maintaining that " woman
is not a subject but an object for uian's use and pleasure." For conturies
theological divines whetted their wit on heljdiss woman; and the church in
holy zeal persecuted the woman who was guilty of a fault as a "daughter of
the devil,'' and held her up to public contumely as the concentration of all
evil.
Christianity, indeed, offered emancij/ation to women. It proclaimed a
startling doctrine. — the equality of the rich and the poor, the weak aiul tlic
strong, in the sight of God the Father. .\nd it became evident that such
teachings would inevitably break down the barriers of class and caste,
eliminate injustice, and usher in a time when all should stand equal before
the law. lUit alas, the world, with the excejition of isolated and individual
instances, has never been offered an opportunity to test tlte eiticacy of the
all-corrective princijiles of the religion which Christ gave to the world. The
repression of women biased the reformatory tendencies of Christianity, and
rendered it as ineffective as a medium of relief to tin; oppressed as our one-
sided political system of to-day. Christianity, under masculine domiuatioii.
was lost in the rubbish of churchianity, which, professing but failing to i)rai
tice the religion of Christ, has held woman in the same contempt in whi( i
PlWailESS OF WOMEN WITl/lN THE CENTUltY
119
sill lias been held by nil the aiuiient luid idolatrous vel'V-ioiis of tlie world.
Yet d<'sj)ite the tact tliat the great Mijster, were He to come to-tlay, would
scMicely recognize in the churclK s a trace of the code wliich He lived and
dird to exemplify, it must not be forgotten that the vital principle of religion
never dies. It eventually attains f.dlest devclopnunit, and becomes identified
wilii the progress of oivili/.jition and the highest purpose of .i i)eo])le. There-
fdic. we may reverently believe
tliat in the ultimate triumph and
reiiiibilitation of practical (Jhris-
tiiiiiity lies the hope of the oij-
])nssed, and true liberty not only
tor women, but for every human
being.
I'',ven now the mists are lifting.
The great change in the position
of wonuMi — legal, social, and edu-
('utional — within w. hundred years
is breaking even the hard shell of
orthodox usage. Whole denomi-
nations ha%'e dropped the word
" obey ■■ from the nuirriage service.
Jhmy ministers frecpiently omit
it. or. if administered, it is pro-
nounced l>y the bride with mental
reservation and looked upon as a
word that has only the most re-
mote and shadowy signitica.ice.
The new wine is breaking the old
bottles; the spirit of the nine-
teenth century is too progressive
foi' the usages and traditions of
the eleventh century. Modern churehianity, realizing that women constitute
three fo\irths of its membershi}), no longer Avages a merciless warfare upou
them. It has relaxed its Pauline grip upon her throat, " I suffer not a
woman to speak in the churches." .Vnd the more advanced theological
bodies have offered her the intellectual hospitality of the jnilpit, where her
eliKiuence is a pleasing change to those who have grown tired of preachers'
platitudes. Clerical decrees are no longer hurled at her defenseless head.
The doors of churches, schools, and colleges are swinging wide at her
apiii'oacdi, though they sometimes creak on their hinges. The ministers no
longer o))enly advocate that the gates of opi)ortunity be bolted and barred
against her. There is everything to stimulate hoi)e ; the wings of feminine
natiu-e have expanded till a return to the chrysalis is impossible.
1 1 is true that a very large number yet profess to believe that a woman
fill tills her whole mission in the world when she makes herself as pretty and
agreeable as possible, and devotes all her time and attention to the discharge
of domestic duties. Hut there has been a wonderful modification of opinion
since Schopenhauer declared that " woman is not called to great things.
S'le pays her debt to life by the throes of birth, care of the children, and
120 rniUMPIiS ASn \V0M)KRS of the XlXr" CENTURY
siibjectioii to her liushiunl." T\V(t things Inivo tfiiilcd to bring about this
iiioditication of oiiinioii ; the broaiU'i^i'ihication and incrcasfd (H>|)ortunitii's
for devtdopniunt atti-udaut uijon thi- growtii of individual libt-rty and repub-
liL'an forms of govornnuMit ; and the capability of self-maintenance due to
improved meehanical apjiliani't's. It is not mere inclination on the part ol
the individual, nor is it the voice of the agitator, that is bringing alwjut tlu'se
changes; it is the irresistible logic of events.
One hnndri'd years ago the education of women in the nu)st ]irogressive
and wealthy families went little beyond reading and writing. In LSI"), when
Mrs. Emma Willard issued an atldress to the mend)era of the New York
legislature advocating the entUtwment of an institution for the higher
education of wonu'u, there was not a college in the country for girls. In
ISilL'. the colleges of the I'nited States numbered more than ."ilt.dOO female
students. In ISSS. the ratio of female students to the who)" nund)er of
students pursuing a higher course of education in universities and colleges
in this country was 2'.>..'i per centum, or a little more tiian one fourth. At
the same time the ratio in Englaml was 11 per centum; in France, '2 per
centum; while in (Jermany, Austriii, aiul Italy the ratio wa.s so slight as to
be but a mere fraction of 1 \wv centum.
Siu'h a thi)ig as a fennde president of a college was unknown and probably
undreamed of in the eighteenth century; but we learn from the Report of
the Commissioner of Education for liSiST-.S.S that there are in the United
States forty-two colleges and institutions for the sujjerior instruction of
women having a ■wouuin for president.
In the liigh iind secondary- schools, in 18S.S. over one half of the students
were girls. And in the same y<:ir, tabulated statistics reveal that 08 per
centum of the teachers were women. And this percentage Mill become
greater and grenter as we grasp the truth that woman is, by gift of gre;iter
intuition and sympathy, the natural instructor of the luuuau race. The
salaries paid to women teachers are grossly unfair when compared to the
pay of male teachers for the same or less work, liut as the difference in
compensation is growing smaller every decade, there is at least room for hope
that this injustice will soon be righted.
The law of evolution is the discoverer and formulator of woman's advance-
ment. ■ The invention and use of gunpowder placed the jjcasant on an equal
war-footing with the mailed knight. The enormous increase in meehanical
appliances and productive uiachinery has taken woman out of the rank of
unpaid menials, has given her leisure for mental development, opportunity
to receive recompense for toil, and is largely breaking down the physical
barriers which had hitherto been considered unsurmountable. Statistics
show that there are forms of machinery in the operation of which the
production of a woman is even greater than that of a man, thus furnishing
an actual proof of the falsity of the idea that woman is incapacitated for
competition with man in the physical world. And the trend of events is
indicated by the statistics given in the Heportof the Commissioner of Labor,
from which we learn that in some trades and proftssions the percentage of
women engaged has increased fivefold in the last decade.
While woman's work has always been a recognized factor in the world's
progress, yet her admittance to the field of remunerative work is limited to
NTUHY
liii),' about this
(1 iiiiportuuitu's
ii'ity and ivimb-
ittMlillKJl' duo to
on tilt? part ot
;ing about these
lost pi'()j,'i'»'s,sive
In I.SIU, wlieu
tlu> New York
tor the hi;j;her
)■ for girls. In
1 r.(),(KIO tVniale
iHi)" number of
es and colleges
ine fourth. At
1 France, - per
so slight as to
n ami probably
u the Report of
in the United
instruction of
of the students
eal that G.'i per
:e will become
gift of greater
an race. The
•mpared to the
le difference in
; room for hope
man's advance-
mt on an equal
in mechanical
of the rank of
lit, opportunity
n the physical
)le. Statistics
of Avhich the
hus furnishing
capacitated for
id of events is
ioner of Labor,
percentage of
i"k is limited to
PltO(JHESS OF WOMEN WITHIN THE CENTURY
121
till' last one hundred years; is, in fact, tb.e prominent feature of the niue-
tiMiith century. There is overwhelming evidence that her work in every
(li'|iartniciit to which she has been admitted is as capable, accei>table, and in
every way as faithfully pcrt'orined as the work of her brother man. In the
la^t centuiy it is estimated that not more than 1 per centum of artists and
tiacliers of art were women ; while in l.S!)(l women compris.'d 4iS.(>S per
ciiituni. or nearly mie half of that professiun. Nearly the same proportion
(i| increase is found in the ranks of teacher.s and musicians, — women now
fdiiuing over (!0 p"r centum of the teachers of the I'liitcd States.
There are now about three millinii wnmen and girls in this country who
earn their own livelihood. And the eleventh census reveals the startling
information tiiat in the city of New Vork there are tweiity-severi thousand
men wlio are supjiortcd by their wives, ^'ct these men, useless to society, a
liiirch'ii to the women who supjiort them, are permitted the immunities and
privileges of law and custom, while women have equality only in the duties
and punishments.
.Vt the beginning of the eighteenth century there were but few occu|)ation3
iu which women were permitted to engage. Their abilities and ambitions
were restricted to the school and the home. In the latter they received food
and shelter as compensation: in the former, but one half (U- one third the
salary allowed to male teachers. The first noticeable change in woman's
(■(indition, when she became something more than a mere household drudge,
whoso busy hands carded and wove,
spun and knit, the family supply of
cloth, (kites from the first bale of cot-
ton grown in this conntrv in the early
years of the eigliteenth century, in
that bale of cotton lay the seed.s of not
only a new movement in labor, but the
lieginning of a new epoch lor woman,
iu which her work and wages were des-
tined to take coherent shape and form,
hi all industrial progress since that
time women have taken an active part
while receiving a meagre share of the
product. Forced by the course of events
to emerge from seclusion and repres-
sion, she has passed from one stage of
ilevelopment to another, always a stej)
or two behind man in the ])rogres3
of social evolution, till the close of
the nineteenth century reveals myriad
changes and the actual realization of Tennyson's prophetic lines iu the
•• I'rincess," " We have i)rudes for proctors, dowagers for deans."
One hundred years ago it was the dutv of a woman to efface herself. She
>vas expected to make of lierself a mental blank-book upon which lier hus-
I'and juight inscribe what he would. Thus it is only lately that women have
I'cguu actively to com{)ete with men in expression of any kind. Indeed, pre-
vious to that time, with a few notable exceptions, they were denied recog-
^
' 'Irl
t m
GEORGE ELIOT.
122 TltlUMl'IlS AND WONDKRS OF THE A7A'" CENTUIIY
iiituni ol iiidiviiliiiil lit'o. 'Vhv woman, if imiiiiin'it'd, was iiu'i},'*'il in tin-
I'amily, ni, if mai-fied, niorgcd in tlic imshand. llcv nanus \\vv i(dij,M(in, licr
gods, woi'f clianyod on niarria},'c. I5nt. married or Hinglc, tiie altsorption
was coniiiictf. So it lias hapiKMicd that woman, tiirobhing witli jtot'tii' sym-
pathy, has, with tlin fxcfption of Sapplio, iiriidnct'd htss liigli and unmis-
takable jujetry than man. With more iiarmony, more music in Iut nature,
lier very soul attuned to sym|iiiony and riiytiim, she has been litth* known
as ii comjiospr. Witii iar vision and (dear literary insij^ht, slie has been
su])pressed in art and literature, (ieorj^e I'lliot gave her sublime literary
produetions to the world under a masculine imm dc jiliimv, because of tlie
prejudice of oven that ,iot remote day. Fanny MencUdssohn was comptdled
by her family to publisli her musical compositions as her brother's. Mary
Simierville met only discouragement and ridicule in her nuithematieal studies.
In every sphere, in every department of science and art. abuse, injustice, and
the Cloaking of r>'actionary frogs have greeted each steji of her upward way.
The wonder is, then, not that she has accomplished so little, but that she is
not in tlie samt! condition to-(hiy that she was when I'aul tlirust a gag in her
mouth in the sha])o of a (.'orinthian text, •• And if a woman would learn any-
thing, let her ask her husband at lioiue." it will i)e seen, therefore, that
the oft-repeated assertion that wonu'U have not given to the world as much
evidence of genius as men is a Lillij)\itian r.ssertion tainteil somewhat with
envy. "There has been no Shakes])eare among women," says the advocates
of man's supremacy. With all the world as their own, aiul the gates of
bouiulless opp(utumties swinging wide, there* has been but one Shakesj)eare
.among men. It has been asserted that (Jeorge Eliot is the Shakespeare
among women and ^Frs. IJrowning the eonnter))art of Uaoon. I'ut their
immortality lias not been ti'sted. They lived but a little while ago. Hut
there is one Avoman. at least, who has established lier claim thoroughly, and
whose genius twenty -five ci'iituries have tested. Sappho is truly immortal.
Her fame and genius have been sealed by the approval of ;» 1 tie great
literati of the centuries, ('oleridge, who occui)ies no uncertain jdace in the
world of letters, s.ays of her, "Uf all the poets of the world, of all the
illustrious artists of all literature, Sappho is the one whose every word
has a ]ieculiar and unmistakable ])oetie perfume, a seal of ab.solute jjerfection
and illimitable grace." Swinburne, the greatest living master in the world
of verbal music, declares that. "Her verses are the supreme success, the
final achievement, of poetic art." Sappho's claim to immortality exceeds
that of Shakesj)eare's by twenty -three hundred years.
Men, viewing the literary ])roductions of women, are apt to give them the
color and l)ias of masculine thought. As instance the poetic critic of a
New Yoik ])eriodical. wlio wantonly affronts the gifted author of "I'oems
of Vassion '' by declaring that her " fervent verses are but the burning of
unseendy stubble that fails to give forth light or heat." Yet Ella "Wheeler
Wilcox, all fair-minded critics will admit, has won a place in the ranks of
poetic genius. Her poems throb with hum.an sympathy, and from the exalted
plane of her sjdendid womanhood she reaches down, fulfilling the law of
Chribtly service, to lift uj) the fallen and soothe and bind the bruised and
bleeding. Such masculine criticism is dying out, but it has not been uncom-
mon in the past. Mrs. Browning and Jane Austen were accused of " breaking
'TURY
iii'i'gt'il ill the
r religion, her
lie !ilis()r|)ti()ii
til jKietiir sviii-
;li and iiiiiuiK-
iii hiT iiiiiun',
I little known
she lias lieeil
hlinie literary
leeanse of the
was ''ompelled
other's. Mary
latieal studies.
, injustice, and
r upward way.
lut that she is
^t a gag in le-r
uld learn any-
therefore, that
■orld as niueh
ioniewliat with
the advocates
the gates of
iO ShakesjH'are
L! Shakespeare
in. J>ut their
ile ago. lint
oroughly, and
ruly immortal.
i» 1 tie great
n ])lace in the
Id, of all the
e every word
lute jierfeetion
f in the world
e success, tlie
•tality exceeds
live them the
;ic critic of a
or of "Poems
lie burning of
; Ella Wheeler
1 the ranks of
)m the exalted
ng the law of
e bruised and
fc been iincom-
l of " breaking
I'JWGllHSS or WOMKN WITHIN TU/i CHNTUHY
I'.'.'l
liiiwn by their writings tlie .safeguards cd' society." and they were adnnniished
lu "cea.se their literary elforts and devote themselves to sewing and washing
ilishes if tlioy would retain the chivalrous respect (d' men." "Jane Kyre"
was pronounced too imunual to he ranked as decent literature. " Adam Kedt^"
was chissed as the " vile oiitpniirings of a lewd woman's mind." Vet(.'harh>tt(*
i'.ninti-. (ic(U'ge Kliot, Mrs. Itrowning, and .lane .Austen have won an exalted
mid enviable place in the ranks of literature. Their writings have thrilled,
uplifted. an<l sweetened humanity.
The test of literary genius is to create a character of universal acceptance.
The record of half a century has init one world-wide, world-known characlrr
III that kind. That (diaract(>r was creattul liy a woman. In all literature, no
liiiok since the lUhle has been so widely circudated. so extensiv(dy translated,
or has so thoroughly commanded the ])roh)und attention (d' all das.ses as
Ilarr'et Meechcr Stowe's '• I'ncle Tom's (,'abin." .Mrs. Stowe impiessed her
genius ujioii tlu^ race and time, and marked a new ei)och for freedom. Pre-
vious to the publication of her book only a U^w men recognized slavery as
wrong, but a woman's sympathetic heart iind throhbing genius laid bare the
evil and disclosed to a liorritied world
the wnuig underlying slavery.
In iihilanthro]«y and the domain of
morals there is none who is doing more
heroic and effective work than Mrs. Kliz-
.ihetli 1>. (irannis. She deals not with
theories, but with real conditions. Her
sympathies, her broad work, her mani-
tdld charities, go out to Hesli and Idood.
iiuMi and wonuMi. She has the intuitive
faculty of jirobing deep into human na-
ture, leading -hose she wcnihl reform to
mourn real defects, rejoice in real victo-
ries, and hope and struggle for better
things.
The constantly broadening sphere of
woman's usefulness is in a large mea-
sure due to the organized forms of intel-
lectual activity among women known
as (dubs. Half a century ago dub-life
for women was unknown. Their social sympathies were limited to the jioliti-
( al jiarty that claimed the franchise of their nude relatives, or the church
at whose shrine the women worshiped. IJut su rapid has been woman's
develoi»ment in this direction that to-day women's chibs form a chain from
(ict-'iu to ocean, binding them as one great whole. The effect upon the mem-
bers is magical ; nature is enlarged ; charity broadened ; capacity for judg-
ment increased ; and hitherto unsuspected faculties are called into life and
jKiwer.
The lirst organized demand Ijy women for political recognition in the
I'nited States was made in 1848, at what was known as the Seneca Falls
( 'onvention. llidiculed, persecuted, kicked like a football from one geuera-
1 ion to another, this brave demand for political recognition was destined to
KltANCKS WFI.I.AllU.
124
THifMJ'ns AM I \\o\nh:iis or nil-: a/a*"' CKsrvitY
iH'cuint' an a^ji'iicy tliut wuiild woik ii |iciict'l'iil rfvolutioii, That tin- iiiiivc-
int'iit in iirDK'ri'ssiiiK, ami will I'vi'iitiially Huweuil, is evincoil Ity tlif ivcoitl nt
hall' a fi'iitiiry. in that tiiiif sih>inl siifTiano lias Immmi ^'niiitcd in twenty-three
States and Tenitories, pailial Mitlra^ie Uw pnlili« iminnvenn'Uts in three
Mtiites, iuuiiici|ial Hut!ra^'e iit ime, and in tonr Stattm full pnlitieal e<|iiality.
^Vy()nlin^; was the first State to aeemil eit/enship ti> her wonuMi, and ^he liears
testimony to its elllcaey in the jiro^'ress, honor, and soliriety (d' her people. In
1K".».'{, th»! Wyoming,' Htatf le^'islature passed resolutions highly eommemlattiry
of woman siilTiaije and its results, and anion;,' otiier things said, •• We |Miint
with pride to I lie laet that alter nearly Iwenly-tive years of woman sutTra^je.
not oiu' county in Wyoming' has a jioor-honse. that our jails are almost empty,
and crimp, except that ly strangers in the State, is almost unknown. "
i''rom the hanks of the tar-oll N'olga come the ^;ood tidin;,'s that even KuMsia
is prcparin;^ to take a great step in advance hy granting to wimen many legal
an<l jiolitieal privileges now enjoye<l only hy men. Knghmd granted muni-
cipal suffrage to women a ipiarter (d' a century ago, and has nnu'c reci'utly
granted jiartial parliamentary sutTrage. .\nd to the intlm nee of Knglish law,
more particidarly the .VJarru'd Women's Act, is largel\ dne the hettermeiit of
the legal status of women throughout the world. In Kngland we tind women
prominent in art, liter.iture. |i(ditics, the school and the chiireh. While in
this country the middle idassis liave herettd'orc carried on the suil'ruge agiti;-
tion. in England it finds active workers among the p«'erage.
Woman in iiolitics meets w'*h the opposition of jol) p(»liti<Mans, but she
realizes that every step id' her piogress, from the unveiling of her face to a
seat in the legislature of a State, has been taken in the face of tierce opiKwi-
tion and in violation of couveiitionalities and «!ustoms. rndisiuayed she
advances lor the ultimate lietternient of humanity.
The historian of the future will record the nineteenth century as the Re-
naissance of womankind. And the ultimate eft'ect ujion the human race of
having individuals, not servants, as mothers will surpass the progress made
in science and in art.
The eighteenth century found woman an appendage; the nineteenth trans-
formed her into an individual. The wonderful altruistic twentieth century,
whose dawn even now is breaking, will so develop this individuality that
women will contend for all the rights of the individual, cooperating with the
nation in the fulfillment of its mission, and with the worhl in the development
of the eternal law of progress.
" Through tlu- luir.»li Vdiccs of uiir ilay
A Inw, -wiM't prfliiili' liiids its way ;
Through iIcjuiIh of ilmilit ami -tuniis nf ivnr
A liglit is l>ri'ukiiig lulin iiikI clear."
Maky Eliz.vbetu Lease.
,4h
THE CENTURY'S TEXTILE PROGRESS
An '•Kji'iTV <'(>M('ciil8 notliiiif,' imnv i'<iiii]ilt'U'ly tliaii tlit- urit,'iii of tin' ti'Xiile
iiiiliislry, Itiii'k in tlin dark ii^'«<h luid U'voinl iiiitliciitii- records, (■vidciicti is
I'liniiMJicd tliiit this art was not unknown. IO;^y|itian iniiiiiniiL'S slirondt-d in
iiiii! lint'U I'aliiics ^ivc tiitMi" Hileiit ti'stiniony ot ancirnt knowlodgu, Imt wlien
or wlicrn tliu iirt liad its inception still remains wrappcil in mystery. Nearly
every nation of the earth lays claim to its invention at some ei)och in tradi-
tional existence. Thus the Chinese attribute it to the wile of their first
emperor, the Kgyptians to Isis, the (}reeks to Minerva; but probably it had
its birth in the Orient, where the making of ch)th was known and practiced
from the earliest times.
Whatever tlie merits of rival claimants, certain it is that for many cen-
turies the simple distaff and sjiindle were tlie only instruments used for
8]iinning, while the warp and weft were woven together by hand imiilements
not less primitive in strneture.
In the first spinning device, a mass of fibre was arranged on a forked stick,
and. as drawn therefrom by hand, it was twisted lietween tlie fingers ami
woiuid on a spindle. During the reign of Henry VIII. of Kngland, however,
the spinning-wheel replaced the distatl> anil spindle, and in every cottage and
palace it became an indisi)ensal)le articde of household ecjuiiJUient. The young
women in all walks of life were taught to spin. Spinning became the female
oecupntion of the age. and it is interesting to note that the modern term
sjiinster, meaning an nnnuirried wonum ut ailvaneed age, here had its origin.
The spiiuiing-wheel, though superior to the distaff and spindle, wfs yet a
crude machine. It consisted of a staiul on which was mounted in horizontal
hearings a spiiullo driven by a band from a large wheel jiropelled by hand or
foot, and as twi;>t was imparted to the fibre drawn through the fingers, the
residting yarn was wound on the spindle.
The art of weaving was not more advanced. It is true that the middle of
t!ie eighteenth century found the hand loom developed from the original
Indian structure to contain many of the essentials of the modern ]>ower
loom. It embodied the heddles, the lay, the take-up and let-off beams, the
slmltle for passing the weft, aijd in 1740, .lohu Kay added the fly shuttle
motion, whereby the shuttle was thrown through the shed by a sudden pull
on the picking stick; then in 17(!(), Robert Kay. ,son of .John Kay, invented
the drop box, whereby several colors of tilling might be em])loyed.
I Hrilliaiit as these achievements were, the hand loom remained the crude
ft embodiment of the simple priiicijdes of weaving until near the dawn of the
nineteenth century, when, by the invention of Cartwright, a period of
development was introduced in all lines of textile manufacture unsurpassed
in the annals of industrial progress. The first great stride, and that which
opened the door for further advance, was the creation of the spin .'"-jenny,
I'M TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A7A'"' CENTURY
DISTAFF \NI) SI'IXDI.K.
in England, by Hargreaves, about 1 7()7, whereby eight or ten yarns couhl be
spun at one time. Drawint; roUers were subseciuently adch'd by Arkwright,
and tlien traverse motion was given the bobbins in
ortU'r to automatically build the yarn into a cop.
It has developed since that the drawing-rollers con-
stituted one of the most important I'undamental ini-
])rovements in the spinning art. Their function was
to draw out the fibres into a proper size of roving,
and to feed this to be spun. Without tiiem the
modern spinnijig-franu' would not liave been possi-
ble. Arkwright s drawing-rollers and Hargreaves's
spinning-jenny combined under the invention of
<"rompt(tn to produce, in princijile at least, the mod-
ern spinning-mule.
Fairly good machines were thus provided on the
advent of the nineteenth c(?htury for spinning unlim-
it«'d (piautities of yarn, but this, in turn, recjuired
proper looui Ktructvires to use the same and a cor-
responding supply of raw material. Inventive genius was abroad, and the
necessity met by Eli Whitney, who. wlule at the Jionu' of (ieneral (Jreene,
of Georgia, biult the first practical machine for separating cotton fibre from
its seed.
Whitney's gin Uixs constructed on the broad and simple principle that cot-
ton fibre could be drawn through a smaller space than the atta<'hed seed, and
this same principle is the soul and spirit of every saw-gin (if the present day.
I'rior to Whitney's gin, cotton fibre was separated from the seed by liand, a
day's work being represented by two or three pounds of cleaned fibre. Tlie
daily product of the gin now reaches between three and four thousand j)onnds.
Such figures demonstrate the important jtosition taken liy the cotton gin
among the dcvelojjing agents of the cotton
growing States. It has rendered ])ossil)le
and i)roHtable the cultivation of large dis-
tricts of otherwise waste lands ; it has stim-
ulated cotton ])roduction ; given emi)lovment
to thousands of idle haiids; cheapened tiie
price of cotton cloths, and jilaced withii
the reach of the lunnblest people wearing
avparel of tine and beautifid texture.
Unlimited su])])ly of raw material being
thus provided, attention reverted to perfect-
ing the machines for si>inniiig it, and under '/ ^^s^fti^ - •• \'
the magical touch of Hichard I^oberts, of
Manchester, Englaml, in lS;5(t, the crude
mule of Crom]iton look practicid shape. He gave to it the (piadrant winding
motion, provided for tlie iiarmonious working of tiie counter and copjiing
faller wires, perfected the "l)acking off" and "drawing u])" mechanisms, and
gave attention to constrection (»f details that placed the mule before the
world a.s a ])ractical success.
Equipped in its present form, the self-acting mule i)resents one «f the
SPIX.MXO WHKEl
THE CEyTUHi'S TEXTILE PROGRESS
127
iuii.>-t striking ('xanii)les of complex automatic mechanisms that can be found
in tlie industrial world. Tho work of the attendant is contined to piecing
l)n>ki'n ends and supjilying roving, the machine passing through the entire
(vcle of its complicated iiiovenu'uts without human direction. An idea may
lie liad of its delicate and accurate oi)eratioti Avhen it is considered that one
pound of cotton has been spun by it into a thread one hundred and si.xty-
scven miles long. Improvements have lieen made, indeed, on Roberts's nuile,
lint aside from changes in details and form, the nuichiue, as it left the hands
of this meciianiL'al genius in I80O, remains unchanged.
J)uring this jjcriod, the fly frame was developed from the machines of
its one <'f the
I'UIMITIVK HAND I.OOM.
Ilargreaves and Arkwright, but while it constituted a great ad\ance over
these machines, it presented no radical departure in ])rinciple.
We m.iy pause here, as we jiass through the third decade of the present
century, to witness the introduction of a Fjiiuniug-frame, which, for origi-
nality of concejiMon and far reaching influence on the textile industry, closely
.iliproximates the achievements of the pioneev inventions of this art. Refer-
ence is maile to the ring frame in which the flyer is omitted, the bobbin
being attached to the sjiindle and revolving with it. On the traverse rail,
and surrounding each bobbin, is secured a flanged ring having loosely sprung
thereon a light travv;l?r, through which the yarn, as it comes from the draw-
ing-rolls, is led to the bobbin. Revolution of the bobliin carries the traveler
around the ring imparting twist to the yarn, and as it is spun it is wound on
the bobbin in jiropin-tion to the feed of the drawing-rolls.
The invention of this machine is attributed to John Tlnn'pe, of Rhode
Island, in 1828, and so popular did it become by reason of decreased power
necessary to drive it, incidental to the (jmission of the flyers, and good
128
TRIUMPHS ASD WOSDERS OF THE A7A"' CENTURY
quality of yarn produced, that, between 1860 and 180"), it nearly replaced all
other machines in America tor spinning cotton.
The speed of the ring tranie. as well as its output, appeared unbounded ;
but at high speeds, under unbalanced loads, the s'^ndles were found to
vibrate in their bearings, and the ipuility of yarn, in consecpuMiee, degener-
ated, the spindle bearings became w(jrh, and the limit seemed to be reached
at five thousand revolutions i)er minute. A careful examination of the ring
frame revealed no vulnerable part of its general structure t)iat could be
improved so as to readily secure increased speed and steadiness of the
K.\«I.Y SPINNING .IKNNV.
spindles when unevenly loaded ; but with admirable foresight, developing
intellects set to im]>rove the spindles themselves, and, in 1871, Jacob H.
Sawyer introduced and jiatented a spindle and bearing, whicli was one of the
most important improvements in the ring frame. He chambered the bobbin,
and by carrying the bolster T well u]) inside supported the former near its
load centre.
Tlie evolution of the spindle was not yet complete. The Sawyer type, at
more tlian seven thousand revolutions, woidd vibrate, and of the many
attem])ts to cure tlio defeat none succeeded fully until the very simple
change made by Mr. Itabbcth in 1S78. He gave the S|)indle a small amount
of play by m.iking the bolster loose in its supporting case, and jjlaced a pack-
ing between t!:^' two.
A. H. Sherman improved u])on the Rabbeth structure by making the bol-
ster and step in one piece and omitting the packing, the cushioning being
dependent uix)n the lubricating oil.
(llNMNd COTTON. Till-; Ol.l) WAY, IMMOU TO l.SOO.
wyer tvi)e. at
of the many
very simple
small amount
)laceil a pack-
ikinp the bol-
liouiug being
OI.NMMi COITON. TllK M:\V WAY.
130 TRIUMPHS AND V/ONDKRS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
The acme of development- in tliis small but most important i)ait of the
ring frame was now reached ; and in its approved form it eml)odi('s the
sleeve whirl exti-ndint,' into the hohhiii, the loose, yet adjustable bolster,
tapering spindle, n'mnviil)le step, and lubricating reservoir. Such spindb'S
are capable of unlimited speeds. — twenty tliousand ri'vohitions jier minute
have been given, — and under absurdly unbalanced loads tiiey run steadily
and with less expenditure of power tlian the older forms at their slower speeds.
Increased speed in the s,)indles. however, brought inerensed breakage in
the yarn, and iilthough stoji motion devices had been employed b)r several
vears. yet economy demanded ready means of piecing broken ends. This
has been ])rovided recently by mounting the stoj) clump upon the roving rod
well u)) near the first pair of drawing rolls, so that on pulling the sto[) wire
into place the roving is at once fed between the drawing rolls and issues in
front, over the spindle, to be easily pieced by one hand. I'rior to this, the
TUK MODKKN MII.K.
Operative was rerpiired to reach over the machine, feed the roving to the rolls
with one hand, hold the stop wii'e down with the other, and the broken end
of yarn in his teeth.
Excessive ballooning was also incidental to the use of high speed spindles,
and, while inventive skill has never mastered it, yet the injurious eib rts
liave been obviated by an ingenious mounting of separators, one between
each two si)indles.
.Vside from nunor details j)erfecting tin; mechaiueal construction, such has
been the evolution of the modern spinidng frame. In 18.'{(l, it re(iuired the
constant attention of one sjtinner to oversee twenty slow-running spindles,
whereas, in ISiMI. tlie same iittenda it could, with less effort, "tend" seventy-
tive or more of tlic high speed type; and whereas, in 17iH), when the first
.\merican cotton mill was established bj' Samuel Slater in Khode Island,
there were only seventy-five s])indles on cotton fibre, in 1<S,'{(), the number had
increased to 1,"l'4(;,7(>;4. ami in bSlJO, to 14,lS.S,l(i;;.
Under such comiietition no wonder the spinning-wheel of our grand-
mothers has folhnved the economic law, that tlu.' fittest alone survive, ami
rilE CENTURrS TEXTILE PROGRESS
131
h;is been reloyuteil to the wood-iiile or garret, or, bedecked with ribbons, finds
a rohtiiig-iihicc in the chimney-corner as a decorated curiosity. Its mighty
riv;il is lierc. Its attendants have been liberated to nun-e ennobling pursuits.
'I'lie homespun has been replaced by beautiful fabrics, and the monster s])in-
ning frames of to-day pour forth tlieir hourly jn-oduct in miles of spun fibre,
where the wheels of our grandmothers were taxed tt) the utmost to produce
a very small fra(;tiou <jf the amount. To api>reciate the wonderful change,
pause beside the domestic wheel used within the memcuy of the living, and
compare its ''whirr," in slowly producing its single thread, to the "buzz" of
tlie modern spinning frame turning out its product from a thousand spiiulles.
The production of yarn required something more than spinning. Tlie
HAND rOMH OF THE EKUITEENTn CENTURY.
such has
Hired the
spindles,
seventy-
the first
(' Island,
mlier Iniit
liiv grauil-
•vivc. iuiil
fibres in the massed cotton or wool, as delivered to the manufacturer, must
be opened, untangled, straightened out, and laid parallel by a series of pre-
paring machines prior to being spun, among which the carding engine ranks
first. In the inci])ient form, this machine dates as far back as the middle of
the eighteenth century, when, by hand manipulation, two cylinders covered
with small te;}th and working in close ])roximity disintegrated the fibrous
mas" ; but the fibres Avere much broken aiul not evenly arranged. The
.dditiou of the workers and stripj)ers around a rapidly revolving swift gave
increased utility to th'^ macliine, and liramwell's feed, in 1.S71, so regulated
the amount of fibre ted at intervals that the resulting la]) possessed the
desired even character. This feed weighs the fibre as it is fed, stops the
lifting apron while the scale ])an dumjis its load, resets the scale pan, and
a\il<imatically starts the lifting apron to again feed the scale, — a cycle of
operations indicating a near approach to human intelligence.
132 TRIUMPHS AXD WOXDEHS OF THE XIX'" CEXTUIiY
One additional inacliine it least, the eonib, icijiiiri's notice before ])assing
to the ull-iniportant jn-oj^'ress made in the loom strueture. With advaneiny
civilization and reiinenient came demands for superior fabrics, whicli could
oidy l)e answered by a sujiply of better libre. Siieh fibre could oidy be
secured from the liale 1)3- sejiarating the loiij^ from the short, 11 prttblem well
calculated to tax the inj,'enuity of an eidightened age. Attempts had been
made to do this by hand implements not uidike the curry-e(.mb of to-day.
except that the teetli were lont; and tapering. This reuuiined the oidy means
employed for years, win h- otlu-r textile machinery jjussed thnmgh its phe-
nomenal i)eriod of devcloiimcnt. At last, in 1S41. it occurred to Ileilman.
while watching a lady condi her hair, tiiat a maciiine might lie constructed to
comb wool by drawing a bunch of iibres ovi'r ]>ins. JIc constructed !i device
NOItl.K COMIt OF 189f».
on this principle, and in a developed form it is used still iind known ;is the
Heilmau or nip cond).
In lsr».".. .lames Nobh' gave to the world the circle comb, wherein two Hat
circidar rings, having jirojecting from one face vertical ])ins. were mounted,
one eccentrically within the other, and revolved in the same direction, the
object being to dab the fibre on t\w rings where they met ; and then as they
revolved and se]iarnt('d the shoit fibre would be di'awn otT the large ring,
leaving the hmg fibre freed from tiie sii(u-t. Tlu'se ma<diines were success-
ful, and above all they were practical — the operation of the hand comber
disaiipeared from tln' face of the earth.
Tiie sudden birth and rapid dev<'lopment of mechanically jx'rfect nu'uns
for preparing and spinning fibres were due largtdy to the co;n|iaratively sim-
j)le movements re(juired to draw ami twist tiie yarn, but in the loom no such
problem was preserited. Here the movements were eomiilicated and varied^
THE CENTURY'S TEXTILE PROGHESS
133
and till' iiiiplieatioii of power to the manipuliition of the di'licate threads was
imt siisceptiWe of sudden and siieeessful sohitior. The warps, stretched in
a sheet between two beams, liad to be opened to form tlie shed, the shuttle
had *() be passed theretluough, the weft l)eaten to plaee, and means jirovided
to fe 'd tlie war|) and to take up of the fabric an amount at each beat-up cor-
responding to the size of the weft. Tiiese were the movements necessary in
tlie most simple kind of weavin,!,', and thougli fully understood for many cen-
turies, as evidenced by the Indian and Kgyptian looms, and as embodied in
hand machines of the seventeenth century, it was not till ITS" that they
ri.AlX I'OWKU LOOM, IfiW.
were clothed with the app'ieatitm of power. Even then the first embodiment
did not emanate from tlu> hands of a weaver or ensj;ineer, but from Dr. Cart-
wri,i,dit, a clerjjyman in the churcii of nn.uhind. It was not snrjjrising that
tliese looms failed of their expectations, for the slnittle would frequently get
trapped in the shed, the driven power-lay would break out tiie warp threads,
the take-up and let-otf motions were not graduated to compensate for tlie
decrease of the warp and increase of the cloth beams, resulting in thin and
thick places in the cloth, lint this application of power to the loom was the
initial step in the industrial supremacy of the machine, which to-day works
with the perfect cadence of an automaton.
i;u
TlUUMl'IIS AM) WoyDEnS OF Till-: XIX'" VEXTUIIY
Th( first yf'iirs of the invsciit ccntiiry were ol' uiisurpiissod activity in the
invent'"-" licld. The spinufrs were putting lurtii more yarn than tlio liand-
huiins V (lid uso. It reinaint'il lor the loom to keep pace with the times.
MiHer, in 1S(H». Todd and llorrocks in 1S(»;>, .lohnston in I .S(»7. Cotton m
181(1, Taylor in l.Sl.">. and many others, concentrated their et't'orti to develop
the plain power-loom ; l)nt the second decade of the jjresent centnrv saw the
old hand-loom with its slow and cumbrous iuovements still mistress of the
art.
TJie name of liichard Koberts stands preeminent at this perioil. between
ISL'O and lSl,',"i, as t,''^''":^ to the jiower-loom several perfectinj; touches in the
means for letting; otf tiie warp the small anu>iiut necessary at each pick, the
means for takiuij; up the tinished cloth, the means for sheddinf^ the warj' for
the passaf;e of the shuttle, and the adaiitation of tin; stop motions of his
jtredecessors. 'I'licsc cliani,'es ^Mve ])ractical life to the macliine. and over-
threw the barrier that obMrncted the advance of the textile industry. They
were, however, only a few of the improvements added in jierfectini; the
power-loom, such as the automatic temple to hold the cloth extende(l and pre-
vent drawiu}^ of the weft, the shuttle-guard Lo , r^'i'ent accidental jumping
of the shuttle from the race, the j)erfect weft-stop to bring the loom to a
stand on breakage or failure of the weft, the protec»^or mechanism to obviate
a '• sm;ish ■■ when the shuttle failed to Imx. and the loose reed, ail cf which
standout in bold relief as evidences of the progressive tendencies of the age,
and combined in about the year IS.'W. more than a half century after Cart-
wright's first conception of tln^ idea, to eomiilete iiie ])ractieal power-loom.
The loom had not reached a stage of mechanical perfection ; much yet
remained to be done, but the plain jwwer-loom of this period was both a
practical and financial success. \\\ its immediate iiredecessor. the hand-
loom, a gooil weavci' and assistant could work from forty to fifty ]iicks per
minute, and wyave plain cloth. i>y the ])ower-loom of l.S4(t. one weaver
coidd "tend" two looms running irom 1<»() to IL'O jiicks per miinite anil jiro-
duce the same cloth. Without passing through the various steps whicli cid-
minated in the jiower-loom for plain cloth, now in use, and tracing the can.ses
that led to jjerfection of details, the amazing advance from the ancitMit and
l<Sth-cent\irv hand loom to the jiower-loom of ISlOand that of to-day may
Avell be shown by comi)aring the nmchines themselves.
.Such v.as the sim])le form of the power-lomu. One half of the warps were
alternately raisctl and loweretl for tne shot of welt; but as a woven
fabric is one in which the warp and weft are united by passing them over
and under each other, the figure or ](attern of the cloth will be varied as the
threads are crossed in different combinations, and this will (le))end on the
order of raising and lowering the warp threads, and the introduction of dilfer-
ent characters and colors of weft. This brings up for n-view the most impor-
tant parts of the loom structure — the shedding meelianism and shnttlc-box
motion.-; — throngli whose agencies the most beautiful and complicated
designs are ])roduced.
Shedding mechanism was present of course in all looms, '.ut in the power-
looms of the early ])art of this century it was coniined to tapi)ets adjusted on
a revolvnig shaft, and the number of heddles was limited to six or eight.
Fairly good twills and other like fabrics could be produced within the limits
„jf- -_
'St>
WKAVINC
TlIK OI,l) WAY.
1
^Sb^S^^^^^^^K ^Bii—^^^fl^fl^l^^^^^^^^^^^
i
r
y x^ '^-^^.^g
nI
^'A
f--^
'^^SfipiUIESS^^'' . '-I^TO
WEAVl.Nt.. Tin. .NKW WAV.
13«S
riuuMi'iis AX J) woMiHiis or the XIX"' ckxtury
of the f«'\v hcddlt's. Imt witli tlie iiitnuluctidn of tlit' "(It)!!!)!!'." (ir Unit part of
tilt' loom wliicli niisi's ami lowers tlu^ lianii'ss-lraincs, a iit'W era in fancy
weaving was ina>ii,'nrate(l. I5y this in^'cuious dcviff as many as thirty-six or
even forty ln'ildlt's could he used and raised at will to form liKures. Tiie crea-
tion of the dohliic l)elon,!^s to tiie lUth century, ami it is fo\ind in |iiactica]
form al)out 1S(').'I in tiic United St;:tes under the nanu; ol tiie American or
Kiiowh's dohliie. 'I'he essentials are tic two cylinder gears revolving cnn-
LOOM OK 1800.
stantly, the vibrating gears, carried on the end of pivoted arms and having
teeth on a part of their periiihery, the hiiruess jacks connected to the heddle
frames, and the links ijoining the vihratiiig gears and harness jacks in Ruch
manner that part revolution of the ftu'nier (>anscs the latter to move the con-
nected heddle frame, and consecjuently the warp threads, up or down. A.
pattern chain determines what vibrator gears shall engage the cylinder gears,
and. once tlie chain is fitted to the design to be woven, nothing remains for
the loom tender but to oversee the operation of the machine.
Another form of dobbie, not les& jtopidar than the Knowles, developed
into a perfect automatic device about fifty years ago in E'lgland. Here two
THE cEMUJii's ri:xriLh: I'liouiuiss
137
rccipi'dcatiiiK' kiiivfs an- t'liKiW'l. "lulur tlu^ (lirt'ctit)ii of a iiattcin cliaiii. Ity
one of two hdokfil jacks (Miimcctfd to tlu) lianuMS levers, ami tlio sIumI is
a^aiii tnriiKMl witlmiit limiiaii iiitt rvciitinn. Other forms of dobliie structures
have Ijccii evolved during the last lifty years. Imt these two, with sonic niodi-
tications and aihlitions of details, have (ronie extensivcdy into practical use,
and represent the zcnitii of development at the present tinu". Ity their aid
>,Mciit viirietv is rendered possiiile in the desiy;!! on the res\dtin.i,' fabric. The
tiuured tablecloths, damasks, twills, satins, bordered and cros>' -bordered i'ab-
.lAI Ijl Alii) MA( Ml.NK.
ries, are now possible at a cost of a tlumsandth part only of that incurred
when jjrodueed by any of the old tyi)es of machines.
Tilt! subject of sheddiufj, i. e., of o])ening the warp-threads to afford a
]»assagc for the shuttle, is so insep.araldy eonuectcd -with the name of ,Iac-
([uard, that attention is now carried to that wonderful invention evolved in
the first few years of the ])resent century, and by the use of which it may
truly be said that anythini,' can be woven as figure in a fabric that can be
designed by the hand <d' man. It is as well adapted for the "finest silks as for
heavy carpets and figured velvets, and by an operation theoretically so sim-
ple as to excite wonder that it remained hidden until this age. Jacquard
i:i8
TiuuMi'ns AM) \yo\j)i:i{s or r/n-: xix"' cnyrcur
wiiH a iiiitivf of l''r;iniM' mid i'\liil>iti'(l liis in;icliiiii> ('(iiupli-tf in IS0|, but so
Itittci' was tlif i)|i|iiisitiiiii that tlir lirst inacliiin' was i|i' .tintt'il ainl l>urii*'il.
Its merits wtTc I'lcar, iiowi'viM', and I'crnnstnictioii and ^'rncral .idoption in
Ffiinci' followed soon after, it lias since lieen a|i|ilie(l not only for HiM'ildiii^
l>nt for every inirpose wiiere nieeliaiiieal operations eoidd lie eontrolled Ity a
pattiM-n. In liriei. tins niarldne sinipl\ eontidls eaeli warp thread separately
tiy a eord having u nook atta(died. These hooks are arranged in'ar the path of
a reeijiroeatiiit; j^'i'ilTe or frame earryin;,' cross liars, and are controlled, as to
enj,'ai,'ement willi the hars. liy a card perlorated accoiiliiiL; to a pattern; thus
any one or any iMiml)er of threads can lie raised at will. The doiihie eoutrnlH
liarnoss frames each cariyini,' a lari^e nundier of warp threads; the .laccpiard
controls every thread sepaiatidv. The ^'reatly increased capacity of the latter
machine is apparent. Tlius a l.")(M».hook .lucipiard will do the work of tliirty
doliltics of liity jacks eacdi.
The hand-shuttle liox nu'chanism of Kay's time has devtdoped into the
machine operated as a sliding or revolvinn shuttle-liox controlled l>y pattern
devices. \vhi(di. lieingadded to a dolil)ie or .lac(piar(l cipiippcd loom withii the
la.st twenty-live years, iiresents the highest point of perfection attained in
the textile art. In su(di looms tin? warp threads, arranged in any colors,
may he raised at will collectively or indivnlually, any one of ten or twelve
different cohired wefts may ho introduced as desired, and comliinations nniy
thus lie formed to produce designs of the most complicated nature.
I'ile fabiics, cut. uncut, ami tufted, rejiresent a type ipiite distinct from those
j)rod\nTd on the ordinary fancy loom just described, and, in the form of vel-
vets, imitation animal skins, iiml l>russels carpet, were ."dnnist unknown prior
to the invention of Samuel liigelow of IJoston, in iS.'iT. Kabrii's of thi.~
character, if iiunle at all, were the products of tedious hand nu-thods. anri on
ace<innt of the conse(pieiit high price were the exclusive jirojierty of the v<'ry
wealthy. Carpets with \n\v, surface had been made by the I'ersians and
Turks ages ago. by tying pieces of woolen yarn around hmgitudinal or warjt
threads, and binding the whole together by a weft iit intervals; and such
tufts, being carefully selected as to co1(M', were nunle to jircsent rich designs,
but. like all other hand-prodnced fabrics, these were the property of the b'w.
The jiile fabric loom of ISigelow opened the way for an advance in the oar-
\wt industry which (Continues to the |iresent time; its ultimate etfect Ix'ing
to pliice carpets within the reach of the hund)le cottager; ami Hoors which
were strewn with brush, or at best cfincealcil by the home-made rag carpet,
now became covered by a soft and beautifully figured fabric, 'i'his loom was
a jinictical nuichine. an. 1 at once commended itself to the manufacturer. It
consisted of the old power-loom jirovided with a .lacfpiard. ;ilreiidy well
understood, to which was added an attaclnnent to introduce wires at interv;ils
as false weft, and bind the warp around them by the usual weft thn-atls. The
wires being withdrawn after a few shots had been woven. left the wjirp hmps
st;indiug. and these loops being formed under the dictati's of the .lacipiard,
any character of beautiful design could be pi'oduced. N'elvets. broc;ides. even
the line imitation of sciilskin. are the simple products of this form of jiower-
loom when the pile loojis arc cut. (Jreater cheapness in weaving cut i>ile
fabrics has been secuied by a slight modification in the I'dgelow loom, so that
two fabrics could be woven at one time. This idea was introduced alxiut
riih: cEsruitY's rn.\rn.K I'ltoaitHss
\A\
|,S.*i(i, 1111(1 it iniiliiiii>lali(l wi'iiviiiK tin- two tabrics tjnf to Jivcf, kri-;)iiiK'
tlitiii si'|iiiniti'il li_v till' iiMiiil pilf win-s (it niK«'l«>w. and passiiij,' tin- iiih-
till cads tinlii dill' tlllllic t(i till' iitlll'l'. ri«ill t'llttillj{ till' two rlotll.s llpai't
IhioiiK'li till' tliii'ads uniting,' tin'in, two cut [lili! or velvet t'alirics leHultetl.
Tliii loom reiiuircil the mtvIcc of two .slnittles and doiilile the nimiher of
waip-heaiiiH, hiit it worked well, and is to-day laiK'dy in use and well adapted
to itH ))iir|iose.
Tiie demand for tufted pile fiibries, meaning those in whiidi the pile is
SMITH AND SKINNKU LOOM KOIl MOqU.-TTK CAIU'KTH.
formed from tufts or yarns, individually tied to the foundation fabric, and of
which tlie rich Turkish and Persian nitjs are !>xaiiiples, had not been met by
the liij^elow loom ; in fact it was only aliout torty years aj^o that the mechan-
ical )irodnctioii of such fabrics became possible. Smith and Skinner were the
pioneers to enter this field, and the first, by the aid id' mac!iinerv, to com-
pete with the cheap hand-labor of the orientals. 'I'he invention of a machine
that will seleet any desired color from a large number of yarns, carry it
between the wuii-threads at the exact spot necessary to form the fiLriive. tie
it arouii'l these threails, cut it off to the length necessary to form an even and
smooth surface, return the unused ]>ortion to place, and do all ipiickly,
accurately, and with little cost, is an achievement that may rightly claim the
14U
rniUMPHS ASD WOXDERS OF THE XIX'" CEXTUKY
ailmiration of the industrial world. Vet this is wliat tlic iiiachine inaiiKii-
ratt'd liy Smith and Skinner does t(i-<lay. Tiio f^cneral niovi-nicnts and coin-
plicatt'd parts of the jpower-looni an- prt'si'iit as I'or weaving a jdain fabric, and
on beams or large siiools carried by a ehiiin, under tiu- control of a jiattorn,
are arranged the tuft yarns, in tiie order in whieii tliey should appear in the
figure. Through the pattern devices tlie ju'oper spool or beam is brv ugiit into
j)osition to be seized by a pair of fingers which rise, take tiie spool from the
eliain, lower it to tiie warp, pass tlie ends of the tuft yarn tlirougli and around
the proi)er warp tiiread. hold them til! the insertion of a binding weft, tiiei;.
wiien they have been iiropeily cut to lengtii. return the spool into its jilace in
the ciiain. This cnatinn of meeiianical genius takes rank wit!* tiie wonders
of tlie spinning mub' and. like that maeiiine, pas-<es througli its entire opera-
tion witii tiie /iirri.tinii nf iin iiiifiiiiintiiii. liy its .id close iinitations of tiie
ori.'iital iiandiiiade rugs are phiced. before the world at one ipiarter the former
jprice. and. as a result, tlie tine motpiette and axminster carpets lend their
beauty to nearly every liome in the land.
The credit for improving the power-loom so as to adajit it for weaving
fancy cassinieres ainl suitings. l)elongy ^n William ( 'roinptou. a ;iative of Mng-
laiiil. wlio came to tiie I'nited .States iii IS.'Si;. and shiutly thereafter, in the
^liddlesex .Mills at Kowell. -Mass.. constructed and operated the first fancy cas-
sinicri' power-loom, not only in this country, but in the world. I'lior to this
tlie harness bu- all woolen and worsted jiower-looms was worked liy cams, and
the eloth was woven ]ilain : but Crompton's loom (d' iSfd started a new era
in the woolen industry, rendering it possible? to produce any fancy weave by
an arrangenieni of pattern chain and large number of harnesses in coniieetion
with the change shuttle-boxes. Jmprovements bdlowed. by the substitution
of the reverse shuttle-box motion in 1S.'")4. ihe perfection of the general loom
structure in IN."!?, the addition of the uiiright lever harness motion in l.sr»|.
and the centre-stop in \s~\). so that at the jinsent time this machine is
ada|ited to rnii at high speeds and weave at nioilerate cost the luo.st coiii-
jilii-ated designs in woolen aiiil worsted — smdi as sh^iwls. checks, suitings,
and all birms of fancy cassinieres.
The gpuerj'l industrial activity in all matters iiertaining to te.xtile manu-
facture between thi' years IS.'t.'t and iMiH. brought forth many i'ornis of
looms (li special adaiitatioii : . niei't the increasing demands of society. 'I'he
narrow-ware loon; aiijieared in the third decade of this century, and the
addition of the dobbie. or .lacqnard. later, eipiipped this loom for the
simultaneous production of several ribbons, or narrow fabrics, side by side,
having plain or tigured effect. The lay was divided into several reed spaces,
and a corres|(onding number of shuttles, operated by rai'k and pinion, carried
the wtdt-threads througli the adjacent warp.
.\bout the miildle of this century, and until the adoption of tlie more rich
and delicate fabrics. liair-(dotli was tin- accejited covering for furniture, and
powor-locms bir its production (piii-kly answered the demaml. 'I'liev rea(died
sueh ,1 degree of perfection and etticii'iicv in this country that almost the entire
industry was centred here. This fabric was made from the hair (d' horses'
tails as weft, and a strong eottoii warp: and as the well eoiilil not be wound
upon bobbins, as usual, each separate hair was inserted by an ingeidons
device made to reci|iroc.ite througli the shed, ami select one out f)f a bundle
TURY
THE CKXTUHV'S TEXTILE PROG HESS
141
liiiio inaiij^u-
IltS illlll COlll-
iii liibric. and
ol' a iiattf'iii,
iippfar ill tilt'
lnv ii<,'iit into
(•ol from the
li and ai'oiind
li,' Wfft. tllCli.
o its ]ila('c in
tlic wdiidtTs
entire n|peia-
itions ol the
•r the I'oriiier
s lend their
lor weavin;;
Itive uf Kliy;-
fter. ill the
rst i'aiicy ci's-
I'rior to this
hy caiiis. and
ed a new era
loy weave liy
in eoniieetioii
siilistitution
general lonm
Hon in l.s«;i.
< iiiaehine is
e most eom-
pks. suitings,
extile manii-
iny I'oinis of
Mieiety. The
iry. and the
M'lii for the
side hy side,
reed spaces,
nioii, carried
he more ridi
irniture, and
"hey reached
•st the entire
ir of liorses'
ot he wound
III ilifrenioiis
; of a bundle
of hairs cut to the same leiigtli. The conception of a jiower device cajiable
of the deHcate operation necessary to weave liair-cloth. couhl never have
been realized except in a liit,'lily iiitelli<jent manufacturing community ; but
in ISTO, Hhodc Island alone }iro(luced on such machines over (>00,()0(l yards,
consuming thereby the hair of about eight hundred thousand horse-tails.
The evolution of the lappet loom started between l.S4(land l.S.IO in England
and (iennany. It sought to enhance the pleasing effect of jilain fabrics, by
placing an embroidered or raised tigiire over the surface during the weaving
<iiuri.\n LOOM
process. Near the lower edge of ladies' skirts, on the ends of neckties and
like arti(dcs. an cmliroidereil effect was desirable; and this has been secured
iiy the lappet attachment to the |)resent power-loom. In this a needle is
luoiiiited in appropriate location, usually back of the lay, ami through an eye
111 the end thereof the lappet thread is led from a suitable sujiply. This
needle is normally either above or below the warp. When a s|)ot or figure is
wanted, it is caused to move into the ]ilane of the opjiositc warps of the shed,
under the direction of suitable c(Miridlling pattern mechanisms. The shuttle
belli!,' then shot, the lap|iet thread appears upon the surface, and it may be
made to thus ajijicar as often as desired; its position being shitted as neces-
sary uiiiler the guidance of a iiatterii-cli;iin to form, in embroidery etl'cct, any
eharactcr of small design.
. \^
142
TLU'MI'llS AM) WoyDEItS OF THE XIX'" CENTUMY
Closely allied to the lapjiet loom in the effect produeeil is the swivel-shuttle
loom, wliich has couk' exteii.sivi'ly into use during the last thirty years <:< sup-
j)ly demands tor spotted nr embroidered iigures. 'I'he loom is of the jilaiii
type, having small swivel-shuttles inovalile in carrier bloeks, which are secured
to the supporting l)ar near the t(i]i ol' the lay-reed, in cdnvt'iiient location to
pennil tlie siiuttles to he depressi'd into the shed. Ka(di swivel-shuttle is
provided with a rack engaging a suitable operating jjinion to nu)ve the shut-
tles si)nultaueously Ironi one carrier to the next. >«oruially these sluittles
are helil above the warp plane, aiul the loom in this condition weaves tabby
or twill. At the desired moment, the supporting-har is lowered hy .1 eani or
Jaenuard tn bring tlie slaittles in tiie shed ; the siudtlcs are nn)ved I'roni one
carrier to the next adjacent, and then all are raised to their normal imsition
above the warp. The gro\nid weit is laid and the beat-uji takes place. Repe-
tition develops a spot (U- figure at intervals across the entires fabric, and with
the use of different eoh>retl swivel-tlireads the greatest diversity of end)roid-
ered effect is secured over the entire groiuid. Sonu' of the most beautiful
spotted silk.i for hidies' dresses and fancy scarfs, never before contemplated.
are now woven on this loom at prices that are very motlerate for such a class
of goods.
A radical dejiarture from tlie ])aths traveled hy pri(U' inventors was inau-
gurated about IS.V.l. in adapting the power-loom lor weaving tul)\dar i'al)rics,
resulting twenty years later in perfecting a nuxehine in which the wavjt
tlireads were arranged in <-ircular series and the weft laid in tlie circular shed
hy a e()ntiniu>usly moving shuttle. I''ire-hose and like tubular cloths resulted.
Itapid development continued from the middle of the present century, so tiiat
nearly every eoneeivable f«uin of loom, from the light running plain fabric
and gingham looms to tlie heavy siructures for weaving canvas and wire
eh)th. claimed the attention of the inventor; and in this last decade of the
century looms are constrneted to weave anything that can be woven. Wire,
slats, eane. straw, and glass, as well as the light tibres of cotton, wool, or
silk, are now easily manipulated on tlu^ ]iower-loom and woven iid.o (doths,
mattings, baskets, eane-seats for furniture. Itottle-cctvers, and ever so many
irregular hums that, in the dormant condition of this industry prior to the
nineteenth century, were (juitc! In-yond consideratfon of the most active
enthusiast of the art.
Wonderful as these achievements have been, the restless ambition of
inventive genius remains iinsatistii'd. ImprevenuMits continue — especially
in the I'nited States, imder the fostering caic of a liberal patent system —
ami attempts are now lieing made, and with success, to form the power-loom
into a thoroughly automatic machine incapable of producing any init the best
ipiality of doth. I'pon tin? breakage or undue slackening id' a warp thread,
the loom would continue to weave and ])rodm'e imperfect fabric? until the at-
tendant had piece<l the broki'U end orailjustcd the slack llii'ead. Means were
devised sonu' years ago to renu'dy this defect, but with only partial success
until near the close of this century. Iireakage or failure more often occurred
in the weft, however, and thiaigh the wcd't stop-motion successfully detected
the fault and stopped the loom, yet much valuable tiuu- was lest, and constant
attention was needed to su])])1y new tilling. Progressive tendencdes ot the
closing years of this decade have sought to nu'ct this ditticnlty. As a result.
THE CENTURY'S TEXTILE PlWaJtESS
14;i
means are now provided wlu'iel)y, cm failure or l)roakiif,'c of tlie weft, tlu>
loom discharges its iniptMfwt iilliuj,' t'roin the shuttle, suppiu's itstdf witi-. a
new weft fioiu tiie hopper, places it m the sluittle, and contiinies to weave.
Such a loom provided with a wari) stop-motion is almost incapable oi' pro-
ducing imperfcct.cloth. and so long as tiic warps remain intact and the
hoi)per is kept supplied with welt-t)(>l)hins, it will >ontinue to weave. In
fact, in many mills of the New Kngland States these looms are now left
to run during the dinner hour without an attendant, and no imperfect cloth
is ])roduced.
Such machines are almost iiKh-jicndent of human attention, yet they are the
evolution of the old-time hand loom, -hist (me hundred years ago the liand
loom, running at 4t» or oO picks to the minute, reciuired the watchful care of
TlIK KinsT KMTTISO M.VCHIXE. LEE.
an expert weaver; in 1H4<>, the sam<! weaver could "'tend" from two to fcmr
power-looms running KKt to IL'O picks; to-da^'hc oversi'es from 1() to 1(5 looms
running from l.">(» to -tK( picks.
The homespun, with its old familiar hutternut ilye, has ilisappeared. The
s|)inning-wliei'l and loom no longer occ^ipy a part of every home. In their
stead. I lie farmer, as he looks lieyond the thriving corntields, lieluilds the
reeking chimneys of a thousand mills as tliey pi'oclaim the majesty of the
power machines. The fabrics produced are heinitiful and varied in design,
and their <'ost so low a.s to excite wonder that such progres.s could '>-ive
been the lesnlt of one hundred years of industrial activity.
The eniiincipation of knitting, as a domestic occupation, dates from the
romantic experiences of William Lee, a subject of (^leeii Klizabeth, of whom
it is related that while watching the deft fingers of his lady-love guide the
144
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XJX^" CENTURY
knitting needle from loop to loop, conceived tlie idea ol' pcrt'orinini^ the oper-
ation by nieclianiciil means. It is a singular coincidence also that the inven-
tion of this the tirst machine for knitting pnrposes. liUt; that of the power- h-om
for weaving, shonld have emanated from the hands of a stndent and clergy-
man, nn familiar with the art.
Lee's device was naturally crnde. It contained only twtdve needles, ar-
ranged in a row with abont seven or eiglit to the inch, but it successfully
formed a knitted web. Further progress in the art was sloAV, on account of
the strong oi)position to all machines which seemed likely to deprive the hand
artisan of oceujiation. The (^)ueen refused to grant a jiatent t(j Lee for this
reason, and knitting remained the exclusive ])r rogative of women for many
years. Li!;e the spinning-wheel, however, the hand knitting-needle liehehl a
rival, which in the diversity of iiunum wants was destim-d to create one of
the great industrial j)ursuits of the age.
Stockings, like all other garments, were tirst made by sewing together
pieces of linen, silk, cotton, or wijolen cloth, resulting in a poorly fitting arti-
cle, prolific of uncomfortable seams. Knitting the entire hose in a single
jiiece by hand neeilles overcame tiiese deiVcts to an extent, and the Lee ma-
chint? opened the way for the production of stu'h articles on a scale that now
furnishes the civilized world.
Lee's machine produced a straight web which recpiired to be cut ami sewn
to shape; then to it was achled the ribbing (levi(!e and the narrowing and
widening attachment, to shape the web to fit the body without cutting; but
still a seam existed in the stocking where the edges united. In LS|(>. hov/-
ever, M. I. lirunel built a circular machine having an t'lullcss row of needles,
and in 1<S;{L Timothy Hailey, of New York. ap])lied ]iower to the knitting
frame; the result being that at this time a tubular seandess fabric cidd be
produced on a j)ower machine
The latch-nei'dle, which has given to the knitting nuu'hine great cajiacity
and diversity of jiroduct. was not invented until aboiit LS47, by .Mr. .\iken. of
New Hamiishire. v peiicd of develojuuent then set in that continues to the
present time. The needles by cam nu'chanism were made inde|)en<lently
ojjerative in a circular carrier ; narrowing and widening devices to produce
pouches, such as tiie heels and toes of stockings, were added, as was also fet-d-
ing nn'chanism for the introduction of different colored yarn, or a reinforcing
thread. Such machines, of l.Sll.S and ISTli. would form a stocking or under-
garnu-nt well fitted to the form; but they re(pnred the constant attention of
a skilh I knitter, until patteiu mechanism was introtluced to control the tinu'
of introduction of tlic cohMcd oi' additional tliread, and the place for fornui-
tion of the narrowed or widened weli. in forming the heel and toi; pockets,
a )iart of the neeiilcs are throwii out (d' action, and the movements to ojicrate
the active needles are changed fi'om round and round, or circular work, to
reciprocating. At each i'ecii)r()cation one or more needles, at the end of the
series, are rendeieil inactive, until one half tlie re(nnred po<-ket is formed;
then they are successively retuiiied to action, and circular knitting resunu-d.
It nun be also an additional thread is introduced to reinforce the wearing
qualities of the heel and toe, or a differently colored yarn may be thrown in
to give figure, l>ut all such movements are now autdmatically controlled by
a pattern mechanism. The ribbed leg portion of a stot-king is formed either
r
/
/*
/
I
/
/
/
THE CENTUltY'S TEXTILE PROdliESS
145
y
/
f
I
.H
in tlio sanu' inacliiiif tliiit fashions the foot (.r in a st-panite iiiac-liine to »vhu-h
the foot is tiai.sf.MnMJ. hut in .'ither .-as.- thi- i-attein HK-rhauisni af^aui controls.
Within th.' last twenty years tiiis art has h.-.-n so -leatl.y iniproy.'-l, es-
jH-cially in iIm- hosiery line, 'hat the antoniatie machine of to-(hiy passes
throu-h tlie entire operation of knitting the arti-
cle, tinisliing it off, and startinjr afresh without
otlu'r aid tlian a supply of yarn. .Moreoyer, the
machine now to be considered ju-actical must he
so constructed that it will continue thus to oper-
ate withoi\t repairs or h)ss of time from month to
month ; and its daily output will ayera^'c more
than the old hand machines could accomidisli in a
week, r.y hand knittin;,' one hundred loops coiild
he fornu'ii per minute; by Lee's machine as many
as tiftecn hundred were possible in the same time;
l)ut to-day, the automatic nnudiine will aycrage
between .'!(»(>,(•(»<> and 4n().(»(K) loops, and at the same
time will iiroduce a liner web, shaped to tit the
form of tic wearer.
Su(di comparisons reyeal the yitally important
jn'oLircss made in the knittin>,' industry, through
whiidi most of (mr underwear, stockings, scarfs,
neck-comforts, and woolen gloyes are supplied.
The labor and time saving devices dey.'lop.-d in Kv-,TTtN« ix trk old way.
this (dass of machines, and the fact that unskilled
workmen may "tend" from Hfteen to twenty of them, largely accounts for
the universal adojjtion of warm and comfortable wearing api)arel by all
classes of soci(,'ty.
Tiie numlier of jiatents granted on textile machinery during the nine-
teenth century furnishes an inde.x to the jirogress made. I'rior to 1S(M»,
less than one Jiundred patents were granted in the I'nited States, while
since that time, and up until -July, l<syr>. about ir>.l.'(M» jiatents were issued,
covering tangilile and material improvements over the old structures. The
beneficent effects of these inventions are attested by the wonderful and con-
tiinious redui'tion in cost to the consumer of all kinds of textile fabrics.
For the manufacturer, these liave made possible increased ])roduction in a
given time with less manual labor. When it is remembered that the labor
cost is about one lialf the total cost of in-oduction of textile fabrics, it will be
apparent that the benehcial effects of any labor-saving device are felt as well
by the consumer as the producer.
In 1H7(( tlie number of textile establishments in the United States was .'iO."."!.
giving occupation to 14r),Si(7 emjdoyes, and consuming annually JW'.J.H'O.SliU
pounds of textile fibres, while in ISOO the number of establishments ha<l
increased to 4114, emploj'ing otLSUT hands, and consuming the enormous
amount of l,r)71',ri4S, <).'}.'{ pounds of fibres ; rei)resenting progress and growth
in the textile arts not excelled by any other manufacturing industry.
Food and clothing constitute the ])rimarv wants of man. The former
grew ready for his use as a natural product of the soil. The latter lie liad
to produce by artificial means to afford that protection which nature failed to
10
140
TKlUMl'IiS AND WONDEllS OF THE XIX'" CKyTUUY
jtrnvide. Next to agriculture, therefore, man's early attention was ilircettd
to securing a covering for the body. Looking back thro\igli the vista ot
vears dinuiied l>v the mists of vcrv remoteness, we find the animal and vei'i'
table kingdouis (h-stined to contribute to his needs. There were tlie lilue tlax
tields ; eotton-lM)lls, scattered like powch'red snow about the land. coi|uettinu
in wanton abandon with winds tempered by an all-wise Power to the slieji
herd-watched sheep; gnats roaming the vale cd' Cashmere; silk-worms ni
Ceres, and the grasses of sju-ing, overflowing with allurements of assistanif
for his adornment. With these essentials has man wrought a miglity miracle.
'I'he genius of Industrial Art, awakened by the fascinating intlnence ot
Nature, invoked the Goddess of Invention, approaching her temple not with
KMTTINO IN TIIK NKW WAV.
loud aci'laim. as marked the heri'ulean strides in other arts and sciences,
but modestly, tliough tenaciously and most etfectually. For not more is
woman emancipated by the sewing machine than both sexes by the doing
away of tlie spinning-wheel, the hou.sehold knitter, and haml-worked loom.
Not nuu'c do electricity and steam power facilitate the various occuj)ations
of man than do the many textured fal)rics aild to his needs.
In all the phiist s of sociid life is this industry manifest. If the bancjuet
hall is warniiMl jind lighted by electricity, so. also, is it achirncil with tapes-
tries, silken and artistic, nai)ery surpassingly smooth, and laces intricately
wronght.
How like a fairy tale reads the evolution of textile jirogress I Concep-
tions, infinite in range mid variet\ . alike |)leasing to the eye and gratifying
to viinity. have been s|)nn. woven, knit, and embroidered, until, standing as
we do at the dawn of another century, upon tin- summit of miparalleled
achievemenis. we ask. ••Can the mind conceive, the heart desire, or the hand
execute more."' Honr. V. \\.\\ss.
'J Hi'
■tts iliiertcil
li« vista ol
il and s'cjjc
II- liluc Hax
, coquetting
I' tilt' slu'|)-
k-ttoriiis ol
f assistaiH'c
lity iiiiiacle.
IltillfllC)' (if
>k' lutt witli
J
1(1 scif'iiops,
ii)t more is
f the iloiiif,'
>ii<('(l loom,
occupations
lie liaiKHU't
witii tapcs-
intricatcly
I I CoIlCCJ)-
l KHitityintc
(tandiof^ as
nparallclcd
ir tin" liand
. IIaixs.
THK CENTUUY'8 RELIGIOUS PROGRESS
TiiK closing,' ycais of the niuutcciith century, hoth in Kuioiu! and the United
Stutes, are charactcii/cd by a reli},'ious lite as oheiiomenal with respect to
dcv(dopiii(Mit MM.] intluiMicc as tliosc of tli.- cij^lict'cnth were jdienonienal for
letharj,'y and decline. •• Never." sa ,s a writer in the North I'.ritish Keview,
"has a century risen on Kngland so void (d soul and faith as that which
opened Willi Anne ( ITML'). and reached its leisty noon beneath the se(;oiul
(Jeoif,'!' ( 17.'!l.'-17r>0 ). — a dewless night succeeded by a sunless dawn. The
Puritans were )>uried and the Methodists were not born." In this opinion,
all liistoriaiis and essayists concur.
.Vniong theidergy were many whose lives were of the l^ominie Sampson or-
der, described in Scott's "(iiiy Mannering"' — men who.se lives were the .scandal
and reproach of the cliiindi ; who openly taught that reason is the all-sutticieiit
guide; that the Scriptures are to be received only as they agree with the
light of nature; pleading for liberty while running into the wildest licentiou.s-
ness. .Montes(|uieii, indeed, did not hesitate to charge Knglishnuni generally
with being devoid of every genuine religious sentiment. •' If." he says, '"the
subject of ndigion is mentioned in society, it excites nothing but laughter.
Not more than four or five members of the House of (Jommons .ire reguhu'
attendants at church."
l-'nnii the colleges and universities, the great doctrines oi the Helorniation
were widl-nigh banished, a retined system of ethics, having no connection
with Cliristian motives, being sub.stituted for the princiitlcs of a divinely
revealed law.
( >n every side faith seemed to be dying out ; indeed, would liave died out but
for the tremendous reformation in life and mcmils induced by the self-denying
and heroic labors of the W'esleys and their coadjutors, to wlni.'r. more than to
any beside. Kngland owes her salvation from a relapse into barbarism. — a
service which in later years won for the W'esleys a memorial in Westminster
Abbey.
On the Continent, ndigioiis conditions were no better. In l''r!ince the
ma.sses were yet reeling amid the exces.ses of the Uevolutitm. Voltaire and
Kousseau were the oracles and jirophets of their times, — the popular idols
of the hour. \'oltaire. indeed, dpeiily boasted that he alone would laugh
Clnistianity (iitt of the court of public opinion, deidaring the whole svstem
to be outgrown and powerless. (Jeriiiany. given over to thetdogical sptv'iila-
tion, crnshcil beneath the weight ^>{' the Xap(deonic wars, and torn by internal
dissensions, gave but little hojic that upon her altars the dying Hre of the
great lieformatioii would ever again flame forth as in the older and more
lieidic (hiys.
In the I'liited Stales, similar cunditions ]prevaileil. especially during the Last
decadt! of the eighteenth century and the first of the nineteenth. Forms of
148
TUiUMi'iis \si> \\oM)iius uF rill-: Xl\"' vemuuy
inhdi'litv tlif iiiiist railir;il uinl rcvoltiiiiu' lUfViiilcil thrnii'^linut tlir liiml. Many
of tlu' It-ailiii!^ .stalt'siiicii, i-i private at least, iliil imt >crii|>le tn ciiiircss tlicm-
wi'lves atheists or tleists. 'I'liuiiias I'aiiie wa.s tiie |i(i|iiilar iil<>l : liis "A^'e ni
l!ea,s(»n " almost as (•(iimnnii as the Jtiiile itself. The inajoriiy of Mie men
tukinj; jiart with him in the fi iiiidiin,' of the t^oveniipenl. with Imt few
exee|'' jin.>.. Iield theoloufieal sentiments akin to his. although ileeliniii^' to
]iiirtiei|iate in his violent uutl hrutal assaults npon the SiMii>tiires ami the
iiistitnti'ins of Christian society.
Speaking ()f tli' earlier d.iys ot the cent my. Chaneellor Kent, in one of his
]iuiilishLd works, deelared that in his younger days the men "f his aeciiiaint-
r
(«•
el
li>
at
lUUMtXCIIAM MEKTIXO-IIOCSK (AN( iKNT).
ance in ]>iT.fessional life who did not avww i didelity were e(;:;:jiaratively
few. r>isho'< Meade, of Virginia, in his antobiogr.iphy. states that •• seiMcely a
young man of enlture eould be found who lieiieved in Christianity."
Tlie colleges and unistrsities were so tilled v.-ith youthful .-kepties that when.
in 17".);", Timothy Dwigh*^ assumed the prer.ideno_\ of Vale, he found but four
or five willing to admit that ti.ey were members of ehunhes. So far did
Lhey go in their devotion to ilie Fr'ineh inhdelity ]irev;ilent at the time, that
the seniors of the c(dlege were conimotdy known among theiaselves by the
names of Diderot, D'Alembert, IJobespierre. liousseau. Danton, and the like.
Harvard, I'rineeton, William ami Mary, the I'tuversity of Virginia. — all the
colleges indeed, — were as thoroughly hotbeds of .skejttieisni as nurseries of
learning.
uny
linnl. .MiUiy
• llf't'SS tllClll-
llis "Aire (ll
't 'lit' iiifii
til I. lit r.'u
l<'< liiiiiiLf tu
ivs aiul the
1 one of his
i>< iirciiiiiilit-
fk.:'Jl>
'v"VH^
■^<^^:J
iianitivply
.->(•;• rccly a
hat wlit'ii.
l)iit fotir
o far (lid
hiiiii'. tliat
es In- the
the like,
-all th.-
■series oi
v///; (LyTLJiys uklkhous riiuyitiEss
140
r!ie perioil. t(m. was mie of iiitenifciiie strife aiiionj; the feebk* churches
1
iciiist'lvt
tl
faitl
l;ivisioiis oiidoftriual liiu's wen- iiicessaiit ;
(jliirious
•|iartiires iroiii the
they were «lisastn>iis. (.)f the missionary spirit so
Iv I'liaraetcnstic of the niiieteentli {'I'litiiry tliere was not even a trace.
1 as M\inieroiis as
to 17'.*.">. not a nii>sionary
;i('tv was in cvistcnci' on either side u
)i th
ocean.
The s'oii,. was true of hospitals, asyl
unis. 1
if every form of organized
etl'ort U>\ the ri'clai:iation of the masses i
ir the amelioration of human il
!;, r.oston.as late as isll. men of literary or political distinction, eager to
listen to the marvelous revival preaching of the cclchrated Dr. (Jritlin,
attended his services surreptitiously, or in disguise, fearful lest knowledge of
attendance upon religious serviees of sudt vulgar character .should detract
fr(.m the dignity of their social .standing.
Jf, however, the tinu's were had. the outlook for Christianity ihirk, the
period, nevertheless, was not wholly without gleams of light. The spiritual
leaven imjiarted hy W hiteticld in his mighty preaching tours, hy IMwards,
l)wiglit. .Vsl'Mry, (iritlin, and others <if eipially heroic stamp, gradiudly began
to work. — slowly at first, Imt with ever accelerating movement, — until at
last the triumphant successes of the present century began their stately
march. r>y degrees a new life apjieared among the churches, heralding the
dawn (jf u new and brighter day. Kevivals (if religion, many of them luiwer-
ful and sweeping, broke out in many parts of the country. .Massachusetts,
Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, the < 'arolinas, Georgia, were in succcssitm
the theatres of movements which, before they had spent their force, had
(•(unpletely revolutionized the conditions of unfaith. immorality, and spiritual
apathy so hmg prevailing. These ujdteavals of spiritual iiower, continuing
during the first twenty-'"ve years of the century, laid broail and deep the
foundations of the mighty achievements of the < hurcli which we are now to
consider. How c.xtvn.sive, how wonderful, have been these achievements can
jperhaps best Ix' understood by a consideration of the changed conditions
marking the close of the century.
In the Hrst ]ila<'c. that the jicople of the United States are a religious jwople
may be infcrreil from the anuizing number and variety of religions jibounding
and flourishing within our Ixu-ders. It nuiy be douiited that in any other
Christian country of the earth there can be found so numy varieties of reli-
gion, so many church organizations, so many and diveise peculiarities of
doctrine, polity, and usage, as here. It is a land of chur<'hes; churches for
■whites, churches for blacks; churches large and churches small; churches
ortluulox ami churches heterodox; i hurchcs Chrisrian and ehundies pagan;
churches Catholic and chu.rchcs rrotestant; churches liberal and churches
conservative, Calvinisti; and Armenian, Cnitarian and Trinitarian; repre-
senting nearly every jihase of ecclesiastical and theological thought. As
Americans havt' dist;inccd the world in the extent and variety of their
nuiterial inventions, so have they di.stiinoed tlu' world in the extent and
variety of their theological and ecclesiastical forms. The state ciiunot control
the church, and the church is as free as the state. As ii man may freely
transfer his citizenship from one State to another, to each in turn, so may he, if
he shall so desire, pass from one ecclesiastical comnuinion to aiiother. until lie
shall have exhausted the list. If. perchance, no (me of the one hundred iind
forty -three distinct denominations enumerated in the census tables shall suit
180
THIVMI'HS AM) WaSDHItS OF Till-: \lX"i I'llNTURY
him, tlicn- n-maiii iniiiiiat'rali'.<' si'ininitf. iiMic|M'ii(l(Mit (•(iiiKi<'K'it''""'< "" •'H''
of wliicli lay.s «•) mh to tlfii'iiiiiiiiitioiial iiamc, crocil, nr (■oiiiicftion, in sniin-
diu' of wliit'h lit' yet may tiiiil ail t'cclcsiastical lioiiu'. 'i'Ih- |iriiici|)li' of divi-
sioii. indt'cd, lias Ik-cii carrifd so far in America that it would In- a ditlimlt
task to find the rt'li^ious lx)dy so small as, in tlif jud^jmiMit of some to !>••
iiieapabli' of fiirtlicr division.
It is to be obst'ived, liowi-ver, that the diffiMciii-cs (d the one huiulriMl and
CATllKlJHAl. OK ST. .lOHX TUK DIVINK (rilOTKSTANI i;ns( OPAI-) INDKK PUOIKSS OK
KHKCTION IN NKW YOHK
forty -three denominations into which our reli},Moiis ]>()]i\ilation is divided are,
in many instances, so sli<,'lit that, slnmld consolidation be attempted, the one
liviiidred and forty-three eould <'asily l>e reduced to a comiiaratively small
numl>er, and this with but little change in doctrine, jiolity, or usaj^e. Consol-
idation into orf,Mnii' union, however, is hardly lik(>ly to occur in the near
fut<i2'e. even were such consolidation desirable. In the first jtlace such a
result would l)e contrary to the j^enius of Protestantism, based, as ^t is. on the
absolute right of i)rivate ■judgment with resjiect to matters of faith and
moral.-, and, in the second ])lace. it would lie contrary to I uman e.x]ierieni'e.
"Keligious controversies," as Gladsttme says, "do not, li'u' bodily wcuinds.
77//-: cKSTunys iit:iJ(iiouii I'liuaituss
ISl
iiiilrcd iiihl
[•noCKSS OK
li«'iil l»y the KPiiial forwH of iiiituif. It tlit-y <l<' not proci'eil to gaii^'riMif ami
mortilicatioii, at Icstst tlu-y ti-ud to liaidcii into fixed tacts, to iiieor|Kt-
lat.e tlieiiiselvt's into laws, ciiaraeter. ami tradition, nay, even into lauKiiago;
HO tiiat at last tliey take rank amon^ tin- data and presniipusitions of eoiu-
n«)n lite, and are tiiout,dit as inexoralile as the roeks of an iron-lMHUid eoast."
In religion, wlien men separate, the severance is like the severance of the
two early friends of whom the poet si)eakM : —
"They |ilirtril. Ili''rr In lllril lli;ilill.
Kill iii'illii'i' I'M'i' tiiiiiiil aiiiillii'i'
Til Irrr till' liiillntv hi'iirl fniiii luiiiiiii);.
Thi'v >t I iiliKif, I III' M'»r> ri'iimiiilii);,
l.iki' ililTr. wliirli liiivi' I n ri'ii! a-iiinliT,
A ilri'iiry si'ii iiiiw mill lii-iwi'i'ii."
If. however, the diversities are ^'leat — iiureasini,' rather than diminishiiiff
— the "unity td' the spirit in tin- humls of jieace " with resjioet to all essen-
tials of doetrine is as remarkalile as the
diversity \v the outward form. Never,
indeed, siller llie diiwn of t'liristianity,
were the men l)ers of tiie divei'sitied li< d-
ies of the ^r'li.ral el ",reli id' Christ in
sneh thoriill^di aeeord. in siieli eiuseness
of attaidiment. with sneh jjenerons r«--
coj,Miition of all that is <j;('oil. in e'leh of
the several Imdies, as iiuw. l'"-veii the
Koman Cathulie Chnreli, intolerant in
all lands where its swa, is praelieally
undisputed, in the I'liited Sta'es. at
least, has eauitht sonietliiiiir ol the
broader toler.ilioii of I'miestants. jijiv-
in^ to its millions of i-nnimunieants a
hetter and truer ,i,'ospel than in those
countries where it iloes not come into
contact with Protestantism, 'vhile free-
ly coiiperatiuj,' with other chnrches in
various works of philanthropy and re-
form.
In the next ]ilace. that wi' are a relijrious. a Christian jx-ople may lie arijued
from the steady and enormous im rease durinj; the ■entiiry <d' the material
and spiritual forces of the church of Christ, an increase phenomenal even
amid tlu; wonders of a phenomenal century. Whether we look at the
increase of editices or the ]unlti|ilication id' communicants, the residts in
either Ciuse are sufficient for Ixith congratulation and amazement. Were it
jiossihle to obtain from the earlier records exact statistics of the actual num-
ber of editices and coinmunicaids existjn<^ at the opening of the century,
comparison would be comparatively ea.sy. Suidi. however, is not the case, the
records havin)» been imperfectly kept and inditlereiitly i)reserved. 'I'he cen-
sus of IH'.J'i, indeed, was the first to furnish exhaustiv- ami really reliable
results.
Takin;; that census as a basis, and adding to. its figures those ti be (d»tained
FATIIKU DAMIEN. MISSIO.NAIIY TO
HAWAIIAN I KPKU rol.oSY.
u
TIUUMI'US Wh noMiKllS i>F THE A7.V'" CESTUIIY
I'loiii tlif \v\w lumks lit tlif viuiiiiis l(i"lics ii|i tti iiiiil incliiiliii^' I.S'.H. tlio
r<'liKi"iis stiTn>,'tli dt tin' liiitfii Slittivn lu.tv
!><• siiiiiiiiai'i/i'i
toll.
i'hiircia'., I^'.M^>.S; iili;,'iiiii.s nr>;uiii/iil ions, l."»S,(l'.»."i ; intlaiiu'tl iiiiiii>tfr«,
in.Sl.';!; 1 u'iiiIht.s or (•oiiiiiiiiiiiciiiits. I.M,'1".".IIS; valui' of ••liuivli |iro|M'rty.
.*it;7ii.iMHt.(MM;. MMtiiij,' (M|pju'il,v ot I'iiiiriii.'s, t.'l.don.ono. wliilc in tin- 'j;!.(MM>
ilacfs w
ll.T
I' or;,'am/.atioiis wliicli own no I'liiiict
ilili
liojij tlifir sfivict's,
lations coiilil lie loniHl loi' I'.Ldn.tHin more. In tin- majority of tlif
I'rott'stant clniiclii's. .it Ifiist two SITS iffs an' Im'M on rarli Sali'oatli : in tin*
iii'i'oninioi
Catliolir. six or si-vi-n.
(iiantin),' tlicsc pii'miscs. it is Iml ii;isonal>li' to say that if. on any \i\\v\\
(lav, tilt' ml ill' ]io|iiilation of llir I'oiintiv slumlil ili'siri- to attcml at It'as*. oiii'
ninilations roniil iraililv Im' fonnd for tlir mtiri' nwin-
ri'linious stTvirr. aiToni
l),.r, — ani|>li' |iioot that tin' N|iiritual inton'sts «»f tlu' millions jir*' l»y no
iiic:iiis nt';,'Ifrti'il so tar as jirivilciri's of worship an- coiircrnt'd. It is a show-
'iiiMikaMi' whi'M \vi' roiisiilcr that all this vast provision is
iii^'
ill ti
IIOl'l'
fnrnishcd on tlu' hasis of voluntary olf('riii;,'s, tin- statf rontrilnitiin,' not a
dollar for rcli^'ions imrposi's. It is prolialdf that in tln'si- clinrrln's and
I'difircs. on Sahhaths and on wi'i'kdays, not. h'ss than I.-i.immi.immi services an*
licld t'ach yi'ar. to say notliin;^ of si'ssions of Sniiday-srhools. nit'i'tiiivis of
Youii;^ ri'opli''s Assofiations, and ,<,'athrriii:4s of kindn'd fharai-tcr. In thi'iii,
too, not h'ss than ti-n millions of stMiiions and addri'sscs on rt'li,!jfions thciin's
art' annually di'livi'rnl.
Till' nnnihi'r of fniollrd I'onimunii'ants, or ini'nilit'rs, howi'vi-r. by no nit'ans
exprt'sst's tilt' rt'al strt'iii^'tli of thf rflijj;iitns lift- of thf nation. To K«'f I't that,
\\v must multiply t'ai'h I'rotfstant lommnnicant hy tin- !.'..'> adhfrt'iits alhiwi'd
in all statistical t'alcidations. I'roi'i'rilin;,' on this hasis. omittiiii^ for tlii' tim»^
all Cathidics, Jews, Tht'osophists, nit'inhi'rs of Sofictit's for Kthiral Cultun',
Spiritualists. I,atti'r-l>ay Saints, and kiutlrt'd hoilii's. and niultiplyini; the
l.\L'(M ».(»<»• I'rotfstant nit-ndwrs l»y L'.."., wt' have over ."KM M H M •< M i as tlu" total
I'rott'stant ))opulation of the country. .VtldiuK to these ."id.lMMMMMl the Cath-
olic ]iopidation, cstimati'tl hy Catholic authorities as hein;,' \Tt iwr cent, larj^er
than the numher of Catholic communicants, we have ."ir.txi'J.tMM* as the tot^il
Christian jiopulatiin, leaving; only ahout 7,<IIM».(HK» who are neither com-
nuinicaiits nor adherents. Of the 7. OOft.ddO opposed, for various reasons, to
the ciiurclu's. comparatively few are to he reckoned as either infidels or
atheists; while, on the other hand, it is true that of the ri7.<M»0,«MM» reckoned
as either communicants or adherents, millions are Christians only in name,
either never attending the services of the churches, or at the Ih-s* only at
rare intervals. (iratifyin>; as is this sjilcndid exhibit of relij^ious devotion on
the part of tlu; Anu'ricau people, the fact that thtie are milliniis in our land
whose allejiiance to Christian tloctri le is hut nominal, with millions more upon
whose lives relii,'ion exercises no aipreciahle intliu'nce whatever, is a sulKeient
proof of the enormous task yet confroutiu^ the churches of Christ, if we are
to stand hefore the nations as the j^reat distinctive Christian nation of the
world. The stupemlous u'iiiu. however, in ninety-four years, of over 1 4..S.VI,-
<t7t»in Protestant churches alone is a record of reli},'ious proi;ress unparalleled
in the history of the worhl.
Advaiu'inj^ to theipiestiou of distrilnition of the religious forces enumer-
ated, we find that whih; these forces are ilistrihuted throughout every State
and
tlif
St a
cull
lap.
tirs
I
I'm
l.ii
cui
IS.
7."i;
THE CENTUltY'S RELIGIOUS PIlOdJlESS
153
and miller one huiulriMl 'mkI fi)iU-thi<'»> dcnoininiitional names, they are, never-
tlii'less. massed lurj,'i'ly in a lew dt iKmiinatioiis and in iu ctimparatively few
States. Comiietent autliorities estimate liuit tlie tive lar!,'est denominatidns
comiirise fully (50 per cent, of tlie entire nunil)er of eoniniiinieants ; tiie ten
largest. 7") i>er eent. With respeet to v-oninuinieants. tiie Catliolic Cliureii is
tirst, witii 7..">li».<MHt; tile .Metiiodist (ail liodies) seeond, with r>,4(»r>,U7t); the
"%"
A
■..-■vV?*'"'
■fo-^^^^."-
'■^v ■
^•*^S^^i
YOUN« MEN'h «1I11IHTIAN ASHIM lATIO.N lU'Il.DIN)!, I'IIII-A»KLPIIIA.
Hiptist third, with ;{.7l7..'i7.". ; the I'reshyterian fourth, with 1 ,*J78,3,'12 ; the
Lutheran tiftli, with l.'SV.i.U^'J.
With respeet to po]mlation. reekoninLC tlie Caiholie )M)])nlation at 7.r)'(l,(MM)
— wiiieli li<,Mire.s include children under ten years ol a^'e — ami addinj,' to the
lonununieant strenv;lii of the fourotiier hodies mentioned the li..'» iulliereiits
allowed fie.- eiieli couiMUMiii'ant. we have tlie following: Methodist pojiidiition,
is.'H.S.JCiC; Itaptist. 1L'.!HMI.,S(».".; I'resl.yterian, .■...V.'r..|(;i.'; Lutlieran. 4,:i.'>X,-
7't'J; totjil I'rotestant population. r.t».(MM>.(MiO ; CatlKdie. 7.r.l(t.(MM>.
Willi res|M;ct to value of ehuieh property, the .Methodists are first with
154
TiiiL.ui'iis A\u wo\iJh:i{s OF Tin-: a/a'" ckxtuhy
i
i
^1;{1.'.<MK».(MM»: tlif «'atli<ilic.s swoml, .«!1 1S.)HMI.(MM»; tlic I'lvsln tciiiiiis tliiitl,
with S'.t."»,<HMi.(MM»: tlif Ki>is<<.|.aliaiis i'uurtli, witli .*i.SL',.s;{.">.(HMl ; the Itajitists
fifth, with .SM.'.'">'.NUKMI. The total value ut' chiiicli projxTty, i"(ki)iiiiii; all
diMioiuinatioiis. ri-aclM-s tin- eiKHinmis siiiii ot .SflTO.tMMl.tKM).
To fiirtliiT iiaiticiilaii/.f with ifsiH-ct to the lesser j^roiips into wliich the
ivlij^ious foiees are divided is ini|i(>ssil)le within the limits allowed for this
ehapter. To i!o it wtudd re(|iiire a voliiiiie instead (d' a ehapter. The ftdlow-
iiif,' smiunary. iiowi'ver, imiy suttice to show the gain of a eeuturv of ndigious
t'ftort: —
Miiii>ti'r>.
( lr;.'aiii/.a- I 'miiiiiiiiiiIc mil-
tii>ii>. iir Mi'iiiIxT".
•.'.(151
:!.o:iii
iMu..**:-.'
•.».•>. .V).-(
4:i.(»7-,'
:t..V»i».!iHS
4:.«mt
tn.UM
tl.(l7:!.:i!Ml
«»,sT(i
HT.niKi
in.(Mri.itn!<
1»H.1S.-,
l.-.I.ITJ
i:;.s.>:(..-||s
ll».H..':t
i:.s.((!i.-,
1. ■.,•.'! 7. !l|x
When one reniendn-rs that ont- hundred years ai;o it was a eoniinon lioast
(d' iiitidels that •• rhristianity woidd not survive two generations in this
country," the alxive exhil)it shows a reli;,Mous |iidt;ress nnei|ualed in the his-
tory id' the kiii;;doiii of (iod in any land or any ai^'e.
Turnini; to tin field id' missionary elTorl. we lind that the spread of the
<'hristian n .ijion l»y ndssionary etVorts, partieularly durinu' the last one hun-
dred years, forms one of tiie bri'^hlest chapters in the records id human pro-
ijress. Within this |»eriod. the triumphs of the tiist three centuries have liccn
far more than re|M'ated.
Following; these early victories of the Christian faith came on. as all know,
•nvjes of darkiie>s. dreary centuries, durinj,' the proi,'ress of whicii the |iower
of the church ijradnally waned, and. with respect to purely sjiiritual activities.
Repmi'tl to die away. The voice of exhortation cease<l to he heard. Christian
song was hushed. Kven prayer closed its su|iiilicatiui,' lijis. and the chnndi.
overladen with corruption, worhlliness, and human andiition. passeil into the
thick d.irkness of the long and disastnnis ellipse of the .Middle .\ges. Itut
amid the widt s|>read darkness enveloping the world, even the ages known as
the •• Dark .\g -s" were not without their gleams of light, .\mong the ."^ara-
cens and in the lands of the Urient. always were to lie lound lieroic men and
Women toiling ceaselessly for tiie conversion of heathen nations to the ( hrist.
Later on. suhsei|uent to the thirteenth century, and especially during the
Oenturies imniedi.'ltely following the discovery of the N'>'W World, the ilesiie
for the Christiani/.ingof thewoild Hann-d into an all-altsorliing passion. 'I'he
tremendous lalnMs of Xavier. of Loyola, and their followers, in every quarter
of the gloJH'. have long l>een the Wonder a nil adniiiation of the world. Checked
in Kurope liy the ri>e of the great I'mlestaiil lleformation. the Catholic
Church turned its eiiergio to the aci|uisition of spiritual power in other
liiiuls, and with enormous .succi'sa. AIoiil; the hanks id the .St. Lawrence,
THE CKSTURY'S KELUJlOiS I'HOdUESS
155
IS fiiinl,
I'iijiti.sts
iiiii^ all
licli flic
for this
loljow-
i<'lii,'i()iis
amid tin- wilds id (.'aiiadiuii lorcsls. lar away on iht- .slion-s ol lUe Ciiviit
l.akfs, tht'iifc smitliward to tho Ohio, almi); the Missihsipiii, t-Vfii t«) tlie
<iidt'; in farCaiha.v, in Ccvlon. in .lapan, in China, in Alrira, — cvfrvwhtTL-
its missionaries cnuld 1m' I'onnd, iifcdlcss of hinip'r. of cold, of jn'ril, rcrk-
Icss t'vcn <d life, if liy any nit-uns, whotlii-r by life <ir by death, tliey «iij,'ht
•■s]>rinkl<' many nations " and establish the lioly endiluni of the Christian
faith.
Al)soibed in the strn^yles j,'oin.i,' on in their own lands, Protestants made
bnt littli' effo't for till- extcnsinn <d' the j^ospel in foreign tiel((s. save the
t"W hut surcr-slul ailiMiiptN made liy the Moravians of (iermany. always the
most zealous of ail I'roiestani l/odies in lines of missionary servie,e. Wliat,
' ^^*-— ,— •'" '
■ "■^■■"'Tv";'-!'
, • ^ '-.■■, ■ v^'
1 ■
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>■■■■♦,-
■ '■^■'^
\
Jf
' •>.,■, v'»-«;ii-'-./ • '
,««
\
- I*.
W
■ -../ , * -.
' ■-' - '
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HAI'TIST MISSION S( IIOOI,. .I,\rAX.
hovtver. was laekiii}; in the way nl niissiona.y ottort in the seventeenth and
eijihlei'iilh reiituries has been more than made ptod in the j^lorious nine-
teenth, the distinctive missionary eentnry of the Christian era. In the room
ot seven societies or!j;ani/.ed for world-wide ^'os|iel evan'jeli/.ation at tiieeiidof
liie last eentnry. there aie now in Kniope and .\nierica between sevi-nty and
eiiihty origan izat inns. cni|il'iyiiii,' a force of nearly three thousand .\merican
and l'!urn|H-an missionaries, mid |ierha|is four tiiiic> that nnmlier ol native
a.><>istants. l'"iill ."jli 1 n,0( M »,( x i( i a re anniially raised anioiii,' the I'rotestaiit IkmUcs
alone for missionary service, while the ;,M'eat Ikoiiian Catholic Clinreh prose-
cutes its work with a zeal ei|iially untla^j.;in^'. A brief survey of the pro^'iess
of a hundred years (d' missionary elTort will make it idear to all minds that
the day is not far distant when tlu^ tleclaralion of the projihet, ••'I'lic earth
shall be filled with the knowled^'c id the ^dory of the Lord, even as lh<' waters
cover the .>ea." sh;ill h ive aliiiiidaiit and nia;,'nificeut realization.
At the befjinninu of this century, every island ol the vast I'acilic was
closed a^jainst the gospel. To-day, nearly every one is under tlie iiiHnence.
156
TiiiLMi'Jis ASD nvyDEUs oi- rui: xi.\"' vEyruRY
luort' or less I'Xtt'iulfd, ul Chiistiuii I'iviliziitinn. luiliu, Irum C'liiif C'ouiorin
to the I' iijauli. tioui thi- I'linjauh to tin; Jliiiialayas, lioiu the Himalayas to
Thilict. — at whose j^ates the j;i)S|)el is now kiioekiin,'. — lias heeii coveretl
with a network -if iiiisMoii stations, seliools, coliejfes, and ehnrelu's, closer hv
far in its interlaeiiigs than that whieli at the elose ol' the third eeiitury hail
s| read itself over the vast eni|iireot theCa'sars. ) H' tlie Indian A ndiipidaf^o,
Snniatia. .lava. Uorneo. the < I'lrhes. NewCininea. not to mention smaller
groups of ishiHils. are feeiinj;thc new life ever imiiarted hy the advent of the
Cross. .Ia]ian, too. huii.!,'ry tor reform, and lull of the stir ui the a,L;e, liy
granting entrance to the gospel, has within it^ borders already a numerous
Christian population with s(!ores of evangelical congregations. The sanm is
tr".' of the liermit nation. Corea. In the lamls of Islam, from liagdad to
tl'. IJalkans. from Iv^'vpt to i'ersia. and thionghout all 'I'urkey, are to be
f( (ind centres of missionary enterprise, the vast iuHuence of which is now
Ixdng sensiltly felt in the changing life of those reinarkalile peoples. In l>ur-
mah. and ri'cently in Siam. alter years of patient and apparently hopidess
service, (ields are everywhere "white unto tiie harvest." China, most popu-
lous (d' all heathen lands, is open to missionary elfort from Canton to I'eking,
from Shanghai to ilon-Cliiiw. .\lrica also, ouce, i:i its northern sections at
least, the home of tlie iearuiiig. the art. the science, the religion of the world,
uwakeidng from the sleep of long and dreary centuries tinder the intliieiice
of Christian civilization, again demands the attention of the great nations of
the world. Kveiywhcn-, east. west, north, south, it is heiiig invaded all
along tilt! liiu' of CccmI Ikhodes great railway, stretching northward from Cape
Town for tiiree thousand miles, to meet the twenty-six hundred pusiiing down
fnun the luu'tli, — from Senegal to (lalioou and from (iahonn to the Congo;
on the shores of Tanganyika and along the hanks (d' the Zamhesi shine the
lights of the gospel, wliiih, wherever it has gone, has In-en the harbingt-r of a
new and brighter day. Within the mighty domains of our own continent. u]ion
the immense plains reacliing from Labrador to the i'acitic. uikui the sterile
coasts (d' Alaska, in the laml of the Montezumas. in Central Anu'riea, in
South America, from I'anama to 'I'erra-del-i'uego. eipially marvelous have
been the steady gains resulting from a Christianity the forces of whitdi, lii'e
the waters that enrich the continent, penetrate all the bays and estuaries of
human society and inHuence all classes and conditions of men. Looking ujioii
the transformations etfected by the labors of a single century of Christian
elTort, one may surely say, '•The peoples that walked in darkness have seen
a great light; they that dwell in the land (d' the sh.adowof death, upon them
hath the light shineij."
Ivpially wonderful have been the vast contributions of the oliurch in .Amer-
ica to the great causes of education, philanthropy, and r<d'orm. particularly ii
the line id educational work. T
service id' the chnrcdi in the great cause
of education has never yet been fully recognizi'd. >(en forget, when char-
ging the clinndi with hostiiiiy to human progress, to freedom id' thought and
jiction, that until within a pi riod of seventy yiMis nearly everything a
plished for ]iopiilar
ceoin-
I'.itioii was carried out under the ansjiices of tiie
(diundies rather than under the direction of the st.ite. Cntil iSLTt, the state
had (hme next to nothing even in the devtdopvnent of its common schools.
In the great State of Pennsylvania, the system had no existence until the
ar;
77/ /i cKxrriiys iiKiiaiors piiormEss
157
I'
vciir l.S3o. Kvcii lo-day. iiiiKiii'j tlic four himdiva mid lilty institutions of
iii^iiu'r t'llucation in tiii' various States, iicaiiy all owe their foundation to the
enei^v and sa<Mitiee of Chiistian men and women. The total .u'ifts of the
cliniches to the cause uf education, still existent in i>lant. in j,M'onnds and
building's, or in tlie form of endowment funds, reach the enormous a.utivei^'ate
of nearly §."..")( I.(MM ».(»(»(». while the total of !,'ift3 to institutions of learning,
huLjeiv from Cliristian sources, aggr.v^'ate nea;!y .Sln.Ooo.iMiO per year.
MK'rilOOlST EIMSOOl'AL HOSlTrAI., I-llILAIlKLrillA.
The relis^dous activity of tlie century is further manifested in the onnr-
mous sums raised and expenih'd for iiurposes of charity, reform, and general
jihilanthroiiy. It wo\dd re(|uire an octavo volume of four hundred i)ages to
catalogue the various benevolent and charit.able organizations in the city of
New York alone. Add to that volume the hundreds more whii'h would l)e
re(|uircd to enumerate the aihlitional thousands to be found in riiiladelphia,
Chicago. I5oston, — in fact in every city. town, and hamlet from the Atlantic
to the i'acitic. nine tenths of which are distinctivelv Christian. — and vou
liiivi' :i taint idea, at least, of tlit* vastm»ss uf tin* .s]>iritual forces at work in
ir>H
TtUUMPns A\0 no.\l)KliS OF THE A7A'" CESTUHY
tlu'sc closing yours of tin- iiiitury for the iiiiicliomtion ot Inuiuui ill. tlm dis-
Iiflliii^,' III inoiiil and siiiritiial ilarkiirss. mul the u^lii'iin^' in ni' tin- era of
pcai'f and t^uod will, for the ciiiuiiij; of wliiili the i-huich has sn ceaselessly
prayed. What these |ihilaiithri)|iies are we eaiiiutt in th'Uul enumerate. Cla.s-
sitied. they are fur the |i(ni'. for tlie laliorinuj elasses. for t!ie sirk, for fallen
vomcii. for Iree schools, lor the aj^ed, for the lilind. tlu' deaf, the insane, the
iiupoteiit, tlie de^jraded. the oiiteast. for sailor.s, for the proteetion of animals,
for rity evanyeli/ation. fur home missions, for foreign missions, for relii,'ionH
pidilicatious, for the iinlili>hing ol the Holy Scriptures, for peace foi ^dnn)^
Men's .\ss<K'iations. Vonnj^ \Voiiien's .Vssoeiations. for every ian>f that appeals
to the sentiment <d' hrotherhood so characti-rislic ot the a;,M'. In inimlier
they are lci,'ion. In orij,'in. three loiirlhs are the outt;rowth of that >|iirii of
Christian l«»ve without whidi liicy could not have heen originated, and l>v
which they are maintained and iicrpetuatid. 'riiose who assert that within
this century ('hri.>tianity has done mori for humanitv than in all th. * mi-
ries preceding arc douhtless correct. It has made men kind, niaile them
humane. It has penetrated prisons, anil with liencficcnt change. It has
lifttd ilif prisoui-r Irom damp and dreary dungeons into commoilion.-. struc-
tures, the pride of city and Slate. So far. inilced. have the reforms inspired
liy the gos|Md iieen carried, that men arc licginning to incpiire wlielher tin*
limit has not U'en rcaciied heyoml which it may he dangerous to go.
.Such are the gciicial tacts of the religions piogress id' a ceutuiy in the
I'nited States. Keviewing them, we can easily discern the vast ami com-
inandiiig inHueiu-e «d' religion — the Christian religion — u|K>n the character
and lorluues (d' our people, .\moiig the ioii'cs working for the upliuilding
td' the Ucpulilic. religion stands preeminent, the most powerful, the most
jK-rvasive. the most irresistihle of them all. .\ fice i hurdi in a free state,
all its edifices have heen huilt liy private coutrihulion. all its magniticent
heni'tai'tions Mi>tained liy voluntary olferings, induced in every instance liy
the prim-iplc of Christian love. \ corporation ':*. holds it.s vast properties
for the common good of all. .\ lelief society, the sco|ie of its s\ mpalhics
is as wiile as the wants of man. .V nnivci'sity. it docs more for ih luca-
tion of the masses than the puhlic school system it.self. .\fi employer of
lalMir. it utili/es the lirains and energies of the most highl\ eilucated Imdy
of men to lie foinid in the liepidilic's hroad domain. .\n orgaid/cd heiieli-
eenee. it outwatches Argus with his hundred eyes, outworks Uriareus with
his hundred arms. .\n asylum, it gathers within its protecting ;irms the
halt, the iiiiiimeil, the wounded id liIVs great haltle. comforting them in
trouhle. sustaining them in ailversity. while cea.selessly jiointing them to
Him '"who taketh away the sins of the world." •• Kvery cornei-slone it
lays," as one has said, '• it lays for liumaidty : every temple it opens, it opens
for the wfirhl; every altar ' estahlishes. it estahlishcs for the .siilvatioii of
men. Its spires are fingers pointing heavenward : its ministers arc messen-
gers of good tidings; its amhassadcus. andiassa<lors of hope; its angels
angels of mercy." ruder all our institutions rest the lUhle and the school-
liouse, — Christiainty and Kducation. Without them, the liepultlic is impos-
sjhle; with them, we have Itepulilicaii .Vnu-rica for .i thousand years.
tiKOKtiK KliWAKIi li'lKI".
I
i
I
i
GREAT GROWTH OF LIBRARIES
Liitii.vitiK^ all' as old us .•ivili/.ali..ii. NctliiiiK' maiks civili/ed im.^'irss
mun. .lisliiu-tlv lliaii tlu- .uUtTlions of wiiliiiKS. wliftli.T »u day. stuiii',
W(.u.l. lapviiis'. or laivliiiuMit. wliii-h w.-nl U> i.iaki- up 'lit- lilmiiu-s ol aii-
(■i.-iit \H'n\,U's. Siirli wiitiii-s |,'.Mi.'ially ivlat.'.l to ivli^cioii. laws, ami foii-
.liu'sts, ami Inmid tli.-ii' al.oiic in the loiiii ol arrliiv.-s. in capitals and
tciiipU's. IJccciit .xploratidiis in .Mt-sopotaiiiia reveal I'dUcctioiis. or hl.rarifs,
„| 1 Us iiiMMil!.',! on clay talilcts. muny of whose dates are l.eyond (mO ii. <•.
TJiese lihraiies seem to have found a home for the iiio>t part in royal pahu-es,
and lo have contained works alMiiiiidiiii,' in iiistruetiou for the kin.us' siilijeets.
As uneartlied and tln'ir .'oiiteiits deciphered, they throw mucli valuahle light
upon the i.'inote histi>iy. as well as ihe arts, sciences, and literatures of Baby-
lonia and .\ssyria.
In ancient Hitvpt collections of hieroglyphic writings were made in temples
and in the tomhs td kings from the earliest known dates. Some hieroglypliioa
still extant hear date prior to -tiiiti n. caiid one papyrus manuscript ha.s been
discovered whose supposed date is l(i(M» 11. 1'. What were known as the sacred
Hooks <d Thoth — f.uly-two in number — constituted the Kgyjitian eneyelo-
pa'dia of religion and science, and became such a fruitful source td" eoinmeu-
tjiry and exitosiiioii. that iiy the time of the (irecian comiuest they had grown
ill number ol' volumes to ;>ti..">l.'.*>.
< If the liliiarics of the (irei-ks we have little positive knowledge, though it
is abundantly asserted by late compilers that 1; rge eollections of books (writ-
ings) once exi.sted in the viirioiis (Jrecian cities. I'isistratiis is said to have
fonnded a library at Athens as early as '>',u u.r. .Siiniio says that .Vristotlo
collected the hi'st known iilnary in (Ircece, which he bcipieathed to Theo-
jihrastiis (». c. '."J'J), and which, liy tlie vicissitude id' war. tinally found its
way t<i iJonje. At Cniilus there is said to have existed a special collection of
works mHin medicijie. Xeiiophon speaks id' the library of Ihithydt'iuu.s.
Kiielid and IMato are nientioned as iKiok collectors. Hut by far the most re-
iiowneil book collectors of the (ii ks were the I'tolcinics id' Kgypt. who
gathered from llcileiiie. Hebrew. and I'-gyptian sources that wondeifid collec-
tion of volumes, tu' ntUs. which became famous as the .Mexandrine I ibrary.
This was composed of two libraries, one estimated at H.'..SO(l volumes, or rolls,
connected with the Acailemy. the other estimated at I'.Mt.tMKl volumes, in- ndls,
deposited in the .Serapeum. it is said that tlu'se immense c(dlectioiis were
regularly catalogiii'd and kept under the supervision cd' competent librarians,
till consumed by the Saracens at the time of their comniest of Egypt. A. d.
tll»».
The liomans at lirst paiil little attention to literature. It is not until the
last <!entify of the republic that we hear (da library at Koine, and then it was
not a native collection but a spoil of war. It was captured from I'crseus of
)•*
il
100
TltllMI'IIS ASD WoShEllS OF Till-: MX'" CA'.V'//.')'
M vloiiiii ■■ I 111 i!i!,'lit to l;«iiii<' ill 11. < . Ii>7. '^w MiUa .iijitiiriii tin liluarv
ut ..!,.lli ; .t .* :. I'lis. ill 1 c.Sti.iiii l)niiij,'lil it tn iJniiic. I.iiciilliis l.nni'^'iit
to in !u .. •■'■il s'uri' ol' litiTaliirc Iroiii lii» i-astcrii ftiiiiiiicsts (ii. i . <»").
^\')>;u Hill srliiilars iiiiw lii'i^Mii tn tin'iii lllirai'i'^ at Uoiiif, soiiir nf
whicli iiin- V I lartji' ami valiialilc It is lii'H' wr lii>i lit-ar nl tin- ilnlii-a-
tiiiii of liliiiirifs I • . • i>ulilif. — a ,stf|i wlufli iiiailf liniin' tma tiim'tlu' rr-'int
(if M-liiilar> Iroiii hiIh r iiatii'iis. I'sprriallv (irrciT. The innst tainiiiis ii| ilu-
iiiaiiv iiiiiit-rial lil>r.irii-< ot Ifniiic \va^ that Inmiili'il liy ri|iiii> 'I'ra jaiiiis. It
Wiis ciillt'il tin- l'l|ii;iii I.iliran. ami was at tir>t tuiimlcil in tin' Iniiim oT Trajan.
Iiiit al'ti-i'wanis D'liin' ''d to tin- hatlis iil I >iiir!i>t i:iii. In tin! innrtli n-ntiiry
tlnTf art' sail! I" liavt- iiffii as iiian\ as t\M'iitv-i'i;.;hl |iul)'iii' lilu-.iiii's in Ituii'".
(iii'.it. iiiilifii. must ii.iM' U'fii tlu'ir lii'stnictioii iimliT \ari"iis vicissitmli's.
tor wlii-ii till' Miii|>i'ini' ( iinstjntinc niuvcil the lliiiiian rajiital t<> ( 'niistaiitiiin-
|il*-. ami liiiiiiili-il his imjiiTial liluarv tlicri-. it nnmln'ri'il hut a ii'W thnusaiiil
ImioIv.s. It was. liuwi'ViT. y;r»'atly cnlarirt'd attt-r lii^ ihatli — smm- sa\ ..>
IIHI.OtHI vnlumt'S. ; was ilfsnnVfil in \. I>. I7(«. with tlir rlusr 111' till' Wi'-ti'lll
Kiii|iiri'.
With tlif spreail nt Cliristiaiiity tiii'if arnsf a nrw inci'iitivr ti> writr ami
collect IxHiks. The cliiireli rei|iiirei| liotli a liter.itiire ami liliiaries as ]iiit
of it.>< orj,'aiii/atioii. {'amphilus is s.iiil t>' have ei.Jleeteil a liluarv of .•;(i.(HMi
voluiut's. diicHy leliiritiiis. at < a-siuea ( A. i>. •>••'.•). his nliject heiiij; to leml tliciii
out to readers. ISut a.s liook inakiiii,' ami rollectim,' heeaiiie narrnwed to the
church, {general literature wa.s |uoseril>t'i| ainl liliiaries ee;iscil to t'oiirish. ex-
cept :i.s ciieouraucil 1>\ Tii« iiiiuiastic orders. Such lihraries were iiecessariiy
small and of a private <-haraetcr. Their liooks were mami.scripts written or
copied 1)V the priests, up to the dale of the inveiitii n of printini,'. The
liliiaries of this clas- whii-li jjrew in iinportaiiei- were tl ose of the Swiss and
Iri.-li iiioiiasteries. no; oniittint; those in Mn;;land. as at < aiiterliurv and \'ork.
The invasion of the .Norsemen, in the nintli :ind tenth eeiitiiries. was jreiier-
ally fatal to the moiiastie lilmiiies mi liotli sides of the !''ii;,'lish ehaiinel.
In Kram'c. the lihrary at Kiilda seemed to retain its hooks and respect. It
wa.s f,'reatly enlari:ed liy ('liailemaf;ne. who also founded ;, more ostentations
one at Tours. With the revival of learning;, and with the hope of openin<; a
wider lieid to siiiilar literature. Charles \|..of l''iaiice. founded a my lilirary
whicli nniiiliered IUMI volumes \>y \. o. 1 HI. .\ similar liluaiy in Kiijilaiid.
that of the Itritish eiow ii. niimliered '.i'J'.t \olumes at the time of Henry \'l II.
In Clint r:ist with these early io\;d efforts stood that of ('or\ iiiiis, kiiij; of llun-
iinvy. whose lihrary iiumlMMed .'i'MMMI volumes, mostly manuscripts, in 1 l',M>.
This imperial coljcciioii was lniriied liy the Turks in I."i|U. Alioiit this time
the nucleus of the iiioderii Laurent iaii Lilirary of Florence was (ornied.
In I.ViCi. the r.ililiot!ie.iuc Natioiiale. or royal lilirary of France, at Paris,
was endowed hy the kiiii; w itli ptiwer to demand a i-opy of every hook printed
in France. This power iMM-ame the hasis of the eopyri<^'ht tax. now univer-
sally icvied liy civilized nations, and which has Im-cii the means of greatly on
richinj; all ^''^'THiiient lihraries. In l.VifJ the royal lilirary of France could
lioast of hut L'tHHi volumes. In I7S«» it contained Iff mmhmi volumes, the laru'est
nuinlicr of any lihrary then existiii'.,'. \t the end of tin- nineteenth centurv
it still retains the distinction of liein^ithe mo.st extensive lihrary in the world,
eontaininj,' approximately ."•.(Kio.tHMi volumes.
3
■A
a
■J
3
l(i-'
TiiifMJ'ns AM) \\oM>i-:i{s or tiik xix'" cKsrinv
111 li;ilv tlic lilirarii'-i. tlKtiij;!! vrm riil)K' ami vi-rv rich in run' rdlltrtions nt
iiiaiiiiscii|its. arc imt iiutril tor tin- iiiiiiilicr nt Imnks wliirli n'|ircsfiit nitnli'ii
litfiatmr,
Tl
II' llidS
t iintcit lilinii'x is tlir I'lililinti'tM N'atiiMiia, m lilnarv i>l
ilif Vatican. It traces a vaKiic liistorv lim^k li> llic tilth i-iMitiiry. Itnt its real
The nnnilicr nt' viiiinncs ami nianiHi'i'i|its mi it-
iuiiiiilatinn was in
ii;
< H I.I M M I
shelves is ai>iin>xiuiately '.V
In S|.aiii and l'«irtnj,Mi are national liluaiies in their resiieetive ea|iit:il
.Madrid and Lislinn. The national lilnarv oj' Spain contains .some ."iCiO.dnu
vidni
and iiianiiscri|its. while that ot I, isl.oii contains over L'tMMMM). !>
d Holland are ricli in liluaiies. The roval library at Itriissels con
tains over |imi.(HI(» volnnu >. hi IN.'UI it was niaile a jiart oj ihe slate archive-,
and throwii oiieii to the imldic. Tiie naiioiial lilnary td' lltdlainl was estah-
lished in IT'.IN l>v iinilin;.,' the lilnarv of th
irinces ot I M'aiiL,'!' wi
tl: tl
le Slliailel
lilirarii'S id the .ielnnct ^tates. It thus liccanie the lilnary oT tiie Slalcs-Ceii-
eral, lint in lSl."i it was conv<'rted into the iiresent iiatiunal lilnary. It has a
very valnaldi- coliection id' hooks, niinilierin.i,' over lOO.iMMl. line of the liest
arranged and inanaj^ed lilnaries in I'airojie is
the I
loval
Lib
It ('
'1"
iiiipMi. It was thrown ojien to the |piililie in 17'.'.">, and has siiici' lieeii eon-
ducted under national anN|iices. Two coiiies (d' cvi'iy 1 k indtiisheii in the
kinj^doiii must be deiiosited in this library, its vohmies have increased very
rapidly during the nineteenth century, and now niiniber over iVill,niilt. 'I"lie
I'oval labrarv (d Sweden is located at Stociihcdni. it contains over .'(."ill.lliio
valiiabh' vtdiiiiies, and is admirably arianned and coiidncted. 'I'he I'liivei-
sity Library at I'psaia is also a very valuable one. containin.t; olMl.lHlu \ui
nines. There is also an excellein library of over lOO.IKMl vcdnnies connected
witli the univer.sity at laind. The libraries cd' Norway. thonj;h not so laru'e
as tliose (d Sweden, are nuniermis. valuable, and well inanai,'ed. The liiiver
sity Library at Christiana contains over .'>.">< i.ii(M) voluniPs. In lliissia, lar^'c
and valuable libraries are not numerous outside of the cities of St. I'l'teisbuiL;.
Moscow, and Warsaw. The lin]ierial liibrary at St. I'etersbiirj,' ranks as the
ri(dicst ill Lurope. exccptiiif^ the libraries td Paris and the liritish Mnseuni.
It is open to tiie piildic. and contains aiiproximatidy l.l.'llli.llOn volumes.
<ifrniany, with her multiplicity of minor capitals, her love of books and
book -111 akin J,', her numerous universities, cxcids every other I'airopean conntiy
in the number, extent, and value of her liitraries. The lai'viest is the L'oyal
Library at Merlin, with approximately I.IHIII.IIIHI volumes. It was foiihded
by the "(ireat Klector" l""rederick William, and oiiened as a public library in
ICilil. The Ikoyal Library at Miinich loni; rated as tin' lar<,'est in (Jermany.
witli its I. 'Jill 1. 1 It II I vcdnnu's, imdusive of pamphlets, tiie latter nuiuberiii!; sonic
."il II I.I Mill. |5ut it wa> tliou};ht to be unfair to (dass so many small and iiicoii-
sei|m'ntiiil works as bonks, so that the library at ISerlin was >^\\c\\ precedence.
Still the Mnniidi lilnary is particularly rich in incunabula and other treasures
derived from the monasteries, wliiidi were closeil in ISll.'l. The I'niversity
library at .Muiiiidi is also very riidi in similar treasures. It contains widi
nii;h .'illU.lllin volumes. The other lar.ue libraries id (ienaany are the Lnivcr-
sity library at Leipsic. with over ."ilMl.iillll volumes ; the L'oyai and City library
at .Vng.sburf,'. with lL'."..(Ht<»; the Koyal. at r.amb.rj,', with .'ItMi.ollO volumes ;
the I'l.iversity at r.oiiii. with L"_'li.iiliil volumes; the (Ir.iiid Ducal at Darin
stadt, with -4110.11011 volumes; the Uoyal I'liblic, at Dre.sdfn, with tlo.iinn
run Y
(Hlllcclioll.s lit
I'M'llI llllllllMII
. <)l lilllill'V l<|
■y, l)iit its iral
s( ripts (III its
•tivi- capitiiK.
suiiit' .*i(t(i,iini)
:<Mi.(iu(). It, 1.
IWussi'ls (•(Ul-
ulate arcliiM's
mi was cstali-
llii* siiialli'i'
ir Slat('S-(ic||.
ii\ . It lias a
lit' of tin- ln'St
ii'V at Copcii-
IICC ImM'II Clill-
ilislicij in till'
iciH'asfd vt'i\'
."iiMKKt. 'i'j,,
iivir .'!'i().0(((»
Tilt' I'liivci-
.'{(KMMHI Mil
it's ('i)iiiu'i'ti'ii
iM't s(i lar,L,'f
Till' Ciiivcr
h'nssia. laiLTf
r. r.'tfr.slMiij;.
ranks as tlif
isli .Mnsfiiiii.
ilniiii's.
>f' liiMiks ami
|ican cumiti V
is tilt' liiiyal
was i'lMiiiilfd
lit- lilaary in
in (ii'i'iiiaiiy.
iltci'iiit^sonif
II ami iiicdii-
I |irt'c('(l('ni'i'.
Iicr tri'asiirt's
1' I'liivcrsity
iintains well
tlif I'nivtT-
City lilmiry
(M( volnnios ;
al at Danii
•itli IKMM"'
<
S
s
\
IM
riuiMi'iis AM) U(i\in:ii.s tir run xi.\"' rKMinr
V(iliiiiii> ; ill.- liiivii^iis 111 Krlaiii,'!'!!, with IS.Vnnn vuliiiiir> ; tin- ('it\. ,t
I'lailklnlt, witll I'.MI.IMMI Mdmiio ; till- I lllViM-.||\ at r'lfllillln. Willi l.*.*M u H M »
viiliiiiH'H ; till' ('iiivci>it.v at (iicssi-ii, with IdO.iHHt vi>Iuiiii>n; th<- IMiimI I'iiIi! ,
at tiiiilia. Willi '.'iM.ntHi Mijiiiii.o ; tin- iJuval T iiivfi>it\ at tM>itiii;;i'ii. w ,ii,
r.Mt.OiMl vi)liimi'> ; llif ( 'il\ at liaiiiliiiii,'. wiili ."({((.(nio m.Iihih-. ; thi- liiivfisiM
at llriili'ilNM't;. with IId.ihhi voIiiiidh ; tlii> l'iiivi>i-sit,v at .li-iia, with ItHi.iMMi
vnlmiifs; llic I'liiM r->ily al K n-l. with '_"-'."»,<MMt Miliinii-N ; tht- riiiviM>il\ it
ll'i-^lnck, >\ilh .'ijii.iMMi Mijiiiiii's ; till' I iinrisitN at Stra^lmi.;, with omt
71HMHHI voliiiiii'M till' Ciiivt'iMiv at 'riiliiii;,')'!!. witli .">'_'lt.iNNI vuiiiiiics: ihi-
(iiaiiil I>ihm1 at Wiiiiiar. with L'.'tii.OiHi Miliiiuro ; th>- iSniiowirk lliiral, at
\\ iillrlllilltti-1. with ii\ r|- .".(lU.dnO \iiliiliiis, r>i'-,ii|rs tln'sc llii-l'i'ai'r limil<'l'<>IH
otlifi'H attai'hi'll III \ariiiiis iinivrisitirs or pultlifiy or^aiii/fil wliirh h;i\i>
IIHl.tHHI \ii|iiiiii'> i-arh.
Ill .\ii>tiM-liiiii.i;ai'\, till- lar:4i'>t lilnarv is that i>t tin- liii|N'rial I'liMic. ;it
Vifiina. it was liniiiilril in llt<> \<\ Kiii|i*>i'i>i' Kicili-iiik III., ami lias cmt
siiiif Imimi iiiimiliiiiill.v sii|i|Hiitiil l>y tin Austrian |iiinci's. I'rw liliiaiii'> in
Kiirn|.c iiiiilain in-'ii' ini|Miilant riilli'rlinns marc iM'ttrnirijani/i'il and InniMii.
Its vitliiiiics niiiniMM' ."ilti.tHMi. Adiiiissiun to its rcailiii;; riMini is lifi-, luit tin*
iMMiks art' lnaiii'tl nut iiiiihT ri^jiil rfstrictinns, 'I'Ih- rniviTsiiy Lilnarx nf
N'ii'iina was tuiintlrd Wy Maria 'I'hfiisa, and has '{riiwii vt-rv i-a|iiilly. iiiiiiiIm r-
in;,' m-arly .*»(HI,(MHI vulniiit's. In Niriina ajoiu' thi- niiniln'i uj liluarit-s i-xctcil
niH- htiiiilicd, many nf them id' I'lnisidcrahh- i-xtfiit. '\'\\>- vaiiniis nnivi-i^ity
lilirarifs thniiii^hniit Aiisliia-llnn^'ary ai't> rirh in vnhiniiN. |iat'tii-iilail\ that
at Crainw. wilii nMT.KKi.oiMi Miliimi's. and at Innsltnnk. w iih 17'>.<hhi \ii|iim<-.H.
'I'lif Naliiuial l.ilirary at r>iiila|ii'st. Military, and also tin- Inivi'i'sit y at llic
saim- |>lar<'. have rirh riillfi'tiniis, niimlicriii;; |r>.'i,iHHt and L'j-.tNNi volniius
rfs|ii'rtivtdy.
In Swit/rrland lilii.irii's arc very niimcrnii^ and well I'limliu'icd. I he
larK«'st is that at Itascl. Ii is called the I'nlilie (niversity l.ilirary. and iitiiii-
liers lS7.t»<M> \ Illumes. The next lais'cst is the City l.ilirary. at Znrieh. with
l.'i.'i.lMin N.iliinies. The smaller lilnarics nl' Sw il/erlaiid exceed tun thi<ii^.iiii|
in niimlier, and are, as a iiile, rich in literary treasni'e> ilcseeiiiled ti-nm the
aiieiciil miinasleries.
ThiMi^ii li\ mi means as ancient as sume nihcr^. the leadite..; lihriirv i»f tireat
r>ri tain, and the set .1! id in extent and iiii|iiirtaiice m the wurld. — tin* National,
at Paris, p'raiicc. lieiie,' tirsi. — I'as had a I'iieminienal u'lnw th. It is l<MMted ;it
I. mil Ion. and is know n as the Itritish Miiseiim. It dati-s trmn !7>*i.°i, when I'aiii.i-
nicnt purchased, lor i.'l.'<».(MHt, the Sir Mans Slnane collertioii. and aftiTwaids
cmisiilidated therewiih many nihcr valnalile eulleetimis. Ii was yiven the
|irivile;;e id ciipy li^dd, iiy which means, and liy rrei|iient and rmtiinate jirivite
lM'i|iiests id iMHiks, it ^rcw apace and liecanic a nalimial repn.sitm-v. not niily
(il hmne-wiitten works, lint of the literatmi' ami rarities nt all natimis. Tliu
nuinlier ot" its vulnnu-s at present exceeds l.ii.'td.tHKt. I.Diidmi dues not cmiiiiii
many pnhlic lihraries, lint there are nunierons eollectimis nt seientiiic .nid
special wdrks nl threat value tn those pursuing' certain lines nt knnwlei-e.
The scciiiid lar^'est and most iin|Hirtant enlhctimi in Knijland is that ot 'lie
I'mdlcian l.ilirary nt ttxtord, with some .Vio.lHMi miImiho ; tollowed liv tl;;i' <>f
the Inivcrsity nt < aniliriil:,'e.w itii some."il(i,(i(Mi vulnnifs. Next in extent nd
iiiipnrtaiicp ill (Jieat Itritain is the lilnary ot the Faculty nf .\dvneatc nt
i
i
IT
1
\TLiir
till' rit\. .t
Willi L'.'rt 1,1 1. M I
iMi.-iil I'lil. .
ri'lllllVlfll. W ,li|
llir I Ilivi'lMU
1. Willi •JMIIIUO
• riiiv«'i>ii\ it
If),', Witll t'MT
viiliiiiio : till-
\ i<-k IIiumI. .It
■ ;iii- imiiKM-MiiH
■tl wliii-li )i;iv)>
•riiil riililif. ;it
. ami lia> t\ir
'v\\ liliraiH'^ III
••tl ami liiiiiM'tl.
> llfi-. liMl tllt>
Miy l.iltian I'f
i|iiilly. iiiiiiilxr-
ilnarii'^ fSficil
lulls iiiiiviT-ity
irlii-ulativ tli;it
7.*i.iMMt vuimii-s.
ii\<T>il\ at till'
r.'.iMHi VdIiiIIII'S
l>llllMftf<l. I llO
irary. ami iiiiiii-
af y.niii'li. with
i| two tl|i»l>:illll
[■mlcil Iroiii tlie
liltrary nl (Jnat
— tlif Nati'Hial,
It is l<K'atf<l at
.Vi. when raiiiii-
aml alt«'i\va!iU
was j;ivt'ii tlie
•rtiinab- private
silnry. lint only
1 iiatiiins. Tlie
lues mit cotii III!
I scii'iititii' iiul
. ol kiinwl. .i^c.
<l IS that <•! t!i<>
liiwcil liv tl.:i' I'f
Xt III I'Xtfllt !l»l
I AilvtM-at.'- Ill
(iiiKiT aiiowTii or i.imtMiiES
KiUiiIhii-kIi, Scotlaiiil. It tlati-s liiun KlSi', iiinl cinitaiiis at pri'sotit iiboiit
|(Hi.(MMi voluiiu's. Tin- lilinin nl I'riiiity ('"Ih'gt'. l>iililiii. was tdiiiitU'd (Hiiitfin-
|iiii;mi'(iii>lv with tin- I'MMllciaii. ami rasily ranks as tin- lar;,'i'.-.l and iiuist iin-
|Mii't.Mit ill li'i'iaii<l. witli its l.'<Hi,(iiHi vdliiiiit's, t<i wliirli alimit .'liHid art- adilcil
aiiiiiiallv. Wiiat lias Imcii saiil ol' tin- dt-artli of |iiililic liliiarii-s in I^oiiiloii is
ill part trill- olall (irral llritaiii. 'I'Iiimi' an- imt a scnrc tit' lilirari(>s in all li*>r
l'liirii|>i'iiii iliiiiiaiii tlia'. iniiiilM'r ovi-r jiiu.iMMi vuliiiiics, and it is luily within
till' iiiiii-lctiith iM'iiturv that tht- |iiililit' nr \\vv lilirarv systi-ni lK';,'an to ^mw
ill i'.ivnr. lihlri'd, siicli ^'rnutli iiiav 111' said to date I'runi as late a jicrind as
|.S."i(t.
when till
Mi
«iir l''iiT iti'tcrt'iirt' l.iliiarv
I'stalilishi-d. It has
>li<i\vn in litiy yi-ars a must niarvflniis j^mwlli, and nuilaiiis at |irt'si'iit sonu?
L*.V».IMMI Mil nines.
(iit'at Itrilain has not iifj^jlt'd rd to I'lifimrai;!' the iisi- of liiirarifs anion)^
lii-r riiliini->t>
At nttawa, Canada, is iIh- liUrarv ol' I'arliiiiiriit. it w
IS
liiiindfd iii IM."". and ^\v\\ slowly till ISII. whiMi the two lilirarii-s ol I|i|M'r
and l.owi-r Canada wi-ic ronsolidati'd. It was Milisciincntly dcstroyiMl hy lire,
and in iN.Vi n'csinlili.slii'd. Sinrc thm it has j;rowii ra|iidly, ami at |iri-si-iit
I'lintaiiis ovrr l.'iO.tMill volniii)':
Till' I.aval I'liivfrsitv lilnarv. at (,>iit'li<
IS
fln' lu'xt niii>t I'Xtf'iisivi! ill Canada, coiitaiiiinj,' ovrr jlMl.oiHl volunit's. The
Siiiilli AliicMii I'liliiir l.iliiary was tiiiindi'd at Capi' 'I'liwii in ISlS, and has
j;rii\\ii ti' I iiiilaiii soiiir ."iii.MlMl viiliiiiii's, many nl tlicm of ^'irat im|iiirlan('(' as
iH'ariii^ oil thi- lanv;na};*>s and riisloms ol Atriian |i(>(i|ili-s. In Aiistraliii aro
iiianv Idiiai
ll'S 11
r i-oiisidrralilo i-xli'iit. w liii->c vuliinii's an-, as
lit', I'rri' to al
n-aiiiMs. 'rill- lar),'f>l ol llii-sc is at Mi'llioiirnc, and is called the I'lililii!
I.ilirary ot Vietoria. It is a eulleeiion of eoiisideralilN over l."i(i.(MiU hooks
ami ii,im|ilili|s. many of which relate to Aiist rahiNiaii lliemes. The .Sidiii'y
Free i'ulilic Lilirary is next to that .it .Melliininie in im|ioriaiiee. It is said
to for.i,.iii the largest collection of works sjiccial to Australia in the world.
The Uiok collections of China, and indeed tliroiii'liont the Orient, are liy
no means imoiisideralile. ami the favorite works relate to reli;,Moii, |ihilo-
sopliy, poetry, history, and the scieiiet's. They are ^'eiierally laixf "nd of
iMicyclupa-dic styh- and proiiortions. Thus a Chinese history of national
«>veiits from the tliinl centiiry n. i. to the seventeenth \. u. occiipies sixtv-
six volumes, as lionnd in Kniopeaii style fo: (lie Ilritish Mu-eiini. I.iliiaries
in dapan are more numerous, convenient, and extensive than in China and
idsewhere in thettrieni. The I nivirsiiy lilirary at Tokio. Japan, contains
well niirh 'Jtiti.tMHi voIuiim's.
t»f Siiiilh American lilnaries tlie lari;est is the National, at Kio .laiieiro,
IJrazil. with some 'JHMMMt vidumes. The other repiililies of South America
which passed tliroii',di iheir wars for inde|iemleiice and their formative pe-
rimls. not to s.iy their internal jealousies and strifes, diirinj,' the nineteenth
century, have had lint little opportunity or imdination to collect l.irKt- liluaries.
^■|■t the spirit of education is liy no means dormant, and the nuclei of maiiv
liluaries have heeii formed, in which inuch pride is taken, and which hid
fair to \iru\\ ),'reai in importance as sidmlarship expands and other fosterin>;
conditions e..iiie to prevail more p-uerally. Kveii in the small and Inmultii-
oiis lepulilics ,.f < 'eiitr.il America there are some valualile collections of hooks
which, in the course of time, will he Kreutly atiKniented and provn ii houici* of
literary and national pride. Notwithstandintj all the ups and downs of the
166
TUlLMiiis A.\i> \\(>M>i:i:-< or riu-: xix'" < i:.Mri;y
I
M.-xiraii n-pnlilii- .liiiin:,' lli<- iTiitiin. slir lias, siiicr \\\>- x'liarali.ni nl cliiii
ami .>tat.- in \^'u. rvnlv.'.l a iTi-ililai.!.' .■.liiral ioiial s.v.sl.-iii. aii.l l.iiill iij. in..
fX<-.-ll.Mit lihran.-v .•>iMTiall,v in lli.- rai-ilal. M.-Mr... Tli.' lai-rsl i.| lli.-
till' NatiKiial. wimli .iiiiiaiii^ "V.i inii.uiiu \i.liiiiii>.
Thf .^loutli ft lil.raiio in tin- I'iih-mI Sia:.'- .imiii',' llif i.mn.Tiiili .••■iiin
!uis iM-rn i.li.i...i,i.-nal. II Us l.M.lm'^ lllnari.- Iia\.' ii.H \.'' '"at.-lu'il il,u.>. .
till' til.l w.iil.l III .M-iii. tli.-y aiv. II. -v-
iTtiifli'ss. uni<|in' 111 ili'ii troliiifss, IX-
ri'|.iiiinal ill tliiii iiiiiiiImi. i>ii','iiial in
tlu'ir .sv>t«'iiis. ami iiiosl flVciiM' iiitlicir
usi's. Ami what is iiflf ^aiil i-l lli''
Icailiii;,' !il>raii«'> is -liil iihM'' tnii' hI iln-
MiialliT, lor i» in iiiiin iias ili.' liin irv
svstriii so niiiiihf'l as in tli>' Liiii.ii
Statt's, allil ••"IIM" iloWli tn »l|i-|l rlosf
tullril with tllf jMMililr. Nut ulliv 1-ilifS.
towns. iui<l evfii villa'.:<> liavi- ilnii li-
Itiaii's. liiit S|alf>. 'tlKMii-.. ami iii\ ikuIs
III' ,s|H'(iai oi;,Miii/atinns. all "I wliiiii iii'
oeiitri's ol riiUitif ami ><.iiiii> ci| lit. iar\
liritli'.
'I'lu'olili-st Uliiarv III till' liiitiil Siatts
is that ol Haivanl f'ollf^f, it was
finimU'ii ill lihW. ami was tli'stnivfil liy
fill" in 17»>I. It was s|N'iilily if^lori'd.
ami iM'iaim- tin* rcci|i<ciit of many pri-
vate (Iniiatioiis. wliii-h not onl\ u'li'atly
in(*roa<>iMl the iiiiiiiIm-|' of its vnliiino. Imt |ilari-il it in |Misst'SHioii ol a liainl-
Honii' I'mlowim-nt tuml. Sim-i- its irimival to (iorc jjall. in IH|I), it lias Ikmmi
o]M<n to tin- piililii- tor r<ailiii'^ within its walls. Imt mily tin- slmlcnts of tli*'
univiTsity ami nthi-r priv ih';;i'tl jicrsniis may iMirrow liooks. Its ini'scnt lol
liM'tioii iiiiiiiIhm's iivcr hall a niilliiin nf viilnmi-s nf ImhiUs ami |iaiii|ilih'ts. In
tin* yi-ar 17<Mt. iwnothrr lilnaiii's win- joiimh-il. — that id \'ah ('nlh«m', ainl
that whii'li aftfrwanls iMTaiiif known as tin- NfW \ork Snrii-ty Mhrary. Tin
tirst of tlifsc u'lfw very slowly until thi- lii",'iniiiii^' of ihi- iiiiirli-fiith ri'iilnrv
whfii it tiMikoii m-w life. ami at tin- rmi of ihi- iTiitiiry fontains soinr '.'oil.lHio
voliinn's. Till' lattiT also i^ifw mmv slowly, ami in 17.">l iM'canii' a siilisrrii'
tioii lilirary. It is |M'iiiliarl\ tin- lihraiy ol tin- old Knirki'iltoikfi lainilii'-
and tln-ir di-M'ciidunts. and tin- iiiiiiiImm' of its vuliiim's ^'lavitatcs aioiiinl
KMl.tMNI.
In IT-'tl. I{i>njaiiiin Franklin |ii'i>jiM'ti-d what In- ralh'd a " siilisi'ri|itioii
liltrary ■' at l'liiladi-l|>liia. It was iiiciir|Miiatrd as ihr I.ilnaiy ('nin|iaiiy oi
liiilad)d|>hia, and cn-w rn]iidly tlii-oimh lH*i|ucsts of Imoks and iiioiii*y. h
17'>> it alisurU'd ihr vi-ry valnahii- I,«n,'aiiiaii I.iluaiv, ami in J.SCi'.l i>i. ItiMij.i
mill l>if>h hdt a iH-ijUfst id omt •S|.*HHI,IHHI to lonnd its Hid^rwas Itraiii'h
Tin' lMiildiin,'»'riTt«'d for this |iiir|MiH)' is. with thr r\it|ition d the new I,illt•a^^
of ('i(iii'ii's> stnii'tiiri' ai \Vjf>hini,'ton. tin- liamisniiirst, most I'liiiiniodioiis, aii<
iM'st arran)»td for lilirary |tnr|iosrs 111 aii\ in tin- I'liiti'd Stall's, I'lii' rolh-i
tioii iif thi- l.ilirarx riim|>any id I'liilaih'lphia ninionly ralli-d tin- I*hilad<
£'
.inns III --II I Mil VI.
Fir.t l.iliiiirinii nf Ni'W ' 'Tiirv ii( ('iiii({iv..-
Iil>
IS
III!
III.
ill.
wE-
A /7 •/.• )•
uuLAT (jnuwTH ill- i.utit.\nn:s
it;7
iltinli c>| flilll .1
I lillill il|i \\\:\\,\
)j;t'«l 111 tin's.
I'Iri'llI li ci'ill ii
lllc-ilfd lliu.sc 1. 1
MilNt..
rory »( ( '(inifrt'--
'I'lii III ;i hiuiii-
ll>, ii lias I II
lllilfllls (if til'-
lis lUi'Sclit fill-
iaiii|ilili-ts. Ill
If < 'iilli'},'*', aihl
l.iliriiiV. Tlh
t't'iitli I'l'iilm \
t .snllli- L'.*)IM'""
iiM* a siiliM'i 1 1
oi'ktM' laniilii'
vitali's ai'iiHiin
" siilis('ri|ititii!
> < 'iiiii|iaiiv 'II
i| llliiiirv. Ill
^flit Ih. ili'llja
jfwas Itraiich
II' iii'W l.iliiai \
iiiiiiHliiMiH, aiiii
1. riic ciilli'i
itlic riiilailr
,,1iia l.ihiaiy. mw iminlnTs w.-ll iii>,'li 'Jhimkmi m,|uiii.-.v Of tin- sixty-lmir
liliiaiK-' 111 till' I iiit-'il Siati-H iv|iniliil In liiM' I'i'i'ii titiiiiilfil iift'ori- tin- vi'ar
ISIMI. thirty w.-iv .■Malilislii'il lirlwnMi I?:.", aii.l Inimi. I'lif iiiuiv imi.i.rlaiil nt
tl„.sr — llial i.-. liii'M- vvliii'ii rank as 'JO.l -vuliiiu.- lil.rai'ii-.> ami i.vn -aiv
till' .Ma>sai-luisi-tl.s ilisi.iii.al Siiiiit.v Lil.rar.v. at I'.u. ■ ". rumuli'il in I7'.il;
111,. (i..iiP,r.-!.iwii Collr:,'!' I.iliiaiv. al ( ;.M.iv;rl.iwii. |). <'., IniiiHliM: in IT'.tl ; Hi.-
Kailmii'illiCiilli'Ki' l.ilnan . al liannv.T. N. 11. . I..iiii.i.'.l in I7il.»; llir ( ulmiilua
(nll.-r l.il.raiv. Ni'W Vrnk <iiy. rniiiiiliMl in t7.".» : tin- lilnaiy nl lln- <',.ii.--.-
i.ri'lnMrians.'at I'liilail.'liiliia." Imin.l.il in I7S«,»: ili.. » •..ll.-^i- I'f N';w •''•■"'V
Liliiaiv. al riiiirfinii I ' nisrisii.v . Iniiinliil 111 i7l<'i; ll>'' r.Kiwii IniMTsitv
Lillian, al i'li.viili'iin-. K. !., iHiimli"! ni l7Ci.S; tin- l».|iarliniMil mT Slali'
Liinarv ami llnii-.c ul' Iji'iui'sriilal im'> l.ilnan. \\ asliiii'^tim. 1». ('. Iniii'li'il
in 17.si»; llu- Williams (;iillr>,'i- l.iiuan, al W illiain.MnvMi, Ma.vs., |..itnil<'il in
17".».!.
i'liiiii tliis staniljinint vm- .^'i-t a laii\ii'\v ul tlir tii'ini'iiiiniis striilfs nl liliiMiy
K'liiwtii ill till' I'liiii'il Siati-s linriii',' till' niiii'i«-iMiili ..•nliin. 'I'lii' >ixty-riiiir
liliraiii's nf iSlMiJiaM- ^'iiiw n In U'li nr-'li Iniir tiiniisainl. not i-uuiitin^' tlmx' nl
Ifss than t»tiM» vnlniiii's ; ami ih-' li'>s lliaii riim.tMin vnlniiH's of IStMl havi- in-
ciTasr-i III ui-11 lliaii .'id.iMMi.iMMi. cmiiilin;,' Ihiisi' in lihiarii's of h-ss tliaii a
thiiiisainl vnliinii's. HviT six Imnilri'il lihraiit's in Ihi- Initi'il Staffs taki-
lank as ".'O.imni snliinir lihrarii-s ami nvcr. at tin- I'lnl nl' tlu' I'mtiiry ; ami in
till' si:; staii^tiral \i-ais lii'twiTii IHSS ami iS'.i;;. whirli mark tin- ifrfiitcst latin
111' incii'iusr in vninim's, thcif was a (,'inwth ri|iial In (id \<vv iTiit hvit all that
hail |iri'rt'ilril.
Nnr has thr rcntiiiy tii'fii nmrc ti'iiiin|iliant ami wnmh'iliil in thf ari'iiiniilii-
tinii of vnliiini'saml thr iimnlHT nl' iHmk iriHisilniirs than in till- varii'ly nl sys-
tfiiis ami ntiiltiiilicity nl' aj,'rnrii'.s liy humus nf whnh lihrary infnrinaiion is
airan^'i'il ami ilissi iiiinali'il. ( 'niis|iiriious aiming tln'Sf has Ih'cii thi> ikiaii^nra-
tinii ami j,'iii\\th nl llH'lirr liluaiy systrni, liy im-ansnf whirli |iiililic- fuiiiis an-
|irn\ iilril lor thf sii|i|inri of liliiinii's w hose usi- is firi' to all. Ilanlly h-ss rim-
H|iiriioiis, and |ii'rha|is cvimi iiinir fur rt'arhinK. Iuih Iicimi thf ntloption by many
Stuti's nf the sclionl ilistiii't lilir.iiy systmi, whii'li ilraws ii|iiin a n-rtain lU'o-
|iniiinn oi thf si'hool fiiml tm thf fnllfction ami niainti'iiam'f of ihf ilistrii-t
lilnaiy. .\Kiiiii. most of thf Sliitfs hiivf fstalilislifil libraries nf their own for
|iuli|ii' iisf. ami as lentifs to wliiih may lif |i;athfiei| ami wheiiee may he ilis-
Hfinimileil the knowleil^e that a|i|ieitaiiis to the rfs|if(;i\f State Inealities.
Spffial library systfiiiM liavf i^ruwii into ^rfut favor, cove riii),' and f iifouruKin);
follfi'tinns nf histnrie wn.ks, of seifiitilie literature. II' inforniatinii relating' to
law, nieilieiiie, thenlufjy, ele. In faef, there is hai^ily a line of invest i^'at inn
and mental aetivity that lias not innie tn he ie|iri'Sfiitfil in its library eol-
leetiolis.
.\t the head nf all the eentiiry's library tiiiimiilis in tlif ('nit(>d Staffs
Ht.inds the l.iliiary of ('undress. It is the national ri'|Hisitory. and is to the
eoiintry what the Itritish Miisfiim is to (ireat Itritaiii and the |Siblintlii>i|iif
Natiniiali' is to rram-f. It was bnimlfd in IKIMI, whei, the seat of t,'|'^''i'i"i><'i"'
was ninveil tn Washinntnii. In Isj I it was linrned by thf Hritish snldifrs, its
lionif bein^ thfii in the ('a|iitiil, whieh was alsn des*; •yed. The ^'nve ninifiit
|iuiehasfil 'riioinas .IflTerson's follfitioii of "tMMt volunifs as the nuflfiiH of a
iifw library. This (,'rf\v to contain r»."i,(MK> vidium's by IS.'il. whfn all but
(iUEyr GliOWTII OF LIIIILXIUES
Kit)
I;
I'O.tMin voliiiiH's Wfic iij,';iiii (Ifsliuyt'd liy an lu'cidnitiil tire. In IS.")!.' it was
rt'litlrd. tin- f,'(ivciimiriit appniiiriatiiig .ST.'i.tHMt Un- tlic imiiiosi'. (hi ilu>
n•^tll|•alillll til its lialls in tiic «'aiiitnl. in lirr-pnioi tuini. it \»-'^;\\\ ti> L;n>\v
raiiiiliv in \ciluincs. In I.siUi. it. rcccivi'd tin- Iti.iMiti Mpjiinics wliidi cdMsti-
tnlid tin' liiiraiv cd' tin- Smithsonian lnstitiit,<'. In 1S7»>. tin' |pri\ ilcijc nt'
(■n|.\ iij,'lit was tiaMsicniMJ in it liuni llir I'ati-nt < Mlicc. 'I'liis. lu'^iiiirr willi
tiic animal a|i|irn|iiialicpn made li\ ( uni^n'ss. srrvi'd tn ijivc it. a nini'f rapid
;;ri>\vi|i iliiiii I'vcr.and tn naiionaii/i' its ini|inrtanc('. It s|irt'dil\ j;icw liidi in
lullfi'iinns (p| iiisluiy. •^(•n'nl•^•, law. ;ind I'Vci'x hranidi nl liti'ratni'c ajpipcitain-
ini,' tn this and ipthi'i I'lPiintiit's. I'nihT its |pii\ lic^i' nl i-ui.x li^jii, tw'i
rii|pirs ipf cMMA \ iiinnw' dcsirin;^ snidi |p|iplccliiin an- ifc|nin'd tn hr di'|pipsilt'd
wiliiin it. it Minst. ihrri'lnit'. cic inn;.,' iircnini' i|nili,' inlly icinisi'ntativi' ui
till' iili'iarv |iiipductiipns nj the cnnnliy. In ISSL'. it was an^nn'nti'il ip\ tin-
|p|i'M'ntal iipn <p| tin' |p|'ivati' rnllii'tinn nj tiic late I >r. •Insf|ill M. 'I'lPlli't'. nf
\\ a>liini,'tnn. rnntainiii'.,' 1.'7.<"HI \(iliiiiii's and nearly as many |pani|ilili'ts. ISy
IMHI il had nulu'i'nw II its iiiiility tn arrnninindati' its cnilcct inns, and ( '(in.i,'n'ss
mad*' a \rr\ lilicral a|i|p|'n|iriatiiiii lor ll it'itinn nj' a new and sr|iarati'
lilpiaix liiiildin'.;. whirii wiis i'nm|d(<t('d and ni'rii|picd iiy iMlTltS, thr lati'
liipn. .Injiii liiis>i'll \'ipiinu licini; its lirst liliraiian. It is thr hirjjist. ninst
idcj,Mnt. and lioi littcd ri'|p(psitnry nf iitpnks in tin' wnrld, iM'ini: rapalplr 'd w-
cnnimndatini; nvi'r IJ.dtHi.ddtl vniuiin-s. Tin' pidilii' an' prix ilcict'd tn iisc its
linnks w itliin till' liiiildin'.;. lint only nii'inlH'i's nl' ('niii;ri>s and cfrtiiin drsi>^-
iiati'pl nllicials nl tin' |)t'|Partiiiiiits may take tlnin awa\ . It is (ipcn I'mm \)
A. M. tn I I'. M., t'M'i'jit npnu Sundays and nthcr lt'<;al hnlidays. Its Incatioii
is nil (apitipl Hill, (plitc cnntiiilinils tntlic Capitol itself,
A piniii'cr nj the system of flee liliraiies, and the one which comes next to
the i.iliiaiy of ( 'oii^'icss in the iiiindier ol' its \olumes, i- Mie I'liiplic I linarv
of riip<>tnn, fnnndeil in IMS. It has had a plieiinmen 'iwth. and 's the
centre nf a wide raii^,'e nj literar\ intlncnee. Its niim liraiiches cxli'iid
thiiiM\,diipiil the iii\ aiiil ^nriniindiii;^ tnwiis. lpiiii;,'iiij e rciidiiiif tn every
Inealitv. Till' niimlpcr np its \nhimes e\eeeds "(Ht.lHM' The flee liliiaiV
sysii ni stands spniisnr for a hnst nl li'iraries t!iroii_ii ut the lars,'! r cities.
The I'uIpIic l.ihraix nj ( ■ineinnati was Inniided upon t ii^ lia>is in I.SCi?. It at
once ailaiiiP'd -real popularity and speedily j^rew ti';. liy the end of the cni-
tnry, its \nlunies nniiiliered apprnximately J'JD.'MMi, | ,. same pnpularitx' and
rate nl urnwih charaeteri/ed the I'lilili,' Lihiarx n| . in. ajjo and thai nl I'liila-
delphia. The Inrmer was Iniiiided in IST'J. and now contains nver L'L'd.'HM*
vniiimes. The latter was iml 'nnnded until IS'.H. Imt in nine years' tiim' it
^;ii\v In ennlain apprnximatelx I'IMI.IMHI vnlnmes. wit twent\-j'nnr separalc
liiaiiihes thrnii;,diiini tl ity, ami an aiiiiuiil circiilatinn nf I.nihi.ihmi vnlunicH.
other liliraiies nf the I'nited States foiimled or n hahiliiated dnrini,' the
iiimiieiitli eenlnry. and which ere its dose Imve taken rank as iiiiraries con-
tainini,' over |ti(i.(i(Mi vninmes. are 'lie New N'ork St: ■ I.ihrarv. at .Vllianv,
with approximately Iimi.ihmi; the State Lilirai'v at .iimipnjis. Md.. with
HMMMM) vnlnmes; the Ki h I'ratt I'lvc l.ilirary. ut Haiti v. with |(;."i.(i(H»
vnliiiiMs: the I'ealpndy Inslitiite l.il.raiy. at r.;iltimorc. with I :.'."».(MMI volumes ;
the .\iheiiaiii;i l.ilirary. at r.oston. with |S.*i.(ilH» volumes: the Citv I-ilirary.
at l!rnipkl\n. N.V.. witii I'JO.OIMI volumes; the I'liiversity I.Jlnarv. at rhicaKn,
with ne;uly IlKi.ddti \,,lunies ; the Newlpcrry l.ilirary. at ( '1 ici'.u'o, with 1L'.'».(M1II
m
170
run Mi'us AM) \\u.\i>i:iis or rin-: .\/.\"' (i:.\/ri:y
v<tliiiiii'> ; tin- I'ulilir l.ilnitrv lit l>(iri>ii, willi |.'!."i.immi viiliiim's ; tin- ('<irii> ..
riiivrrsiiy l.ilnan. ;il liliai-a, N. W.wiili l7"»,fMMi volimits ; tlu' liliian nl th
Stiitf lli>t<iiiral SiHii'tv. at Madistni, \\ i^., wiili I li'.tMMt vt«limit's ; tin- Mi i
raitlili' l.ilMai-v. at l'liilaili'l|>liia. \\ itii I7.\HINI vtiliiiiics ; tlif lilnaiy ol tli'
L'liivffsitv lit l'('iiii.>vlvaiiia. with IL'<'.<mhi vulmiH's ; tin- Astor I.ilnaiy. Niv,
York ('it\, witli L'(i.'i.(MMi Miliiiiirs ; till- .Mcicaiit ilr l.iliraiy, New \'i'rl\('it\,
witli L'.'Hi.iMMi vuliiiiiis; till' I'.il.lif I.iliiaiv at. SI. \.i'm>, Mn., villi IiC.ikm.
vkIiiiiii's; tlif Sill III Lillian, at San I'lam-isfo, with I'lH.iMMI vnlniiu's.
of iliiiM* liluarifN luiiiiili-il iliiriii^' tin- nntiin in tlir I'liiti-il Stab' ,
and wliicli liavr scriiri'il a rank a- <>\iv ■Jii.iMMi-Miliiim' iiluaiii-^. iIu'it aiv
Vfi-y niativ tliat aii|ii'iiafli iIh' Intt.iHiu luaik, ami tlit'ir avfra;;i- ut vnliinp ^
wiiiild };i'a\itat)- ai'iiiiiid .~i)i.iHiii. || is liy n>> niraii> tnii' lliat tin' ini|iiii'iaii<'i'
ami n^rliiliir.'<s "I a iiln-aiy iiin>t 1«' liii'a>nri'd liy its nuiiilii'i' u| Miliiiiir^.
Very many id tin- Im-.s! niaiiaiu'i'd. M'Tvirialilr, ami |>ii|iiilai' lilirarii'> cnntain
even li'.-o than jn.ttiMi viiliiiiii'-<.
Till' spiiit III kiH'w li'ditr wliirli lias ni-ati'd m tln' I iiili'd Slati-s Mich .i
dfiuiiliil till' liWrarii's has I n lia|i|iily >ii!>|il<'iiiiiit('il liy a sjiii-it nl Iilii'iaiiiv
NiiwiiiTf in till' wmld ii.iv ■ ilii'if lisfii >m lu.mv .iiid mh'Ii niunilii riii t|iimii> "I
)iii'aii> ti> riMiiid ami ^ii|i|iiit't lilirarir^. Witlnnit a|i|i<'ai'iir< .a\ iiIdhis, iiii-iil imh
iiiiiy v.ill III' :aadi' rf stiiiir "I thi->r iiimiilii'fiil ),'ivi'r.s and fuiindfrs. riiii>|i|.
<'n(iii>; aim 111',' lln-iii is .Inhii .larnli .\>liir. JMUiiilfr cif ihr A^lur Liliiary in Nm
York City, \silh il> •-iili'iidid fiidcwiiH'iit tnml mI Sl.lun.iinti ; .laiiir-- l.riiM\,
who fiMilidid till' I.I im\ l.ildaix <if St".v N'tirk I'llv.aml iiivt'sti-d in Iniildinus
and ilidiiWlmlit .S].'.'|7.IMHI ; (imii,'!' I'l'almdy. wlm tiMimli-d, ill |.S."i7. at Haiti-
(iiiiif. the I'l-alMtiiy liistitiiti' and l.ilnary. witli an (•mliiwiiii-nt id .Sl.noii.iMid ;
WulHT Is. NfwlK.'ny, (il t'liicapi. who. in \SS'.t, h-lt .SL'.immi.immi Iu linind a liv.'
imhlic liliiaiv in thi- iinrthcrn pait id I In- rit\ ; .li.hii t'lriar, id Cliirat^n, who
iclf an iiiiinrnsc fstati- In tniiml ami I'tidnw tlm ( 'iciai l.iltfaiy ; Kiimh I'lati. nl
Kiiltiiniii)'. wliii Kiivf ."iJil.l.'tO.iMMi Id tdiind tin' Kiim h I'liitt Kn'd l.iltiaiy : l>i
.lames liiish. id' l'hi!adi-i|ihia. wlm li'lt. in Isti'.l. a lii'i|m'st id' over .SI.IHHI.ilou
til tnrni till- lkiilu\«.iy I'liMmh id tin* l'liiladi'l|iliia l.iliiary ; Aiidicw ('ariii'i^n'.
whii fmindi'd thf l'itt>liiir>;li Krt'f I.ihraiy and si-vrral ntln-is in dilTficiii
'T\w «'«'iit'iry'« profjii'ss in lilirary manani'miMit lias k«|»t pun' with tin-
((rowtli id viiliinii's. (,'atali>'/nin^ and an-an;.;in^' id Iwiuks have Imtu ri'diii I
to a .si-ii'iiri'. Tiainin^' id liliiariaiis and id simlrnts in tlni use id hunks lia>
Ix'i'oiiii-aiM-dtiratiiiiial I'Diirst' in many lii^her institntiDiis id' h'ainiii;;. I.ilnaix
nridiiti'ifuK' .md ilu- nnmi'tKiis ap|iliami'> I'nr distriliiiiiiij^ hunks m l•l■nlll'|■itl^;
tlu-m ari,'i's.sil>lt' (in tlir sIh'Im's. Iiavi' all U-i'H improvt'd. mi tliat 'hi' lihrary nl
till* I'ltd uf the I'tMitiiry i." <*« inuch a sidiu'tivf rt'tri>at a« a well id' knnw
h'dKi'
J.. MKs I'. ItnVli.
«
. : till- CiinifH
' liiiran ul tli'^
llfs ; flic Ml
lilnary ul tin-
Liliiaiy, Ni-u-
I'W Vuik ('it\.
, V. itll llt.VtlMU
Iniiii's.
iiiti'il Stall' ,
I'ic^. tlii'i'r aiv
,'!■ <'! viiluiii' >
III' illl|Mlt'tall< r
V nl ViilllllH'-i.
mirics ciiiitaiii
Slali's siirli I
I III lilM-ialit\
iri'lll i|ii!l(i|> ••!
Imus, iin'iiliHii
lll'I'S. ('i)||>|i|-
iliiaiy ill Ni'U
• lames l.i'iinx,
<l ill liiiililitius
|S.".7. at i'.aiti-
>1 Sl,(HMI,(MHI;
II liiUllil U trcf
('liifat,'n, wliii
aiorli I'rati. nl
I-ilirarv ; l>r.
• T 8I,<MHI.(IIMI
Irt'W ( 'anii'LTii',
s ill (lilViTi'iii
lari- witll tlir
Im'cIi i'imIiiim'i'iI
' III' JMHiks lia>
iiii>;. Ial>rar>
s (ir rciiili'iiii.;
Mif iiiiraiv III
Li-M i»t kimw
> 1'. Hi. VI.
f
I'llOGUEfeS Ul' TWK CKNTl UV IN AHCHITKCTUUK
ToWAiii.H tli.'rli.s.- (.1 tlio ia>l r.M. litis llifiv ain-M' ill Kii-lainl a il.M'i.l.-il
I'asliiiiii liir (it k r..iiiiiiii.s anil |M'iliiiuMil> wliirli was l)iiMi,t;lil almiii lis ili.-
|iuliliiatiiiii in 17C.1.' I.I til.' iJisii.virii's by Sliiait ami lii-si'tt at Ailinis. ami
svas still i'lirliiiT sliiiiiilairil li.v tli.' i.riiij;niir tn (ai^Iaml of tin' Kl;,'iii mail.li'.s
ill tSOl, SI) thai fsrn liiiililiii!,' ul aii.s iiii|iiiiiaiii •■, wlicllin rliiirrli i.r
si-l 1 or ii.iiiiirs ii'siili'iiri'. Iiail its i.nrtirn svitli Mniir. Imiir. m Cniintliian
I'oliimiis. 'i'liiis liri,'aii till' (Jt.i'k ii'\ isai ; tliiii rullnwi'd thr imni' sli'iiili-r iii|-
iiiiiiis. with aii'lii's ami vaults, ul ili.' liniiiaii; . ' "•» iIh'si- \si'ri' vits slmrlly
ailili-il till' I'lipiila III- till! (Iiiini- ami tin- lialustii. «' . tliu iJi-iiuissam.'.
Ill I.iiii.li.ii. ilir i'.aiik III' Kiii;laml l.v Sir .lnliii Siiaii'. tin- I'.iitisli .Mus.miih
liv Hull. It Siiiirki' (a iiii|iil nt Snaiir'si, ilir I'liivn'i.ils li\ \\ ilkiiis. svi-ii-
ail liuill I'aily in this rentni-y. as w.-ri- tin- l''it/.svilliani Mnsfiiiii, (,'aiiiliriilKi-,
ami Ihr llit,'ii Si'liiml at Kiliiiliuri., mau'iiitii'i'iit cDlnniiailfs ailmiiiiiK' thr linnt,
ot I'aih. SI. I'ainras rhiiii'li. in humldii, has a s|iiir ul' sii|ii'riiii|iiisi'i| ropii'S
I.I I hi- Tiiiiiili' III I in- W'inils at Athi'iis —each Hinalh-r than tin- diu- hiniatli
it. — ;iii,| ihi'ii' all' siili' |iiiri'lii's wliirh rr)iiniliii'0 tlii' caryatiil |iiirtii-ii of tin'
I'amlriisi'iiin. Mnt the inost sm-i'i'ssfiil l.iiililini,' in Kiit,'himi whirh was ili*-
si^'iii'il ii|Miii (iii'i'k liiii's is St. (ii'iii'tic's ilall. laviTpool, svhuh has a ri-iitfal
hall lil from I'liove ; at i-itln'r rml is a I'onrt-rooin, ami liryoml. at iiiii- i-ml, is
an < iiiroii. or .Miisii- Hail.
Thf tasti- lor I'lassii'al ih-si^n icrailiially ih'i'lin.'il in Knulaml. ami a ni'sv
I'lilt svas assiiliioiisly piopaKati-il tliiiiiij,'li tin- svritint,'s of I'nj^in. Hiamlon,
li'irkinan. .iml TarkiT. whose ti'Xt was that rlassirisin fi'pfi'St'iiti'il pairanism,
ami this, to^ji'thri with the ri'iiioili'liii'^' ot Wimhsor Castli', in lS'_'(i, by Sir
.lilViry Wyatsilli'. caiLSfil a ;,'i'm'ial inti'ii'st in thi« n-vival c.f (Jotliic anhi-
ti'i'tnii"; for soini' tiim'. hnsvi'vi'r, ninrh illitfralo work w;i.s ilout- in tae mi ust-
nii'iit of nhl fonns to iri'W I'onilitii.ns.
'rhioii^;lHiiit. till' last half of this ii'imirv . tin- battli- of th«' sfyli-s ha,s li««»*n
iiiiiintainiMl hy tin- aillii'ii'iits of the ilirti-riiij; scIkmiIs with varyinii; stn-eess,
ami, altlii.nu'h thi'ii- may U- notaM*- I'X.iinplfs to tlif i-ontrais. it has virtnuHy
ri'siilti'ii III ihr ailoptioii of iioiUn" ih>sit»ns lor i-ri-li'siastii'.-il Imihlini^s. I'onili-
tioii> lii'iiii; iimrh the >anii' as tornii'i ly for tln'se strurtiirt's ; svlicr^'us, foi
siTiilar liitililiiit;s. with I'vcr-i'hantjiiii; i'«-i|iiii^'iiii'iits, tht' i'la.s.sii' or tin- lii'isais-
.saiiri'. whirh has shi.svn .'Si-n m-i'aliT pl'aliility, ba.s U'imi ron.siih'ii'il inori'
appropriati'.
Aiiioii^' tliosi' svliiisi' siirci'ss has U'en ^jvi-atrst in (Jothir work may l»e !»»^n«
tii.iii'il Sir ('liarh'N Many. \\ lu> .vas kni-^'hti'il fm ili'siytiinj; iIh' I'arliiiiin'nt
l>nililiii','s. bi'iinn in IS4(> ami pouipli-tt'il twi-nty years lati'r; itcoriji' dJillit'rt
Sn.tt. svho iliii tin- As.siz(' ('oiirts. in .Manrlii'stcr. ami Xpsv .Miisiniin. Oxi'onl ;
(ii'oi'Hi' I'Miiinml Strii't. wlii'si' I,a« Courts in liomlon .ire ho full of (l»«f»»ctH
III plan yi't so I'Xi'i'lh'iit in ili-tails; AUri-il Wafi'rhniiHP, svJiOHe intcri'sting
r.-j run Mi'iis Asi> wosuims o/-- the a/.v" < kxtchv
(^'•riiiaii) MiiMMiiii i)t Niilnnil Ki.stnn }i;in<- Mili-taiitiiil iMirnuniKiiuciit n
tlir- UM> ul' U'l'i'ii iMittii; T. (i. 'lackM)!!, till* iin<ilii>i' of iiiiirli collc);!:!!!' iin-iii-
t«'>lii»»" ill «»\r"ii| aliil i'I^cwIh'Ii' ; .1. I,. l'i«M-"iii. till' lif-ii^ini ul ri^lit
I'hiUf'I^M ill LoidIoii ; \Viliiaiii I'liii'i^'i^.". Sir Arrliiir i>l<>iiiliclil, ami Jaiii' ^
HiriHtkf^. »ll woll liiiowii |iii' il> lti>;li i-liaractrr 4>l tli<-u wnik, an i>< al-n •!. !•
^<'il«litiv. wliosi- liroail s\ iii|»itliii'.s .Hill ri'tiiii'il .s|iirii raiikitl liini a> him <I
!&♦•• ui'ist Urh'iitt'il iiD-ii lit Ills ilav.
lyjif tlrxt MiAfrnatiiiniil <\|Hi'<iitinii \\,\s lidil m l.tniilon m Is'il. ami i <
>iii{ili' liiiildii.>ir iii \\iiit*li n was i-niiiiimiMl \\ii> |M'rlia|«s liii' must inarM-lni,
f\liilii' It « *' 4«*si>;iii'<l liv Siv.l<'sf|ili I'asliiii. ,iii<l was tin' liisl i\aiii|ili" ul
ill*' iiM' .<(■ iron gmd hIuhh »ii a seal"- ol mh-Ii .jii'ami*' pr»i|n>rtii>iis.
jflif xt-i-alli-il ■' • laii «iii||i'i-" was iimmI lt< a ..'rtsit I'Xii'iif l'i»r srciii.ir
WiifU IS lali- as |>. as il was uhu-Ii >liiiiiilati'il li\ tin- \Miliii),'s dt Slin i
»fxiii .*uaiii anil NuiHUiiiii ll«lv and U.V llu»*ki»'s •Stinii's nl Vciihi-." tin h
•*•»»• Iv )ii«'iit att**iiii.* Ivi'Im-uiiiv . hIiowii in tlic iisr ••1° i|il!'iM'i-iit rulmiii
iitofM'. I»f'«'l<. .tiiil u I >. .(ttH, 111 t'Jti* AliM-rt .Mniiorial. In iiicaiis i<i
M »• H^tkK aiirfM'W. -fSiwSrftt \r»*ii« »m^ fnri'm'»«t piai'liliuiifrs m|
tin- ' '•^>- l«if m >\ii\r of ilif ■''.•••v i'!ii,.N~ and 1. silin'>s .if iIi'ni^h .slmwii in sniiii-
1(1 1 1 .fttfl •^iiliiirliun I'
till' li.. »•- '-i'- I
uiii'. anil ' .
iM'ithii ilit'V nor iitli»*vs (•(iiiitl prnlmi,'
'>•'■' •> flu »'vi\!il ol a pri'v iiiii-
: ' ti Aimr- ItffanK- tin* vnyn. .
iiioii- iii'iiii'liki- tliHii Ml Knt,'lanil.
'■• • ' •"' ■ ^ in Ills ilt'sitfiis I'or till'
Vanl. Nnrmiiii Shaw
rail'-.! t.»..r)jf i'l'to ','iivt' niaii\
-:... iw>\vt.V4U, u1fef.ii iiavo,))^' .a Ha\ur
«*s|n'iMall,\ I"
In till' siili.H . 1. -•
.Miiaiicc Assirr«»M*r (
«lntWfi| tin' larili' •■ ol' Il
•'viiUnt'i's III liis Nf.ill ami ^^ _n -:
of tilt' Kli'iiiisli.
"rill' liiiilcliii'^' of till' Tli.im
siu'li ,!> Iliilliorn \'iailii;'i iinl >..
strai'^'litfiiiiii; ol oilirrs. iiavi* iloiii >■
I.omloti.
I'l I'lai , tlii'i'i' wrir \i'i\ mans iiii|iiii'
tir»» ii'ii vi'.irs of iliis ithIiiiv, — iliiriir.' tin
soiiii' Mj iIm'Iii wi'Ic not i'oni|ili't<'l\ lini^lii'il u
( |S|S-|s70i. Aiiioiij; llio^i in I'aii^ wn-r iln- A
Iar).'«'st triiiiii|ilial ari-Ii over liiiill. Iii'iii',' Mmilar in ■..
of Notrr Maiiif Catln-ilral. omitting tlir ii|i|>i'r |mii;
(■a^ol|■^M•l li\ I'lMi'ii'r \ I'ontaini' — Imili iln-^i- ;ii.
vji'lorii's of Napoli'iin: tiir iliiiri-ln's of tin- .Madrliiin- i of ' >'
(■I'lii'vii'Vi-. in Iioiior of tin* ','ri>at nii'ii of I-'raiiri': ami i.i>
till- iialaci'H of I III- 'rmli'iic^ '\illi till' l,.iii\ ri'. ]iai'allrl to (luit
fin* river.
Till' ('or|is 1.1 -i-l,i! li. «liirli was lorini'ilv fin' I'alais Itoiirlion. war r»-iii"''
oli'il in l-^'C liv roM't, ami lias for its rivi-r front a |ioitico witli j»e<liiii»-i'
susf^iini" twrhi' roliiiiins. a yri'alrr imiimImt tliaii aii\ nilii'i r.vistiiip Imi.'
iiii,' I'aii
If til" 'III' st\li' nioro tli.iii any oIIht wliirli ncodK Kiinsliini' ami a cli'a'
ntinuH|i) show it to ailvanfa;.,'!', if is ihi' rlassii- ; ami a (Inik or Koina'
■ o|K»nin'.^ "•^' ni'w
— with : i*i» Willi , ..ml
tii|irovin)«M)f of «Mifi<*rti
.HtfV iiii«»ilitiin,'> 111' run i*|i -tilt'
.■■I.'.!. I ^ lllu.»t<".
. \ .11 m
.. m. tl**
Itli'to rh*' tioii.
1
iiri>iiraj,'fi»fiit •..
••••llf^iatc ,ii(i,
-iiiiin- „\ cijii
'III. Htnl .lillll> ^
iis i.s aJM. .1. 1 1.
Iiiiii iis dill' I, I
' !>*•"•!. ami tin
'ii".-l inaivt'Inii^
liisl i-\aiii)i|f III
I'-iit lor sri'iil.ir
ilill^S (il Stir, I
'I \i'iiiii-." till,.'
illf'ii'hi iiilumi
'I. I'.\ iiii'aiis III
I'lai'litii.iii-is m|
II slmUli Ml MHiii-
IS nilllll |U'(l|,i||jr
al i>\ a |iri'\ inns
•"•aiiii' tiic viii;ii..
II Hi Kliu'laii.l.
■^ l|l--l','IIS I.. I ||„.
■ Ni'i'miili Shaw
I '''In 14a Vf iiianv
I lia\ lui.' .1 Ha\nr
i*^ Widfttllli; irtnl
tf*tt^ of Ii«MmIi'|-|I
I I . - altii.r,
r >.'a|hi,fi»ji l(*i'
i>V'<*lialti»in. tl**
••1|!
m
ri<otuii:ss nr ihh chstihy is .iiu'niri:rri;nh-
17:1
III'
111 >i-
;
1... I'lu,
111
I'll,
tva-
r.-jii...
wit!
|»ofliiii<-i'
I'.Vb
till
P liiii;.
ino
III!
a .'I.M
reck
or
lioiiia'
ti'iiipl)' III fill- aliiioN|i|ifi'i'o|' ioji;, rain, ami miow, ot I'M in! 10 ro. Lomloii, Mniiicli,
ori'MMi I'ari'', ijoio nut proihui' at ill tliisaiiD- iiii|>irs>ioii as if it wni' itmlfi-
I lii> li|ii«' .ski<"« III' ilalv, .Siciiv.or (in-iTc; liuwfvi'r, tlir t'rci|iii-iit riii|>lo\ mi'iit
nt riasMful iinttif's >iiii'c I lir lifv;iiiiiiiiv; ot t iu- fi'iiliii'V lias (•iintriliiilni. to a
<l'-^'i't'i- iiii|iriTiMl'Mitfii III iiioi|i-rn tiiiif>. towards plaiMii^ I'aris in tlic m'iv
Inifiiiost rank aiiiont; tii)* capitals of tin- woiM in tin- ili;^'iiitv and inipii'>>iM'-
in'-^ of its pnltlii- lMiildiiii,'s.
Till' I'linmianiMin'iit j^ivn to ari'liitfi-tni' in I'lanrc liv Napolron I. waH
r»'vivi'i| by Napoli'oii III. I'lu' riMiindt'Iiir,' 'it tin- slifi'ts. avmnrs. ami iHinlc-
vai'dnol I'aris, iindi-i' tin- •lii'i'i-tion ot Itanm llansniunn. wliili- it swept away
ni:i'
♦•x8»-ns
'')»»■■*♦•
III.'
ri<
• 1)K I. KTOIl.l;. l'A|l!,<,
hiiartfs nf mi.ili...v,i Pari». iitrioiit.'d woMdrrluliv Ut its stately
n.'lliwtu II- liyjjii.-ii'-tiM- wr.rk iM'j,'mi upon tlir Louvif was coii'i-
si-^iiM Kv VJHcoiiti «; I^'tiii'l, and iiiutdi fiitin-ly new work
' "♦' ""'!'• soim- of wlioni liion.^'jil .iIk nt tin- Nfo-
• was .".pfi-ialiy iiitt'icstinj,', and alflioiij,di im>(.
1 inark»M| intlu.Micf for iimiiy years itfterwawis.
di'siirii.Ml the Lii)rai\ of St.-. <;em'\ i,-v.-. aU'iit
I'alais dc •lu.'.tic..; Dnlian. who Imiit tit**
ii»- Arts. aU.iit IH4.".: Viollet lo J)iir. wlio ivMtoi***
■■I'l i»rot4. tiKifi.s.'.- and dirlionarif- np ir.-l.i-
ii'^niiiiciital ill til.' ori,'ani/ation oj tl.*- .S.hi. 1
*ti Wi i U l M lteMl Mll|IUIIleIlt.S.
^ "■ ■ wa'
■••'VHttMlK'' \C '
I*w who «
h
171
inicMi'ii^ \\i> \\i>\i»i:i!s OF iiii: a/a'" cFxriny
Siill l.itfi' tliaii lli<
k-i ill!' N'.lllllu'lnrr's Nm-l in-c ( 'lllili ll nl St. I'il'ITi
ill- MiiiiiiiMi^'i'. Iiiiill III l.Miti, ami Aliailii-^ l>\/aiitiii)- Cliiin-li <•! tin- Sainii
llcui-t. Hiill iiiiliiii>.|ii'i| : Haltanl'N Cliiinli 111 Si. AiiKiistiii, ol luick and ni»l-
ifiiii. aii<l <'i'iilial Market, nl i'a>l-iiiiii an i '^'lass ; ( iarnii'i'-> <>|hii IIihim.
1 1 ill nil's Nnrilicin Kailwav Siaiin'i ; (In- ■I'lnrailrio, Imill ii.r ihr K\|HiMitinn nl
INTS; III.- MailiiiMiv llaHaiiil KitlVl T.iwii. tor tliat m| \SS\i; iip-.ih, r uiili (
liost III ntlirr imlilii' liiiil<liiiu'-«. not oiilv in I'aiis, Iml in ollirr |iorlions it
Kraiiri', inaiiv ol wliirli liavi' -"fiAt'il an rxaiiijtli'M In llir •»liiili'iil ol airliili-i-
lnh> ill iillirr laiiils.
In tliin I'liniirrlioii \m' slmnl 1 not roi'v'i't Mn- ili-lit wr nu'i- to tiii' I'l'i'iirli nalioii.
iMirini; till' ii-ii,'!! ■•! Louis \ I \ . tin' Srjiool ol I'lin- Ail.-< \\a> ronniii'il in l'aii>,
JM-rt' friM- iiistnirtinii in |iaintiiij,', si iil|iiiirr, ami aii'iiitiitnri' is still j;'^''"
w
to all will) pass salisl'artoi'ilv tlir iiiliani \aiiiiiiation
llianv o| olll sllrrrs>
mil III t liis si'liool
(111 airliitrrts liavi' iririv <-il i^^iat iiiton> iic'triirlion lioni
Kdiiii- iiT till- ilistin.v;itislici| ini-ii alioM' nii-ntioiiiil. In tlir hi-|iartiiii'iit nl Aiclii-
ti'i-tiii'i' tin- rliii't' rliarartiM'istirs .irr tin- llinioii'.4li ami s\>ti'niatir sinilv nl' tin'
|ilaii, anil iIm' aila|>iation ol Imiliiinu inali'iials to tin' ronilitioii> ol tin- ilrsi^'ii.
Ollu'f Kiiin|iraii litii's lif>.iili'S Talis liavi- innlitnl liy tin- k''Ii«'1"»1 |'ins|nMit\
n! till' rriitiiiv. St. I'i'ti-r»l>iir;; lunilnrrs tlic t'lli'cl nl a f\t\ nl' )ialai'i>s, tin-
many rt'siilnn-t-s nl' i^'iaml iliikrs ami iinlilcs, tlir nnmlirr nl pnlilii' institntiniis,
tlu' riiliiii; M'linnls. — much iisnl mi ari'imnt o|' tin- srvrrily nl tin* i'limali>, —
and ('vi-ii till- liai'iacks, in s|iiti- nl tlif In-r i.m- n|' stnri'o, i-arli rniili'iliiitin>{ tn
ii I'l'itaiii iiii|ii'i-ssioii nl' Htat)'lim-ss ; tin' palai'iMd' tlif Aii'lidnkr .Mii-liai'l, Imill
hy an Italian, l!ns>i, in lM.'(>, is |M'i'|ia|is tin- iiinst ii'liiiril ami iliu'iiilinl. .Mn>-
uovitf anliitrrtiiri* is mnst i'nn>|iii'iiniis in thr fialmiati' and linllmiis dnini's.
riiiiniis not niily ill fnriii. Imt in t'olor. n| tin- ilinrclics of St. l't'loiHl»urj,', nl'
.Mnsrnw ami Warsaw.
Kiii^' Loiu> of llavaria, liaviii;; livt-d in Itomr wln-ii Crown I'liiici*, inilti-
valt'd sn (jit'iit !i fniidiii's.s for tin- airliitiitnif n| (ini ri- and Italy, that wlirii
he cam*' tn thf thinni' In- i'oniini--'ioiiril his airhilri'ts to di'si|..;n lor his rajiital
city nt' Miinii'h tin- Walhalla, Uiiiiiiu-siialli', (ily|>tntlH-k, and Tiiiaknthuk, alter
classical nmdcls.
In Dresden, the most interesting; lniildiiitfs desiijiied ii|ion (ireek or Italian
tradit Inns , ire tjie thcitre and the |iirtnie jjaileiN, l>y Seiii|ier, whnwill Iniij;
lie ranked as the Inremost (ierman arehileii ol his day.
In ISerlin ihero is a theatre. — iiiiii|ne nl' its kind, with staii;e in the ccnire.
and an aiidiloriiim Inr winter nse at niie end and mie Inr siiiniiier at tie
other. — desii,'ned by Tit/ ; at Carlsriihe. Stutt>,'art. and .Strashiir;,' there aiv
theatres ami ^cjionls in the same st\ le. The present l',m|ieror has added mans
schools tliroii;..;hont the em|iiie. lint they are ot late (ierman lieiiaisMaiiee.
The pnlilii- liiiililin;;s ot (ieriiiany and Uelj^'iiini show lew desij;iis nt interesi
in reeeiii years; the Parliament House at lierlin. hy Wallol.amI the Palais ih-
.liistice at liiiissels. hy polaeit. heinj.; colossal ill mass and liiimsy in detail
Many nl' the |iii\ate Imiises desi;,'iied in the Italian lieiiaissance were ver\
fleijant and attractive. Imt within the past ihcade there has been a wnel'ii'
ilcterioratinii in the chaiaeter ot lioth siirlace and line — thi' jjintesipn
• replacinj; the vjraeeliil.
The villaf^cs Imilt lor their einplnvees hy Krn|iii. the j;iin nianiilactiini
and Stiiiiini. the maker ot steel, are nntahle instances of the applicatinii ■
IP
II It)
li 111 St. I'ii'ii.
Ill till' S;i( iiii
rirk ami eant-
npiTi lliiiisc,
l')>.|i)isitiiiii III
ip'llirr willi a
I'l' |ii)i'tii>iis nf
lit 111 airliiti'f-
|''rrlll'll lialinli.
iiili'il ill Talis.
• IS >lill ^;ivfii
ill t Ills scliiMil
■itllU'tillll fllilll
iiH'iil III Aiflii-
ii' sliiilv III till'
. Ill till- ili'sinii.
I'lal |irii-<|'i'ril\
III |ialari's, t III'
iii' itistitutiiiiis,
till' I'liiiiali', —
runt riliiit in;.; to
• Mii'liacl. Iiiiilt
i'^liltirii. Mll>-
liillliiilis ilmiirs.
l'i'li<i'«biirK. Ill
II i'liiict', cull I
taly, that wIhii
I liu' liis ra|iital
iiakiitlii:k, altor
ii'ci-k III' Italian
r, wliii will loiiK
;i' ill tilt' ci'iitri'.
silliillliT at tin
sliiii;,' tlirri' all
has ailili'il iiiati,\
ti'iiaissaiH'i".
ii',MIS (if iilliTCSl
ml till' i'alais il-
liimsy in ilrlail
^am•^ Well' ven
s JHfii a wiicl'ii!
- till' j,'i'iiU'si|ii'
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t.
■A
w
a:
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n maniifactmi'i
1' aiiplicutifiu "I
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IMAGE EVALUATION
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WiBSTIR,N.Y. U5M
(71«) •72-4503
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176 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A/A'" CENTURY
private capital to the improvement of tht- iloniestic conditions of the laboring
class.
In Austria, Vienna has developed wonderfully since the days of ^Nlaria
Theresa. The classic I'arlianient House by ilansen, in 1.S4.S, is one of the most
delightful of its kind to be found anywhere ; Schniitfs (rotliic town-hall is
interesting, but cannot be said to be so successfid in design ; the Votive Church
by Ferstel, in ISod (also (Jothic), the Opera House by Siccardsburg and Van
der Jiidl, witli the City Tlieatre, an elaborate Kenaissance structure, by
Semper and Hasnuuun', are all worthy of note. The University with the two
^luseum buildings, facing each other ujioi a small jiark, and other i)ublic
buildings and residences along the IJing St-asse, are extremely satisfactory,
in spite of the fact tiiat stucco has been so extensively emi)l()yed.
Only a few years ago tlu* municipr.lity of liuda-l'estli offered immunity
from taxiition for tifti'cn years to all prospective builch-rs, under certain con-
ditions as to character and cost of buildings, with *-he result that the newer
portion of the Hungarian ca])ital was (piickly occupied by buildings of the
most desirable kind; the J'arliament House, Opera. Cathe<lral, Technical
School, and sevci'al club-houses and ))rivate residences, each testify to the
spirit with which the citizens responded to this desire to beautify the city.
Since the' unification of Italy there has been considerable building in some
of the principal cities, but very little of sj)ecial importance. Jn liome, the
changes are more jtercejitible than elsewhere; the excavations of the F(uiini,
the embankment of the Tiber, the widening and straightening of the Corso,
and the opening of the Via Nationale and other streets, luive destroyed com-
paratively little of the picturesque that was worth retaining, have brought to
light many treasures of art, and. supplemented by tlie drainage of the Cam-
pagna by I'rincc Torlonia, have certaiidy made it a healthier city to live in.
The monument to ^'ictor Emmanuel, the National Museiun, and the liraccia
Nuovo of the Vatican Museum, are among the few public structures of inter-
est ; the many blocks of apartments and tenenuuits are orderly and inoffen-
sive, though brick and stucco are the nmterials used in their construction.
Turin is the modern manufacturing cit,y, while Florence preserves its me-
dia'val air, and Venice dreams of the bygone days when the splendor of the
Renaissance attracted the wealth, beauty, and talent of all P^urope to the city
of the Doges.
Bologna and Genoa have each built in the suburbs a magniticent Campo
Santo, or cemetery, with chajiels, colonnades, and other accessories of archi-
tectural value ; in Milan and Naples there are lofty glass-covered arcades
through the centre of a block and connecting with cross streets, and the semi-
circular colonnades of St. Francesco di Paolo, at Naples, surround a piazza
which is the great ])ublic resort of summer evenings.
During the reign of King George a new Athens has sprung up alongside of
and overlapjiing the old city ; although the nation is not wealthy, the indi-
vidual bequests of certain Greeks have given her the Museum, University,
and Academy, each of strict classic design, and a hospital of Jiyzantine de-
sign. Under the sunny skies of (xreece those buiMings certaiidy ai)])ear
to much greater advantage than if in a more northern atmosphere, and tiieir
statuary and polychromy show the value of these act'essories to such archi-
tecture in this climate.
Hi luboriiiji
of ]Maria
uf tilt' most
)wii-luill is
ivo Church
•g and Van
iictui'c, by
til the two
litT juiblic
iti.si'actory,
nnimuiity
ertain coii-
t the newer
ngs of the
Teehiiical
tiiy to the
the city,
iig ill sniiie
Ivoiiie, the
:lie Koruni,
the Corso,
oyed com-
bi'ought to
f the Cani-
ti) live ill.
he JJraecia
es of iiiter-
nd inoffeii-
iietion.
I'es its nie-
idor of the
to the city
3nt Canipo
>s of arclii-
fd arcades
I the semi-
d a piazza
ongside of
, the iiidi-
^liversity,
?aiitine de-
ly apjiear
and their
ucli archi-
2
5
71
8
O
ai
cai
up
an
an
ma
ser
Ca
coi
bui
spf
im
PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY IN ARCHITECTURE
177
Abdul Aziz, the predecessor of the present Sultan of Turkey, had so great
a fondness for building that his extravagance in this respect was one of the
causes which led to his downfall. The Doliua Bagtche ]»alace, erected directly
upon the shores of the Bosphorus from the designs of lialzan, an Armenian
architect, suggests Spanish work of the sixteenth century. In Constantinople
and at Therapia, — a summer resort at the northern end of the Bosphorus, —
GLASS roVERED ARCADE. MILAN.
many of the foreign governments have built official residences for tlieir repre-
sentatives.
As f >v the architecture of our near neighbors on the nortii.the buildings of
OanatUi. have been sturdy and substantial rather than comely ; but the long
coutir.uance of cold weather and the lack of means have often hampered the
builders. Since the completion of the t'anailian Pacific Railroiul. the pro-
sperity of city and country seems more assured ; the older cities growing in
importance and extent, and new towns springing \\\^ along the line to the
West. In Ottawa the Parliament Buildings and the octagonal Library, in
12
178 TRIUMPHS AND WOMDEliS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
Toronto, ;ui(l, to some extent, in .Montreal, the Universities' buildings, are
Victorian Gothic. The later buildings of the University in Montreal, excepting
tilt! Ciirls" College, art; not so interttsting ; but there are two railroad stations,
a hotel, cathedral, with several banks, insurant'c buildings, and residences
that call lor more than passing notice. I'erhaps the finest building in all
Canada is the t'hatcau Frontenac, in (^K-bec, — Iniilt by J?ruce I'riee of Jsew
York, — on the Dufl'erin Terrace, overkioking the St. Lawrence River, and
coninuiudiug a view that is hardly surpassed on the l>osi)horus, the Kliine, or
the Hudson.
Although the history of architecture in America cannot be written without
some reference to contemporary work in Europe. — since so mucli of our
architecture in the first half of the century is adopted from that of our ances-
tors and adapted to our uses, and in the last half so many of our architects
have studied there and so many of our (citizens luive traveled there. — the pro-
blems and their conditions in the ( >ld Workl are very different from those of the
Xew. Europe was already mature when steam and electricity were introduced;
precedent was always to be considered, and modern requirenu'uts were often
forced to conform to existing circumstances. There has, therefore, been
comparatively less change there during the century than during the past
thirty years with us. With our republican institutions, many of the monarchi-
cal formulas soon became obsolete, though the general trend of our architec-
ture lias been in the direction of classic models. As the country has grown
larger and more wealthy, tlie ])roblems given to architects have become more
complex; less reliance could be jdaced upon precedent and a premium was
placed upon originality, which, in f^jiite of innumerable vagaries, has brought
American architecture, at the end of the century, to be the most notable of
the day.
At the end of the eighteenth century, this rep\d)lic consisted of hardly more
than a number of communities extending at intervals along the Atlantic sea-
board, with an occasional settlement beyond tlie Alleghany Mountains and
across the Ohio Kiver. Their resources were extremely limited, their wants
very few, and their intercommunication irregular; but their methods of living
were simple and frugal, and their courage and endurance ]ihenomenal.
Among the settlers of Xew England were many mechanics and manufac-
turers, and these soon began to rejjlace the primitive log cabins with frame
dAvellings ; those of the Southern States were chiefly planters, who im])orted
much of their labor, .and often the bricks as well as the glass, hardware, tiles,
and other materials for their houses. ^Nfany of tliose who colonized the .Mid-
dle States had come from countries in Europe where these materials were
made, and brought their secrets with them, while others were farmers and
stock growers, whose snug little cottages and enormous barns may be seen to
this day in New York and I'ennsylvania.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century we ])ossessed a national style of
architecture, which, although it had come to us from Italy, through France
and England, was yet distinctly American. It was, however, almost exclu-
sively confined to residences, and there were very few public buildings of any
descri])tion. exce])t certain churches. — said t(j have been designed by followers
of Sir <']iristo])her Wren, some of whom were doubtless ship carpenters who
had studied the works of Sir William (Jhambers.
mr
kliugs, are
I, oxtHipting
1(1 stations,
rt'sidciK-es
iliiiff ill all
it!(' of New
IJivt'i', and
K liliine, or
;en witliout
ucli of our
:' our ances-
r architi'cts
— the ]in)-
those of tiie
introduced;
were often
ifore, been
ig tlie past
} nionarchi-
ur architec-
luis grown
come more
emium was
las brought
notable of
lardly more
tlantic sea-
uitains and
bheir Avants
ds of living
Mial.
d mauufac-
with frame
10 imjiorted
hvare, tiles,
ed the .Mid-
terials were
ariners and
• be seen to
nal style of
ugh France
most exclu-
ings of any
)y followers
tenters who
u
a
o
H
3
£
en
>s
o
El
M
a<
■<
u
en
H
H
<
«
Q
US
H
'/■•
Ed
B
H
180
TRIUMPHS AM) nOXDKIiS OF THE A7A'" CENTURY
The C(jU»iiial styU', as wo now ti-nu it, was sutticitMitly elastic in its adajita-
bility tocoiit'onu to the retniireuu'iits of tlie mercliaiit, manufacturer, or mari-
IKM" livin;^ at Sah'iii, IJoston, or New|Hirt, as well as to those of the |)lanter
living at Charleston or Savannah. There were certain diiferences, more or
less pronounced, pecuiliar to each section and to each city, but all houses were
alike in this respect, — there was no ),'as or water, and the open fireplace was
dejiended upon for heat.
In New Kngland the dwelling-houses wece placed near the ground ; the
chimneys built in an interior cross wall, the kitchen, with its accessories, as
near to the dining-room as ]io(ssii)lo; tiic ceilini,'s were low. with cornices
sometimes of plaster, .sometimes of wood. The roof, — which was often hippe<l
and often of the gand)rel sha])e, but rarely a gabli' of even sloix-, — was always
covered with shingles, which co.'ering was occasionally used al.so on the
exterior walls.
In the Soutii. some of the characteristics were the high basement, Ijroad
piazzas, freijuently at the level of the second as well as the first story, and
placed on the soutli and west sides; the chimney on outside walls ; the kitchen
in a separate building, detached from the dwelling; a broad hall through the
centre, giving access to large rooms with high ceilings ; the roof cpiite as fre-
quently hipped MS gabh'd. and often — in eitiier case — a huge fanligiit set in
a low gable on tiie fi'ont for ventilation of the attic ; dormers were seldom used.
as the attic was not inhabited ; the gambrel roof was uncommon ; slate, and
occasionally tile or shingle, was used for I'oof covering.
(•ur first public buildings of any imjiortance, and which show the iuHuence
of contenii)orary work in Kngland, were the White House, designed by Hoban
in IT'.I-; the Capitol, begun by ])r. Thornton in \~\)''> and completed l)y l». II.
Latrobe in 1<S;!0 ; the wings, containing the jiresent Senate and House of
Representatives, were added later ; the dome, designed by Thomas U. Walter,
was begun in ISriS, but not c(mipleted until IST.'i.
Our early I'residents took nuicli interest in ai'chitectiire, Washington direct-
ing and criticising the ]dainiing of the Capitol and building his own home at
Jldunt Vernon, and Jefferson designing the dome and colonnades of the Uni-
versity of Virginia, at Charlottesville, and his own home at iMonticello.
]\rassachusetts was the first State to erect its capittd, — the State House in
Boston, by Huliinch. dating from 17'.>."».
The City Hall of New Vork was our first work of unmistakable French
character, and shows the inHuence of the time of Lcmis XVI. It was de-
signed by Mangin, a Krenchman, begun in ISO,'}. !ind completed in ISlL'.
After the war of iSlL', many state and national iiuildings were erected;
from that time colonnades and dome.-; seem iiidLsjiensable to the j)r(iiier
dignity of the cajiitol or court house. The use id' both brick and stone
became more general, and. for jjrivate houses, the form (d' the gambnd roof
gradually (lisa]ipc;ired in faviu' of the hip and gable. Snbse([nent to IS.'IO. the
accepted type of tiie larger or more ])ietentious house was the Italian villa,
■with a s(piare tower accentuating the front entrance, often one story higher
than the main building ; all root's of low jutcli. covered with tin ; the exterior
walls faced with stucco. Aliout this time bay windows and sliding doors for
principal rooms of first story, and better facilities for the use of heat, light,
and water were introduced and the symmetrical disposition of parts often
neglected.
i{y
Pit OG HESS OF THE VENTUHY IN AltCHITECTUllE
181
its adiiptii-
r, or lUiiri-
lic |iliiiitt'r
i, mure or
)iiHfS were
'place was
oiiiid ; tlie
ssoricH. as
li coi'iiici's
ten hipjicil
I'as always
so on the
I'lit, broad
story, and
lu'kitolieu
irouyh tlie
lite as fre-
ifflit sot in
Idoni nsed.
slate, and
• intluence
1)V llobiin
li.y I'.. II.
JIuiise of
U. Walter,
Tlio very steep pointed (iotldc roof denoted the modest cottage, and the
]ierforated wooden tracery of win(U)Ws and porches, or the barge-l)oardH of
galiles, liecanie the siinplt! beginning of that riotons growth of jig-sawed
fretwork afterwards so prominent npon tliose houses constructed with Man-
sard or Krentdi roofs of rectilinear, concave, or convex form. The works and
writings of Downing had nnich influence at this time, and it was shown not
only in these Italian villas or (iothic cottages, but also in landscape ganlen-
ing about sul)urban residences.
The political disturbances in various countries of Europe in 184cS brought
very many immigrants to our shores, and the discovery of gold in California,
in 1849, was the beginning of that steady How of settlers which has since
then peopled so many of our Western States and 'I'erritories.
1 U D Q
w:m
IjI!]!'
\ , .
;ton direct-
u home at
)f the U ni-
ello.
3 House in
)le French
It w;is (le-
ISlL'.
i> erected ;
the jiroper
imd stone
mbrel roof
olS.'iO. the
idian villii,
ory higher
lie exterior
i, doors for
lieat, light,
)arts often
LIBRARY HtJII.DINO, UNIVERSITY OP VIROINIA.
(Thos. Jefferson, Designer.)
Then followed our own Civil War, from 1801 to 18(55, and subsequent to
that the period of reconstruction, during which time there was some building,
but very little architecture, throughout the country.
In 18(50 the I'acitic Railroad Avas completed, and this not only g.ave a new
impetus to Western mining and farming, but created a new market for East-
ern manufactures.
8o great was this manufacturing and commercial activity that vast fortunes
were made, and there were many opport\inities calling for the services of
arcliitecits ; but as they had hitherto been rarely emjiloyed, except in a few of
the larger cities, upon churches or public buildings, a great proportion of them
were untrained amateurs or self-taught carpenters and masons. However,
the first school of architecture had just been organized at the jMassachusetts
Institute of Technology, in Boston, and to William K. Ware, — who was its
professor of architecture from 18(5(5, and who organized a similar school at
Columbia College, New York, in 1880, — the profession and the public owe more
than to any other one man for well-directed efforts towards the development
182
TUiuMi'iis AM) wosni:its OF I III: xix'" tEsrinv
of siK'h«|iiuliticatii>ii,s as may fvciitiiallv j,'ivi' a iialiniial cliaractcr to our fivchi-
tecturi'. Tlu'Sf schools ciim*' iioiif too hooii, and witliiii tin- past twciity-tive
yi'ars many ntlicrs liavi- been ioiindcd and many travtdinj,' sidiolaisliips en-
dowed ; (■(illcctions (if liuoks, |iliutii^,Ma|ilis, and casi-^ liavi' lifcn iirovidcd in
vuiions (MtU's; arcliilcctural periodicals pnltlislicd, ami ari'liitcctnral societies
iiml sketch chilis Ininied, cacli ot which hiis enntrilinlcd to tin hi,i,diei' cdm-a-
tion ot the pidlession and to the },ncatei' appreciation liy the pulilic.
Prior to this tinn', eacdi section and each city had certain iiecnliarities of
architectnre. as of speech, which were nnmistakaliic. The white New Kn^dand
meet in.u-honse, the red schooMiouse, the conntry housn with its kitchen, wash-
room, and wood-shed trailing,' in the rear, or the swidl-l'ront city house, were
as characteristic as the endless blocks of brown stone, liij,'h stoop lionses uf
New Vtirk. or the monotonons rows of red brick dwellinj;s w ith white nmrble
trimmin!,'s ot I'liiladelphia, or the broail verandas and halls of the Sontherii
lionie.
Cast-iron was the recognized UKiterial for the front uf Inisiness biiildinf,'s,
the desi?^ns bcini,' <'hieHy in the Corinthian or composite ordci's. and the andi
or lintel used indiscriminately ; and when the dry j^oods store of A. T. Stewart
iS: Co. was bnilt. in ISTI,', to occupy the wliole block from Mroadway to Fourth
Avenue, and from Ninth to Tenth Streets, it was the larLjest and nu)st impor-
tant of its kind. Uefore this (dass of coninn'rcial ar(diitecture disappeared, u
front was (h-signed by H. M. Hunt, about 1H7S, for a store on ISroadway. near
liroonie Street, where the jdastic forms of the tile and stucco of Saracenic
architecture wvn^ used as being more h)gical for this material than an imita-
tion of lioiaan forms in stone.
There were not many summer resorts, and a few weeks at Saratoga, New-
l)ort, or the Virginia Springs was the limit of the annual vacation ; the ortho-
dox hotel was a rectangular frame building, with veranda on one or nntre
sides, covered by a tlat roof supported by s{[uare ])iers having the In-ight of
several stories ; the length, width, and height of the biiilding were governed
by no other iiro])oition than that of the number of guests.
In the Sduth and West there were virtually no hotels, and the belated tra-
veler applied for food and shelter for him.self and his horse to the nearest
friendly farm.
These were the jirevailing conditions when the iioiirniii ;vV7(e appeared upon
the scene ; to liini as citizen jirosperity nu-ant a better home, to the congre-
gation a larger church, to the comnninity a new city hall or court house, to
the Slate a more expensive capitol.
While these buildings were being everywhere erected, in accordance with
the time honored fashions of construction ami wiHi elaborate finish, the disas-
trous conflagrations of 1.S71 in Chicago, and of ISTI' in fiostim. ealletl general
attention to the necessity for more permanent building; and the precautions
now taken against similar occurrences were the beginning of efforts toward
methods of lireproof ccmstruction. (iranite, marble, and limestone were dis-
carded in favor of sandstone, brick, and terra cotta ; iron beams carrying
brick or concrete (subscfjuently hollow terra cotta) arches were introduced,
and metal laths were substituted for the wooden strips to a certain degre'e;
but as thr»se fires were mainly in the business districts, such reforms have
been confined almost exclnsivelv to connnercial architecture.
ih-y
11 our archi-
twunt^-livi'
liU'slii|is I'll-
l>rovitlf(l ill
Till sdcictics
,'lii'r nliicii-
I'.
iiliaritics of
I'W Kii,i,'laiul
clicii. wasli-
limiSL', Welt'
I hdiiscs of
liitf iiiarlilt'
It' SoiltluTIl
s l)iiil(liii|;,'s.
Mil till' arcli
. T. Sti'wart
y to Fourth
most inijior-
apjicaivd. a
iilway. near
f Surac'i'iiic
111 an imita-
atoga, Nt'w-
; tlic ortlio-
iie or iiioro
le hciglit of
re governed
belati'd t ra-
the nearest
reared upon
the oongre-
rt liouso. to
dance witli
I. tilt' disas-
It'd general
preeautiiuis
Di'ts toward
e were dis-
is earrving
introdiicetl,
lin degree;
forms have
TitixiTY ciirncii, ^E^v vouk.
184
TKIUMVIIS AND WOXOKHS OF TJII-: XIX'" CESTUHY
In |S7.'I till' tiiiiim-iiil imiiic j,mvi' a cliffk to iiiaiiv building DiiiMiitions, hut
it was ol' ri(iii|)ai'ativfly «ln)rt liiirati tnr in ISTUail tin- (iIIht iiatidiiHof tlm
cartii wi'iT iiiviti'il to iiiiitt' witii us at I'liiiaiii'lpliia iu cricliratinK tiu' t^'utc-n-
nial aunivt'i'saiy nt' our iiidi'iM-uiliMicr.
Tliirt was our first intfriiatimial KxiHisition. and it was not n-niarkiililf tliat
iu our f;it,'i'ruc'sH to li-arn. and iu tin- i-utliusiasni of innsin'rity, \V(! souj,'lit
ius|iiiatioii from all tliosc peoph's who had lu-ouKlit their K"'<'ds lor our
ius|ii'ctiou. At niict) we l»f),'au to l)uild (hu-tui Auu itta^;cs or to rttuiocU'l
••xistiuj,' houses with many l>avs auil towers, rooms set at all uukU's, Hoors ab
(littVrt'ut levels, walls of many luati-rials. and roofs of varying slopea, as well
as to apply many lints ami sha(h-s of cohu' within an<l without.
The siuumcr hotel and summer cottaye l)eKan to appear at the seashore,
iu the nuiuntaius. and along the siu)res of tiie great lakes, and the winter
resorts of the Caroliiias. Florida, and California to attract the seekers for
lu-alth and pleasure.
The interior decoration (d our houses was the chief lessiui of 1H7(), and
having oui-e seen the Kuropeau and Oriental hangings, draperies, rugs, and
bri<'-ii-l)rac, we set aiiout furnishing our rooms with them.
Hitherto American an-hitecture had lieeii most influenced liy Knglisli
prectMh'Ut. ami the Victorian Gothic had able advocates, especially iu
IJoftton, where the Art .Museum hy Sturgis it ISrigham. as well as umuy
stores, residences, and churches hy Cummings it Sears, I'ealiody «!t Stearns,
and others, showed nuich vigor and originality. William A. I'otter, a*
supervising architect for the ( J(jvernmcnt. a(hiptcd this style, in IS?"), for
liis buildings at Fall Kiver, .Mass.. Nashville. Teiui.. ami Covington. Ky., and
It. M. rpjohn desi,rucd for Hartford. Conn., the only CJothie State (Japitol
in this country.
K. .M. rpjohn and Henry M. ("ongdon of New Y(U'k had already done
much (lothic ecclcsiasticjal work and. with the possible exception of (Jriieo
Church in 1840, and St. I'atrick's Uonmn (."atlndic Cathedral iu 1HS(5 by
Keuwick, there is uo example of this style which shows such appreciation
of projiortiou or of form, iu nuiss and in detail, as Trinity Cluindi (lH4;i)
by the tirst-uanu'd I'.rchitcct.
It was perhai)s rather fortunate that just as the (,)iU'en Anne fashion, with
its nmltiplicity of detail, was brought to us from Kngland, II. II. Hicdiard-
son, of lioston, called our attention to the bigness and (almost brutal) sim-
plicity of the Homanesipie from Southern France. From the date of the
building of Trinity Church, iu Iioston (1S7(1), may be reckoned the ])arting'
of the ways. Ilcretofoie everything we had done (d' any importance had
an English stamp ujxin it; henceforth the work that was (hme showed the
result of training of the Parisian ittilicr or of the well-till'-d sketch books of
Continental travel.
Xot only in this church, but in his libraries at Woburn, North I'.aston,
Quincy, .Milford, Ikirlington. and New ( »rleaus. did IJichardson show his grasp
of the subject. Trinity is unmistakably a Christian tcTn])le. and its bigness
most conducive to the sense of awe and reverence. IIi.-^ Hbr.iru's leave lU)
doubt as to their having been built for the stfu-ing and reailing of books ;
his stone buildings, whether the Court House and jail in I'itt.sburg, the
Chamber of Commerce iu Cincinnati, or private houses in liuffalo or Chicago,,
(M'
]'UO(,'UliSS OF THE LEyTLRY IN AUCUITECTUltE
185
show their purpose and eiiipliasize tlieir tiiiiteriul 5 liis brick buildings,
wlictiier a cdIU'^o Imililinj; at ('lMnl)l•ld^,'(^ railwuy station at New Ltindiu',
(U' H'sidtMiee at Wasldnffttin, tell tli-ir stnr,\ in luick ; and ids cDiintrv Ikiusch
about the snliurbs ol' lioston, to b»' wliat tiicy are, could not have been otlior
than <d' wood.
His influence upon theareiuteetnieor the day was therei'ori not surprisiiifj,
but there was a subtleness in tlu' character (d' ids desi^'iis tiuit ids indtatius
could never aciiuiro and even ids immediate successors could not loni,' retain
utter his personality was lost to them; and Ircini the lack partly, jierhaps. of
true sympathy, jiartly Irom the nioclilicatioii (d comiitions, his art may b"
Huid tu liuve (lied with liim.
ST. (iKOKUES U\\A„ Pilll.AUKLI'lllA.
As R. ^I. Hunt had the last word on tlie east-iron front, so he had the
first 01, tlie modern sky-scraper, a ]neuliarly American jirodnction ; the walls
(d' the Trilnine Ituildint,', however, ''arry liotli their own wei<,dit and that of
tlie floors, Ixdiif^ l)uilt Ixd'ore the days of the methods of steel skeleton con-
struction. Hunt was trained in Paris, as was Hiidiardson, and had assisted
in the design of the I'avillon de Flore under Lidnel, and he showed his
ap))reciation of tlie Neo-(irec movement in his desi^^u tor the Lenox Library.
It is somewliat nniisujil for an artist to <lo his best work in his latest years,
but surely no better work of its kind has lieen dotie in modern times than
the residences which he designed for tliree mendjers of the Vanderbilt family
at Newport, in New York city, and at Hiltmore, N. C. The design Avhich he
186
TftlUMPHS AN]) WONDEllS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
left for tlu' Fiftli Avenue front of the jretropolitan Museiun. now being
curried out by liis son, is a magnificent Coriutliian order, wliereus much of
his otlier work is late French Gothic.
Tluit he was called upon to design the base for Bartholdi's Liberty in Xew
York Harbor, and the Administration Jiinlding at the International Exi)osi-
tion of l8t»o, and that a portrait bust lias been erected to his memory, all
testify to tlie ai)i)reciation in whicli lie was held by the profession.
To Me Kim, .Alead & White, of New York, we are greatly- indebted for
their inttuenee iijion secular architecture, and their (.'asiiio at Newport, built
in 1IS<S(), was probably ni(,re far-reaching in its effect ujion country houses than
any other building at that time. Among the other work from their otHce
may be mentioned the lioston rnblic Library, the ]Madison Square CJarden
(rei)roducing in its tower the (iiralda of Seville), the liibrary and other
buildings for ( "olumbia College, the Metroiiolitan and University Clubs, the
Agricultural Uuilding (of staff) in Chicago in 1893, now being re|)roduced
in marble for tiie Brooklyn Institute, the Tiffany, the Yillard, and other cit^'
houses, and a liost of country houses at Newport, Lenox, and elsewliere.
There is another architect whose talents should be acknowledged ; for
about 18(S0, when the shingle house had just begun to take shape, there was
none more clever at that sort of thing than W. K. Emerson, of lioston, and
his resources seemed endless in harmonizing form and color with condi-
tions of seashore or mountain, as shown in his houses at Har Harbor,
Milton, Newport, and many other summer resorts.
I'hiladelphia, which had hitherto always been extremely conservative in
architecture, soon began to erect some of the most singular and fantastic
structures that could well be ir.iagined ; but fortunately the refined simpli-
city and fertile originality of such men as Wilson Eyre, Frank ]\Iiles Day &
Bro., and Cojie & Stewardson have jtrevailed, and in b( th city and suburban
work they and certain others have done and are doing much to counterbalance
the character of tlie eccentricities of their predecessors, as shown in buildings
for the University of Pennsylvania and the Academy of Arts and Sciences.
But the restless activity of Eastern loom and machiiu' shop, and of Western
farm and mine, seemed to meet and concentrate in Cliicago — the cntrijiot for
the raw material of the West and tiie finished product of the East. The
unprecedented increase in value of land, tlie low ]irice of iron and steel, with
the introduction of high-speed elevators, cond)ined to develop a new tyi)e of
sky-scraper; and as the nature of the soil was entirely unlike that of other
cities, the foundations of tiiese buildings presented problems which were
solved by Cliicago architects in various ways hitherto untried. The Kookery
by Burnham & Eoot, I'ullman Building by S. S. Beman, and the Auditorium
(opera house, hotel, and office l)uilding in one) by Adler & Sullivan, at the
time of tiieir comjiletion were most notable examples of architectural engi-
neering, a ,1 were soon followed by many others more or less similar, designed
by W. L. 1^). Jenny, Ibdabird & Boche, Henry Ives Cobb, and others. The
buildings for the Chicago University, the Athletic (Mub, and Newbury
Library, by the last-iRimed architect, show a high degree of ability ; the
peculiarlj' rich arabesque ornamentation designed by Louis H. Sullivan, and
the direct and rational handling of the buildings ujion which it was used, are
certainly indicative of the sjjirit of enthusiasm and conscientiousness of a
iiy
being
iiuit'li of
lUW
ty in New
al Ex)iosi-
eniory, all
lebtefl for
port, built
)uses than
heir otHce
•e CJarilen
and other
Clubs, the
eproduoed
other city
vhcre.
(l<{ed ; for
there was
oston, and
ith condi-
ir Harbor,
rvative iu
1 fantastic
led simpli-
iles Day &
I suburban
iterbalance
1 buildings
Sciences.
)f Western
iitnjiot for
<:ast. The
steel, with
ew tyi)e of
t of other
hich were
le Rookery
Luditoriuni
•an, at the
tural engi-
I', designed
lers. The
Newbury
nlity ; the
llivan. and
s used, are
sness of a
PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY IN ARCHITECTURE
187
well-trained mind. It is by sucli characteristics that Jolm W. Root was able
to accomplish so much for the advancement of architecture iu the West.
AVhat Kruppand Stumm had done for the employees in their works iu
Cierniany, I'ulinian determined to do for his men and their families here ;
and a town, with dwellings, schools, churches, w ater-works. etc., for many
thousand iidiabitants was designed and built by S. S. Benuui, which has been
re])orted by experts to be the best of its kind.
In ( 'liicago, in llSDo, was held our sec Mid international Exposition ; and that
theexhil)its shoidd be suitably housed, some of the most prominent architects
of the country were called t(.igether, buildings were assigned to each of them,
and Frederick Law Olmsted was appointed tc lay .)ut tlie grounds, waterways,
and bridges.
^^m^ i; '. ^^^^^^^1
■■ - S; H^^^^B
^^m ^ >-' ^^^^^I^^^H
TUI.MTY ( lirUf n. IIOSTON.
Except for the difference in material, never did Rome in the days of
Augushin magniticence show buildings similar to those grouped about the
("nurtof Honor. A Greek would siirely have been proud to walk through
the I'eristyle, oj- to have visite<l the Art (Jalleries. and a Jionian to have
sauntered about the Terminal Station or the triumphal arches of the ^Manu-
fairtures Building, Right nobly was the Si)anish aid to Columbus acknow-
ledged in the design of ^Machinery Hall ; but to France, whose generosity
had trained so many of our architects, sculptors, and painteis to do such
things, was the greatest trium])h in the unaninuty with which they had all
worked and the success which crowned their labors.
The building occupied by the Federal (Tovernment was one of the few
unworthy of its location or of the occasion. While the architecture of the
people had been advancing steadily for fifty years, that provided by the Trea-
188
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
I
;
sury Department in W; hington had been (niite as steadily retrograding. The
Custom House, lioston , Sub-Tieasury, New Vork ; the ^lint, in Philadeljihia ;
the Treasury, I'ost Office, and Interior Department buildings, in Washington,
liave stood almost alone since the middle of the century. The few Gothic
buildings referred to previously were honest and intelligent attempts to im-
prove the quality of design for the goveniment, but the politicians decided that
artistic ability was not a prere(]uisite for the office of Supervising Architect.
Since 1895, there has been some infusion of new life into the designing-
room, and such work as the designs
by William ^lartin Aiken, for the
Buffalo and San Francisco I'ost Of-
fices and Court Houses, the Denver
and the I'hiladelphia Mints, and the
New London Post Office, were about
being materiidized, when once agfiiu
the iioliticians, who oared not a whit
for one design more than another,
interfered to oldige the government
contractor. lUit the good seed had
been planted, and the work of the
present incumbent, James Knox
Taylor, is likely to show a marked
advance over that of many previous
years.
The general scheme of the Con-
gressional Library was conceived by
Smithmeyer & Pelz, the details cur-
ried out subsecpiently
by General Casey and
his able assistants
and successors, and
the building oi)ened
to the public in 189(5.
The experiment of
the collaboration of
sculptor aiui painter
with the architect
had resulted so fa-
vorably in Chicago,
that the artists in-
vited to decorate this
building gladly re-
s j^ o n d e d ; and al-
though the renumer-
ation was inconsid-
erable, their loyalty
to the country, as
to Art, resulted in
THE AMKlllCAK SUllETV i;oMl'A>i¥'S BUILDING, NEW VORK. SUCll UlUial dsCOra-
PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY IN ARCHITECTURE
189
tioii as had not been seen since W. M. Hunt decorated the Senate Chamber
in Albany, or La Farge did tlie figures in Trinity Church, Boston, and St.
Thomas Church, New York. Blashfiekl's dome, typifying all the nations of
the earth ; Vedder's Minerva, in mosaic ; H. (_). Walker's large lunettes, illus-
trating English poems, and Simmons' small lunettes, filled with exquisite
little figures, are but a few of the many interesting works in color. Two of
the nuiin entrance doors of bronze were modeled by Olin L. Warner, but he
did not live to complete them. The marble stairway is by Martini, and the
statues which adorn tlie main reading-room are by Adams, Bartlett, Partridge,
Ward, and others.
The plan of the building is that of a central octagon containing the general
reading-room, connected by wings containing the book-stacks with a surround-
ing hollow square containing rooms for special collections. There are ample
reading-rooms for representatives, senators, and the public, and a tunnel by
which books are sent to the Cai»itol. This is the last building of considerable
importance constructed by the government, and it was built on time and
within the ajipropriation of !B(>,(KK),000; it may be said to be dignified and
suitable to its purjiose, and to be representative of the people at the close of
the century.
It now seems proliable that New "i'ork will build the handsome library
designed by Carrere & Hastings ; the Egyptian lines of the reservoir occupy-
ing the site — emphasized l)y the varying hues of the ivj' for so many .seasons
— will give ))la(;e to those of an example of modern French Uenaiss;ince.
Among the changes incidental to the growth of this city is the recent <lis-
api)earance of the old Toml>s prison, which was anothe'i' building of Eg^-ptian
architecture, good of its kind, aiul quite dignified and inq)ressive.
There are certain other l)uil(liugs designed in the style of a country almost
as tropical as Egypt, and as light and airy as tiiat is sombre and gloomy, Init
which seem quite as ai)pro)iriate for their different purposes : they are the
Casino Theatre and the Synagogue at Fifth Avenue and Forty-third Street,
— each an excellent exami>le of Saraceidc architecture, — the former of brick
and terra cotta, and the latter of vari-colored sandstones. Another syna-
gogue, by Brunner «& Tryon, further up the avenue and facing Central I'ark,
has a decided Byzantine flavor, — the large arch accentuating the entrance,
carrying a snuiU arcade, and being surmounted by the traceried dome.
The largest and most expensively elaborate hotel in America is the
Waldorf-Astoria ; and although certain features of the exterior may not be
justified by interior arrangements, it has certainly been planned Avith a view
to great comfort and luxury.
While New York has the largest and nK)st ex])ensive private residences, —
the chief of these is that of Cornelius \'anderl)ilt, — Philadelphia has the
greatest number of small houses owned by their occupants ; and of late years,
there are a greater number of attractive homos in St. T^tmis than anywliere
else in this country. Yerymanyof them have been designed by Eames &
Young, or by She])]ey, Rutan & Cool idge ; and with much o])en s])ace about
them, they have an air of elegance and hospitality that is lacking to the
homes in most other cities.
New York, frcnn its jiosition as the commercial and financial centre of the
country, in spite of its situation on a long, narrow island, may be accepted as
190
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
the typical city. ■\Vlirit is done here architecturally is done (only to a differ-
ent degree) elsewliere, and its gi'owtli horizontally in the northern portion of
the city has kept pace with its perpendicular growth in the move congested
business portion. Tiiis general expansion has altogether changed the charac-
ter of many streets, the residences becoming apartment liouses, and the shops
becoming uttice buildings from ten to twenty stories, — or even more, — the
masses becoming larger and the detail proi)ortionately less i)r()minent.
The sky-line has entirely changed; tlie spire of Trinity is lost in such sur-
roundings as the ISowling (ireen, Empire. Washington Life, and American
Surety buildings, and in the vicinity where tlie Tril)une tower was once con-
spicuous, now the St. J'aul JJuilding rises twenty-hve stories, and the Ives
Syndicate liuilding iven higher ; further and further up Jiroadwaj', and to
the right and left of il, these monster buildings continue to rise. J'.ut among
them all there is not one which shows a more masterly handling of the pro-
blem than tlie Surety, wliere the architect, liruce J'rice, luis emphasized the
entrance with a colonnade and six figures of much dignity ami grace, and has
concentrated the ornament about the upper part of the building, crowning it
with a tine cornice, which is more effective from the simplicity of the fVmr
walls beneath. This building holds its own ai'iong such others ;is the AN'ash-
ington Life and St. James biuldings, New York, or the Ames Jiuilding, J Jos-
ton. Harrison Building, I'iiiladelphia, Schiller Theatre, (Chicago, 'Wainwright
1-Juilding, St. Louis, or Kxaminer Building, San Fr.uicisco.
It is iiM])ossible, in so brief a survey of the field, lo enumerate more than a
very small fraction of the buildings illustrating the jfogress of the architec-
ture of the century; and aside from the residences, i (lartments. and hotels
where we live winter ■ ..ummer, and commercial bu'ldings in which our
working hours may b(^ occui)ied, there are very many examples of churclies,
schools, colleges, liliraries, and museums, donated, equi])ped, and endowed for
our instruction, theatres and music halls for our entertainment, railroad sta-
tions for transjiortation, storage warehouses for the safety of valua))les, and
armories for the use of our militia.
Besides these, tiiere are engineering works of considerable iniOortance. such
as the Eads ]^>ridge. at St. Louis, or the Koebling 1 '.ridge, betwevMi New ^'ork
and Brooklyn, and the works of the sculptor St. (iaudens. the Washington
Arch by Stanford White, the Farragut and Lincoln statues in !.'ew ^'ork
and in Chicago, which should surely be mentioned, since mouumenta! works
are the poetry, whereas the secular and commercial works are but the prose
of architecture.
As we review our productions, we should certainly feel encouraged to be-
lieve that if we continue to meet and solve each i)roblem in the same direct,
honest way tli.it we iiave been doing for the last (juarter of the century, there
need be no misgivings as to tlie future of architecture in these United States.
AVlLLIAM .ALVKTIN AlKKN.
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY
TnK science of chemistry, as it is known to-day, had its real origin
towards the end of the eiyhteeuth century. Jiefore and up to that time it is
true there were many great workers in chemistry, whose names are associ-
ated with investigations in ciiemictd science, such as Boyle, Stahl, Black, and
Scheele. Contemporary with the close of the eighteenth century and tlie
beginning ot tlie nineter nth must also be mentioned particularly the names
of iriestly (IT.'J.'M 804), Cavendish and Humphry Davy (1778-1829). All
tliese workers had to contend, first of all, with erroneous theories, which
made it difficult to rightly interpret the data of experiment. The old
theory of i)hlogist()n i)roduced an environment in which it was difficult for
true scientific methods to survive. The great investigator, who did more
tlian any other one man to overturn this false theory and place chemistry
on a firm foundation, was Lavoisier (174.'>-17i)4). Born near the middle of
the eighteenth century, his scientific activity began about 1770, and before
he was twenty-Hv(^ he was made a member of the French Academy of
Sciences. At the age of forty he was recognized as the foremost scientist
of his age.
Priestly discovered oxygen in 1774, but failed to recognize its true rela-
tions to other bodies. It was Lavoisier who discovered oxidation (177G), an
achievement which meant more to chemistry than the discovery of oxygen.
The observation that metals wlien heated in confined air increased in weight
while the volume of the confined air decreased, is the crucial experiment
upon which the whole science of chemistry rests. This exjjeriment was
made most rigorously l)y Lavoisier, and the ajjparatus which he used is still
preserved in the iluseum of L'Kcole des Arts et ^fetiers in Paris. This
apitaratus, simple in characjter and yet almost perfect in construction, has for
the chemist a jjcculiar significance and sacredness, producing an impression
similar to that inspired in the devout CJiiristian by the relics of the Cross
and the Holy Seimlchre.
In the brief space which is assigned for a discussion of the progress of
chemistry during the nineteenth century, economy of W(n'ds will be secured
by briefly tracing some of the salient points in the progress of some of the
more imj)ortant branches of chemical science. In the following pages,
therefore, will be found a brief statement of what has b3en accomplished, of
the most important character, in the science of chemistry, under the follow-
ing heads : —
Inorganic chemistry ; physical chemistry ; organic chemistry ; analytical
chemistry ; synthetical f hemistry ; metallurgical chemistry ; agricultural
chemistry; graphic chemistry; didactic ciiemistry ; chemistry of fermen-
tation ; and lastly electro-chemistry.
No attempt will be made in this paper to enter upon the discussion of the
!
t
192
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
progress whii.-h has been made in medical, pharmacentieal, and physiological
chemistry. The discnission outlined under the above heads does not by
any means embrace the whole subject. Jt will be sutticiient to indicate only
the lines of jirogress along which the greatest advances have been made.
I. IXOKUAXIC AXI> I-IIVSHAI. ( llKMISTltV.
The three propositions established by Lavoisier, which serve as the foun-
dation for inorganic and jihysical
chemistry, arc the following: —
1. l>i)dies burn only in contact with
pure air.
L'. The air is consumed in the com-
bustion, and the increase in weight of
the burnt body is ecjual to the de-
crease in weight of the air.
.'5. In combustion the body is gen-
erally changed, by its combination
with the ])ure air, into an acid, and
metals are changed into metal calx.
The total nnndjer of elementary
bodies known at the l)eginning of the
contuiT was ]>robably less than thirty.
iVFany had been recognized as such
since remote antiquity, but none of
the non-metallic elements, except oxy-
gen and suli)hur, was known, ;ind even
their pro]ierties were not established
A^ f/f^/C^/^/i^ with any <legree of precision.
£^a • '*"*^ ""'^ '^'*^ Lavoisier establish
^C ^''^^^ ^ the fundamental principh-s of mud-
v ern chemistry, but in connection with
Fourcroy (It.V.- LS(H»), I'.erthollet
(174.S~1S22), and Guyton de :Morveau (17n7-lSl(>), laid the foundation of
modern chemical nomenclature.
The contributions to chemical knowledge at this time were greatly
increased by the works of the Swedish chemist, Scheele (174l.'-17<S(>), and
in the l)egiiining years of the century the great work which was accomjjlished
by Sir Ihiinpliry Uavy advanced ver_y rajiidly the general knowledge of
chemical science.
Davy's lirst works served to elucidate the connection between electricity
and chemical ]n'ocesses, .and it was thi'ough the classical experiment with
an elech'ic current that he isolated (1.S07) the metals sodium and potassium,
and described their pro]ierties.
This achievement of Sir Ifnm])hrv IXavy's was the second great stej) in
the ]<rogress of chemistry, after the on(! taken by Lavoisier. ISy means of
the metals sodium and ])otassium other metallic elements were separated,
notably aluminium by Wiihler ('LS4r)). IJasing his work ujion the above
exiieriment. Sainte Claire T>eville dovelo]ied the metallurgy of aluminium
(18u4), and Bussy isolated magnesium (ISJiO).
THE CENTURY'S I'lWaitESS IX cnEMfSTllY
193
In IHll iodine was diseovored Ity Cuiirtctis, and its juoiicrtitj.s exauiineil
Kinudtancously (iMli) hy Davy and (iay-Lussac.
Thu i.'uutrilmtions niatle by licrzelius (1771(-l!S4iS), wlio was a (Mintrniiio-
raiy of ])avy and (ray-Lussac (1778-l!S,")(t), were of tlie most important char-
aftt'i'. I'xM'/clius not only added to tlie knowled.ijie of inorganic cliemistry
l)ut also t'stahlislied many of the important theories on which eliemical
action depends. His elaboration of the emiiloyment of the Itlowpipe in
eliemical analysis was id' the greatest practical vabie.
In l<S(t7 Dalton published a work entitled -New System id' ClRMnical
I'hilosophy," in which was annonnced for the first time the law of the
definite pro])ortions of bodies fornung a definite ninoii. Tlit; atomic theory
of matter was also developed by J)alton. who gave it a diftiidte form and
expression, ('hemists now began to consider the elements as definite inde-
structible particles of matter, forming unions among themselves and with
different kitnls of atoms to form molecules, which were considered as the
units of substances. As a res\dt of this supiio.sition, the develojmient of the
])rincii)le of the relative weight with which bodies combine was the logical
conse((ueuce.
Now for the first tinn; the eltMiients began to assume not t)idy names and
descrijjtions of properties but also numbers, showing the ndative weight of
theii' atoms or final conditions of existence. It was only necessary, there-
fore, to assume the standard of comparison for any one element, in ordev to
determine the relative weights with which it combined with others. Thus
the system of atonnc weights was develo])ed.
As a result of the law of chemical action, i;hat most elementary bodies
exist in a condition where two atoms are joined together to form a molecule,
it follows, that in most instances the molecular weights of the elements are
«louble their atomic weight. There are, however, many notable exceptions
to this ride.
The supposition of the existence of atoms was followed soon by another
theoretical proposition, advanced by Front (181i")). Assuming that the
atomic weight of hydrogen was one, I'rout's hypothesis asserted that the
atomic weights of all other elementary bodies were multiples of that of
hy<lrogen. The most rigid investigations of recent years have shown that
Trout's hy])othesis is untenable ; but the remarkable fact still remains, that
in a great many cases the atomic weights of the elements are almost whole
nundiers, or differ from whole numbers by almost a lialf unit.
The determination of the atomic weights of the various elements during
the past one hundred years has been worked on by hundreds of chemists
whose names it woidd be impracticable to mention. The most im])ortant of
them are Herzelius, Cooke, Cleve, Delaf ontai ne, J)unias. Hermann, Marchand,
^larignac (1817), Morley, Noyes, Pelouse (1807-18(17), Richards, Schneider,
Stas (18i;5-18!)l), and Thompson. Of all these workers Stas, a Belgian
chemist, is jierhaps the most renowned. Among those mentioned, Cooke,
Morley, Noyes, Helafontaine, and Eichards are citizens of the United
States.
From the less than thirty elements which were knoAvn at the beginning of
the century, there are known to-day seventy -two with certainty, and perhajjs
one or two more whose identity has not yet been fully established. The
104
thwmi'Hs and wundehs uf the xix"' century
clu'iuists wlu) have become most renowned by tlie lUscovery of elementary
bodies are: Cavendish, Scheele, Herzelius. Wiililer (l.SdO-lJskl,'), Davy, Gay-
Luysae, I'riestly, Hnnseii (b. 1X11), Crookes (b. J><.'!1,'), and liamsay.
The following elements, twenty -eight in number, were known before 1800 :
KLKMKXTS KNOWN HKKOKK 180(1.
8.
n.
.Kniiwii III Aiii'irMl>
I ii|i|iii-....
(i<ilil
Iniii
lA'iia
Silver
Tin
('arl)oii, . . .
(Iliit liiri'i
ISOd.)
Mniiiiv. . .
AmiIiiiiimv..
HiMiiulli ■'
Ziiif •'
I'lHisplinriis Kidil
ArM'HU' (iMilati'(l) HiiiT
iStiulifd) 17;i;t
liii'iiiK mil idt'iitilit'il iiiilil ITSli-
Kiiiiwii III Aiic-iwiis.
I'll'li I'Mlll I'rliUirv.
Kl.KMl'NTS KNOWN HKKOKK 18(10.
14
Ciiliilll
I7.t;i
1.5.
111.
I'liilliiiiin. . .
Nirkrl...
llvilriij;fii. .
. . . i7;i.->
-1748
1751
17.
1711(1
18.
Niti'ii(;i'ii.. . .
1772
Ifl
1774
1774
1774
20.
•>l
MllllfJIMlCSC
isiiliiliil Hi
(Sliiilicil
IlllkMiiWII
In >'iiiii
iliiti') .
llllllllls,
2rf.
TiilitJ^tiii . .
1781
-)78.'>
«;t,
^Iiilvliili'iiiin
1782
•}\
. . . 178-J
171)8
'ftt
.Sirontintn. , .
J7!I0
•>(i
Yitriniii . . . .
17(14
•?'
('Iiniiniiiin .
Ucrvllium . .
17(17
VH
171(8
Four additional elements were known to e.xist before that date, but they had
not been isolated and identified. These are : —
ELEMENTS KNOWN BIT NOT ISOLATED ol! EXAMINED UEI'OKE 1800.
„, , . ( ComiKiiiiiil kn.iwii.
Clilonne ] , , \ , ■ . i-
f Isiilnti'il and i-lniini
Tiliiniiiin
Uraninni
Zirc<|niinii ....
1774
181(>
( Known in i i|i(iiiniU 1701
( Ixilateil 1824
( Knnwn in i nni|Minnils 178!)
/ Is(,lalc(l 1824
( Known in cnniponnils 1780
I Isolated 1821
Tlie following elements, forty-nine in number, have been discovered .since
ISOO: —
ELEMENTS DISCOVERED SINCE 1800.
ELEMENTS
DISCOVERED SINCE 18(H).
1. Nioliiuni 1801
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Ifi.
17.
18.
19.
Sodium. . .
1807
2. Vaninliuni . 1801
'"aleium
. . 1808
3. Tanlalnni. Sluilicd almnt . ]802-]80;i
(Not yet isolated.)
4. Cerjnni 1803
5. Iridinin 180;t
Horon
Silieou
1808
... 1810
Iodine ... .
Cfldmiuvi
1812
. . 1817
6. Osminm ISOJi
1817
7. Palladium ISO.'J
.Selenium
1817
8. Khodinin ISO.'i
1826
9. Totassinm 1807
Aluminium
1827
THE CENTURY'S I'ltOGIlESS IN CHEMISTRY
li)5
. i7;iri-i748
.... 1751
. . . . 17(»i
.... 1772
. ... 1774
iuIk,
. ... 1774
. ... 1774
.17«1-17S.'>
. . . . 1782
. 17Hd 171t8
J7!«»
. ... 17H4
.... 17!I7
. . . . 17U»
KLKMENTS IHSCOVKUKD .SINCK 18(Kl.
J(i. Tliiiriiim 1828
■Jl. ItiitlicMiiini 1828-I84.'(
■ii. .MiiK"<'^ii""> l**'"'
■J-l. I.iiiitlianiim 18;)!t
■-'4. TiTliiiiiii. .Stiulii'il alxiiit I8.')!t
(Xiit yi't isolatcil.)
I'.'i. Krliiinii ]84;i
;.'ii. NccKlviiiiiiiM I84;i
■J". I'riiscoilviiiliiin 184^1
■M. Itiiliiillimi 18(iO
•J'.i. Omiimi 18tiO
:iil. riiHlliuin 18(il
■II. IllllilMII ISIIIi
:)•-'. (iailiiiiii 187.-)
II'). I)fci|iimii.(Naim'f;ivt'ii ill 1878lii iiii.\-
turc iif Saiiiai'iiiiii and Dccipiiini.)
Iv.iatfil 1878
M. YitcTliiiiiii 1878
;i.'i. Tlniliiiiii . ( Xaiiif civi'ii by ( 'Ipvc in 187!l
tiiaiiK'lal lit (iadoliiiit)'. lias not vet
KLKMKNT.S m.SCOVKHKl) SINCK 181)0.
aii.
lu'i'ii i»olat('(l, ami t'lciiiiiitai'y nature
is (lispiltl'll.)
.Sraniliiiin. Kiioivn since 187U
(Nut yul ixilatcil.i
(■crinaniiini. . 1885
Sainariiini. (.\ naiiii' frivcii to a nii'tal
fciiiiid in (iaili<liiiiti'. Klriiicnlan' na-
ture very iloulill'iil.)
lliiliniiiiii. (Not yet iMilatcil.j
Ai'Udii 1805
llfliuin ■ .. 18!M!
Mi'tartion 181)8
Kiyptnii 18118
Xoiili 18!t8
l'i)lip|iiiini 18!)8
( 'oriiliiiini I8!)8
Xoiioil 18il8
Moniuni I8!t8
Ktlicridii (?) I8II8
(iaddliiiiiini (?) 188,')
l.'iidiuin (?) 181)8
The date in each ca.se i,s that of the discovery. Nnmber.s 49, HO, and 51 are
not yet sutticiently well known to justify being con.sideied elements, and are
therefore properly followed by an interrogation point.
1774
18U>
17i)l
1.S24
178!)
1824
178!)
1824
1807
1808
181)8
1810
1812
1817
1817
1817
1826
1827
IT. I'HYSK AI. CHEMISTKV.
In strictly physical chemistry the relations of electricity and heat to
chemical action have been extensively developed during the century. The
specific heats of the elements and of most of their compounds have been
carefully determined, and thermo and i)h3sical chemistry under the leader-
ship of such master minds as lierthollet, Thompson, Van't Hoff, and Ostwald
have been brought to the highest degree of perfection.
The chemist now does not consider that he knows any body until he knows
thoroughly its relations to heat and to electricity. The action of light must
also be included, but this subject will be more thoroughly discussed under
graphic chemistry.
The nature of solutions has also been develojied by the studies of Ost-
wald and Van't Hoff, and as a result of these studies, a flood of light has
been thrown upon the constitution of compound bodies.
In the development of physical chemistry, attention should be directed
to the help afforded by Newlands (18()4) and Mendelejeff (18G9) and others,
showing that the elements form groups which tend to recur with a periodi-
city which i^ sutticiently definite to enable the investigator to foretell to
some extent the properties of the elements which have never yet been dis-
covered, and whose existence is necessary in order to fill up the gaps in exist-
ing groups.
I5y this method the existence, atomic weight and properties of scandium,
gallium, and germanium were foretold years before their discovery. Such
actual realization of a scientific-prophetic method is one of the strongest
IMi
THiUMriis AM) n'uM>i:i{s or thk xix"' cEsrciiY
iiidiciitioiis of tlif liiisis ol liu-t upon wliicli it rests, Althniigli ii ri;,'i(l ii|t|ili-
cation ol' tlif |»rinfiiiU's of tlic [MMiotlic law is not possildi'. yet its discovfiT
and claboriition mark ont- of tlic ^jri'at forward sti-ps id' clit'niical pliilosopliy.
If \vf ifj,'ard any material system hy itself, i.e., independentl\ of any
otlier system or iiiHuenee l)y w liicli it may lie surrounded, we it'eoj,'ni/e it
as eonsistinj; cd' essentially two tliinj,'s, — matter and ener^jy. A preeix'
definition of either matter or eneij,'y is dittieuU, if not impossible ; Imt
what is connoted Ity these names is suHieiently well understood liy their
well-known properties. Hoth ener}.jy and matter are essential to each and
every sysieni. 'I'hey are coexistent, in the li^dit of iiuman experience, we
cannot conceive of one existin;,' witliout the other; and in the study (d any
material system, consideration of one (d' these components without the other
can only he rej^arded as iiu-omplete. liut, for the sake of convenien(H', this
lias ln'cn the |iractice. and. }.'enerally sp'-akin;/. chemists have concerned them-
selves with matter chanj^es (d' ecpiilihria, w hih' jdiysicists have more espe-
cially directed their attentifui to enerj,'y e(piiliiiria. The object of the jiliysical
cliendst is to I'ollow e(|uilil>ria (diaui,M's in j,'iven systems. Iia\ in^ dm- rei^ard
for liotli the matter ami enerjiy invidvcd.
ISerthollet may he i'e<,'arded as the tirst true jihysical chemist, on aci'onnt
of his classical views on mass .action. !>:ii';4ely liecause the time was not ripe
for it. his views were not j,'enerally ado)/ted.
A (piarter of a century later (ISO"), (iiddherjj and Waaj^e <;ave a jtrecise
mathematical expression of the law, but still it attracted very little attention
from investigators. A tremendous impetus was fjfiven to the subject iiy the
electridytie dissociation theory of Arrheuiiis (l<ScS7). and the extension td'
the additive laws of <;ases to dilute .solutions, hy N'an't llotT (l.V.S.">). This
was but a comparatively small held ii- the subject, but it stiniulated activit}-
alon}.; the whole line, the womlerful incr; ase of oiir knowled|,'e concerning the
velocity or rates of reaction, the heat changes involved, and the marvidous
development of electrolytic chemistry being pertinent instancies.
The generalization of (Jibbs, known as the jdiase rule (l.S7(»). whicli accu-
rately states the condition for eijuilibrium in the system, and tlu^ Theorem id'
Le C'hatelier (1.SS4). that any change in the factors of equilibrium from out-
s'de is followed by a reverse change within the system, together with the
iua.ss law. now give \is a consistent theoretical foundation for the subject. In
general terms, it may lie said that all chemistry, at least all theoretical chem-
istry, jiroperly bidongs to the jirovince of ])hysical chemistry, and the title,
while in many ways convenient, is misleading.
III. OIMJAXFC CilKMlSTItV.
Compounds containing carbon enter into all the products of a living
cell. For this reason the chemistry of carbon comi)ounds came to be kt.own
as organic chemistry. This shoidd not be taken as a detinition, however,
witho it limitations. Many of the compounds containing carbon are not
known to enter into living tissue in any way, and their connection with
it is very remote and not essential. On the other hand, it should be
remembered that many organic comiiounds, and those even of most impor-
tance, contain some other element, — nitiogen, for example, — as the siynifi-
cant one.
/.')•
THE VKNTUltYS riWaitESS IN CUF.MISTIIY
19T
iliscovci'v
liildsopliy.
1\ of iiiiv
(•ti^,'iii/.»' it
\ |(i't'ci.se
lililf: liiit
I li.v tlifir
iMi'li and
rii'iiff, \\v
i<ly dl' iiiiv
tlif otiicr
ii'iicc, this
iicd tlu'iii-
iKirc es|M'-
f pliysiciil
liic rcf,Mi(l
>ii aci'iiiiiit
IS not ii|if
I ]iri'cis('
■ attcntiiin
jpct ijy tlif
t<'nsi()ii (if
«."■.). This
I'd activity
■crninj,' the
marvelous
hicli accu-
'iworeni of
froni oMt-
!■ with tlie
ihject. In
tieal ehem-
[ the title.
I a livin<:[
be k:-o\vn
, however,
Jii are not
L'tion \\ ith
should lie
ost iin|i(ir-
;lie signifi-
Wliile nearly all the known elements ciin enter into <ir^'anie eompounds,
the vast iiiajtirity of such sidistaiu'cs are c(im|ioHed of Imt very few. Kor
instance, those classes of whicii suK'ar, starch, tiic fats, etc., are examjilcs,
contain only i-arlion. oxygen, ami hydio.ucn. With nitrogen, sidphur, and
|iiios|ihonis aiiilcd to tlicse elements, almost the «'ntire ran^e of organic
chemist ly is covered. ( (rpiiiic clicm-
istry. tlicit'forc, differs from inor-
jjanii^ chemistry in that, while tiie
immiiend' c<imiionnds is \\\\w.\\ larj^cr,
the numlier of elciucnts involved is
very limited.
lier/elins may lie re;,'ai'ded as hav-
ing' founded or^'Midc cliemistry in the
lie},'innin^' of this century. As a
result of his analyse.s of the salts
of organic acids, he (dearly demon-
strated that tlie laws of detinite and
mnltiple iir(i]i(irti(ins Indd eijually for
oij;aine comiiouuds and for inoi\i,'ani(^
ones. Tile work of this niiister was
ably furthered by Liebii; (1S0.'!-1S7;]),
who devised most ele|,'aiit nictliods
for the analytical invcstijiation of
organic eomjiounds. metliods which
are in us(^ to-day without any essen-
tial (dianye.
Very soon, liowever. it was found
that (irifanie oomiiounds existed hav-
in5,'lhe same jiereentage comiiosition. but (juite dissimilar jiroperties, ]ihysi(«iil
and (diemieal, as. for instance, sujjar and st.arch. < Jther strikin;:: exanijiles
are I'araday's discovery (ISli'i) of a compound identical in comiiosition with
ethylene, but wdiolly different in ]U'opcrties ; and \Vo]iler"s classical synthesis
( LSIVS) of urea by the transformation of annuonium cyanate. Similar fa(!ts in
the domain cf iuorganie chemistry, thoujjh now well known, were at that
tiiufi wantiui,', and thus this most fruitful ideti, designated as isomerism, was
introduced into the science.
The next great step was the introduction of the theory of r.idicles. first
suggested tentatively by Berzelius (1S1(»), but ]mt forward in a definite way
as one of the results of the classical investigation on benzoyl Viy Liebig
and Wiilder (liS;^!.')- That is to say. a grou]i of elements, or radicle, can
pass through a series of compounds, from one to the other, as though the
grouji were one single (dement. For years this idea was tlie guiding jirin-
ciple in chemical investigations, and was most useful in aiding the classifica-
tion of chemical compounds and bringing order out of the chaos of accumu-
lating observations.
liut the search for radicles was in a sense a vain one. We now know that
no radicle exists as such by itself. Meanwhile, Dumas and his pupil Laurent
had introduced and developed the theory of tyjies, whereby all chemical com-
jiounds could be classified under four types, which marked a distinct step in
MI( IIAKI, KAIIAIIAY.
19H
TIlir.MrilS A Mi UoMiKtiS OF TIIK XtX'" VESTUnV
iidviiiK't'. LiiiiH'iii, t(»Kt'tlK'r with liis i'mIIi'iij,mi»' Worliiirdt (IMl«}-l.Hr»«W, r»'ei»K-
iii/i'il tilt' sli()itc(Hiiiiii,'s 1(1 iMitli till' lailii-lf ami typr tlu'iirii's in tlirir ciirliiT
torins. mill sIiuwimI tlicii- iiiti'i-ivlaliuii, wlu-n iiiuililifil su as to ilo away with
('»»rtaiii iiii'(iiif*iHtt'iii!i»'w.
Dimias hail liclnri' fhih (h-mnnstrati'il the tlu'iny iit' sultstitutioii (IM.'U), —
that i.s, that iii riMtaiti ri>iii|iiiiiiiils inii' or luiu't' nl tlif rii'iiifiils can In- ilrivi>n
out and n-iilaifd l>y otlifrs without fhauKiuK' thf cssi-ntial characti'iistits of
the i'oin|iounil. For iustani'i', ihlorarctii- acid, in which part of the hydroj,'cn
of acetic acid has hccn replaced hy chlorine, contains all the essential charac-
teristics of uoetic acid; in liiet. some of them — its acidic propertiis. for
i'.\ample — Itciiii,' inarkcilly accentuated. This theory wa.> fiercely assailed at
first, notidily hy Licliii,'. iiike all theories of science, it was in the l)ej;innin,i{
jiusiieil to the extreiue. and put forward to explain tliint,'s to which it was
not a]iplicaliU'. It ;,'radually came to demonstrate its own ri>,dit to exist-
ence, hirjjely as a result of the work of Laurent and (ierhardt. and made its
intlui'uce felt in the exposith)ii id' their iih-as. to whidi reference has just
been made.
Tlu' development of these tlipories, alioiit the middle of the century, was
greatly hastened liy the work of many hrilliant invest i;,'atirs, notalily W'urtz
(I.SI7I1.HS4). Hofmann ( INIS-JMH'). \Vi lianison (ISIM-). Kollic (ISIS-lSM).
ami Kranklanil dSL',")-) amnuj,' others.
Kekidi' proposed a new type, marsh j^as or methane. Shortly afterwards,
his wcli-known iurmula for benzene, the startin;.,'-point and loiindation of the
vast class of aromatic bodies, was proposed. He insisted tliat the time had
come when chemists must ask what those ultimate particles, or atoms, of the
elements themselves were doinj; in these compounds of various types. The
answer was a grand one. aiul the result, our magnificent store of inlormation
concerning the niiisflfufion of orgaiuc compounds, or the way in which the
atoms are connected with each otln.'r. It is not to be infened liiat our know-
ledge on this subject, in any one ease, is complete. I*"ar from it I Miieh that
is most interesting and important is apparently as remote from our grasp as
ever. Ih'.t we do know sonu'thing about the general relations of tiie atoms
in the molecule, and our knowledge, so far as it goes, is definite and
precise.
Somewhat later, Van't HofY and Lebel, at the same time but indeiien-
dently. introduced the study of tlie space relations of organic comjmuiids by
suggesting the sim]ilest ]iossible space formula .(the tetrahedron) for nuirsh
gas or methane, of which all other organic compounds may, theoretically at
least, be regarded as derivatives. Many inexplicable relations, especially
among isomers, now became (dear. The theory' was at first bitterly as-
sailed, esi)ecially liy Kolbe. It found an able champion in Wislicenus
(1,s;'„S-). however, and has so thoroughly established itself, tnat it may be
safely said that at the present day it is the controlling idea in the large
majority of ovganie investigations.
Tlie carlxm atom is cliaracterized by a wonderful facility in uniting not
only with other (dements, but with it.self. It would even ajjjiear as though
its influeiiee in this regard extended to other eleiuents united with it, as nitro-
geu, for instance, shows an unexjiected ability to unite with nitrogen in
organic compounds.
riiK CKiWrinys pnoanKss is cuKMisrur
IW
Furthir, tin- ciirlx)!! iitoiii is cliiinirtcri/cd by mi imusually coiistiiiit vuIi-ik!)',
iiaiMt'ly, lour. TIicmu two cliariuttcriMtit .s iu'cunnt. tor hoiiuiloK.Vi tliiit is, tor
a Ht'i'ics ut' similar coinpomKlH ilitlfrin^ iit coiupoHitinii one trmii tho otliiT \>y
— Clltf, and I'lialilcM us to tiacit liack all organic coiniioumis to om- niotiit'i*
Hulistaiu'c — nuir.sh i^im or nn'tlianc.
Tlieso iiluaN liavw also bt-en inorii or h'Ns Hiicot'SHt'iill.v apiilif-il to tin' Htudy
of tht> (■oni|iosition of inorganic conipoumls. 'riic assistanuf orKiinii; ulicniis-
try lias ^jivcn to tlio gciifral siibjcct is iucalculabli'. Finally, it uuiy In- .said,
that wliiltf in tliw natiu'«> of the caHu our idoas of strui-turo in or^janic; coni-
])ounds cannot be rc^jardt'd as proved, or as not subj"i't to i>ossililt' future
inoditicatious, we liavi', at least, a (ionsisteut theory and good working liypo-
tliesis. A homely illustration of our i)resent ideas may bo drawn from tlif
modern high city bnililing. The skeleton of this building is math' of iron,
about which are groiipi'd the brick, 'tone, wood, and other materials to fiuni a
eomplete building. So the orgauin body is built on a chain or frame-work or
skeleton of carbon atoms, about which are grouped the atoms of hydrogen,
oxygc'U, and nitrogen, or radicle compoumls thereof.
It is not possible here to even name some of the more eminent workers
who for a ipiarter of a century have contributed to our knowh'ilge of organic
chemistry. 'I'liis branch of chemistry has betni the vogue, and has been
j)ushed almost to tin- limit of possibility sIikm' IS"'*. Many almost unexplored
fields still remain, but chemists recogni/e the fact th.at in theory and practice
(Mganic chemistry has reached a high degree of perfe(!tiou, and th.'y are
returning to continue the researches in other fields which liave for so long
been almost neglected.
IV, AVALVriCAl, eilKMISTRV.
No branch of chemical s('ience has a more general interest for the ]>ublic
than that which relates to the determination of the materials of which bodies
are composed, anil the proportions in which they e.xist.
At the beginning of the century considerable, progress had been made in
this branch of knowledge by the researches of lioyle (Ki'Jti-KI'.tl ). Hoffmann,
Margraif (17<i;>-17S()), Scheele and iiergmann (17.'!r»-17.S4). Iter/elius, as has
already been mentioned, had added a new and valuable factor to chemical
an'alysis by the development of the blowpipe, and in the early part of the
century miiioral analysis was still further advanced by Klaproth (1748-1817),
liose (171>H-l.S7;i), and many others.
No one man did so much to advance this branch of chemical science as
Fresenius (1S1S-1S<)7). He collated and ju'oved dl the jn-ojiosed methods
of analysis, both. qualitative and quantitative, and out of a confused mass of
material formed a logical system of procedure, which has proved invahuible
to tilt! ])rogr(!Ss of chemical science in all its branches.
The volumetric methods of analysis, whicli save so miu'li time and labor
without sacrificing accuracy, were developed by Gay-Lussa<', Vautjuelin
(17();{-1H7'.»), .Mohr (1S(»( 5-1 879), Vol hard, Sutton, Fehling, and Liebig.
The methods of gas analysis have been worked out chiefly bj- liunsen, ablj'
assisted by Winkler and Hempel.
The methods of determining the elementary bodies in organic conqjounds
have been developed by Duniiis, Liebig. Will, Varrentrap, and Kjeldahl, to the
200 ritlUMPHS AND WOSDERS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY
last of whom chemiiiiil analysis (jwes a debt of Ki'ntitiulo for tlie invention of
a siieedy and accurate niothod of determining nitrogen.
Not imieli less is the debt due to Gooeh for tlie invention of the jierforated
. itinum crucible, carrying an asliestos felt for securing precipitates by filtra-
tion, in a form suitable to ignition without fnrtlier jjreparation.
'I'hrougli tlie classic researches of Arago (17.S()-1 «'»;{; and liiot (1774-1801'),
polarized light has been made a most
valuable adjunct to chemi(;al rescarcii,
serving as it does to measure the quan-
tity of various alkaloids, essential oils,
and sugars.
Based on those researches of I>iot
and Arago. A'entzke. Soleil. Scheilder,
Duboscij. Landolt. and Lippicii have
constriicted apparatus, which have made
an exa< t scit'uce of (pjjtical saceharime-
try. < )j)tical analysis is not witiiout it.s
relation to theoretical clu'niistry. for
by it has been ])roved the assiimiition
that ojitically active bodies contain an
asymnu'trical carbon atom. — that is,
one which cond)ines witli four different
atoms or radicles.
Klectricity has become idso one of
the most useful factors in chemical ana-
lysis. Many metals are easily depos-
ited by electrolytic action, and tiieir separation and determination rendered
easy and certain.
Chemical analysis has not only given us accurate knowledge of the consti-
tuents of matter, but by revealing the dei)ortmeiit of molecules and groups
of molecules in inorganic and organic com])ounds. has opened up a jjath for
organic and .synthetic chemistry which otherwise must have remained forever
closed.
The discovery and develojniient of spectrum analysis is one of the great
achievements of the nineteenth century in chemical science.
"Wollastcm, in 18v*L', first noticed that the spectrum of the sun's light, when
greatly magnified, was not composed of colors gradually changing from one to
the other, but that the continuity of the colors was interrupted by dark bands.
Frannhofer, in 1814, had made a nuq) of the solar spectrum, showing r>7<> of
these dark lines. Fraunhofer was entirely ignorant of the cause of these dark
lines, but when he had found them, not only in the light from the sun, but
also from the moon and the fixed stars, he jjroperly concluded tliat they were
due to something I'litirely independent of the earth.
It remained for ]?unsen and Kirchoff, in 18()0, to point out tiie fact that
these dark lines were charn^teristic of certain chemical elements existing in
the sun and its photosphere, and this fact is tiie foundation of s])ectrum ana-
lysis. The broad black band in the sun's spectrum, called by Fraunhofer U,
corres])ondeil exactly ni jiositiou and in width with the yellow band ]iroduced
by a flame containing incandescent sodium. There was no doubt whatever,
WIMJAM CROOKES, F. K. S.
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY
201
therefore, tliat the two phenomena were due to the same cause ; but why in
tht! one case shouUl the band be bhick and in the other veHow '.' This (|ues-
tion Avas answered by the diseoverv of tlie fact that a ray of light colored by
incandescent sodium, ])assing throiigh a luminous atmosi)here of the same
metal, would lose by absorption all of its yellow color, and would display a
black bund where before the yellow color existed.
Based >ipon this observation, the developuunit of spectrum analysis went
forward with amazing rapidity. The hundreds of lines in ^he sun's spectrum
were found to occupy exactly the position of luminous lines in tiie spectra of
various metals, and tlnis it was possible for the chemist to extend his investi-
gations beyoiul the limits of the earth, and distinguish the chemical elements
in the sun and in the fixed stars billions of miles farther away froin us than the
sun itself, rdcstial rhemistry has thus beconu^ a fixed and definite science.
liut the value of sjiectral examinations has extended still farther. ^lany
luminous lines were observed in the spectrum which were not found in the
spectra of any known element. The inference tlieu logically arose that tlu're
were elements yet undiscovered to which these lines were due. From this
starting point investigations jjroceedcd which have led to the discovery of a
large number of elementary i)odies. .\mong the important elements that Irive
been discovered by means of spectrum analysis may be menticjued : ciesium,
rubidium, thalliiun, indium, gallium, ytterbium, and scandium.
Spectrum analysis is als(t extremely useful in proving the verity of sup-
posed new elements ; for if a supposed new element should be found to give
a series of spectral lines coincident with those alreadj' known, it would be a
positive jiroof of the fact that the supjiosed new element was but a mixture
of bodies already known to exist.
V. SVXTHKTICAL CHEMISTKV.
This branch of chemical science has for its object the building up of the
more complex fvuu the simpler forms of matter. In the early part of the
century, C'tievreul and Wiihler laid the foundation of the science by the syn-
thesis of fatty-like bodies and urea. J?erthellot and Friedel (1S;?L'-) in France,
and Williamson and Frankland in England, added much to our knowledge.
Kolbe. in Germany, made salicylic acid so abundantly as to banish the
natural article from the market. The synthesis of coloring matters resem-
bling indigo was also a great blow to that industry. From the products of
the distillation of coal, chemists were able to make thousands of valuable
bodies of the greatest utility. Many medicinal substances and nearly all the
common dyes trace their origin to coal.
Fischer (b. I.S.jL'), in (Jermany. has contributed his remarkable restilts in
the synthesis of sugar to the last years of the century. Lillienfeld, in
Austria, has gone still further, and has built u]) a body which has many of
the lu'operties of jirotein. one of the most highly orgaidzed of organic sub-
stances.
In the inorganic world syntiiesis is not so difficult a matter as the vast
number of compounds attest. Hy nu'ans of the electric furrace, ]\Ioissan, in
France, has succeeded in uniting carbon with numy of the metallic elements,
and thus opened the i)ath for new achievements in passing directly from inor-
ganic to organic com])ouu(ls.
20'J
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
The progress of chemical synthesis lias already blotted out the old distinc-
tion between inortranie and orj;anie chemistry, and we ean no longer say of
organic bodies that tlieyare the products of living cells. Organic bodies are
those which contain a carbon or other elementary skeleton, to which are at-
tached the elements or groups of ele-
ments forming the complete body.
The claim wiiich has been made that
synthetical eliemistry would in the near
future ]i"<)(luee the food of nuin, and
thus relegate agriculture to the domain
of the useless or forgotten arts, is, liow-
ever. wholly without scientific founda-
tion. The function of the farmer will
not be usurped by the chemist. The
future will see the most im])ortaut con-
tributions t(i chemistry coming from the
field of orgiiuic chemistry, but it will
also see the furnun' following in the fur-
row, and man depending for his food on
the fields of wavius^ L'raiu.
<\\\. ni'.NiiY ni;ssEMi;n.
VI. MKi Ai.i.ii;(;n Ai, < iikmistuv.
This is the oldest l)ranch of chemical
science, and naturally the one which
was furthest advanced at the beginning of the century. Xevertheless, the
advances which the past one hundred years have seen in this science are
most surprising, (iold and silver are now secured from ores so poor as to
have rendered them of no value a hundred years ago. The Uessi-nuM' jjrocess
of steel making (IS't*)) has revolutionized the world, and made possible rail-
roads and steamships. The basic Bessemer process of making steel from
])i^!,;-iron rich in i)hosph<u'US, has opened up rich mines of iron ore hitherto
valueless. The basic jdiosphatic slag, resulting from this process, is of the
highest value in the fields, and has brought agriculture and metallurgy into
intimate relationshi]). The electric furnace has made aluminium ahuost as
cheap as iron, bulk for bulk, and electric welding bids fair to take the place
of the old process, with the cheapening of raetals.
VII. .MiHIcrr.TlKAI, CIII'.MISTKV.
Sir Humphry Davy, in the beginning of the century, delivered a course
of lectures on the relations of chemistry to tigricnlture, an<l these were pub-
lished in book form. In France, important coiitributious tvere made to
agricultural clieuiical science by Vaaquelin, Chevreul (17S(>-],SS'.)), and Bous-
singault (l.S(>l'-1,SS7), who made im])ortant researches before the middle of
the cciitmy. The most important work in agricultural chemistry, however,
was (loiu\ by Liebig. llis achievements so overshadowed those of his pre-
decessors that he is jfeuerally regarded, although Mii])ro]ierly, as the father
of that branch of the science.
The early achievements of these workers sliowetl the relatively small jior-
tions of the crops that were derived from the soil. The study of the ash
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY
203
constituents of plants laid the foundation of rational fertilizing, and the
utilization of the stores of jjlant food ]>reserved in great natural deposits.
Heginning with the middle of the century, the attention of agronomists
was called to the desiralnlity of utilizing the deposits of guano, found in the
islands along the west coaat of South Anrn'ica; of the deposits of phosphate
rock existing in many localities ; and later, of the potash salts, discovered
near Stassfurt, which coniideted the trio of available natural foods most
useful to plants.
The establishment of an agricultural ex])eriment station by Sir John Lawes
at Hothamstead (1<S.'54), before the middle of the century, set an example
wliich has been followed by the establishment of experiment stations in all
tiie civilized countries of the world.
Under the great stinndus given to agricultural research by these stations,
progress during the latter half of the century has been verj- rapid. There
now exist in Europe nearly one hundred stations devoted to agricultural
research, and in this coiuitry the number is half as great.
CJonspicuous achievements, marking the closing years of the century, have
been the discovery of the methods whereby organic nitrogen is rendered
suitable for plant food, and a.tmosi)lieric nitrogen fixed and rendered avail-
able by leguminous ])la.nts. In the first instance, it has been estal)lished that
organic nitrogen in the soil can only be utilized by plants after it has been
oxidized by bacterial action. In the case of leguminous plants, nitrogen is
rendered available for nutrition by means of bactei'ia inhabiting nodules iu
the roots of the legumes. These two great discoveries have proved of incal-
cidable benefit to practical agricidture. Chemical science in its relations to
agriculture has shown that the fertil-
ity of the soil may be consented and
increased, while the magnitude of the
crops harvested is sustained or aug-
mented. Thus, no matte]' how rapid
may l)e the increase of ])opulation, agri-
cultural t'hemistry will provide abun-
dant food.
VIII. liUAIMIIC criKMISTItV.
The honor of discovoring that prints
could be made by the action of light on
certain salts, such as those of silver,
belongs to Daguerre, in 1839.
The fundamental princijtle of graphic
chemistry is that metallic .salts, sensi- ■
tive to the light, when in contact with
organic matter, suffer a comi)lete or
partial reduction and are rendered in-
soluble. The intensity of the reduc-
tion is measured exactly by tiu^ intensity
reflected from any object capable of ])ro(bicii
as from the hair and face of a man, the reduction of the metal is greatest
by the light from that jiortion of the ]ihysiognomy which gives the greatest
i.ocis ,iA('(jri:s DAciCKituii.
of the liglit. Wlien light is
; diri'erent degrees of inteiisitv.
201 TRIUMPHS AND WOSDEliS OF THE XIX'" CESTURY
reHection. Tlius, when the luireduced niftiillie salt is waslied out, a perma-
nent record, the ney:ativ(', of the object i.« left.
It is a lon^ stej) from the first daguerreotype to the modern photograph,
but the principle of the process has remained unchanged.
Photographs in natural colors have of late years been tibtained. One
method is by interposing a film of metallic mercury behind t\w sensitive
jilate whidi must be transparent. The reflected rays of light, having differ-
ent wave lengths, precij)itate the metal in superimjiosed films, (torresponding
to the wave or half-wave length. When a negativi- thus formed is seen by
reflected light, the emergent rays from the superimposed films acting as
mirrors are transformed into the original colors of the pliotograjjlu'd object.
The various methods of printing by heliotyj)es, ])hotolithograi)hs, photo-
gravures, etc., are illustrations of the aiiplication of grajihic chemistry to the
arts.
IX. J)II)A(TI(' < IIKMISTKY.
The lectures of Davy and Faraday in England, of Wiihler and Liebig in
(Jeiniany, of (!hevreul and Dumas in Francic, and of Silliman (177'.(-liS(!4)
in this country, made the study of chemistry attractive and easy during the
early ])art of the century.
It was noticed, however, that the students who finished these ccmrses,
while well versed in the principles of the science, wei'c not able to apply
them in practice. Towards the middle of the century, therefore, a radical
change in the system of instruction was inaugurated. The stiulent ^\as put to
work and taught to <pu'stion nature for himself. Tlie universities of France
and Germany were eqi'.ip])ed with \V(jrking ilesks where students of chemistry
]iut into practice at onc^e the principles of the science which they heard eluci-
dated in the lecture room. Cooke, at Harvard. Avas the chief apostle of the
laboratory method in this country, and this method of instruction has now
sjiread. until even the high and grammar schools luive their chemical labora-
tories.
In our universities, students may now begin their chemical studies asso-
ciated with laboratory ])ractice in the first year of their course, and continue
it to the end. Graduates of such courses are not only grounded in the
theories of chemistry, but are thoroughly familiar with its practice. Under
this system, coupled with the demand for chenucal services in every branch
of industry, the number of trained chemisls has s])eedily increased. .\t this
time (IS'.Kt) there are more than four thousand trained chemists in the I'nited
States.
X. eilKMISTKY OF Kr.itMK.NTATIoV.
< hir knowledge of feriuentation and bacterial action is ])ractically all com-
j)ris(-d in the achievements of the nineteenth century. I'rior to this time it
was known that fermentation took ,)lace, but its causes and character were
wholly mysterious. The great work of ]'asteur ( IS')*.)) resulted in the fact
that fermentations were chiefly cau.sed liy the a(!tivity of living cells, which
have the capacity of reproduction. The most common form of fermentation
is that whereby sugar is ccmverted into alcohol and carbon dioxide. The
name o'i the organism that jirodiu'cs this change is sucrfinrfiiHi/frs rrrcrisldi'.
Another class of fermentation is seen in the jyrocess of digestion. This
S])ecies of fermentation is typified by the action of sprouted barley on starch,
THE CENTURY'S PlWiUiESS lA' CHEMISTRY
205
111
I-OUIS PA8TEU11.
wliereby the stiirch is t'oiiverteil into siigiir. The active iniuciple of the
saliva, ptyaliii, has tin- same proiierty, nml when stairliy Ixnlies are masti-
cated, a jtart, at least, of the starch wiiieli tliej* co'.itain is eoii^erted into
sugar. The active principle of malt is known as diastase, and this, as well
as j)tyalin, belongs to a (dassof I'ermeiits
Avhich are incapable of rein'oductioii. | ^
All the decompositions of organic, mat-
ter, such as the decay of meats and veg-
etables, are now known to lie forms of
fermentation, due to the action of certain
organisms known by the groiij) name of
bacteria. This discovery led iiaiiirally
to th" ])rocess of preserving organic com-
pounds by sterili/atioii. The |)iiii(!iples
on which this process depends are very
sim])le. If an organic body, such as a
fruit or vegetable, be subjected for some
time to a high tempcatiire, — that of
boiling water will usually suHice, — the
fermentati<m germs whicdi it contains
will be destroyed. If then it be sealeil
in such a way, either hermetically or
with a plug of sterilized cotton, so that no
living germ can reach it, decomposition
cannot take place. C!ertain chemicals, such for inslance as salicylic acid and
formaldehyde, have the property of paralyzing or susitending germ action,
and lience organic bodies treated with these substances may also be pro-
tected again.st decomposition.
The activity-of fermentation is made use of in the tecdmical arts. Hrend is
made light by fermentation, and wine, beer, and cider are ma.de by the fer-
mentation of fruits and grains. .Mcohol is produced by the fermentation of
grains and potatoes, their starch having previously been converted into sugar
by malt.
Jiuchner has lately shown that all fermentation is of one kind, namely,
that due to ferments of the diastase type. The fermentation produced by
yeast, for instance, is not due, according to his (/oservations, to the living
cell:;, but to the products of their activity. Hv destroying yeast cells, by
grinding and high jiressure, and using their contents, he has secured a
vigorous fermentation similar in every respect to that caused by the cells
themselves.
XI. EI.KCTKO-CilKMISTKV.
The electric furnace, which affords a higher heat than chemists had been
able to secure, has been the i)romoter of great advances in inorganic chemis-
try. Moissan (b. l.Sr»2), a French chemist, has been the most successful in
applying the heat of the electric furnace to analytic and synthetic studies.
One of the ])ractical results which has conu^ from these studies has been
the virtual bridging over of the chasm which has been supposed to exist
between orgiiuic and inorganic compounds. Under the influence of the heat
of the electric furnace,, carbon, which is the keystone of organic compounds,
206
TUIUMPHS AND WOXDEJiS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
has been made to cinnbiiie directly with the metals, forming a series of bodies
known as nii'talli(! ciirbides. The carbide of calcium, under tlie acti(m of
water, yields a gas known as acetylene, which by a series of reactions can
be converted into alcoliol. Thus .ilcohol, which only a short time ago was
Sitpposed to lie solely the product of organic life, is shown also to result from
a simple int)rganic reaction such as lias been shown above.
The importance of electrolysis in metallurgical and analytical chemistry
has alreaciy been noticed. So rapid has been the progress along these lines
that the terms metallurgical chemistry and electro-chemistry are in some
resfjects almost synonj-mous.
Electricity has also been emidoycd in many of the chemical arts; e. ;/., in
the promotion of crystallization and pui'ihcation of organic solutions as prac-
ticed in the sugar industry.
coNCLrsiox.
Tiiere is no bnineh of science that holds such an intimate relation to the
progress and w(dfare of man as chemistry. First of all, it is chiefly instru-
mental in jiroviding liim with food and clothing, as has been shown in the
paragraph on agricultural chemistry. In the second place it has extended
his domain over mattei- and, in connection with physics, has established the
identity of the comiiosHion of the universe with that of the earth. The
universe has thus been shown to be of a single origin and of uniform pro-
perties. By understanding the constitution of matter, \\ith which he is
surrounded, m.an is able to utilize to the liest advantage the material at his
disi)osal. Thus invention is promnte<l and the ajiidication of chemical know-
ledge in the arts e.xtehded. With every stej) forward of this nature, the
power of man to secure bre.ad is increased, and, under the favorable environ-
ment which the study of chemistry has created, the jjhysical and intjllectual
condition of nmn has been improved. With ;i wider view of natural phe-
nomena and a more complete control of them, the intellectual and spiritual
life of man is widened and strengthened, and the i)rinciples of equality,
justice, and liberty more flrmly established.
Hakvey W. Wiley.
tlie
THE CENTURY'S MUSIC AND DRAMA
I. musk;,
.\[rsic Hiids its highest artisti(^ (levehjpiupnt in the happy combinations
whicli go to make up the opera. Tlicse eombinations passed tlirongli various
historic stages, and rijiened into noble maturity by the end of tlie eighteenth
century, under the guiding genius of the Ilandels, Mozarts, and (Jluciks of the
times. Their h'gacy passed, in tlie nineteenth century, to a host of worthy suc-
cessors, among whom stamls, as a central figure, Verdi, the great Italian ojjer-
atic coniftoser ; while Wagner, of (Jermany. h^-^ striven with her(Milean might
to revolutionize the lyrical drama bj' polemical writing, by twofold author-
sliip of words and notes, find by a new application of principles gathered
from antecedent reformers. His efforts produced a commotion in the art
world which might be compared to that excited by the rivalry between
Biu)nocini and Handel in London, or Piccini and Gluck in I'aris, but for the
fact that in each of these instances the contention was between one composer
and another, whereas in the case of Wagner it was the opposition of one
composer to all others in the world, save the few who. believing in the man,
his teachings, and his wonderful powers of a])plication, undertook ))ro))a-
gandism as a duty, and endeavored to make ])roselytes to their faith. He
did not live to see the day when his efforts could be called completely suc-
cessful, and his death in 18(S;neft judgment, (piite wide open as to his theo-
retical and i^ractical merits. The nineteenth century closes with the (piestion
still on as to the permanence or evanescence of his many unique, ponderous,
and revolutionizing productions.
Verdi, who still lives, surpasses all the composers of his time in the beauty
of his nudodie.s and the intensity of his dramatic power.
liossini, whose " Guillanme Tell," which was produced in J'aris in 1829,
was his masterpiece, ruled the operatic world before Verdi, until he died in
Paris in 18(58.
Meyerbeer, whose principal operas are '' Les Huguenots," " Le Prophete,"
and "L'Africaine " (the latter produced in Paris in 1 S().">. the year after its
composer's death), was regarded as a remarkable com])ospr. \\hose knowledge
of effect was inisurpassed, and whose fine intelligence and musical knowledge
almost m;ule the world forgive him for frequent lack of insjtir.ition.
Hak'vy, whose only lasting success was "La Juive.'' coini)osed other
0])eras, such as "Charles VI.," "LaKeine deChypre," " L'Eclair," iind "Les
^rous(pietaires de la Eeine," that achieved a certain amount of success in
Prance, which success was interru])ted by Hak'-vy's death at Nice in 18G2.
(rounod, in LSoO. made his most remarkable success with his greatest
opera, " Faust," which, after the subject had been treated by Spohr, Lind-
painter, Schumann, Berlioz, and other distinguished composers, has remained
the only completely successful opera on the subject, although Boito's " Mefis-
!
208
mil J M PUS AND WONDEliS OF TIIK X/X'" CESTUUY
•)file" (iitiotlier vtM'sioii of tlie s\il)jwt^ iicliicvi'd ii murkcd success in Italy in
l.SCicS, and [ilaccd lioito anion;,' tiic iciiiaikalilc conijiosci's of tlic ilay. As lor
alcd liis "I'aust." N<'xt in nii-rit
(UUSKl'I'E VEUDI.
lounod, his otln'i' ojieras never cipuucd Ills " I'aust. .Next in merit comes
Ivomeo et .luliette" ( jirodiieed in J'aris inl.S(i7)and then iiis •■ Mireille."
wliicli apjieared in l.SCd. and ■• I'iiili'iiion
et llaiicis."" an e>;([\iisite little coiiiic oiiera
produced in I.S(i(). His last opera, ••he
Trilnit de Zaniora." was ^'iveii at tlie
Ciiaiid Ojiera. I'aris. in ISS!. and failed.
l>onizetti. who died in lieriramo in
ISIS, was for many years one of the
most ]iopular <jperatic comjiosers. lie
possessed unthmbtcd al)ility, but wrote
carelessly, as the Italians did in that
day. l>ut his ojieras c<piitaiii much that
is beautiful, and often show tine dra-
matic ]iower. His "Lucia" enntains
iiisjiired paj^es. while other portimis are
inexcusably eonimonplace. The same
remark apjdies to his " Lucre/.ia l>or-
gia."' "La Kavorita." and •' .>hiria di
Kolian ; " while in his comic operas,
such as "Don Pascpiale " (which was
■ compo.sed in three weeks), his "L' Kli-
sire d'Amore'' and " La Fille du Kegiment," l)(inizetti a|)i)ears to better
advantage. They are melodiou.s and very agreeably written. His fertility
may be imagined when yon are told that In; comjiosed over sixty operas dur-
ing his career, as well as other comiiositions.
Kellini, whose career was a short one. as he was born in ISOL' and died in
1S35, was badly trained and could not be called a well-schooled musician, being
rather a musicnaii by instinct. lUit he possessed remarkable ability, and, per-
ceiving that the persistently Horid style of Kossini (which all the com])osers
of tliat time blindly imitated) was api)roacliiiig an end, treated his melodies
with a siiiqilicity and directness that at once attracted attention and met with
api)roval.
Hellini'r, knowledge of instrumentation was childish, but his intimacy with
Rub'iii, the famous tenor, aided him in achieving an admirable treatment of
the voice. J [is operas were very sweet and melodious. The two ojieras by
which he will be remembered are "La S(mnambula'" and "Norma," the
latter being, with all its faidts, a great opera.
Another taleuti'd and prolific operatic composer was Mcrcadante, wliose
"11 (Jiuramento" (produced in IS.HT) achieved considerable popularity. ]'>ut
^Fercadante's succefS(>s were generally contined to Italy. lie composed sixty
operas, find died in 1.S70 in Xajdes.
l^lllcllielli, who was born in 1S;U and died in 188(), will be ])riiicipally
renienibered by his remarkably beautiful oper.a, " La (Jioconda" ( produced
in 1S7()), which, together with a re-written version of hi.' first ojiera, " 1 I'ro-
messi Sposi." gave him great popularity in Italy and spread his reputation to
other countries.
the
HKKTHOVKN IN HIS S|L1)V.
I tali
and
M
glia(
daiu
Hi
died
opcr
f
I
On
died i
tion (
Wa<,'i
In
■\vht)si
ever \
]iis ."
works'
Aubei
TIh
most 1
than !
THE CKNTUHY'S MUSIC AXP hit AM A
800
Art tor Itiily'.s yomij; coiiiiiuHt'is tliiit |ii'otVrts to n-prt'sciit tho miidfru
Italian suliotil of oiifiit, tlicy arc It'd I))- I'lK-cini, wliosc •• Maiion lifMcuiit "
ami " La Moiu-iuu " an- lucloilioiis and full of ;ucril.
MascaKiii and liOom-avallt), whose '• C'avalli'ria IJusticaiia " and •• I I'a-
jjliacci" acliit'vcd popularity, have not rrali/.t'd t'xpi'rtati«>ii8. Js'or has <Jior-
dano, whoMc •• Andrea Chenier" was well received in Italy.
liizel, whorfe ••(,'arnien " is one of tiie most remarkalile of modern operas,
died in I'aris iii 1.S7."). "Carmen" has remained in the repertoire. His other
opera. " I-es I'^ehurs de Terh's," only aehioved a moderate success.
ORAKU OPKK.V HOUSE, PARIS.
One of France's greatest musicians. Hector Ilerlioz. was born in 1803 aud
died in 18(5'.). His ojjeras. " Les Troyens," " ISenvenuto Cellini,'' his ♦• Damna-
tion dc Faust." his " Hom^o et Juliette " symphony, are all great and afforded
Wagner a model that he imitated persistently.
In 1S71 France lost one of its most talented operatic composers, Auber,
whose " Miisaniello " and "Fra Diavolo" are two of the nu)st popular operas
ever written by a Frenchman. Auber eomi)osed comic operas charnnngly, and
his ."Domino Noir." " Diamants de la t'ouronne," " Haydee." and other
works of a similar character, entertained the French ])eoi)le for nany years.
Auber's death has left a vacancy that lias not been tilled.
The modern French comjiosers cannot be called great. Saint-Saens, who.se
most successful work is "Samson ct Dalila'' (which is more of an oratorio
than an o])era, and which was produced in 1877), has composed other ojjera.s,
14
«io TttiiMrns AM) »'(K\i>h:iis or riiK .\i\"> vkstlhy
Huch as " lli'iiii VIM.," •' Asniiiio," ''t ft't«>rm wliidi l'"'l< iniK'iiiality luid
)iiH]iiriiti(>ii.
Miissfiii't liiis coiiiiMisid •• 1,1' IJi)i (If Lalmif," •• lli^riMliiult'," " .Miiiiini,''
•• Wi-rtlu'r,"' ft fftf III, tliat liiivf litul |iiissiiij,' sufffSMfs.
Miitli Saint-Siiciis iuid .Miissriift liiivr uttfiiiptnl tn follow \\ iiKiHM ill tlifir
soiioiDiis orflii'sliiiliiiii ; Imt llifirwork^ luck distiiictioii. Tlii' l'"rfiifli coni-
)i(),sers ol to-iliiv liavf Ihmmi ilciiiuiali/cil In \\ aiiiit-r's allcrtatioiis.
Tiif death ot AiuhioiM- 'rimmas. in IS'.t.V causfil I'laiicf the loss of inii' of
Iht most Hiiccfs.slul aiid acconiiilisluMl ojHiatir coniiiosfrs, whose "Mi>,'iion"
will be Itmy adiiiiretl as a vi-ry I'luuimii},' opi'ia iMiiiiii|iii'. while his '• llaiiih't,''
.Mi:il!nrol.lTA.\ ol'KliA UDl-K. NKW VoliK.
tlioiigh contaiiiiiiji portions that an; ably writtiMi. has m-vcr attaini-d outside
Fi'tmne any icniai'kahlc success.
Iveycr. wlmse •■Sit;ui-d*' was jn'odueed in 1S.S4 with considerahle success, is
a t'ullowor ot .Mcyorhecr. His •• Salaininho" was produced in l.S'.H». l)\it did
not attract the attention expected outside of Franc(?.
(Jerinan opera of the latter ])art of the century has been so (lenK)ralized by
the inrtueuce of Wai^ner that the (iernian coniposeis have become little more
than imitators of his i)ronoun(;ed nuinuerisms.
Wel)er's " Der Freischiitz " r 'mains the most popular of German operas,
just as Verdi's "II Trovatore " is the most popular of Italian ojieras.
Spohr, Lindpainter, and many other CJerman composers of ability have been
laid on the shelf.
THE (NNTUIIY'S MUSIC .l\l> hit AMI
ill
Miirsliiifr. wlio (lifil in lliuiovci in IMC.I, hIiuwimI in IiIh " Miuih llt'ilin«
that lif WHS 11 lolldwt-r nt NVcImt, as wt-ll as m Ins " lt'in|ilar ai
<l.l
t'Wl'SS.
H |irmciiiai surct'ss
,-itli
lis
wri.l.lAM IIICIIAUli WACINKIi
CunH'lius, wlio (lit'd in Mainz in 1H7I, niailf lii
•' HarlHM' of UaKdatl," a comii; i>|ii'ni in
wiiicii tlif mannrr of Wa^nt-r was imi-
tatcil. In iMdl •• 'riiiM'id" WHS lumlurcd
in Wi'iniiir. but it wuh fouutl dniufssinifiv
lit'avv and lalmrcd.
(luldniark. a follower of Mf\crlicfr.
madf a success in IS7."i with his ••(.Mieeii
of Salia '■ that was not ei|iialeil iiy his
" Merlin." inudiiced in ISSC. or his -IMi^-
oner of Wai." inodnecd in 1S'.>'.».
To return to the j,'reat leader of opeia
— Verdi — one may say (d' him tiiat his
operas are dividetl into three jieriods.
The first included the works written in
file old Neapolitan style as he had foiiiid
it. To fhis (dass lielon^' ••>;alnu'co."
•' .\tfila." ei cetera. To the second pe-
riod. wld(di shows remarUahle dramatic
color and iieaulifid melody, lielom,' " lii-
pdctto." " Krnai.i." and •• Hallo in Ma.s-
i-heni" (in whi(di V'ordi lies,'an to pay attention to his instrumentation). To
the third period liehrnv's •• Aida." wliiidi is his must cliaractei'istic and remark-
ahle opera, in whi( h the melody is wonderfully fresh and heaiitifid. eond)ined
\\ ith lemarkahle science.
•• ( >tidln " is also a ijreat work, written
at a time <d' liie when most com[K)sers
retire, and broadly dramatic in its treat-
ment ol the situations, illundnat d hy
ri(di and e.\]iressive instrumentation.
As for " Kalstaff." the latest opera that
N'erdi has written, and ))roI)al)ly the last
he will write, it is the .ijreatest modern
comic opera, just as JFozarfs "Noz/.e di
Figaro "' is the greatest comic ojicra of
tlie past. It convinces the world that
Verdi's genius is inexhaustible.
Xext to Vci'di comes AVagner, the
anartddst of nuisic. who began in '• Ki-
enzi " and "The Flying Dutidnnan" by
imitating the Italian forms of melody.
In ''Tanidiiiuser."' jiortions are very
beautiiul and mcdodious; in "Lohen-
grin."' portions are tine; but Wagner's
idea of etTect was l)ad and lie never knew when to sto]t. so that many of
the .scenes are interminable. This faidt increased as Wagner composed the
" Nibelnngeii" .series for the crazy king of Havaria. -Melody var. cl, the
KDWlN I'dlllCKsr.
I
I
212 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
singers became secondary to tlie orchestra, wliicli was persistently noisy.
Wagner's effort was to create a new school ot opera, in which everything
shonhl be minutely descriptive. He went too far and opened the question
of failure. In ojjera the voices claim the first place, and the orchestra is an
accoinpaninient, so that Wagner's method was ladically wrong.
Independent of this, he attempted to
infuse life into the " Nibelungen " series,
wliereas he adopted a tangled and child-
ish fairy -story tiiat was more absurd than
imjiressive. The later Wagner oi)eras,
which the comj)oser calls " nuisic dra-
mas." are tiresome and monotonous to
such a degree tliat. with all the remarka-
ble talent of ^^'agner. they luay never
beconu jiopular. and may be eventually
laid on the shelf, to be regarded in the
fiitun:' as musical curios.
The ..uisicians of the United States
are steadily develoiung. and for so yo>uig
a country wo li:ive a lai'ge nund)cr of
comjiosers of lirst-class ability, such as
.Macdowell, Foote. Lang. Cliadwick. (iil-
ciirist. and iiiauy otlicrs who liav<' Jiro-
duccd important compositions.
In ojiera tiic American composers have
(lone nothing, i'or tlie reas<iu tiiat theic aic no (ii)|iortunitics for the ]iroduc-
tiou of such works, 11 there were, wc sli(i\il(l soon have many operatic com-
jiosers, and sliould s]toediiy lake hi;^li rank in the lyi'ic (lr;ima.
( IIAISI.U I I I- SAlNOiaiS ( I Sll\r,\N.
II. OliAMA.
Tiie theatre of the latter part of tlie century sliows a remarkal)le advance,
in cerlain resjiccts. over tlie theatre of tlie jiast, which consisted of a "st.ir,"
an inferior company. ]ioor scenery and aiipointment;,, et cetera; whereas
to-day there are many more really good actors and actresses, the theatres are
far more comfortal)le and artistic, the scenery, costumes and details are
beautifu! and coi'reet.
We have no Mrs. Siddons, no Ktunble. no Hachel. no Talma ; but we are con-
lident that the actois and actresses of to-day are like the theatre of to-day. —
they have more finish, ;inil the results. wJiili' they may not rise to the i>lanc of
the school of Sliakt'Sjicare. are m'arcr nature than tiiey have ever been.
The school of declamation, whicli belonged to the plays of the jiast, is the
severest loss the stage of to-day lias felt. The actors and actn^sses fail in
elocution. They do not know where to put their emphasis. They seem lost
wlieu they apjieai' in costMme. and Shakesjieare to-day lias no distinguished
exjionents.
Tlie lMiglish-s])t'iiking stage of the century has lieen a<loi'ni'd by siudi elo-
(juciit intcrpreteis and powerful tragediiins as iCdwin forrest. ("jiariottt^'ush-
man. Kdwin llootii. and Henry Irving. Mut this illnstrious roll has been
almost extinguishiMl liy death: and. especially if aiiplicd to .\nici'ica. tic
',
.
{ I
? ;.
S( KM-: KH'iM >H XKKSI'KAUK S I'lAY OF 'UOMtX) AND JUl.IKT.
L'14
TRIUMPHS AND WOMjERS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY
question may woll be asked, wliere is tin- aottiv or actit'ss wlio can play Ham-
let, or Maobi til. or Kiiiy Lear, or Sliyloek as we -were wont to see them rou-
dercid by tliosc masters of the draniiitic art. or as they should be rendered ''
Salvini and IJossi have both passed away. Irving verges on retiraey. (!f
the great draniatie actresses left to tiie (dosing of the century, ]\I me. Sarah
Kernhardt stands |irei;minent. The day of the imposing declamatory drama
seems to have lost its lustre at the .sunset of the century.
Hut the modei'u dramas and comedies are acted, even in the smaller parts,
with adnnrable intelligence and effect, and we may add that the vice that di.s-
graced the stage of the past is by no means so visible in the theatre of the
present.
The coarseness that clung so long to the theatre is gradually disapjiear-
ing, and the theatre-goers of to-day have discovered that the theatre, which
was ci'cated to entertain the world, can do so without recourse to vulgarity.
The theatres of the United Stiites are the liandsomest and most convenient
in the world. This Mnn\ :• rah Bernhardt acknowledged the other day,
while critic'.iinr tlie theatres of I'ai'is, wlii;h lack many convenieiices.
V {) to within twenty-Hve years of the close of the aentiiry. i)lays written
by American authors were ran'. .Managers iiad to rely ujion those composed
in Europe. lUit at present the I'liited States possesses many able and suc-
cessful ])laywriglits. just as it does its artists in all departments. There has
not been a time during the century when the personal character of actors
and actresses has escaped discussion, aiui sometiiues violent criticism, by
those prejudiced against the theatre. Tliis does not seem to have lesseiu d
the estimation in which dramatic art is held, nor to have seriously diminished
ill number the legion who find in the drama their most pleasurable recreation
and keenest intellectual delight. In answer to challenges of the morality of
the stage. Uronson Howard has tittingly said : •• 1 have never yet seen any-
body who wanted a bad picture just because it was jiainted by a good man.
It is society that corrupts the suige, not the stage that corrujjts society."
IJiTKi; KiT/,(ii:itAi.n.
THE CENTURY'S LITERATURE
In contrasting the world's nineteenth century literature with that of the
eighteenth, one is impressed with the many remarkable differences. But
by no means all of such ditt'erenees are to the discredit of the older litera-
ture. As instances, the ]>rose literature of the nineteenth Ciutury may
not surpass that of the eighteenth in elegance and accuracy of expression,
though its ju'ogi'css has bei'U very nuirked in the diversity of its api)licatioiis
to nu'utal needs ; and the poetic-al literature of tht! nineteejith century may
not excel that of the eiglitcenth in beauty and virility, though it has
advanced in loftiness of theme and teiulerness of mode. And so, when
literature is divided into its many minor branches, as liistory, philosoithy,
the sciences, etc.. various features of the old com])are favorably with the
new.
It is in its general tone and universal aptitude that the literature of the
nineteenth century stands out jjrei'miuent. The wonderful intellectual
activity of the ceuturj' has been, as it were, comi)elle(l to go forth along
literary Hues (piite parallel with those that distinguish other fields of
activity. This may have had a tendency in some instances to rol) the
century's literature of some of the sweetly imaginative elenuMits. and to
harden it in some of its essential fcunis. but the process was necessary to
seciure for it just that quality which woulil best meet a progressive denuind.
As the drift of human energy was toward the practical, so the dominant
literary thought took on the form of direct and exact ex))ression. There was
less ami less room for the indulgence of literary foible or s])eculative whim-
sicality. Even where elegance of style met with occasional sacrifice, it Vv'as
more than compensated by that general rise in literary tone which has
characterized the century. Literature could not be untruthful amid acti' e
in(piiry and scientific progress. It must I'eflect. more accurately than ever
before, its birth inspirations and its legitimate uses. It must keep even
pace with the demands for it. A world crying for intelkctual bread could
not be put off with an anti(piated stone.
Without closer analysis, the above is tnu' of the literature of all reading
and writing peojdes who have kept touch with the century's progress. But
it is especially triu' in the literature of Knglish speaking i)eoples. History
has, in accordancfe with a growing sjnrit of research, become more truthful,
philosophy more expressive, and science nu)re exact. The outcrop of books
shows the yearnings of the century, not only as to their lur.nber but as to
theme and treatnuMit. .\uthors have multi]ilied as during no other world's
era, and the ])ro])ortion of t]u)se who have attained jwrnuincnt distinction
was never larger.
"(Jerman literature,'" says Professor Kord, in ''Self Culture" for February.
189!), "has liail its measure of ups and downs, but its first age was its
216
TllWMPns AM) WONDJiliS OF THK XJX'" CENTUllY
GEOHHK HANCKdKI'
golden agt-. From the bcginnin},' of tlic ccnturv to tin- iirosciit day is a lur
cry in (ierniau letters. Komanticisni. idealism, rcaiisni — the Fatherland
has lived tlinnigh them all. And for wiiat " In'a land ot scliMlars no i^neat
philosoplier; anion;,' hosts of verse-niaUers no j,'reat poet; anion-; innnnier-
al)le story-writers, not one wlio has lie-
uonie known over a continent.
••Still these last years in (lerniany
have not been witiioiit some good work
done, tliougli often achieved nnder tiie
sjiui' of wron;4 iih-als and improper
motives. From tlie days of '48. wlien
VounLT (iermany felt for tlie first time
the sednctive eliarm of revolutionism,
a iiew feeling lias ]iossessed (iermau
litei'atnre — a feeling that the past is
past and out of date, jjotent oncu but
jiotent no longer, and that the new age
of man demands new ])rineiples, new
ideals, a new falih. And so the mod-
ern literatui-e. ])arti(*ularly so since 1JS70,
has lieen marked by iconoelasm and
startling innovation; it has discarded
sentiment and Kne writing, and made
a jilea for seientitic methods, with the
privilege of exlnbiting e.xact scientific results. Crimes, disea.se, and grin-
ning skeletons have been dragged forth to tiie public gaze. Un- art is no
longer art that portrays tlie ideal and not the true. Such, in siiort. is the
creed by which the realistic or naturalistic school lias thought to over-
throw the (dd, conventional, and frividcms, to foster the sjiirit of the new
nationalit}', and jirepare a balm for the wounds of the poor.
'■Two men stand to-day as leaders of this new movement, — Hernifinn
Sudermann and (Jerhar<lt llauptmann, — the most commanding figures in
ponteniporaneous (lerman literature."
During tlie nineteenth century the Tiiited States took a high and firm
place in the domain of litc'rature, and. it may be said, has evolved a litera-
ture tliat in scope and styh' is peculiar to her institutions and environment.
Her array ot autiiors, botii in nuiiiber and reputation, comp.ares favorably
with that of countries Itoasting of a tliousand ye;irs of literary domination,
and her literature is as diversitied and ])ractical as her activities. Among
the many illustrious historians of the century siie numliers her l^aiicroft,
her llildreth, her I'reseott, iier Motley, worthy ccmnterparts of England's
Lingard, llallam, Macaulay, J^iekle, and Kinglake. Among her jioets are
Longfellow. Wiiittier, liryant, Lowell, Ha. leek, tit com])anions of Tennyson,
Urowning, Wordsworth. Scott, Swinburne. Among her novelists are Cooper,
Hawthorne, Stowe. worthy congeners of Dickens. Tiiackeray. and Elii/t.
And so, the comiiarison holds in travtd, philosophy, theology, law, and
science.
If in dramatic literature the United States has, during the (!entury, pro-
duced few authors of permanent reputation, and perhaps none to be (;om-
' I
:
^ I-
.1
THE CENTIJIIY'S LlTKHArUHE
217
;■
IKUtMl witli Knowles, Hoiicicault, Taylor, iiiid IJobfi'tsoii, of tlic Old World,
lun't'i'tiudess it raniiot lie said of thest; tiiat their plays liavf iiad Jiiore tiian
a st'iyc valut!. Tilt' drama of tlm century iii following tlie demand for
artistic and comiiiereial results has sustained only in part the reputation of
its literature. I>ut in lieu of this partial deeadenee. there have sprung ii])
new branches of literature whicii are. in a measure, compensatory. Amonjf
these are the critical literature (d' arts and design, the literature of philology',
or of language, and the litt'i'ature of jiolitical and social science. To these
must be added two other kinds tjr (dasses of literature which, if not peculiar
to the century, have yet found in it their most .surprising evolution, greatest
glory, and widest iuHuence. These are the literature of the newspaper and
magazine, as distinguished from that of the book.
lUit before making further mention of these, let us read somewhat of >«ew
World literature as viewed from a critical ICiiglish standpoint. Says the
critic, " English critit's are apt to bear d(jwn on the wi'iters and thinkers of
the New World with a .sort of aristocratic; hauteur ; they are jjerpetiudly
reminding them of their immaturity and their <lisregard of the gohhiu mean.
Americans, on the other hand, are hard to jilease. <)i'<linary men among
them are as sensitive to foreign censure ivs the tn'ifolilf geniitti of other
lands. .Mr. Emerson is ))ermitted to impress lK)nie truths on Ins country-
men, as 'Your American eagle is very well; but beware of the American
peacock.' Sucli remarks are not jjermitted to Englishmen. If they jiointto
any flaws in transatliinti(! manners or way.s of thinking with an effort aftc
politeness, it is ' the good-natured cynicism of well-to-do age ; ' if they
commend transatlantic institutions or
achievements, it is, according to Mr.
Lowell, ' with that pleasant P]uroi)ean
air of .«elf-compliment in condescending
to be plea.sed by American merit whitih
we find so conciliating.'
"Now that the United States have
reached their full majority, it is time
that England shoidd cease to assume
the attitude of guardian, and time that
they should be on the alert to resent
the assumption. Foremost among the
more attractive features of transatlan-
tic [American] literature is its //v.s7///^'.s,v.
The authority whicli is the guide of
old nati<»ns constantly threatens to be-
come tyrannical ; they wear their tradi-
tions Mke a chain; and. in canonization
of laws of taste, the creative laws are
depressed. Even in England we write
under fixed conditions ; with the fear of critics before our eyes, we are all
bound to cast (mr ideas into similar moulds, and the name of * free thinker'
has grown to a term of reproach. IJunyan's ' i'ilgrim's Progress' is i)erhaps
the last English look written withoiit a thought of being reviewed. There
is a gain in the habit of self-restraint fostered by this state of things ;
.lOlIN (1. WIIITTIKU.
218
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
but there is a loss in the coiiseijueiit lack of .siioiitaneity ; ami we may leani
something from a literature that is ever ready for adventures. In America
the love of uniformity gives jilaee to impetuous imiiulses; the nu)st extreme
sentiments are made iiudible. the most noxious 'have their day and (lease to
be;' and the truth beiiiy left to vindicate itself, the overthrow of error,
though more gradual. ma\ at last jirove more ('iimj)lete, A >.'ew England
poet can write with eonti4<'ni'e of his country as the land
" ' 'WliiTc iiKoiic suffers loss or hleuds
For thoughts that nicii calls licrcsics."
"Another feature of Anu'riean literature is niw/nT/n'iiKiri-ni'.is. What it
has lost in depth it has gained in lireadtli. Addressing a vast audience,
it appeals to uinversal symi)athi('s. In the Nortliern States, where om-
jiaratively few have leisure to v.ritc well, almost every man. wonuiu. aiul
child can read, and does read. I'xioks are to he found in every log-hut.
and ])ul)lic tpicstions are diseusst'd liy I'vciy scavenger. 1 Miring tiie Civil
War. wlu'U tlu^ l^owell factory-girls were writing verses, tlic •l>iglow I'apers'
■\v('i'c lieiiig recited in every smitliy.
The edusecpieuee is. that, setting aside
the uews]iapers. theie is little that is
sectional in tiie popular religion or lit-
erature: it exalts and despises no class,
and almost wliolly ignores the lines that
in other eniiiitries divide tiie u])per ten
tlioiisaiid and the lower ten million.
Wlicie manners make men. the ])eoi)le
are proud of their peerage, hut the}'
hlusii Inr t lieir boor.s. In the New World
tliere are no>(irand Seigniors ' and no
human v<'getal)les ; and if there are
fewer giants, there are also fewer mani-
kins. Ameiican poets recognize no es-
sential distinction hctween the 'village
lilacksmith ■ and the 'caste of Vere de
Vere.' liuriis speaks for the one ; Hyroi.
a'..d 'I'ennvson for the otlu-r: Ix)ngfel-
low. to the extent of his genius, for
both. The same sjiirit which glorities labor deiiDunces every form of despo-
tism but that of the multitude. Freed of the excesses due to wide license,
and restrained by the good taste and culture of her nobler minds, we may
anticij)ate foi- the literature ol' ,\nieriea. under tlie mellowing influences of
time, an illustrious future."
In treating of uewspa|)er literature, one cannot jiroceed without blending
its origin,' style, and aims with the business enterprise that ctiltivates and sup-
ports it. And this may be done all tlic more <'heerfully and jirojierly, for the
reason that there is no history nuu-e interesting than that of the evolution of
the newspaper, and no consummation of mental and physical energy that
places the nineteenth century in more vivitl contrast with preceding cen-
turies.
.\I.KIU';i) TIINNVSON.
THE CENTURY'S LITER ATU HE
U19
lIKNItV W . I.ONIiKI.I.I.UW.
For the t'atlierhood of the iie\vsi)ai)or we have to travel to a land and date
caleulated to rob iiiodevn cuili/.atioii of some of its l)oastfiili'es>. The oldest
known newspaper is the "Tsin.u-i'ao." or '• I'ekinj^ News." mention of whose
publication is made in Chinese annals as far back as a. i>. 71.". when it was
then, as now. the otHeial ehronieler ol
the acts of the emperor, the doings ol
the court, and the reports of ministers.
It has appeared daily for nearly four-
teen hundred years, in the form of ayd-
lf)w-eovered nivgazine. some ."I? by 7,1
inches in si/c. 'i'lie pages nnmiicr twenty-
lour, and are pi'inted from wooden mo\-
abk type, 'i'wo editions are published,
one on sujicrioi- pa]ier. for tiic ("ourl
and upper classes; the othi'r on interior
])aper, for general readers. Its editorshiji
is in the (Jraud Council of State, whicli
furnishes to scribes or reporters the news
deemed tit for pidtlication. As an otti-
(!ial lU'gau. it first finds circulation auu)ng
the heads of jirovinces. and is by tliem
further distributed to jiatron.s. 'I'his
ancient jiurveyor of news seems to have
jirctty fully gratified the ("hinese taste
for that kind of lircrature: for even at the ]irese:it day there are few new.t-
]ia|)ers in the em])ire jmblished in tlie native language. The lew that have
sprung up ai'c contincd to the larger cities, as .Sliangliai. Hongkong, and
i'eking. where they are liberally patronized. l>ut their circulation and in-
Huence <1() not extend far into the interior, owing to t-he lack of |)ostal facil-
ities. The modern Chinese n(nvspai)er can hardly be called a native (uiter-
prise. It grew out of the necessity for a literatui'c and a means of news
communication which arose at the tiuu' the Chiiu'sc ports were fonted ojten
to the world's commerce. As a ('onseciuence, a majority of the Chinese ]mh-
lications have found their inception in foreign brains and ca])ital. and re-
main under the manageuuMit of lorcigners. The sanu' is true of Japan,
where the modern native news))aper jiractically dates from the arrival of
the foreigner. Ibit by reason of their greater mental and commercial activ-
ity, and the rapidity with wliich they adjusted themselves to nu)d»'rn nu)des
<d' civilization, the dapanese have far ontstripi)ed the Chinese in their evolu-
tion of news])aper literature and enterprise. Whereas, what may be called
the first un)deru dapanesc newspaper was founded in 1871,'. there s])rang uji in
the following twenty years the almost incredible nuud)cr of (i48 newspai)ers
and ])eriodicals, not only diu' to native cajiital and enterprise, but tuider
native control. This wonderful growth took ])lace. too, in the face of the
severest code of ])ress laws existing in any country.
In l']nroi)e. the earliest inklings (d' a ncwsjiapcr literature consisted of news
l)amphlets of infrequent and iinceitain publication, and deptuident for circu-
lation n])on temi)orary demand. The earliest dejtarture from this stage was
in Germany, in MWTt. when the ■• Frankfurter Journal" was organized as a
r
•J'JO
Tlili'MJ'IlS AMJ \VO\J)l^:JiS OF THE MX'" VKNTUliY
wt't'kly imblicutimi, for tlii' ]nir])(),si' of ''collcctiiij,' iiml circnlatiiij,' tlic news
of the diiy." ' "twerp followeil with a siiuihir uiitcrprist' in 1(11(>. 'I'lif lirst
!itti'iii|it to ilo .ikcwisf in (ircut I'ritaiii was in KiL'l', wlicn •• 'I'lic \\'ccl\ly
Ni'ws' was fonmh'il in liumlon. Nnne of tiicsc t'litfrprist's wcii' by editors,
in a nioiicrn sense, init liy stationers, in tiie line of tiieir ordinary trade.
'I'liey dill not (iepend for pat ronay'e on reLjuiar sidiserilieis, Imt sidd tlieir imb-
lic;itions oi'. till' streets tlirouj^di the ageney of liawkei's, corresiiondinj,' to
our nio(U'rn newsboys. thou)j;li thej- bore the elassieal name of " niereiiriea."
'I'iie ionndation of tlie first newsjiaper in France that attiuiu'il iierinanence
and fame was in Kl.'ll. it was ealjed tlie ■•(la/ette de l''i'anee,'" antl owed its
origin to a demand tor mingled news and original disenssion, It was larg(dy
under the control of IJiihelien. and. id' eonrse. reflected his sentiments. Jn
tiiese beginnings of the news])aper. we iind little or no attempt at jtairnalism,
as now nnderstood and practiced; no promise and potency of a literatnro
pecnliar to newspaper enterprise. TJie jonrnalist liad yet to come into being.
He first appeared as a writer of " newsdettevs," generally from some capital,
or seat (d' legislation, or commercial centre. His duty was to keep a line of
masters or patrons siipjilied with news daring their absen> •_• from court, legis-
lative liall. or business mart. His duty evolved into a calling. His jiatrons
beca.i.e regular jiaying suliscribers. to eaidi of whom ho wrote. These letters,
coming from all countries of the continent of Europe, ami covering a wide
field of information, became of great interest, and many collections of them
are still in existence in libraries, adding no little to their histi'rie value.
The ste]i was easy from this journalistic stage to the regidar jteriodic i)ul)-
lication. open not only to the '* news-letter." but to discursive thought. Thus,
in 1(!41. "The Weekly News." of London, began the |)ublieation of ])arlia-
mentary proceedings in addition to its budget of "news-letters." This era
witne.ssed a rajiid establishment of weekly newsp.apers. re(piiring editorial
su|)ervision and regular eontribntious. T',<'v were not without their vicissi-
tudes, ^lany of tiieir careers were brief and marked with pecuniary losses;
yet out of the wreckage sprang some of the most imjiortant of the modern
j(mrnals.
l'>y 1703 (ireat liritain was ripe for a daily uewspa])er, and in th;it year oiu'
api)eared under the name of "'The Daily Courant." The advetit of this enter-
prise gave further im]ietus to uewspajier publication. The English jjress of
the eighteenth century rose into great popular favor. It was able, and (piite
too indejiendeut for royalty and royal courtier. For corrupt and ambitio\is
govennnent it often bei'ame a whip of scorpions, and in n-venge was both
sevei'cly taxed and invidiously censored. lUit it seemed to ]irosper amid
op])ositii.n and jierseention. and by 177(1 fifty -three newspajicrs were published
in London alone. During the reign of (ieorge I! I. (17(i(t-lSL't>) the history (d
the English newspa])er is one of criminal persecutions, amid which editors
and contributors were repeatedly d(d'eated, and sometimes severely jiuidshed ;
yet it is doid)tful if at any period the ]iress gained greater strengtli from pro-
tracted conflict, or turned ignominious penalties into more signal triumphs.
It is significant that out of this dark, tumultnons, and foibidding cr.i sjjrang
many of the newsjiapers whos(> intliuMiee is most jiotential to-d.-iy in English
affairs of state and in the literature of journalism. The era marks the turn in
newspaper values. The establishment became a concrete thing, a lively ])ro-
-^ V:
THE VESTUHY'S LITKllATLllE
221
perty, an energy composed of practical busiiicHs minds, surrouiuled ami s\i\t-
portcd by the bciit prot'ural)lf literary talent, adapted for treatin;,' diversitied
topics. Thus "The J^ondon Alurning Chronicle," fcm -d in IT.SU. rose to l)e
ii i)roperty in ISL'.'! which sold for ."SiL'lO.OItO; while " . le Mornin),' I'ost" not
only f^ave lo Coleridjje his fanu- as one of the f^reatest of puljlicists, but en-
listed the brilliant attainments of Mackintosh, Sctuthey, \'oung, and Moore.
The sturdy " Lon(h)n Times." which dates from 17Sr». and for years encoun-
tered nialif^nant royal hostility, proved itself strong,' enouf,'h to brave the
},'overnmeiit and at tiie same time sutlicieiitly enterprising to introduce steam
printing and every mechanism calculated to give it pieeedence as a metropol-
itan journal. .\s a property, it is to-day wortii a tigure incredible i't the
beginning ot tin- century, and so powerfid was its iiold on po|iuiar favor for
the first half of tin- c(Mitury that no other daily could compete with it. In-
deed, it may be said to have had a lone Held n\> th the establisiiment of
••Tile Daily News," in 1S4(J. •• The Daily Telegraph," in lsr>r,. and "The
Standard." in 1S.">7.
The nineteenth century journalism of (ireat ISritain is characterized by its
gi'eat plenitude. .Morning and evening jpapeis abound In all the centres.
'I'he weekly pajier is still an important literary and lu'ws factiu". t'lass
jiapers are nunn-rous and excellent in their way. .\gain. the century's jour-
nalism is ciiaracterized by its i)ro])erty value. .Nkiny of the leading i'".nglish
journals have beeonie immense )(ro])crties worth millions of dollars cich, and
re(piiring the ablest management to improve and ))erpetuate them, {'"iirther,
the English press is eliaraeteri/.ed by aiile and conservative, if jirosaic. e(lito-
rial methods. Its correspomlence is cauticuis. and covers eveiy important
Held. Its news columns, so far as they depend on the telegrajih and tele-
lihone, a e uprightly ami well Hlled, but limited and dull when the local
repoi'ter is the source of sui)ply.
.Vs already stated, the annals of I'reneli journalism began with th(> foiuid-
ing ol the ••(iazette tU' France" in Id.'!!. The evolution of the Kicnch new.s-
j)aper was not rapid till the eigiiteenth century was well along, when the er.a
of til:' first revolution ealle<l f'-r a news and literature ])eciiliar to bh^idy and
e.\riting times. .Myriads '•!' newspapers sjtrang into existence, all but two of
whirh loiiiid their grcves with tl;" passing of the emergeiiey which e.'illed
tiiem iiitu beiie,'. Kai'.y in the nine'.eentli century (l.S.'{()) the introduction of
cheap jiiuriialisiu gave great impetus to enter|irise. and by the middle of the
century the number and circulation of l-'rench news)iapi'rs iiail more than
ircblcd. 'i'liis rate has l)een. in great part, sustained throughout the latter
half of the century, and the frcncli jieople are to-day abundantly su))plie(l
with a iiews]iaper literature wliicli for vivacity ami amplitude is unexcelled.
It may not iiavc the solid and lasting influence of the soberer outcr<i|) of other
nations, but it is singularly adapted to a sprightly and merciiiial people, and
is well sustentative of tlie great |)olitical transition id' the jieop;,' ami emi)ire
since the licgiuniiig of the nineteenth century.
The evolution of the newspaper in (rcrmany was slow. I'lctween l(il5,
the date of the biunding of the •• Frankfurter .Fniirnal." and I7'.I<S. when the
•' Allg(>meiiie Zeitung" ((ieiieral News) was founded by the ixiokseller ( 'otta,
at Leiiisic. no jotirnals ot, a high order maile their ap]>earance. and it needed
the inspiration of the French licvobition to beget in tlie (Jermnn mind a
rnnMi'Us asd wondehs of the a/.v" rnyruity
rfesiiv lor a livflit-r iiowspiiittr literatini' tliaii luul |iii'<'xistf<l. Tims, the
" Z<'itun^*" scMin N|»raiij,' into fiicat popularity as a purveyor of lU'W.s ami as
a iiH-diuiii -it disrus-^ion, anil has fver siuit- niaiiitaincd a leading place in tlie
tit'inian political pnss. it not only set the style ol the press at the turn
of the century, hut proved to be a pioneer in that womlertul journalistic
march which spreail over all (iernuin-spcakini; countries during the nine-
teenth century. K'^'"K ^" them nuMlia of news „iid discussion as aide and
influential as exist in any iiind. Uy 1S7<I there existed in (iermany proper
.■J7S0 newspapers and iH-riodicals ; iu Aiistria-llun},'ary. 700; in Switzerland.
301); m)t to mention the many huiulreds printed in (ierman in other coun-
tries, esjiecially in the I'nitcd States. A iiroportionale increase would ;,'reatly
augment tiie uhove figures l»y thc^ end of the century. The rise of (Jernian
so<-ialism proved to be a jirolitic sounas of joiirnalism. The socialist seems
to be a Imu'u edit.or and literary comiiatant. lie is also a great reader and
IniIiI and independent thinker. I'Miler the socialistic demand for a literature
|H'culiar to itself, there has arisen a score of (ierman printing-offices and
IKM-haps fifty ]>olitical journals, a third of wliicli are dailies.
Jn the Netheriands. ISelgiuni, Denmark. Norway. Sweden. Itussia. Italy,
Spain, Portugal, and other Kuropcan countries, the picss of thi' nineteenth
century h;i.s kept jtace with the mental needs and ^pil•it (d' enterjirise of the
resiK'ctive jM'oples. Indeed, there is no sucli ;in ,'iecuriite criterion of the gen-
eral make-uj) of a jteople, of their |ilacc in the lines of progress, of their
influence upon civili/ation, as that afforded by tlieir jiress. The Uelgian
]ire.ss is idmbly commercial, that of the Netheriands prosy and substantial,
while that of the Scandinavian countries is rugged, accui'ate, and solemnly
intiueiitial. The Itussian jiress, where free, is despotic and unprogressive.
l»ut it is .so freipiently un<ler censorship that it can hardly be said to letlect
with any degree (d' certainty the popular spirit of the empire, 'i'lie Italian
press is indolent and easy-going, inaccurate, spicy by spasms, of little relative
influence, except as it has been improved since the uniiication id' the Italian
States. Spain is a i .atry id' IS.OOO.Ono jieopie. but has fewer iiewspa]>er.s
ami ]»eriodicals than th(3 single State of New \'ork. Of Spain's rj(K( papers,
only .'•(Ml are newspajiers. Oi the rest. .'iOO ar<' scientitic journals, mostly
monthly. HMI are devoted to religion, and ."O to satire, music. ])oetry. art. etc.
l>arcelona ami Madrid are the great centres ol journalistic literature. The
|Militical papers are the most ])owerful. The reading public of Spain is lim-
ited, and the average circulation of a Spanish news|iaper is only about ll'Od
i-ojiies.
In the New World the demand for newspaper literature during the nine-
ti'cnth century has i>roveii ipiite as strong as in the ( »]d World, and, in certain
localities, even .^tronger. Kven among the youthf.il and tumultuous repub-
lics of .South America, with their large percentages of low<'r classes and
illitenites, there are few centres of im])ortance that do not support res[)ect-
able and fairly influential journals. The news-gathering ami news-consuming
spirit may not Ik? so active as elsewhere, nor the commercial sense so acute,
yet the century has laid the groundwork of jo\irnalistic enterjjrise so firmly
th-at future years can alTord to build ui)on it with certainty. T'he same may
be said of journalism in Mexico and the other Latin repiddics of North
America.
77/ A' cK\'nritys liti:ii.\tiiie
*jaa
.
iir.N.rAMiN i-i: WM.iN.
In Ciinadii, tin- ((Mitiiry shows ti lii^jlily (•(•niiiliineiitiiry K*'^wth in tir.vs-
paptT litiMiitiiro 1111(1 iiiHii -net', (ircat jtridc is tiikcn in jiciMinitc :inil alilt-
tMlitorHliip, iintl in tliiit, liind ul' nianiii,'i'nn'iit wliicii is licst calculatfd t<» cun-
vert invt'stnn-nt into pta-inantMit and jnutitaltlf inopcitv. What they hick
on th<i rt'|ioitoiial, or strictly i.f\vs\. siilf. rlicy make iio in tree, clean, and
indt'iHMidcnt discussion. 'I'lic pt'oiih- arn
readers ami, theretore, j,'enerons snp-
]>nrters of the entorprises desii,'ned to
supply them with thei;' [leriodical liter-
ature. Durinji the century tin? news-
])apers and periodicals of Canada in-
creased in Tinml)er from a very few to
K(>L', as reporteil in l.S'.H. Of these, s;
are thiilies. .■),S.'! weeklies, l.'IS montii-
lies, .'{ tri-weeklies, L'J semi-weeklies. (»
l)i-weeklies, -1 semi-monthlies. 'J ipiar-
terlies. The larj^est centres of cinsula-
tion art! the provint^o of (h-.tiirio with
iVl" newspa])ers and periodicals, and
l^uebcc with 1;>L'.
The c(!ntury's j^ramlest tield for jour-
nalistic opportunity has lieenthe I'liileil
Stiites. Here jo\irnalism lias developed
with tlio greatest rapidity, cxeniplilied
its manifold features to the fullcsl e\-
trnt, most successfully proved its inlhience ,is an eilueative ami civiliziu'^
a>?cncy. Startinj^ with the <jreat iind essentia! enii!nrau;emeiit of lreedom.it
lias found unremittini,' ami ener,i,'etic pi-opiiision in the un!)recedciiieil i^rowth
of population, in the marvelous activities rei|iiirin!,' iutercoiiuininication of
tlioiij,'ht. in an iutelli,t;en<'e which constantly rcciiiited armies of omnivcu'ons
r-'aders. and in fa.Mlities for the pr.'paration and disseiiiination of the litera-
ture at command.
■{"he l»ej,'iniun,t,' oi newspaper ;>nterpri>e in the I'nited States was in
lio.'ton. in KJIKI. when the ■• I'uhlick i >ccurieiict>s " ajipear-'d und-r the au-
spices of lieujamiu Harris, it was desij,nied to lie a monthly, atid was
jH'inted on three sides of a folded sheet, each side iieinj^ only eleven inches
loii;.^ hy seven wide. It was suppressed after its first issue liy the colonial
^'overninent of .Massachusetts, thus restriclin;.; the avenues of news to the
foreif^ii journals or local coiTee-hous(>s. ]>ut the demand for home new.s
was not thus to be cinshed. {'here s])i'ani; up a medium of communication
by news-letters, such as then existed in Hn,i,'land ; and in 1704 the post-
masttM' of l>oston undertook to keep certain functionaries infornu'd vif the
course of events by a ])eriodical news-letter in printed form, 'i'his he called.
" The News-IiCtter," a title which, with some, is treated as that of a news-
paper. It was to appeal weekly, and would be sent to subscribers for sncli
reasonable sum as mi,t;lit be aj^reed ujion. .\fter a la])se of fifteen years,
without competition, it had attained asid)scription list of only three luindred
co]»ies. A sulisccpient ])ostmaster started an opjiosition sheet in 1710. called
"The lioston (Jazette." Its a])j»earan(!e caused him to lose his otfice. but
824
TJIIUMI'IIS AXn \\Oi\DEllS OF THE XIX'" CKM'UHY
ilif rival iiapers roiitimii'il to t-xiist, •' Tlie NfW.s-I.ctttT " ii|» t(i tlif evacna-
tiiiii cil' iSostnii In till' Itritisli tri)(i|t.s in 177(1, and liif •■<ia/utt»'" up to 17r»l.
"Tlmlioston (ia/i'ltf " iiiiiPiMirtl on iNci-nilM r I'l, 17l!(. One tlav altiT,
Dt'cember '2-, 171'.i. Andrew Jtradlord Mtarlt-d ••Tlic Aiiu'iiftui \Vt'«'kly
Mercury " at I'liiladidpiiia. On Auj;u>t 17. 17-1. .lami's I-'ranklin wtartfd
"Till' New Kn;,'land Courant." on wliicli Iti-njaniin I'lanklin Icariu'd tlio
tnulb of printiT. Attf an t'.\iKtt'nce of sevi'ii jt'ars ilH publication ceased.
(Ml (fctolier 'J.!. 17l.'.'». ^\ iliiani I'.radlord started "The New York (ia/.ettc"
" The Mew Kii^'laiid W fekly Journal " succeeded •• Tlie Itoston (Jazette " and
•Counuit '■ m 17l.'7. -The .Maryland (Ja/ctte," the first ]>aper published
in tliat colonv. ai'iieared in 1]
In I71.'.S Samuel Iveiiner started '• 'Ihe
I'liiversal iMstrucior in all the .Vrts and .Sciences auii I'ennsylvania (Ja-
zette," at i'hiladeiphia. The following year Iteiijaniiii Kraiiklin bouj,'ht
Keinier's idant. and shortened the name to "The I'ennsylvania (Jazette."
The first jiaper in the colony of South Carolina, called ■• The South Carolina
tiazette.'' was published on clanuary .\ 17.'!1. ( >n November .I. 1 7.'{.'{. '• 'I'he
Mew York Weekly .lournal "' appeared as a rival to the "(iazette." In
17.'!(5 the first lu'wspaper appeared in \irf,'inia. It was published at
\\ iiliamsiiur;^. and was called '• The \ir!,Mnia (iazetti'." In I7.'!'.>a (ierman
newspaper appeared at ( lerniautown, I'a.. and another, in 171.'!. at I'hiladel-
phia. .Ml these pioneer papers, with the exception of a few. notably "The
I'ennsylvania (iazette" umler franklin,
and "Th.- New York Weekly .lournal"
under Zeni^er, were merely news pur-
veyors, or. if any opinions were ex-
pressed, they were in accord with the
authorities ui the day.
After 17 1.* the press of tlie colonies
became more indcfiendent ami jirojires-
sive, in oWdience to a demand for liier-
ature iH-arintr upon the cpiestions r<'la-
tiiMj; to the comin;,' revolution. New
journals of the weekly class sjiraiij;; up
with considerable rapidity and, lor the
most part, in opjiosition to ICn,i;laud"s
methods of colonial government. Anioiij;
these were "The lioston Independeut
Advocate." started tinder the auspices (d'
Samuel Adams, in 174S; "The New
Ilanijishire (iazette." in I'otJ ; "The
iJiistou (iazette and Country (leiitle-
maii." in K."*: the "Newport (l{. I.)
Mercury." in 17r)S; " '.riie Connecticut Courant." in 17(14.
liy 177o. the eommeneement of the stru!j),de for independence, the colonial
press iniiiibered thirty publications, all weekly. Of these, seven were ]iul>«
lished iu Massachusetts, one in New Hampshire, two in lihode Island, three
in (Connecticut, ei^ht in I'ennsylvjinia. and three in New ^'olk. In the first
year of tlu? war ei<,'ht new weeklies were added to the list, four (d' them
beiny iu Philadelphia. ()n iH'cember ."t. 1777. the first newspajier, " The
IIOIIACI'; lillKKI.KV.
iMiiiiiilir III ''Ni'W VciiU 'I'liliiiiK
^
N
}
Till-: tKSriHYS LITKItyrrKK
asts
.lOIIN \V. FORNKY.
Foiuiilfi' »f " l'hilaili!l|ililii i'resH."
(iii/.t'ttf," ii|i|>i'iiri'(l III Nfw ilt'iscv. iiml in \~S\, tlic first in Ni'iiiKHil. "'I'lie
(liizfltt' or <iii'('ii Mmiiititin INist liov," Siidi wiis the t'iitulity (ivt'rliiiiiK'iiij(
llii- ritliiiiiid jti'i'ss tliiit. Ill ill*' sixtv-tlirt>)> iii'\vs|)a|i)M's wliicli liuil i-nnir into
oxistriicc pridi- tn \~S'.\. imlv l'ort_v-tlirt'« Miii'vivj'il nt tlmt iliitc
l''lnlil ir.S'.t, I lie ilillc (III wllicli tilt'
('(iiistitiilioii went iiitii ()|M-riiti(>ii, till
the olosc of tho t'i^'litt'iMitli t't'iitiiry ami
curly lii'i^'iimiii^ nf the iiiiii'ti-cntli. sev-
eral iie\vs|i;niera were tuiimleii, most ol
uiiieli vM-ri' iinleiitly puliiieal. and,
tiiniii;li eni|ilnyini; \vriti'r.-t of ability,
were bitterly vitiiiu'nitive. The most
jioworfiil oi' this eluHH wtMB •' Tilt' Au-
rora" of riiilailf :>liia, .letTerson's lead-
in.i^ origan ; •• 'I'lie Mvi-nin!,' I'ost " of New
\'ork, the or^an nf tho Keileralists : ami
••'I'lie Ameriean <'iti/.en'' of New Vuik.
an organ of the Clintonian ilenioeraey.
Tilt* close of the eighteenth century wit-
nessed also the advent, of the juess in
the Mississiipjii N'alley. •• 'i'lie Centinel
<d' the Northwestern Territory " was
started at Cineiiinati. November'.*. 171>.'»;
and "The Seioto (ia/.ette."' at Chilli-
cothe, in ITlMi.
The press of the early part of the nineteenth eentiiry grew rapidly iu
number, cireulation, and iiiHnence. While it was largely parti.san, tlie ti.'ld
of discussion gradually broadened, and the news departments became more
vivacious and comprehensive. Many of the newspapers founded during the
lirst deca<lcs of the century exist at its close. Iiaving enjoyed tlieir long
can'evH of intiuence with honoi'. and become jiroperties of incalculable
value. During this period tiie transition from the weekly to the daily news-
paper gia(builly went on in the large cities. • The first American daily paper,
"The Ameriean Daily Advertiser." was ])ul)lished at Philadelphia in 1784.
With it came the first use of reporters, or rc'-rularly employed news-
gatherers, an innovation as important to the jnddic as the advent of the daily
itself. Special, or class, newsjiapers also began to get a firm foothold
during this period. "The Nilcs's Weekly {{egister " appeared in ]?altimore
in I.Sll. Tlie first ndigious newspajter attempted iir the United States
appeared at ('liillii'otiie. <).. 1S14. The first of the agricultural press was
"The American Farmer." which appeared at Jialtimore, April L'. IShS, to be
followed by "The Ploughman." at Albany. N. V., in IS'Jl. and by " The
New England Farmer." in ISL'L'. Several strictly commercial and financial
papers fo\ind an origin in this ])eriod, the most successful of which was
" The New Orleans Prices Current," established in bSL'L'.
During this jieriod the news])a])er, whether daily or weekly, was disti'ibnted
only to the regidar subscriber, — the jirice of a single cojiy on the street being
](rohil)ltory. The slow-going mail facilities of the time prevented the large
circulations that arc credited to modern journalism. Prior to 18.".'! no leading
220
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A7A'" CENTURY
iiewspiipcr cdiiM throw siittit'ieiit vnU'riirisc into its business to raise its circula-
tion ;il)ovi'")(M to copies, 'riiiskt.'ptthc pridcoi'ailvt'rtisinylow.andconsequfntiy
limited a souroe oi proHt wliicii lias since grown to enormous proportions.
The pevioii ended with the advent of the penny press, in New York, in lcS;>3.
The initial experiment iu this line was iiiade l>y 11. i). Shepard with his
" Morning I'ost,'' and it proved a tail-
iire in the short jieriod of thret- weeks.
'I'he next was "The Daily Sun." Se;>-
tend)er I'.'J. J<S.'>.'{. claiming to he "writ-
ten, edited, set up. and worked olT" liy
I'.enjaiuin Franklin Day. It remained
a peiniy pap I'or a long time and at-
tained !■ large circulation. It was re-
organized in 1S()7. when Ciiarles A.
l>anM lu'came its I'ditor. Though the
price was jiiit up to 1 wo cents, it became
mider his control one of the nujst ]k)-
t'litiiil news and political uictors of the
cental \. and attained a circulation of
over lot!,(KI(t copies daily. In May,
If''"/). . dimes (iordiMi IScunett followed
in the tracks of Day with "The New
York Herald." Its sprightly news col-
umns and fantastic advertisements com-
mended it to poiadar favor, and proved
a sonr'ie of groat profit. It has since
greatly varied its prices ; but by dint of
stupendous, if ]ieculiar. enterprise, it hiis grown into enormous (drcnlatioii,
and become a ]iroperty wcuth millions, in 1S41, Horace (Jreeley started
"The New York Triiiune." at tirst as a penny jtaper. though on an elevated
plane, it soon grew into jiopular favor, and witli its wokly and semi-weekly
eilitioiis lor country cinuilation iiecame one of tlie most widely circulated
and iuHuential journals in tlie country. "Tin- New Viuk Times" also began
as a penny pajier iu 1S."»1. u'uler tlie control id' Henry .1. Ikaymond.
AVliile the eni ■'*' a distinctive and poiiuiiir jienny jiress was short-lived,
it witnessed one of the most notidile advances (d the century in jourua'isn).
it stimulated news]ia))er enterprise throughout the entire country, and jour-
nals multiplii'd enormously. The era jjractically ended with the outbreak
of the Civil W'lir in iSfil. whicdi event caused a rise in the price of jiaper,
a demand foi' exiiensive corres|)ondence. telegraph news and battle scenes,
and a conse<iuent necessity for enliirged and fpiadiuided sheets. .Many ol
the penny ]i.ipers went up to a tive-cent price under tlu' stimulus of war
excitement, tlie im]troved system of collecting news, and the added expense
of publication. This era of phenomenal news])aper expansion i-xtcndcd even
to the end of the century. it has witnessed the Viniidcrful evolution of
the newspaiicr in all i.s modern phases. — tlie advent id' the Sundiiy news-
])aper ; the growth (d the diiily sheet to mammoth proportions; the incor
poration of the .Asso'iated j'ress. with its thoiisiinds ol agents in every
jiart of the country gathering and sending the minutest events oi tin- day i
.lOSKI'II MKDir.I..
"CliU'afjo 'riil)iiiic."
KY
its ciiciila-
iSLMjiu'iitly
[)vtiinis.
■k, in lis;i^.
I with his
vctl a liiil-
mu' weeks.
Sun." Se;>-
, be •• writ-
keaorr'i'.v
;t reiiuiiiietl
ime and at-
It was re-
Cliailes A.
rhoiPJlh the
s, it became
he most i>o-
ictors of tht!
rouhiticu of
. Ill May,
ett followed
1 "The New
tly news col-
<emeiitseom-
r. and i>ioved
It has sinee
lilt l)y dint of
( eirciilation.
■eU\V started
I an eU'vated
semi-weekly
ly ciirulated
' also began
lid.
s sboit-lived,
II jounuOisni.
try, and jonr-
the outbreak
vice of iiaiH'r,
liattle scenes,
ets. Many ot
iiHilus ot wai
idiled expense
extended even
1 . ■volution ot
Sunday news-
Ills; the ineor
;eiits 111 over>
ts oi the day ;
ItKCUUU IILILUINO. I'lUl.AUKl.I'HlA.
228
ritiuMPHs AM) womjkus or the XIX>" cemuhy
fDi'rL'spoiKit'UCi' iroiii cvcrv i|iiiirtrr ot tlif tjldltc. aiid cuvfiiiii; evury iii'M
of activity: ii lii,L,'lil,v iiniinivcd mid iikhc iiid<'iii'iid<iit cditorsliiii ; a gn-atly
enhu'i^'i-d, moll' active, and iiiuif (•niis<'ii'iitiniis rcimitorial statT; tin- (•(uniii!,'
of the iiitfivicwfr, at lirst an iniiMMtincnt |ll'^t. liiil now rccogniztMl as a
valual)l<' jiiiirnalistic adjunct in rcllfctiiiLC oiiininns and st-iitiiuoiits not (itlicr-
wisf (i'i)tainalilc ; tlic ciaiiluynicnt nl tiic tlionsand and nnc new appliances
for printin,:,'. sucii as stcitMityinn.Lj. elect lotypinj,'. inipioved types, typesettiii;^
machines, raidil jiresses. i'oldinj,' niachines. etc,
!>v ISS.'i a reaetii)n came on in the prices id leailini,' JDurnals, and they
ivere t'nrced tu I'cduce them 1)\ reasiiii n[ the stmnu; cdnipel il inn (d'lcred hy
the nnmcroMs and powerlul twn-cent jonriials whiidi had i-onie into being
and had proven to lie valnahle ]»ro|ierties. indeed, this reaction did not
leave the two-cent journals untouched. Tor it l)rou,L;Lt many oi that (dass
to a one-cent liasis, with the (daini that a coiisccpiently increased (drcula-
tion \vo\dd enhance the jirolits from advertising,'. 'I'his claim is a dehatalile
one. and it may he saftdy said that ?iiost <d' the newspapers cstahlislied near
the end of the century have adopted a two-cent iiasis as a !,'(dden mean
hi'tween the one-ccnV and three-cent journals.
I'roportionally speakini;. the ^rrowlh of the press in the I'ldted ,'^tates
has i)een as even as it has iieen rapid. No leadini; city is without ]iress
estalilishments and jironMnenl journals, some of them conducted on the
larj.^est scales of e.\penilitiire. — tiie West vyint^ with the Ka.st. and the
South with the North, in lilierality and enterprise. The newsjiaper oMi<-i'
of tins early pait id' the century was j,'enerally dinj^y and cramped. 'I'he
abode of many, especially in the larj^er cities, has becouie a handsome jiile,
conspicuous in architectural etfec.s, capacious and cleaidy, — liltini^ hive ior
the myriad of workers that toil at midday and midni^dit in imrsnit of the
"art itreservative." Tin' annual expenditure of a siiif^le ncwspajier oiterated
on a lar^c scale has been tlms computed; I'Mitorial ami literary matter,
^1.'1.'(>.(MI(»; local in-ws. 8L".K>.0<Mi; illustrations. .'jiilSlMlOti ; correspondenc<',
.filL'.VlMH); tele},Maph, !iiitM.(HMt ; cable. !«!1.'7.(MI(» ; meidianical. *110..*>()(» ; paper.
S!<117.tttH>; business office. 8L'H».(H)0; a total (d' 8:M.");;..1((n.
Nearly every town in tiie I'luteil States of I.-lIMKI popidation lias come by
the end of the ci'utury to have its daily newspaper, anil few (d' even 1(MH> pop-
ulation, especially if a county-seat, an- without their weid<iy newspapers.
It has become possible to conduct a rural wei-kly (d' lair )ir<i|iort ions and « itli
(piite readable matter upon a very ccon<imic Itasis. by nu'ans (d' a central office
in some lar.i,'e city. This otiice prints and supplies to the rural offices, of
which it may have hundreds on its list, the two outside paj;es (d' a weeklv.
leaving to the local (dlic-e only the duty of supplying and iirinting on the
inside ]iai,'cs its domestic news.
In the number ol its newspapers and periodicals tin- I'nited States e.isilv
leads the world, t >nly approximate lii,'ures ior the (dose id' the century :ire
at hand; but these, for the I'nited States. !j;ravitate around a toial id L'u.ikhi
newspapers and jicriodicals. while those for other countries whiidi repcu-t are
as follows: Creat Itritain. Il'l".! ; France. 11(1(1; (icrmany. .m(K»; Aiisfria-
nuni,'ary. .".."lOtt; Italy. IKit); Sjiain. iL'tMl; jtussia, S(M»; Sw it/erland. I.'O;
r>(d!,'iiim, .'«»(>: Holland. .">(>(»; Canada. SCiL'. In the report of IS'.tj t..r Initcd
States newspapers ami ]ieriodicals. the billowin,!^ subdivision appears; '»ailics,
run Y
THE CENTURY'S LITEHATUHE
229
every tii'1'1
uii; a K'lciitl.v
■ : till' coiuiii.i^
•(igni/.t'il ;is a
iits not iillicr-
;'\v apiiliaiu'fs
s, typi'sc'ttiiii,'
als, and tlicy
inn ciilVrt'tl hy
lie into licini;
iction <li<l nut
111' that rlass
cast'd ciicula-
is a (li'liatal)lL'
ahlislu'd near
|j;(ildt'n mean
I'luti'd States
witliolll |l|•l■^S
liieted nn llie
Kast, and tlie
wsiiajier iitfice
ramiieil. 'I'lic
liandsiinie ]>ile,
liltiu.i; liive iur
pursuit III' llie
pajier operat('(l
ti'rai-y matter,
iirrespiindi'nce,
1 (•.."»( Ml ; paper.
n has cunie liy
even t(lO<> po].-
ly newspapers.
I'tiiuis and u ith
a <'ential (itlice
ui'id (ittuM's. (d'
's (if a weekly,
rintinj,' nn the
'd States easily
he eentnry av
tdlal <il L'ti.iHHt
hieh repnvt are
."i."i(in; A^l^lria-
itzerland. I.">0:
Sill icir I'nited
[i|iears : ' lailii'S,
is,")."!; tri-weeklies, I".!; senii-wei-klies. L'L'.i ; Weeklies, 14,077 ; bi-weeklies (>L*;
.senii-niiiMtliiies, If'.MI; nainthlies. l.'."»(l| ; bi-iiiuntldii's, "<• ; ipiarterlies, 151".
The States in which nver (ine tlniusaiid newspapers and periodicals are jirinted
are. New \ tirk. with L'ndl ; Illinois, with l."il.'(l; I'ennsylvania, with Utt.S:,
dliio. with I Itis. The States ne.\t i'l order, and with a nundn-r of newspajiers
and periodicals between ."ido and ItMMi, are, Iowa. with!l7.S; .Missouri, with
'.HIT: Indiana, with 7r»;> ; Kansas, with 7.">1.' ; .^(iehi.l,'an. with 7l.'7 ; Massachu-
setts, with (iCii; Texas, with (!.■>(;: Nebraska, with (i.'i'.l; California, with ().'{7 ;
Wisconsin, with A.'il ; .Minnesota, with .VIH.
The lentury's newspaper literature in the I'liited States has been further
char.icterized by the introduction of the conac feature. Theconuc newspaper
came into beiii;;' about, the middle of thi' century, but did not strike a practical
minded people with favor. It was not until the etuitury wa.s well rounded
out that the cartoonist's an<l joker's art <'ame into sufficient demand to make
a iiimic newspaper a commercial success. Kven now their mimber is limited
to a very few that can boast of permanent success.
The daily newsiiajters of the latter part of the century h.ave not been dis-
suaded by earlier attem|)ts to make illustrations a conspicuo\is feature. On
the contrary, newspaper illustration has jjfrown to the proportions of a special
art, and all of the lar.i^cr and better wipiipped dailies have or<,'ani/.ed depart-
ments into whicii are j.;aihi'red |ih(jto,L;raphs and en,i,'ravinjj;s ready for repro-
dnciion as events demand. So the corit'Sjioiulent and reporter have added to
knii;hihood of the pen that of the cauiera, and the scenic view has become an
essential part of serious correspondence and sprightly rejiortinj,'.
An immense, imposing, ami highly useful current of literature Hows
through the magazines, whi(di have, by their miudier, beauty, and adaptation,
come to be a distinguishing featni'c of the niueteeuth century. This class of
literature is usually called •• Periodical." and it embraces the magazines and
reviews devoted to general literature and science, the class magazines devoted
to particular brancln's of science, art. or industry, and the publications of
schools and societies. .Most periodicals ]iublishcd in the Knglish language
are monthlies. The same is true of those |iulilislieil on the continent of
Kurope, save that there the old-fashioned (piarterly style is still much
alVectcd.
I'eriodical literature found a beginning in l-'iance as early as Kili."), in
what is still the nrgan of the French .\cademy. The first Knglish i)eriodical
was published in KiSd. and was hanlly more tiian a catalogue of liooks. The
growth of the ]ieriodical or u)agaziue jirnved to be very slow. I'pto 1800, not
more than eighty had found mentionable existence as scieiditie and technical
periodicals, and only tliiee as strictly literary periodii'als. The advent of "The
Ildiidiurgh Keview," in ISOL', gave gr<!at imjictus to )icriodical literature in
(ireat liiitain. and the period from iSlOto l.S.">(' was one of special develop-
ment, but to 1m' surpassed by that of ISOO to lS70, when the shilling magazine
came into vogue. This class of literature also develo|ieil very rapidly in
l' ranee during the century. Paris having l.'!S| periodicals of all kinds by 1S90.
There was an e(|ually rapid d«'velopment in (Jermany. Austria, ami througli-
oiit tl mtinent.
The Knglish magazine fouml several iiuitators in the I'niteil .States during
the latter par* of the eighteenth century, most of whicli had brief existences.
230
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
>Such was the fatality overhanging tliis class of entcrprisf, that until 1810
but Iwenty-seven ])eiiodi('als could be counted in the I'nited States. While
the ic'xt i'orty years were marked by several magazine successes, sudi as the
"Knickerbocker." "(iraiiani's ^Magazine." and "Putnam's .Monthly," thej
were, nevertheless, strewn with long lines of nu'lancholy wivckage. Inch-eil,
it was not until the luiddle of the century that the demand for inaga/ine liter-
ature liecanic s\iHicii iitly intense to make investment in it inotitable and jier-
luanent. Siiu:e then the development has been ahuv)st ])hetionH'nal, keeiting
even pace with that of the newspaper. At the end of the century the luimber
of monthlies ])ul)lislicd in tlu' L'niteJ States ap))roxim;ites I'SOd; iind there
are over ,")(•() fortnightlies. oti bi-monthlies, a;..i I'.lli (piarterlies. These (iover
the vast dom.aius of general literiiture, religion, scicnci'. art. and industry, and
in many respects vie with the ncwsjiaper in po])uhirity iiiid influence. Miiuy
of them have develo|ied into mayiiitieent properties, wiiose valiu- would apjiear
incomprehensible to our grandfathers. They employ excellent tiilent when
spcciid topics are treated, and rise to occasi<ins of war or other ex<;iteinent
through graphically written iiiid higldv illustrated articles. Indeed, one of
their most imi>n-ssive features is the high degree to which they have carried
the art of illustration. Toward the close of tin- century. perio<licid literature
h;is been greatly cxpamleil ;ind poiadari/.cd by tlie introduction (d' the cheap
magii/iiie. The older iind more dignified periodicals had not thought of jter-
manent and ])rotitable cxi.^tence at a price less tiiau twenty-five to fifty cents
a copy ; but those of the younger and ten-cent class, by dint of wjiat seems to
be a newly discovered eiiterjirise, have found ciieajmess no barrier to commer-
cial success, ^^'ithiu a decade they have duplicated )iatrons of magazine liter-
iiture by the million, ami proven ipiite as clearly as the newspapers have done
that we are a nation of readers.
.I.V.MKS V. lioYU.
'.')'
mtil ISlrt
s. While
iicli as t.ho
ily." thcj
IiuUhhI,
i/iiie litfi'-
l' illlll 1H!V-
.1, kcopiii};
10 imiiibcr
iiiul tliere
lies*! (!()Vor
iiistry, and
36. ]\ljiiiy
iildapju'ur
lent wlu'ii
>x<;itt'iiitMit
vd, Diie of
,v(' rallied
literature
the cheap
j;lit of j)er-
fif'ty cents
it seems to
o eonimor-
azine liter-
have done
'. IJoYU.
THE RECORDS OF THE PAST
TiiK present eeiitiiry has so many distingnishinfi; features tiiat it is a haz-
ardous undertaking to summarize its achievements. All branches of .sciei\ce
— I'hilology. History, Mathenuitie.s, .Medicine. Tlnsology. and rhUosophy —
iiave felt tlie stimulating iiiHuenee <d' a new s|)irit that made its appearance
after the Kreiich Itevolution. New methods of investigation have not only
led l() profoiind muditication of views in all depai'tnuMits of science, but have
brought aiiout considerable additions to tlu; sum of human knowledge. In the
domain of natural science, the discovery of new jirinciplos and (if hitherto
unknown forces has widened the horizon of humanity and (sreated new nu-n-
tal disciidincs ; but while perhaps less coiispi(uious. because not so directly con-
nected witli tlu' actual concerns and needs of the ])resent, the fertility of his-
torical researcli during this century is not less remarkable. The larger area
now embraced under the caption " history of mankind " furnishes the best
proof lor the success tliat lias signalized the lab(n's of scholars — jthilologists,
Idstorians. and explorers — devoted to the study of tlu; past. Aiu'ient history
no longer begins with the (Jreeks or the Hebrews. Its ri'iiaiii limits have
licen removed to as remote a date as .'{OOO ii. c, while the anthropologist,
supiilementiiig the wiu-k of the historian, has furnished a jucture in detail of
the life led by man in various ipiarters ot tiie globe during that iudetinite
period which preceded tiie rise of culture in the true sense of the word. This
extension of knowledge in the domain of human histor}' is primarily diu' to
the spade of the explorer, tiiough it recpiired the patience and ingenuity of
the philologist and ar(dia'ologist tii interpret the material furnished in abun-
dance l)y the soil that liappily lu-escrved the records of lost empires. Docu-
ments in stone, clay, and papyrus have been brought forth from their h>ng
resting-places to testify to the anti(iuity and sjilendor of hunuui culture. I»y
the side of written reeoi'ds, moiuiments of early civilization liave been dug
up, jialaces, forts, and temples tilled with works of art and skill, to confirm
by their testimony the story preserved l)y those wlio belonged to the age of
which they wrote.
l!i;si:.\n<'iiKs i\ .Mksoi-otamia. — Tiie archa-ological researches conducted
ibiring this ciuitury have detinitcly established the fact that the earliest
civilizations flourished in the Valley of the Euphrates and in the district
of the Nile. I'ntil the beginning of this century. Kgypt, liabylonia, and
As.syria were little more than nanu's. The spirit of skepticism which
acM'ompanies the keen desire lor investigation led scholars to ([Ui'stion the
tales found in classical writers of the great achievcmeids of the Babylonians
and Kgyi)tians At the l)eginning of this century scarcely a vestige remained
of the cities of ancient .Mesopotamia. The site of Nineveh was unknown, and
that (d' ISabyloii was in dispute. A i>rolound sensation was created when, in
ISH', r. K. Bottu. the French Consul at Mosul, discovered the remains of a
1
232 TRIL'MJ'HS AM) WOXDEHS OF THE A/.V" CENTURY
palace benoatli a iiiuihkI at Kiioisivliad. scimc miles to tlr- iimtli of ^losul on
tht fast bank of tlio 'rij,'ris. liotta's discovcrv marked tlic lu'giimiii^' of an
activity and cx|il(iiatioii in .Mt'soiiotaniia wliicli continues to tiic present itay.
At tirst tiie excavations were confined to tiie
mounds in the nortii, in winch tlie jiaiaces of
tlic ^leat Assyrian kinj^s. Siir);on. Ksarhad-
don. Sennaciiarib and Asurbanil)al (or Sar-
danajiiilus as lie was cidled l)y (Jrcek writers)
were luiearthed, as well as the jjreat sacred
edifices tliat formed one of the <^lories of an-
cient Assyria. 'I'lie hnildinj^s exhinned abound
in lonj; series of s(Mdiiturcd slabs, on wiiich
arc dei)icttd incidents in the ciim|iaij,'ns of the
kiM!,'s and in their private life. Historical
records on stone au'l clity furnished the needed
details in illustration of the scenes, and lastly,
litcriiry remains in i)roi'usion were fouinl,
which revealed the intellectual life and reli-
gious aspiiations of the masses and of the sec-
ular and religious leaders. 'I'o ICngland and
France belongs the glory of these early explo-
rations. Through liotta and Sir Aust<'n I lenry
Layard. the ancient cities (d' Nineveh. Calah,
and Ashur. were rediscovered. Hut as the
field of activity extended to the niouiuls in tlie
south, in the N'allcy of the ICnphrates, otlu-r
countries, notably (ierniany and the I'nited
States, joined in the work. The excavation
of the remains of the city of Habylon were
first conducted by Sir Henry Jxawlinson in
]So4, anil much work was afterward done
by Hormuzd Rassiim ; but the most notalde
achievements of recent years arc the excava-
tions conducted by DeS.arzec, under the aus-
pices of the l'"rencii (Jovernmeiit. at Telloh,
from ISXI to iSJt,"). and those of the Univer-
sity of I'enusylvania at Nipjnir. in'gnn in
iSSS, and which are still going on.
Through these excavations the history of
Haliyionia has lieen carried back to the fourth
milleniuni n. < .. and while there are still some
important gaps to lie tilled out, the course (»f
events in I'.abylnnia anil Assyria from this
remote period down to the year .">S7 w. ( .. when
Cyrus the .Mede established a new empire on
the ruins of liabylonia .mil .\ssyria. is tolerably
clear. Hand in hand with the excavations has gone the decipherment of the
inscriptions found in such abundance beneath the mounds. Un elay, stone,
and metals, rulers in.scribed records of their reigns; and added to pictorial
THK "lll.M K OIIKI.ISK OK sUAI.
M.^XKSKIt II., KlXd OK AssYUIA
U. r. S(50-H-J4.
(Uriti)>h MiiHCuni.l
uHr
of Mosul on
inning' of iiii
inest'iit iiav.
iiiiuftl to tlic
ic imluces of
III. l'-siirli;ul-
liiil (or Sai-
•fck writt'i's)
f^rt'ut siicrt'il
lories of aii-
luiu'il alumiid
lis. on wliii'li
liai]i;iis of till'
Historical
(I the iiccdt'il
s, and lastly.
wert' found,
life and ndi-
id of the see-
iMi<;land an<l
• early explo-
lusteii Henry
leveli. Calali,
lint as the
iiounds in the
ihrates, other
I the Uniteil
le oxeavation
'.abylon were
Kawlinson in
terward done
most notalile
•e the excava-
nder the ans-
nt. at Tellol',
f the L'niver-
nir. hemiu in
»n.
lie history of
; to the fourth
art' still some
the coarse of
ria from this
■|S7 II. t .. w hen
lew ein|iire on
ia. is toleralily
erment of the
)u clay, stone,
ed to pictorial
nil-: •• MOAIIITK STONK." Altrn'T li. e. N.")(>.
iPifl'lit, AflliitHni nf' tin l.>'HI'l-i.)
MHiiiiiiiiiit ili.liiiiti'il I" till' K<"1 K'iiir~li liv ^fl•-llil. kin;: "f Moali li Kind's -I :4 iT.i, In rin.nl his
viiinry civcrllii' l-iiii'lili- in tln' iliiy- t>i Aliali, ami llic n-tinatinii nf iili4'< ami nilnr wnrk- "liich
111- iimlrrtiMik liy ri.mniiml of li:« ;.'"il. I'lic ~I , wliirli nua-nn- -1 ft. Id in. X i ft. X 14] in., and
rniilain- :i4 Mi f in>rri|i'i.ni In llir '-o-cajliil riii'iiiiiaii iliaraitir. \va^ fniiinl at |l|l>aii itlii' liililical
l>il"iii, \iini.2l ::i(i: :i'.> :.14. rtr.i, in lln- laiiil nf Moali. Ii.v llir tiirinan. I!rv. 1'. KNin. in lfiii8.
rnfnrlnnalily. mhiIi altriwanl it was limkrii in |miic-. Iiv tlii' .\r.ili<. lint aliniit twn tliir<l> "f llip
fraj,'iiniit- wcrr nriivni il liy tln' rninliniaii. ( li inmnt-tJaniii-an. .iml it i> |iM.>ili|i. tn j,'ive u nearly
tninpliti' text nf \\\v in'-<'ri|itiii|i Iroiii the iia|nr iiiiiiri'sinii wlilrli \\i\* laki-ii liffiirc llii; stoiK." wax
liiokin.
THE liKconns OF Tin-: past
illustriitioiis jiccoimts of tlu-ir ;u liitvciniMits in war as well as in tin- internal
ini|iiiiv<'nn'nts ol tlicii cmiiiri's. Clay, sn n-ailily fnrnisliftl liy tlic soil, liccanio
tli<! onlinary writing niatcriul liotli in Kaliytonia and in Assyria, and in thu
(•((nrsc lit tinif an fxtcnsivi- library, cnibrarinj,' hymns and prayers, onn-ns and
|i<>rtents. I'pies, inytlis. le},'ends, and creatiiin stories, arose. Inevi-ry impor-
tant centre there j,Mtliered around the temples bodies of |)riests devoted to th«
preservati"-'.! and ti." extension of this literature. As.syriau (lulture beiu},' but
u?i otTs!.oot of the eivilization in the south, As.syria ieai>ed tiie l)enetit (»f
the literary work aeeomplished by the scribes of IJabylonia. and the most
extensive e(dle(ftion of the literary remains of liabylonia has come to us from
a library collfcted throie.,'li the exertions of Asurband)al. and di.scovered in
IcSllI by Layard in the ruins id that kind's palace at Nineveh.
The basis for the decipherment of the (miieiform inscriptions, jus they are
called from the wed},'e-shaped characters, wius laid by (teorj,'e V. (Irotefend
early in this century, whose system was further worked out with great
ingenuity by Kdward Ilincks, •luU>sO|)pert, and Sir Henry Kawlinmin. These
pioneers liavc been succeeded by a large coterie of scholars in all jiarts id' the
world, wh<» are still bu.sy studying the large amount of material now forth-
coming for the ehicidatioii of the past. Not merely have wv learned much of
the public and ottlcial events and religious ideas an<l customs during the
period covered by the IJabylonian and Assyrian lOmpires, but through
thousands of little clay tablets that forme<l the legal and commercial arcdiives
dejiosited tor safe keeping in the temjtles, an insight into the life of the
people has been obtained, of their occupation, of their business entt'rprise and
commercial methods, and of many phases of 8<W'ial life, such as the ])osition
of women and slaves, of tl'e manner in which marriages were contracted and
wills drawn up. i'erhaps the most characteristic feature of tlm remarkabh'
I'ivilization that arose in the Valley of the Kupiirates is the domimition of the
]>riesthood over all except the purely ]iolitical interests of the peo])le. Thus
the pi'iests, as sci'ibes, as judges, a? astronomers, as physicians, brought that
civilization to its high degree of excellence, while nniler their guidance,
likewise, the religion of the coimtry developed from a crude nature worshi|)
to an approach to a monotheistic conception of the univers<'. Tht; heir id'
the Haliylono-.Vssyriau emiiire was I'ersia. whiidi. from the days of Cynis till
the advent i>\' .Vlexander. swayed the fortunes of the ancie'it world. In all
that pertains to art and architecture. I'ersia renuiined larg(dy dependent ujKm
liabylonia. Kxtcnsive excavations conducted at Susa by Dieidafoy, about ten
years ago, and ipiit(! recently continued by ,M. de Morgan, have |)roved most
successful in revealing the geni'ral nature and interior decoration of the
great roy.il palace at that place. In brilliaid coliu'ing of the brick tiles which,
as in IJabylonia, formed the common building material, the i'ersians pas.sed
beyond the Itabylonians ami .\ssyrians. One of the most interesting rooms
in the [.ouvre at I'aris is that devoted to the exhibition of tlie colored wall
decorations fiom the palace at S\isa, represeiding such various designs as a
Id-oce.ssion of archers and a series of lions. The columns still .standing at
I'ersepolis have long been lamous ; and it is here likewise that the; first
cuneibu'm inscriptions were found whitdi, coucln'd in Persian, Median, and
.Vssyrian. formed the p^iint of dcpart\ire for the decipherment of cuneiform
scripts.
i
Hli
li.'«4
THiUMriis A\n noMt/:its of tuk x/.\"> cKMiuy
KiiVI'ir AX ljKSKAI(rlli:i
'I'lii- iMviliziitioii nl I'luyi"'^ rivals in aj,'i' ami
j{niinliMir that of 'n Ionia a:il .Vssvria. llcic, wilurssfs to tin- past tliat
survivfd in tlip sliaiic i>t niidisks and lAianiitls ^-.wr scliolais in this ccntniy
a giMxl start in tin- work nt iiniavclint,' tht- lascinatiii;,' nanativc nt K>,'y|itian
liistdiy. Notwithstanding' this, onr pii'Sfnt knowh'di,'o (d tht- Instorv is dn*-
hii'mdy to tlif n-niaikalih- scries <d' i-xcavations w iiuii iiavi- hn-n cnnductcd
ill rpiMT and LtiwtT l*lK\pt siii''t' tlic early decades (d tiiis eeiitniy, and
wliicli contiiine witli nnahated activity at the present tiinc Tlie stiinuins to
Kj^yptiaii rcseandi was j^ivcn by Napoleon in IT'.'N. who, when setting; out
U]Miii his Kj;yptian expedition, added to Ir.s stall a hand id s(diolars entrusted
with the task of studyin<; and |ireparin^ tor puldication the remains uf
aiitiiiuitv
The rcsidt was a nionunieiital work that t'oinis the loumlation of
UK
Hlerii K^;ypttdoi;ical studies. Another direct outcome (d' the •'Xpedition
wa.s till' discovery ol the luiuous Kosetta stone, in \~WK which, containiiij;
.'I liieroj,dyphie inscription accompanied by a (ii'cek translation, served as
tlie basi.«. tot a t ru>tw(ulliy system of deciplu'riuent of the ancient lan;,'uaj{e
of the Nile. The iTeiu-liman. .lean Kraiu/ois Clianipollion. and the l''.n<;lish-
nian. l)v. 'I'hoinas N'oiiuf,'. share the honor id' havin;; found the key that
unlocked till- mystery of the liieroi,'lyphic scrijit. As in the case ot
ISubylonian arclia-olo<,'y. so here, excavations and decipherment went hand in
liand. .\ few years after the advent of liotta at Mosul, Mariette inau'^'urated
in Kj^ypt a series of brilliant excavations under the auspices id the l-'rench
i^overniiient. AiMiiit the same time the (iermaii ,t;overiiineut sent Itiidiard
[..epsius on an expedition to iCj^ypt, which resulteil in the establishment of a
laru'c lOjiyptian Museum at lieilin. In ISS.'I ilni^daiid I'litered the liehl thiou,i;ii
the formation of the lv.;yptian i'^xploration l''unil, and since that time a lar^e
niimU'r of i-ities in Lower I'-kM'^- '" the l-'ayum district, and in rpjier l',i,'ypt
liave Ix-en unearthed. \'car after year \V. I'linders I'etrie. Kdouard Naville.
I". I,, (irittith. and others have ijjoiie to Kj,'ypt and returned richly laden with
material that has found its way to the .Museum at (ihi/eli. to the ISritish
Museum, to Hoston. to New \'ork. ami to the Museum of the I'liiversity of
Pennsylvania. The activity of the i-'rench was coiitinuiMl after the death
of Mariette. throuf^h (iaston .Maspero. jv (ireliaut. .1. l>e.Mori;an and K.
-Vmeliiieau. so that the mass of material at present available for K,i,'yptolo,i^ists
is exceedini;ly lari,'e.
The cities of .Memphis and 'l"liel»'s have naturally come in for a larjje shaiv
<d these excavations. Through the texts discovered within the pyramids at
TheU's and the surroundin;,' district, the history of the early dynasties was
for the tirst time revealed. .\t lialas and Naj;adali. a sl^ort distance to the
iiortli of Meiii]ihis. the excavations have brought us face to face with the
indi;.,'enous |H.pulatiiin (d' the Nile that maintained its primitive custnins lonj^
after those who founiled the real Kgyptian l''.mpire had established themxdves
ill the eimntry. In the district of the Kayuiu, notably around .\rsinoe. at
Hawar.i. Illahun. and (Jurob, tra(;es of e.irly foieit,Mi iuHuence — I'hienician
and (ireek — were discovered, while in Lower Ktiyi)t the towns of Naukiatis
and Taiiis represent extensive (Jreek settlements made in Kgypt as early,
at least, -is the seventh centurv n.
Throui,'h the ma-'niticent illustrations
in the tombs of I>eid-IIassan. which have recently been "arefully co|iied by
Hnglish artists, almost all phases of ancient Kgyjitian life have been revealed.
CHY
in ii^'i- iuui
!«• (tast that
tliis cfiitiiiy
(li KK'y|itiai»
istm V is dm-
'11 COlllhll'ttMl
ii-ntmv, ami
V stiiniiliiN to
I si-tliii^ out
irs fiitiiistfd
innaiiis of
oumlatioii of
« fXiH-ditioii
h. containing'
n. scivfd as
i-nt lan^'uaj,'!'
till' Kiii,'lisli-
llii- ki'V thai
lit' case of
•<Mit liaiid ill
inaiij^iiratt'd
tlic Krciicli
■lit Iviiliaiil
.isliiiu'iit of a
• titdd tliioiinh
it tinif a laii,'«'
llilici K!,'y|it
oiianl Navillf,
ld\ ladi'ii witli
to tii<> Itiitisli
r iiivcrsity of
tttT tin- dt-ath
lort;aii and K.
K};y|itoloj;ists
V a lari;f sliaii*
ic i>\ raiiiids at
ilynastit's was
distancf to tlif
face with thi'
(■ cnstoiiis ioiifj
h<'d thciiisi'lvfs
nil Arsiiiof. at
( I'hoMiiriaii
IS of N'aiikiatis
•'k'yi't as early,
it illustrations
luUy copied by
• liccn revealed.
7,
a'
■■•1
'j:t*>
iniUMi'iis \M> u().\i>/:iis or riii-: xix"' ikstijuy
TIidukIi ilatiiij,' lioiii tlnM'li"Vfiitli iiiul twfUtli (lyiia«ti»'s. tin- |piitiiri' tlint tlicy
iilToi'il a|(|ili<-s to railifi- iiml lati-r |N>i'iiHls us wi-ll. 'I'liiis, tliioii^'li tlir wmk
<iiii I' in .ill |iart ' <it tlic amiiMit < iii|iii'f, the liiik^ uniting' tli irlii'st |iri'iuil
Ui tin' sway (if till' i'tuluinio and tin- invasiim ol tin- Ijunians liavf in'cn
ili'ti'iinincd. Wonilfitiii rlia|it(>i'.s, n'|il«<ti' with intcrcHt, have liicn ihIiIiiI ti>
till' liistiiiy (if niaiikitiil, ami tiiniif^'li niiicli remains tu Ih' ilmii', we art' nnu-li
nrari'i' tu a ^.l•llltitln tliaiK'Vi-r lii'tni')' nt' tliat tiiust iiii|i(ii'taiil |ii'iilili'iii as ti> the
oiij,'in (if X\w niystcrinns K^'y|itian ciiltur.'. We kmiw iur a ci'itainty that
wlii'ii till' Kj,'yiitiaiis canif tn the ri't^ion nf the Nile, they fdiiml a fertile
(listi'ii't |Mi|iulateil liy a |ii'ii|ile. or liv 'p;rou|)s of |ii'o|ili', that. Iiail alieailN iiiaile
Honio progress on the road to civili/ation. thoiij^li not yet knowiii;^ the use
of metals. The Asiatic ori;;in of the l'')^y|itians is re^Mideil as clearly estal)-
lislicd hy so eminent an arelia-oloj^ist as .M. DcMor^^an. tlioii^'li it is likely
that his views will Im- somewhat nioditied hy fiiither research. 'I'lie infu-
sion of <ireek ideas, we now know. U-^jins at a much earlier aj,'e than was
formerly sii|i]iosed. so that it Ix-comes less of a smprise to liiid. even lieloi-e
the advent of Alexander, consideralile iMirtions of ICj^ypt alisoilied hy foniLjn
.settlers.
A noteworthy feature of arclia-olo^dcal work in KK.V|'t dnrinj,' the past
(h'ca(h' has heen the discovery of a va.st amount of papyri contamiicj; loiiLf
lost portions of (Jreek literature. The famous work of .Vristotle on the
Constitution of .Vthensand the |Ki<Mnsof ltaccli\ lides nuiy i)e mentioned as thi;
most notahle aiiioni; these diseoveries. and the sourees from whence these
treasures have come seeui still far from lieini^ exhausted.
(JuKKK Kiixs. — Tho mention of (Jreek literature leads one iiaturally t(>
Hpeak of the work (huie in this century in that land which stands so much
nearer to us and to modern culture in jjeneral than cither jialiylonia or Kj;ypt.
While, thanks to tiip activity and industry of (i reek and It'oman historians,
tln> records of the inspiring liistorv of the (Ireek states diuiiii,' their mnsh
fjlorioiis epoch are well preserved, the earlier periods were enveloped in doiilit
and obscurity, while of the remains ot (Jreere, of lier beautiful temples and
her famous works of art, c Miiparatively few vesti^^cs remained above the soil.
The most notable of these were tlie I'arthenon and the Krechthcum. with
their works of art, that .sto(Kl on the .Veropolis, and it is precisely here that
some of the most remarkable arclueohv^ical discoveries of the centiiiv were
made. The I'arthenon da»es from that j^lorious period in the history of
.\t!i( lis which follows in the wake of disasters in the fifth century, when
the rcrsians entered the city and laid waste its beauties. The earlier .\tlicns,
which reached its /.eiiiili in the days of I'isistratiis, has been brou^dit to light
tliioiigh the excavations cmdiicted by the (ireeks themselves. In ISSL' a
systematic excavation of the Acrojiolis. under the aiisjiices of the (ii-eek
Arclui'iilogical Society, was JK'gun. The foundations of the ancient 'I'emple of
Atliciia that stood close to the modern I'artheimn were discovered, and
nuiiicious works of art, statues, fragment.s, pediments, liases and vases, dating
from the earlier jieriod, by mean.s of which we are enabled to trace the
development <:f Athenian sculpture from the rough beginning.s to the
lierl'cction that it reached in the days of I'hidias. The style of these earlier
works differs totally from that which we had hitherto been accustomed to
regaril as the type of Aihenian art. and yet even the rudest of the earlier
i i:srunY
I' |iirtun> that tlirv
tln'oii^'li till- wiii'k
tlir t'iirlirsf |ii'l'i<iil
Itnllllins lliivi- I II
lavi- lit'tMi iulilfil til
lidif, we iilc liillcli
t |ii'iilili'iii as tit tlic
1)1' a ci'itaiiily that
r.v tiiiiiiil a Icrtih'
liail ali't'aily iiiaih>
, kiHiwin^r till' iisf
il as fh'ai'ly fslal)-
lliiiii^,'li it is liki'lv
scaii'h. The iiitii-
rlicr aj,'(' tliaii was
III liiiil, *>s'iMi iM'tiirc
lisiii'lii'il iiy lnrfij^'ii
it ihiriii^ the past
li I'i'iitaiiiiiij,' iuiii,'
I Alislntli' nil thi-
M- iiifiitiniiiMl as thf
rmii whciiri- thi'si'
Is oiif iialiiially to
I'll stands sii iiiiicli
•aiiyhniia nr Ivi^ypt.
Ikdiiiaii histdi'iaiis,
(hiriiiL; their iiinst
i'iivflii|it>il ill ihiiiht
iitil'iil tciniih's ami
iii'il aliiivc tilt' siiij.
Kii'dithfiiiii. witii
jin'riscly hfic that
I tin- rciitiny wiTi'
ill tlic liistiiiy lit
iltli cciitiiry. wiicii
rhccailit-r Atiit'iis.
•11 hi(iiii,'iit to ii<,'ht
flvi's. Ill I SSL' a
iiM's ul' till' (iii'i'k
uiicit'iit 'iViii|iIc 111
I' (liscovcn'ti, aiiii
s ami vasi's. datiii'/
lilt'd to trai'f till'
)C},'i:iiiiiig.s til till'
kir (if tiit'sc cailiiT
I't'ii acc'iistoini'd tn
dt'st of till- i-ailicr
IIIK llECOniiS or I HE I'.IST
•j;i7
latiK's jKisst'ss ali'i'iidy smiii' ul that chanii whirli is sn slriiii;;i\ it'll in tint
wiiiks iif th)> Inter |H'i'ii>il. Must ii'iiiaikaiiii', |M'i'ha|i.s, aiiiuiig tin- ri'iiiains nf
1 lit' I'iirlifr Athi'iiiiiiis are a lar^,'i' series ul tij,'iires liial a|i|iear tu liavf lieen set
i:|i in rows williiii the 'rein|ilt' ul Athena. It is thiun^h these li;4iii'i's, ilatini.;
innii variiiiis jteriods, that wf are U'st itMe tu ti'iic'«> the evuliitiun of (ireek
.III. TlieN are iimiiifstiunaliiy Milisf uff 'rin>,'s, the ^,Mfl uf laitlifnl fulluwers
III .\thi'na, and, while iiiteiideil |iiuliali!. as rt'|iresentatiuiis uf the ^utldess
liersi'll, Imt little care was taken tu ^i' e the ^iiildesH thuse aeeuiit|iiiniiiieiils
III dress and urnaiiieiit which are never aliseiit in the liest s|iecinieiis uf tint
later |ieriuil. .\s a result uf these exfavatiuns un the .Veruiiulis. aith'd liy tint
iiivt ^ti^Mliuns uf numeruns schiilars. aiuuii^ whuni Kriist ('iirtins and William
l>iiei|ifi'lil merit special iiH'iitiuti, the entire plan uf tint little sacred city that
.^tiiiiil till the .Vi'i'iipiilis can iiuw he traced in detail, t'lie cuiistriietiun ul the
lieantifnl I'lupyhea hy .Mnesicles, uf which reniains are still tu lie hccii. has
lieeii dcteriiiiiied. ami variuiis temples tu .Xthciia. wurshiped under th«
ililfereiit Ionises that she assnined, have lieeii iliscuveied. 'I'lie place where
till' 1,'reat liriiii/.e statue uf Athena, une uf the master wurks uf I'liiilias, sttiuil,
has iieeii tixed. and thruiii^hthe inscriptiuiis fuiiml un the Acrupulis, nunieruus
prulileins uf (ireek histury have lieeii suhcd. Kvery one kiiuws the story of
the l'".li,'in marliles that luice furiiieil the decuratiun uf the frie/es of the
rarlheiiuii, and which in the early part of this ceiitiiry were hrunght io
Luiidoii liy i.urd Kl;,'in. That act. tliuiij;li fieipieiitly tleiioiim-cd ua a piece ot
\andalisiii. has pmlialilv dune inure tu arouse an interest in (ireek archieo|u>,'y
tlirun,i;liuiit ICnrupe than anythiiii.,' else. Kveii the iiidi|;iiatioii which horil
i;i^'iii's act provoked has served a j^ooil purpose, imt mily in leadiiif^ (Jrecce to
take liciter care III her ^reat treasures, hut in indncin;.^ schulars uf Kiis.jlaml,
I'laiice. liermany, ami the riiiled States tu estalilish, in .\tliens. aruhitectnial
.schiiols where youiij; ari'hieuloj^ists may lie trained, and where expeditions
can lie iirs^'aiii/eil fur the systematic investigation of the iinmeruns cities uf
ancient (ireece and the snrrunndiii^' islands. 'I'lie must impurtaiit wurk done
thruui,'li these schools is the excavation of (Hymjiia liy the (Jermiins, and of
Deliis ami of Delphi liy the French, while only sunie de^jrces less nuticealile is
the wurk dune hy a zealuns (ireek. M. Carpanus. at Dudoiia. by the (ireek
.Society at Kleiisis. I'^pidaiirus. and 'l'anania. and by the .\nitn-icaii School at
ICretria and at .\i}.;os. .\t ( Uympia the discovery uf the jj;reat 'I'eiiipk' to
Zens, the ^'land theatre in which the laniuns <,'ames tuuk place, the nunieruus
shrines erected in lionor of various ih'ities that heloiij; to the irourt of Zeus,
ami of hundreds of votive inscriptions ciimnieiuoratini; the victors' in the
ijanies, have enaliletl scholars to resturc fur us the ancient j^luries of the
)ilace. ami tu trace the histury of the sacred city tliruu,!,di its period uf t,'liiry
til its decline ami fall, 'i'he master work of antiipiity, the j;iililen statue uf
Zens iiiaile liy I'hidias. is. alas I furever lust, hut it was at Olynipia that
the (icinians iniiml the wiiiideifnl statue uf Heinii's liy Praxiteles, a find that
in itself was worth the inilliun marks s|>ent hy the (iernian j,'uvernnu'nt as a
triliiite to ancient (Ireeee. .\t Delus and Delphi, the careful work done liy
the l''rench has adiled to our material furtracins; the cuurse uf (ireek relii,diiii.
Next to Olynipia there is, perhaps, no place in ancient (ireece which had such
a straiifje hold upon the iieople as the seat of the j^reat omcle at the foot of
Mount rarnassiis. The wurk at Delphi is still proj,'re,ssiiij,', but enough ha.s
SOS
TRIUMPHS AND WOSinUlS OF THE X/X'" (liSTlJItY
Vm'Oii found to justify tin- ^it'ut it'imtation nl tliis rclijjioiis ci'iitic in iincitMit
tiinos. Wo can now truviM'st^ onct! aj?iiin the sacrnl way It-ading past
numcrons builtlinf,'s to tlif ^Tcat slirino of Apollo, and to tlic cave from wliicli
the I'ytliian prifsti-ss olitaincd licr inspiration. iM'Wt'i' woiUs ol' art liavc
Immmi discovcnul \wyv tlian in Olynipia. (lionf,'ii pcrliapH the .soil still harhors
trcasurt's which ihc coniinj,' years may reveal.
'I'iie worship ot Demeter anil i\w nature ol' the ICleusinian mysteries are
much clearer since tlie sneeessl'ul excavations that were conducted at Kleiisis.
'rana'.;ra is of interest lieeause of the clay lii,Mirines, tiie nianufaeture of
which was one of tin; specialties of ancient I'Keotia. 'riiose li^nres, prepared
jiartly from religious motives, partly as a trilmte to the dead, are valnalile as
ilhn.trations nf popidar customs, (ii'cat credit is due to tin; .\inerican school
for the thoriinvj;h luaiOK-r in which excavations have iieen coiiduittcd liy it, and
while the results are not as striking' as in .sonn' other places, so fumlamental
a prohii-m as the arraiif^emcnt of thetireek theatre, which has l)een entraj^inj,'
the attention of an^ineolonists lor ihe past decade, has heen l(rout,'ht neai-cr to
its solutio:: throu<;h excavations at I'jetria. .\t .Vrgos a head of Hera was
diseovereil. which is now '■■■lous as one of the hest specimens of tin'
I'olyeletau school.
No sketch of (ireek ai('ha-oloL,'y. however brief, woidd he complete witlnmt
mention of a man who exhiliiti-d sin;^'ular devotion and rare enthusiasm for
the study of the past. Ileinrich Schliemann, liy dint of individual elYort, laid
i)are the remains of prc-(Jrecian t ivili/.ation at .Mvcena' and 'i'iryns, and,
prompted liy a t'i'-ory which for a lonii^ time provoked nanijlit hut ridicule,
devoted many years an<l a lari^e fortune to excavations at Hissarlik, on the
coast ot ,\sia Minor, wh li. he hclieved. was the scene of the Trojan War.
At the latter place no less than nine cities, erected one above the ruins of the
other, have been found, but tin' theory of Schliemann which identified tin
second layer with ancient Troy, afterward known to the (ireeks as Ilium, has
Ih'cu shown to be false. It is the sixth Layer that represents the ruins of
HonuM-'s Troy. At the saiiie time, it must be renuMnbered that the Honn>rie
poems, while based upon historic events, are not history, and the attempt to
test their supposed hist(U'ical accuracy by the results of excavations is now
re>,'ar(h'd by (Jreek stuih'iits as futile and un.scientihe. I»ut this view in no
way diminishes thi' credit iUw to .Schliemann, who not oidy did more to stir
up popidar interest in ancient (irci'ce than any other man livinj,'. but has illu-
minated the early chapters of (ireek history which were almost unknown io
the scholars of this ceulniy. Il now appears that IMio-nicnan traders, sett lin;^
on the I'oast of Asia .Minoi' and in districts adjaceni to tin; islands of the
/Kj{ean sea and harbors, which fui'inshed a refuj^e for their ships, j;ave the
first impulse to (ireek art. and. altiioie^h they wei-i- outdistanced bv their ajit
pupils. Ihe traces of i'lueniciaii intlueni-e icmain in (ireek ar(ddlecture, and
more particularly in (irci'k cults, down to the latest times. Ajtart from the
direct bearin;^s (d' the excavations condncted in various parts (d' (ii'eeee u|ion
the development of (ireek art, the most important ri'sidls id the work consist
in the vast iiuirease of material for (ireek history, wh'eh is now beini,'
rewrittei\ on the basis of the many thousands of inscriptions that have been
found in the <,'reat centres of ancient (ireece, ,\s the work of excavation
continues, each year l)riiii,'s its ijuola of new tacts, and it is sale to predict
'KNTIJUY
(ioiitn- in iiiicieiit
\-;\y It'inliii}^ piisf.
cave t'lom wliicli
uiks (if art. have
soil still harhms
ian iiiystorit's arc
(liu'tcd at KltMisis.
' inamitat'tiuc nt
fii,'iirt's, prt'iiaifii
1(1. arc valual)l(' as
> AiiH'ricaii school
lidiic.tcd liy it, ai\(l
s, so t'uii(laiiiciital
lias been cn^'aj^in.i,'
lironf^lit nearer to
licad ol' llera was
specimens ol the
complete withiiut
re ciitlmsiasm lor
iividnal cft'ort, laid
and Tiryns, and.
ii|,dit hut ridicule.
I llissarlik, on the
the Trojan War.
;•(' the ruins ol the
lich idcntitied tin
ceks as Ilium. h:is
'sents the ruins of
that th(i lIonn'ri(?
ind the attempt to
.vcavalions is now
\it this view in no
ly did more to stir
ivin.LC. hut has illu-
dmost unknown to
an traders, .settling
th(! islands (d' the
i'ir ships. gav(^ tlu?
ranced liy their a)it
k architecture, and
i. Apart trom the
its (d' (Jrecce u|i(in
d the work consist
h'(di is now l»ciui;
nns that have been
k'ork ol' excavation
it is sate to predict
THE RECORDS OF THE /'AST
a;«>
t.hat tho recovpry of ancient (ireect! will be not(»(l in future ages as one of the
most notable a(!hicvenu'nts of the nineteenth century.
I'liojNioiAx UriNs. — With Kgypt, ISabylonia, and (Jreece we are still far
from having exhausted tlu^ fi(dd covered by archaHtlogy in this century. At
Cyprus much has been done b}- Lulir, Cesiiola, and (Hinefalsch-Uichtcr. Tlie
•ities (d Cyprus are interesting as lorinin'4 a me(>ting-ground for such various
rivilizations as I'lio-incian. Hgypliaii. Prolo-tirecian. and to a linnteil extent
ISabylono-Assyrian. The rcsidt is a (uirious mixture (d' art and (d' eipially
strange syn(;retism in religious rites, ll is one (d' the disapitointnu-nts of
scholars that we as yet know so little of the I'hicnicians who play.'d siu-h an
important role in hist(ny. The traces of this people of wanderers and
L'lO
TtUrMrilS AMI WO.XJtKHS of Tllli A/.V" CHSTrUY
iiii'i'cliiUits liavi' lii'i'ii IniiMil ill toiiilis ami vnti\r iiisci'i|ili(iiis tlirnii^luiiit tlit-
lands hoidciiiit; nii tin' .Mrditci lani-aii. in Noillu'iii Atrica. in Stuillicin Spain,
in Sicilv. Malta. Asia .Miimr, ('\ |iriis. Ciclc. italv. and im-ii Sontln'in I'lanci';
but ill I'liii'iiitia itscli' imt lew iiiscri|>liini.s liavi- iii'i",i niifaitlii'd, and onlv
si-aiity rt'iiiaiiis nl tin- iiii|M)itan! cities of Sidun and I'yn', wliicli (nicc
Hoiirisht>d dii llic loast (d tin- .Mcdittiiaiifan. 'I'lif lali- ol' tlii'sc cilio.
sulijcctt'd in the fonrsi' nl (•mtiiiics In su many dilTi'icnl |inw(Ms, is a sad
one. Aliniist I'vcrylldiij^' that licion.ui'd to a lii;.,di ani ii|nity lias disa|i|M'ai'('d.
and siifli scanty fxcavations as liavc liccii iiiidtM'taki'ii, the most iitit.alilc id
wliicli is tliat of (iii-cl-Awamid l«y the late Kiiii'st K'eii.in. in l.Slll. have lieeii
(d' little \alne. 'roinlis have lieen discovered, liiit only lew id' llieiii lielon^ to
the riheiiician |>eiiod in the proper sense. The Siifcopliaj^iLs of I'lsliniiinazar,
kins,' of .Sidon. with a loiit; riHenieian inscription, is however a most notalile
nionnment amlid' ucrcat historical importance. i!iit the nio>t reiiiarkaiile tind
witliin the limits id' amdent riiieMiida was made a few year.s ajjo liy iiiiindi
J>ey under the auspices id' the 'I'lirkish government. In the necropolis at
Sidon a series of sarcophai;! wci-e nncarthed wliiidi, lieloiigiiii,' tothetn-cck
jieriod, are valiialdeas liirnishin,!,' a siiecimen (d' the art ol (ireece transphiiite<l
ill loreij.;n soil.
iJKsK.Mii iii:s IN rAi,i:sTi\i:. — .\ncieiit I'alestiiie, likewise, so full ol sacred
recollections for millions, has liecn (diary of yielding up the treasures wiiicdi
tlieri' is every rea.soii to lieliovc still lie somewhere lii-iieath the soil. In lS7n,
a stone was ioiind in the land id' .Moali which commeimuatcd the victory id
KiiiL,' .Mesha over Israel, ahout S."i(» ii. i .. and forms one of the most valiialile
monuments lor tracinj; the history of the I'lui'iiician alphahet. of which the
<me we use is a direct successor. At.Iernsalem a siii),de inscription. Indoni^im,'
pro. .ilily to the aire of lle/ekiah. was found liy accident at the | 1 of .»*doam.
This paucity of ardneolo^'ical returns is not due to any lack of interest in
recoveriiiK the moniinients of ancient Palestine. In (iermaiiy and lln^dand.
.soi'ieties for the exploration of I'alestiiii' have lieeii in existence for the past
twenty years, and miudi impiutant work has l.eeii done liy them in makin-j:
careful surveys of the country, in ideniifyinK ancient sites, and in addiiij,'
mateiiiil to oiir knowled-e of the p'oi^raphy of the eoiintry. The comliiiied
o]il.ositioii of fanatical Turks. Aralis, Christians, and dews lijis prevented,
until receiitlx. the nndertakin}; of excavation.s in the important centres of the
country, such as derusalem, Saiiiari;i, licthlehem. Ilehion, ami the like. A
few years at:o the mound Tel-cl-||esy. coveriiii; the site of the ancient city of
Lachi.h. was thi)roii.,ddy exphueil hy V. .1. itliss. and no less than ten layers
of (dVi. s ideiititied liy him: Imt the results. e\ce|pf lor some ]iotteiy and .1
most importaiii discovery of ,i cuneiform talilet which helouKs to the Kl-
Aiiiarna scries and dates fr the tiftcenth century 11. c. have l.eeii r.ither
disappointin,!,'. Ii'eeeijtly Mr. jiliss has succeeded in ni,iaiiiiii,u permis.sioii to
undertake excavations at derusalem. ||c has li.'-un his wink hy tracim,'
carefully the walls of the ancient city, l.iit until this work is pushed to the
extent .f actually di-ruiii;.,' down .some forty feet lielow the levid of the pn^sent
derusalem, it is not likely that siirniliiMut discoveries will I.e niailc Thi-ie
are <;ood reasons for liopin^' tliat tin- time is not far distant wlieii systematic
Work, such as has heeii done in Ki;\|pf, r.altylonia. ami (;r. e, will also 1m-
undertaken in I'ale.stine. When that time does come, we ma\ expect that
IS tlirilll)r||<lllt till'
II Siiiitlicni Sjiaiii.
Sdlllln'ril I'lMliri' ;
fjiitlu'tl, ami tiiilv
lyri', whi<li mnf
(• of tlit'si' citic.-,,
, iiuwcrs, is a sad
, lias (lisapiifan-il.
(' iiKist imtalilf tit
III ISCil, liavc lii'cii
til' tlu'iu lifitiii;; til
lis lit Ksliiiiiiiia/.ai',
IT ji iiiiisl iiiitalilf
<t roiiiarkaliif liiitl
ai'S ai;ti iiy llaiiitli
till' iiffrti|iiilis ;it
ij^iiij; tti till' * irt't'U
ii'fi'c traiisiilaiilfil
<('. sii lull tii sai'i'i'il
lie tn-asiiri's wliifli
tlu'stiil. Ill 1S7(I.
iti'il till- viiliiiv tit
llu' most valiialtlf
laiift. til' wliifli till'
>t'ri|ititiii, lit'loiiu;ini;
till' |iiitil III Siloaiii.
A\ ol' iiili'ifst ill
my aiitl Hiij,'lainl.
iti'iifi' lor the past
tlit'iii in iiiakiiiL':
s. ami in aililiii^'
V. Till' rtilllliilirtl
\vs has lui's t'lili'ii.
ant ri'iitrt's ot tlif
ml till' liki'. A
III' aiii'it'iil I'iiv of
ss than It'll layi'is
lilt" i»ottt'ry ami a
ifloiifi;M til till' l'".l-
liave lii'i'ii latliiT
iinj< ^H'l'iiiissioii tn
Work li\ tiafiii'4
k is |iiislii'il til till'
\fl (it tllf |l|fSI'llt
III' IIDIili'. Tlll'lf
I \\ l;i'ii syslcniatif
ii'i'i'i'. will also lif
iiia\ rxpi'i'l that
THE tiiicoRhs OF rill': iwsr
>u
many of tlio pioliloins hcsi'ttiiij^ stiulfiits of tin- Olil ami Nfw 'I'l'stamcuts
will tiiiil tlifir siihitiiiii.
lirniTi: Ukmains, — Ari'lia-ology tloi-s imt only solve pro'.ili'iiis, luit
Irt'tim-ntly rai.si-s in'W oiifs. Siirh a ni'W iirolilfiii is that of tlu' llittitt's.
Ihiiini' till' jiast lifti'iMi years, a large series of iiioiiiiiuents. many of tlieiii
.^i'iil|itiireil on roi'ks, have lieeii foiiml in various iiaits of Asia Minor, fnnii
the ilistrift iif l^ake N'aii alniust to the Mediterninean eoast, ami notahlv at
KlIt'M' ViKW.
Hkam Vikw.
nVKIKOHM ir.TTF.n VIIOM ( MIIIMI. I'AIKSTISK. AHorT H. t. 14IKI.
ilinpi'iiiil lliioniiiii MiiM'uiii. ('iin-liiiitiiiuple.)
1)1
-4'rrt
!i
i!
li
242 TRIUMPHS AM) noyplCltS OF TIN-: MX'" Vi:.<TIJliY
ilaiiialli. (.11 till' < truiitos. 'I'Ih-v all hetray tiic same art. anil aiv accompaiiit'd
liy iiisiMiptioiis in charactt'is to wiiiclitlif iiaiiii' Ilittiti- lias been >,mv(mi. it is
to 1)1' lioriic in mind that this tt'ini llittito is to a lar^'i- rxtfiit a convfiitional
one. covtMiiii,' a scrit's ol' |ifo[ilcs that may have l)floii<,'c(l to dilYcivnt nicj-s.
Wheal- ol th.'sc llittitcs in tlu' Asialii^ .•amipai<,Mis of l':-,'yptiaii kiii-s from
the seviMitcciitli centjiiry n. < . down to ItUO w. r. Hstahlishiii},' an iMiipiio on
the Oroiitrs, tliey i,'avf the Assyrians a Rieat deal of tronhle. and it was not
until the end of theeii,ditli ceiitiiiy that t'.iey were finally eoii<iiiereil. 'riiongli
AH( II OK rnrs, uomk.
\vt> know a i,'ood deal of the history id' these Mittitcs from the reeords of
Kj,'yiitians. Uahyloiiiaiis. and Assyrians, their ori,i;in remains wrapped in
ohscurity. Tlie llittite eharaeters have not yet hei n ile<Mphered. althoni,di
various attempis of interpreters have lieeii made, '['he last of these is that
of I'ldfessor I'l tcr .leiiseii. of the I'niversity of Marlmri,'. who lielieves that
the llittite l'.nj;aa;,'i' is a prototype ol' the modern Armenian. .Mthouf^h a
uiimlier of inominent, seholars have aekiiowled^'ed their a<'eeptanee of the
• li'iisi'u system, it <-annot !»• said a-; yet to have bem ih-tinitely established,
nor is it likely that a satisfactory key will !»■ foand until a larije biliiifiiial
inscription eontainin;.,' a record in llittite eharaeters with a translation,
arc aci'tiiiniaiiu'il
M'fll ;^'iv('Il. It. is
t a coiivfiitiniial
i» (litTtTiMit rat't's.
ptiaii kiiit,'s from
in<^ ail riii|iire oil
Ic. and it was not
(jiUM'cd. 'riiiiiiiJi
Hill tlio rcnonls of
iiaiiis \vra|))itMl in
•i|(ii('n'il. altliouf^li
st of tlicsc is that
, wild believes tliat
iiian. .\ltlioiii,'li a
a('C('|itaiii'e of till'
iliitely estalilislied.
1 a lar,L,'e liilint^nal
ith a translation,
niTTITi: INst itliniON KIIOM IKIIMIIS.
•244
TiiiUMrns .wn \\()m>i:iis ar riii-: a/.v" cksti-uy
|M'rlui|is, ill Assyrian or Aniinaii', sliiill liavi' lio u luiiiid. Such a tiiiil may Im)
«'.\|Mctt'il at any \\v
iiiK'iit. .Mi-aiiwliilf. it luas lir said that troiii an
«'tlin(ilni;ical |iiiiiit <>t' view, it scenis lunn- jihtiisilih- to rrj^aiil tlif llittitcs as .i
jiart nl till' 'l"iuaiiiaii stock laliicr than lichmjiiiiL,' tn llic Aryan or Semitic
raccK. 'I'hc cxpinration nt India, (iiina, ami flapaii can scarcely lie said to
hav<' more than liennn. The mitalili' series ot inscii|itions that lecall th'
]ieriod ol Indian history
conm
'cted with Acoka may lie rc),'arded as a
h|it'cimen of what we may exju'ct wlicn once those distant lands are as
tlioroii;^'lii\ e,\|ilored as the cciunlries situated around the Mediteiraiiean sea.
lIoM \N I; TINS, — Coming' to the last and i,'re;itesl of tlieemi>iresot aiitinnity.
lioiiK . a word siionld In- said aliout the activity that has cliaiacteii/iul the
»'xca\ations a
t III
erculaneiim a
ml I'
IJiell
ind receiitlv in the cit\ (d' K'om
\v
hici
lareeariiei
lot
I so
-Ucie-.:
\\\\\\ li\ lludollii l.aiiciani. W Idle our know led'
of Itoman history lias always iieeii much more comi>lete than ' ■'» ot tircece,
still many i|ue>li<pns id' detail have luilv recently lieeii settled tlirou<^di tlicM-
excavation^. \\\ iiisiu'ht has lieeii alTiuded into the |iulilic and private life ot
the lloiiians which supplements that which was to lie ^'ained i'roni tlit> study
ot the classical writer>, Murope and .\nierica have al.>o heen seized with the
archa'oloijical lever. In (ierman\. .\u>tria, l''rance. Sweden, |)enmark,
ilollaml. Swit/erhmd, N(ulh .\mcrica. and South Amerii'a. the knowli'dp- of
the past has lieeii extended thiouudi exploration and excavation. So larue is
the field ol archa'oloijy at present, that it is impossililc I'or oiu' |ierson ti
make himselt tamiliar with more than
^mall section: Imt, on the other
liaiid. so close is the sympathy lietweeii the various liram-lies of mankind
si-atteied lhroui;liout the world that there is no work carried «jn in one
division of arclia'oIoi,'y which has not its lieaiini;s upon many others. What
(i<ietlic said ot human lite ma_\ lie said ot archa-oloj^y ; " \\'o ilir's paekt, da
i.st"s interes.sant."
MoliltlS il.VSTUUW. flK.
XTL'Hr
'\\ a liiid may \w
that Iroiii ail
hf llittili's as .1
rvaii or Semitic
iKi'ly 1h' said to
that ifiall tilt'
i'i'j,'ar(li(l as a
lit lamls an- as
■ilitfriaiiiMii sea.
ilrcsoraiili<iuity,
■haiactfri/.fil tin-
ir city III Kiiini'.
ilfoiir iiiH'wlfilgf
I. > •■t (it (iioeco,
( .1 tlirnilj^'ll tlli'SC
nil inivalc lilf <>t
cl from till- stiiily
II sci/fil witli tilt'
vcdfii. Ui'iimark.
I lie klHi\vU'(l(,'i- of
tinii. So lar^'t' is
or one |irison to
Imt, on tin- ollit-r
I'lu's ot miinkiiitl
aninl on in onr
ly ollicis. Wiiat
c) iiir's packl, da
Jastkow. .Ik.
PROGRESS IN DAIRY FARMING
Nkaim.v all industries liave their Itiaiiel
les or s|i)'cialtii
i''armin'' is no
■Nceptioii. and one ol' the most inleresiin;,'. highly de\elo|ied, and reiiiiinera-
ive <it its liranehes is dairviii;^'. To lie siieeess
till. .1
iiiviii'' reiiiiires
t^ood
jiid^'meiit, kiio\vled^;e ol' the relations of modern science to aj^ricnltiu-al pro-
duction, coi'stant study, system, iiiiil olos»» attention to details. Ht-nce it is
ici^aideil .Is aiiioiii; the hii^hest I'onns <d' farmiiii;. 'I'hc oeciiiiation is itself
•o stiinnlatiiij; and the rewards are so snli-tantial. when brains and hr.twii arc
a|i|ilied to it in jiidicioiis comliination. that (hiiryini; districts are commonly
I'oiisiiiciuHis as the most entei'|irisin},'. jirosjicrons, and contented of the rural
ciiiiimnnitics id their section of country.
In all Ijnes of farming at least one, "money crop" setMus to he the aim,
at .1
altlioii^di this term may inelnde animals and animal products. A ^'reat dis-
advantaKc in certain kiii"ls of farmin>,' is that the returns come at loiij; inter-
vals, ]ierliaps hut once a year, wiiilc the expenses .are continuous for twelve
iiioiiths. Dairying, as i Mmliicted liy modern methods, distrihutes the farm
income thioiij,di the year: the cash returns are monthh', or oftener, the
pernicious credit system disappears, money ciri'ulates, and at all seasons a
healthy liusincss activity prevails in the whole community.
It is a iiotcwiulhy fact, that during' periods of a^jricultiiral depression
experienced in the rnited States during the nineteenth century, the products
id" the dairy have maintained relative values ahoi-e all otliiM' farm proihicts,
:i!id dairy districts seem to have passed tliiouj^h these periods with less
distress than most others.
The >;rciitcr jiart of this country, ■,'i'ographically, heing well adapted to
diiiryini^, this hranch of aj;riciilture has always liccn iirominent in America,
and its extension has kept jiace with the ii)icnin},' and settlement of new
territory. For many years a ludief existed that suceessful dairyin;^ in the
I'liited .States must lie restricted to narrow >;coj,'raphical limits, constitutiiifj
a '-dairy lielt "' lyinj,' hetween the fortieth and forty-tilth dei,'rees of latitude,
and extending; from the .\tlaiitic < •cean to the .Missouri Itiver; and the true
dairyiiif,' districts were felt to he in separated sections occupying; not more
than one third of the area id' this licit, 'riiese ideas have heen exploded. It
has heen shown that jjood hiittcr and cheese can, hy proiier manai;emeiit. he
maile in almost all parts id" Xorth .\merica. (Jenerally speakini;. f.;ood butter
can be prolitably produced wherever j^'ood beet can. I)ccided advantajjes
unipiestioiiably exist, in the idimatc, soil, wati-r. and hcrba};c of certain S(!C-
tions ; but the.se influences are largely unih'r control, and what is lacking in
natural conditions can be supjilied by tact and skill. So that, while dairyinj^
is inti-nsiticd and constitutes the leadini; ajiiiculttir.'il industry over widt?
area.s, imdmlinK whoh' States, where the natural advantages are greatest, the
industry is found well established in spots in almost all parts of the country,
M(l
TinrMi'us AM) woxDHns or Tin-: \i\' cnxri l
'■.i... S (U ■t'lci|iili;^' ill mii'X|M'('i'(l |iliir' s, mill lllnlrr u hill mii,'lil lie cnllniilrlril
I) Ve»*V 111 lux olalili riHlilil'.(ih->.
fJ.'.ryiii}; cxisli'il in (•dlniiial times in Aiiiciir;!, ami Imiicf ;mii rlin'sc uri'
I ■. , .M'll MiiMiii;,' till' iMily t'X|(nrts rnuii liif m liiinifiiis iilmi'^ tlu' .\ll:iiili<'
(■iiiixt. ' this |iriii|iii't inii was only iiiriiti-iit to ^'I'liciiil laniiiiiK'. I >air\ iiii;.
as a spi'iMa y in llif I'liitfil Statfs. iliil not a|i|i«'ar t<> any cxfi'iit until wi-ll
alnii^r ill till' iiiiifii'i'iitli ci-ntiiry. Tlu' liistmy nl this imlnstiy in this ((iiin-
try i.-< tluT'-lurc iihittiral with its inn'^'irss in that rmtiiiy. This |irni,rii.»
lias iM'tMi truly icniarkalilf. 'I'lii' wide tiTrilmial rxtmsinn. tin' imnii'ii^i-
invcstniiMit m laiuls. iiuihlin^'s, aiiinial>. ami i-i|ui|inii>nt, the t^'icat iiii|)i'(>vi'-
iiH'iit in ilain i-atth-. tli»' af(|iiisitiiin and ililYiisiiui nt knnwli-il;;!' as i. 'cnniniiy
lit' |iruilucti(iii. th«- rcviiiutioii in incthuils ami systfiiis ol' inaiint'ai'turi', tin-
;,'('m'ral ailvani'f in i|imlity ol' iirndufts. llii' wnndt'itul incirasf in i|iiaiitity.
and tlir industrial and i-iuniniTi-ial iiniHUtani-i' nf tlic industry, liav ke|it |iarf
with thi' v'l'iifial material |)iii;jiess nl the iiatinn and ennslilute luie ol its
leadin;,' |e,ii.;>res.
Diiriii},' the early parT id ilu- century, the kef|iin;,' id' euws on Anieiiiaii
larni-< wa.-< ineideiit to the L;en>-ral work, the rare ol milk and the making,'
(d liutter and eliecsr were in the hands ut the women oltlir hoiiseludd. the
inetliods and utensils wi-re erini*-. the a'>t'iai;e i|ualil\ : i' the |iroduets wa>
interior, and the sii|i|d\ ei our dome^tie maikels wa> unoii,'aui/ed and iireL;ii-
lar. The niileli e<'\vs in use lMdon.u'ed to the mixed and iiideserilialih- herd of
••native" cattle, with really ;;iiiiil dairy animals aiipeariiij,' siiifjly. almost hy
aeciih-nl. or, at the best, in a laniily devtdo|peil liy some uncommonly (liserimi-
natiii}; yet unseiciititie iueeder. The cows calved almost universally in the
spring;, and were ^'em-rally allowed to ^;o dry n the autumn or early winter.
Winter dairyini; was |iraetieall\ unknown. .\> a rule, excc|itiiit; the |iasture
season, cattle Were insiitliiieiitly. and tlierelore un|Miditalily , led and poorly
lioused. In the Kasterii and Northern States, the milk was usually set in
small shallow earthen vessels or tin pans, tor tin cream to rise. Little atten-
tion was paid to conliii;,' the air in which it stood in summer, or to moderatini;
it in winter, so hiiij,' as lree/iii>i was prevented. The pans ot milk idteiier
stood in pantries and cellars than in milk romiis s|M'eially const ruiled or pre-
jtarcd. in rennsyhania and the Stati's tailher south. \\ 're spiiiii,'-) ouses
were in voijue. niilk received lietter i-are, and settinj; it in earthen erociis or
pots, st;indiiiL,' in cmd. tiowinj,' water, was a usual and excellent practice.
Churnini; the entire milk was very common. Mxceptiiif,' the comparatively
few instances wliere families were sup|ilied with Initter weekly, and occa-
sionally a cheese, direct lioiii the producers, the larm praetiee ^vas to •• park "
the liutter in firkins, half-lirkiiis. tiilts. and jars, and let tlie elieese aeeuiiiulale
on (he farms, takiiu,' these |ui>ducis to market onl\ on r twice a year.
Not only were there a.s many dilTereiit lots and kinds of Imtter and cheese
as llieie were piodueiiin farms, Imt the produiM ol a sinj,'le farm varied in
(diaracter and (puility, according' to season ami other cireiinisfanees. Msery
)iacka;.;c had to he examined. j;nuled. and sidd upon its merits. Trices were
low.
These conditions continued, without material chaii'^'e, up to tlie middle of
the century. Sonic iinpiovemi'iil was noticcalde in cattle and applianci's.
and ill some seetioiis dairy farmiiii; hecame a speiialty, Witli tlie growth of
CL.XTl I,
iiii:/lil Ix' i'<>ii>iiii'ri'il
iillcr ami rlirrsc ;iri'
< iiloiii; llii' Alliiiitii'
tiiniiiiij,'. Uaiiyiiii,'.
ii\ cxti'iii iiiilil Wfll
iliistiy ill lliis cuiiii-
iirv. 'riii>. |irii|,'i'r>>
lisiiill. tlir illlllH'lix-
till" i^'ii'iit iiiijinivi'-
li'il;;!' as I. ■i'iiiiiiiii\
111 iiiaiiiirartiHi'. till-
iicrrasi' ill i|iiaiilil\.
istrv, liav k'-pt parr
•ulislillltr out' ol its
t' I'liws on Aiiiriiraii
lilk ami tli>' niakiiiL;
t t III' llllllM'lllllll. I 111*
! I till' iniiiliirts \va>
iiV'aiii/ril ami irrrj;!!-
imlfscriltalili' liriil nl
iiK siii^;ly. aliiinst h\
iirniiimuiilv (Usi-rinii-
st uiiivrrsalls in tin-
iiiiiii or larly wiiitiT.
M'l'litiiii: tlif iiasliin-
I My. Ii'il ami | rly
k was usually srt in
III risi'. I.ittlf alti'ii-
ncr, i>r to nmilt'iatini;
|ian>> III milk nltriirr
v fiiiislriuli'il or jirt'-
w Ti- spring;-! niist'.s
in rartlii'ii crucus nr
il ('xri'llriit jiraclii't'.
[<i tin- coiniiarativi'ly
ii wri'kly, ami nrca-
ictirr Mas In " park "
lif clii'i-sf ariMiiiiiiliitc
III r t\\ let' a yi'ar.
Ill lilltliT ami ilirrsi'
iiiijili' laini vaiii'cl in
irninstanrts. I'.M-ry
III. Tits. I'rii'i's wfic
r. up tn llic niiilillr i>l
iltli' ami appliaiiri'S.
W illi tin' K'i"'«ll' "'
31
'
I
III
MS
TIIIUMI'HS AM) UOMtHllS or Till': .MX'" ('KSrriiY
towns ami citw-s, tin- luihiiu'ss nl milk ,sii|i|>lv iiiiicii.st(l ami U-ttrr iiu'tlnMls
]ir«-v:iilfil. Itiitti-r-iiiiikiii),' lor Iiuhh* us(> iiiul local tradi-, in a Muall \va,v, was
(Mtiiinioii wliciTvci" ro\\>. wen- ki'jit, ;in(l in sonir plari-s there was a sni°|ilns
snUiiii-nt to In- sent to tin- laiK'r niaikfts. NcrninMt ami New Voik iHTaini'
known as liuttfi- |irotln'iiiK States. •• I'lankliii Count v Itutter." tinm ciiiinties
of tliis name in New \\>\\, N'einiunt. ami Massai-huHetts, was known tliionH;li.
out New Kiivjland. ami the lame nt "Orange Cunntv" ami "(ioshen "' Initier,
from New N'mk. was still more e\tensive. New Viuk. Ohio, asnl Nnitliern
I'ennsvlvania inotlneed lar^*' t|iiantities i»t cheese; ami the total su|t|il_v was
so nnich ii excess of ilonn'stic demaml. that cheese ex]H)rts from the liiited
States, niaiidy to tireat Hritain, liecame estahlishcd. and ranged from three
t<i seventeen million pounds a year.
The twenty-five years following; ISoO was a period of rcmarkahle activity
and ]iro^;ress in the dairy interests of the country. .\t first, the a}.;ricidtural
exhiliitions or "i-attlc shows," and the ciiter|irise of im|MMtcrs. turned atten-
tion towards tlM> im|)rovem(>nt of farm animals, and breeds of cattle s|H>eially
noted for dairy i|ualitics were introduced ami iM'-^an to win the favor of
dairymen. Then the early elforls at co(i|ieiativc dairying,' were reco^'uized
us successful, and were copied until the cheese factory Iwcame an estahlisln-d
institution. Once faiily started, in tin- heart of the '^reat cheese-making; dis-
trict (d New York, the lactory .system spread with much rapiility. The
*• war jwriod" lent additional impetus to the forwanl movement. The forei;;n
<lemiiml for cheese f,'re\v fast, and the price, which was ten cents per ]>ound
and less in IS(HI. rose to tiltecu cents in iSCi,"!, and to twe;ity cents and over
in ISC1.V There were two cheese factories in Oneida f'ounty in IS.VI, and
twenty-five in istll.'. The system spread to Herkimer and adjoinin^r counties,
and in istl.'! there weri' 1(M) factoiics in New \'ork, li"sidcs some in < >hio an<l
other States. The nundier increa.sed to ..(Ml in the whole country in l.SCi.'i.
to •"><•<> in two years more, and to over iHdo in iSd'.t. From that time the
cooperative »u* factory system practically superseded the manutacture of
cheese on farms. Kstalilishments for the making; (d Wutter in (piantity. from
the milk or cream collected from numerous farms, soon fcdlowed the cheese
factories. Sui'h are jiroperly hnttcr fact(uies, hut the name <d' "creamery"
has come into general use for an estaltlishment of this kind, and seems
unlikely to chanjje. I'lacini,' the real he^dnnin^ of idiecse fiu-torics a^ a sys-
tem of dairying' in ISlU uv iSdL'. the first creamery was started in I."<f(|. iu
Oi-an^'e t'ounty. New \'ork. In Illinois, the first cheese factory was liuilt in
l.s«;."i. and the first creamery in 1S(»7; in Iowa, the resja-ctive dates were lHti(>
and 1S71.
The etTect <d' these industrial estalilislnucids, comparatively new in kind,
is to transfer the makinj; id butter and cheese from the farm to the factory.
Orij^inatin;; in this <'«iuntry. althou^'h now extensively adopted in others, the
general plan may Ix' called the .\meiican system id' associated dairyinij. The
i-arly chi'e--e.factiuii's and creameries were purely coi'|M'rativ mcerns. ami
it is in this form that the sy.stem has usually extended into new tcrrit(uy,
whether for the ])roducti<ui (d" butter (U' (dieese. The cow owners and pro-
ducers of nnlk cooperate and share, upon any agreed basis, in organizing,
building (perhaps). e(|uip|(ing, and managing the factory and disiMising of its
products. Another plan is lor the ])lant to be owned by a joint-stock loiu-
XTiritr
/'UdfillhSS l\ DMIiY I'MiMISa
!IU
iN'ttrr ini'tliiMls
siiiall Wii\, was
I' was a surplus
w ^'(ll•k iM'caiiK'
," Iritiii cuimtics
kiiowit llii'()U};li-
liosllfll " hllttiM',
>. ami Niirtlifin
utal su|i|>iy was
Ironi till' I'liiti'il
i^;i'(l I'lDin tliri'f
laikalilf at'tivity
thf aj;ri<Miltiiral
rs, tiinit'd atlt'ii-
l" fiittli' sjM'cially
ill tli>- favor (if
wfic ri'<'(if,'iii/.i'il
»» an «'stal)lislif<l
t'csc-iiiakiiif,' (lis-
rapiilily. Tin'
>ut. Till' foifij,'u
(;«Mits )it'r pouiitl
y iTiits and tivcr
ity iu lsr»l, anil
|i>iniiij; nnmtifs.
iiiK- in < >liii> aii<l
ciiuiitry in IS«m.
Ill tliat tiiiic tlif
iianiifacturi' of
n ([iiantitv. frniii
(twcil tilt' rlii't'si'
«)f " creunu'ry "
iinil. anil scfins
ictoiii's a i a sys-
irti'il ill SSfil. ill
iiy was liiiilt in
lat«'S wcif 1S(W»
rly new in kind,
to till' factory,
cd iu otlitTS, till'
il dairyinir. Tin'
VI' coni'i'rns. and
;<> lu'w territory,
owners and pro-
in orjjani/.in},'.
I dis|iosin^ of its
joiut-st^K'k i-oiii-
[>aiiy. i'iiin|His<>d lar);i'ly, if not wliolly, of fanners, anil milk or er«>aiii is
t'ivi'd ficiiii any ^atisfa(•lory inodiiier ; tlie faitoiy may Im- allowed a eer-
iiiii rate of int»'resl on tln' invi'stnieut. or may eliai|,'r a tixed prire |«'r |tuii!.d
i.p|- niakin;.' Iiiitter or cheese, and tlieii divide tlie reuiainiii;,; proceeds fn-o ruf"
iiTordiiij; to llie raw maicnal supplied li\ its "patrons.'' 'I'iie proprietary
plan is also common, lieiic.,' iiiana;;ed mmli like any other tactorv. the pro-
prietor or company liiiyiii); the milk or cream from the prm 'leer.s. at prices
iiMitiially ai^reed upon from time to time, .\iiil all these plans have th>'ir
\ai'iations ami mndilieatioiis in practici-.
i'Jie third ipiarier of a century wa.s also a |ternid of uiiprecedeiiU.'il pro-
MnOKIlN MIKVMKItV \M>cllia>K K \< TollY. wrrii li i: llor«|;, KTr.
j^ress ill the .ipplication of mechanics to the dairy. The factorii-s and
creameries reipiired new eipiipment. adapted to nianufactiiro u|miii an en-
larged scale, and eipial attention wa^ paid to the improvement of appliances
tor farm dairies. The system for settinj; milk for ereamiiii; in deep cans
in colli water — prefeialily ice-water — was introduced from .Sweden, al-
thouK'h the same principles had lieen in practico for Koiierations in the
sprin^j-hoiises of the .South. Numerous ereamiiii; ;i|i)i1iances, or creamers,
were invented, hased upon this systi'iii. .Shallow pans were changed iu si/e
and shape, and then almost disappeared. Hutter wnrkei-H (»f various modelH
took the place of liowl and ladle aiul the use of the liaie hand, ('liiirns ap-
peared, of . -ill shapes, sizes, and kinds, the j^eiieral moveiiieut lieiii)^ towards
the aholitioii of dashers and the siihstitutioii of ajjitatioii of cream for
violent lieatiiij,'. .Mmut this lime the writer made a .search of the rnited
880
TIUf'MI'IIS AMI \H>\hHI{S of TIIH A/.V" ( HMtltV
Stutt's riitiiil < iMin- ifconl.H, wliitli ifViMlnl till- liii't that Imlv m lilt\ m-
or iiii|iriiVfil i-liiiriiH wt'ii' claiiiUMl aiiiniallv. ami allri icji'i'liii^ alKitit m
t'liiiitli, till' |iatiMitH artiiallv iosiiiil |ii'<iviilci| a iirw iliinii i-vcry iitti'iii ila\ '
liir iiii'ii' lliaii M'VfiiiN \rars.
Till'' illiistiati'H tlifarli\it\ nl iiiM'iitinii iii
tliU line ll ^vas ailiiiittiMl by all that at tliin intIikI tlif I iiitnl Stalf?« wa-
far ill
ihai
• t
iii\ iithi-r i'i>iiiiti-\ III till* vai-ii'l\
ami
t'M'flh-m'i' o
t II-
iiii'i-iiaiiiral aiil> to ilaii'Miih'.
Tiic Haiiir iivriiNl witiifHHfil tlit> uri^aiii/atinii nl ilainiiii-ii in voliititiiry
asMiiialiniis tor iiiiitiial iH-m-tit in sfvi'ial Statf>. tin- turniatinn of ciiilis
ami .soriclii'H ot Iiiim-iIits ot |)ui'i--lii')'<l I'altlc, ami tin- a|i|M'aram'f ol tin-
HrHl AiiM'i'ican dairy litfraliin* i>f i-oii<ti-i|iifnfc in ImioK lorm. Tin- Aim-ii-
can l>aiiyiii<Mrs Association was oruani/cil in tsti.'t. Its ticM of activity
was cast nl Imliaiia, ami acror<lin.;ly tlic Noitliwcstcni liaiiynicn's Asso-
ciation was fornicil in ls<>7. Itotli of these continiicil in existence, held
|iei'ioilical meeting's, ami |iiil)lisheil tjieir iirot'eedin^s for twelve or lifteen
years. ThiMi tin- Inriiialioii of Slate daii.N associations in \'eriiioiit (|S7(M.
I'eiiiiHV hiinia
(IS71
\'ork (|N7"i. Wisconsin (1S7
Illinois ||S7I),
Iowa ( tS7lM, ami other States t<H.k the jilaee of the jiioneer societies wliich
covered wider territory.
The Shorthorn In-eed lud in the introduction of ini|ii'oved cattle to the
L'nited Stales, and for a loiij^ time tin- re|ire.>cntativei< of this race, ini|iorted
fi'oiii Kn»,'laml, enihraced tine dairy animals. Shorthorn KiadeH formed tlie
foundation, and a very i;ood one. n|Min which many dairy herds weie imilt u|)
ilnriii}; the second and third <|narters of the century . and much of this iilood is
still found in |iros|M'ions dairying districts. This was the jieriod of greatest
activity in ini|iortin!,' im|iroved cattle from ahioad. l!ut Shoil-lioins have
liccn so generally hrid for U-ef i|ualities that the demand for them is almost
exclusively on that line, and they are no Ioniser classed un dairy cattle.
.\yrshires from ."Scotland. llol>tcin-l''iif<iaiis from North Holland, and .ler-
seys and (iuernsc\ s from the ( 'h.innel Inlands, are the luecds reco)rni/.ed as ol
dairy excellence, :ind n|Hin which tiie industry mainly de|i«MulM for iiiiprove-
meiit of its milch cows. 'I'lie lirst two named are noted for ^jivinj; lar^'c (|naii-
tilies of milk of medium ijiiality : the other two hreeds, ImiIIi often miscalled
'• .Mdermy."' ^;i\e milk of excoedin^' riciincss. and are the favorites with
linttcr makers. There are also the I'liown Swiss and Simmcntlial cattle from
Swit/erlaml, the Normandy luei-d from France, and iod I'liilcd cattle from
tlie south of Knviland. which have dairy merit, lint helon^' rather to what is
called the •• iteiicial |iur|Hise" class, .\ssociations of pci-sons intel■e^tcd in
maintainiii'..' the purity of all the dinerent Incctls named have licen formed
since tS.'itt, and they all reeoni iH'dii;rees and puldish re),'isters or herd-hooks.
I'urc-lircd heids of some of tlie.se dilltrcnt Ineeds arc owned in nearly all
parts of the country, and half-hrecds or hi^'her j,'iades arc found wherever
cr)ws are kept lor dairy purposes. The ijuality Jind production of the avcra'„'c
dairy cow in .\iiicrica arc thus Umiii; ste:idily advanced.
The developnicnt of dairyini; in the l'nited States during; the closiii'.;
decades of the nineteenth century has liecn unintcrniptcd. and marked In
events of the >;reatcst conseipieiice in the entire history. The importance
of two inventions dnriiii; this |N-rioil cannot !>«' overestimated. The lirst is
the application of centrifugal force to the separation of cream finin milk.
ritHUUKSS /.V ItMliy /'.lIlMlMi
Ml
llllV 111 |itl\ \IV\K
'I'liiiK alHiiit oiii*
vi-n lillciMi iliiVN
ul iiiM'iitiiiti in
iiilnl States was
t'Xi'rlli'lirt' til it>«
It'll ill vtiliiiitarv
iiiatiiiii lit I'liilis
i|ii'aruiM'c III till*
rin. 'I'lic AiiH'ii-
tii'lil 1(1 activity
•airviiK'irH As.sii-
I I'xistl'IK'l', llflll
twi'lvf <ii liltii'ii
Vft'tiiiiiit (iM'Oi,
. Illinois (IS7li.
r siiriftii's wliii'li
v-fil i-attli- til till-
lis rari'. iiii|H(rli'il
niili'K rornn'il tlit-
Ills Wi'lr lillilt ll|i
'li III this liliiiiil is
[MTiiMl nt j^rcatt'st
Sliurt-lmins liavc
>i' tliriii is aliiiDst
1 as Hairy cattlf.
iliiUaiK!, and •Icr-
s ii'riij,'ni/.fil as ol
■nils Itir iiii|ir«ivt'-
,'ivin^,' iiiij,"' 'inaii-
tli iittrii iiiisi-allnl
lie lavtiritcs witli
•ntlial i-atllf Iroiii
'iilli'il cattlf troiii
rallicr to \vli;!t is
inns int.crcstcil in
liavf Ihmmi foniicil
crs or lifiil-liooks.
nu'd in nearly all
•I' fdUinl whcit-Vfi'
ion III' tlic average
I liio is liiiscil n|Min the s|HM'itic gravity o| the milk m'Hiiii m- skim milk, ami
ot \vliat«>vei- iiii|Mii-e iiiulter may have enteieil ihr milk, Miieli i^iavity Immii^
;,'i'eiitei' th.iii ihat nl' the litltv |Mn'tiiiii or cream. 'The ilairy centril'iii^'c, or
cream se|iiiratoi'. eiialiles the creaming or ■■ ><kimiiiin)L;" lo lie ilone immeili.
alelN niter milkiiiu, |ire|eniii|y while tiie milk Im Mtill warm The cream eiiii
U' at oiicc cliiirneil. while sweet ; liiit a U'lter |iracticc is III ciiic or '• ri|»eii "
it Inr chinning : this can he ilmie at a eom|iaiatne|\ hi^'h tcni|M raliire. ilis-
lieiiNiiiK with the iifcesrtity of no iiiiifh ice or i-oid water. I'he skim milk is
availahle lor use while still virni. i|uite sweet, ami in it < hesi cnnililion lor
Iceiliii}; to voiiiiu' animals. I'liis mechanical mcthoil is more cHicitnl. scciir-
iiii; more jierleei ciram se|iai'ati<)ii than the ohl xntvity NyKteiii. ami tiie iliiiry
4
«
Yj^^!Si/%^B^^^ i
M
^v^H ^^^K^^^^^^BP' ^^
^^J
I^Hj
^7]^^3J33SSP
lYI'K \1 nviUY cow
vviisiMiir.
lalior is very largely reduced. The liaiidliiiu and ' 'riiijj; I'oi the n iik nay he
thus wholly removed from the duties of the household. .\ \i:-wu\ j<i.in is to
have a ••skimming' station." to which the milk is hauled at h-iist daily from tli<
|iio(lucing larms in the vicinity, and where one or more -c larators arc opei
aicd liy )Miwer. Separators are also made of sizes and ]ii!!ii"is suited to far i
use, where they may lico|(ciiitcd hy hand orliy li^ht powei, - Icclricity. st«'!nii,
water, a horse, a hull, a shce|i. or a dog. jlcsides its economy and its ell'cct
u|Miu hilMir, this machine almost eliminates the faittor oi climate in a large
part of dairy management, and altogether has wurked a rcMlution in the in-
dustry. The centrifugal separator is still a marvel to those who sec it work-
ing for the first time: the whole milk. warm. Hows into the ciitre of a strong
steel how 1. held in an iron frame : the howl revolves at a nite of l.'iOO to '_'.'».<MH>
times jicr minute, and from two projecting tuhes cieaiii and skim milk How in
contiiiuou.s streams to separate receptacles. The machines can he regulateit
riULMi'iis AM) \\u.\ohJis or ////•; .vy.v"' iestluy
\
to jinptliicr cKMiii III ;iii\ ilf>iic(| tliifkiirss III' c|ualit,v. 'I'lii'Sf s«*|ianiUir.s, ot'
(lilViMi'iit si/cs, iiK- '.ijialili- lit tliiis skiiiiiiiiiii; III- .sc|iariitiii}{, or iiiui-i* |irii|H'i-ly,
i-n-iiiniii;;. Inuii l.i i • 'idd i^alimis ut' milk |i<'i' liiuii'. A iiiacliiiit' dt' staiiilanl
lai'liii'v si/.r lias a ■ ci'il nj' liniM) tn Thou irMiliitiiuis a iiiiiniir. ami a caiiacitx
till' sc|iaratiiiu' -'*•<> ^'alUms ol' milk an hour, I'lit- wmlil i.> imlclitt'ii to l'!iiro|i('
tor this iiivi'iitimi, at Irast as a ilaiiA' ii|i|iliaiic(>. \\'\. iiivt'sli^'atiniis wimc in
|>rii|l'i'i-ss riiiiti'm|ini'anriiiislv in this rminti'V almi^ the same line, ami many of
the matfiial im|iiiivt im-nls in tin- rr>am si-iiaialor ami several mtiicly new
jialterns have sinee lieen iiiventeil here. Tile tirst separators were put into
prai-lieal use in this enuntry ami (Ireat Mritain in the \ear IS7'.>. The
eenlnrv rinses uith .'I,*!, (Mill III lii.iHMi III these maehiues in operation in the
Initeii Slale>.
The siToml ^'real il.iirv inventinu ot the periml is the lattest tor milk. —
lieiii^' a ijuiek ami easy >ulislitute lor ehemiral analvsis. This is one ol the
puhlii- lienelai'lious of the .V^rieiilturiil l''.\perinu-nt Stations whieii, umler
State ami national endowment, have 1 n estalilisheil ilurin^' the last part of
the eentury, so ih.it there is now at least one in every Stale. A numlier of
tliese have done niiu'h ereditalile work in daily investi|;atioii. and Irom them
IlllVO Con e several I lever methiiils lor le>liM^,' the lat eonlellt of milk. The
liietlioil uliieh has lieeii ^;eiierally appro\ei| ami is iinw almost universally
adopted in this and other lands is named for its ori^'inator. IM. S. .M. lialieoek,
the alile ehemisl and dairy invest i^jatm, liiNt of the New \ork Station at.
(ieneva and sinee of the W'iseonsin Station .it Maiiison. 'I'his te>ter eomliims
the prineiple (if eeiit! ilui^'al foree with simple I'hi'iuii'al aetioii. The maehine,
'III the jSaiii'iiik plan, has lieeii made in a ^'leat variety of patterns, simple and
iiiexpen-<ive fur lioiiie u,-.e, more elalmrate and siili,-.taiitial for laetories. r>\
them Iroiii two to forty sample.s of milk ma\ he tested at onee in a tew mo-
ments; and hy >li..lil iiioditieatioiis in the appliances, tlie fat iiia\ he deter-
mined in ^amples ol milk, ereaiii, skim-milk, or Imtter-milk, This fat te>i of
milk hax wide a|iplii'ation, and is seeoiid only to the separator in advaneiiiL;
the eeoiioiiiies of dairying'. The peneiita^e ot fat hein^r aeeepted as the mea-
sure of value for milk for nearly all purposes, the jiaiieoik test may he the
itasis for eity milk inspeition, for ti.sinv; the |irii f milk delivered to eity
dealers, to cheese factori^'s and creameries, and for comiiiereial setllemeiits
hetween patidus ill eoiiperative dairy inj; of any kind, \\\ this test. also,
the dairvmun may prove the ipiality of milk from his dilTerenl cows, and
(wifii ipiantiiy i.f milk yield recorded i may tix their resjieetive value as
dairy animals. \\ itii perlect apparatus in careful hands, the aeiuraey of the
testis umpiestioned. and it is of the lii^iiest seieiitilie value, it should lie
noted that althoii^di clearly iiateiitalile. and olYeriiii; an indepeiidem'e throu;..;h
a Very ■•mall royalty, this prieelcMS invention and hoon to dairviiij,' was freely
i;iven to the piihlie hv Dr. italieock.
The advent of the twentieth century iimls the dairy industry of the rnited
States estalili-lied upon a plane far ahove the simple and crude domestic art
of three or four generations aj;o. The milch cow itsidf, upon whi(di the whole
iiiisiiiess rests, is more ol a maehine ihan a natural product. The animal ha^
heeii Ml liiiil and dcveli.iicd to a ^pecial purpose, that instead of the former
short milking jHriod, almost limited to the pasture season, it yields a compar-
ati\«'ly even tlovv of milk duiiiit,' ten or eleven immtlis in every twelve; and if
mmmmmmrnKm
iSTUHY
<•' s«'|iariiUiis, til
I' more |irii|K'ily,
liiif ol stiiiidiiril
'. ami a rajiacity
li-lilt'il til l'!iirii|ii'
iKalituis were in
iir, anil many i>t
iiil fMlircly new
s wen- put intii
car IS7<». Tlif
i|it'ratiiin in tin-
li'st lnr milk. —
liis is nnc 111 I lie
IIS wliicli. iimlrr
: ll:i- last |.art nf
A niimliri' III'
anil linm tlirm
t III milk. The
iiiisl imiviTsally
I'. S, .M. r.alicnik,
Viirk Station at
. tt'stcr rnmiiinrs
I. Till- macliiiii-,
III lis, siui|il*- ami
'!• iai'liiiii's. I>y
ICC in a lew nin-
it nia\ 111' ilctci-
This iai tc>t nl
III' in advancing;
jiti'il as till' iiii-a-
test may In- the
|i'li\crci| til city
■cial settlements
\' this test, also,
crciit ciiws, ami
pective value as
' accuracy nl' the
I'. It shniilil III*
inilen''e thli>il;,'li
i\ iii^' was lii'i'ly
ry III' I he I'nitcil
iiile ilumest ic art
which the wh'ilc
The animal has
ail 111' the Ini'iiier
yit'lils a ciunitar-
i-y twelve ; ami il'
r
•j.vi riiiiJMPiis AM) ]\i).\i)i:iis or riii-: .\7.\"' ciixTinv
lU'sircil. till' Iu'kI |pinilii(T.s ;i> iiMicli ill wiiilrr ;!■- iii Minmiir. It i> imi uinisiiiil
Im iMiws In ^'ivi- tell nr twclvr iiiiif> llifii own \\cij,'lil III milk liming' ;i year.
Anthill' nualilN lia.s Imtii su iiii|iiii\i'(l thai lliru ;k nl many a ntpud ilaiiy ruw
will iniiilnff a> iimcli Imltri- in a wi'fk as (-(aild 1 mailr trum tlin <• ui- Idni a\<i-
a'^i' cu'vs III till- nltlrn timi'. hisliMil ni a Ii-a Immi'lv ami imiin\ i-nifnt im|>li'-
nicnts lur nsc in ihc laiiniiipn> ilnlii'> nl thr (laii\\. j^i'mMaiis iir\nl\in,L; njmn
till- wnmmi nl llif larm, jn'i Ifilni a|>|ilianri',s .skilllnli> ties 1><''I In a((nm|ili>li
llnir olijcct ami lii,'lilfn ialmr an- |irnvnlcil all almij,' lln- \va\. 'I'lir laclniy
s\ sli'Ui nf cniiiirial n I' nl' I'uni'i'ni lalril maiiiilai'i iii'i' liai .-^n jai' lakrii llii' |ilari'
nl linnic ilainini;. lliai m i niiic Stall's tlif I'lit'i-si' vat «»r |iffss is ais ran- as
lliu liaml-lnnm. ami in man\ rmintirs ii i> a> lianl In timl a larm ilinni as a.
.■-|iinnim,'-\\ 1 1. I.nii'^ mws nj' ^liiniii',' tin pans an- tin Inn^^n- ^rvw ailnniin.;
Ml! 1% I I -II I! (lll'KN).
nii'iil ilitnryaiils. as nnrtlrivi's alnin" rniinliy mads; Imi in llii'ii- |ila(r may
Iti' I'nliml I lie liri','llt lari'- n| "I lie Wnmi-n-liilks." wlin ri'jiiii'i' iiViT till' li'Vnln-
tinii nl ninili'in ijairv iii','.
Ili'ii' is an i'xani|ili' nf tliis radii'al I'liaii'^'r in tlir syst.in (,|' makiii',' inill'T:
Nniili'Tii Vcrmniil lias always I n a rrj^dnii nl lai,i,'i' luillrr inndmlinii. Si.
Alliaiis, in l''ranklin ('minly. is flir nalnial l)iisim'-,s ci'iiiif. hiiiiiii,' tin mid-
dli' nl till' ii'iitiny till nntiy-iiiadi' ImiIIit rami' in lliis inwii tn iiiarki 1 I'Vi-ry
Tiii'sday linm miii's arniiml. Tlir avna^'i' wn-kly sn|t|ily was .■!(• tn I't Inns.
Tliis was MMV vani'd in i|iialit\. was saiiijili'd and classiticd with mmli lalii.r
ami "Xiu'iisf, plari'd in lliri-i' Kiadrs — jiriim', lair, and |innr -and iniwanlrd
fn till' Itnslnii maiki'i. Iwn liiimlii'd mill's disianl. Diiiin'.,' f,vi'iil\ livr yrars
t'lidiii!,' ill I h7."». (;."(,( HlU.l inn ll,s., valnnl al >!'_'( i.ddd.ni Ml. |iasM'd llirnii^'li this liUlr
town. .Ml (il this was daiiy liUtti-r madi- ii|)nii a ilinii.sami nr two dinVn-nf.
laiiiis. in as many iliiinis. In ISSJ. tlir liist inaiiH'ry was Itiiilt in tliis
ti
•A.v/r/;)'
It i> iiiit uiiiisiial
ilk iliuiiii< ;i yi-ar.
a ;^'(Hii| iliiiiv ftiw
I lin .' iir toiii'avrr-
'nl|\ I'llil'llt ilU|lll'-
. lll'\ ll|\ i||,l{ U|MI||
I'll til ari'ii|ii|ili>li
a\. 'I'lir lai'lniy
11' lakiMi t III' jiiarc
in'.s> is as ran' as
laiiii I'liiini as a
(IV M'fii ailnriiiM'
liii'ir |ilai'i' may
!• iiv'i'i' till' rcMilii-
>t iMukiii'^ liiitti'r:
' |iripi|ii((i,iii. St.
I 'iii'iiiLr till mill.
I til iiiarkil cvci'V
as ;J0 to l'» tniis.
v'litli miirli lalii>r
— ami iiu'wai'ili'il
I '.vciitx livi' yi'ai's
llirnii^rl, tliis littli'
I nr twit ilinVrcKt.
tas liiiili ill this
■J
a
3<
H
286
rniLMi'Hs A.\D \\o.\Dt:us or rin-: xix'" ens run v
• ■uimty. Ncpw. till' l''i';mkliii County (Jrriiiiu'iy ( 'luiiiiany. lucnti'd at >t. Alliaiis,
lias tilty-iidil skiininiiiL; ,>tati(iiis ilisli ilnilnl tliinii;,'li tiiis ami ailininiiiLr cimih-
lios. 'In tht'iii is rarrifd tin' milk linm .'KI.IMKI iow.s m- iimii'. and tin- si'|paiati'i!
cri-ain is sent hv I'iiil tn tin- cfntial lai'iiiiv. wlicic Ironi tm In twelve Inns
imtter ai'e made evei'\ d;i
>in'de elntrnin'4 mom lor the wliole ennnt\
All ol' ill is Imtter is nl standard (|ualit\ . and sold nn its ie|mtat ion u|inn (»ider,->
li-nm distant )ininl,s received in advance of its nianut'aet nie. 'I'lie jiricc is
leliil jv ilv iii,i,dier than tlie aveiaj,'e lor the |ii(pduct id' the >ame Jaiins lilty
yoars ^^\^^).
in one lesiieet ii.iry lalior is lhe>ame as a liundicd yeais a.u'n. Cnvvs still
have to lie milked ly Jiioid. Altlionuh nnmerons attempts iiavc l)een made,
and iiatcnt altei i.ateiit issued, no meidianieal cnntiivaiii'e has yet liecn a
|irai'tieal succe^-> a- a snlistitule lor the hnntaii iiand in niiikim,'. 'riierelore,
twice 11 day. eveiv day in tlie year, tin daiiv co'vs must lie milked. 'I'his is
niie (if Ihe mam items nf lalmr in the daiiv. ■• > ntdl as a most delicate and
im|Mit'l:iiil duiv. Allo.vin.; tin cows per hour , la milker. — whiidi is pretty
lively vvoik. — it leipiires the continuous laiof of an ainiy of .'KMi.titHi men,
vvoikiu;,' tell or tvvelvf hours a day throic^hont tlie year, tn milk the cows nf
the I'nited Stales.
The itnliistry is lieenmini,' thornu;,dily orj^Mui/ed. Itesiiles local clulis. snci-
ties. and iMiinns, tlieie aie dairy associatinns in thirtv Slates, mnst (d them
incnfpnrated and receiviii<; tinamdal aiil under State laws. In snme States,
the Imtter makers and idieese makers are separately (ir;.^aiii/ed. .sixteen Stales
prnvide by lavv fni nllieials known as Many ( 'oiiimissintiers or l>air_\ and V 1
< ommissiniis. These ntlicers have a natinnal assnciatinii. and llieie are alsn
tvvnnatiniial or^'uni/ations of dairymen. At variiuis lari;e maiketsaml eeuties
ol activity in the commerce nf the dairy, there are special Imards id' traiie.
'I'lie L'liiteil States |)e|)artment nf .Vijricnltiire ha- a l>aiiy hivision. inteinied
to vvatidi nver and promote the dairy interests nf the cniinlry at lai|;e. Dairy
sclmnls are maintaiiied in several States. dlTeriii!; special cniiiscs of practical
and scieiititic instruetinn in all liranehes nf ihe liu-iiiess. These s(dioids and
the a.Lrricnltural experiment sl;itions. with whiidi most of them are closely
eonnocted. are dniu;,' much oriLjinal ii'seaieh ami addin;.,' to the store id' useful
iiilormatinii as to the applieation-. of modem sidence to the improvement nf
dairy methods and results. Weekly and nioiilhly jnnrnals. in the interest nf
dairy produetiiui and trade, an' jiulilished in various parts of the country.
And durinij the last decaile or I wo a nnmlier of iiolew ort hy hooks nn dilTerenl
aspects (d' dairv iiii: have iieen pulili-^hed. so that the sludeni nf this suiijeet
may till a :.;oocl-si/.ed ease with snlistantial vidiimes. 'I'chnieal aii'i practical in
I haraeter.
The liusiness of prodiicini,' milk for town aiel city supply, with the .lecnm-
panyi..,!,' aijencies lor transpiu'tation and ilistrilintion. has thrown to immense
prnpnri i'Piis. In many places the milk trade is rcLjulated and supervised li\'
excellent mniiieipal ordinances, which have done much to prevent adiilteralinii
ami improve the averaire (piality <d' thi' siipjily. I'"nll as much is lieini; dniie
liy private enterprise. thrnni,di larj^i' milk enmpr.nics, well nifjaiii/ed and
ei|ui|>ped, aiirl estalilishinenls vvhi(di make a specialty nf servile.: milk and
creiiiu (d fixed (piality and exceptional purity. This liraiicli id dairying is
advancinj,' very fast, and upon the sulistanti;il liasis nf care, cleanliness, and
improved sanitary conditions.
I'ESTLliY
PIKHilUlSS IS DMIIY lAHMINff
iti'd ill >t. AHi;iiis,
11(1 ailjdiiiiiM^' ciiiiii-
, iiiul till' M'|iaiiiti'(!
ell til twfhc tmis
llir wlinlc cnlllltV !
ittit lull ii|iiiii (irdi'i's
nil'. Tlif iirici' is
• .-anil' I'aiiiis lilly
r,s a,!,"'. ('nw> si ill
s lia\t' Ihm'ii inadf.
VI' lias Vft lit'cii a
iikiii!,'. Tlifrclnrf,
n' iiiilki'il. Tliis is
most lU-licalc and
, — uliicli is ini'lt V
IV id .•KHI.IKM) iiirii.
(1 milk ilii' cDWs 111
I's lncal rliilts. siii'i-
alt's. liinst id tliriu
s. Ill suiiic Stall's.
zi'd. Sixiciii Stall's
i 111' I )air\ and l''iinil
and I lull' ai'i' alsti
niaiki'ts and ci'IiIu's
al iiiiaids id tradi'.
1 )i\ ismn. intimii'd
i\ at lai>;i'. l>airv
iMiiM's III |iiartii'al
'I'lli'sr sclliinls and
I tliriii ail' I'iiisi'ly
ihi' sturr id' iisi'lnl
111' ini|in>v<'iiii>iit III
.. in till' iiiti'ii'sl III
ts III' till' rmiiitrv.
liiiiiks (III ililVi'i'i'iit
'111 III tllis Slllijri't
lal and juai'tical in
ly. with till' arriilii-
ijriiun til immi'iisc
and si:iiii\ isi'd liy
Mi'vi'iil adiilti'iatiiiii
imidi is tiring; (lone
ivi'll iiVLraiii/rd and
1 si'i'viii'^ milk ami
iicli 111 daii'viti^; is
111', rli'iiiiliiifss. ami
1
Cliocsi'-makiiif,' liiis bt'i-u tniiistVirt'il Imdily irnm tlii! iralm ol dumi'siii' arts
III tliiit III maiiiiliti-tni'i's. l<'iirm-iiiiuU> ciu-rsfs arc liaril to (imi atiywIiiMi*. an-
iiMMJ Hilly liirally, ami make im iiii|iri'ssiiiii u|iiiii tlii' inarki'ts. in tin- miilijli'
<d till' ft'iitiin aliiiiil jdO.iMXi.lHlo |iiinnds id I'lii'i'si- wfic madr yrailv in tin-
I'liiti'il Slates, all id it mi lariiis. At tin' rliisi' of tin- ci'iitmy tin- uiimial
|iriidiiriii>ii III till* fuiiiitry is alimit .'><H),tllHl,lHMi |iiiiiiiils, ami '.Mi or <,I7 |ii'i' ci-iit
ol tllis is mail*- in tartiuii's. < M tlii'sr istalilishmi'iits tln-ri an- smin .'looii.
\aryiiiK j^n-atly in rapai'ity. Nr
\iirk and Wisriiiisin cacii have iivi-r a
limiisaiiil ; tin- lnrinrr State makes nearly twiee as miieli elieese as the latter,
iiiii-
H.VV
and till- twii tiiKi'thei- iiroi'iiee three tniirths id' the entire output ol' this ei
try. 'I'iie other rln'ese-makiii'.: States, in the orilur ol i|iiaiitity |irodui'L'il,
Mliiii, Illinois, .Mii'liivraii. and I'i'iinsylvania : Init all are i'iim|iarati\'i'iv iiiiiin-
111 111 \l M \KlSi. — 1 Ml ^1 \\ u \^
lioitant. '^\<\vo than nine tenths of all iiiade is of the I'aiuiliar Htaiiilaril vari-
I'ty i'n|iii'd atter the l-",n'.,di:di ( 'liedilar. lnit new kinds anil i nitaliniis ol I'oreij^ii
varieties are iiii'ieasiie,'. 'I'lie cheese made in the couniry. with the small
iiii|iiirtatioiis added, j^'ives an allowuiice of less than lour |iiiniiils a year to
every ](ei'soii ; hut as thirty to lil'ty millimi nuiiiids are still annually exjiorted.
the per ca|iita rniisiimptiiin id' cli>'i'~e in ihe I'nitrd Sta* 's does nut exeeed
three ami a hall' pounds. This is a very Inw rate, miiel .'ss than in most
l'!iiro|'eaii I'liiintrii'-.
fJreat as has liiiii the growth ol the laetory system ol iiuller-makliiK'. and
last as eieameries ate multiplyini,'. espeeially in the newer and ;;i'owin)j aKi'i-
eiiltural States, siieli as Minnesota. Nelnaska. Kansa.s, and South hakof'i, there
is still much iiiiiie lintter made mi farms in the I'nited Stale than in cream-
ciies, Creamery Itiittcr controls all the lar^'c markets, the dairv proiluct
n '
4l
•J.VH
nu( Mfiis ,i.v/> \\n.\ni:ns or iiii: .v/.v " chstvuy
I il
i
lliakllll,' ru||||>;ililtlVrls little illl|ill"<Mi>ll nil tllr liailr. Hilt linlnr rci||-.||||||it juli
iiml till' Mi|>|il\ III siiiiill iMiNtoiiHM's ami luriil iiiiirki't.s iiiukii an iiiiiiifiisi'aKKi'*'-
};alf, ItiMii^ liillv IU'> iliinls nl' all. I''.>tiiiiatiii^' lint aiinual Initlii |iiiM|urt nl
till- rnlllltl.V at I.IIMI.IHIII. I |.<MII|i|.s, llnl liilli li iivn Idll.lHHI.UtlU i.l tjiis is
liiaili' ill (ill' StKK) oi '.MMMI ^|lMllll'^il'^ iiiiw iii n|ii'i'al ii'ii. Iiiwa is tlir ^'I'l'ati'st
ImiIIi'I' |>iiiiliiriti'4 Stall', ami liir mii' in \vlii>'li llir i^iraii'sl |iiii|Mii'tiiiii is iiiaili-
<iii I hr lai'liirv |ilaii. I'liis Siair lias N.'id riiaiiii'i ir>. mii^ I liii'i' I'lPiiiil ii'.s lii'iiij;
witliiiiit liniii; aliiiiil Mmi liltlis air riiii|ii'i'at ivr. In IIh'si- rii'itnii'l'ii'N uimnt
■Hi.niiii.diMi |ii>iiim|s III liiiili'i' ail' niaili' anmiallv linni 7-*)IIimhi rnws. || is I'sti-
liiali'il tliai Ml till' >aiiii' Stair .M 1,1 inu.i ii ii i |iiiiiiiiU nl Ihiiiit m aililitimi ari' niailr
in taiiii ilaii'ii'H. Till' tiilal luitlri' |ii'iiiliirl nl tin' Stair is tlirrctoi'r inii' ti'iitli
ol' all niaili- in tlir rilinll. InW l >i'lliis uvi r SO.IMMI.IHM) |iii||iii|s 1(1 lilllliT 0VI'l\
Vfar til ntlii'i St ili's. Ni'W N'mU is iii-xt in iiii|iiiit;'nii' as u liiilti'iinaKiiif,'
Stall', ami tlii'ii ii'iiir I'l iiiis\ Ivaiiia. Iliiimis, Wisi'iuisin, nhin, .Miniii'soia.
ami Kans.i^. Vit all llii'>i' I'ntiiliini'ii iiiakr lull lillli' ninii' tliaii halt nl tlir
.'iniiual Im.iIi'I' i'rii|i ul tlir t'nitiii Stalis, ami in im niu' nl tlirin, r\i'i'|it lii\\a.
is liair III till' liiittiT |ir 'liii'i'il iiiaili' in I'lranii'iii's. Tlir aM'iaj;!' i|iialit)
dl liiitli'i' ill Ai!iii'ii'a Ita.' aati'iiaiiy iiii|>i'iiM'il siiii'i' Ilir inti'iiiliirlinn nl tin'
rii'a'iii'ry ysti'iii ami tlir iisr nl iiiniii'in a|i|iiiaiii'i's. \n i.iillri- is iiii|iiirti'il,
and tlir ciiiantity i'\iii'iti'ii i-- as yrt insimiiliiaiil. ('iiiisri|iii'iitiv tlir Imiiir
ri>iisiiiii|iiiiin must Ih* at tlir yiaiix fatr n| twrnty |iiiiiiiils tlin |ii'rsiin, or
almnt niir liiimli'i'il llis annually tu tin* laniily nf avi'i'a^';r si/r. IT a|i|it'ii\i-
m,;|r|y rnurrt, tllis shnW S Aimiirail^ In lir till' KI'CUtt'Nt lillttrrratin^ iK'npIr
111 till' wmlii.
Ami tlir |irn)i|r nf tli's riilMltry alsii I'lillsllliir inillinlisnl' |in|inils rVi'IV yrai'
nt lilltlrr -llii-'tillllrv iiinl illlital ii'lis, klinWU a-< n|i'n||ial''.,Mlilli', iillttriihr. rtr.
.Most 111 this is lirlii'M'ii In 111' lilltlrr liv tliiisr « Ini iisi- il. ami till' Stair l>aii'y
('iiniiiiissiiiiicrs mciitiniii'il arr lar^'ily nrrniiirii in tlir r-xcciitioii nf laws iii-
Irmli'll In |il'iitrrt riill^lllnrrs i' niil 1 lirsr lillttiT liailils.
'I'lir I'liWS ill till' I'pilrii Stairs w I'll' nnt riilllili'il lllllii |.S|I), liiit tliry liavr
Im'i'u t'liiiiiM'iatrii Inr rviTV ih-i'i'iiiiial I'l'iisuH Himr. It lias i'i'i|uiri>tl ln»m I'.'t
til L'T I'liw •< tiirvny |ii<i of tlir inlialiil.ints In ki'r|i llir rniintry sii|i|ilii'i| witli
milk, Ijiiltrr. ami riin'M'. ami iitnvnlr Inr Ihr i'\|Hirt nt ilairy |iriiilm'ts. Tlic
)'X|Mirt trail)' lias tlurtitaU'il iinirii, liiit lias ni'Vi-n-xi't'iili'il tlir iiriMliictol liaif
a iiiiiliiii ws. With thr ilnsiiiir y«'ars (if tin' rrntiiry, il is rHtiinatnl tliat
tiirrr IS ciiii" iiiili'li rnw il) till' rniirii .Siutcs tn rvi'ry Iniir iK'rsoiis. Tliis
luiikrs til.- tntal niiiiilM'r <if rows alHiiit l7,.'i<Mi,(MMi. Tliry are i|iiit(' tiiiovt'iily
ilistiilinti'd M\rr thr I'liiintry, luiii;; lar;,'rl\ rnmrntratril in thr ^irat dairy
.'>tati'~. 'riiiis ln\N.i IraiU with a iiiillinn ami a hall' cows, I'lillii'.' I'll hy "Sx-w
Vnrk M'itli aluiost as iiiitiiy, *tu\ tlnii lllinnis and i'miiMvlvaiiia >n h ilMnit a
iiiilliiiti rarli I'lir Stat<'s liavinv nvi r half a imllinii r i-'li arr \\ si. -isin.
tlliiii. Kansas, .Vi isKniiri, Minita'iita. Nrliraska. ami Imliaiia. Trxas i;> rrnlitrd
with 7i«'.<MHi. iiii: vrry frv*- i»f thrni ari' dairy animals. In tlir Middh' ;.i»d
Kasteru ^tat^-s fhr iiitik |iriidiirt kim's vrrv lar^i-iy tn thr hii|»|iIv of ihr tiiimrr-
inis ritirsami liH'K'r t->wiM. In t hr < Vntral \S ist and Nnrtliwrst hiitU'r is tlu'
|iniiii|ia! dairy iirmlui't. It is rstiiiiMt^d flial thr dairy animals nf thr Uiiitid
Slati'M ini'ludr nr:.rly half a miliimi «V'' li arr imrr Itrnl. and tliat this hliMid
has Imi'ii »<» gciirraliy diffust-d tlmt u*'/ri' tliaii i-iir fmirth of tiic cattir arr
XfJwIrM.
i:.\iiiiy
mil' i'iiiisiiiii|itiiiii
I iiiiiiii'iisi- iii;j;ii'-
iiittrl' |il'iii|llrt III
Mi.uiHi til this is
II IS llir t,'liMlrsl
ii|>i>t'l lull IS lliiltlr
IT I'liiiiitics Im'Jiij;
rlfli.llli'l'ii'H illiiiul
iiiws. Il is I'sl i-
ililit imi an- iiiailc
•ri'lmc iiiir liMilli
l> 111 lillllrr OVi'lS
a liiitlcriiiakiiiK
iliii), Miiiiii'Mila,
lliaii liall III till-
rill. i'Xri'|p| liiwa.
aviTai,'"' i|iialily
I I iiillli'l lull III I III*
iitliT is itii|)i)i'ti'i|,
lli'lltiv tlir luUlir
-< )|iti |iiM'si)ii, or
<i/i'. Il apiiriixi
itrr-rafiii^' ]n'i)|(li'
miiiiils cvcrv yi'ar
lie, liillti'I'ilii'. I'lf.
il tlif Slate huirv
■iltitiii III' laws iii-
>l<). lull tlii>y liavi'
i'i'i|iiiri'i| Irmii 'J.'l
itiy .Mi|i|ili('il witli
ry proiliH'ts. Tlif
III- )ii'iiiliirt III liuir
is i-Htiiiiati-il tliat
111' iMTNiiiis. 'riiin
in' i|iiil<' iiiic\<'iily
II tlir vjn-at iliiiiy
lollov fil by N«'W
aiiiii H 'Il ilMiiit a
•li art- \V *!■• •iKiii.
Ti'XIU* i^ I'lfditi'il
I the Miil<il<< Mill
•jily 111 I 111- imiiirr-
iw«'Ht Itiitter iM tlic
llWili^ III' till* I'llltl-ll
11(1 tllat tliiH liliMiil
iif I III' caitlf »ri'
Tllk UAIKV MAID.
mil MI'NS A.\l> VtnMtKns nh JIIH A/.V" r/;,V//7M
i !
tiililf Kivi'.N .i|>|»i<iMiii;(ti'l.\ .III fxliiltit I'l iIk- iiiiaiititN iiixi
Ph*" lollow mu
t'ttliK-Arf till- liiiin imMlm't* "• tlif riiiUMi Stiir««f* m lln' .■.••iv
I'.KHI;
11^
ArtHiii
Jft
I
I'rnlllK'l.
Multi-r
ii«t- >
I'riitUt'l .
Tolnl I'roiliiil.
Itlll> of
\ III III'.
'I'lilal VmIii',
IMInro.
lUI lllv
;iiiii ll».
j:
l,4no,iin(),iinii ii».
.Mm lam.iKNi |t>-
i|,IIIHI.IIIII<.IIIHI ^.-r'
W . .iiU
" . .-III.
■iAT.tnn.mm
'il.lNKt.lllNI
liiT/.'^miNNi
'J>])ix };iv<-s tiM )«HMKi UtUil (if I li<- ilain )>i-<KtuftK nt tiif luiintrx ii valiU' n|
jm4X.««Mt),(NNt. It t<v tikiH Im- ^IiI)-iI lh<> Nkiiii milk, luittcriiiilk. ami wln-v. al
^^ii' \>i 'H'l t)M>itin!,' VitUttr*. ami ili<' uiilvcs i||'(i|i|mm| mmiIk tin- annual aKK''*'-
#*-
\ ii
•! ill!
I III II I III
.1 ihr liuirv ti'WH I'XriTiK .'«<."»tMi,iMMi.(MHi. Tliis niav
I"'
'!IIM-rM4lM»>. I'xtllMWtiv
itmii lit' tU»» ■\*iii.iiH iMiiHial larm iniMlm-ts ul tin- fuiinli \ lis
.11.1 .•l.is4»ly M'lt*>»il iiitMiiwt^ .-tanil liri«l in ..nltT. tin- i-iun . iii|i
8«M-ui«^l. .<UM-> jvrtMliiPts am
jilai'i -
(liifiti)
to jilat'.' I
(•nil li.Sl, 1 ir
am-i', Imt ihiri
iliurv
.i li.,
ilairv
tha'
a^;j;ri'].;ali- • mm-i-iU
n coal. oii. aiii'
;a>*.
ami sihiT iniMliii't ■•' tin- \\
<>t tliis ciiiintiA at 111.' |iii'.M-iii
iiii|iiirtam'i- svliicli tin- .l.tiryiii^
ianiiiii^' III siii'li maijiiitmli' aHt<>
jpi-oN isiun> to fjiiaiil it> intfivhts,
I tlf liii\ crop altfi'iiatf in tlir .Iiiiil ami tninlli
Ffav .iii'l '•••rii air •«it laivi'lv .mil
iiatf'iial*' !"<• itM hii|ji|Mirt. lliat it is lair
ii.ml ••Illy 1" iiM'ai |ii'«Mliicts in ilic ^{l•n
.'." is ••iiiirtiiii'u'd niif of >tHMl ini|ii>il
.lis rhf UiKi-T cidii in valiw. Ilif
t tlM' I'llitl'tl St4l1>-- iitlliT
.•ar vrUiMi tlif iMii Fif j,'ii|ii
I i|ii> uuMUit ilaiin |tr(Hlm!ts
I i>.>ns sIm""*' tin- n 'ill
Mim-u
|r tM a I
and jiiHiil .*ll it'awHi 1
iliUMtv K >ki.vii«p:
1 1
I)- i|iialitit\ ;iiii|
••MH):
:;.'i7,tiNi,iNiii
■^I.IMMI.IIIIII
IliT.'.'^NI.IIIHI
iitrv a valiit' hI
k. iiiid wIm-v. it
• ' aniiiiiil ii){i;i'i>-
IMMt. Tliis iihiy
I lie riiiilil I \ li\
r, tin- ctnii I i(t|.
lifd ami tourtli
Mt Itiru't'l.v uiiil
T. «Uiit it In iiiir
ucfs ill lilt* |»»'ii-
■*' •' iiii)M>rt-
,.■, fl,.-
••«i ,s»<(i«'s utlH-r
tin- I'liiirt' j{(>lil
1 i\nm |triHlii(!ls
the ciiittnii-rciMi
iH a lii'tiK'ii* III
TIIK ( KNTrUY'S MOKAL PKodKKSS
f\ iliMliii.; ^^ I'll ;i miIi|< <i -<< iiiilftiiiit)' ill \\> liiiiilsits tlir |irii^ri<NH iif iiuiralH
IK iIh' iiiiulffhili iTiiltnv, ii iiuu Im- Will |i. I sJalilisli liy a Inii-I siiim-v of
lircviiHiN liU'tH miiiic sulid Inimin ii|niii wliiili in \vnt. tlii' tliMMiMsimi.
TIm" iMttiiiii til iMitv iir III iiHiiii! oliliKatimi — i. i<., uf wrll-dninj,' viiunl in
till' .itiKli'.M't ,iiii| iiiiUiilf iit'i'X|H'ilii'iirv — ilui'.i I II it a|i|HMi' tn lia\f limi liinii^lit
Imwanl Uv tlii' <iii'ck iiliiliiHiiplit^rH, to wlmiii is maiiilv ilnr tin- origin of mil'
iiwii riiiiri'|»tiiiiis with ri'^tan! to inuiality.
Kvni I'ialo, w liii ilialt with nearly ill iliitii'H, \vhili> iiiNiNtiiiK *>H|N'cially ii|hiii
till' iii'«;iiliv»' iliity III iiiiiiiiiiltiiij; no iiijiiHtit't' or evil, fvi'ii aj^aiiisl iim-'s Iin-h,
iHiwIii'i'i' sy«tfiiinli<'ally tn-ats of |>iity. Iiuli'i-il, tlif Jiii'fk i't|iiivali'iit lor tin*
uiiril iliil not i-MMt ill liit tiiii)'. .mil tlif notion was i-uiim-m-iI liy a |H-i'i|ilii'a.M'.
riiat iiioials hiiM* a liKaitiiK n|Min tin* wi-llari' ami iliarai'tcr not only ol tint
niilivnliial ami of ili** laiMily. Imt ol' tlic \v|io|i> limly |Mi|itii', was Imwivrr
I ally ii'i'oKiii/fil. TItMidiiiH, lur iimtam'i-. who iivcil in the sixth I'l'iilmy
II. I ., Ntiyiiiati/i'il in till' most i'm'i','''ti'' tfiins tin- fvil inllm-mi' rxciriscil
u|Hiii till' ili'stiny ol iiatioiiM hy tin- iinmoi'ality nl tin- n|i|M'i' ^lass(•^.
In till' i-.iiliff schi-mi'M Iff <>ivtli/ittion, wIuti' woislii|i plaM'tl a ilomiiiant
politiial loll', murals wvw n'jjjM'di'il as ninlfr tin' |iii>ti'rtion ol tin' sarri'il law.
Worsliiit ami l.iw wi-ir rlosi'ly nniti'il in tin' ;;ovi'inim'iiI, ami morals wi-ru
iiii'lmlril in th uul «oM'rm>i| l»y niotivi'H nf i'\|HMlit*nry.
Man's olilii{aliiiii io the l>city was iln-ii mainly roiiliiiril t>i iiiatiiial olTi-r-
in„'s ami |iro|iitialorA riti-s, wlnUt ihi' law ihali with roinliiri ui so lar as
■ 1 miisi in .nrorr. (I. authority ifs|Hrti'il, ami I'ortJiiii nititnal rights rri'og.
I'll, il till' wrltatf ol thi- nation \\a> to tii- inaintaiiii'il.
I'iuit till' moral slinu.^iiiils of iIm-m' carlv sorii'lii-s wi'ii- lii:^ii r.Himit Iw
'lonlitfil. riiost" whii'li iH^wvaih'il m ainiitii l''.^'y|tt. as |in'M'r\i'il i ■ ii> m ihc
in ri'i'iain rha|it)'rs o|' tin' sai'ri'il U ok '. |iiovi
•II
ilh- ol foii'lint whuli was li. iii».iiii' to tin- siiliji'i-ts ol thr I'liaiaoJH
I'l |Ni|iiilaritv ill tU\« wtirhl hm*! Iiappim'ss jn thi' world to loim' was
'fit** «iii»'n who 'aii^dit their i'onti'm|«>iarit'H
t'l'rior to Mill' own
ihv ilh' .li il
II'
>«■ of itl***tll
had liltli' to Irani troni tlio
iM H'lio I'tM-cHtl)' t'lmnfmi Mldiiirt Irniu tin- llllllllll^' waIN <>|
A.V.I, who lirst s\st«'iiiati<'allv di'alt with fin-
I'olit
ll'S,
till' Sciciici' ol" tiuv<>riiiiM.nr.
tk*> ftOVlftfilitA Jfitli
takf
His wh.
took l.ti till' NtartiiiK ]Miitit ol' his arj?»nm'iit
,il>-.oluff wi'll-U'inn, .Ml that man aiiili*r-
i-i, IS loiinil Id !■•■ till' ^I'l'ati'st advaiit;»)(H
1 kiiowli-du*' t4'nds to this i>nd ; and as
• t«M|, tli^-r*' intwt Im'oiii', tin- linal tndol'
,il si'ii>nc»' wUioli aims at tl»»- ){i>Kl«t>st
t' man rollfcf ivi-h-, i c, of mw-»#^s
su;;
ritit Mriis .\.\h Wi).M)i:iis or iiih a/.V" cHsnitY
Till' Tiatnn- ot tliis lii^'licst
•ll-lM'iiij;," wliicli is ^ iMTiillv iniiii'd
L
" lli^|•|•ill<•^>," K'*^'' ri"'" iiiiuiii),' Jirrrk |iliilii>(i|i|u'i^ to tlJMMin.tini^ whicli luivi"
Inh-ii rt'vivi'il liy iiiinIci-ii tliiiiki'i>.
It iiia.v tlM-rclDrc Im* statnl that in iiiiriiMit 'limmlit. at li'ast until tl.<- tiinr
lit till- Stuir.N. nioials anti viitin' \w\v •^tinlinl, u Intln-i' in ninnt'i-tion witli
n-li^ion or witli |Htlitii-s, nmli r tin- li.;lit ot f\|it'ilii-n<\\ ratlicr than nniln that
(it aliMtnii-t ii',;iit, ami that "tlif> wiic ilisrusncd a.> Innrtioiis nunc than a'>
Uioial olili);atioiis."
'I'lif fulliifss ot siv'uiiii ante v/hiih at |iii'si'nt i> rnnvi-vnl in thr wmil
'■ iMitv" is mainly ilu<' t<i tin- i,'iailnal ami i-iini|ilc\ ilfSi'lo|inHMit ot ri-li'^'iou->,
\f\f,([, anil |ihilosii|ihiral imxifs ot tlimiKlit. in whii'h certain linnian acts an-
rc;;ai'ilcil as cnjoincil ami nthcis a-^ luiliiijilcn In a lii<;lici' |hi\\ci', ami in uhicii
(uuiM-n-m ntcrs a.** an ini|i<>i'tanl ami cnci incrca-^in;^' lactoi'. A scnxc of
fluty is the legitimate inniliirl nl human natuic nmlcr lultiNation. Kut
alrhoii^h \\f slmnlil look in \ain atnoni; the ancicntN lor thr alt>tract notions
>\hicli till- woi'ils "Consci iMc, liul\, ami Ki^hl " evoke ni the nioilcrn mimi,
wc tiiiil ill ^ropiiiv; our way up the .stii'am ot tiim that k*')'Ii>!* "' tli**''*' *'•>»-
(■e|it» hail Ion;; lain coneealcil in the pr pt< ot iincieiit moraIi»ts. The tact
ot virtue existed IoIil; lielole it was made the -.illijeil ol theoretical sVstcllls,
uikI if with the development n| the reasoning; faculty onr moral code has Imch
«-IalHii'ated iind our ethical tcinii'MiliM^'y enriched, liroadl\ speak iic.'. the rules
ot conduct laiil down hy civilized men in the remote p^^t ^ind tlio>c which
({IIVITII II.
toniav are, in kind, virtuallv the saii
'I'liou .slialt not kill : Thou
shall not steal; Thou shalt not covet thv iici'ddmr
w \ f I
Tl
loll
^h.llt
not
U-ar false witiicsN. are coeval with the liei^'iiiniiiirs ot commiinitio. It is in
tile seo|K' ami de^'iee of their ajiplieation — not in their natiire — that mainly
lies the ditTerelice existing ill this respect lietwecll the past and the present.
in the highest sta^'c of our moral devchipiiient the un^ellishness which
Reeks ({i^itilieatioii in the welfare of others ami in diitv accomplished, at the
eost of self, may in tinal analysis he reduced to a retined e^joisiii i'he moti\e
licld up to man liy most moralists is still expedieiicv. 'i'he reward, whether
it io proiiiiM'd on this earth or in the world to come, i.s Ntill a rewaril. and to
the "greatest advanta:,'e of him who is actiiiK"
Moreover, moral standards to-day, as in the past, li.ive a stroiij^ IxNtriiit; upon
]Militical government, and it is in stmlvin^' the de\ilopmcnt of demoeialie
iilea.s that we may liest follow the evolution of nioderii ethics suiultaraeteristii*
tif our e|MHdi : for to tliis di'Vidopliieiit is due a hij^her sense of justice, the
reeit;„'nition of the rii{hts of men and of the uiiimportance of the e^o as coin-
{Kiied with the race, all of whii h form distinctive features of the modein
cn-ed for whieli the words ••altruism" anil •• hiinianitariaiiism " iiave In-cii
coined, it may also lie said, to the honor of the picseiit century, that there
exists a j;rowin}; temleiicv to iicccjt alistiact truth and liyht outride of
ex|H-<lieucy as standards of condiiet, and to apply these re^ardlesK of sex,
class, or |M'r.soiis accordiii},' to the iiille\ililc lo|,«ic of a trained reason.
Two thousand years a;;<> t'liristianitv cstaMislied itself ii|hiii the wreck of
ancient eivilixatioiis, preserving; that which in lliciu was imiiioital. Crafted
ii|Miii till' Itoman world, the 'gospel of democracy which it preached could Ih!
accepted as the otlicial icli'^ion of ijie faiipirc only at tin' cost of its own
purity. How could (iod and Mamiiinii rule tog«'ther ':* Ituw could a Coii-
Tin-: cKsvuHY's snntM. I'ltomeHss
j«i:i
lallv Ifiiin'il
I wliiili havi-
I.I
iiliiM' I'Im- t>i ;iii iinili't-luniiiiii' nl' till' I'l'itrlin ulio naiil :
v.- k
IKIW tll.lt
tllt-y wllirll ;lVf ai-cii||||t)'ll tii lull' uvrl tlii' liflltilrM (•Xt'l'lMH** li)|-i|!«lll|i UMT
till-Ill. ami tlii-ir ;;ifal niirs .tAcrii-o- aiitliniiis <i\ci tlu'in. . . . Itiii rm nliall it
II. il lie ailKili),' Mill; lillt wlioMicvn Ulll Im' )il>M allliill^ Vull nliull In* \<iur
iiiiiiiNtcr ; ami \sliiiNiii>vi'r ul vtui will Ih> tii*- i-liii>lt>Ht hIiuII In* H«Tviiiit nf'all."
I St. .Mark X. 1-11.1 (IiunI Ii.hI ivHtalili^lnil ii'liv:i<>ii aiiii>ii^ liis tiiUiiwfi'H
a> ili>tim't tiniii \vi>inIii|i. 'I'Im' |H'ti|i|i' sunn irla|iM'i| intn \\iii's|ii|i, wlalnl lur
till- r|iT},'v tlirii|ii),'y litnk tin- |tla I ri'lijjiiiii.
\\ illi till- alliaiii'i- ruiiiifil iN-twcni I'IiiikIi ami Stall- in tin' ('liristiitii com.
miinilN , iniirli nt tlir Si'iinnn <>n tlir .Miiiint wa.s m'<'rHsai'il> tm^^nlti n ; in. my
<>t tin* |tai'alili'M in wlmli tin* 'I'l'iM-hrr fiiilMMln'il Iuh iliM'triin' nl jn^tii'i-, ol'
tiiji'iain'r, of liiM- anil Imiiiility, wrri- to li>»i' tlirir liviii); toiii'. rinlcr tlir
lianiiiT ol jaitli, rnmliirt sank to tlir .si'i'innl rank. Tlir ili'\ siilitlilii .•• ol'
M'liiilastii'isiii ln'l|M'i| to I'l'iisli molality U'lnatli till' wonls ami tonnnla' ol a
li'.iinril iliali'i'tir. .Mtlioiiijli lor ii'iitinii's tlir .s|iirit ot I'lirist rontiniiiil to
|iiiiti'i't till' wi'ak ami tin- lowly, altlioii^'li tinni tin' vi-iy iNxly ol tin- (linrcli,
ilii'ii I'MT I'l'aily III il-* anoii.iini' to ra.st its anatlnnias n|ioii iviiy ilVoit ot
man to assi'i't Iiim Ir loni. s|ii'aii>; ii'toi'inrr.** wlio I'lnlcaMiii-il to n'stoti' to tin'
i,'i(S|M'l soiiii' ol its I'arly si>,'iiiliram'i'. tin- Clinri'li .straynl t'V«*i- fartln-r I'loiii
Its tiiiimlrl'.
W.
tins I
ircaUsi'
.Mlflirlrt salil. tlir li'I'ornirrs tlli'lnsi-lvrs
iii'i'ilrii I'l'tot'inin^ '.' I hiri- moi'i' nia'i lonml Innisi'M rriislinl nmirr tin- law
wliii'li < lii'ist liail ilrclanil wiih iiii'i|*> lor liiin, until, at liiMt, in tin* tori'ilili*
Willi Is 111' Mr. |iai'iiii>>li'tri', ot all till' Ti'ai'lii'r's Irssuni < 'liristiaii Itoiin' sri'iiinl
Id nnninliri mily oin', " lii'limi unto i'asar that wliirli is ( '.i-sar's." Ilow-
I'vrr tii'iri'ly inonari'liy ini^'lit strii).;Kln a;,'aiiist tin* tiiiiporal ciiriitaciiiiit'iits
• if till' t'liiinli, il joinril with it to n'|iri'ss lln- |.i'ii|i|i'. " .Viithniily ri">li'il
II I II III a iii\ sli'i'N . Il> riulil rami' fruin aliovr. I'iiwit w.is i|i\ im*. < MM'tln'iici'
III It was a sacri'il iliils ai I iiii|iiiry lirraiin' a lilas|ilM'iny."
'I'lii-n from tin' ^'irat si'lmnls ami univrrsilirs tin' ilrvi'|o|iiii^ inti'llcct of
l\iiio|ii' awaki'iii'il to a .si'iisi- of its rights. Smiilriily Ihrii' ramr im|iiiri)'s
mill till' iialilv of this s|iiritnal |iow*'r over hiiinaii soiiIm ami ovi'r tin' linnian
nmli'istamliii}; wliirh Jtoiiii' rlaimril to lir ilfiivnl from llravi'ii. In it>.
ii'Miit against ilo^'iiia, from .Vlii'lanl ami .Vrnolil ili jtri'sria to jiiis.s ami
the I
WirklilV, from Lntlii-r ami I'a.sial to Voltaire ami Koiissi-an, tin- liiiinan
tliiiii^'lit strii).;'4li<il for In-i-ilotn iimli-r tlii' liimin'r of h'arniii-,' ami of n-asun,
ami fiiii^'ht for ihr I'i^'lils nf till' |M'ii|i|i> av(aiiist tin- piis ili-^nl fi-w, '- I will
hot s|ii-ak of tiili-ram-i'." cricil .MiralH-an, in his ph-a for tin* i-inam-i|)atiuii of
ihi-.li-ws in tin- National < 'nnvi-ntion (IT'.Mi; "tin- fii rilom of ronsrii-m-i- is a
ii|,'lit so sarri-il that i-vni tin' naimof tolrrami- iiivohrsa sprrii's of tyranny.''
.\t till' rinse of tin- last ii'iilnry. fr loin at last |il.iiiti'il its stamianl in
i;iirii|M' alMiM- tin- ruins of ih-s|iotisin. In tin- lii-ry torrt-nt whirli swi-pt away
till' amii-nt traililions of tin- <'liiiri-li, as well as thosi- of iln- .Stati-. it si-i-imil
liir a linn- as thiiiiK'h rrlij^ion as well as tin' rliiinh. rii^lit as well as mii^lit,
iiiiist ilisa|i|ii-ai from tin- siirlaie of Iln- earth, ami that, in tin- smoke of
liattles ami the rev<-lr\ of reasnn. truth ami morals iiiiist |ierish ami anarchy
|iri'\ail. Itiii a moral rule is imtis|ii'nsalile to soeiety, ami -- iteli^Moii is after
ill liiit the highest e.\|iression of human seieiiee ami of human (-oiiseieiiee."
Its ^M>riii, innate in man, (;i-own with his nmleistamlin^ in its eonstaiit strain
111 estalilish a relution lietweeii liimsell ami the iinivt-rse.
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
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•264
TRIUMPHS AND WOyDHllS OF THE A7A'"' CENTURY
;
To the moral chaos tluit for a brief space followed the overthrow of the old
order of things succeeded, in tlie begiiiniii!,' of tiiis century, a period of read-
justment, and now, iu tiie words of a jioet wliose own mental i)rocesses are
a tyi)e of those of his time. "Of a iiopeless epocli is born a fearless age."
After the absolute nt-gations of tlie early years of the nineteenth century,
after the violent (controversies not oidy of arrogant science and of prejudiced
faith, but of scientific and theological schools /////■;• m wiiich till the serious
literature of the last generations, a reconciliation between faith and science is
taking jdace, a certain unity of tiiouglit is lieing reached with regard to con-
duct and to tlie rights of men. And tin' century, at its close, shows us the
I'rotestant churciiman less tenacious oi' his dogma, the Konuiuist less certain
of the infallibility of IJome, the schol'tr less convinced of tiie infallil)ility of
his science, the agnostic less boastful of his skejitieism, the monarciiist
awakened from liis dreams of a ;iivine right of kings and of a jireurdaincd
subjecition of men, the socialist sobered of iiis revolutionary frenzy and
repudiating the extrcnu's of r.narchy and niliili-m born of his earlier teach-
ings, all marching shouldev co shoidder under the banner of a broad tolerance
toward a common gviai, in a united effort to lilt the masses from the dcptlis of
])Overtv, igr.orance, vice, and often crinu', to whicli centuries of rei>ression
seemed to consign them, and seeking in friendly coojieration to bring about
a better social oi'der.
For in our time has taken place a great broadening of the moral standpoint
from wliich tlie old rui;'s of conduct are in future to be aiiplied. Toward tlie
end of the l:ist century tlie (Mpiality and fratci'nity of men was proclaimed to
the European world and I'cccived a baptism of bloo<l. This ofticial declarati(jn
of the rights of men i)rofessed to be universal; ijut. like other disjiensations
that had pn>ceded it. in its aitplication it fell short of the democratic ideal.
All men were declared e([ual, yet with striking inconsistency those who ])r(j-
claimed the new creed held others in bondage, and race di.s(pialitication
survived.
The honor of leading in the greatest moral reform which the world has
seen is due to the French IJevolutionary leaders. On February L'. 17*.t4, the
Convention decreed the abolition of slavery tliroughout tiie French colonies,
and all slaves were admitted to the rights of citi/ensliip. It was only in liS;>;>
that slavery was abolished in the IJritish colonies by Act of I'arliament, and
that coolie labor was substituted. In ISfil Kiiqieror Alexander II., following
the policy inaugurated by liis fatlier, Niciiolas I., freed the serfs in Hussia.
It is a curious fact that the United States, wliich for many reasons might
have been exjiected to lead in the movement, only followed in ISC).'!. The
terrible struggle of the publico conscience against ex]>ediency and class
interest, which then took jjlace njion this continent, must form one of the
most important lessons which tliis century will offer to posterity.
flight prevailed, and witli this triumph of justice the human conscience,
throwing aside casuistry and evasion for a time, faced its problems honesth'
and asserted its own sovereignty.
The consequences of the mighty struggle did not stop here. Once the
principles of abstr.act justice established, not only against might but against
tradition and expediency ; once the rights not only of men (as in 177(i and in
17.S!>), but of .all men, recognized in a broader api)lication of the principles of
■MP
THE CENTURY'S MORAL PROGRESS
Ti
Sl^^^Hf.
f 1
B^KVlj^^^BBpBP^^B
CZAR Al-KXANDKK IT. OP" KtlSSIA.
a, true clemocracy, there came a tendency to extend its applicatioti to mankind
at large ; and women, who according to their station in lite had hitherto
been dealt with theoretically as either iiseful or ornamental posses.sions,
begun to find their place as members of tlie comnuinity. The rigiits of slaves
as men had been officially proclaimed.
The rights of women as citizens began
to be disenssed.
In the widespread shifting of levels
wliicli has taken place in the last hiui-
dred years, affecting directly and indi-
rectly the moral progress of all classes
of society, certain important elements
have entered which cannot be over-
looked in the ])rescnt discussion, and
which in future ages nuist stand as pre-
eminently characteristic of the nine-
teenth century and the Anglo-Saxon
ascendency.
The reign of machinery in the in-
d\istrial world, the advent of steam, of
ele(!tricity, of compressed air. as mo-
tors, have done away with the luunan
machine. Whether in peace or in war
the skilled workman has crowded him
out. Labor-saving inventions have done away with the necessity for a
nndtiplicity of hands. The need to-day is for trained heads. From evapo-
rated fruit and canned meats to heat, light, and inter-commuuication, science
is brougiit to bear upon every detail of existence. As an immediate con-
serpience of the jtart necessarily ])laved by learning in our industrial and
conuuercial life under modern conditions, public education has become the
mainspring of national prosperit}'. Freedom and public education have made
our laboring classes the self-respecting, thinking peo]»le they are. Tlie
human automaton upon which fornun-ly i)layed the greed, the vice, the craft
of others now holds a comimratively small place in the modern comnuinity,
outsidt; of Latin Europe. The "vile nudtitnde." as ^f. Thiers still stig-
matized it (befiu'e he turned republican), no longer exists. The world has
moved, and so have men.
"If the shuttle would weave of itself.'' said Aristotle in his a])ology for
slavery, " there would be no need of slaves." The miracle, which seemed
impossible to the founder of science, has been accom))lished with the pre-
di(!tcd result. The shuttle weaves of itself and slavery has disappeared.
Even in Oriental lands, uiuler Anglo-Saxon suprema(\y the c.irrying out of
great public works is stinudatiug a denmnd for education among the peojjle,
and the sum total of ignorance and ]K)verty is gradually decreasing and
making way for better conditions ; for only a trained hand guided by a
trained intellect can use the modern tools. This apjilies to agriculture as well
as to industries.
In the rising tide of intellectual and mat rial ])rogress, woman has been
carried along to a great extent unconsciously. It is a matter of grave doubt
26G
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
whether the early " sutTnifjists " did luon' than be the tir«t to recognize and
herahl the higit^il drill of cDiiteniiiDniry events. It is throngh higher edu-
cation that woman has (luietly I'orged her way to the plaee she occupies in
the modern community, and that sue is claiming her share of the common
heritage of freedom and iiide|n'ndcnce. The prophecy eml)odied in Unlwer's
*' Coming Eace "' is being realized. From year to year her spliere is broaden-
ing. She is fast becoming self-sui)port-
ing. In education slie already holds
a leading place. Her influence as a
moving force is becoming jjatent. It is
orticially recogiuzcd to a varying degree
in certain parts of the civilized ■world,
— England. New Zealand, Kussia, and
twenty -two of the United States, wliere
she stiinds before the law not only in
her relation to man as liis mother, wife,
or sister, but in a direct relation to soci-
ety, as a reasoning being and as a citi-
zen.
The increased self-respe('t born in wo-
man's mind of a consciousness of equal
training and cidture, the growing num-
ber of women whose ambitions have
Iteen stinnilated to higher achievement,
and the consefpient increasing influence
wielded by them in the community,
suggest the thought that in time tiieir legal status will be generally estab-
lished, as it already is now in several localities.
Jfuch leveling has taken place since the abolition of the '' ancient regime,"
not only in the i-elations of the various classes composing society, but in the
relation of men and ■women. The process is still steadily going on. And it
is not unreasonable to believe that, with the gradual elevation of the ideals
of one half of the population, — that half which is in control of the early
training of children of both sexes, — a common standard of character and
morality may in time be acknowdedged which will admit of but one rule by
which the actions of mankind, without distinction of persons, class, or sex,
may be measured. The fact that all distinction in favor of the jnivileged
class has already been removed in the eyes of modern public opinion holds
out such a hope. The casuistry which still discriminates between evil-doers
can but retard moral ])rogress, and the more earnestly modern parents urge
upon their sons the same observance of the laws of hygiene and propriety, of
truth and self respect, as they exact from theii- daughters, the nearer to
true civilization will society reach.
The world is yet far from this goal. No legislative act has as yet saved
society from the ravages of vice, sensuality, and greed, and to-day every
degree of savagery and immorality still exists in so-called civilized countries.
Education, taking the word in its broadest sense, can alone, by its refining
influence, force the savage to give way before reasoning man. And it is by
the constantly increasing i)roportion of educated, self-respecting men and
siu Knw.Min iir?,WKn.
fmmmmmmimmmm'.
THE CENTURY- S MORAL PROGRESS
267
women that the coarser instincts of the hiiinau race are being controlled and
brought to yield to reason. ]>y holding up the same standards of conduct to
humanity, the imixn'taut place occupied by casuistry and expediencj', in the
discussion of the ethical problems set before the moralist, may be reduced, and
;i logical facing of the serious issues to be met may follow. Such a result
must tend to strengthen the marriage tie and the family relation, upon which
rests the whole moral struciturc of society.
At present, modern casuistry, if it no longer seeks to justify falsehood and
(lime committed on behalf of Church or State, still exonerates, in the world
of affairs, the high railroad official or the industrial magnate of an infraction
of the higher code by which his own personal integrity is judged, provided
that infraction is committed in the interest of his constituents. Many a maa
of high standing, whose ]iersonal honor is beyond suspicion and whose con-
science would not allow him to take an unfair advantage of another, does not
hesitate to transgress when dealing with riviil corporate- bodies or with imblic
interests. Hence the corrujjtion which prevails in p\iblic life to a degree
dangerous to the commonwealth, and which is in direct contradiction with the
jirofessed standards of the age. ^Fust we then think that living up to the
highest moral standard is incomi)atible with business success, and agree with
il. Jules Lemiiitre that " the attaining to nioral perfection is really possible
only in the solitude of literary or artistic ])urs\iits, in the humility of manual
labor, or in the dignity of s)ich disinterested functions as those of priest or
soldier " ?
However this may be. new conditions have created new problems which the
liul)lic conscienci^ idone can solve — as it has already solved tliat of slavery
and of race — with unflinching logic.
The human mind, if less concerned than it was in the days of Molina with
polemics on the nature of the human will, — a ([uestion, by the way, which
lionie after eleven years and thirty-three (!ouncils dared not then settle. — or
with theological controversies regarding the value of indulgences, is not yet
at jieaee with itself. Indeed, for being less immaterial, the issues now before
it for adjustment are, owing to their bearing upon practical life, all the more
vital to the moral health of the body politic.
To the resjjective rights and duties of labor and capital our best thinkers
nnist turn their attention before an equitable solution can be reached. That
such a solution must be reached cannot be doubted, for the interests at stake
are fundamental.
Whilst individualism in thought and in conduct asserts itself at every turn,
never were the principles of organization s© actively carried out among all
classes of society. To the strain caused by the forming of trades unions
and of united labor leagues for tlic protection of the wage-earner is now
succeeding tlie danger })roduced by the concentration of capital in the liands
of jiowerful corporations and the creation of mighty trusts, the undue
extension of which in this country seems to threaten the prosperity of the
nation and to add to its political corn ption. As against these monopolies,
]iublic ownershij) and operation of commo.' atilities is being successfully tried,
notably in England and the British C'>lonies. and the honest municipalization
of all comnnmitv service, carried on as the post-office is carried on among us.
results in positive beneflt to the peojile. that is, in good wages and reduced
268 TRIUMPHS AND WOXDKKS or THE A/A'"' CENTURY
taxes. To discuss these important inoblems would encioach upon the domain
of political economy and social science ; but there is no doubt that the public
morality is closely dependent upon tiieir solution.
Whether so-called civilized nations, whilst regarding murder as a capital
offense and punishing dueling when indulged in by individuals, will long
continue to train their best meii at enormous exi)ense, in order that in coliL
blood they may scieutitically destroy the greatest possible number of otlier
trained and eciually good men ; whether peaceful communities of jtractical
tradesmen will some chy cease to ennilate barbarians in their rejoicings over
tlie slaughter of so-called enemies whom they are individually prepared to
befriend and whose ])rowess they are ready to extol, are glaring contradictions
ottered by the problem of war which must be left to future generations to
reconcile. The leading part which the Anglo-Saxon race has taken in urging
arbitration as a proper means of settling international ditferences places it in
the foremost rank of civilization; whilst the I'eace Conference proposed by
one of Europe's most powerful potentates, the (Jzar of Kussia. must bring a
ray of hope to the hearts of those who labor for the advent of universal peace.
Such are the great moral issues of the present day ; and in these many
minor ones are included. Everjv.hereandat all periods of history tlie theory
of etincs has widely dift'ered from jjractical conduct. The race conHict whicli
is taking place in France as the result of the Dreyfus trial, nu)ri' than a
century after the emancipation of the .lews before the law was proclaimed, is
a late illustration of this fact. To this, the corruption and failure of justice
which recent exposures have revealed in the highest circles of republican
France add peculiar signiticance. As already stated, the broad outlines
established in precei)t remain unchanged, and it is in their logical application
that lie all present growth and future hope.
To trace, even in sketchy outline, the debit and credit acco\int of modern
ideas upon the vario\is subjects involved in the above mentioned issues would
be a serious undertaking. A chapter nuist be devoted to each nation, for the
moral progress of eiich clitt'ers as does its besetting sin. Moreover, every
shade of opinion must be weighed and (considered. Inherited traditional
views are, in each modern miiul, lioi)elessly interwoven with the new articles
of a code of morals which public opinion is even now evolving from contem-
porary conditions. •• Each of us," says Edmond Scherer, " belongs to two
civilizations, that which is coming and that which is going ; and as we are
accustomed to the first, we are poorly jjlaced to judge or enjoy the latter."
There never was an epoch wheiv the struggle tor exi,stence was fiercer and
when earthly possessions were more keenly prized, lint despite the many
survivals which still point to a semi-barbaric inheritance of selfishness
descended through millenniums, a decided moral gain may, on the whole, be
placed to the credit of our era. With the decrease of the sum total of
ignorance, not only among the lower but among the upper classes, the sum
total of well-doing and well-being has immeasurably increased.
The sympathy for suft'ering is more widespread than it has ever been. !No
middle-aged person can fail to note the rapid change whicli has taken place
in the public mind with regard to the general treatment not only of children,
but of animals. The present mode of dealing witli school children according
to their individual capacity, the trust in their honor which governs their
11'
.Ic
in
\\\
th;
a
toi
/.a
nil
tit'
'UHY
THE CKXTUIIY'S MfUlAL PIUKillKSS
l&i}
I tht! doiuain
it the public
as ;i ca])ital
s, will long
that in cold
)t'r of other
of ])iactical
jioinys ovt-r
prepared to
ntradictions
lerations t<»
11 ill urging
plaees it iu
[)roi)()sod I)y
Hist hring a
ersal ])eace.
these many
r the theory
iHiet whieii
lore than a
lelaimed, is
■e of justice
republican
id outlines
ap])lication
of modern
isues -would
ion, for the
)ver, every
traditional
e\v articles
nil contem-
igs to two
as we are
latter."
fiercer and
the many
selfishness
whole, be
n total of
s, the sum
been. No
iken place
f children,
according
erns their
<'A1'TAIN AI.I'ltKI) IHIKVFCS.
ii'iation to the teacher, the al)sen('e of any corporal punishment, form a recent
departure in education well caleuhited to produce the best moral results.
Ihe iniiuovement of modern methods in relief work as well as iu the
treatment of vice — now viewed more
iu the light of a pathological condition
than in tiiat of a sin — must make this
a nu'inorable epoch in the ethi(!al his-
tory of humanity. No braiadi of civili-
zation has undergone greater change in
luodern times both in theory and prac-
tice than ind)lic and i)rivate charity.
To-day the humanitarian endeavors to
lift up the fallen and the needy, and
almsgiving (Hi the part of the well-to-
do is fast becoming relegated to tiie
category ol a self-indulgence whicli is
not to be encouraged. The distinction
between the old nieiiinds and the new
is given in the fornuila that "hence-
forth the chief te.st of charity will be
the effect upon the reciiiient.'" Any re-
lief cal(Mdated to undermine .self-reli-
ance and independence is discouraged
by those who have in view tlie ])revention of our moral ills rather than their
relief.
Indeed, the new school preaches scientilic charity as against emotional
charity. What it may have lost in impiilse it has more tlian made up in
eft'ectiveness. The attempt to teach the needy to lielp themselves, the work
of college settlements and of the organized efforts in the poorest and
most neglected districts of large cities, with a view to fostering by jiersonal
contact and exam pie habits of thrift and self-respect where those virtues are
most lacking, are ;>uiong the truest if more homely . glories of the closing
century.
Verily, never was a more thoughtful effort made everywhere to mitigate
the cruel distinctions of race and sex, of wealth and i)Overty, and to
•' harmonize the social antagonisms " of modern life. Never was so much
consideration given to the betterment of humanity, nor Avas the aggregate of
earnestness so great.
In our more robust intellectual world the tree is judged by its fruit, and
acts tell, not creed. The principle that well-doing, unless it is disinterested,
forfeits its claim to the highest respect of men, is growing in strength, whilst
the feeling is gaining ground among the thoughtful that in the development
of personality may be found a sufficient motive for the exercise of virtue, and
that character, not reward, hi'iiii/ not hav'unj. are the highest aims.
If we resume the moral progress of the nineteenth century, allowing for
its inconsistencies, carefully weighing its negative and jiositive results, and
taking as a balance what is original in its contribution to the ethical develoj)-
ment of the human race, we will find that this contribution mainly lies in the
direction of tolerance and of altruism. This altruism is distinct from tlie
J70
TiiiiJMPiis AM) noy/)K/{s or the xix'" century
charity of St. Vincent, wliicii sacriticcd self in a loving attempt to relievo
in(livi(hial distress. Such pure saeritice. admirable as it is, is not only narrow
in its si'ope, but lieciuise ot' its iiiisterity nnist fail to survive in the struf,'^de
for existence. .Modern altruism aims at removing the main cause of
individual distress, anil spends itself in educational efforts, in whitdi the well-
doer finds happiness in \\w eonsciousuess t)f usefulness. It is also unlike the
socialism of CoikUmm-i t. which reached <lown in an endeavor to make all
institutions sidiservient to tl e interests of the poorer anil nu)st numerous
classes, for it aims at lifting these to the Idghest possible ]>lane. 'I'he moun-
tain summits are not to be lowered, but the vaUey.s are being tilled. To raise
tlie peo]ile, to build up. not to tear down, is the avowed end of all modern
moral effort, and must ever stamj) the humanitarian struggles of the present
age as distinct from those of the eighteenth and preiicding centuries.
AVith this w<' uuiy claim an increase in individual freedom, and a per-
ce])tii)It! tendency to a logical and ever broadening conception, not only of the
rights, but of the (bities of citizensliip ; to a more lionest recognition of the
l)lace assigned by expediency to evil in the social and business intercourse of
a practical life ; to a growing scorn of casuistry, and to a stronger faith in
tlie reality of riglit and of abstract truth as they are revealed in every
thinking man's heart, and the uniformity of which is reflected in the public
conscieuce.
Haka Y. Stevenson, Sc. D.
W'
ilWBB^^M^iW
PROGRESS OF SANITARY SCIENCE
SiNTK blessings hriglitt-ii us tlu'v tako their Hij,'lit, it may bo (Utiieult to
reali/o how imich of our iiresont happiness and eonit'ovt depend upon the
constantly abiding benefactions brought about by tiie progress of Sanitary
.Science in the prestsnt cycle. The proper care of the boily and the pre-
vention of disease, rather than its cure, have occui)ied the minds of men
from tiie ilawn of history. ^Nfoses is the autlior of a well-digested code of
liygiene, and erudite selioliirs can lind hints of tlie jtroper conservation of
liealtii in the Egyptian papyri. Hippocrates wrote about the prevention as
well as the (sure of disease ; indeeil. all along the course of time the master
minds of medicine attempted the solution of numy of the problems of Sanitary
Science as eagerly as they sought for the ellxlf i-ltiv or for the universal
solvent. Notwithstanding all this, one can truthfully say that sanitation
could not l»e fairly termed Sanitary Science until its rules of procedure l)egan
to be fornudated witii more or less exactness upon careful expcjriment and
accurately recorded observation. Sanitary science, as such, could not begin
to be until pathology (a knowledge of the morbid processes of disease) and
etiology (a study of the causation of disease) had builded ujion a scientific
foundation. Before this all deductions were from experience, and had no
other reason than the seeming helpfulness of the j)roeedure; after this, as
fast as the facts were demonstiated, deductions were made that determined
a procedure which would of a certainty accomplish the purpose. In the
olden times, during an epidemic of a contagious disease, tar barrels were
burned in the streets, — and not without some benefit. At the present, the
room, with its contents, can be disinfected with a certainty of destroying
every atom of contagion.
This difference must be kept in mind when comparing the old with the
new, and the true reason of the great advance be recognized as due to the
spirit of scientific investigation, which began in the latter part of the last
century with the employment of instruments of precision in research, and
which has developed so wonderfully up to the present that the experimental
j)sychologist measures the minute portion of time it takes to form a thought.
At the same time, it must be kept in mind that the sciences which furnish
sanitiiry science much of its material are progressing and, because progress-
ing, changing ; that the conditions desired to be removed are prevailing, and
the necessity of overcoming them urgent. Not in every case has the sanita-
rian fully demonstrated and laid down scientifically accurate data on which
to base his method of procedure. Hence it happens that even now sanitary
empiricism must needs be mingled with sanitary science, and the mingling is
sometimes as much of a motley as the dress of the court fool of the Middle
Ages.
Since sanitary science had its origin during the present century, it will be
•271
rniiJMi'us AM) wo.xDHiis oi- the \ix"' cExruny
ht'l|iful to iiHsijjii a (U'tiiiitc pi'iiod lor its liirlli. Not thiit any oiif would liuvc
tlic tt'iiifiity to (logiiiatically assert tliat tlic si'ifiicc caiiif into bi-iii^? iit a lixcd
date, liiit ratlicr to tix a period of time when tlie conditions working; tliroii|L;li
tlie aj,'es were so sliaped tliat, perlorej', tin' iirolileiiis ol sanitation would
tliereatter We treated more in a seientitie and less in an em|iirieal nietliod tlian
before. This time is assoeiatud with the liejjfiniiin^' of the reign of Queen
Victoria of Kn];,dand. since the tirst Act of I'arliamtMit for the ret,'istratiou of
liirths, marriau""^. and deaths was passed in IS;!7. and the lpe},'inning made of
accurately j,MtherinK information whi(di is to the sanitarian what the jiulse is
to the jihysician. With his tinj,'ers on this tell-tale of the flow of the heart-
hlood of the nation, he is enahled to di'tcrmine whether disease is above or
below the normal, the character of the disease that abounds, and its where-
aliouts. Jvnowinj; where to find any disease in excess, he can study the con-
<litions and sunii'indinj;s, comjiariuK thoin with other places, whether attlicteii
in like manner (M', more favored, free from the disease. I>y means of these
vital statistics he can compare year with year, and tell with a dej^ree of exact-
ness heretofore impossible whether any disease is increasing or decreasing;
1m' can lay his returns by the side of the (iunres of the meteorologist and learn
if the weather has any influence on the ileath-rate; lie can follow the results
of his eff(M'ts to improve the conditicui of the people and vindicate his expen-
dilure of the i(uiili<' money by pointing to the reduced mortality rate. It may
seem to be a griu'some task for every physician in the land to send to the jjro-
]ier official a notice of each death and of each |)atient sutfering from a disease
a|)t to be conimunieated t(t sonu- one else ; and almost ghoidish tor the officer
to sit at his desk, day after day, and catalogiu' and tabidatc these returns.
I>ut it is only a modern version of the old riddle of Samson, out of the bit-
tei' came forth the sweet; for without this, nnu-h of the progress of sanitary
science would be well-nigh imiMissible.
The act adopted in (!reat Ibitain lias been modified and inijudved upon
.since then, and in the I'nited States many of our cities and sonu! of our States
have been engaged in a similar effort. As yet we have no (.'entral bureau or
<'ollecting office for the nation ; nor is thi.s necessary, if each State would do
its dutj', or, at least, the general government in that event need only t.alnilate
the returns of each f)f the States. The effort is now nmking, under the aus-
l)ices of the American Public He.iltli Association, to secure a uniform method
of registration in all offices collecting vital statistics, by which the same name
will be given to the siiine disease and the same facts recorded in ea<di return
made. This will cause a little confusion at iir.st in those offices where statis-
tics h;ive been tabulated for a number of years, but the advantage will be so
great as to fully rep.ay any inconvenience .it the first. If we desire to obtain
the full benefits from the mlvance of sanitary science, we must see to it that
in every State there is an efficient bureau of vitiil statistics, whether under
the supervision of the State Board of ffealth or some other dei)artment
of the State. The absence of such a bureau reflects upon the intelligence of
the jieople or the integrity of the law-making power.
Are there tangible results to w.arrant so sweei)ing an assertion ? is a fair
question, since at the time of the prejparation of the census of 1890 New
H;impshire. Vermont, Massachusetts. Khode Island, (Connecticut, New York,
New Jersey, and Delaware were the only States collecting vital statistics, and
.SI
it
11
li
fi
w
M'
i>
PItOaiUiSS OF SANITMIY SClEiSCK
878
|)r(»ve(l uiKin
of our States
111 bureiiu or
ite would do
lily talnilatf
iler the aus-
oriii methcHl
L' same naiiu!
catili return
vliere statis-
■e will be so
ire to obtain
ee to it that
ether under
department
elligence of
Mince tlien but Maine and Michigan iiave been added. Melore riuoting tiKures,
it must be i)reniised tliat even now the returns only approxiuiate ai'curaey j
llicy were much more inaccurate at the first, and before the general registra-
liou was undertaken luost of the statements are merely estinuites, after the
fashion of tiio geographer wiio gives tlu» ninuber of inlial)itants in China,
wliere a census never has been taken. It nuiy liappen tiiat tlie Ijcnetits are
not as great as the figures seem to show, but alter making all allowance there
is great improvement.
1.1 VKS SAVKI) nv I'l ni.K -IIKAI.Tll WORK.
CoiiipiiriiHiii of'tUiitfiriifiK in Mir/iif/iin frniii univlet f< ri r itiitl hiiki/I-jhix hi'foir unit Hinee
t/ic Stiitt' Hiitinl iif lliiilth iriiH nitdhlixhtit, and from, lyphiiid firer l/t-fore and niniy itit
nulriflion irim iinihrtiikm hy t/if Slutf ItiHird. (Coin /tiled from the Stafc Depart inent'g
'• Vitiil Stilt iKlirn" of Mir/iii/iin.)
hi
J
u
in
4
3
2
1
REPORTED DEATHS PER 10.000 INHABITANTS.
SCARLET FEVER
SMALL-POX.
TYPHOID FEVER.I
1869-73.
1874-86.
i869-7a
1874-96.
1868-78.
1879-86.
(BEFOREJ
(8INCE4
(BEFOREJ
(SINCE.)
[8EF0RE
(SINCE.)
CTTTI
3^77
9flf»
V
1 an
^
OjiS
The " Eneyclopaidia Britannica " asserts that two centuries ago the mortal-
ity of London was 80 per 1000, while now it is but a little over 20, In 1841,
out of every 100,000 people in England, 30,000 would have died before reach-
ing the age of 10, and one half would have died before they were 40 years old;
in the decennium 1881-90, before 30,000 would have died out of each 100,000
18
271
TinUMI'llS AM) \VONIH:iiS OF THE XIX"' CENTUHr
HtMiii' would have livt'il tol)ol7, unil some woulil have lived to Itf ^u* \wUnv one
halt lit till' iiiiiiiIm'I' hail ilt'|iartf(l into the iiiikiiovvii and tin- ht'icat'tcr.
Till- tiKiircs 111 tho .statistirian niiisl Ik; i|iiiitfd aKain and aKaiii in the |ii'ii-
l^ress of the artich', as no more taiiKi'th' t'videiice can lie ^iveii of the hene-
tits resulting fioni im|iroveil nietlioils of sanitation. \'ery eaily a eoincidenri'
was observed between the uneleanly ami the death-ratt-. NeiK'hborhoods
where little or no cure was taken to renu)ve tho refuse, where thert^ were foul
drains and a defieient water siipply, were found to be the abodes of special
forms of disease, — so much so, that these diseasi's soon received the name iil
'• tilth diseases.'' Acting upon the sui^gestion, tlm gospel of eleiudinesH was
preached and its practice enforced. There was a "redding ii|i" in its event-
uality as thorough as the dransing of Santiago de (!uba in recent days, it
tlid not take long to dis(!over that decaying organit; matter in some way was
the otTcnding bmly, and that this contaminated the water supply. Wells were
condemned and publii^ water sup[ilies installed ; means were sought to enable the
cleansing to be constantly carried on, and sewers for house drainage followed
or accompanied the water supply. In jiroportion as this has been thoroughly
done has tlie dcatli-rate from certain diseases diminished. During the last
century the Kuropean armies were decimated by fever (tyjihus or relapsing) to
such a degri'f that the work of the fell <lestroyer at Santiago was triHing in
comparison. On into the present century, the great .scourge of (Jreat Britain
was these same two fevers; so much so, that ''the fever" meant the dread jail
or tyjilius fever. It was imported into this country, and epidemics of "ship
fever" were of frequent oceurn-nce. Thus, as latt! as liSUi, it was estimated
that in Dublin alone there were 4(>.(HH) cases of fever, with a total in Ireland
of l.tKHM'Od cases. There were l(t,(IOO deaths in J.iverpool, a city esiiecially
jirone to the disease ; while in Kdinburgh one person out of every nine of the
]ii)liulatiiin was attacked, and one out of every eight of the sick died. Turn-
ing from this account to the medii^al returns ol tho war for the I'nion, there
were rejiorted only 172.'{ cas(>s, with 'u'2 deaths to the otHce of the Surgeoi»
(Jeneral, and even these a very competent authority after careful investigation
decided not to be instances of true typhus. Or turn to civil jiractice : the
disease is found so sehlom witli us that it is not necessary to assign to it a
column along with the other disea.ses in jiublishing the mortality returns by
our health authorities. The deaths from lever in London during October,
November, and December, 1H98, were but !.".)(). London lias an estimated popu-
lation of 4,o(>4.7r)(). and the " fever " in the rt'iiort included typhoid, simple and
ill-detined forms of fever, as well as typhus. This makes a death-rate of but
0.2(5 jier 1000.
Had sanitary science no other trophy, its votaries could still boast of the
great benetits to hiinumity brought alumt by their labors. This is but one
of many ; thus, scurvy, the great bane of the navy, is now a disease that few
|ihysicians have the misfortune to see, or patients to endure. Then thfit dis-
ease somewhat akin to typhus, and until within the memory of the fathers
confounded with it. hence called tyjihoid fever, is likewise fast disappearing,
more rajtidly in cities than in rural communities however. The suppression
of typhoid proceeds with ecpial stej) with the introduction of a ])ul)lic water
supply in our towns, the ado)ition of the proper means to furnish this water
unpolluted, and the iiroper removal of domestic waste through sewers, whose
rnuGUIiSS of SAMTAHY SV/EXCIi
87fi
loiitPntH an* so trciiti'il as to work no harm altt-r tlioy csnaiio. Notwith-
staiuliiij,' tlu'.st! ^,'i('at tiiiiiiiplis, il hoastiiiK iw pi'iiiiissihlc, tlu' sanilir'an's
Imast in liitlu'r that his scii'iiii-, wliicli liatl its hoKiiiiiii^', as we havi- st't'ii, at
the tinii' whfii tliori' was a Ki'^'iit^ awakciiiiii,' of tiic national conscionir in
I'.iitish politics for '■ thi' hii^rr sympathy of man witli man," has Ijioaileni'il
witii thi! years of its j,'ro\vth ; lias entleavort'd to caro for one's hiuthec so
that his blood would not cry up t'"'" t'"' wround ; so that, after forty or
lifty years liad passed, a ilistinKnished sanitarian eoidd write witii literal
aciMiraey: " Whatever ean cause, or help to cause, discomfort, pain, sickness,
dcatli, vice, or crime — and whatever haH a tenih'ncy to avert or destroy, or
diminish snidi cases — are matters of inti-rest to the sanitarian; and the
|i(iwers of science and the arts, ,i,'reat as they are, are taxed to the uttermost
to afford oven an api)roximate solution of the problems with which he is con-
>>
MAT SHOWINU " KKUIHTIIATION STATKH NOW AVAll-AIIM';
KOK TMK MollTAI.rrV srA riSTK S OK TIIK TWKtiKTU 17. M.
(i:\srs (iiKxii.
NoTK. — Stuti'H linviiif; iiimu'dinto riyisti'ftliim of ileiitlis niul reqiiiriiij? Imr-
iul permitK arc /ilnrk. The only additions to tliu list since tlio Census of ISUO
are Maine (18U1| and SlicliiKan" (18il7).
cerned." ' And the crowning .i,dory of the science to-(hiy is the care it bestows
upon the weak, the ignorant, and the helph.'ss; the efforts it makes to amelio-
rates every undesirable condition of society.
It would be misleading to infer that all of these benefits have been brought
about solely through the collection of vital statistics, although much of it
.viiuld liave been difficult without the knowledge furnished by these statis-
tics. Workers in almost every branch of ]iure science have contributed to
the progress, — tlie pliysicist, the nufteorologist, the chemist, and by no
means the least, the biologist. Indeed, with the more recent investigations,
the culture t\d)e of the biologist lias almost revolutionized medicine and all
that pertains to it.
Sanitary science seeks to accomjilish two ends; it purposes to y>re»'e?j/ dis-
ease and to jn'omote public health. If it seeks to prevent disease, after the
fashion of the oft-quoted cook-book, it must first secure the disease, or what
1 Ur. .1. S. Biiliiif^s in /Ciemtstit's Encyclojmtlia.
276
TlilUMJ'HS AXD WONDERS OF THE A/A'" CENTURY
is essentially the same thing, know Avhat eauses it. If the eanse be known,
and we can conquer the cause, we can ju'event tlie disease. Thus a disease
known as tr'wli'uiti' spiralis, from tlie name of the jiaiasite invading the body
and causing sickness and death, is caused by eating jiork infected by the
trichina*. We can certainly i)revent triidiina- in persons Ijy forbidding pork;
but we also know that the trichina- do not oc(Uir in all pork, and that their
presence can be detected by the inici'oscope. If. then, a bam])le from every
slaughtered pig is suhmitted to the microscojiist, the infected pork can be
discovered. This is d()ue in our large ])acking establishments, especiallj* for
that jjork which is to be exported. Again, a tliorough ccjoking will kill the
trichina*, even if present. Only the grossest c\'irelessncss, conse(pientl3', can
accoipit for a case of trichina', aiul. indeed, it is a very rarely occurring dis-
ease. This illustrates the importance of a knowledge of the cause of the
disease, to enable one to devise a method for preventing it. In the study of
disease causes, the biologist has been very successful during the ])ast few
years, and a number of our coiamunicahle diseases are denu)ustrated to be
caused by the growth and development of bacteria. From this demonstra-
tion in the case of some, a general hyjiothesis has been fornudated, which is
useful as a working hypothesis, but by no means safe to call a theory as yet.
This hypothesis is that all of our communicable diseases are caused by living
organisms originating in one ])crson and conveyed to another, where they
begin to grow, to rejiroduce their kind aiul to perform their life functions.
Hence all communicating diseases are infectious. Some of these infectious
diseases, like measles or smallpox, are capable of direct communication from
one person to another, rendering them contagious ; others, like tyi)hoid fever
and cholera, are not contagious in this sense of the word. This is a very
excellent distinction to make in the use of these much abused words.
The biologist has rendered sanitary science great service not only in dis-
covering the causes of certain diseases, but also by aiding to determine the
nature of the disease in any outbreak. It makes a vast difference if a given
case is one of true diphtheria or not, or of Asiatic chcdera or not, and often
the symptoms alone are not conclusive. Here the biologist comes to our aid,
as is seen so often in cases of su])posed diphtheria. A portion of the throat
secretion is sent him under such jn-ecautions that no bacteria from the out-
side can possibly contaminate. With this secretion he stabs or inoculates a
jelly com]wsitiou which he has ])laced in a test-tube, stuffs a wad of absorbent
cotton in the mouth of his tube and puts it in a warm cluunber or incubator.
If there are any microbes ])resent, the}' will begin to grow, and the exjiert
biologist can tell the bacteria from its manner of growth as readily as the
gardener can distinguish between his radishes and lettuce when they sjjrout
in the spring. ;ind in tliis way is able to report the nature of the germs. If
he is in doubt, he carries his cultivation further and emjjloys other tests to
prove his observation.
Tjie I'iologist has also rendered great aid to sanitary science in discover-
ing many other species of bacteria that are heljiful to man. Our polluted
waters could not be purified, our air coidd not be cleared from foul odors,
nor the pr()]ior decomposition of organic matters go on, without the aid of
bacteria. Tiiese little vegetable growths, while working much harm upon
humanity, contribute far more to their comfort, well-being, and happiness
>
■A
=1
r"
3;
278
TRIUMPHS Ai\D WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
than they do to their ill. I'ossibly no better illustrations can be given of
the value of I ^teriology to sanitary science, and the great progress it has
brought about, than to contrast a cholera outbreak of a few years ago with
one occurring more recently ; or to jioint to the efficacy of imrifying water
by the assistance of bacteria. Another disease, pulnionary consumption, may
also be noticed, but the triumph here is not so marked as yet.
Tlie first outbreak of cholera in tlui United States occurred in 1832. In
one special hospital in New York city, 2030 patients were received in the
nine weeks from July 1 to September 1, and of tliese <S50 died. An eye-
witness, who was jjcrsonally known to the writer, one not given to exaggera-
tion, said that the state of dread and alarm had been increasing until, when
the disease first nuide its appearance in New York, fully one half of the
po]ialation had left the city, many of the physicians fleeing with the rest.
There was no efficient health de})artment, and no organized system for the
protection of the public health. This gentleman was a city missionary, and.
in the performance of his duties, visited many of the houses. He mentioned
visiting one of these on a morning when the fifteenth body had been carried
out. It was the time of the rumble of the dead cart and the indiscriminate
burial in public trenches. Contrast the horrors of this scene with the last
attempt of cholera to invade the United States, in 1803, when, notwithstand-
ing its })rpsence at the quarantine station in New York harbor, and the actual
presence of a few well-authenticated cases in the city itself, not one of thrxc
cases pro rerf a foniis for the sprcatf of the disease.
The opinion that water in some way acts as a conveyer of disease can be
generalized after a very little observation. To explain how it does this is a
problem that was attempted to be solved by the chemist. He added vastly
to our knowledge, but it was not until the biologist showed the presence of
the disease-producing bacteria in water that a full explanation was ])ossible.
But the biologist has done more : it has been found, and notably in the very
complete series of experiments carried on by the ^Massachusetts lioard of
Health, that even an effluent of a sewer, if filtered through a bed of sand, is
purified to such an extent that the filtrate is a perfectly safe water to drink.
The dangerous organic matter disapi)ears, and ninety-eight per cent of the
bacteria is removed. And it is jjleasing to note, when one has so much to
say of the dangers of bacteria, that the purification is entirely brought about
by the action of bacteria working for the good of man. A sand filter bed
does not purify water properly until it has been ia operation for a few days,
when the top of the bed is covered with a slime in which the bacteria act
upon the organic, matter in the water and purify it. The fact of the purifica-
tion was known before the manner in whicli it was done was understood ; and
in those cities where the authorities have acted upon this knowledge and
have purified their water sui)ply, the influence \ipon the death-rate of typhoid
fever is almost as marked as those already quoted for typhus fever, while
the scourge of cholera lias been almost entirely removed from their borders,
as many an instance during the late outbreak in Europe coidd illustrate. It
do"" not contribute to our self-esteem to know that most of the water sup-
plies so filtered are to be found abroad. There is not enough of " practical
politics " in filter beds to charm the traditional .alderman of our cities.
It is now clearly proven that a species of bacteria is uniformly present
PROGRESS OF SANITARY SCIENCE
279
ill pulmonary consumption. This bacillus is to be found in the material
<'(iughed up by those who are ill with that disease. It has considerable
tenacity of life; the expectorated material can be dried, pulverized into
<lu.st. and carried about on the wind ; should the bacteria so dried and car-
ried find a proper soil, they can grow and reproduce the disease. For^---
niitely, a combination of circumstances is requireil for the contraction of
lliis disease, or it would be far more prevalent than it is. Notwithstanding,
it already claims more victims than any other single disease. What has
sanitary science done for its repression? It is attempting, in a tentative
way, to obtain a registration of those who are consumptives, in order to teach
them to avoid being possible sources of infection ; to disinfect the discharges
carrying the bacteria, and at times the rooms occupied by the consumptives.
In liome. for example, the services of the public disinfectors are a»ked for
as eagerly for the room occupied by a consum])tive as for one that had laen
used by a person suffering from diphtheria. In New York city, where the
department of health has been exercising an oversight and care over the con-
sumptives, there has been a constantly diminishing death-rate from all tuber-
SAND FILTEIl BED.
cular diseases from 1880, when the rate was 4.42, to 1897, when it was 2.85,
with the single exception of 1894, which was lower than lS9r>. It is too
soon to predict the result, but the proper care of consumptives promises
much to check the ravages of the disease.
One of the charms connected with the great results indicated is the simpli-
city of the methods emjiloyed to bring them about. While complex schemes
and elaborate machinery may be necessarj' whenever the amount of service to
be rendered recjuires organization and division of labor to properly accomplish
the desired results, the jn-inciples are such that they can be executed in the
smallest hamlet, and with the very crudest parapherucalia. The two great
weapons of the sanitarian in fighting disease are isolation and disinfec-
tion. Dr. Henry M. liaker, the efficient secretary of the State Board of
Health of Michigan, has for years collected and tabulated the results of
the observing and non-observing of these precautions in his State. He has
a happy faculty for graphically presenting the results. One of his diagrams
is presented here and needs no explanation. In very few of these out-
breaks could there have been any municipal disinfecting plant or isolating
hospital.
Isolation and disinfection — but the old quarantine and fumigation under
new names ! Who of us has not sympathized with the traveler of the earlier
days in the Levant, when he was condemned to days and weeks of detention
280
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
in t)i(^ bui'it'ii lazaretto ? And even at so comparatively recent a date as the
liilfjrimage rccordt'd bv ^lark Twain in his " Innocents Abroad," lie states
that the Italians fonnd it more to their convenience to fumigate travelers
than to wash themselves. lh)w very different is a modern quarantine station,
such as may be lound near any of our more important jwrts on the Atlantic
coast. If the health officer of the \wvt finds a contagious disease upon board,
he immediately removes the sick to the hospital, and keeps the well under
supervision long enough to see if the disease has been communicated to any.
He may kee]) them on shipboard ; but more likely, if the ship must be disin-
fected, he removes them to the detention station, safely se])arated from the
hosi)ital. The steerage has been crowded, and there is need of disinfection of
their persons and clothing. Under proper supervision, each is required tO'
take a bath, ; or which abundant facilities are furnished; and while this is
doing their clothing has been placed in the steam disinfecting apparatus, a,
partial vacuum secured, superheated steam introduced, the clothing thor-
oughly disinfected, a partial vacuum again produced, whereby the contents
are rapidly dried, and they are ready to be put on again by the time the bath
is conqjleted. The luggage is treated in the same way, while the cargo is
probably treated to a sulphur fumigation, — the sulphur being burned in fur-
naces and the fumes carried to all parts of the cargo tlirough lines of hose.
In the course of a very few days, at least, all but the sick can proceed on their
journey without any risk of conveying the disease.
Everything that has thus far been chronicled regarding the progress of
sanitary science has related to the diminution of the death-rate and the pre-
vention of disease. After all, is this worthy the telling ? When one learns
"how the other half lives," or, with more restricted knowledge, realizes to a.
degree the intensity of the remark of a young Hebrew, replying to a command
of a police officer to clean up, as related in " The Workers " by Professor
Wykoff : " You tell us we 've got to keep clean," he answered in broken Eng-
lish, lifting his voice to a shout above the clatter of machines ; " what time
have we to keep clean, when it 's all we can do to get bread ? Don't talk to
us about disease ; it 's bread we 're after, bread ! "
Is it worthy of boasting that sanitary science is only increasing the hard-
.ships and adding to the number of mouths to be fed. without opening up new
ways to earn one's bread ? Even if it be so decided, and all the claims of
progress thus far made be declared wanting, there still remains much worthj-
of praise. Sanitary science strives not only to prevent di.-sease, but also t»
promote health, and its progress is fully as marked in its efforts at promotion
as in those of ])revention, although we do not possess the cold figures of even
imperfect vital statistics to demonstrate the proposition.
It must be kept in mind that sanitary science is wider than sanitation in
its technical sense. One would not care to assert that philanthropic effort
and sweet charity are resultants of the development of sanitary science, —
very few care to assert an evident untruth. But the influence of this study
has been widespread and beneficial. The whole round of social science is also
permeated with the truths demonstrated by the sanitarian, and is likewise
deeply indebted to its teachings. Our field broadens greatly as we view it,
just as one Avho has been traveling through a vale of surpassing grandeur, be-
cause of the mountain barriers on either side, finds himself confronted by a.
PROGRESS OF SANITARY SCIENCE
281
imik whose beauty is enhaiiced by its viiriety as well as its extent, bounded,
it is true, by the same mountains, but merely a hazy definition of the distant
horizon.
In the construction of dwellings, for example, the small, low ceiled rooms,
whose earthen or stone floors Avere covered with rushes seldom removed, the
iibsorbers of whatever might fall ui)on the floor; the unpaved, unswept, and
iinsewercd street ; the domestic water supply but a well into which filters the
water froni the adjoining cesspool, — these iind many similar destroyers of
liealth and comfort can no longer be found among nations classed as enlight-
ened in our school geographies. Even the imin-ovements of half a century
ago — the tenements improvised out of the deserted mansions of the well-to-
do. with the additions built on the rear of the lot to increase the ilensitv of
^HPI^^
HHMffli^
^^^^^^^^^^^^ ■"-' -
^■P^^HHlPPlPi^
1
A QUARANTINE STATION.
the population and the rent of the owner (as well as the death-rate), are dis-
appearing, and in their places we find dwellings capable of furnishing air and
light to all of the residents.
Then, in the matter of streets, how much more attention is riow given to
small parks ! When about the middle of the centurj' interest in public parka
was revived, the efforts of the various cities were directed to the securing of
large tracts of ground and beautifying them in every way. They were open
to every one, it is true, but too often too far removed to be of i.se to the sub-
merging tenth. Now, while not adorning these with one garland less, the
effort is making to break up the congestion of the crowded districts by breath-
ing spaces, to the comfort and vigor of those who must make the surrounding
houses their homes. The streets, too, no longer paved with the unsightly
cobble-stones, are made noiseless with the asphalt paving and, what is more to
the purpose, can be easily cleansed by flushing. When practical business, and
not practical politics, prevails in the municipality, there is no opportunity for
the household refuse to accumulate, although no longer rushes are available to
receive it, for it is regularly and promptly removed.
282
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
\\
The exigencies of trade compelled our government to establish its bureau
for the inspection of meat. The necessity of an inspection of foodstuffs for
export demonstrates tiie i)Ossil»ility of iidulteration for the home market.
While, jjossibly, the ingenuity of the sophisticator has more than kejjt pace
with the keenness of the insjjector, the health of the peojjle has been main-
tained, their comfort promoted, and their resources husbanded by the inspec-
tions carried on by the various city and state boards of health.
The welfare of the people at home, in their dwellings and at their tables,
does not limit the efforts of the sanitarian. He takes cognizance of the daily
toil, the ceaseless grind, to win one's daily bread. He recognizes that some
callings are dangerous or annoying to the people, and devises methods to over-
come this, or failing in this, insists that such occupations must be carried on
remote from the dwelling-place of man. Others, he finds, bring danger to
those who are employed. This may not be an inherent danger, but one ac-
quired by our crowding of operatives, or in other ways not securing to them
pro])er comfort ; and factory inspectors are at work to reduce these dangers to
a minimum, and to prevent child labor as well — giving to youth, as far as
cessation from overmuch toil can give, an opportunity to develop into jjhysical
manhood or womanhood. The sanitarian insists upon projier ventilation in
mines, and tries to devise the means to remove the danger from those trades
that ordinarily are inherently dangerous.
The sanitarian seeks to aid in the amenities and relaxations of life as well.
The playgrounds for children, the athletic grounds by the riverside at Boston,
recreation piers in New York, are examples of this. And all of these are
comparatively recent efforts, adding to the catalogue of achievements during
the century. It was the arch-enemy who, in the poem of antiquity, said :
" All that a man hath will he give for his life." Hut lie made tlie remark after
much observation, and to Jehovah, unto whom even he would not dare to lie;
and the rolling years since the Hebrew epic was first written have only added
testimony to the truth of the assertion. In these later days, when the rule and
idummet are everywhere applied, where the scientist delves and classifies to
seek the cosmos in the apparent chaos, there was evolved out of self-seeking
for life a higher and better quest, — a search for those things which make for
the health of all. This search has widened, until many a broad savannah has
been trodden, many a mountain scaled and wilderness explored. AVith its ever
extending view, new responsibilities and greater cares have been thrust upon
those who are endeavoring to rule in this domain. A community, a nation, is
but a unit. Let one part suffer, and all are in pain ; let one but decay, and
rot is imminent everywhere. There can be no true social progress, no real
stability of government, no national prosperity worthy the name, unless the
environment of each individual permits the enjoyment of personal health, if
he individually observes but the ordinary care of self. And whatever else of
progress for sanitary science m.iy be granted or denied as belonging to our
century, the crowning claim of all, which cannot be taken from her, is that,
along with the ideas embodied in commonweal and commonwealth, she has
added the other of equal dignity and worth — Public Health.
Charles McIntire.
THE CENTURY'S ARMIES AND ARMS
A TUCK appreciation of the progress made in the arts and sciences in the
nineteenth century can be obtained only by contrasting the conditions found
at present with those existing a hundred years ago. The difference between
the sporni candle and the electric light; between the stage-coach and the
rapid-Hying express train; between the flail and the threshing machine;
between the hand-loom and the machinery of the modern woollen mill ;
between the cruel medical operations of Hve score years ago and the skillful
.surgery, with the use of auiesthetics, of the present day ; or between the
mail-carrier with letters in his saddle-bags and the electric telegraph flash-
ing news instantaneously from continent to continent ; nuirks the ditt'erence
between the beginning of the nineteenth and the oi)ening of the twentieth
centuries.
Hut there is scarcely an agency that has been employed during this won-
<l(;rful century for the improvement of the condition of man that has not
been enlisted for his destruction. Steam, electricity, chemical knowledge,
(Migineering skill, and mechanical invention have all been employed in the
.science of war, and everything pertaining co the organization, arms, equi})-
nicnt, supply, training, and even the size of armies, has been so revolution-
ized that there is scarcely anything in common between the forces that fought
at Marengo and those employed in recent wars, except the characteristic of
being armed and organized bodies of soldiers under military leadership.
The nineteenth century was born in the midst of war. All Europe was an
armed camp, and the contest between the principles of the French Revolu-
tion and the old feudal system had taken the form of actual strife upon the
tield of battle. A great alteration was taking place in the methods of war ;
the old i)edantic strategy of the Austrian school had already received a rude
shock at the hands of the brilliant young Bonaparte, and the old tactical
methods becpieathed by Frederick the Greiit Avere, also, soon to be shattered
by the genius of the newer and greater warrior To appreciate the changes
that were already being made in military methods, a brief glance at the
organization of the armed forces in the latter part of the eighteenth century
is necessary. The Prussian army, as organized by the great Frederick, was
regarded as the finest of the time. In it the most exact and mtichine-like
methods were observed, the most careful accuracy in inarching was required,
drill Avas carried to mechanical perfection, volley firing was conducted with
the greatest precision, and no skirmishers were employed. In comparison
with later methods, the whole system may be characterized as exact, meth-
odical, and slow. Armies were supplied entirelj- from magazines, by means
of long and cumbrous trains, and the art of moving rapidly and subsisting on
the country was still to be discovered.
The French army produced by the RevoluMon, and led by such men as
284
TIlICMPns ASD WUXDEliS OF Tills: XIX'" CENTURY
Dugommier, lloclic, Morfuii, and rxuiupiirtt'. was triiiiit'd to t>in'nit(i in
coluuiii, tu ilt'i>loy (jiiii'kly into line, and gi'Monilly to act witli ctdcrity ; wliili;
tho impovevisliL'd trouHury of the republic coniiit'lU'il its aiiuit's to livn
entirely uiK)n the eountvy in which they were o|)erating. as the only alterna-
tive to starvation. This entailed serions hardshiiis to the soldiers, and great
distress to the i>oiiulaiion of tiie country in whieh they were acting, but it
marked distinctly the lieginning of a new system of supply, which con-
tributed greatly to the rapid movement of arnues. The I'reneh army, at
the beginning of the century, contained no regiments, but was organized into
demi-brigades, each of vv'hieh consisted ol' four battalions, each cnm]n'ising
ten companies, two of which were trained to act as skirmishers. These
demi-brigades, with one en- nu)re batteries of artillery, constituted a division,
to which a small force of cavalry was generally added. In 18(ir> Kajioleon,
then the supreme ruler of France, nuule important changes in the organiza-
tion of the army. The demi-brigade was replaced by the two battalion regi-
ments, each reginuMit now consisting of eight companies. Two regiments
formed a brigade, anil two brigades and a regiment of light infantry consti-
tuted a division. On the light regiment devolved the duties of skirmishers;
namely, to harass and develop the enemy before the nuiin attack. The
divisions were grouped into larger organizations known as co/yy.s (I'drniei; or
army corps, each of which consisted of all arms of the service, and was, in
fact, a force capable of operating imlependently as a snmll army.' A corps
of reserve cavalry was also formed. In numlters the cavalry was eijual to
one fourth, and the artillery one eighth of the strength of the infantry. The
infantry Avas armed with a smooth-bore, muzzle-loading, tlint-lock musket,
which required some thirty-two distinct nu)tions in loading, and which had
an effective range of only two hundred yards, though by giving it a high ele-
vation it could do some damage at twice that
distance. This Aveapon bore about the same
relation to the magazine rifle of the prese«it
day that the old-fashioned sickle bears to the
modern mowing-machine. The artillery con-
sisted of muzzle-loading, smooth-bore guns,
whieh had less than one fourth the range of
the modern infantry rifle. Cavalry, being
able to form with comparative impunity
within close proximity of the opposing infan-
try, could sweep down upon it in a headlong
charge ; and the use of the sabre on the field
of battle, now so rare, was then an almost
invariable feature of every conflict. Under
Napoleon the armies continued to "]"ve on
the country," but magazines of supplies were carefully prepared to supple-
ment the exhausted resources of the theatre of war.
In besieging a fortified place, the first parallel or line of batteries of the
besiegers was habitually established at about six hundred yards from the
enemy's works, a distance then at long artillery range, but which would now
be under an annihilating fire from infantry rifles. The cannon used solid
1 Brigades and divisions had long existed, but the army corps was a creation of Xapoleon.
I
OLD STYLE BHUAPNEL.
ny
THE CENTUHY'S ARMIES AND ARMS
Wi
>l»'mti) ill
•ity ; while
I's to liv(^
iy iilti-riKi-
aiid great
ing. but \l
iVhicli c(jii-
army, at
iii/t.'(l iiitii
• IlllJU'isilln
s. Tliese
a division,
Napoleon,
orgiinizii-
talion regi-
reginients
itry eonsti-
irinishers ;
tack. The
f'lirmi'r, Of
md was, in
' A corps
is e([ual to
iitiy. TJie
?k musket,
which had
a liigh ele-
twiee that
'' the same
lie presMit
ears to the
;illery con-
bore guns,
e range of
Iry, being
impunity
;ing infan-
i headlong
n tlie field
an almost
fc. Under
< "I've on
bo supple-
ies of the
from the
^ould now
ised solid
poleon.
sliot almost exchisively, though early in the jiresent century a projectile,
invented by liicutenaut Shrapnel, of the JUiti.sh army, and which now uni-
versally bears his name, was intnxhiced. This consisted of a thin cast-iron
slicll tilled with rou'ul musket balls, the interstices between which were
filled by pouring in lu.tltcd sulphur or resin, to solidify the mass and prevent
it from cracking the shell when the ])iece was tired. A hole was bored
through the mass of sulphur and bullets to rtM'eive the bursting charge,
which was just surticient to rupture the shell and release the bullets, which
tlicn moved with the velocity that the projectile had at the nmment of burst-
ing. Slirapnel has at all times been a destructive missile, though in its early
lorm it was insigniticant in comparison with the "man-killing projectile"
which now bears the same designation.
In the year LSOd, the Congrevo rocket was added to the weapons of war.
It consisted of a case of wrought iron, lilled with a composition of nitre,
charcoal, and sulphur, in such proportions as to burn more slowly than gun-
l)owder. Tlie head of the rocket consisted of a solid shot, a shell, or a
CONOUEVK ROCKET.
shrapnel. At the base was fastened a stick, which secured steadiness for the
])rojectile in its flight. The range of the rocket was scarcely more than five
hundred yards, though a subse(pient improvement, wliich dispensed with the
guide-stick and substituted three tangential vents, increased the range very
considerably. Congreve rockets were used with effect in Europe in 1S14,
and against our raw militia at Hladensburg in the same year. They seem,
however, to have depended more upon, the moral effect of their hissing rush
than upon any really destructive properties, and were effective mainly against
raw troops and cavalry. Tlie rocket is now an obsolete; weapon, having made
its last appearance in Avar in the Austrian army in ISOG.
The infantry of all the armies of Continental Europe, when deployed for
battle, was formed in three ranks. On the eve of the battle of Leipsic,
Napoleon, finding himself greatly outnumbered by the allies, ordered liis
infantry to deploy in two ranks, in order that his front might approximate
in length to that of the enemy. This formation had, however, been adopted
by the British some years before, and had been used with great success
against the assaulting French columns, in many of Wellington's battles in
Spain, where tlie steadfast Anglo->Saxon soldiery was able to maintain the
'• thin red line," and throw the fire of every musket against the denser forma-
tion of its foes. It was not until the British troops encountered, upon our own
soil, iiu Anglo-Saxon opponent as steadfast as themselves, and better skilled
in marksmanship, that they were unable to achieve a victory over their
imemies. True, our raw militia Avas everywhere beaten when it encountered
the disciplined soldiers of Great Britain, but onr regular troops at Chippewa
and Lundy's Lane gallantly defeated the choice veterans of Wellington's
campaigns ; and, at New Orleans, an army composed mainly of hardy back-
I I
'I
MINIK HAM,.
28C T /HUM HIS AN J) iVOyn/iliS OF THE XIX'" CENTUUY
woodsiiii'ii, tiiiiiu'il ill liiiliiin ti^'litin^, and expert in the hm'
of tlie riHe, hurled buck, with rriKldtiil <'iiniiine, exjnMi-
eiiced Itritisii soldiei's wlio hiid li!il)itiiiilly triuiu{iheil over
tiie l)est vetenitia of the French "nipire.
The buttle of New Orleuns marked tlie introduction ol
the riHe as u formidable arm for infantry. It was by lui
means a new weupon, for it had lieeii invented in (lerniany
in 14SW ; but it had not been used to any extent in niili
tary st^rvicc, mainly beeiiuso of the slowness
of loadinj;. Thi! eaj)abilitit^s of the ritie in
the liunds of an army of export marksmen
were, however, made h(j manifest by .lac^kson's
great victory tiiat liie attention of military
men was turned towards the weapon wiiich
had enabled a crnde army to overwhelm the
choicest trooj)s of JMirope.
Vet it waa not \intil ISoO that a practically
etticient military ritlo appeared. This was the invention of
Captain Minit'-, of the French army, and was the well-known
"Minie ritle," loiix familiar to troops im both continents.
The weapon w.as a nniz/.le-loadcr. and its i)rojectile, the
'•Minit' ball," was of a conoidal sliape, as shown in the ac-
eomjianyinj,' ti<,Mire. The ball beiu},' sli^ditly smaller in
diameter than the bore of the jiiece, the loading was easily
accoi)ii)lishc(', 'uid the shock of the ex|)losion against the
cavity at the .lase of the bullet fovccd the lead into the
grooves of tl" bore and eau.sed the shot to take uii a rotary
motion on its a.<is — in other words, " to take the ritliiig.'"
JJiHes, mostly constructed on jiriiiciples similar to those
on which ilinie's weapon was based, were soon in use in
the armies of all great nations. The ritle musket, "model
of ISoo," adopted by the United States, is shown in the
accompanying tigure.
In 1.S17 i)orcussion caps were invented in the United
States, but some time elapsed before they were introduced
into military use ; and though the " percussion ritie " was
known in 1841, the victorious troojis which went Avith Scott
in the brilliant campaign from Vera (!ruz to the City of
Mexico, six years later, were armed with tlu; Hint-lock mus-
ket. In 183.3, Colonel Colt invented the first practical re-
volving pistol. This wea])on, especially in its present
perfected form, is so well known as to need no descriii-
tiou. The first pattern of Colt's revolver used paper car-
tridges and percussion caps.
In the long period of peace which Europe enjoyed
after the battle of Waterloo, but little change was made
in the organization of the armies of the great powers ;
and in the Crimean war (18oo-u()) the composition of the
English, French, and Kussian armies did not dii¥er mate-
U
ill tlio ti.si'
;•', (fxiH'ii-
luct,ii)ii (ii
was hy no
<ii'riiiiiii\
lit in luili-
i.MK iiAi.r
vcntion u{
•"('ll-kiiown
Diitiiit'iits.
t't'tik', the
ill the iie-
(iniillci' in
was casily
biiiist tln'
il into fill-
ip ii rntarv
' ritlinf,'.""
ir to those
in use iii
!t, "model
wii in till'
le Tnitetl
utroduced
I'ifle" was
ivitli Seott
e City of
■lock mus-
Eictical re-
s present
•J deserij)-
aaper car-
! enjoyed
vas made
; liowers;
on of the
Ffer mate-
riiE ('KyriiitY's armies and arms
287
I'iivlly from the cunHtitution of the forces of the same natiotiH in the Nnpole-
uiii(! wars. Marked cluuigeH had, however, been made
in the nature of the weapons; most of the Kn^lisli and
u part ot the Fretich iiitantry liein^,' ariiicd with the
rifle, though tlie Russian infantry, witii tlie exception
of il ft'w seh'eted re^'iiiieiits, were sfill armed witli the
smooth-bore musket. 'rhoiiKJi the extreme ranxe of
the rifle at this time did not exceed eij,'iit hundred
yards, ami was iuaccurato at liaU' tliat distance, it was,
nevertiicless. a formidable weapon in comiiarison with
the iiitantiy musket of Napoleouii; times. HiHed siege
)^uns were emph>y 1 by the ISiitish at Sei)aHtopol, but
they were not a success, and were soon withdrawn
from rlie liatti-ries. \ striking,' iiidicittiou of tliG in-
creased raii^jt of artillery wiis furnished at Seliastojwl,
when the besiej,'ers established their Hrst [larallel at a
distance of 1.'{(M) yards from tlie Russian works.
Ill the Italian war of l,sr»l» rifled cannon appeared
for the Hrst time upon the Held of battle. They were
employed by the French, and to their use was larf^ely
due tlie victories of the French and Sardinians over
the Austriaiis. For many years the attention of artil-
lerists had been devoted to the production of servicea-
ble rifled artillery, and as early as 1S4(> an iron breech-
loading rifled cannon had been invented in France by
Major Cavalli. This gun Hred a shell not dissimilar in
shape to the projectile employed in the Miiiie rifled
musket. In l.Si54, exjierimeiits with a ( "avail i gun gave
very satisfactory results, both in range and accuracy ;
but the breech mechanism seemed dangerously weak,
and the rifled guns, adopted by the French and used
with such effect in Italy, were muzzle-loaders.
In 18r»4 a breech-loading rifled Held-i>iece was in-
vented by Sir William (ieorge Armstrong. It was
made of wrought-iron i)ars coiled into spiral tubes, and
welded by forging. The breech was closed with a
screw which could be (juickly withdrawn for loading
and sponging the gun. The projectile was made of
cast-iron, thinly coated with lead, and was (with its
coating) slightly larger in diameter than the bore. The
lefid coating was crushed into the grooves by the force
of the powder, the necessary rotation being thus given
to the ])rojectile. This gun gave excellent results in
range and in rapidity and accuracy of Hre, but it v.^as
not until some years after its invention that it was
adopted in the British service. Other breech-loading
cannon soon a])i)eared ; but in the United States army
the 3-incli liodman muzzle-loading rifled gun was pre-
ferred to anj' breech-loader then devised, and was
D
'^88
THiuMi'ns AM) no.\ni':iis oi- rut: xixi" ckstuhy
u.st'<l witli ^rt'iit ctliM't lliniii^,'li(iii» tin- Wiir <tl Sci'i'ssioii. This ^iiii wiis tiiiuli'
hy \vr(i|iiiiiiK' Ixiilor plate ukuiikI an iron bur, ho iin to Umw a oyliudriciil iiiiiM-
tlif wlidlc liriii;,' Iji'diiKlit t(i a wi'liliii^,' lii'iit ill a I'linmoi! ami tlu-ii ])usst'(l
t.lii(iiij,'li riilli'i.s lit unit*' it sdiitlly. 'I'Ih' pit'cc was tlici; Ixn'fd and tmiit'd to
till' }iio|)t'r Hliapi! and ilinn'iiHioiis. 'I'lic iiroicctilfH for liHod gnus werts jjen-
••rally coati'd willi soil nii'tal, or limiislii'd with an t'X|iandinK liam- or cnp oT
.similar mt'tal ov j>ii/>lrr nincliv ; IIioukIi in some systcmH llit'y were f'nniislifd
with stniU or Imttons whicli Httfd into the grotivoM of the boir. In tho case
of the Whitwoith )j;nn, thi' iirojt'ctih' was madi' m-arly of tho exuct size and
form of I he lioic, so as to tit accmatfly into tin- j^ioovch.
Hri't'cli-loiuiinK ('(union wjti' not, however, (|nii'kly adopted, owin^,', perhaps,
to eonservatism on tho part of artillerists, and partly lieeansc the guns first
produced did not seem to tjive appreeialily better ri'snlts in ranjje, uccuracy,
UODMAN (It'N,
or even in rapidity of fire than the muzzle-loaders. Not only were breech-
loading cannon adopted with seennng reluctance, but rifled cannon generally
Avere looked upon witli disfavor by many artillerist.s of the old school.
Hohenlohe tells of an old Prussian general of artillery who was so preju-
diced against the rifled innovation that he requested, on liis death-bed, that
the salute over his grave should be fired with notliing but smooth-bore guns.
It must be confessed, however, tliat tlie lli-i)ound smooth-bore Napoleon gun
long held its own against the new rifled field-pieces, as many a bloody battle
in our (,'ivil War well attested.
In the manufacture of heavy guns the United States for some time led
■the world. In ISdO. (ieneral liodnian, of the Ordnance Department, pro-
duced the first l."i-iiieh gun ever made. This gun was mad» of cast-iron,
and was cast on a hollow core, cooled by a stream of water passing through
it, by which means the metal nearest tlie bore was made the hardest and
most dense, and the tendency towards bursting was thus reduced to a mini-
mum. General IJodman was also the inventor of the liollow cake powder,
which consisted of cakes perforated with numerous small holes for the
passage of the flame, thus en.abling the powder to be progressively con-
sumed, and causing the amount of gas at tlie last moments of the discharge
A'l'
w;i.s Iiiadr
Hill IllitHh.
I'll imsscil
tmiit'd to
were j^eil-
or c'ii]i of
t'ui'iiisliril
II tilt' CllSC
't size mid
,', porliaiis,
giiiiH first
ucL'urac}-,
?re breech-
i generally
)ld school.
I so preju-
li-hed, that
bore guns,
loleon gmi
lody battle
B time led
ineiit, pro-
cast-iron,
ig through
udest and
to a mini-
e powder,
es for the
ivel}^ con-
discharge
UENEHAI. WINKIKLU HCOTT.
THE CENTURY'S ARMIES AND ARMS
289
to be greater than at the instant of ignition. A large-grain powder, known
as " mammoth powder," was afterwards devised by liira to produce the same
results. It will be seen later that this invention has rendered possible
the powerful ordnance of the present day; and it is perhaps not too much
t(i say, that Rodman is really thus the father of the modern high-power
j^uns.
At the beginning of the War of Secession the heaviest gun in the United
States was the 15-incli Rodman, the projectile of which weighed 320 lbs., the
charge of powder weighing 35 lbs. Next to this was ^he 10-inch Columbiad,
which fired a 100-lb. shell with a charge of 18 lbs. of powder. The effective
range of these guns was a little less than three miles. The heaviest mortar
was of 13-inch caliber, fired a 200-lb. shell, with a charge of 20 lbs. of pow-
der, and had a range of 4325 yards. This mortar was, like all others then
OLD SMOOTH-nonE MOKTAU.
in use, manipulated by means of handspikes, and not only was much less
powerful, but was much more clumsy than the admirable mortar of the
present day.
The Crimean and Italian wars had foreshadowed the passing away of the
old military conditions and the dawning of a new era of warfare. But it was
in the gigantic struggle which rocked our own country for four years that the
developments of modern warfare really commenced. At the beginning of this
great conflict the ranges of 1000 to 1200 yards for field guns, and of 1500 to
2000 yards for heavy guns, were as great as could be secured with any degree
of accuracy. The infantry rifle with which tlie Union and Confederate
armies were armed had an extreme range of but 1000 yards, and a really
ertective range of only half that distance. The rifle was a muzzle-loader,
which required nine distinct motions in loading besides those necessary in
)iriming the piece with the percussion cap then used. The tactics employed
at first in all arras of the service did not differ materially from the methoo .
employed in the Napoleonic wars ; and a line of American infantry deployed
for battle in two ranks, shoulder to shoulder, scarcely differed in anything
19
290
TRIUMPHS AND n'ONDERS OF THE XIX '» CENTURY
but the color of its uniforms from the "tliin icd line" of Wellington^ war-
riors. All this was to he changed ; but it was not only in the matter of arms
and tactics that a revolution was to be effected, for new forces hitherto untried
were to be employed in tiie art of war.
The AVar of Secession was not only one of the most gigantic conHic.^ over
waged on earth, but was one which will always be of interest to the military
student because of its remarkable developments in the science of warfare,
and one which will ever be a source of pride to Americans because of the
grim earnestness and stubborn valor displayed b)- the contending armies.
From first to last, more than two millions of men were enrolled by the
United States, and in the final campaign l,l(Kt,000 men were actually bear-
ing arms in the service of the Union. The infantry was organized in comjia-
nies of one hundred men, ten companies lorming a regiment. At first, three
or four regiments constituted a brigade, though it was afterwards formed of a
greater number when the regiments became depleted by the losses of battle.
Three brigades generally comiiosed a division, which also habitually included
two batteries of artillery and a small detachment of cavalry for duty as order-
lies and messengers. Three or more divisions constituted an army cordis.
The cavalry was formed into brigades and divisions, which in the later years
of the war were combined to form, in each of the large armies, a corps of cav-
alry. It was in command of such corps of mounted troops that Sheridan,
J. E. B. Stuart, ]\rerritt, and Wilson achieved their great fame. The bat-
teries first distributed to divisions, or even brigades, were afterwards assigned
to the army corps, and all guns not thus employed were grouped into a corps
of reserve artillery.
It is a curious fact that tlie two factors most important in warfare were
found to be two inventions designed primarily for the interests of peace,
namely, the railroad and the electric telegraph. Steam and electricity had
both been used in the Crimean and Italian Avars ; but it was in the War of
Secession that they received their first great and systematic application. The
ett'ect of tiie use of railroads in war not only enables armies to be more rapidly
concentrated than was formerly the case, but renders it possible to supply
them to an extent and with a certainty that would otherwise be out of the
question. The difference between the sujiply of an army by wagon and by
rail was clearly shown in the siege of I'aris, in 1870-71, where six trains a
day fed the whole besieging army, while it is estimated that nearly ten thou-
sand wagons would have been I'ecpiired for the sanu' i)urpose. JMoreover, the
force of troops recessarily detached to protect a line of railroad conununica-
tions is not nearly so great as the force that would be necessary to guard the
innumerable wagon or pack trains that would otherwise be required. In the
opinion of the best military authorities, railroads, had they been in existence,
would have enabled Xapoleon to conquer Eussia, and with it the world ;
while, without the aid of railroads, the successful invasion of the South by
the armies of the Union would have been an im])0ssibility. It is only while
it keei)s moving that an army can •■ live on the country." It is like a swarm
of locusts, consuniing everything within reach ; and if it be compelled to halt,
whether for battle or from other cause, it must be supplied from bases in the
rear, or it will speedily disintegrate froirj Inniger alone. This fact was fully
appreciated by General Sherman, when he left Atlanta in his famous " niarch
if-
THE CENTURY'S ARMIES AND ARMS
291
to the sea ; " for though he expected to, and did, live upon the country, he
nevertheless took the precaution to carry with hiin a wagon train containing
twenty days' rations for his entire army.
In the War of Secession the electric telegraph first appeared on the
Held of battle. The telegraph train became a prominent feature of all our
armies ; and the day's march was hardly ended b>:fore the electric wire, rap-
idly established by an expert corps, connected the headipiarters of the army
with those of each army corjjs, division, and brigade, liut it was not in its
employment on the actual field of battle that the telegraph found its most
valuable militarj- use. It enabled generals, separated by hundreds of miles,
to be in constant communication with each other, and rendered it possible
for (Jrant to control from his headcpiarters hut at City I'oint the movements
of the armies of Shernuin. I'homas, and Sheridan in combined operations,
^fc^S^
SPEXCEU CARBINE.
wliich enabled each to perform, in harmony with the others, its part in the
mighty plan.
It followed as naturally- as day follows night that a shrewd and intelligent
people, engaged in a desperate struggle for self-preservation, would avail
themselves of all means i)rovideu by military science for carrying out the
contest in which they were engaged. Iron-clad vessels had been devised in
both England and France, but they were merely frigates designed on the old
lines and partly covered with a sheatliing of armor. With characteristic
energy and ingenuity the Americans, ignoring old traditions and seeking the
sliortest road to the fnltillment of a manifest want, produced simultaneously
the Merrimac and the Monitor, the former resembling '-a gabled house sub-
merged to the eaves," and the latter looking like " a Yankee cheese-box upon
a raft." These novel vessels met in their memorable combat at Hampton
Koads, and the booming of their guns sounded the death knell of the old
wooden navies.
As with war vessels, so with firearms. New conditions were met with in-
ventive genius and mechanical skill. Though the great mass of our troops
continued throughout the conflict to use the muzzle-loading rifle, breecli-
loaders were in the hands of many thousands of our soldiers before the close
of the great contest. In 1864 the cavalry of Sheridan and Wilson and many
regiments of infantry were armed with breech-loading carbines, which gave
292
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A7A"' CENTURY
them a great atls-antago over their oiipoiients. The effect of the breech-loaders
upon the Conf»'(lerates was un;)lensaiitly surprising to them, and the Southern
Bohliers are said to liave remarked with (tismal humor that " the Yankees
loaded all night and tired all day."
The principal breei-li-loading arms in use in the Union armies were the
Sliarps and tlie Si)encfcr. In the Shar])s carbine tlie barrel
was closed by a sliding brecch-i)iece wiiich moved at right
angles with the axis of tlie \nece, the breech being oj)ened
and closed by pulling down and raising uj) tiie trigger-
guard. Tlie Sjiencer carbine Avas a magazine riHe, and was
greatly sujierior to the Sharps. The magazine of the riHe
lay in the butt of the stock, and was cajiable of holding
seven cartridges. As the cartridge Avas tired and ejected
another was pushed forward into the breech by a spiral
spring in the butt of the piece. The Spencer carbine used
metallic cartridges. Tlie introduction of these cartridges
was one of tlie most remarkable advances in tlie art of Avar
made during the ]>resent century. Tlio cartridge in use in
ISfU-dr* is shown in the accompanying figure ; it eonsiste<l
of a thin coj)per case firmly attached to the bullet contain-
ing the jtoAvder, and having at its base a small metallic
anvil, in a cavity of which Avas ])laced the fulminate, Avhich
AA'as ex])loded b}' means of a firing pin, driA-en in by a blow
of tli(^ hammer. The advantagt;s of the metallic cartridge
can scarcely be overestimated ; it rendered obsolete the
percussion cap, and being Avater-proof it did aAvay Avith the
eA'er-present bugbear of damp ammunition. Tlie old injunc-
tion, " Put your trust in God and keep your poAvder dry,"
lias consequently lost much of its force ; for Avhile it is to
be hoped that the soldier Avill continue to place his reliance upon I'rovidence,
the latter part of the advice can noAv be safely ignored.
Among tlie many adA-antagcs jiossesscd by the breech-loader over the
muzzle-loader, the principal ones are greater rapidity of fire, ease of loading
in any position, diminished danger of accidents in loading, and the impossibil-
ity of putting more than one charge in the piece at the same time. This last
adA'antage is by no means slight. Amoiig 1'7,(I00 muzzle-loading muskets
picked up on the battlefield of Gettysburg, at least 24,000 Avere loaded. Of
these about half contained tAvo charges, one fourth held from three to ten
charges, and one musket contained tAventy-three cartridges.
The failure of the Americans to produce during the great Avar a ])ractical
breech-loading field-gun is doubtless due to the fact that the field artillery in
use at that time ansAvered fully all the requirements then existing. Owing
to the nature of the country in Avhich the armies Avere operating, the range of
the o-inch rifled gun Avas fully .'is great as could have bet-n desired ; and on
the broken and Avooded ground Avliich generally formed our field of battle, the
smooth-bore Xapoleon gun, firing shrapnel and canister, seemed to have
reached almost the acme of destructiveness. iSloreover, the muzzle-loading
cannon, both rifled and smootli-l)ore, Avere served Avith such celerity as to make
it a matter of doubt for some years after Avhether the introduction of breech-
METAI-I.IG CAIl-
TiuoK OF 1864-(55.
THE CENTURY'S ARMIES AND ARMS
398
loading field-guns would materially increase the rapidity of tire. It was not
until infantry tire had greatly increased in range and rapidity that a further
iinprovenient in held artillery became necessary. In sli'ge artillery, heavy
rilled guns of the Hodman and the I'arrott type appeared. Tlie Parrott gun
was of cast iron, strengthened by shrinking a. coiled band of wrought iron
over the portion of tlie piece surrounding the charge. The famous ".Swamp
.Vngel," used in the siege of Charleston, was a Parrott gun. The sea-coast
artillery consisted mainly of smooth-bores of large calibre, which were able to
I'ontend successfully with any armor then afloat. It is a curious fact that the
war, so to speak, between guns and armor has been incessantly waged since
the introduction of the latter, every advance of armor towards the degree of
invulnerability being met with the production of a gun capable of piercing it.
The sea-coast artillery of the United States in the Civil War met fully every
demand to which it was subjected.
The War of Secession produced the tirst practical machine-gun, — the Gat-
ling, — though such guns were not used to any extent. The machine-gun has,
in fact, passed through a long per'.od of gestation, and it is only in recent
years that it can be said to have attained its full birth. Our great war was
also noted for the introduction of torpedoes. These peculiar weapons had, it
is true, been devised may years before ; and Robert Fulton had, in the early
part of the century, devoted his inventive genius to the production of a sub-
marine torpedo, whicli, however, was never i)ractically tested in war. It sfaa
not until the contest of 18(}l-(ir> that torpedoes were of any pra ^tical use.
The high explosives of the present day being then unknown, these torpedoes
depended for their destructive force upon gunpowder alone. Yet crude and
iiisigniticant though they were in comparison with the mighty engines of de-
struction now known by the same nanu^, they accomplished great results in
more than one instance. The destruction of the Housatonic off Charleston,
the sinking of the Tecumseh in Mobile Bay, and Cushing's daring destruction
of the Albeuuu'le, gave notice to the world that a new and terrible engine of
warfare had made its appearance.
P)Ut it was not merely liy the iroduction of new weapons that the great
American war was characterized. It marked the turning-i)oint in tactics as
well. The lirst efforts of our great armies of raw volunteers were as crude as
the warfare of untrained troops always is, and it was fortunate that we were
opposed to a foe as unpracticed as ourselves ; Irat as the troops gained experi-
ence in war, acquired the necessary military instruction, — in brief, learned
their trade and became regidars in all but name, — they displayed not only
a steadfast prowess, but a military skill that placed the veteran Ameri-
can soldier at the head of the warriors of the world. The art of constructing
hasty intrenchments on the field of battle grew out of the quickness of the
American soldier to appreciate the necessity of providing defensive means to
neutralize, in some degree, the greatly increased destructive effect of improved
arms. In this respect he was thirteen years in advance of the European sol-
dier, for hasty intrenchments did not appear in Europe until the Turco-
Kussian War. True, intrenchment on the field of battle was as old as war
itself ; but the American armies were the first that developed a system of
quickly covering the entire front of an army with earthworks hastily thrown
up in the presence of the enemy, and often actually under fire. Skirmishers
294
TIULMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
I
were no longer used merely to I'eol ami develoj) the enemy; Init in many ol'
our battles, notably in Sherman's campaign in Georgia, tlie engagement was
begun, and fought to the end, by strong skirmish lines successively reinforced
from the mnin body, which they gradually absorl)ed in the course of the
action. Here, too, the American soldier was fully six years in advance of
the Kurojican warrior; for it was not until the (Jernums iiad been warned by
the territic losses incurred iu their earli"r battles with the French, in 1870,
that they evolved from their own exi)erience a sj'stem of tactics, the essen-
tial iirincii>li's of nliieh had already been demonstrated on the Western
Continent.
The incieased range of artillery again received a ])ra(^tical illustration; for
at the siege of Fort I'ulaski tlie Union batteries first opened fire at ranges
varying from 1().")(» to ,'il(t(» yards from the ('oufederalc i'ort. At the siege of
Charleston shells were thrown into the city from a battery nearly live niiles
distant.
In lS(iG, the brief but bloody war between Austria aiul I'russia suddeidj-
raised the latter nation from a comparatively subordinate jjosition to the
fntnt rank of military powers. The greatness of I'russia was born in the
sackcloth and ashes of national humiliation. iMU'biddeu by Naixdeon, after
her crushing defeat in l.SOfi-T, to maintain an army of more than 4().(>0(»
men, lier great war minister, Scharnhorst, conceived the ))lan of discharging
the soldiers from military service as soon as they had received the requisite
instruction, and filling their places witli recruits. In this way, though the
standing army never exceeded the stipulated nund)er, many thousands of
Prussians received military training ; and when I'russia declared war against
^'apoleou, after his disastrous Hussiau camj)aign, the discharged men were
called back into the ranks, and there arose as if by magic a formidable J'rus-
sian army of trained soldiers. 'I'he jirincijde of universal militcary service,
thus called into existence in Prussia in time of war, had been continued
through fifty years of peace, and enabled Prussia, with a pojiulation scarcely
more than half as numerous as that of Austria, to place upon the decisive
field of Koniggriitz a larger army than that of her opponent.
T!ie I'russian system, which has sin^e l)een coi)ied by all the great militarj'
nations of Europe, is, in its essential features, as follows : Every able-bodied
mari in the kingdom, upon reaching the age of twentj- years, is available for
military service ; and each year there are chosen by lot sufficient recruits to
maintain the army at its authorized strength. The great body of tlie male
po])ulation is thus brought into nnlitary service. There are a few excep-
tions, such as the only sons of indigent parents, and a small nuud)'jr of men
who are in excess of the force required. Any man who escapes the draft for
three successive years, and all able-bodied men exempted for any cause from
service in the r>^gular army, are incorporated in the reserve. The term of
service in the regular army is two j'ears for the infantrj' and three for the
artillery and cavalry. After being discharged from the regular army the
soldier jusses into the reserve, where he serves for four years. AVhile in
the reserve, he is called out for two field exercises of eight weeks' duration
each, and the rest of his time is available for his civil vocation. At the end
of four years in the reserve he passes into the Laudwehr, in which he is
required to participate in only two field exercises of two weeks' duration each.
THE CENIURY'S ARMIES AND ARMS
205
After five years iu the Laiulwehr proper, he iw.'.se8 into the second k-vy of
tlie Laudwt'hr. wliere he is free from all military duty in tinn; of iieai-t-,
tlidiiyh still liable to lie called to arms in case of war. From the second
levy of the Landwehr he passes, at tlie age of thirty-iune years, into the
Jjandstnrm, where he remains until he reaches liis forty-fifth year, when he
is finally discharged from military duty. The soldier in the Jjandsturni is
|ini<"tically free from all military duty, for that lioily is never calleil out
except in case of dire national nnergency. ]5y this .system Prussia became
not only a military power but '• a nation in arms," in the blaze of whose
might the military glory of Austria and of France successively melted away
in humiliating defeat.
The careful military preparation of Prussia in time of jieace was l)y no
means limited to measures for providing an army strong in numbers. Every
year her ti'oojis were assembled in large bodies for jjractice in tiie nuuKcuvres
of the battlefield. This mimicry of war, at first lightly regavilcd by the mili-
tary leaders of the other European niitions, produced sudi wonderful effects
iu promoting the efliciency of the army that it has since been coi)ied in .all the
armies of Europe, and is now regarded as the most important of all instruc-
tion for war.
Though breech-loading rifies were, as we have seen, used iu the ^^'ar of
.Secession, the Prussian arnij' was the first that ever took the field completely
armed with such weapons. The Prussian rifie was not new, for it had been
invented by a Thuringian gunsmith, named Dreyse, about the time that the
.Minic ritte appeared. Drey. se's arm was known as the " zundnadelgewehr,"
or needle-gun, and its effect in the Austro-l'russian war was so decisive and
startling as to cause muzzle-loading rifies everywhere to be relegated to the
limbo of obsolete weai)ons. Yet the needle-gun was but a sorry weapon in
comparison to those now in use, and was distinctly inferior to the Spencer
carbine. Its breech mechanism was clumsy, it used a paper cartridge, it was
not accurate beyond a range of three hundred yards, and its effective range
was scarcely more than twice that distance. The (Jerman infantry fought iu
three ranks, and it§ tactics was not e<iual to that employed by the American
infantry in the War of Secession. The Prussian field artillery was the most
formidable that had yet appeared, and consisted mainly of steel breech-load-
ing rifled guns, which were classed as O-pounders and 4-pounders, though the
larger piece fired a shell weighing fifteen ]iouuds, and the smaller projectile
used a shell weighing nine jiound."-. In the Austrian army the infantry was
armed with a nuizzle-loading rifie, and the artillery consisted entirely of
muzzle-loading rified guns.
The exalted military prestige gained by Prussia rendei-ed it certain that
.she must soon enter tlie lists in a contest with France, whose comniauding
jjofiition in Eurojie was so seriously menaced by the rise of the new power.
Foreseeing the inevitable conflict, Xai)oleon III. endeavored to prepare for a
.serious struggle. The French infantry was armed with the Chassepot rifle,
which had an effective range nearly double that of the needle-gun. A
machine gun. known as the mitmUleuse. was also introduced into the Frencli
army. Much was expected of these new arms ; but so sujierior was the
organization, readiness, generalship, and tactical skill of the Prussians that
the war was a practicall}' unbroken series of victories for Prussia and the
If
200
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XI X^" CENTURY
allied Gerniau States. Profiting by their experience in the course of the con-
fliet, the Prussians formed their infantry for attack in three lines ; the Hrst
consisting of skirniishers, the second of supports, either deployed or in sniall
columns, and the third of a reserve, generally held in column until it came
under such lire as to render deployment n('cessary. The skinuishers were
constantly reinfon-ed from the supports, and finally from the reserve as the
attatik progressed, the whole force being united in a lieavy line, and o])ening
the hottest jiossible fire wluui close enough to the enemy for the final charge.
In its essential princijdes this attack fornuition is in use at the i)resent day
in the armies of all civilized nations. The Prussian artillery was handled
with tei-rible effect both in battle and siege. A new demonstriition of the
increased power of artillery was given in the siege of Paris, in which shells
■were thrown from the heights of Clamart to the J'anth^on, a distance of five
miles.
The next European war was the contest between Russia and Turkey, in
1877. In this conHic t the American .system of liasty intrenchments was used
with success by the Turks, who wert? also armed with an American rifle, the
Peabody, which enabled them to inflict serious losses upon the Kussians at
a rang«) of a mile and a ipuirter. Owing to the Turkish intrenchments and
the inferiority of their own arms, the Russians won their victories over much
smaller armies only with a gruesome loss of life. A further impetus was
given to the development of the infantry rifle, and the CTcrman tactical exjie-
rience was confirmed by the fiussian (leneral Skobeleff in the declaration
that infantry '"an successfully assault only in a succession of skirmish lines.
The war in Turkey was the last great Eunjpean conflict. SubscMpient cam-
paigns of thc'Kussians in Central Asia, of the English in Egypt, the Soudan,
and India, of the Japanese in China, of the Turks in Greece, and the Ameri-
cans in Cuba, have emphasized the lessons already taught, and demonstrated
the increased power of new weajjons.
Having taken a retrospective view of the military forces and weapons
employed in the wars of the nineteenth century, let us now turn to .i cf)n-
sideration of the armies and arms of the lu-esent day. The adoption of the
system of universal military service has increased the size of the standing
.armies of the n;itions of Euroi)e far beyond the proportioihite increase of
their respective populations. In round numbers, the strength of the armies
of the great powers is as follows: Russi.a, X(1'.),(KI0; (Jermany, oSo.OlM) ;
Prance, Gl.S.IXK); Austria, .Wri.OOO; Italy, L'.Sl, ()()(); Great Pritain, L'L'2,(>00.»
>«'ot onl}- are the standing armies greater than iu the early days of the cen-
tury, but, owing to the improved methods of trans))ortation and supply, the
forces now brought u]ion the field of battle are vastly larger hhan in the daj'S
of Napoleon. Tlie French army at Marengo was less than 30,000 strong.
.t\t Austerlitz it was only 70.000, which was its strength also at Waterloo.
In (mly two battles, Waeram and Leipsic, was \a}ioleon able to place 150,000
men on the field ; and in the latter battle the armies of all Europe opposed
to him numbered only 280,000. In more recent times Prussia alone placed
upon the field of Kiiniggriitz 22.3,000 men with vhich to oppose the Austrian
• army of 20(1,000 ; and at Gravelotte the great .^'rench army of 180,000 men
t
' These numbers give the ptaa strength of the armies. In time of war they can easily be quad-
rupled.
THE CENTURY'S ARMIES AND ARMS
297
;,iis outiuimbcreil by tlie German liost of 2r(>,(MM). It id probable that in the
iii'xt (,'n'at Kuropean war more than a million men will be found contending
nil 11 single battlefield. A detailed dosoriiition of the armies of all the great
pdwers would ])rove wearisome to the reader, tor their points of resemblanee
lue many and their general charanteristics are the same. The German army
may be taken as the most perfect si)e<'imen of a highly organized military
lorce, and a descrijjtion of its organization would answer with slight moditi-
t'utiou for the other armies of Continental Europe.
The infantry of the German army is organized in companies of 250 men
each. Four I'ompanies constitute a battalion, and three battalions compose
II regiment. The brigade consists of two regiments, and the division is com-
jxjsed of two brigades of infantry, four batteries of artillery, and a regiment
uf cavalry. The army corps consists of two divisions, a body of corps artil-
lery composed of twelve batteries, a battalion of engineers, and a supply
train. In round numbers, the fighting strength of the army corps consists
of ;i(),()()0 men and 120 guns. The cavalry is organized in s(puulrons of 150
sabres ea.ch, five S(puidrons forming a regiment, only four of which are em-
ployed in the field, the fifth remaining at the regimental depot. The cavalry
l)rigade consists of three regiments; and the cavalry division, which is cora-
|i()sed of two brigades, aggregates oOOO sal)res. Thus a small part of the
cavalry force is attach<'d to tiie infantry divisions, while the bulk of it is
organized into divisions composed of mounted troops alone, two batteries of
iiorse artillery being attached to each cavalry division. The entire military
force is divided into " armies," each consisting of from three to six army
corps and two or more cavalry divisions. The cavalry iias about one sixth
and the artillery about one seventh of the numerical strength of the infantry.
The German cavalry is armed with sabre, carbine, and lance. The officers
carry the sabre and revolver.
In the army of the United States the organization differs in many respects
from that of the German army. The infantry companies each con.sist of 106
men, including officers. T'.velve companies form a regiment, and three regi-
ments constitute a brigade. A division is composed of three brigades, and
the army corjjs is made up of three divisions. The number of batteries
assigned to tiie divisions varies, as nlso the amount of corps artillery. In
the army operating in Cuba, the artillery was all in a separate organization,
and was distril)uted to the divisiori^) only on the eve of battle. Experience
and theory alike suggest four batte -ies for eacli division and eight batteries
for the corps artillery. !No cavalry is assigned to the divisions, but a regi-
ment is supposed to be assigned to each army corps. The main force of the
cavalry is grouped together into cavalry divisions. The cavalry is organized
into troops of 100 sabres, four troops forming a squadron, and three squad-
rons constituting a regiment. Three regiments form a brigade, and three
l)rigades a division. The American cavalry brigade is thus of the same size
as a Pmssian cavalry division. The cavalry is armed with the sabre, carbine,
and revolver. The lance is unknown in the American army.
Having viewed the composition of modern armies, let us now see how they
are armed. A consideration of the powder now in use is a necessary preface
to a description of the weapons employed in the warfare of the present day.
The old fine-grained black powder familiar to every boy who has ever han-
298
rniuMi'iis AM) woxrjKiis of the a/a'"' centuiiy
<Jlo(l u slioti,'im lius |ii.s>('il coiniiletely outnl' iiiilitiiiT use. Tim powders Udw
i.'iuployt'il iisiiiilly liitvf ^uiicutti'ii 1)1' iiitr(ij,'l_\ ceriiie and ^'iiimottoi. loi' a hasc.
Tliuy iiie iniiclicidl_\ siin.ki'lcss, tlic inodiict nl tln-ir coinbuHtioii is aliiKisi
entirely gaseous, liicy leave no solid resiihuuu. and iiro of tho quality known
as "slow-l)uiiiin^;." Ki^'i'i^' 'i constantly increasing,' jn-esHun^ on the |irojectili
Ironi the niuineiil ot ij,'nition to tlie time wlien it loaves the muzzle ol' tin
])ieec. Thesti jiowdeis are manutaetured in thin Hluu-ts or small tubes or
cords, which, i'or small arms, are broken n]i int^
v,'rains. They vary in color from light yellow to
black.
Itet'ore the adoi)tion of smokeless jiowder. the
cake powiler invented by (ieneral Uodman had
bet'U highly developed and imjiroved in tlie Jornj
of '"cocoa powiii
r." 'i'his was made in lu^xagonal
jirisnis, eaeli jierforated longitudinally so as ti
liav
e a no
l!ow
(!ove.
Th
es»! grains were care
fulh
rillSM.VTU' I'OWPKll
arranged in the cartridges so as to have this core
continuous from one grain to another, in order
tliat upon ignition tho combustion would begin in the int"rior and produce
a constantly increasing volunu' of gas as the e.xtcnor surface of the grain
was reached. Though the time of eombiistion was too ra])id to be apjire-
ciated by the ordinary senses, it was, nevertheless, ipiite ditt'erent from
the practically instantaneous combustion of the old snuUl-grain powder, and
was suscojjtible of accurate measurement. iMueh ditticulty was experienced
in overcoming the detonating tendencies of the smokeless iiowders, but at
last the reipiisite slow-burning properties were obtained. The snu)keh!SS
powder for large guns is made iu cartridges composed of bundles of strips
or cords, or in the same lu-ismatic form as the cocoa powder, and the process
of combustion is the same.
The form of the gnu is dependent entirelj" upon the nr. ure of the powder
used. As the ]>ressure of the gas constantly increases with tlie burning of
the powder, the maximum force will be reached at the moment the com-
bustion is complete. The length of the bore should, therefore, be just
sufficient to enable the ])owder to be entirely consumed at the exact instant
the projectile leaves the muzzle of the piece. A shorter bore would cause
much of the poA\der to be thrown out uuconsumed, Avliile a much greater
length Avould retard the jjrojectile by subjecting it to the friction of the
bore after the maximum force of the powder liad been reached. This ac-
counts for the greatly increased length of the modern cannoi;. A change
in the method of gun construction has accordingly become necessary. Guns
are no longer made of cast iron, Lyut are "built up" of steel. The exjdo-
sion of the powder is, of course, exerted in every direction, against the
bore and sides of the piece as well as against the base of the ])rojectile.
This produces two strains ; a longitudinal strain which is exerted iu the
direction of the axis of the piece, and a transverse strain which tends to
burst the gun. It is necessary, therefore, to have the piece so strong,
especially at the points of first explosion, as to counteract these strains,
and thus cause the entire force to be exerted upon the ])rojectile in the
direction of the " least resistance." This strength, or " initial tension,'' is
1
riiy
•wdei's iidw
Inr a hu.sf.
is alnidn!
lity kiiiiwii
[1 |iroj('ctilf
z/lc of tllf
11 tiibt's 1)1
veil ii|) inl"
t yt'UdW In
)ow(l('r. till'
iiiliiiun huil
ill tilt' I'oriii
I lutxa^unal
\-. S(l as tn
t' carot'ully
i- this eoi'C
r, in order
11(1 [iroducc
I' the grain
lie apjire-
fi'ciit lidiii
owder. ami
xperieiiced
Icrs, hut at
'. siiu)kel(!ss
?s of strips
tlie process
the powder
burning of
t the com-
)re, 1)6 just
cacit instant
\'ould cause
ich greater
tion of the
i. This ac-
A change
ary. Guns
The exjdo-
against the
projectile,
rted in the
ill tends to
so strong,
3se strains,
tile in the
s
>
o
E
o
M
•<
O
P
1
;ension,
IS
800
rniuMrns asd wosdkrs of the xixm ckstuiiy
obtained by Hlirinkin^ cyliiulors i)t' Hti'i'l ovur thct (ui^jinal oylindiT of tin'
jtii.'c*', I'uch (iiittT cyliiiiliT or jiicki't hv'\\\\^ ii tiiw thoiisiiinltli.s ol' an inch
gmallcr in its iiiU-riDr tlianu-trr tlian llu! outer (lianiL'ter of tlio oylindfr
wliicii it iiielosfs. and l)eip^,' i'X|iandtHl by lieatiuK to a Mutticiitsnt degrt'e to
onablt! it to bo .slippfd ovrr tbc latter. V\Hn\ eooliii^,', tlie jacket exerts ;i
constant and poweit'ul luree of eouipression, whicli coiintemcts tho outward
j)iessuro of the force of explosion. Tho lon^'itiidinal strain is loss (hm-
genins tiiiin the otlu-r, and is usually couutenicted by an intorUickinK of
HoiiH! of the cylinders or hoops, to which the strain is transmitted from
the breech-pluK'. Tho art of buildinj{ up guns has been of slow growth,
the first elTorts in this direction having' been made by Sir W. (i. ArmstrouK
nearly half a century ago. Tho weight of tlu^ projet^tile of tho pre.sent
KWinch gun in tho United States service is ii.'JTO pounds; tho charge of
powder weighs lOdO pounds, and the extronio range is more than 14 miles.
The cost of each shot is .|i4r»0, and when we considi r that this does not
include the wear and tear of the gun, it is evident that money has become
more thiin ever before "the sinews of war."
Not less remarkable than the improvement in cannon is the improvement
in mortars. Th.so mortars are very unliktf the clumsy weapons of that name
manipulated by ha.id-spikes, which wen; known in our great war. They are
now mounteil on a platform whicdi turns on rollers. They are elevated
or depressed by a mechanical appliance, are h)aded at tho breiudi, are accu-
rately rifled, and can drop their projectiles on the docks of hostile vessels at
a range of six nules. The_, are placed in groups of four, eacdi in a separate
pit, sonu' batteries contaiiiing as many as fo\ir groups, or sixteen mortars, in
all imi)ortant sea-coast batteries both guns and mortars are so arranged as to
be tired by electricity, either singly or in volleys."
A dynamite gun has l)eeii devised by Ca()tain Zalinsky for the purpose, as
the name implies, of throwing a ])rojectilo containing dynamite. Attempts to
tire dynamite projectiles by means of jjowder have thus far failed. In the
Zalinsky gun the propelling power is i-onipressed air. The projt-ctile eon-
tains from fifty to sixty ])ounds of gelatine dynamite, tho ex])losion of which
is terrific. Excellent residts have been obtained with Zalinsky's g\in up to a
range of L'OdO yards, but as this is insignificant in comparison with the enor-
mous range of high-power cannon using powder as a charge, the dynamite
gun is still a weapon of limited usefulness. Although the dynamite gun has
not as yet fulfilled the desired requirements as to range, ])romising experi-
ments have been made in tiring shells charged with high explosives from mor-
tars using charges of powder, and it is jirobably a (piestion of only a short
time before means will be found for successfully firing dynamite in a similar
manner.
The great improvements in field artillery make the cannon of the early
battlefields of the century seem, in comjiarison, almost like harmless toys.
The modern tield gun is made of steel, is rilled, loads at the breech, and has
great rapidity and accuracy of fire. The extreme range of the 3.2-inch field
gun in the United States service is about four miles. This, in fact, is beyond
the ordinary range of human vision, and it is but rarely that the ground for
so great a distance is free from features that obstruct the view. For these
reasons the fire of field guns can seldom be utilized beyond a range of two miles.
Tilt: I'ENTUHY'S MiMIKS AND Alt MS
801
'III)- |ir(i|4>('tilu of tilt! .'{.L'-iiich field gun wi'ighs l.'t} poiiiulN, iitnl the cliai'^e
. I iHiwdtT .'l|, jkiiiiuIm. Th« .'{.(i-incli gnu Ih ii Mtill iihmc iM)\vt'rful weaiKxi,
li.f wi'iKlit of tin- iirojcotilc luid idiarf,''' ln'iiiK -" ii"d 1^ iioiinds rt's|H'('tivt'ly.
."^lifUs !ii'»' used iiKiiiiist iiumimiitt' olijrct.s, .siudi as cartliworkM or lmililini;s;
liut the great aitilli-ry pmji'ctilo for tin* Italtldficld is Hlirapiii'l. It is now
MTV ditfVrt'Mt from the cnidt* |irojt)('t.ilt! known l»y the sanit' naini^ in the early
M'ar.H of tilt' ft-ntury. Tlii^ iiullfts are aMscndiltiil in firtndar layers and lieltl
III iiosiiion by "separators," which are short cast-iron (iylinihsrs with heini-
>|iht'rical cavities into which the hnllets lit. Thi; bottom separator lits liy
iiii'ans of hiKs into recesses at the base of thtf shrapnel, antl prevents iiule-
pcndeiit rotation of the charKf <d bullets. The top st'parator is smooth on
it^ upper side, and is kept lirmly in place by the heail of the prtijeetilo,
\\ hich screws against it. The separators prevent movement or ileformation
(i| I he bullets untler shock of ilischarge, and being weakened by railial cuts,
iacruuso the eHiutt by furnishing atlditional fragments of effective weight.
.MODKHN SHUAl'NKU
The shrapnel for the 3.2-inoh gun contains KVJ bullets one linlf inch in
diameter and weighing 41 to the pound. The total number of bullets and
individual pieces in the shrapnel is liOl.
The heavy sea-coast guns are now mounted either in armored turrets, <•»
liiirbette, or on disappearing gun-carriages. The first system is very costly
and is not generally used in the Uiiited States. The second system, in wliich
the guns are fired over a parapet and are constantly exposed, is used only
in rare cases. The thiril has been perfected in the United States in the
liuttington-Crozier and the (Jortlon disai)pearing gun-carriages. These ciir-
riages enable the gun to be loaded in safety under cover of the carriage jnl,
and then to be raiseil by means of countorweigiits or compressed air to a posi-
tion from which it can fire over the jiarajjct. With trained cannoneers, the
gun can l)e raised and fired in tAventy seconds, and this brief period of exiio-
snrp, especially when smokeless powder is used, renders it almost imjiossible
for the enemy to locate the gun with any degree of accuracy. The shock of
the recoil, taken up by pneumatic or hydraulic <\ylinders, brings the piece
back, tpiickly but gently, to the loading position, wlience it is again raised for
firing.
The siege artillery of the United States army consists of the Sincli gun,
the 7-iueh howitzer, and the 7-inch mortar. They all use , ii ', and their
<tl'ective range is from three tu four miles.
rf
302
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
When the enemy is shelteii'd bt'hind entrenchuii'nts it is diiticult to reacli
him Avitli shrajmel tivccl from Hekl guns. Field moi-tars liave aecordingl}'
heen devised for tliis jmrposo ami have given excellent results. The United
States o.G-inch field mortar is rifled, and carries a shrapnel weighing twenty
pounds. The weight of the field mortar is only 500 pounds, and it can be
easily carried in a cart drawn by a single mule.
])ut great as the improvcmt'iits have l)een in artillery, they are less impor-
tant than the changes effected in the infantry rifle ; for upon the (piality (jI
the infantry depends, more than ni)on anything else, the efhciency of an
army. There are many kinds of riHes now in use in the different armies of
the world, but in their essential principles they are very similar. All use
smokeless powder, and .'dl are provided with a magazine which admits of
firing a nund)er of >huts without reloading. The Springfield riHe formerly
in use in the United States army has been re{)laced by the Krag-.Jorgeu-
sen, which has a magazine holding five cartridges, and is provitled with a
cut-off which enables the i)iece to be used as a single-shooter. When an
KRACi-.IORdEXSKN UIFI.E.
emergency demands ra])id fire, the opening of the cut-off enables the car-
tridges in the magiizine to be fired in rapid succession. The range of the
Krag-Jorgensen is 4()()G yards, being practically equal to that of the Mauser,
which, in the hands of the Spaniards, inflicted casualties npon our men
when they were more than two miles from the hostile position. The dif-
ference in the penetrating power of the Kr.'.j-.Forgensen and the Springfield
is shown in the accomjianying illustration, taken from the report of the
chief of ordnance for l.S!>.'!. The Springfield lead bullet was fired with fii*
grains of black i)0wder, and penetrated '.i.'.i inches of poorly seasoned oak, the
bullet being badly deformed. With a IniUet covered with a tJermnn silver
jacket the penetration \v;is .5.0 inches, the bullet being again deformed.
The Krag-.Jorgensen used a bullet consisting of a lead core and a cu pro-
nickeled jaeket, which was fired with 37 grains of smokeless powder. Tiie
bullet penetrated well-seasoned oak to a distance of L'4.L' inches and was
taken out in perfect condition. The new riHe, at short ranges, has an
almost explosive effect and produces a shocking wound : but at ordinary
ranges the wotmds inflicted by it may be almost "characterized as merciful,
for tlie l)ullet makes a (^lean puncture, and uidess a vitid organ is struc!;
the wound heals easily and (piickly. Tlie old expression of "forty rounds,"
so familiar to veterans of tl^' Civil War, is now obsolete; for no soldier
going --^- --
now thinks of
into action with less than loO cartridges on his
person. Not only is the firing more rapid than was formerlv the case,
'URY
cult to reacli
aecor(lin,t;l\
The Uiiitwl
liing twenty
ud it can bi;
e less inipoi-
lie (jiuility ol
L'ienc.y of im
lit armies ol
ar. All use
h adniits ut
iHe formerly
Crag-.Torgeu-
t'ideil with a
I'. Wheu an
bles the car-
range of the
[ the Mauser,
j)on our men
on. The dif-
le Springfield
report of the
fired with ()'.►
oned oak, the
ierman silver
,iu deformed,
and a ('ujiro-
)owder. Tiie
lies and was
nges, has an
t at ordinary
. as merciful,
jjan is stinie):
brty round,-.,"
or no soldier
idgos on his
jrly the case,
h
304
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
but the lightet weight of the cartridge enables a greater nuniber to bo
carried.
From the rifle to the Clfitling gun is only a step, for the latter is essentially
a collection of rifle barrels fired by machinery. It consists of a luinibcr —
generally ten — of rifle barrels grouped around, and parallel to, a central
shaft, each barrel being provided with a lock. By turning a crank at tin-
breech, the barrels and locks are made to revolve together around the shaft.
OATLING (lUN.
the locks having also a forward and backward motion, tlie first of which
inserts the cartridge into tlie barrel and do.ses the breech at the time of the
discharge, while the latter extra*jts the cartridge after firing. Upon tlie gun,
near the breech, is a hoi)))er which receives the cartridges from the feed case.
The cartridge falls from the lioi)per into the breecli-block of the uppermost
barrel, and in the course of the fir.st half-revolution of the barrel it is inserted,
the iinmmer i.s drawn back, and at the lowest point of the revolution the
breech is closed and the cartridge is fired. As the barrel comes up in the
second half revolution the cartridge shell is extracted, and when the barrel
reaches the toji it receives another cartridge. Tlie Gatling gun can be fired
at the rate of 1000 to 1500 shots a minute. It generally uses the same car-
URY
mber to bo
3 essentially
I luimber —
o, a central
irank at tlu'
tl the shaft.
THE CENTURY'S ARMIES AXJ> ARMS
305
tridge as the infantry riHt- ; but some )iatt('rns of the gnu tire a projectile an
ineli in dianu'ter, and aijjiroxiniate closely in tiieir elfeet to a field gun.
The gun is mounted either on a carriage similar to that of a lield-piece or
on a tripod, (i.'itling guns were very successfully used by the Iiritish in the
Zulu War and in the Soudan, and by our own troops in the battles arouiul
.'Santiago.
The (Jardner is a iigliter machine gun than the Ciatling. It consists vi two
jiarallel rifle barrels, and is ojierated by means of mechanism at the breecli,
wliich, as in the case of the (iatling. is work(Hl with a crank. It can fire
r>(Hi shots a minute without danger of overheating, as the breeches are eu-
Mii!Oi:Nri;t.T kai'M) kikk (hn.
irst of which
time of the
pon the gun,
the feed case,
he uppermost
it is inserted,
■evolution the
les up in the
en the barrel
1 can be tired
the same car-
closed in a metallic; water-jacket. Its extreme portability makes it \ most
valuable weapon, though its firing capacity is not ecpial to that of the
(iacling.
I'heie aro several other types of machine guns, but the most ingenious, and
perhaps the most effectiv(-, is the ^la.xim autt)niatii' gun. This has a single
barrel, about two tliirds of which, from the nui/.zle towards the breech, is sur-
rounded by a water-jacket into which water is automatically injected at each
discharge, thus rendering overlieating impossible. Tlie mechanism ior oper-
ating the gun is at the breech, covering the remaining third oi the i)arrel.
All that is necessary is to draw back the trigger to fire the first shot; tut
recoil of the piece again cocks it, and the gun is then a ;tonuiticallj- fired, the
process being kept uj) until the cartridges in the feed-belt are all expended.
The cartridges are fed to the piece by means of l)elts hoi ding. '!.'!.'{ rounds, two
or more of the belts being joined together if desind. The Maxim gun can
easily tire ten shots a second, and if e\ery man at the ]»iece were killed the
moment the first shot was tired the gun would keep on until it fired at least
">.">L' more shots. on
30ti
THIUMPHS AM) WOyDEliS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
The (Jatliiij,', Ganlner. ^laxiin. iiiul .similar guns are known as niacliinc
guns. ( >f thf sann' geueral laniilv, su to .sjji'ak, are rajjid-tire guns, whicli arf,
Iiowevcr, ilistinguished from machine guns by iiaving a hirger calibre, loading
by hand, having only one barrel, and being provided with artilieial means of
cheeking recoil and returning the piece to the tiring position. They use
metallic amnumition, and have a breech mechanism which cocks the tiring
))in and extracts the empty case by the s;uuc motion which opens the breecli
for reloading.
]{apid-Hring guns were first desigui'd as a means of naval defense against
torpedo boats. They deliver a rapid and easily aimed lire, and use projectiles
of suttieient jiower to jienetrate the i)lates of the boats. In the naval service
the gun is mounted on a spring return carriage fixed to the vessel, so that the
])iece, when discharged, is brought back to the tiring position withoiit any
derangement of aim. On laud a rigid carriage is used. This carriage has a
s])ade at the cud of the trail, which is forced into the groiuid by the recoil
and holds tlie gun and carriage in place. The principal rajiid-fire guns are
the Hotclikis-. Driggs-Schroeder, Nordenfelt, Krupp, Canet, and Armstrong,
whicli h\\ from five to ten shots a minute, and use either shell or shrap: el.
Experiments are now being made in different armies with a view to adopting
rapid-tire guns for field artillery.
'I'lie ])riuciple of lapid tire, oi' "([uick tire," has l)een su('(;essfullj' apjilied
to guns having a caliber as great as six inches. The metallic cartridge tised
in raiiid-tire guns is, in appearance, simply a "big brother" of the cartridge
used in the infantry riHe.
Closely allied with guns, both in coast defense and in naval warfare, are
torpedoes. The cru(h' wea])ons nl this tyjie, used in the War of Secession,
have been developed into formidable engines of war, before whose destrui'-
tive power the strongest vessels aie helpless. For tlu'ir classitication and
dcM-ription sit "The C!eutury"s Naval Progress,'" i)ages tS4, <S.">.
The destructive ],ower of torpedocf; is so well known as to give them a
great moral weight as a nu-ans of defense. I'he fact lliat the (Jerman har-
bors on the IJaltic were known to be ]irotected by t(U-pedoes saved Ihem from
an attack by the Krench navy in 1870-71. and Cei'vera's Heet in the harbor
of Santiago, in bSKS, was safe from our s([\uulron so long as the mouth of the
channel was closed with Spanisii torjtedoes.
T'hough necessarily brief, the foregoing sketch will show that in the ourse
of the nineteenth century armies have increased enormously in size, and
in the jiower of rapid uuivenieut and (certainty of supjily. Infantry has
increased in relative numbers and in importance. Extended order tighting.
in which the individuality of the soldier comes into play, has taken the place
of the old rigid shoulder-to-shoulder line of battle. The private soldier's
vocation has risen, in many br inches of the military service, from a trade to
a )>rofession, and now. more than ever before, is extensive training and a high
order of intellect necessary for the command of armies. Wars have become
shorter, sharjier, uu)re decisive and more terrible ; and increased emphasis
has been placed upon the warning, " In time of peace prepare for war."
Artiil'k L. Wa(j\ek.
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE
I. VK ISSITIDKS OK KAKLY KAHMIN(i.
Ik tlio tluniglit I'liters tlie iniiicl of tlie reader that a youth (?) of sixty-
seven is not conijietent to write upon agricultural improvement for the
entire eentury, the answer is tiiat such improvement can scarcely be said
to iiave begun until near the middle of the century; that tiie early forties
saw the writer at work ou a faiiu; that he has ever since lived on a farm;
and that he. therefore, writes from jiersonal experience of the imi)rove-
ments which have transformed agriculture from :i simple art to a jjrofound
science.
'l"o realize the jn-cgress agriculture has made, we must understand its
condition in tlic first lialf of tiie renturv. and tlie causes which prevented
iniiirovciucnt at that time, 'i'lic soil was rich with tlie accumulations ri
centuries, and the farmer was at no expense to either maintain or restore
fertility, for witli but indifferent cultivation large crops cduld be laised.
When a tield became impoverished, with axe and t(uch a I'ew field wts soon
cleared from tlit> forest. The im]ilenients in ust- were of the crudest and
mostly nianufactiired by the neatest blacksmith, and it cost but a few dol-
lars to c([uip a farm; still they were sufficient for the wants of the farmer
of that date. .So it will be seen that the difHculty was not in the farm
nor witli the farmer; fiU' he could grow not only all tliat was necessary
tor family use. but nun-e than enougli to sui>ply tlie demand for such market
as he had. Perhaps the greatest difficulty in the way of agricultural jiro-
gress was the w;uit of transportation facilities ; for a market was of littlt,
use to a farmer if he was se])arated from it by a hundred mih's or more of
roads which, through almost the entire winter, were so deep witii mud that
modern farmers would think them utterly im])assable, with streams un-
bridged an<l hills ungraded. The first steji toward relieving the farmer of
this troidik' was .John (^tuincy Adams' message to (."ongress in lSl'7, when he
recommended the construction of the National Koad. the eastern terminus
of whidi was to be in .Araryland and the western at St. Louis, Mo. This
road was constructed within a few years. It was the first outlet for tlie
I'lops of the great West, and over it. across the Alleghany Mountains, a
procession of (fovered wagons passed during the entire year, carrying the
prod\icts of the farms to the Eastern markets and bringing back manufac-
tured goods. One other avenue was opened for the intercliange of products
between these two sections, the Erie Canal being completed in 182."), and
enlarged and improved many years later.
During the thirties, just preceding the era of railroads, there was ahnost a
craze on the subject of canal building, and scori's of miles of canals were
liegun which were never com])leted. as with the beginning of the fourth de-
cade of the century the railroad idea had taken possession of the minds of the
li!
308
TRIUMPHS AND WONDEHS OF THE XIX"' CENTURY
l)eople. In some cases the tow-path of the canal formed the roadhed f )r tlic
railroad whieli snjierseded it, and probably more lines of canal were abandoned
than were completed. Tiie era of railroads — that wonderful factor which
was to revolutionizi! farming — dates from about 18.'j((. Tlie first locomotive
in the United States was imported from Knghind and placed upon *he rails in
ISL".*. and in IS.'tO tin- first Anu-rican locomotive was built. It was. however,
very near the middle (jf the century before the .system of railroads had been
completed so as to materially improve the condition of agriculture; and
although the fact may sound strange to some, the first railroad train ran into
Chicago in l.S."iL'. J hiring these years of <lepressed agriculture, however, the
l)o]iulation of the country was rapidly increasing.
While the railroad system of the country was (levelo))ing. turn])ikes were
being built radiating from the principal markets and railroad stations. With
the beginning of the second half of the century the farmers awoke to the fact
that the I'nitcd .States was a large and jiojiulous nation. re([inring an immense
amount of supplu's. and that imjirovements lor transportation had been fui-
nishcd so tliat the markets wei'c easily accessible. IJefore jjassing. however;
from the discouragements and ditticidties of agricidture in the early days,
some practical illustrations of tlie difficulties met with seem necessary to give
V clear understanding of the condition. What would the farmer of to-day
think were he obliged to start with a load of wh(;at in midwinter over roads
which crossed unbridged streams and wound over clay hills, not a rod of
which was macadamized and all of which were jioorly graded, sjieuding ten
days with a four-luu'se team to make a rouiul trip of one hundrt'd miles with
<^hirty-tive bushels of wheat, and sidl it in the market for ."."> cents a bushel '.'
Yet such was the fact which th;' writer had from the lijis of a farmer
wlio had been through this experience. Two thoughts may occur to the
reader — first, that thirty-five bushels was a liglit load foi' a four-horse team,
and, seconil, that hotel bills would nuu'e than al)sorb the money received from
such a load of wheat. Kut both of these are explained by saying that one
cause of the Jightness of the load was that the farmer must carry feed for his
team f(n' the entire trij), and another, the uncertainty of the condition of the
roads; for though he might start with the roads frozen solid and jjossibly
worn smooth by the teams whicli liad jireeeded him, he was liable on the trij)
to meet with a sudden thaw wh'ch reduced the roadbed to mortar, so that the
wheels would sink ahnost to the axle, and in many cases the load would be
found too heavy for his team It was no uncomnu)n sight to see a score of
places to the mile where the fences had been torn down and rails carried into
the middle of the road to be used in jirying the wagons out of the nuid when
hopelessly mired. The reason the hotel bills did not consume the proceeds
of the Iliad was that there were n(Uie ; for the farmer carrie<l his camp kettle,
bedding, and juovisions with him, ami slept in the wagon (hiring his ejitire
trip. The same farmer rejerred to, in telling his story, said that all the
money spent on the ten days" trip was three "tips" (l.S^ cents), and that, pre-
sumably, was for three ••nips" of whiskey.
An interesting personal exi)erience in the winter of 1cS4r»-47 was in driving
hogs from Anderson, Ind., to Cincinnati, Ohio, a distance of about ITttt miles.
The drove was started with the nu?rcury at zero, and the first dithculty met was
in getting them across White River, as there was no bridge and the stream
THE CEXrURV'S PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE
309
must be t'ordiHl. 'V\w. lui^'s ubsultitely vciuseil to enter the icy water, but
till' jiioneev of that day was ecjual to any emert^eney. The drove was soon
Imddled on tlie bank, rails were carried from an adjoiniuj,' Held, and a close
pt'ii was built around them ; then two jilueky frontiersmen, with thiek leg-
i;iiij{s reaching from ankle to hips, towed them by the ears to frozen shoal
water in tlic centre of the river, and i)ushed them across the ice, when they
were obliged to go asliore on the other side. Two days hiter a sudtleu and
unexpected thaw set in, when for one hundred weary miles the drivers urged
the hogs through mud which reached from fence to fence, and which was so
riuid that not a trace was h'ft behiiul. as it flowed in to till not only the track
111 the hogs but the footsteps of the drivers. When after days of urging the
iiDgs began to lose strength and fall by the way. tlu'y settled down into the
ooze, from which the men must lift them into wagons which accompanied the
SOIL pri.vKuizKu.
drove or were hired from farmers along the road. When Cincinnati was
reached it seemed that the worst trouble of the journey was over ; but not
so, for the climax of disaster with this drove was reached at the .slaughter-
house, when for two weeks the weather was so warm that no slaughtering
could be done, and the price of pork declined day by daj", until the entire
drove was finally sold at one and tliree quarters cents per pound dressed
weight — and during the entire time, both on the road and in the pens, the
hogs had btH'n losing rai)idly in weight ever}- day. This was the lowest price
recalled for hogs ; Imt it was very common to have a glut in the market of
some staple which redact .1 the jiricc so low that it scarcely paid for transpor-
tation, and in some cases made it actually unsalable.
A neighbor relates that when he was a boy, needing some money, his father
made him the offer that he might have all the corn that he would shell, take
to mill, and market the meal in Cincinnati, forty miles distant. He went to
work with a will, prepared a two-horse load, and reached Cincinnati with it
safely, only to find the market glutted so that he could not get an offer on it.
A part of it was finally sold at 10 cents per bushel, and the remainder was
taken home.
aio
TUiuMPiis AX/) noM)h:i{s or the xix'" cnxTiur
i
i!
''uriii^' till' rlosiiii,' yi'iirs uC the tif'tli (Iccutli' tin jiricL's ol' stock were at tlic
lowest, youd iliiiry I ■)\vs briiigiiij,' from .'t<7 to ij^l* jht lieiul; yrarliiij; calvtv--
from .Hil to .*«1' : tlif very best liorscs. ."i!i4(», ami stock liogs selliii),' lor .fil or $'J
each. At the same time many of tlu- iiccessitics of life were sold at exorbi-
tant prices, and an examination (d an old account book shows the foUowiny;
tignres: Salt. $-i per barrel ; nails, (! to <S cents per pound ; calico. VJl cents
\n'v yard; drilling. I'.'t cents per yard; clocks, .'^4(1 each (the value of the
best hoi'ses I).
Some other facts must be taken into consideration to understand why the
farmers did not attcmi)t improved methods. One was the condition of the
currency. The I'nited States IJank. which it would seem should have afforded
security and stability to the (uirreucy, had been wrecked by the action of
Andrew Jackson in vetoing its rechartering and withdrawing the I'nited
States funds (at that date about .'!if4.'>,(l(M),()00) from it; and private banks had
been established over the entire west and south, a system of what was then
known as -wild cat" banks supplying the people with currency. The man
who was trading needed to carry in his ])ock ■'. at ;ill times a '■ bank detector."
1o which he might refer to a.scertain how numy cents on the (h)llar the issue
of each bank w;is worth.
Looking back at the condition of affairs as described, remendiering liow
few the markets, how easily glutted, how \instabli' the curicucy. and all the
uncertainties connected with the dispos;i.l of ihe farmer's juoducts. what was
there to stinudate him to improve his metliods or increase his products '.' If,
as was occasionally the ciise, the farmer detei'mined to improve his stock, he
must im]K)rt from Kngland or buy at high prices from an imjtorter, ;iml there
being no exjiress companies to (hdiver his stock, he must either go in i)erson
or trust to jirivate iudividuids to drive them over the mountains or, if snudl
'stock, to bring them in wag( as the eutiic distance.
He could not .afford to carry on a wide correspomlence. for eaidi indi-
vidual letter cost twenty-five cents jiostagc, if the distance was over three
hundred miles. It was not until 1S4."'> that postage was reduced to ten
cents, and ten years later it was reduced to three cents for letters of half
an ounce.
If any one is inclined to throw the bhnne ui)on the farmers for not having
done their part to improve agriculture and bring ])ros])erit3', he should con-
sider the conditions tinder which they had lived for a generation ; the uncer-
tain markets; the low ])ri(?es of products; that they must construct nnids and
bridges, build schoolhouses and churches, clear the farms, nearly all of which
were covered with heiivv timlier; and the fact that all this work was done
with the crudest iniplenients. It will be seen that the farmers had been
acc<>mi)lisliing wonders and vicre worthy of the highest ])raise ratliei than
blame.
With the beginning of the last liiilf of the century, the farmers suddenly
awoke to the fact that the conditions had become wonderfully favorable.
Towns and cities were growing up on every liaiui offering new markets.
Kailroads ;ind other means of transport.'ition were opening to them. Inven-
tive genius had taken u]» the imiirovement oi imiilements (d' agriculture, and.
best of all, prices had advanced greatly for all the leailing i)roducts. The
improvements of methods in farming, which luive not been less than those in
THE CENTUUY'S I'llOGIiESS LV AGRlCULTURK
311
UY
elf at till
iiij,' (■iilvf>
.*! (.I*'.'
at t'xoi'lti-
IL'?. I'fiits
lie ot till'
il wliy tlic
ion (if till'
atYonU'd
action of
(' rnitcil
hanks hail
was tiu'ii
Tin' man
(It'tcctor."
r the issnc
if'iini^ liuw
,11(1 all the
. what was
lucts'.' If.
s stoek. he
', and there
1) in jierson
)i', if small
eaeh indi-
uver three
ecd to ten
ers of half
not having'
should eon-
tlie uncer-
t roads and
ill of which
k was done
s had been
•athei than
I's suddenly
I'avoralilt'.
vv markets,
m. Iiiveii-
iilture. and.
[nets. 'I'he
an those in
iiiunufacturiiij,' and other callings, date from this time, and will be de.seribe(l
undur the foUuwing heads: Imiirovemeiit.s in implements; in .stock; in drain-
age and tillage ; in the maintaining ami iiuM'easing of fertility; in care and
feeding of stock; in and around the farmer's me; and education, which
includes agricidtiiral literature, fanner's organizations, and .schools,
II. IMI'UOVKMKNTS l.\ 1 Alt.M I .M1T<KMKNTS A.M» MACUINKKV.
In writing on the improvements in agriculture one can scarcely fail to be
impressed with the fact that whenever the human ratte comes to the point
that it must have help and make a demand up(m nature, she always honors
the draft ; and as the steps are portrayed by which the agricultural products
of this continent have been increased a hundiTd fold, while the [lower of
the individual w(uker has increased wonderfully, and the labor has been
lightened by machinery, we can see that these inventions and improvements
■rilK tUI.LMIUA IIAIIVKSTKK AND HIXDEK.
came just as fast as they -vcic needed, and no faster. God has given to the
human inind such jiower, ami to the liamls such skill, that whatever is neces-
sary is soon provided when the want is made known. Perhaps there is no
better way in which this can bi; traced than in the a])pliauces by which the
farmer feeds tlu! world. It is an interesting study to note the successive
steps in the improvement of implements for the work of the farm. In the
beginning of the century the sickle and Hail were all that were needed to cut
and thresh the grain; and it was Ity a series of .steps that the steam thresher
and the combiiuMl mower and binder were evolved. The sickle was all that
was needed until jiopulatiou increased and markets were made accessible ;
then the cradle was invented. With the former, an expert could cut an .acre
a day, and with the latter four or more acres; but all the work was done by
human muscle. The man using a sickle must work with bended back all
day. The cradle enabled him to work erect, and lightened the labor ; but
when the " Jieaper sickle " was invented the labor was transferred to brute
nuisele. The first machines were clumsy and heavy to draw, requiring as
312
TlUrMPIlS AXl) WOXDEJiS OF THE XIX'" CESTUHY
luiifli, or inoi't', jiowcr tn cut tlic ^'laiii as to rut mid bind it witli the liRht
Viiiiiiin^' iiiddcni l)iiider. Now. the niiin who Hwulteivd with lti'ii(U'd hiicii tru
or twi'lvc hours to cv.t an acre of gram with the sickh' "drivi's Ids team
idicld," and by simply guiding it cuts and hinds ten or tiltccn acres a day,
and carries the bundles to the shock row.
The inijirovenient in threshing niaeidnery has ht'cn as marked as in that
for harvesting the grain. In tiie i\v> part cd' the century all the work was
done with the thdl. and on farm.s wlierc; a large amount (d' grain was grown
it kept a man husy a good part (d' the winter to thresli it. The fir.st improve-
nu'ut was in threshing the grain hy tramping it out with luuses, and \\ itji
two men and four horses, under the most favorable conditions, from Jifly to
one hundred bushels could be threshed in a day. Ihit by both these nu'tlnxls
thert! was the disadvantaire that in all liamo weather the work mu.-t Ik;
.stopped, as the grain wcjuld liecome so touyli that it could not be tluesheil.
IMPKOVED Tiii!Ksiii;ii wrm ni.owKit and ski.fkki-.dku.
Another di.sadvantage of these methods was that it took a long time to ]ire-
pare the crop for market, ami in case of a sudden rise in price the farmer
could not take ;ulvantage of it as he now can when his grain is all tin'cshed
in a single day and held in the granary for sale. In the thirtitss, the first
threshing machines were put in use, and were but little improvtuuent over
the method of trami)ing with horses. The iiaehines were of snudl capacity,
and simply threshed the grain, but did not sejiarate it from the straw and
chaff, 1,'otli of which operations had to be done by hand; and if the straw
was to be saved, either in the barn or in a stack, it had to be all handled
with rakes and forks. The first threshing nunddne tliat thti writer ever saw
was one that was called "The Traveller." This was followed hy machines run
by stationary horse-power. These were called •• chalf jiih-rs," from the fact
that they threshed the wlieat but did not separate it from the straw or chaff.
The first horse-powers were inclined jdanes, or endless cliain jiowers, as they
were called, and were run by the weight of the horses, the floor revolving
under their weight as they attempted to go up the grade. These were soon
s>i))erseded by lever powers, made at first for two or four horses, hut after-
ward increased in size and power until ten or tw<dve horses were.iised; and
THE CESrUllY'S I'IU>filiESS IS AUltlCULTUIili
:)13
;il)(Uit tliis time the iiiathiiien- lor scpiinitiiij,' tlie giiiiii iiiid eliart' wius addtnl
to tilt' iiiiicliiiH'. It alimist st'i'iiictl ti> tlic I'liniii'iH lit this tiiiin tliat pcr-
Ici'tioa liii<l Ix't'ii rt'aclit'il \vh»-ii two ur tliico hiiiidicil biisluds cduld he
thri'shi'd ill a day and also tdeaiuMl ; hut tlie ffi'diiif,' of this larj,'t! iiiiiii-
iiiT of horses was a heavy tax ii]ioii the fanners, iiartieiilarly when a rainy
ilay would intervene itefore tin- job was tinished, and they w(!re ohli,i;ed
to keep the horses two ovtlnve days. The invention and introduetiou of the
iiinunted steaiii-en!,'iiiu not oidy saved the farmer I'roiii this expense, i)Ut
also iiiereased the power and doubled tiio daily capacity of the machine.
I'or a short time tlie farmers were satisfied with this; but the engine was
iieavy. and often the farmers" teams were li'4ht, and as it was the rule that
each mail must draw the .'u,!,'iiie from his farm to where the next job was to
be (h)ne. and often the distanee was great and tlm roads bad, it was not long
until he tired of this. Thi-n came the traction em^iiie. uliicli not only trans-
ported itself iiiit also drew the thresher and separator. About tliis time
I)
I
h
AVTOMATie MolNTKK Sl.\( KI.K WITH KOI.DINII ATTACII.Ml.N r.
anotlier ditficiilty arose ; for now that the machine had been imiiroved and
the power ii. 'eased .so thai under favoralile conditions a thousand busluds
cfmld be threshed in a day. the handling of the straw became a serious
problem, for it was impossible to Imild it in a stack suitable for keeping as
fast as the machine would deliver it. 'I'lie first step to lighten and expedite
this labor was in adding a straw carrier, a kind of revolving platform, wiiich
was attached to the separator and would lift thi' straw some twelve or fifteen
feet. For a year or two the farmers were satistied with this help, but soon
touiid that it was iiiade(piate for the wfirk. Then the stacker was invented,
a separate macliiije which was backeil under the straw carrier to receive the
straw. ;ind which had, mounted on wheels, an elevator wlii(di would carr}' the
straw to a lieight of twenty-five or thirty feet; and not only could it do this,
but it was the work of a moment, with a crank at its base, to raise it. and it
could be run at any angle. When the machine first started, the straw carrier
was place,d horizontally, and as the stack grew in lieight, it was raised until
in the finishing out of the stack it stood at an angle of forty-five degrees or
more. Tic straw carrier could not only be raised, Ijut by an ingenious
arrangement of small whetds. it could bt' moved from side to side by a light
pressure with one hand, or by a man on the stack pushing it with his fork.
•Ml
TiufMi'iis AMI uoM)h:its OF THE XIX'" cKsruny
W itii this ii(liiiii':i)ilt> macliiiu; tor luiiKlliiiK tin- straw, it H(>t!tiit>(l uh tiuniKli
|i«'rti'(-ti(>ii hiid JM't'ii riMclit'd, anil tiiat tiit'i'(> was now |irai'ti(-ally notliiuK
niori^ to lie dt'siifil. Itiit it was not ion^ until tin* i'iirnicr t'oiinil tliat with
tlif (lulivcn ol six tons of straw per hour it was in-avy work tor six men tn
biiihl tlic stack, and tiiut it was tlit' most disa^rcoahlf work ahont thi- ma-
fliini! iMscav (' ot tin? dust. .Vl)out IH'.Ht, sonii' invfiitivt' genius producu'd tlif
" idowei'" to take tin- phici- of tlif starki-r. 'I'lii.s is a long jointed tnlie. some
sixteen or eigiiteen inches in diameter, mo\inl<'d at tlu^ rear of the eylindei
throngli wliieh tlie .straw is forced l)y eom[)ressed air wliich is furidsln'd in
tlic maciiine. It can l»e raised or hiwered, turned to tin- right or to the h'ft.
so as to delivev tlie straw at any desired pctint on tlie stack. It is managed
by a man standing on top of the separator near the icar end, does away
entirely with any haiuls on the stack, and thus reduces the force altotit Hi\
DISK
men. Some other improvt>ments which have heiMi adih'd are the putting of
knives in the cylinder to cut the hands, thus saving one or two hands, for
often it was necessary to have a man on each sides for cutting the bands wlien
the wheat was dry and the work was done with the greatest ra])idity. Then
a revolving i)latform, called a self-feeder, was addtul in front of the eylindei',
on which i>latform the bundles could be thrown from a wagon standing on
each side, and be carried automatically and diimi)ed into the (cylinder, doing
awiiy with the nan who formerly fed the bundles to the machine. To some
machines an automatic weigher has been attached, which does away with a
man for measuiing and keejting tally of the wheat. Comi)are for a moment
this modern maehiner}' which, with a force ol" twelve or fourteen men, will
thresh and clean for market from 1 !.'<»(( to KUH) bushels of wheat per day.
with the man with the Hail laboriously pounding out ten bushels, and ycm
will get a vivid idea of the jirogress in agricultural machinery. One scmie-
what curious fact must be taken into account in this, which is. that with some
of these most wonderful machines the cost of labor is about the same it
formerly was. l>ui the iulvantage is that the work can bt? done in a few
liours. and the farmer's crop be ready for market to take advantage of
■^ tli(Mij;li
iiiitliiiiv:
liat Willi
X IIK'II til
till' iiiii
UCfll till'
\\»'. .snnii-
cyliinltM
lislicd l(v
tlif l.'lt.
iiianii^MMl
H's away
alidiit six
Tnii ciLyTiiirs riioaiinss ix .K.niciLrriih:
•Mr,
iiiorrascd iiriccH, wliilo liy tlic old plan tin- work wcmld rt-acii uhiioMt tlir(.u.i,'li
tlif u inter.
In till' cuttiiiK anil llanlllin^ of hay t\nnv has been a8 great iniiirovcnicnt
as in any portion of tin- farm. A lirst-idass mowing niachinc, nt'w from tin-
>liop. can now lie bonght for .Ijiln or less, ami with it the farmt'r can drive
to the field alter supper, in the (mioI (d' the day. and in an hour cut more
','rass. and do it better, than a man could with a scythe by working hard all
day.
Insteail <d' shakini,' out the swaths slowly with a lork. with a single horse
liit(died to a liay tedder about two m les an hour can be shaken up and loft
ACME llAUnOW.
ill such shape that both sun and wind have j)erfect access to it and cause it to
cure rapiilly.
Instead of rakiiig t.lie hay hiboriously by hand, a steel sulky rake does the
work easily anil ([uii;kly, doing more in an hour than was possible in a day
Avith the hand rake. On farms where the acreage of hay is large, a self-
hiader attacdied to the rear of tlu^ wagon gatliers the hay from the windrow
and delivers it on the wagon. At the barn, instead of the slow and wearisome
hand pitching, tlie hay fork and hay carrier deliver it in the top of the higli-
«'st barns.
The invention of the hay baler enables the farmer now to condense his crop,
.so that one third of the room for storage formerly required for hay will answer ;
and it also enables him to ship it to market by rail, where formerly it was
necessary that it should be taken in wagons.
While the jilough has not been improved to the extent that many of
M
316
THlUMl'IiS AXD WOXDERS OF THE XIX'" CEXTUllY
our fiinii impleuients hiive bt'en. it is vastly superior to tliosi' used by tin
pioneers, ami luodities somewhat the adage of "I'oor lliehard," who wrote : —
" III' wild liy tlie pl(iU);li wmiM tlirivi',
HiniM'lf imi--t I'ilher liolil or ilrivt ; "
for the nindern plou^'hmaii must uut only hold iiml drive, but drive thn^c
horses at that, and turn as many acres in a dfiy. Another adage attributed to
'• I'oor lliehard " was —
" I'lmicll (trcp wllllf vluftpmls r-li'ip,
AikI villi -.liiitl hiivu I'lPi-ii to sill iiiiil keep."
But the modern farmer lias learned that the depth to which he ploughs nnist
be governed by the nature of his soil, and tha leep ploughing on heavy clay
lands, or lands with a crude subsoil, is often the cause of short crops and
permanent injury to the soil.
It is doubtful if in any line of farm imi»lements there has been more im-
provement than in that of harrows ; arid yet tiiis improvement dates back but
about a (piartcr of a century, as jirevious to that time the idd '■ A " hariow or
drag, which was hard on the team and did indifferent work, was the only one
foinid on most farms. More recently tlie cutting and slicing harrows have
been largely introduced, and many other tonus of inifirovcd liarrows have been
put on the market. For the prepara'ion of hard land for a seed bed. especially
for small grain, the disk harrow cannot be excelled.
Itiit for garden use. or ioi' jiulvcri/ing sod land which lias not been too
nnieh compacted, the slicing Acme harrow is the nio.st perfect implement in
use. it being of light draft, easily transferred from field to held, and capable
oi' making the finest and best seed-bed
The cultivators in use have been greatly imj^roved. It is necessary to de-
scril)e but two of them. The two-horse cultivator with fenders, which enables
tln^ farmer to cultivate both sides of the row at once, driving two hor.ses in
tlie field instead of one. as by the old method, bus more than doulih d the
capacity of the individual ; as by its use he is able not only to ccltivate both
sides of the row at once, but to dispense entirely with the man who, iinder the
old rule, was obliged to follow the cultivator and uncover tlu' corn. Tiiis
'' iV>;,der " is exceedingly simple, and the only wonder iy that it took the
farmer so long to find o.i! its value. Costing but a few cents, it has saved
the farmers millions of dollars, as previous to its adopticjn it was necessary to
have one man follow each one-horse plow to uncover the corn. 'I'here are two
forms of this -'fender," the simi)lest being a light ))iece of galvanized sheet
iron attached to the cidtivator or ).!mw so as to come just betw, en it and tlu^
row of corn ; the other is in the form cf a rolling cutter, and attached in
the same way. With either of these the farmer goes into the Held a.s soon as
the young jilants can be seen in the row. drives his team astride the row, and
stirs every inch of the soil, jiutting a littlt; I'rcsh earth around each hill of
corn or jiotatoes without covering a single plant. .\s a single Stcate grows
some millions of acres of corn, it can be seen that Ihe saving from this
little inverition to the farmers amounts to millions of dollars in a single
year.
The old idea of deep cultivation of most cro])s has been jirnven to be wrong,
and modern implements are made to cultivate the surface to a deiith of two
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURE
317
RY
lecl bv till
I wrote : —
rive tlirec
tributi'il to
ughs imist
lieuvy el;i_v
t'roi>s ami
more iiii-
s biii'k but
hiirro'v or
e only on.'
rows liiivf
Jiavi' been
espfcially
t been too
)lonu'iit ill
1(1 capabli-
ary to de-
cli enables
horses in
)ubl(a tlie
ivate both
under the
trn. This
; took the
has saved
cessary to
re are two
li/.ed sheet
it and tin*
ttached in
as soon as
> row, and
eh hill of
;ate grows
from this
I a dingle
be wrong,
ith of two
nr three inciies rather tiian to tear un the roots of the plants ; and one of the
most perfect of all implements for this purpose is the " I'lanet Junior one-
liorse cultivator."
I'erhaps no other elass of machines has relieved tin- farmer more than tiie
ones for ]ilauting the grain; and with a modern two-horse corn planter two
rows can be planted at a time in checkered rows, so that it can be cultivated
liotii ways and witii more juvcision. botli ;is to alignment and as to the num-
ber of plants in a iiill. than by the old hand method of planting. The small
grain is sown by a two-horse drill arranged for not only the grain, but at the
same time to deposit commercial fertilizer along tiie rows of grain, and with a
gifi.ss seed sower attached. In tlie garden a hand drill is used. It is easily
.adjustable to any sized seed, from that of the turnip up to beans and pe.is,
i)(ii iii.r. conN ciiiiTivATOu
iind the seed is perfectly distributed in straight rows, wliile the garden hand
cultivator does away largely with the use of the hoe.
One other modern implement, which jjromises to be very useful, is "the
weeder." and its value rests on two facts which it required the farmer many
years to discover. The Hrst is that the thorough pulv«>rizing of tlie surface,
even to the depth of an inch, breaks the ea]iillaries and checks the evaiwration
of moisture ; but to do this it is necessary that the work be done just as soon
alter a rain as the laiul will crumble, and since often if a drying wind blows the
land gets dry in a few hours, a machine is needed that will enable the farmer
to thus stir a large surface in a short time ; ;ind this the weeder does, as it is
made to cover the width of three rows :it once, and more than two acres an
lumr can be stirred with a single machine. The other fact which makes
this iiiii)lement of great value is that all weeds are easily extermin.ited
when in end)ryo, and this stirring of the soil kills every one that is
starting.
'
H
\y
318
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
One otlier luiicliiue which lias been greatly improved is the clover hulh i .
Previous to its invention, most of tlie chjver seed was sown in the ehatt.
and when ch-an seed was reijuired it took several days' work with four horses
to tranqi out three or four bushels, and then much of the seed was left in tlie
chaff.
The modern Indler is e(inij)jied with the blower and self-feeder, and with it
from twenty to fifty bushels can be hulled and cleaned in a day, the amount
depending on how well tilled the heads are with seed.
It is (piite recently that machinery has been invented that relieves the
farmer of the hard work of planting potatoes by hand, and at the same time
does the work better than tlie old way, as the machine drops the seed at ;i
uniform distance ;ipart. and covers it perfectly. A man with this machine
will do the work of «'ight or ten men dropping by hand. Several ])otato dig-
gers, operated by horse power, have also come into recent usi'. 'I'hey greatly
lighten and accelerate the work, and the cost of growing potatoes has been
reduced several cents a bushel l>v tli(>se inventions.
III. IMI-IJnVK.MKNT iiK Sl(i( K.
I'erhaps it would be well in beginning to write on this subject to ask, what,
is '• pedigreed stock " ? Many people have the idea that pedigreeing is an
arbitrary rule adopteil by stock growers to mystify the buyer ami secure
larger prices for their stock. The fact is that it is inteiideil as a |ii'otectioii
to the purchaser, and is. or should be. a guarantee that the stock has been
bred along ceitaiii lines for a suflieient period to establisii liie desirable cpiali
tics which it is wished to perpetuate. A rigid censorship is exercised over
the record Ixioks. and it makes every one rec(u-cliiig stock, in a certain sense,
a detective to see that the records are truthful and represeiii theaiiiiiials just
as they are.
it is doulitful if along any line of iarm operations there has been greater
improvement thiin in the breeding and care of stock: yet there were greater
dithcultii's to overcome in iloing this than in imjiroving the iiunlemeuts.
These diHicuities may be classed as follows : Kirst, the one already alluded to
in the o]iening chapter, to wit, the expense of importing and the consecpieni
high jiricc of thoroughbred animals; and when we recall that this was at a
time when the farmers were hewing out their homes from the forest, ami
could not obtain large jirices for their products, it will lie seen that few fann-
ers could allord to iiu|irove their stock. Second, as to cattle and hogs, it was
almost imi)ossible to breed ]iure stock : for all animals were allowed to run at
large, and the wooils were full of "tram]i males," which wouM break through
the fences and invade the fields where the im])rovcd stock was kcjit, 'i'hird.
those engaged in breeding stock found that there was a limit which when
reached ludught barrenness to high-bred animals, and in many other cases
reduced the vitality so as to invite iliscase. 'I'h;it this evil v.as a real and
serious one is shown from the fact that large numbers of high-priced animals
failed to jiroduee young among cattle, and that many herds r»f jiedigreed
swine were carried off by epidemic diseases. I'ourth, and jierhajis the most
serious hindrance to imjirovement, was the indifference of farmers and the
want of appreciation of good stock, and of course the farmer who did not want
it would not cooperate in producing it.
Its SOI
the dal
thing
u iiieii
tlie [•
eral p
or cert
under
iindei'L
The
ers. an
of earl
if not
THE CENTURY'S PROUtlESS IN AGRICULTURE
:ji9
Tlie tlittVrence between the iini)n)veiiu'iit of inipleinents iiiul stock eoii-
-isted largely in the fact that trained mechanics were responsible for the
lornier, and they would perfect the inij.lenu'nts until tiie fanners couid not
iiftord to do without them; while the slii)sh(»(l farmer would be satisfied with
liis common stock, and would fail to accept the help of the men who were
trying to improve it. Another thing which farmers learned slowly was that
good stock re<|iiires good care, which not only means shelter and liberal feed-
ing, but also that the food be ada])ted to the wants of the animal. .More tine
animals were rniiu'<l Ity over-fe<'ding with corn — a heating and fattening
diet — than by insuthcient food ami exposurt; to cold and storm. It took
iiii'.n\ years to teach the farmer what a balanced ration was, and why it was
necessary.
It would be interesting to tii!:" up each separate breed of cattle and trace
11
Moni.iiN n.ovEn im'm.kr.
SliMwinu' rmli' Tiim's Stuckor .tiuI SulMVodiT.
its soun'c. gi\ing cri'dil to the mi-n who improved and developed it. and
thciliitf 111' c'lich iiii|ii'it;iii(iii ; lint the limitations of this article forbid any-
thing nmri' tiian brii'i nuMitinn ni the more prominent lirccds. and many
w iiich possi'ss gri-at nn-rit cannot be rven mentioned, i'he imjiroved cattle of
the Cnited States may lie grouped iiniler three heads. — licet, dairy, and gen-
t'ral purpose, t M' tiit> first the Short-lioni liulds. iicrhaps. tlu' highest place.
'If ci-rtainly did for a long series of years. Tlicse for nnmy years were bred
under tlie name of •• !>uiiiam." but about a generation ago the iiiime began to
uudi-rgo a chang<' to .Short-liorn.
These animals, while especially adapted to the block, are fairly good milk-
ers, and sfime strains of them are su|ieriiir dairy cows. They have the ([uality
of early maturity and prodiu'c a larger jier cent of fino cuts of meat than most,
if not liny, other breeds. Tlicse cattle were first imported into America in
i! I
3:iO
Till UM PUS AM) WOSDKllS OF THE XIX'" CEyiURY
171>7, ami many otlu-i- iiiiportatiniis were iiiatle during the tirst lialf of tla-
j)res('nt ceiitiivv.
AndtliiT brci'd wliich iloscly rcscmhU's tlu' Sliort-liorn is tlu' lliTclnrd.
Tlu'Sf cattli' ail' usually of a iiiiiforiii color — a jialf mmI — with white iaie.
breast, and Hanks, and drooping horns. They were first introdueed by Henry
Clay in IN17. .Vnuther inijiortation was made in IXIO. but it was not until
iNCiO and sid)>eiiuently that they were imjiorted largely and a " heril book"
established for them. Since that time they liave nndtiplied largely.
The last of the three distinctly beef breeds is a hornless race originating in
Seotland. and known by the name of Aberdeen Angus, Clalloway, or J'olled
cattle. These ealtle have the distineti.e (iuality of hardiness, ami as thej-
have very thick, close hair they are able to subsist on the range without
^ ^^«s;'^^
ni:ni;Koitn row. '-ladt i..\imii;i,."
shelter better than jierhaps any otiier breed. The males have a remarkable
jirejiotiMiey. anil the cross-bred animals very rarely show horns. Like the
Hereford.s. they are ]>oor milkers ; for whih' their milk is rich, the quantity is
small, and they usually go dry for several nu)nths of the year. They were
tirst imiiorted into tliis country about iM.-jO, and in LSS,"! nine hundred were
imjtorted and distributed among the cattle breeders of tlie ])luins. I'tiUed
cattle an- beconiiug nmre popular every year, and many larmers nnw dehorn
the cattle of other br Is ; and the time is not I'ar distant when horned cattle
will be the exception and mil the rule.
The Channel Island group — the Ji-rseys, .Mderneys, and (Jueniseys^
embraces uni|nestii)nalily the liest butter animals of the world ; ami if we are
to judge by their wide disti'ibution and great ])opularity,.the..Ierseys lead the
list. They were tirst intnidn 1 into the Cnited States in ISL'O. :ind in 1S.~)(»
large importations were made; but it was during the decade from 1.S7<I to
ISSO that greatest interest in the breed was awakened and large and frcipient
rilK CENTUliY'S PIWGHESS IX AdlllCULTUliE
321
.iiil»oitatioiis were luudi'. Tliore lias been a strong and bitter oiii)ositiou to
!lu'se cattle by many farmers on aeeount of their small size, but they have won
Iheir way until tln-y are more miiversally distributed, and are to be found on
;nore farms than any other breed. Ivemarkable yields of butter from the indi-
\idual have been recorded, many of them runniny from 12 to 18 pounds per
week under high feeding and extra care.
While the Ayrshire jwssesses great merit, so few of them have been im-
ported into this country that it seems scarcely worth while to more than
mention them.
Under the head of general-purpo.se animals come the Holsteins. Devon, and
OUOUP OV AIlKHni.KN-A.NtifS CATTLE.
Red Polls. All of these breeds )H)ssess tine (jualities. The Holsteins were
jirobably not introdueed into this country until the last half of the century,
and the -Holstein Herd-1'xiok," jmblished in iSS'J, shows that .about r»(MK»
registered animals were in this (^oinitry at that date. While fair l)eef cattle,
the Holsteins arc deep milkers, and show a record of the largest ([uantity of
milk of any l>reed in America, — some cows giving over IL'.(MM) poumls of milk
in a year. 'I'he milk, however, is not as ri<'h in butter fat as that of the Jer-
sey, but probably they art; the best breed of dairy cows for the cheese factory
in the United States.
The Devons are beautiful red cattle. They do not rank as large milkers,
323
TlUUMl'HS AM) WOSDEliS OF THE XIX'" CESiriiY
Init in'oduft! ii suiicrinr ipiiility ol milk, niid an- uiu'xerllt'il in tliis n'si)ec(
liy any lnooil Imt tlie .Ifisuy. Om- pi'diliarity aliout tlic hifcd is tip
(•onipaiativc snialini-ss of the cdw, tor while tlie stocr will wi-ij^h Iron
] 4(M) t<i K'ttMl pounds, the cows will avera.Lce only from .SOO to 10(M» ponml
each.
The importation of lied I'olls from England is comparatively recent, ami
they come nearer tilling; the idea of a i,'eneral imrjiose animal than any othei
breed in .Vmerica. The Hrst importation was made in IST.'I. and consisted ot
only four animals. Two years later four more were imported, and in l.S.si'
twenty-tive. Other importatiors stjon followed. 'I'hey are of a nniforndy
cherry-red color, with occasionally the tip of the tail white or a little white
about the udder. Ninet}' per cent of the j^rades are hornless. They are ol
.IKUSKY (UW. lUA (»K »T I.AMHKICr.
larcio size, niatiiro bulls wpi<;liini,' from 1S(K)to L'L''K> jxiunds. and occasionally
line will exceed l'."»(l(l jiounds. ("ows weigh from IKMl to KKMt po\inds. and
will average 1L'(M». 'I'hat they mature early the following weights, copied
Irom the report of the Smithtield Clidi. of Kngland. will show : —
Steer, twenty-two and one half nmnths old, weigheil l.'KMt liis.
Ileifer. twenty -one and three quarters numths old. weighed llTiS lbs.
Steer, twenty -three and one half months old, weighed \'M) lbs.
Steer, twenty-two months old, weighed VM{\ lbs.
.\t the same show a mature cow was exhibited that weighed liM(.'{ pounds.
As dairy cattle they show good records, giving an average of iV)(M( pounds of
milk per year, and some have exceeded ."iOO pounds of butter in a year, milk-
ing over MOO days.
While the I'nited States can show as good horses as jiny other country in
the world, they are not as generally distributed among the farmers as are
animals of other lireeds of stock. 'I'his perhajis can be accounted for. first,
from the fact thiit ii horse must be mature, and not less than six years old.
before it can be put on the market ; and that the low price of the service —
'/'///•: (h:\TL'nys rnoanHss /y .n.iiiraiTCKK
3'i3
I'm. \MI ( IIINA IIDI
U'l' (il ^'nitlfs and scnih stalliiuis — is tuo j^irat a ti'iiiiitatiou to the tarmiT
vImi is in <lcl>t iind short of money. Still, our standard has liccn advunein;.;,
.iiid tlit-rt' is a sure l»iit slow iM-ttfiini,' of tlic workin.L; stock of the country.
in the draft class we iiavc the Norman. I'crclu-ron, ( lydcsdalc and iiclgiau,
,;iid jiossiltly some others, wiiile the ('levehunl ISay comes as near tliegeiieral-
|iur|iose horse as any other hreed. The importations that have given lis the
iiiagniticeiit horses which are lieiiig
use([ in this count ly have liceii made
chieHy from P'raiice, I'lm^daiid, Itel-
'.;iuiii. and (iermany. The hlood of
the ICii'^lish tlioroniihiired and of tie
Arali has also coiitrilmicd to the le-
ve|o|iment oj the unalities desiled.
In no other class of .stock iiniducrd
ill this country has the ini|>rovement
lieeii more marked than in the swine,
and wliih' there are prohably half a
score of lireeds in the country, a look through thi' markets shows that ]iro-
lialily '.•<• jpcr cent of them an- of the three loUowing hr is: l'oland-( 'liiiui
(formerly called Magiei. I>i'rkshire. and Duroc tn- .lersey Ited : although it
is ipiite possiiile that the ( 'hester White might take the third jilace. With
the exce|iti<in of the Iterkshire. these may lie called distinctively .\nierican
lireeds. and even the Uerksiiire lias Ihmmi so moditied and im])roved as to
almost lay claim to .\meriean origin. .\ tew other lireeds are kept jmrc in
this conutry. |)articularly the ivssi'x. ^'orkshire. and \'ictorias ; hut they aro
hied to hut a limited extent and then for a special purpose. 1 >ne thing that
makes it easy ami rapid to improve swine is the fact that they mature so
early, and that :i now cross may he made every year if desired. The writer,
living in that part (d' .Miami Valley, in < >hio. where tin' I'oland-Chiiia swine
originated, has seen, in a tpiarter of a century, these hogs change in form
and color and genenil characteristics, and these fixed so thoroughly that they
could he depended on to reproduce them. As this lireed existed ill the fifties,
they were coarse in form, mongrel in color, and slow in ir,:ituring. reiiuiriiig
from eighteen months to two years to he made ready for market. Jliit to-d;iy
they are early maturing, can he ]iut on the market at six months (d' age,
weighing from 'JOd to L'-'iO |iounds. and are of uniform shape and eolor. They
ari> still the loadinj^ hived throughout the gre.-it corn belt of the I'liited States,
and the herd-lMioks have registered breeding stock to the number of many
thousand.
The Uerksiiire hog was Hist iiitrodueed into this ('(miitry in ISl'.'i. and a
second imiiortatioii was made in \s:VJ. but there was no systematie breeding
and care to preserve their purity, and grades were s<dd for pure-bred until
the breed fell into disreimte; but in lS(i."» new importati(nis were made of
the finest animals to be found in Kiigland, and the merits of the breed became
universally known. Though called a small breed, they are but little below
the I'oland-Ohina in weight, and grades from Iterksiiire males on large raiigey
sow.s will give the finest possible hogs lor the block : but these gnides must
not \)e used for breeding, or the stock will deteri<nate.
The American Chester White hog originated in Chester County, I'ennsyl-
19
M
3.i4
TiiiiMJ'Hs A\n uo.x.'j/iiis or tiik \l\"' (/■::.Jii,y
Viiiiia; liiit it i^ bclitncd that tlifif was an iiii|pnitati()ii of whitf hugs fnn.
Kn^'laiid in l.Sl,S. Tlic lnvt'd. until witliin less than a (|uart('r of a ccnliin
was ciiai'st'. lar;;t' of hone, and slow o[ iiiatni'itv. and sonictinn's would attan
enormous w, '.:,'lit. nearly Hi(H» |iuunds; hut in the last (|uait('r of a centui ;.
tlu'V have hccu improved \inlil tlu'V ate a elose rival of the best breeds \\i
liave.
The l>uroe-.lersey Ited seems to In- a distinetly Anieriean breed, havinj; a
history (hilinj,' haek to liSl,'4, but it is less than a Inilf century sinee they eanic
into iiromineiiee. and the iniprovenn-nt made in Ihem in that timi' has ]pni
them neai tie front rank. One thiii<,' whieh caused their rapid iiirreaM'
Wiis tie- bcli'f that lhe> were jiroof !ij;ainst s\viiuvjila(^ue and hog-eholera.
and1he\ wen bcaued on tiiat idea. I>ut this did not jirovc true, and oiii
iiiteiliirenl larmer.> nave learned that it is not in thi' breed bul in tjie fomi
and care that immunity from disease will be bnuid. These ho^s an- of a
beautiful red eolo; and nf i,'oo<l form. The mothers are proliti • and j,'ouil
nursers, and they mature eari_\ , niakin;^' the ehoieest oi piy jxuk al an earl_\
age.
No othi'r class of animals has been subject to so much foreii;n competitiMn
or has tii,'uit'd to such an extent as a |)olitical factor as the sheep, and t'n>.
f(i" more than a ^jem-ration past, litis kept the shet p industry tiuctuiiting
between a di'pression which <lestroyed till profit and a l)oom which phi. <mI
fictitious values oi; them, tind both extremes liave worked hi! ■ to the indus-
try. Vet thioui;h till these chaiif^es. those who have rcco^jii/ed the intiinsic
value of the sheep and stuck to the work of imi-rovt-nu'iit. have not only
found the business prolitable but have prevented the deterinratioii of the
aidmals wliicli threateucfl.
While swiiic are of no value until killed, the .^hecp j^ivcs two cou|Mins in
a yeiir. one ia the Heeee ;ind the other in the increase, and the breeder
aiways has two distinct objects ixd'ore him. — the production of wool aii<l
mutton. 'I'hc breeds id' sheep arc almost as dissimihir as are Intrses from
eattu'. and soi .e aic suiti'd fn ■ Imt arid lands, w'ile others are ad!i](ted to
the rich lowh.uds with their ...luudant and si , euliMit lierbaj^e. I'hc most
iuieieiit ol ,ill brt-eds is the .Merino; ami those who have studied this (pu's-
tioii trace its ilesceiil back in direct line, probiibly, to the flocks of the jiiitri-
archs. For a;;es they have been the clothers of mankind, tiivit with the skin
and later with the Hcece. and still they maintain a high, if not first, place
anioi <f ditVcrent breeds. 'I'hey have bee i Wididerfully imju'oved. but the
improvement ha;, been ahuiu thi' lim' of i.icreasin}; the value ^^\' the fleece
rather than the carciiss. aiid it has been chan^'cd from an animal that v.nuld
))rodnce two or tiircc jiounds of wool, and one which had bare l)elly .ind letrs,
to oi.e which ])rod' -es a fleeee from the hoofs to very near the nose. It is
vithiii bound;! to say the weij^ht of the Hcece ha.. btuMi doid>lcd.
With !he Imi^i-wool l»reed.'' the improvement litis been desi>jne<l to develop
the carcass and mutton ipialilies rather than the wool, pnd of these the two
typical breeds are the Shioitshire iind ("otswold. J'robably the best ntutti ii
hunbs that are prnd-.tted in this eoimtry are from the Shropshire rams and
^lerino ewes. The ropreseiitiitivc ('otswold is of majestic port and larue
size. The wool is curly, lon^. and lustrous; not dry and harsh to the touch
t'.nd lias but a sli ,'ht amount of yolk ; at maturity it oiiixht to be eight inches
long. The fleece a>erages six or .ioveii po'uids.
, )■
THE CESTLliy'S ritoanESS is .lOHICULrUKE
Mo
i'kI iitliiiii
;i cciitiiiv
liavi'.i^' {i
tllfV caiiir
t' lias |iiil
iiincaM'
li^-clidlcrii.
'. anil mil
I tlic I'duil
i art' of a
anil ^'iMiil
t an t'arl_\
)ni|i('titiMii
. and t'li.N.
Iiictnating
icli |ila'.i'(l
the indiis-
<• intiiiisir
nut only
ion of tlir
:'oii|ions in
ic briM'dcr
\\ool and
orscs from
adapti'd to
rill' most
tllis qllt'S-
[' tin J >at ri-
ll tilt' skin
first, jilai't'
I. hut tlif
tlio tiffc-
rliat would
y .md h'ijs,
osc. Jt is
to dt'Vt'lt'I>
'Sf the two
est inuttiai
? rams and
aii'i larj,'!'
till' ttnioli
iglit inches
WW^^f^^hK
IV. IMI'ltoVK.MKNT IN IXK.MIMi MKTIIollS.
Tlie iiuprovt'UU'ut "f iiu'thoils on tin' farm hu.s bfeu tlisciisstnl to soiu«
.'Xttiut in speaking of iiupk'iiit'iits and stoi-k. ii.s their use iiivoh'i's luittir
iiii'tliods ; liul thi'ri' arc otlit'r points worthy id' notict'. Oin' of tin- most
important of tlii'sf is drainage. 'I'lie first attempts to remove surfaee water
Irom f'lriii liiiiil \.Hre by the fouHtniction of open ditehes; liut as the.su hud
'" !'..ilow the natural wati-r-eoiirses whieli often /it,'/.aj,'K'<'d tliroiijjh the fields,
iiit'3' were ol)jt'etioiial)le, not only beeause of makinj^ bail shaped lands to plow
;iiid cultivate, but also because they cau.sed a wast*- of laiul, and usually ha.
to III' brii|i,'etl to bo erossetl with tlir waj^ons. Other objections to them were
that, thi'V proiliiced crops nl weeds to j,'ive trouble in the fiehls, and there was
a constant tendency to till up, wiiich soon impaired their usefulness ; or, if
kept cleaned out. it hail to bi' done at
heavy expeiisc. 'IMie liisl iittfiupt at
iinilerdr.'uns, or '• blind ditches, "" as
they were called, was by makiuj; an
iiiiderufoiiiid water-way with stone or
timber; but both these materials were
found objectionable, bccaiist? such
diains were easily ilamancil iiy the ac-
tion of eraw-tish and rarely continued
to till good work foe more than a few
years. It w.-is after the miihlle of the
century thatilrain tiles made of burnt
clay were iutroduceil, re "mbliiig good
iiard brick in material ; but the first
diains laiil were usually with tiles of too small caliber, two-inch being
largely used, which were not onb easily choked but faileil to carry the water
off nipiilly enough in a wet tim> Large sections of many id' our States were
originally swampy ami so nearly level as to make it necessary to construct ojien
ilitchcs, almost like canals, as an outlet for the -.vater flowing into them from
the ilraiiis. 'riiese could not. of course, be constrtu'ted by inilividuals, as no
man had a right to go on his neighbor's land to open a ditch for this purpose;
so, ill many cases, this was made a m;itter of legislation, and the large open
ditches were built l)y taxation equitably levied on the lands. l?y this means
the farmers were enablcil to thoroughly drain large areas of country which
otherwise woidd have been nearly worthless for agricultural purposes. In
sonu; instances the earth taken from the.so large ditche.s Avas graded up sev-
eral feet high at the siile. and on the toji of this levee a turnpike roatl wa.*
constructed, thus giving a ilouble benetit from a single operation. The first
draiiung of farms was in the wet sjiots where, usually, a single line of tiles,
laid for a. moderate ilistance. wi.uld bring the parts of the field undtM' cultiva-
tion that otherwise windd be waste ; but grailually the farmers learned thtit
thert! were other valuable etiects from drtunage, and that most heavy clay
lanils would be benefited by it sutticiently to justify the expense. The fol-
lowing inciilental adviintages have been learneil : first, drainage deepens the
st)il ; second, it prevents the killing out of grass and grains during a wet
season; third, it makes tlic land warmer; fourth, it improves the texture of
'K^f''m?%/'
Mi'lltlNo SIIKKI'
320
riauMi'Hs AM) was Dims or the xix'" cEyruity
the soil and iimkc's it pohsililc lu work and plant it carliiM' in tin- .sp'rin'.
tilth, it pn. . ■■.Is washi.'i,' and waste ul manuri' ; sixth, it idtiii iircvtni
laiiiiic of I ro|>s in i'xefs>ivi'ly wet scasuns. and cnaMrs tiifiii to imkIuii' dnm^dr
bi'ttt.-r in ilry seasctns. Altlinuj,di diainagc is cxjicnsnt' it is a |iiTinaniMii
iiii|ii'nvcnn'Mt, and in man} casi-s tlic increase ol tin' w lit-al ( rop in a Hingl>
year lias dcl'iayed tin- ex|M'nse oi lilin>{ the land.
.Anotiier improvement, wliieh seems to lie the op|iosite id' this, i.s the irn
gatioii ol' arid lands in those parts of the eonntry when' tiic annnal rainfall
is small and every summer hrin^js a dnm^dit. In these easi's. water stored
in lar^'i' natural or artilieial reservoirs, or that furnished iiy snow melting;
on the mountains, is utili/.ud to carry the (^rops through the dry season and
to enable the farmer to grow large crops where nothing could be produced
without this aid.
I'erhaps in no other line have the nu'thods changed lor the better more
thau in the care of domestiu animals, and this includes both shelter and feed-
IHinU.K tOIlN IM.ANTKK
ing. In the first half td' the century, cattle ;ind hogs were usually exi„>sed
to tlie severe weather of the winter with no other shelter than that afforded
by a straw-stack, iind this often was fnuml leveled to the ground by the first
of March, leaving them (Mdirely witliont shelt;'r at that changeable season
of the year. They were allowed at all sejufons to roam ov«r tiie farm and
gather theii' own living, and were turned iido the corntields as .soon as the
ears were removed, where they lived well as long as the stalk pasture lasted.
after whiidi they depended on straw for food until spring; and it was com-
mon to have the cattle so jioor. as spring approached, that m;iny died <d
actual starvation, while others l)ecann' sn feeble thai they would have to lie
lifted to help them on their feet. Then the stabi's for liorses were con-
rilK CKSTUItY'S Pit (Hi It ESS IS .yilttCULTritK
:w"
triifti'tl apiiiiit'iitly witli tin* idi'ii that vi'iitiliitimi wjih tlm rliu-t' tliiiij,'. ami
ilic lioiscs stdiid a'S'l sliivi'ifil in tlii-ir stalls rnmi tlic dial'ts that Idi-w fliinii)^ii
tlif sidt'H of the liarii and np tiirdUsdi tlif tlnins <it tiii'ir stalls. lii'a<lnall\
I'acsi' tilings have <dianj,'fd. until tlic laij,'»'r part of fana stock is wanidy slnd-
ti'ii'd. and wt-ll frd witli a varii-tv of foo<l. Succulrnt food in now lart,'t'ly
lundslicd from cnsilaf^c idcscrvi'd in silos, from ixTts and otlit-r roots ;;ro\vn
and stored for winter use, and. luoro ri'cently, from sor^diiuu, wliioh has
lii'cn found to retain its sueciilenee a»id sweetness during,' the entire winter.
I''armers have learned what is meant liy a lialanoed ration, winch is a condti-
iiation (d' foods that will ;;ive the projier |iro|iortiou of heat and fat producers
witii those which make l)one and mus(de. and that it means hoth health and
economy to suhstitute to a certain extent lirau and oil meal for corn, and
clover hay for hay made from the jjrasscs. and straw.
Another jjreat improvement has lieen aloni,' tiie line of fencing; and. iti
this respect, the most economical step of all has lieen in reducing the amount
<d' division fence on the farm, keeping; only .1 ])ortion of it divided into fields
for pasture, and leaviii>; half or more of tin' Itest jKirts to he cultivated in a
sin;;le inclosure on whicdi stock is never turned. In most States, laws have
been passed iddij^iiifj eai-li farmer to fence in his own stock, and no one is
compelled to fence out his nei^hhor's. The substitution of wire for wood as
a fenciii!; material has reduced the cost of fence construction al>o\it oiu' half,
and the waste of land occupied by fences is rediujctl in about the same pro-
portion.
V. IMI'KOVKMKXT IN AXI> AKOINIi TIIK IIOMK.
The (diauKC in this direction in a siufjle ^;cneration has been most marked,
and is (me •)f the surest si^ns of pros]ierity. The lo;,' cabin has jjiven place
to a subst!ii.tl;il and. in many cases, an eli-^'ant home. The irrej^ular and ill-
shaped yards, fenced with rails, which surrounded liotli house and barn, and
;»'J8
rniUMi'iis AM) woshEiis of the XI XI" CESrUUY
in wliii'h li«>K« iiiul ciittlf \v«'r»' kept, with mi Hlu'ltcr hut ii mil pt'ii witli Htmw
rtidl', iiiivi' iliHa|i|i<-:ir)-il. aiitl it'i'tiiiii^nlar lots fiiclosfil witli neat tViii!i>,s aim
J.'. Mill liaitis ami |ii)^>,'i'rii's have takiii tlicir plai'r. Tim wiiiid-pili' lias ictiifti
trill I tilt- triiiit vai'il, ami is miw sIh'IIi-iimI in a wikhIsIiimI ailjiiiniii^ tli<> kitclicn ;
ami a m'at, lawn witii tluwiTH anil sliruhlicn is mi Iiin^^cr tlir t'xci'|itiuii, Imt
tin- lull'. A j{<i(iil naiili'ii, in wliiili tin' m-wcr ami iiii|ii(iviMl vi'^i'lalili's liavi
taken tlic placi' nt' the old snrtH. ami a liciry patcli, well cari'd I'dr, alTonl tin
Inxiirifs wliicli tlicv alimt' can gist' for a pi'iiod of many weeks eaeii season,
Tilt? water is no lonj^er eairied from a renioto sprinj;, hut ^{ood wells ami eis
terns are |ilaeed eoiiveiiiently, many of tlieiii so tliat the pninp is in Mie kitchen
or under a pon-h attached to the house. The cellar is usually floored with
cement, and the stairs leading to it are of easy j;rude ; while piod walks oi
jilank or (•'•ment make it a pluasure to pass from tho house to the Hurroumlin^,'
oiitliuildin^s.
.\ not her line in which very ^{reat iiujirovement is hIiowu is in niaintaininj,'
the fertility of the soil. The old method was to exhaust the fertility of a Held
and then clear a new one; ami it is doulitfiil if one fai'mer in a hundred could
have answered the ipiestioii, " Why does land liccome sterile alter long culti-
vation V' for they liatl no conception of what the cheiiiieal elements of the
.soil were which are necessary to its fertility. There are two theories of
fertili/.in;^ and fertility ; one. that the soil is a mine to lie worked out, and
which will inevitalily lieconie unproductive in the process; the other, that it
is a lahoratory in which, under the iutcllij^eiit ni;iua!,'cment of man, forces can
he set at work which will maintain and develop a iierjictual fertility. Mal-
tliiis, more than a century ago, announced that the time would come hefore
long when tin- people of the earth would starve liecaiise they had outgrown
the fertility of the soil ami its productive capacity ; but after long cultivation.
we Hud it possihle to produce on less than half the cultivatalile land enough
not only to feed our own nation, hut the world at large, and ^lere is no
(I'lestioning the aceurateness of the laboratory theory as opposed to the mine
theory.
The first imiirovement along this line was in the better saving and utiliz-
ing of animal manures : but when it was found that these were insntlicient,
science came to tlie help of the farmer. 'I'he chemist analyzed both crop and
.soils, ascertaining what was necch'd, and then the world was searched for
the materials ncces.sary. The eh-meiits which formed our plants were found
, to be tilteeii in number, but of these it was found that it was necessary to
furnish only three, — nitrogen, phosphori(! acid, and potash Nitrogen was
known to exist in inexhaustible ipiantities in the atmosjihere, forming
seventy-six per cent of its c<imposition ; but the <(uestion was long unsolved :
" Can growing plants apjiropriate atmospheric nitrogen ".'" Finally, it was dis-
covered that |ilants of the Legnminosa' family — of which eh)ver is the best
tyjie and of greatest value for this purpose to the farmer — could appropriate
nitrogen from the atmosphere; and after careful research, with the aid of the
microscope, it was discovered that this appropriation came about through the
agency <'f bacteria in the roots. This fact connected with the clover ]ilant is
one of immense importance to the farmer, because nitrogen is not only the
most exjiensive element of fertility to purchase, but is likely to be lost botli
through evajioration and le.-wdiing. So it can be seen that clover is one of the
THE CESTUIiY'S I'JUtdltKSS L\ AGRlCl/LTl'IlK
:»'->o
most viiliialtlu |iliiiitH wliicli ciin !)«> ^lowii on thi> fiirin, fur the n>uH(iii tliiit tlie
roiM'iiii lie iitili/.fd iis t'oiiil lor slnck, wliili> still Kiciit lioiit'tit iiiiiifs to thi' soil,
:iH (In- Icrtility is liirKcly sloirtl in iho niots, wliii'li ciinnot Ih- uhciI for any
otliiT purpost', iinil as Wy tlu> action of tlu-se rootH tin* ait'clianical <-on<lition of
tlu' soil is ^jri'atly iniprovi'd. Knrt'n'r. tins ilt-nsc Mimd*! tlu' plant art'onls in-
ilui'cs clifmicul action in tli<* Huil, wliicli iiiakcs plant food availaltU* that would
otlHTwise r«nniin innrt. Oim of tin most \vond<trfnl tliinKH connected with
ft-rtility is that (iod has so locktM' it up in the earth that no «''•''■•'>' genera-
tion can exhaust it, and that the greatest source of fertility is the atmosphere,
whoso ««er<'tH are just being discovered.
An Knglish seientist has recently announced that hy the aid of electricity,
fiirnished iiy cheap walcr-power, nitrates can lie manufaitured directly from
the atmosphcri' so as to rciluce their cost to less than one fourth what it ha8
iicretofori' iicen. Again, the intelligent use of clover will enahle the farmer
to produce his own nitrtjgen and reduce tho cost of idieniical fertilizers to
one half what it usually is when containing nitrogen. This hrings us to the
ipiestion (d' commercial fertilizers. With the single I'xception of guano, they
are a produtit of the last tiiird i>f tli ntury. The tirst step toward the use
of iMimmercial fertilizers was liy analyzing our barnyard manures. When the
chemist discovered that a ton or ukuc which the farmer drew out lalioriou.sly
with two horses to the field contained liut twenty or thirty pounrls ol actual
plant lood, — the remaiudtu" lieiug water, sand, and other deatl matter.— e
next step was to conihiiie the three elements ossiMitial to a pcrfe<'t fertilizer
in such |irop(U'tions that a single sack would hold enough manure for an acre
id' ground; and in tens of thousands of cases, the application of this amount
of fertilizer has iiK-reased the wheat crop I'roin live tf) lii'tcon bushels |)er acre,
doubling the grass (!rop which followed, which in turn, and through the influ-
ence of the fertilizer, formed a sward which, by its decay, fertilized a third
crop when it was turned under in the rotation.
The tdomcnt in fertilizers of next impiu'tanco to nitrogen is phosphovio
acid, ami the first source from which this was olrfained was the bones of
animals. Ibit the supply from animals slaughtered was entirely insuflicient ;
and so the great jdains of the West were gleaned, .and tens of thousands of
tons of bufTalo bones were gathered and shipped Kast to fertilize our farms.
Milt soon this source began to wane; then two other sources, jiractically inex-
haustible, of this indispensable (dement were discovered, — the phos])hate
rocks of the South and the iron slag from furnaces, eacdi of which is found to
contain a large percent (d' jihosphoric acid ; and when the rock is dissolved by
acids and the slag ground to an impalpable jiowder by nmchinery, the fertiliz-
ing elements in both are f'o\ind to be as available and valuable as that from
bones. 'I'he supply of potash was obtained at first from wood ashes, which
the clearing of the farms and the universal use of wood a.s fuel made abun-
dant. I5\it later, when these sources were no longer sufticient. ]>otash salts
were found in large ipiantities where they coidd be mined from the earth, so
that now there seems to he in sight an inexhaiistible su])ply of the elements
needed for plant food. Like almost every reform, the use of commercial fer-
tilizers was opjiosed bitterly by many farmers, and statements were made by
theuj that their effects on the soil were like those of wluskey or other stimu-
lants on the Imdv, and that the ultimate result of their use would be that the
aw
riUUMPHS AND WOSDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTUliY
soil would Ih'coiiu' biirrcii. Many ri't'u.sed to use tlieni at all ; otlitfis, after a
siujiflt-trial made witluiut iiit('llif,'tMice, dcnouuced tlicm as huinlm^'s. I'.ut a>
tiii'V saw on the I'aiins of tlieir iieii,'lilMirs riie wonderful results from their usf.
tiu'v have been f^raduaily led to adopt them, until uow, with most faruuTs. thf
(pu'stiou no longer is. •• ( 'ae i aft'ord to use vounuereial fertilizers '.' " hut ratlicr,
"Can I affonl tu do witiiout them '.' "
VI. IMl'ltoVKMKNT IS AfiUH I LIT If A I. KlU I ATloN.
To one wh.i has i .''owed the writer to this point, it must he apparent that
the farmer of to-day has made progress in the knowledge of his calling to ai
least as great an t'.\teiit as he has improved in hi;- methods, jiiid that the
terms "farm drndgt- '" and •• clodhopper " are misapplied and sliould In-
ol)soi te. Tliere is no other industrial calling in wiiich one touelies nature
and science at so many points, or whi<'h gives sneh good opportunities to
develoj) the i)erfeet man, — •• tlie stiuiid mind in the sound body." — a>
that of the iarmer. .\dmitting tliat not all farmers understand thi>
and live up to their ji.ivileges. does not alter the fact that the farm olfers
u great opportunity to develop and broaden the iidiid ; tliat the last (piai-
ter of the century lias lirought into active operation forces whicli have
touched and int^ueiiced a large jic!- cent of tlie tillers of the soil; ami that
the leaven of education is working mightily. The intelligent, studious
farim-r becomes a jiractical botanist as he studies the growth and habits
of plants. As he is dependent more than any other man u|ion tie' weather
;ind must change his jilaiis frecpiei.tly to correspond with climatic changes,
he becomes a meteorologist. .Myriads cd" insects, which include liotii ene-
mies and friends, make liim a student (d' entomology ; and the wonderful
alchemy of the soil by liich otTeiisive and pois<jnous matters are trans-
mnte(l into golden grain, hiseions fruits, vegetables, and iiowers, calls for
a knowledge ot chemistry. Tiie use of modern inaehinery dcvidoiis ids
mechanical powers; and tiie man on the farm develo]is in more directions
and has an op|iortiinity to acipiire a broader education than any other man
who cari's his living by his own labor. To sustain tiiis statement, it is
only necessary to enumerate the edu<'atioiial oppiutunities and privileges
now oiieii to the f;iriiier ;ind which are, to a great extent. ntili/.e<l by him.
First, what the go\erninent is doing for him. No other calling is repre-
sented in the cabinet of the J'resident. and time and experience have de-
monstrate<l the wisilom of a Secretary of .Vgrieultnre Not only ar" we
distinctively an agricultural people, but the prosperity of the nation de-
])enils on tiip inTelligeiice and prosjK'rity of the fanner more than on all
other classes ((unbilled. Not only must the food supply of our people be
furnished, lint the foreign demand must be met ; and this gives to the
lainiers money to spend, .so that the industries wjiieh contrilinle to theii
wants shall slmre in the geiH'ral prosperity. WJiiie there are many honor-
able and ustd'ul callings, iigriciilture .setniis to be the only oiu! which touches
and iiffects all others. The Hnancial imp(U'tanee (d' ;igricultnre is shown
by the fact that, after the wants .d the nation were snpiilied, in tlie year
1S<.»7 we exported in round numbers .S('>'.Mi.(l(l(i,(MM( worth (d' agricultural pro-
ducts, or nearly (!7 jier cent id the entire exports; and notwitlistandiiii; an
oiiunuous iiicrea.se of imports of wool and sugar, in anticipation id increa.sed
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IS AGRICULTURE
•XM
M (( KSS ANTICI.IKi WKKDKll.
duties, till' lialaiice of trail*' mi agricultural products lor the yoar was
S-M'.MKMMH'O. and tlip export ot a,i,Micultural products for the current Hscj-.l
year would show still lar>{er tij^iires.
("onsidi'rini; the siiocilie educational inHuences which are elevatiiifj thi;
farmer and his calliu)^, we enumerate the loilowiiig: A<;ricultural literature,
farnn'rs' oricani/.ations. — inidudin^,' tarmers' (didis. farmers' institutes, and
the (irange. — aj'vi idtural experiment stations, and ai^ricultural colleges,
all of which have contrihule*!
their sliare to the intidligiMK-e
and jirosperity of the farmer,
and all are products u{ the last
lialf of the century. To give an
intelligent idea of the htdp whi(di
these inHuences have lirought to
the farmer, it is necessary to treat
them to some extiMit in detail.
First, agricidtural literature. Ail
that is necessary U> an under-
standing of tlie progress in this
direction is to get one of the very
few so-called agricultural papers
(d' (illy \ears ago and compare it
witli those (pf to-day. Not only
have they multiplied a hundredfold, hut while the former largely contained
stilled arliides written iiy theorists, to-day every page is full of practical
iiistrm-tion written hy farmers, and often hy specialists who have spent
years in imjiroving .sonu- line <d farming ttv stock lireeding. .Most of our
agricultural papers have a stall id' paiil contrilmtors, nearly all of whom
ha\<' made a success in some hrancii id' farming; and so anxious are the
]iuidisliers of the.se |»apeis to give their readers all the help iiossii)le, that
they searidi out the men who arc prospering mi thi' farm and engage their
services as instructors for their readers. 'I'he journals devoted to agricul-
ture are numltered hy hundreds, some of them devoted to a single line, —
such as sheep, piuiltiy. or gardening, — and others with well classified de-
partments which give instruction on all points, in addition to this, ni>arly
ail of tlu! weeklies have a page of agriculture, usually conducted hy a farmer
<ir Mime one with practical knowledge of farm work. Ther*' are no secrets in
agricultuie. and every farmer is ready to impart to all any valualile informa-
tion he acipiires. l-'irniers appn-ciate tin- value of these helps and make
large use >d them, and the circulation of these papers is enormous.
\\\ Karnn-rs" Cluiis we mean those organizations of farmers, governed by
constitution? and liy-laws. who meet at stated times for the discussion of
topics connected with the improvement of their calling. There ire no sta-
tistics avadalile from which can he gathered the extent of this movement, hut
<thio reports fifty chilis and has furiiied a state organization. In Miihigan.
where the clults jire organized on a dilVeieiit liasis, .'!(),(MM> meinhers are
rejiorted ; they jiave also formed a stiite organization, whiidi was iittended
hy L.'(Xl delegates at the last meeting. Indiana is hut little, if any, behind
these two States, and the cluh idea is rapidly spreading through the North-
rPJUMPHS AND WoyhEHS OF THE XIX'" CESTUHY
em States. There are t\v(» tonus of these clubs, one of which limits tlie
uieuibership to twelve families, and the meetiuf^s are all held at the homes
of the memlteis, one each uioutli. The advantap's oi' this plan are several.
First, with the ehih thus liiuited, the horses can b«' stahled and cared for dur-
iu;,' inclement weather id' winter. Second, the wives need prepare hut one
meal in the year for the clui); while with the large <did) it is necessary that
e;udi should eontril)Ute to a biisket dinner for every meeting, which often
causes as nuudi trouble as to prepare the meal for the eiitii lub once a
year. Third, the attendance is sure to Im- inori- rej,'ular in the small club, and
one eonditi(Hi of itiendiership is that every mendier shall i»e jueseiit at each
meetiu},' unless providentially <letained. Fourth, with a dub cd' this si/e
every mend:er I'an Uike part in the discussion, and there will be less dan;i;er
of a few "talkers'" mono|Kili/.ing the time. l-'ifth. the social features in
the small club are very much better than in the iar.ne. .Most <d the clidis
ill Ohio and Indiana are organised on this basis, while in .Michigan it is prob-
able that most of the elubs have an unlimited memlwrship. The objection
is sometimes urged that the small club seems selfish, but as any twelve
or even six lamilies are at liberty to oiganizi- a club this objection is not
valid.
.\s many farmers who would like to organize may not be able to timl a
form of constitution ami by-laws, it seems proper to give one here.
I'mniililr.
ikccogniziiig the fact that farmers need an oppoitiinily tocoinpare methods
and to cultivate their social ipialities, and considering that •• .\s iron sharp-
eneth "•■on. so a man sharpeneth the countenance of his friend,'' in (uder that
we may be mutually heipfid to each other in matters rcjiiting to hnsbauilry,
home comfiirt. and eiMiiiomy. we do I'nrm ouisclves into an as.sociation known
as the Farmers' (bib [fill the blank with the name you wish In use
for your club], and athipt for our government the Iblhiwing; —
( 'iDlslillltillll.
.litir/r 1. The (pflicers shall Im- I'residcnI. \'ice-l'rcsi<lent. Secretary, Trea-
surer, anil Liiirai'iaii. who shall be elected annually in No\'cmlH.>r, and assume
their duties in .lanuaiy id' the following year.
.liilr/r 1*. The duties of these oflicers shal' be such as pertain to thcotlice.s
in other organizations and are indicated by the name of the office.
Ai'tirl- ;{. 'I'heai'tive members of ihis club shall be engaged in agricultural
pursuits, but honorary members may lie elected by unanimous vote. Honor-
ary members are not obligeil to attend all the meetings, but will be welcomed
to any,
Artitir \. .\pplication for membership must be submitted at the meeting
]irevious to their being balloted f-r. and niendiers will be admitted on receiv-
ing a two-thirds vote by ballot; but the niendtcrshiii shall Im; limited to f wtdve
lamilies.
.|/7/<7c ."». .Vmondmcnts may be made at any regular nn'cting by a two-
thirtls vote of the acliv:- niemlKMS.
THE CESrUltY'S I'JlOfJIUJSS IX AGltlLULTURE
•XVA
ISil-lilir.i.
I. The clul) sliall iiit'ct iit tlio rcsiilciK I mif ol tlit- iiH'iuUfr.s im the tliinl
'rhiirsihiy <>t' I'lwh iiiuntli, iit ten o'cldck. iiivitiitioiis to which sluill bf liiiiitfil
tn till' lliKStt'SS ot tilt' (hlV.
'_'. Tin; club sliiill be calli'il tn order by the iiresiiUiit. alter an lumr s[)eut
ill social iiit»'rciMir.se. ami the onler nt exercises shall be as follows : —
II. Ifeailiii^ and a|i|)rovinK' niiiiiites of last nieetiii,i;.
//. Monthly record of eiiri'cnt events.
<■, Selections, ri'citations, essays,
'/. Adjonrniiient for dinner and social intercourse until two o'chiek.
«'. Miscnssioii; so condiu'tcd as to avoid all i|uestiuns of politics and the-
"h';,'y-
f. <,Micstion dfiiwer.
ij. .Miscellaneous business.
in order that the work of the club may be .systematic and the time fully
oci'iipied, a programme coverint; the entire year is prepared and printed so as
to be ready for distriluition at the hecenilicr mectint: ot each year. 'I'liat the
reader may tinderstand the wiu'kin^' of this plan, a few to])ics will be i;iven,
taken from the pro,i;ramnii' (d the club of whi( h the writer is a member: —
flanuary.
The club will -niel at the honii' (d .Mr
riiiirsday. the i'.tth.
Selection Mrs
I'aiH-r Ml
Tii/ii'r : \ review id tiie iH-cvioiis year.
Kach menii)er will >,'ive in writing' a statement of profits and losses for the
year under tiie followinj; heails : —
I. (ieiieral crops ;;rown ami acrca^^c and yield therecd'.
L'. What special ciops have been raised.
.'(. Stock raised or handled.
I. What e.xiieriments have been made on the f.irm.
r», NN'hat losses of stock, or crops, and the cau.se thereof.
.luili'.
The ehib will meet at the home of Mr
Thursday, the l.">ih.
Selecti«ui Mrs
I'aiH'r; •• Hindrances to sheep raising; and how to avoid them,''
Mr
Tii/iir : The Tarmer's Hani.
1. IJclative si/.e to farm.
-. Location and ju'round |>lan.
.'{. .\rrani,'eiiient ot stablin^^ fepdiuji;, and water conveniences.
■\. I'lan bir savini; manure.
i
334
TRIUMI'US AM) WoyHEIlS OF THE MX'" CES"'L'HY
\'aX\wy :i >;t'iitlt'iii;iii <>r a '.mly is ;ii(|»)iiitt'(l to ojicii rat-li t(>|iic. alter which
tilt' sultjfft is oiK'iU'd lor inicstiim or discussion hy any iuciuIh'I' «<(' the cluh.
l>iiriiit,' iiiif iiiniiili of thi' suimiit'i'. usually .Inly m Alienist, a |iicnic taki'> tin'
place 111 the rej;iilar meeting;, at \vlii<'h a liaskel iliiiiier is sei'vcii.
Farmers' institutes are. in the best seiisi- t\\ tli" word, a tanners' school, and
while it is less than twenty yeai's since their tirst oij,Mnix.ation. nearly all ul
the States, at least in the North, aie conducting' iheni to a u'reater or le>>
extent. As < )]no claims tlie honor o| inaugurating' this movement, and the
writer is more lannliifr with the idan of ori,'auization and the work of insti-
tutes in that State than any other, some facts concerninL; them will he ^d\en.
TIu' tirst att«'mi>t to teach the farnuMs hy lecture courses was made late in
tin- seventies at the Ohio State .\','ric>dtural ('oile!,'e. when a course (d ci^htN
lectures on sulijects connected with farm interests were v;iven. all (d t'uem
l>v jirofessors of the colle!.;e. 'I'his lirst course occn))ied five weeks ; ami ii.s
it was found that hut a limited lewnher of faiiners could lie induced to leave
their honu's and can- <d their stock in the winter, and that the atteniiaiicc
was only alxiut forty, the next twn years the course was shortened in hopes
that a lar;;er attendance mi^dit res<dt. hut such was not the case, 'i'licn s<ime
one su,i;t;ested. " II the f.nnu'rs will not come to the lectures, why not take
the lectures to tlie farmers'.'" and the outconn- oi' this sin^^'cstion has heen a
wonilerful success; the State holdiui,' three hundred iiist itutes ill the winter
of |S5)7 and IN'.IS. under a law providiiej; a luml for that purpose, and ovi-r
a hundred in<lependciit institutes in addition. Iiy which is niciint institutes
in wliitdi the local (Ui,'anization pays its own expenses and chooses its own
lecturers iiiul sulijects.
'I'lic Work in most of our States is thotMui;hly ort;ani/ed. a luml provided
to meet the expt Uses of th(' Work, placed in some States under the charije of
the Secretary of .\j;ricultiire. and in others in char!,'e of a superintendent
of institutes. The larnii'is have inet this elf'irt I'm- their improvement with
;;reat enthusiasm, and the attendance is usually limited hy the si/e of the
hall provided. .Ml partisan and sectarian (|uestioiis are rij^orously excluded
from the discussions. .\ Imlletin is issued in the fall, which t,'i\i's the names
<d a larp- ccu'ps id' lecturers and a list id' sulijects. and these are sent to tlii'
officers of tlie local orv'anizations. from which they <'au stdcct sucii topics ii.s
they wish disciisseil. Half of the time of each session is allotted to the
state lecturers, while local talent is expected to till the other half. 'I'he
jireatest possihlc freedom is allowed in asking ipii'st ions and discussing the
Work of the speakers, and no other educational iiiHiience which has come to
the farmer lias eipialed that otVereil hy these meetinj;s. .\t the (dose of ea(di
year the In'st jtafMTs and discussions are printed in a hnlletin for free <listri-
Imtiou aniout: ^u' farmers, and are <,'iven out at the mectiiit; the ensuing,' year,
or are mai' ' from the otlice of the Secretary of the Stale Itoard <d' Aj,'ricul-
ture <in ai)]iiicatioi<.
The (iniUKc was )rj,'aiiizod at Wasliin,'ton. !>. ('.. in ISCiT. hut existed only
on jiaper until diiniary. IST.'I. when the first lueetinic of the National (iran};e
convened at <Jeori,'etown. 1). ('., with il<le>;ates from ten States. It was
started as a secret society, with a ritual and detfrees, and seemed to catidi
the pojiular fancy among the farmers. At the meeting of the National
< {range in 1K71, thirty-two States were represented.
riliC CESrURY'S I'ltualtESS in .IGlUCULTL'/iE
305
I'ruliiihly nil otln-r or^anizatiim lias made so liipiil a gntwtli as tliis. A laigf
I'leiuciit, however, ol the iiieiiilHTsliip was attracted to it liy the ralhiiiK' •■!•>■ of
•• l>nwii with tlie iiiiddhMiiaii I" and liad little or no eonee]ition of its ediiea-
tinnal jMissiliiiities. Kittle country stores with veiy small capital, and manaj^ed
liy men with no linsiness training', sprani,' up at every cross-road, which, contrary
to the expectation (d' their I'ounders. did not save money, hut resulted in some
valnalile husiness education tor which a good tuition tee was jiaid. 'i'he reac-
tion which set in made it seen- '' ir
a time as though the entire onh-r
would disintegrate; hut t'oitu-
nately there were wise leaders
who lia<l caught the true idi-a.
that the organization must lie
kept on an educational liasis to
save it tiiim extinction, and
through their ett'orts it has he-
come a power lor good in most
localities, and has Ih-cu oI great.
service to the I'armers. (Hunty.
state, and national soricties iiave been
VSI'INWAI.I. I'o'rvro IM.ANTKII.
anizcd. and no otiicr lar-'c hodios
of I'arniers can so (pdckiy and thoi'oughly cooperate in measures pt ■ lininy
to tlie interests of the larmei' as those lielonging to this order.
Another eihicational Icircc of immense value to the fai'iuers is found in tin
experiment stations, which are cstalilished in every .'^tati' of the rnion. Tl
lis
WOI
as the
k was started liy an act of Congress. approv<'d .Mandi 'J. 1S.S7, and known
he '• Hatch Act.'" I>\ this act I he sum <if J"! I •"•.••< H I jmm- annum was ajipro-
prialcd tor each State in liie I'nion. to l.ie specially provided hy ( 'ongress in
th
ippro]
iriations from vear to year. In addition to this sum. most of th«
States have made lart^e appropriations for the purchase of suitalile gr<iunds
and the erection of iiuildings. and to cover the e.\pcnse of printing the re-
ports and pamphlets which are sent out free to tin- farmers who apply for
them.
To go a little farther, the (piestions reipiiriii); investigation liy the ajjricul-
ttiral experinuMit stations may 1«' divided into three principal gnmps, accord-
ing as they are related to the .soil, to the growth of crops and vegetation, or to
domestic animals and their protlucts.
I. The soil is studied —
(1) In its varieties, as fouiul in different parts of the farm and of the
State.
C') In its physical properties, as affected by tillage, drainage, irrigation,
etc.
(.1) In its cheinieal jtroperties, as ndated to the maintenance of ♦■•rtility hy
the use of fertilizers and otluMwise.
II. In vegetation and iMop producti<in some of the olijects of sUn\\ are:--
(1) \';irieties. including the selection ami dissemination of new s<irts ; tlie
tdimination of synonyms ; the comparison of striiiiis of varietit-s; the pnMluc-
tion of improved varieties, etc.. etc.
CJ) Vegetahle pathology, including studies of rusts, smuts, blights, rots,
mildews, etc.
I
i
330
TJHUMrilS AND n'OMJURS OF THE A7A'" C EST ill Y
(.■() ('(iiitidl ot iiijiiiioiis iiisi'ct.s.
(4) Forestry, I'lnlinifinv' tlic cultuif of tori'st tn-i's tor wiiMl-bit'iiks. lor tim-
Iht, lor nuts ami iiicidcntiil |>iii<lii('ts.
ill. ill llu' stiuh ot aiiiiiial.s some of the |iroblfiiis an-: —
(1 ) Ki«'(mIs atiil tlii'ir (loniparative values for (litt't'iciit ]>uiiw)Sfs.
(L') l''oo(is and IVfiliiiu- !<»' u:ro\vtli, for nifat, for milk and wool.
(.'(J Till' diseases of animals, espeeiallx tliose of contagious, ejii/ootie, or
j>ai:\sitic nature.
The stations have done most valnalile work alon^; these dilTerent lines, and
have contriliuted in a large measure to the introduction of improved varii'ties
(d eereuls. forage crojis, ami fruits. In the ciwe of wheat espeeially. then-
can he no douht that the work <d' tin- stations has heen a fm-tor of great ini-
jK)rlani(' in producing large yields, liy stiundating the farmers to a more care-
ful comparison of varietii-s ami of methods of eidture.
A plan of purchasing ami testing most of the so-called new ...rieties <d
fruits and grains has lieen I'oUowed hy some (d the stations, thus enaiiling the
farmers and fruit growers to judge whether stieh varieties ar- likely to he
sn|M'rior to sorts already cultivated. It has lieen part (d the work n| the sta-
tions to expose fraudnleid sales (d' fruit, stock, and ierrili/ers. .Much other
work has In-en and is being done, but the instances gi\en .show the value of
the investigations made. As has already l»een stated luuier another heading,
the otticers of the experiineid stations take an active part in the wiuk id
the institutes, and by the freijucnt issuing of bidletins and their animal
reiMirts convey valuable information to the farmer in every de|iartment ot
his work. In many States they have established reading courses for the
study of Nature, which are conducted similarlv to those in tiie (hantuniiua
conises.
In the same conimetion the work ot the Iturean <d Animal Industry should
Jx- noticed, possibly no other organi/:>Mon (d the government is doing so
much to save farmers from loss through disease ot stock ami ediicatinu them
to the same e.xteiit as this. The organi/ation is made up of men of the highest
.seieiititic training, whose li\es are devoted to the study of diseases of domes-
tic animals ami whose wcuk extends to the testing of remedies, the inspection
of meats, the study td foreign markets, and everything that pertains to the
interest id' the stock growers. No disease can breiik out in the herds of live
stock in any part of the country without this bureau being at once notitied of
it. and trained otKcials are .sent to study all the eireiimstances eonneeted with
it and to |irevent. if possible, such disease from beeoiiiiin,' epidemic. Some
years ago, when contagious pleiiro pneumonia had secured a foothold in this
country, the Itiireau of .\nimal Indiistrv set to work to stamp it out. The ( >ld
World was ]>aral;, ed by the enormity of the undertaking. Veterinarians in
England and Continental l''.urope laughed at us and considered us tit subjects
for lunatic a.sylums. --Hadn't they always liiul it? It i-ost them millions
of dollars annually in cattle, yet ///<•// had iieen unable to stamp it out. and
most assuredly we could not do what I'^urope.in veterinarians could not."
They forgot that we were Yankees. It cost us many good hard dollars
that were lepreHetded by large tigures ; but we stam|>ed it out. :ind it has
now Ih-cii M-ars tsiiK-e " I'licle Sam" otlicially declared the country tree
from it.
Aiiothei
ill which e
two to th
The great
have been
si/e of sti
vessel, am
animals.
It was n
lege was kl
appropriat
lion of the
St, lie of 1 1
doubt mair
now that a
ter the obji
Hoik ; and
already de-
have alreai
oltieials of
i-onld help
o| local, stj
the work ol
and ill man
lished. W
_\ears go bv
What ha
priiM;|ess ','
(I) The
the I'lili.seijii
i'2) The
niellt ill the
(.•'.I Th.
and harvest
t*) lucre
lliejr fetdlii
'lur domesti
Ihi-ongh the
health.
l">) lucre;
iigriciiltnii
farm.
(*'>l In an
appreciation
the 1il(> on
r.iimeiit."
(7i In no
THE CKSrCltYS I'liiHiUHSS IS AulilClLTUHE
'XM
oi
Aiidtlii'i woik whicli this iMiicaii uiKli'ituok was tin- ri-guiidioii of vi-ssi-ls
ill wliicli (;altli- wcri' *'.\|M>i-ti>tl. uiitl tliry rciliu-cil tiit* losses so as to suvt! troiii
two to tlin-K iiiilliiiti ilollai's aiiiiiiailv in tin- iiisniaiirf ot' cxinirt <-attl<-.
Tlif givatfsl |l(l^siipll• calf is tak«'ii to ilisinlett \('s>t'ls in wliicli i-attlc
iiavi! iM't'ii slii|i]iMl. and sti'rt ri'<;iilatioiis arc cstalilislicil i-ci;iilatiiig tlic
si/c ol' stalls, vciiliiation. the niiiiilici' ol cattle to he carriol on any sin^'lc
vcssch ami cvci'v jHiint which lias a hearing; on the liealtii and comrort ol the
aniiiials.
It was not until alter I ho Civil War that such a Ihini; as an aj;riciiltural col-
lej;c wa> known in this cinntrv . liiii thioni;h the action ot'('onj;ies> vcrv lilicral
a|i|iro|Miati<)ns were niaile, which in most Slates were siiit|ilciiicute(l hy the ac-
tion of the State Ij'iiislaliires, and an auricnltnial colleiie was .started in every
State of the rninii. In the hcj^inning there was nnich criticism, and without
doulit many mistakes were made hy tho.se to whom the work was assigned ; but
now that a generation has passed, the farmers have come to nnderstaiid bet-
ter the objects of these schnols. and scientitic men ha\e been trained to do the
work; and these men li.ive gone out into other (h'partments. such as tliose
already described, and iiave made iiossible the sjileiidid achievements wliich
have already been hinted at in what has been written. 'I'lie teachers and
olticials of these colleges havi- been exceedingly friendly to everything that
cuiihl help the famieis, and are in idose touch with thciii: aiding in the work
of local, state, and national organi/ations, and. in most States, carrying on
the work of the e\peiinicnl stations through their professors and graduates;
and in many of (hem courses of lectures by pi;ictical farmers h;ive been estiib-
lishcd. Without i|iiestion they jire becoming more and uwrv lieljiful as (lie
\ears go liy. ami their power lor gixid is constantly iiicre.isinj;.
1
A slMMIM. II'.
What has agrieiilluii' '.gained, or lather al'iig what lines, in tho century's
piiiiiress '.' A brief summary wmild seem ;i lifting close of this chapter: —
I ! ) The marvelous iii'vanee in methods and meiins ut' truns|iortation, :ind
till' eoiiscijiielit opeliill'.,' of the markets of the World.
i'.') The knowledge id' the chemical constituents of the soil and its manage-
ment in the line id' niiiiiitaining fertility.
{'•>) The a|»pliaiices to lighten hibor and shorten professes in the ]>roduction
and hiirvesting of crops.
(4) liM'i'easetl kiiowledgu of jilants. as to their growth and eultiv;ition,
their feixling ipialities, and th >inl>iiiatioii oi these ipialities in feeding
"lur c|i>mestic animals, by which we are able to rcdnce the cost nf production
through the earlv m.atiiritv of ti.e :iiiimals and the m.iiiitainiiig id' vigorous
health.
(."»» Increased knowledge of the v;ilne ;ind power o! organization and of
agricultural litnratiire in liel|iing to a praetical education for the duties of the
farm.
((>) In an increase nf humc eomforts ami :• higher ideal of living, and an
;ippreciation of the fact that the work of the iarm should be subservient to
the lile on the farm, as ••The life is more than meat, and the body than
raiment."
(7i In no other country on the globe are there so m;my tillers of the .soil
]' \
■■f i
338
rnivMi'us AM) woshKiis (tr nil-: a/a"' cestuh
v''h . (i\v llit'ir liiiiiH s, ami, lis a ctiii.sc.iu 'lUH', tiurf i;i iin coiiiitry wln'if .licic
i" ^i) .' u I (if jiatri lisiii. V lu-ii Maltlifw Arimlil visitnl tin- Ciiitt'il Stiilfs.
U"l- " 'Ktlial lie saw ilclii^'lilcd liiiii ininf than tin- luMiilit'iil lariiis. willi tlicir
><»> 'tublf (Iwrliiii^'s anil luitltiiililin^'s ami tih viilciicfs nf liiv;li ciiltivalinn
axu\ f<t*M ry. Idit nnr tiling' )iu//.lril liini, ami that was the al'si'iicc nl' tenant
jinuscs. ,iiii< lit' askcil, ■•WhiMi' (111 till' nn-n li\c wlm iMiltivatc tlic-if farms'.'"
WluMi liild that 111 ludst rases the taiiiii'is wt'ic their nwn tenants, he imuIiI
scareely exfiivss liin asliinislnuent.
I'rince K i'ii{Mitkin. of Kiissia. wIki lias traveleil in this ednntry and |>aiil
)iartieiiiar ar.ieiitiun tn tin- ennditidn dl' a,L;rieiilliiie, says in his sum iiin;; ii|i :
•• Ami riran a'^riifiiUiin* dtfeis an iiii|Misin}; sij;ht ; mit. in tlu' wheat H'mIs of the
tar W'e^t. wiiicli will snuti lioeiinie a thin;j: df the past, Init liy the develdpnient
dl ratiiinal ai^'fieullufe asiil id the furees which iHipmiite it. IJead tiiedeseii|i-
tioii id'ana^i'ieitltiiral exhiliitidn in a small tnwn in inwa, with Tti.lHH) faiiiieis
('aniiiin!.''vith their families in tents dniint,' the lair week, stml\ ini,', leaniiiiir.
l»iivin>;;in<l . elliii);. and f-njuvinj,' life. \'du
natiiinal fete, and yini feel that
you deal with n. nntioii in whieh afiricnlMiic is ludd in r«'S])eet. Or read the
jiidilieat inns of the scores of exf leriment stal ions, whose reports are pulilished
liy thousands and scattered liroadcast over the cdimtry, and aie read liy the
fanners and discussed at c(iuntl»'ss farmers' mectinj^s. and you will feel that
American auriculture is .'i ical force, imliued with life, which no loiiirer fears
mammoth farms, "ml needs not. like a child, cry for prdtectinn.'"
The future cd' aurieulture in this coiuitry seems safe, and no class «d men
ran look the future in the lace with more of confideiie(> tlian those who till
the soil.
Waldo V. lljtowN.
PROGRESS IN CIVIL ENGINKERING
I. AN IN ri{i>I»l ( liiKV VIV/'.
Ik wc lirniullv ili'tinc I'ivil ciiniin'criiij,' as fho .. of c, ■. .ruction, tlu-ii tht;
liiitli ut tin- art is as uld as tin- riiiiTgciicc * iiii ' from savain-ry. Tlu)
sava;,'f wlii) liidlows (Hit a l<)<^ of wood in onlt-r ... c m-, ,nct a catiof has taken
tlif first sti'p in tlic art of sliiplHiililini,'; and w !icn • li..s construi'ted a lint,
liiiwi'viT null', to tai\i' tlif |ilaci', as an al)odt- >f tii" I'avf lioUowcd ont liy
natmc, lie lias moved uin' sicp nearer to those ' qilis of Imihlini^ itonstrue-
tion wliieli satisfy man's neeessilies, comforts, and a-stiietic; desires. From
tliis sUindjioint (nvil ( ii^'ineerinj,' is as old as the oldest of tho arts and
seiencM's. Not only i< eivil en;.,'ineerinjjj an ancient art, hut when the iindia*-
olojjist jMtints to some of the masterpieces of building construction \vhi( h
have been literally .'lidden from view by the ib'-bris of centuries, and describes
the old roads whidi the di.sintet;ratin},' lonres of nature, working b)r centuries,
liavo not been alile to destroy, it is natural to nssniuo that in many features
tlie civil en^'iueerin!,' of the present <lay is but a fopy of ancient work, or,
at least, thai there has been comparatively little real pro^'ress. It may bo
claimed that bridges are very old, that canals, liglithouses, and roads ante-
date the ('hristiau era, and that even the ancient K>,'yi)tians knew that tho
earth is round, and had made a rouj;h computation of its diameter. Hvit it
will be shown that even in these ea.-^es there has been an enormous advance,
not only in the chanu^ter and magnitude of the work done, but also in jin-
other leature of civil engineering whi(di is fre(|uently overlooked, nanndy,
the rmnniiii/ oi labiu' and luaterial. Civil engineering has liceu defined as the
art of iloing well with one dollar what any bunglei' can do somehow with
two dollars. This definition, although very loose and one-sided, nevertheless
contains .i very important truth. If by improved methods a canal or a liridge
can be construi'ted for one half to onc! third of what it would have cost by
older methods, then the wculd has advanced, in that it may have two or three
canals or bridges at the same cost (d" labor as would have been jireviously
rei[uircd for the constriu'tion of one. When we aihl to this a vast improve-
ment in fpuility. an improvenu'ut that would have been i)reviously impossible
at any cost, the world's advance is hardly nn-asurable by any standanl. It
is a well-known fact that many engineering works, justly considered master-
pieces at the time of their coustrnctioii, ecmld now be rei>laced by a nnudi
lietter structure for a comparativtdy small part of their original cost. This
statcnu'ut not only applies to very old constructions, but even to some of the
great engineering works ot the latter halt' of this century. Some of the.se
reconstructions have actually occurred, as is illustrated in the Victoria tubu-
lar bridge at .Montreal, or the lioeliling susjieusion bridge at Niagara Falls,
— descril)ed later. In fact, the ]irr:frpss in civil engineering during the nine-
teenth century is chiefly made up of the enormous advances which have been
! I
]
;uo
TItlLMI'IIS AM) \\oM)i:ii.-s nr HIE XlX'ii CKSTUIiY
iii:iili- iliii'iii>; till- Litlrr liull ol tin' initurx. It >Iiimi1iI imt Itr iii>;iiri| tli;it
llifsc ri-rciii roiisti'iirtiiiiis art' i'li»'ii]M'i'. Im'cuiisi vi'rvt liiii){ is clicaiNM' iitiw."
'I'lii' '^fiirial sraif III \va;,'fs has ailvain'i-il, miil tin- tnial rust nl ruiislnirl inii
i.s rlii'a|ii'r, only lifransr iiii|i|'iivimI iih-iIioiIs ut' \\>>\\ \\a\\- ri'ilurcij tlir lalxii'
i'tM|iiii'(Ml tit |ii'iii|iiiT liiiislii'il liiiililiiii; iiiatfi'ial linm tin- raw iiroilmi ami ti'
••rt'rl that iiiali'rial into a strncturr. 'rinMi'lorc in (•(in.siilcrini,' in drtail tlif
I'on.slriicliiin ot thr ^'na! niasicriiiffi's ol this ci'iitiirv. wr .shontil not losf
si^ht ul' thf fnoriuiMis a<l\aii<-i- in ;;cii)M'ai initliixls n| woik. uliich Iiiih I'iMi-
• Irri'il it |M)ssil)li' to h,i\f all of tin'si- striu-turr> whirh so niinistrr to thr
|iro.s|M'r tv of tiic woriii. at snrh a irilnccil cost in lalioi.
A coiniilctt' ili.scnssioii ut ihr rcnturv's |ini;^rfss in livii cnjiiiirt'iin;,' woiiM
ri'ipiiri' a t r<'at isf on all nioiji'in jiractii'i* as well as a ili'M'ri|ilioii of ni'ai'l\
all ol the i^'ri'at cni^iiii'i'i in'^' niast)M'|iirci>s in cxisti-iii'i', Imt the limitations o|
this artirlr ntti'i'ly iitciinili' thr possiliilil v of t-vt-n a short ilisciisMiitn (>t all
thr liraiK'hi's ol the .siMi'iici', to sav nulhiiii; of a ilctaili-il i|)-Hi'ri|ition of all ol
tin' cxainph's. Thr following' disrussion w ill thi'ii'tiiii' Im ntiiicil to tliosr
lirancht's in which thr atlvancv has Im'cii most notalilc. rxcn to thr niisrii'ii
titii' rca.lt'r. tho iii-o'^'icss licini^f illnstratt'd liy luii't stali'inciits ici^'anliiii,' thr
most tyiiical const riictions.
II. iiKim.Ks.
Not only is there ex iilcnc,' that liriils^'cs of the siin|ile>i tornis iia\e lieen
used from prehistoric times. Imt the cn;,'ii rinj; woihl has lieeii frc(|ueiitl\
sni|irisrd at the discovery, in semi-harliaieiis lands where there was evideiitl\
no scicntilie knowledi;e of hridj^e construction, of a Inidfic which, in its me-
chanical analysis, is a nidi' exam|ile of some one of the more com|ilicatcd
tvjies now in tise. I'liit these liridj,'cs are always small, and are con.stnictccj
with an utter disrei,'artl <d' that economy of eonstniction wliiidi is one of the
;.;real ii'inm|ihs of modern hiidtje eni^inceriiiu'. lieiiii,' uselessly strong in sonn-
jiarts. considering their weakness in oihers. At the hcLrinniin,' of this cen-
tury there was not a w foiittlit-iron or steel lirid^e in cxisti'iiee. Misre^ardiic.,;
stone arches for the |iresent. all other liridi;cs were made of wrio(| — with the
exception of a few hridj^es (d cast iron, which were constructed dui'ini.' the
latter part of tin* eijihteeiith century, itiit cast-iron is unsuitahle for pieces
rei|uirint; tensile stri'nt;th : it is also ditlicnll to cast \cry larp' >ii s with
any assurance cd' iiniformity. The liest cxistini; examples (d' cast-iron lirid>{e,-,
are. therefore, those of the arch type; Imt these are very Icavy in pro|Mirfion
to their real streiii^th. and would now lie much more costly than, as well as
interior to. stei-i liridircs of ecjiial streii!.;th. Therefore the ;,'ri'at advance in
hrid'^'c wdik dnrin;; this century consists in the development of stee! bridifc
Construction, and a brief description will he j,'i\'cii of a lew liridu''s which
represent the chief types.
IlitooKLY.v Mkidok. — The suspension liriilp' lietwceii New \oik and
Hrooklyn is the lar','est hiid'^'c (d' its kind in existence, and. until the con-
str\n'tion of the "Forth" ltridj,'e, was the loni^est clear span e\er Imilt.
Kvcry one is .so familiar with this stupeiidnws structuri' that only i> few
statements will ho made, which may ^,'ive a better idct af the mai,'nitnde of
the unprecedented prolilem which confronted the i;reat cnj,'inee'. .lohn .\.
IJoelilinjj. When looking,' at the exceedinjjly yriiceful design of the towers.
n
i
i
c
»
i
!
I
943
riiirMi'iis Axit n<)Mu:i,'s or riii: .v/.v" chMrity
niif is ii|it til tiii'^'i't lliiil ;i l;ii^f iKiii nl tlif stnictiiri' nl i-iicli Inwt-r is liiililiMi
I'i'iiiii view. Tilt' l)i>tti>iii <>t till' riiiiiiiliitiiMi lit till) |iii'r. nil til)' Nfw \iiik
sidf, Im 7H tVi't Ih-Iiiw tiiriin iii^'li tiilc, ami m|ii-(>iuU ovi'I' an ai-cii 171.' iwt lon)r
iiml In'_» feet V iilf. 'I'lii' iHi'ssiirc rxi-iii'il liy tin' caissiiii mi its lniHf is ulMiiit
I 1 I.IMMI lulls. Ill' llj lulls [it'l siilllllr liml. I'lllS >;it'iit ;lli'il. .'>*>l li't'l ImIiiW llic
|iiirii|i«>t of tilt' tdWiTH. Ih 11 Hiirliu't' iMiiisisliin; |iiutl_v ot iM-il-mck iiiiil piiitly
ol' a iiiati-rial sn I'liiiipart that it was t'lniiiil tn lir aliimst iiii|iiissil)|i> to ilrivi'
an ii'iiii bar intn it. I>i>wii Ih-Idw tlir mini, lii-lnw all ilaiii;ri' nl Mtmir, j'ar
Im'Iow tlif ik'iitli wIhtu tlic ilii'atlfil hinln iiiirii/!.s ran ilcstritv tin- tiiiilii'i' in
till* I'aissniis, tli(>si> piiM's rest mi an iiiiiiiiivalilt! rmiiiilatimi. ami an- an iiii|H'r-
islialtli' nimiiiiiimit nt iiian's skill. Tlir flnm' of tin' liiiil','«' is sii|i|imt('il lis
four ralilfs, cai'h cmilainini; il.'KMl win-s. Kacli wire is sii|i|insi'il tu In' siiW-
jcrti'il ti> a sti'i'ss of almiit .'i7li |imimls, ami to liavi' an iittiiiiatf stri'iij^tli nt
."iltxt |ii>Miiils. To say that rai-li i-alili' is piilli'il l»y a force nf ;i..V.»|.(M»(i |Miiimls
convi'ys lint little real iiii|>ii'ssimi In liir iiiiinl — a-- little as to sa,\ tliat it
wmilil renniie a |iiill nt over '_'l.tHMi.(MMt |innnils tn liieak it. .Vinl tln-ie ate
four siirli (allies I Tlie main s|iaii. iiielinliiij,' tlie \vei>;lit of the e.ihles. wi'i>;li>
aliniit .■|(MMMnlis. Snliie ilileresl ilii; lilcts cmicelllill!,' the eaissmis llllilerllii-
jiiers nl this liriil'.,'e will lie ^i\en under the heading; of •• Caissmis."
NiMiAitv Uvii.ww .\ki II. — I'lie railway suspension lirid^i'. emisiinited
liy .Mr. .lulm .V. iJneliliie^ armss the Nia','ara .i;nr;;i' in lS.V!-."t. was justly
emisidered a innnnnient tn the skill nf a ^rreal eii;.;iiiei'r. a nininime'it nl the
world's prntjri'ss ; and .M't so rapid has heeii the advanee in the art nf bridge
eiiLtineerin.!:,'. that this Ljreat sirneliirr is already a thii!-.; nf the past, and has
nnw liei'ii replaeed hv aiinlher liriil'.4i' whieh lielter Inllills the inereased
rei|nir>iiients. it was imt that Koeliliiii^'s liriil.u'e «as an en!,'ineerin:.,' laihire,
lint thai the lai'^'e ineieasi' in the weiy;hl and leiiLrth nf trains imw n'lpiiies n
mneh st innj,'er liridLje. There were several tnrniidalile emidii inns eunfrmit-
ini; the enjjineer who desii;ned the sleid areli whieh has iinw replaeed th»'
siispeiisimi lirid'O'- Knr mie lliini;. a heavy railrnad traflie was nsin;^ the <ild
lirid;,'!'. I'he interniptimi nf railrnad trallie inr even a few days is a serimis
matter. Kxteinl the lime to several months, and the emiHeipienees are to(»
serious for tnleratinn. And thus it heeame necessary to so jilan and enn-
struet the anil that li<itii strnctnres wnnld necnpy the same site, not interfere
with eacli other, and not interfere with the rnnniii^ of trains. It, i.s an aiiia/.-
ini,'. almost inemiceivalile, triumph of constructive skill that tlii.s was accom-
plished s(i that '• inif II s!iii//r tniiii inis i/i/iii/fil, and traltiiMHi the hi;,diw.'iy
Jloor was suspended only Inr almnl two Imnrs each day. while the upper llnnr
Hystein was liein-^ put in." The secmid riu'id recpiiremeiit was the necessity
for const met iiij^ th<' ardi withmil any •• false wnrks" nnderneath. Of cnnrse
if was lint prai'ticalile to sns|iend the varimis meinlii-rs nf the andi dnriie^
eniistnu'timi, from the old liriil},'e. as it was not ilisi),nicd fnr sinh a loail. Nnr
wnnld it have Immmi possihh' to plant false works in the di;ep and swift
current of ihe Niai^ara iJivcr. .\nd so it heeame necessary tn make each
half of the liridjje selt-.'^npiiortin),'. as it liiiiij; out over the lanin^; torrent a
distaiieo of about l.'7.*» feet from the abutmenls. until tlio two projectiuj,' arms
could be jnini'd in the centre. The illnstratimi does nnt shnw the indepeiid-
viu'v of the arch frmii the old bridijc. If the old bridge had not been there
(as was virtually the case, so far a.s support given by it is concerned;, the
I
an
rnicMi'iis AM) \\<i.\ni':i:s or riii-: a/a"* cHyruin'
iiitlt'|MMnlrn('i' ol' llmso arm-- ri'afliiiij,' mil uviT tlic river woulil liavr Iicch
iiMur aii|iari'iit. \tlil to all tlifsc iij,'(»rniis coinlitituis tlit niaivcloiis lad
tlial tli<' vrt'cli'.ii III tliis i^iurat an-l; was l)r!,'iiii on Sf|ilcmlMT 17. iS'.Mi. aii<l
tliat till' liiiilj;,'!' v.s tested oil .Inly L'".l. 1S'.I7 uuiiy .'>l."> davs ■itleruanl ), and
we liavo here (!,ie i>\ llie j;reat»!.st lriiiiu|)lis mI' eiij{iiieL'riii;< wliieii (•dulil lie
iiaaj^iiied.
I'i:< IIS iJivKit N'lAiiii r. — i'lie urij^iiial lueatimi id' llie < Jalvestitii. Ilani--
l>ui'(;, anil San Antonio Ituilway ineluded a seetion nf idioiil 'J.'t miles wliieli
was very dlHieiilt to operate, on aeeoimt id' its very lieavy ;;iailes and sliii|i
eiirva'nre. Alter some years id sliid\ and siirveyinf^, a line was tuiiiid wliieli
would save 11.1,' miles in distanee, ."TH leet id rise and Tail, and I'.t.'i.'S dei^roes
(d' t'lirvatiue, Ill-sides lieini^ Tree lioni land slides wliiidi lliieatened tin- old
line at many |)oints. Mnt tin* ;,'reat eeonomie advant.iu^es in the expenses id
operatiiii,' I'liiild only lie nhtaiiied at th st of an almost nnpreeedenled
striietnie. — a viaduct L'lNO leet loni;, which should cross the I'eeos llivei at
an olfvalion of ."VJtt leet lOj, imdies alio\e the water siirlace. 'I'liere are two
lii'idjjes in I'.iirope which span very deep <,'i)r!,.'es liy mr/irs. which are higher
aliovc the wafer than this viaihict, lint in s'.ch cases the depth ol )L;orj,'e is ol
no enj;ineerin'4 importance. There is also a viailnci lor a narrow-^'an^^e rail-
way 111 liojivia. SIMI li'ii 1:.iil; and with a lieii,dit of .'>.'><i led fium the rails ti>
the water. Hut tiie I'eciis viaduct i^ luiill to carry slandard-^raiiye railway
tratlic n\er a valley nearly hall a mile wide, and at such a hei'.'hl that a train
iiiiiviic.^ ipver it appe.iis diminiitive. The stono towers in the illiistralinn
:ippcar small, lnil they are cmisi rncted to a hei,i,dit id over ."itl feet almve tin-
ordinary level of the water, to allow for po,--silile Hoods. 'I'lic Imi-ot •• lient>"
lia\e a heiiillt of 1.* 1 1 fed (»^ inches. Nil •• false Wiilks" Were Used Ml elect.
iiit,' the liridv'c. The •• trivehr." shuwn in iln illii>tralioii. had an arm l'J\
fcd.fi imdies \iiUii. .\ller I'liiiipletilc.^' tic ciilistnicl iiili nil one side ol the
river ( iiiclmliiij; one half of tl sii.>)ichded " span immediatcl\ nver the
riven, the liaveler was taken apart, loaded on c.irs and I i'aiis|iortci| liy rad
a distance of nearly In inilo, in ciider to icadi ihc niher --ide uf the xalley.
Thi'ii Ihi nstriictioii was carried on ;i^ liefnrc. until the two halves o! the
suspended span met in the cent le. 'Ihc Wiiik of ereclinn licj^all N'ii\ .'Miller
.'!. iSKl.and on l''elirnar\ L'i>. (S'.IL' (onl\ |IIS ila\s lalei i, the iwn halves of
the suspended span were I'linneded, .V piutiiiii even of this time was lii>t
liy inclemeiil weather and niiavoidalile delays, This lii,dil •• spider-weli "'
method of con.stnndion fur crossing; \ery \uii\\ vallcvs was originated hy
.Viuerican enj,'ineers, the lirst not.ililc instance of it lieiic,' the eimsl ruction
of il Kin/.ua '" viaduct, mi the ^ '.'. I,. K. \ \V. It. II.. which has a lenj;th
of '_'(i,"i() feet and a hei;,dit of ."». _ .ed almve the water — ti^nres which arc
only slii;litly h'ss than the aliove.
l'"o|ITII r.lfl|H;i:. — The lieM t \ pe of liridt,'e to lie considered has for its
example the lar;:,'est liiidj,'i' in the world — tlic •• cuntile\er " crossing,' the
l'"irth of i-'orth. in Sccitlaml. Tin onomie design of hridges of this type.
on the liasis of the mechanical principles involved, is not only an aehievc-
ment of this centii"\, hut of the latter jiarl of the century. Nevertheless, we
may timl illiistrarioiH of the fnmlamental principle in the stone lintels in :in
Egyptian t"mple: in a mnuh womlen hridge erected liy Indians in Canada,
near the line of th«i Canadian I'acilie Kailroad ; and in a hridge erected over
I
two llUllil
Davis, of
jiriiH'ipli'
iit tli<- tiiii
'riiis l>r
sc|i;iciit.«'<l
IVirv. K'
wliirli sii <
ilciiiaiiili'il
i'liili(ir:ili'
part <•( t
tiiilc-i. is I
litlt. little
island of
iintll si(|<'i
ul a jiit'i-
tiiil> iiH'k
Im'Iow till
ill wt'inlil
tilt' lias*',
slidwu ill
iliiniiiisli
tilt' Stt't'l
ovt'i' two
j'ltua/iKss i.\ CIVIL Kyhi.\i-:i:ii/.\ii
845
two liuiiilriMl Vfiiis ii',''" ill Tliilii'i. ami (liscnvt'ifil in 17S;{ l)y Ijciitciiant
Davis, ul' tlu' Kiijflisli cinliussy tu tin- court of tin- 'I'l-slion Lama, 'I'lii-
]iriiici|il<* of tlii'si' liiiil>,'i's is very ^;^a|•lli(•ally sIikwm Ity a ]>liotoj,'ra]ih iiiailt-
at tlii> tiiiK- ot ilii> i-oiisimction ot ;|ic I'mtli Iniii^'i'.
Tills liridp- joins two sfctious nt Scntlaml wliidi liad 1 n int'sioubly
si-|iiii'JkU'il liy ail arm of thu sea, wliidi coiilii only lie crosscil Ity a tedious
fViry. Kvi'ii this fciry was fii'i|iii'iitiy tit-d \i\> by U>\f '»r by tlii' slroni,' piles
wiiirli so often Miiw Mjitlie cjiaiiiiel. The prevaleiiee of heavy wind pressure
demanded that >|iei'ial atteiitinii sjioiild Im> ^Mven to this feature. and tiie most
elaborate tests ever made of the elfect id' wind on a bridKe stniotiii't* forined u
I'll o- lll\ Kll VIMin T.
imi't of tho preliminary work. The estuary, for a distance of nearly fifty
inile-i. is never less han twn miles wide, except ;r, this one place, where it is
but lillle more than one mile widi>. with the a<!<ied advaiita^'e of having the
island of Inclnrjirvie nearly in the centre (d' the ciiannel. The chauiiel un
iNith sides is alHUit two hundred feet dee|i, which would forbid the locatioti
of a pier at any place except on this ishmd, whiih. Im in),' comjKised of basaltic
trap rock, furnished a Miflicicnl foiiinlatiou at a comparatively sli^rht depth
b«dow the surface, to secure the maximum ri^'idity consistent with economy
ill weight, the •• vertical eoliiinns" of the towers were spaci'd I'Jd feet apart at
the base, but oiiK .'t.'i leet apait at the top, 'ihe towers are .'{.'{(I feet lii^di. \a
shown in the illustration, the cross-sectional dimensions of the cantilevirH
diiniiiisli rapidly lioth in width and lieit;ht, so that althou^di the w»i}|li'c of
the steid |M'r riiiinin^; font at the towers is L'.'! tons, it iK-eomes only a littU*
fiver two t<ins per buit at the centre, I'lie structure is exceptionally rifjid.
3IU
'niirMi'Us A.\i> woynKus or riii-: \l\"i vkstuhy
Till' lui'liin' (<i anv ^i;,'iiiiiic stnicliin', i'.s|icciully wlicii will iiiii|HiilioiiiMl,
ut!<'i'ly fails to ^ivf an aiii'i|iiali- iilt-a of tlir si/c of its i'(iin|iiiiiiMit pait^. It
is ilillicull to rcali/f Inun llir illiislialinii tlmi tlii' Inm- tiilmiar ••viTtical v«\-
uiiitis " nil lai'li main |iii'i' arc l\vi'i\r in-t cat-li in (liaiiutrrat tlutliast- — lar;^'c
(■iiiiii(;h tor -a coai-li ami lour" to ilrivc into, if tlifv wcrr laid hori/.ontalK ,
( IviT .'ili.lMMl tons of sfiM'l well' ii-ril in tlif main spans, 'I'iir tot:il cost ol
tin- whole slruftnr.' wa.^ ov.t I'.'l.jud.dOii (.s|r..tHi(i.(Hi(i).
MfllKH Al:.nii-:s. — Tin' iiim-iiinili ci-nlury has lint lit'li- to claim a> to ilie
iic\cto|inM-nt 'if .>tonc ni-clM-s. Tlic nicclianical tiicory ot their sli-csscs is per-
liaps lietier nmii <'.>looi| now than cvei', ami llie lafj,'c>l masonrv aieh in cx-
i.-.ten<-e (liie Caliiii .John an-h. liavin;,,' a span of L'L'O feet, caii\ in^,' the Wa-li-
iicjlon aijiieilm I o\ef a eicck ) is a iiie<'e of American wnik of this ceiiiniy.
|tiii it -lioulil not he foiMdtic n I hat imni- than li\e humlieii \ ears aj^o Iheic wa.->
colistiiiiti (I at liiv/o. lliil\.a Kiaililc inch of 2*"»1 feel span. This :ii-cli was
litiliiiliinalcl\ (h->ti(iM(| in 1 1'_'7. (hienf i'le most remail.ahlc aii'hcs in ex-
isicme was ilesiv'iHMl and l.iiilt hy iiii " iine>'."ealcd " slone-ma>Mii at l'onl-\-
I't-yittl. \Vah ~, in I7"i" A linoriuis analysis id it> sliains — of whieii the de-
siv'lit't piohahlx knew nothinir — shows that tl liiu' of i-esistai '" pa>si's
almost exactly through the celitle of the aich linj,'- The most hii;hl\ edii-
catfil cnuiliii-l- of the picHcut day could do no hettef. ( in tiie other hand, the
ili'vclopmeiit of the theory has I n shown hy the success i id coii>l i uctiou ol an
cxcecdin«,d\ hold desi'^xn lor a hiidu'' on 'he r>onrlMiunais IJaihviiv, in {''ranee.
Thi* span is I'JI ft'ct. and tlie rise mdy (i.'.tl.' feet. The desit,'" was consiilered
so very hold tliat a model id' the arch was first const rncted and tested hidore
the desi<_'n was tinally adopted. 'I'he extc nsicui of the use of stone aiehes.
especially those of very larj;e size, is doiilitles.s jireveiileil hy their excessive
initial cost over the cost of a steel strm'tuie of etpial span atid streiejth.
Simc a stone arch is ^em'ially considered more heanliful than a steel hridve,
the a>thetical element ofieii demands the cotisl ruction of stone arches in
]iidilie (larks in situations where a iiietil strmlnre would he more et'oiiondcal.
The f-reat reduction in the cost of steel diirinv; the past few years, thie to im-
proved jirocesses of inainilactnie. generally renders the cost of a steel hrid^'e.
even with a proper allowutice for maintenance, icpairs, and renewals, cheaper
than a stone arch. nnh't<s the span is short.
^1
would iiattirally How
lUY
I'liuaitEss IS CIVIL i:s<iisKh:itL\'u
'Ml
r(>|Miil imii'il,
it |>;iri -. It
VlTlicill Cdl-
iiii/iiiitall\ .
iil:il cost 111
iiii :i> to ilii>
I'ssfs is per-
mil ill fx-
,' 111.- \V;i.-.|i-
lii^ ('ciitiirv.
,'n tilt-re wa.s
\\- aicli was
ri'iii's ill t'X-
II at Toiil-v-
iiirli till' ilc-
MI'i' " |lil>SI'>
liii;iilv cijii-
Ml liaml. till-
lurtioii ot an
I', ill KiaiiiT.
s roii>iilcri-i|
l-Stril lll|i;Il-
tolli- Jlli-lii-s,
•II t'Xri-ssi\i-
liil slli'lr^tli.
sti'i-1 Idiiljrc.
Ill- iuclii-. ill
' l'l-olio||iiral.
S. lilll- tn illi-
Sll-l-l lliilliri-.
k'iils, t'licapi-i
iitiiialiv How
<it iil-a. Ill
II iioii i-ylih-
iir Itivcr. ill
iti-d lii-iir;itli
i-k, Was ciiii-
' lowi-r (liMir,
hvas at atiiio-
'lll'il. I'lioll
jii'il ill iiiiiil
irli was iilso
atinii. Till-
'i|. To |iasH
lit. llir li-\
i-isi- iirori-i- III iiivi'i'sr unli-r was ni-ci'ssai'V.
This was tlu' tir^t
I iiiiialir ruissdii <*vi I' sunk, altliiiii:.;li siu-li plans liail Ih-i-ii |irii|iosfi| ami
i'\i-ii )iatriili'il ill lui^'laml si'vcral vi-ars iM-ton-. Tin- itlcawas cssiiitially tin-
pii-M-iit jilaii. lull till- pi'cii'i'ss lias Ih-i-ii ii,ipi'o\ i-o ami i>iilar'.;i-ii. rix' ri'i|iiiri-il
pn-ssiiri! is siilistaiitially that ilm- to tin- wi-i^ht ol a i-oliiniii ot wuIit as hi^li
as till' ili-plli of till- liasi- ol till' i-aissoii liclow tlii' watiT siiilari'. In tin- I'asi'
ot till- St. Louis luiili,'!-, till' iiottoiii ot till' I'aissoii was sunk to |tt'.> tVi't SJ
iiu'lu's lii'low till' watrr suiturr, wliicli ri-i|iiiii-il an air prrssliri.' ol alMiiit I"
poiimls prr si|iiari- im-h in tin- working chamiwr. Siil-1i a pii'ssuii' is liaiigi'i-
N
KOIOIM orKSIXfl OK nil XNAI,.
|'ri>i't><«-i(iii of Sliipn ill Cai ill. .^ Dl. I^KI-
uu> to thoM- working' ia it. Thi- im-n liti-rally " live fast." (Sroat i-XTtion is
»'a>.ilv niaili-. Iml is tollowi 1 liy cori-i-spomlini,' t-vliaiistion iil'ti-i- h-aviii',' tlic
rai-'soii. Those haviiii; lii'ait ilis"Mse, or who li i\ lieeii ili-hilitated hy previous
I'.M-Ksses. all' lialili' to Iti- seriously alTi'i'tt'il — >,'iiierally hy a lonii of paralysis
wiiii'lihas lii-i-ii spi'i-itiiaily iiaimil hy physieiaiis tin' " raissim iliscase." At
the St. Louis hiiil'.:i'. wiii-ii workin-^at the t^n-atest ih'pths. the men weii' only
woiki'il lour hours per ilay. in two-hour shifts, ''"aeilitii-s wt'iv likt'wisf pro-
viileil to have I hem Itatlii'. n-st, anil take hot eoii, on i-oniiiujont of the work-
iiii; elianiher. IL-althy men. who nliseiseil these ami hiiiiilar precautions, wen-
mil pcriiiancntly alTcclcil h\ the work.
The caissons of the New York ami Brooklyn suspension hriil^'c are the
l:irt,'csl ever coiistructcil. ami a halil account of sonic of the experiences eii-
couiil'-ieil is fairly ilraiiiatic. I'mh-r sm-h air prcssnrcs the tlunie of a cainllo
N
:vf,i
»|M
ritii Mi'iis .i.v/> \\iiMth:t;s or ////■; .v/.V" (•t:.\n ni
I
will ri'luni wlii'ii Mdwii (nii, and sn tin- ilaiij,'fr ol' liii- iiiNiiU- tiir wtHnitMi iMi>-
sHiiH U'caiii)- vnv si-iiuus. ihir wniin),' a fin- wan disciivi'ii'il in iiiii> nt ihr
i-aissdiis. (Miiscil lui'sniiiuiilv liv a wnrkiiiaii Imliliiiy a imihIIi' liMii|i(iiaiil\
axaiii^t till- wiimlcii iiMil w lull- MMifluiiK '""' I'l"' 'liiincr pall. \\ lini liiM'tivi'ifij
it waHaiiiiarciit lliat iIk- lin- had luiniid niii a ravitv in tin- Nidid tniilii-i' ronl.
and till' >ii|i|i|y 111' riini|iicsNcd aif was fast liiiniiij,' iIium' iiiiiiMTs iniu a UMf»
n| li\ 111;,' cual. I'wi. |iijMH .Mipalilr 111 llniiwiii;,' mil- and mii- hall' imli slriiiiiis
liad liiM'ii |>iiiviili'i| liir tills .'xiiicss rtintin^tiif.v . and tin- twn .stn-anis wi-n-
tiinifd nil as i|iiiikl\ as |iiisNili!r. All ni'^dil I In- liylit \mm:1 mi. .\t I \. M..
wlnii llir \\aIiT wa.s |i(iiiiiii;,' mil ul llir milirc ul ll avil\ as last ais it \\a^
sfiit ill li,\ llif Inisi', it MMMiii'd as il I In- raMlv iiiii-.t havr i.tin tlmrmi^diU
rtiwiiii'd and tin- tiir mit. 'I'm iiiaki' sine id ihi- alisiiliiti' cM inrtimi id' tin- lin-,
Uniii'^s Wfir iiiadr, wliirli ■>liiiwcd Iliiil llir liiv had «mkid its wav .ilrni',' in-
dividual tiihlwrs, fsiw'i'ially tlniM- ivlmli wen- •• lal " uitli ri-siii. and thai lli^
Imirlh rmd' rmir.sc wan still a mass nt liiimini; liinliir. ll was tlim di'i'idi'd
tliat till- i-ai.s.smi imist In* MiMidrtl, whiidi was dmii' li\ |iiiiii|iiii:,' in L.'S."*!).!!!!)!
jjallmih (d' ualiT. .\tlii llimdin),' the lais.smi lor tW" and mii' hall davs. il wild
|iiiiii|H-d mil and tin- v "vk i-.\aiiiini-d. It rfijiiirid llir minhis nl ciKhtn-u
raijii'iitms, winkiiiK day and ni^dil tm' Iwn mmiilis, t,, M-jair thr damage
raiHcd liy tliai lin'.
W'Ih'II the iSiniiklyn I'aissmi was Iwriily lixr lii-l IhIhw ihr wahT h'Vil.thi-
Ixiiilih'is '•iii'minli'icd hccaiiif su laiu''' that lilastiiij,' ln'raiiif iicct'ssary. |!iii
lilastiiiLT uisidi- of a caissmi svii.-i liilhi-itu an nniriid i'N|m-i iiin'iit. It was
I'aird that lln' iiifii wmihl hf injiirnl: ihat. tlndi- i-ai-diiims wmild Ijicak Ity
a «iidd<Mi i-\|iiiisimi in that cnniiiifd s|ia<-c niidi-r liravy air pi'i'ssin'r; thai a
•• lilow nut ■" niiicht nri'iir, i. I'., thai thf rniii|iifMsrd air iiii^hl siiddfiily cscaiic
)iast tin- I d'^i-s, and thai an inllnw nl wali'i' would thrii dinwii the iin-n. .\l
liist a pistol was tiled, ]L;iailuall\ usiii;^ heavier el. aru's ; then a small hlasl
wa.s .-et nIV. I'"iii'miia!^ed h; iheir In'ednm t'rmii lesullini,' emnplicaiiniis. ihe
lilasts were ^ladiially iiieieased, until lhe\ linally ii.sed as heavy hlasts as was
deMired.'tiie iiifii simply .steppiii;; into iiii adjoiiiiiii^ ehainlier In axnid ||\ iie^
rra!,'nienfs : and an iiii-rease in the rale id' prn'.;ress was at miee appairiit. the
eaissnn iM'ili;; lowered lioiii tW'dM- In i'iKliteeii iiieln-s. rather than mily six
Hiehes, per Week.
The eaissnils nl' the l>rid!,'e aeross the I'Mltll of l''n|lh. Si-nl land, ale exalll-
pies III the j^real develnpnielll nf the eai^smi iijea. The plieiinialli' eaissoll n|
Tri){Pr. ill lK.'t<.t. had Imt mie air Inek. through whiih must pass men, exeavateii
material, and I'mislnietive material I'nr lining's, etc. 'I'his plan iiieaiit >li'W
and expensive wnrk. Tin- eaisMins nf i|-.e Krnnklyn hinlne were a vast ini-
pfovemeiii liver this plan. t»«»th mi the seme nf ii-mimm .ind safety. In the
Km'th lirid;.''- the eais'Miiis were inadi' alnin>t wlMtlly nf iron, thus avmdiiiy the
daii/ier nl the tire whiidi so )»<-arl\ wreeki-d iheeaissmi nf ih.' lirnnklxn liiidife.
The «'iirfless or prennitnre <»|*Miiii]if of ih** dfNirs n| air Ineks, \> hieh miee nearlv
I'aMHt'il a s, iiMis iM'f'i'U'nt mi the Itrnnkhn eaissmi. was rendered im|Missdile
l>y a very r ooraie st*teiii nf interliNkiie.,'. The ertieieney id the apparatus
for reiiinviit ; fXi*HViite«t Hiiiterial irtim tlie eom|.»re!we«| air ehamlH-r was also
txrpativ iiiirpased Khetrie lij^hts kkt*- uhimI iiimtfad of ^as or laiidii's.
•• Kkkkzi '. I . I'ko< ksh." — This |»r*tf»-i«M i.H nieiitimied heri- mi aeeoimt n( >.],r
s0M\tifiy of 'H* oitjwf U> t\mt of |<neiiiimtie eaiMW/iin — ninkn<t( » Mhaft tlfi-mijjli
eXe»'ssi\el\
l.y Mr. r. I
lew eases I
plislieil IfH
very lirief <
l-'or many
tliroii^di l<
I. 'I. I'oetsei
sh.tlt. and
wall >ix f»
shall snila
liiiind ii'lili
the pipes
liipiid ins
used over
elieap. I
aie praet
iphMitly t
Histur;
as early n
tlieti iiltsi!
The aiitli
j{ieal ani
line, ther
jiecomplii
j'i{o«ii:hss t.\ civil. K.\(iis'h:EitiS(i
341)
l'.\l'«'HHiM'l\ >ll|l \M'I sill
I. Ill
riM-CK> is vers mmtiiI, il liaviiiv' In-i>ii liivtMitcii
l>\ Mr. r. II riicl-.i'li, III rniNsiii. in ISS;;. ji lia^ lirm iim-iI milx in a mtv
li'W raM'.s n|i III liii- |ii'i-.srnl linn-, Iml wIh-h- ii iia> Ih-imi nnril it )ia> iioroni-
|ili->|icil I'fMiIti wliicli wi-rt' |iraftn-ally iinattainiililc liy orilinaiy ini-tli<iiU. A
V)'i'\ lirii-l' i|i->ri'i|iliiin III line inslaiiri- ut il^ iisr will i'\|ilain llic L;ciii-ral iilca.
I'll)' mans ,\imi'>> i-ni^iiii'rrs iiail Iicimi liatlli'd in lln-ir ailtMupin In .sink a sliati
tliiiiiiv;)) Iii7 tt'ct III i|iiicksanii at till- ('<-iiti-iiiii iiiiiif, iii-iir Itciiin. (ifriimin.
Im. I'lirtM'ii Mink sisli'i-n |ii|if.s iii a ciiili' an>iinii tlic |irii|i<isi'(| lucaliim nt iIk-
-lialt, anil III tliiit\ -liiirc (lavs iia'l siU'Cft'ili-il in |>riMliii'in:,' a Im/rn circiilai
wall six ft'i-t' tliii'k. wiilnii wliiih lh<- i-xcuvatiiui was n-adily iinulc uiiii tlif
slialt s\iiialtlv liiii-ii. i'lic fii-i/in',' is a< cDiiiiilislH'tl liy finuliilint; a lu'i'ziiij,'
liijiiiil ii'liliiriiii- ot rairiiiiiii 'iiruitt^ii tiir I.Tlx-s. Alter tiic siiatt is i-()tn|>lcte<l
IV. i.\X.\l.».
Ilisioiv ifciinls till- r'i.nstn«<ti«Mi iif a shi|MMiial afi'os* tli»» Sm-/ Istliiniis
a- laily as iMMt it, < . ; that it nttitiiincil in use fdi- alxnit H(Ht ycai' iinl wa.s
tiii'ii aliaiiilniK-il. It was \>«ry small : all tnucs of it an* now ultiMly lost.
Till' aiiiliriilii- ii'fonls nt it an- v.-ry nioaj^if. ami tln-y scrvt* only t4> hIiow tin*
ureal anliipiity nl tiie eaiiul iiK-a. 'V\\v uiinii'i-ntli-t't'iitniv |ii(i)jrf'ss (in this
line, llicrt'liin*. iMinsists in the cniiriiKmsly "^'ri-alcr iiiaKnitmlc ul ihc wdiks
ac('(>ni|ilish('it in the solntiiHi ni the .i;i-cat siilisiiliary |irnl>!i in> mvolvcd. ami
3.VI
IHILMPHS AJfJJ IVUMtHHs <>/' THI-: MX'" CESIUUY
III tin- iui|truVL>iiiciit 111 iiiKlioti.s 1)1 work wliirli iiiis rciulrriMl tlu'st- jjicat sinic-
tiirc.s |ni,-i>il)lf. Till- liiiiiiiiti<>ii> III tins ;ir(i<l'' iitlnly tmliitl i\>-ii n lnici ilc-
.-nrijiiioii lit all tile -rt-ai i-aiials wlinli lia\r liwii idiistiiu-tiMl (liinii),' this
cf«uii\ , ami It iiiiiHt tlH'ii'tiin- U- iKiitiiicd tti a few Ntiit*-iiii>iit.s rrfiardiiiL; the
uimf iiii|Mii'taiit ami t_v|'U'i iiiMHlniclmiis. it iiii),'lit lie tlMni^'iit that im ijis-
iiih.iKUi 111 luiii'li'fiithcciitiin canals wmilil In- romjilrlc witliiuil a iiiiMitinii
ol thf JiUiamguii ami I'iiiiiiiua ciiiml jiruji'i ts. Hut tlu-sc slii|M'niiinis \Miik>.
whii-h will ^cliiisf aiivthiiii; nl tin- kiml wiiH-li tin' wcihl |ias ivi-r seen, aiv imt
yt't ai'fiHlM^iV'lii'il i,ii'l>. riic twfiiliftli rciiliiiA will Im' Wfll iiiidiT uav iM-luna
int. ••aniiiii* ihn ilorii " will iMToiiic nniu'ci'stiMiry. Tlii- siiiTi'ssriil (■(•iii|ili>tiiiii
(it iiiM' I't til*'"'- taiials kviil, vcrv |iinlialtl\ , >u ri'diir.- tin- <li'iiiaiiil tor tlif utin r
15hat iis i<iiii.-ir\»»».ui>ii will lie iiulfliiiiifly inisi|iiiiit->l. 'I'hcsc caiial.s will not lie
.^w'tlu•^ .KiiMih'iMii-
.*! IV CvNvi. - *■' ;,,.:,t vM.ik |M>nuit> a icdiirt inn of aldput .'IT'iM miles
ill isM- . .11-11, ,,| ,, :,■ in. Ill W.sti'iii i:un.)..' tu imiia. ('..miiaifil with
...lai' .1 li. ..li,. ! -i.ni«i .,.iiai< i.f th.' worhl. il^ i-oimtnicfiou was .-aHV. The
ih i..iw<-.'ii ..^MUiii !>. alioin |ol slatiitf niilcs, of wliirh al.-.nt iiiiic
;. iii>-ii III. «'xt'avM*kiii ; si.vt»'cii iiiii.-s more ic.|iiiic(l only a slight I'Xt'a-
'• till' I'iiuiiii**' of siifficit'iit ti«'iith throunfli fxiHtiiiK dn di'im-s-
'^'^^ : " inid tb<" rtniiaiiiiiij,' si-\.'nty-six iiiih-s of rx.avatii.n wnc
<•"' ii i' soft alii'vial .^oil. Ai oiilv one |.»«iiiit diil tli.- cxraMilioii
i«'ii«"i' f««*t in dfjrtli.unH iter*- alwi waH fouitd lh<'onl\ instainf of
i-oi'k .s... !•'' rn this I-." I, w soil rhat |,art of it was cx-
cavatcii l.\ • ;.-,.i iiovt'Is. ...■ i.ii- \ anis of matciial wt-ff
•;ifH i-airyiiiir twi-nty-hve'
.1 « inly curs (m'I triin, and the
|ifi mill-. I'T WKiihl iiavi' rt'i|iiinMl
ii»at<'rial rtmt wjw cju-avaUnl.
iiy of I'l'," ;i>^ (,i-i ' M,'i('('d
'M' alMHit ..'•iMMI , Well'
'I Kny|il , -1irM> liev \ ii'Hl'ov
'•anil' iii'fi'KHury i. '.iii)Kirt
- H ami liii»li-|»ricci' .iipiiU
'lovi'is, of wliich ArnvHt
lie vaHf awitv of 'gkt^^
reniovfd. J! this iuv»..'n,. lia
ciiliic yards j^-v par. .kn^nU-
trains were striiiiu alon-,' ■•
oL'.iHHI miles of >arli tri«.
\\i.rk was aetnally lie^iin
to tiirnish tie' lalMtrcrs re(|\i:i
thus i'm)iloyed. On a eliaiip' ..' .
refused to fuiiii>h tiie native laln.r. .'
lalior from l-'.iiro|ie. and to sii|i|ileiiieni
(, ■ lalmr liy very lar^^e dretliriiiu' maclm..
sixty were em|)loyed. 'I'lie ta.^k o| >ii|i|il_\ i.
men wiiH an en^diieeriii); feat of no mean '
route lies ihioM|,'li an and desert. X system o
at Cairo, on the Nile, and di^Mriliii tint.' the water
eaiial, was therefore eonstriielid. in the latter
■"M etM*t. us tlie
taVhiL;
the i;
ami
M
editerraneaii seas were loiiiei
I. h
r''e
transformed inii. '^leat lakes, and oeean-^'oiii),' vessel,-- . . ,...14;. ;.i. _,^
wlial liad Ik'i'Ii ji desert. Tl"' t'-'Hial is 1,'ti feet deep, 71,' feet ,%'-^ ;rt the bot-
tom, tlie sides s|n|)ini; vaiialilv. neeordini; to the nature of the .. vf< -
resulting width- ,-il the top varying' lioiii I'.Hi to .'I'JS {..et. Allhon;;, 1.. ■• ,.
etumv'li 'or tlie very lai-f^eHt vessels alloat. it will aeeomniorlale the ^{reaf i«tdif
.if iwe ravel. im-ludiiiLr war vessels. 'I'lie total eost of tilis work. inelinivui|r
the 1
Vl,'li.<"
at
eis, lit,dithonses. etc., at eaeli terminus, was, approximat*''-
or .SlntMMKi.uuii,
•St canals, the Sue/ tanal has no locks. Tlie ()rit,'inal plan of tlr
I sinic-
lli'l (Ir-
II,!,' this
iii^' the
iici ilis-
iH'lllinli
"iii'ks.
.•II'' imt
irliilcii
ili'tidii
"tllCI'
!!'■( Ih-
■It
<
w
U]
■■3
<
■A
a
? 1
<J
= S
-f
Hi
'•ml
■4
'i
a
n
3
;i.vj
mil MI-US AMI uo.\in:its or ihh a/.v" iksiihy
I'aiiiiinii ciiiial ilnl imi iiiiliiili' |iifk>, Imt tin- nvisi-il |i|;iii |iiiiviilril Im tlicin.
ill i>i<l<T III Mivr t'xccN. VI' niiiiiij,'. Till' NiiMiiiKiia \-.\\v,\\ x-lii'iiif in'ii'ssjirilv
iiicliiilt's liM-k». 'I'lic Wiiti-i' lor till- Sue/ (•atiiil cuiiif.-. iliifctly troiii tlif kimh
wliii'li all iiiicflnl. A r.iiial with Inrkn ii(>i-i">>ai'ilv i'im|uii'i'h an aiii|ili' vsatri
>ii|i|ily liniii suiiH' riviT nr lii'><li-v\ali'r l.ikr. 11 tin- Sue/ laiial liail Imtu nm-
stnii'ti'il at a lii;;li('i lc\rl tinii ilu- .Mrilitirraiu-an ami Itril msih, hail lin ii
sii|i|iliiMl with waliT trniii tii>- Nih-, ami hail, thiMi'lnrf, Ihmmi riiiiHtnii'trit with
^iiit.ilili' liM'ks .\\ I'licii i-iiil (as \tas artiiallv irriiiiiiii'-ii<lril lis -luai' I'li^'im'i'rx),
till* rnMt III I'liiistnirtioii. as Ai-ll as ihf |M'r|M-tiial r\|ii-iis<> nt maiiiti'iiatiii-,
wiiiiiil havr lii'fii h'r(<atl\ in i-m-csn of its artiial cnHt. Ami hd tin* fart that it
was |iiissili|i' III riiiistnirt ti Miial witlmnt li>rk>, ami witlmiit inoviiliii;^' I<>|'
a sii|i|ilyiil watiT, wasa \i\*-,\X lulvanlaK'' that tarililatiil tl.,' |iri>iiii>linii nl tin-
i'iiti'r|irist'.
M \M iiKsTKii ('\\\i,. — This raiial, liaviii;,' a lntal Iniiflli ol' I'lilv ihirtv-
li\i-aml uiif hall inih's, has liaiisluinii'il ihi' ril\ nt .ManrhrstiT. I'!ii.;iaii<l,
Iriiiii an inlaml i-itv tn a sfa|Hi|-t. Ai-iiial i-xruvalinii was lii-hmii in \<i-
vi'iiilirr. IS.S7, ami jiinI six vrais aUnwaiils I In- whiili- raiial was tillnl
with waliT. It has a ilrjilh nt' I'ti li-ft, ami a wiilth at tin* l> iti'lii nt hum
I'jo III I7<i tt'ft, thus vfiviii;; a Kii-atir i-a|iarii\ than tin* Sui>/ canal <>i' ihf
|irii|insi-i| ruiiaiiia iMiial. Sunn- i>l' tin' ,i;i'i*ati-st ilitliiMiltii's invuhril aiosr
Imm till- niM'i'Nsitv III' |iriiviilin.; lor tin- i-xislin^' ranals ami lailinaiN w ith
whii-h that Iiumv |Hiitiiiii nl' Kn^laml is so crnwilril. l'frha|iH tin* nmst in-
liii'stinj,' fi-at nl I'lij^iiii'i-riiij; was thi- draw luiilyo cariv in.; tin' iMikc nl
r>ri<l^'rwati'r's ranal at Itailnn. I'liis small ranal. having nri^inall\ a ili'jiih
nt' niily tour ami inii' halt ri-ct, hi'ii' iTnisrs tin' ItiM-r Irwrll. It was justly
rniisiih'i'i'il a •{I'l'at frat nl' i-iiv'im'i'rinic whi'ii flaiiii's jtrimlli'V i-niistrnrti'il tin'
raiial, iliirin^' 'In' i-i;.;htrrnth ri'iiliiry, sn that it rrnssnl tin- rnt'r nii a via-
iliict. A watrrway I'lnssiii'.; a wati-rway nn a viailiicf was iln-ii a iii'W idi-a.
I'liit this nlil ranal was rnnHtriii'ti-il i'nM->iih'ialily almvi' ihi' ili'sircil h-vi'l nl
till' Mamiii'stiT i-anal. ami yi't, nt miirsi', imt sn \\\\(\\ that a iiiastnl sliiii
miy:lit pass iimh'r it. 'riirii'lnir a draw lirraim' m-i-i'ssary. 'I'n add tn tin>
rnm|ilii Miinii. tin* water siipply id tin- small ranal lii-iiif^ sniinwhat limitt'il,
it was iniisidi'ri'd very iiiidfsiralih' tn Inst' a tinn|,ditiil nf water (rnin;hly,
I'lKi.lHlli jr;dlnn>) I'a.li tiiiii' till' draw was npi'md. '\'i\ alh'w this water t
llnw intn a tank and then piiiiip it liaek wmild eniisniiie tnn mmh tune, tn
sav nnthinj; id' the expense. Tlieretnie the liridne must swinn with the
ti'iMi^di t'lill nt' water. 'I'hal reipiireil \'\\\<-s at eaili end nl the draw, as
well as at the ends nt' the eaiial mi eaeh almliimiit. These |.;ati's were
eniuparutively HJiiiple ; but the ditliinlt prnlilein wiin to eiiHiire a wiitei-ti^ht
jnint lietween the ends nt' the draw trmiiih ami the enrrespniidiin; ends iA
till! eaiial. 'reinperatnre i'liaii({es, a- well as many nther emisideratinns,
wiiiild pieehidc the pnssiliility of inakiiij,' even a tairly liniii jnint hy swiiifr-
inj,' the draw tn a elnse lit with the aiuitmeiils. 'I'lie desired result was
aiinmplished liy plaeinj; at eaeh i ml n| the draw a very shnrt I'-shaped
striietiife, liaviiijj tin- same ernss seetinii as the rrnss stM'tinti of the trnimli.
and having; li"veleil ends littiii),' enrropnndinj; bevels mi the ends nf the
trnn^dl. 'I'iieM' lievi'led ends are taeed with rillilier. 'I'n npeli the draw
tin' Kites are rinsed, the water iM'twei'ii the f;ate. at eaeh end (a eniij.
jiaratively small anmunt) is drained olT ami wasted, the I'-shaped wediJi'S
H
4
M
a
O
a
2
t
3
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
K.
1.0
Li
I^|2i8 |25
|iO ^^" ■■■I
u
■ 4.0
1 2.0
l^gu^
^
6"
^
I^tographic
Sciences
Corporalion
23 WIST MAIN STUIT
WIBSTiR,N.Y. 145M
(716) •72-4S03
^^ ^\. ^r\\
354
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY
!iie raised, uiul the draw is then free to turn. Tlie wedges are operated by
hydraulic rams.
OiiK'Ado ])kaixa«k Canai,. — It will probably be a surprise to many
people to learn that this " drainage "' canal has a greater cross section
throughout tlie "earth-work" sections than any shii» canal in existence, and
is only excieeded through tlie rock sections by the .Manchester canal. The
city of Chicago obtains its water supply from Lake .Michigan. The '-intake"
pipe was at first located comparatively near the shore. As the popidation of
the city grew and the volume of its sewa^'c increased, it was ol)served that
the water supjjly was becoming contami lated. The Chicago Iiiver, into
which the sewage was emjjtied, became s(> foul that the odor was intolerable.
The very evident fact of this odor jjrobahly had more to do with the promotion
and accomi)lishnient of the means of relief adojjted than the far less evident
but very dangerous pollution of the water supply. An extension of the in-
take pipe to a point several niile.'^' from shore by n^eans of a tunnel (which
was in itself a notable feat of engineering) only deferred the time when the
water sup])ly wcnld again be fatally contaminated if the sewage continued to
flow into the lake. It was accordingly determined to dispose of the sewage
by dis(;harging it into an artificial channel where it nught become diluted
with water from Lake Michigan, and thence pass from the watershed of the
(Jreat Lakes to the watershed of the Mississippi. The level of Lake Michi-
gan is so high that there was no trouble about obtaining the recjuisite grade,
and the divide between the watersheds is so low that the depth of the re-
(pured cutting at the summit was not forbidding. l>ut why have such a large
canal? it was rcMpiired that the s(!wage should Ix; diluted, so as not to be-
come offensive to the inhabitants of the region through which the canal must
pass. The law under which the work was authorized rerpiired that the flow
shoidd be (i(l(>,(>(M» cubic feet per minute, and that the minimum width at the
hottom of the channel must he KIO feet. According to the well-known laws
of hj'draulics, it was seen that a deep canal would have a greater (!a]»acity per
unit of excavation than a very wide shallow canal. This is esi)ecially true
through the sections of deepest cut, since excavation afjorc the water line adds
nothing whatever to the caj)acity for flow. The sections adopted called for a
depth of water of 22 feet. The side walls in rock are practically vertical, the
width of channel being KJO feet at the bottom and 1G2 feet at the to]i. In
earthwork the crrts."^ section is larger than in rock, thus reducing the velocity
of flow and danger of scouring the banks. 'I'he width of channel at the bot-
tom is 202 feet, the width at the water surface being 290 feet, and the side
slopes 2 horizontal to 1 vertical.
A very ex])ensive feature of this great work was the necessity for con-
structing a diversion channel for the Desplaines River throughout that por-
tion of the river valley occupied by the canal. Lack of space forbids a
further discussion of this feature. The canal will drain into the Desplaines
Hiver at a ])oint where the slope of the river is so great that there will never
be danger that a strong west wind or an unusual lowering of the level of
Lake Michigan can possibly cause the current to flow eastward.
Work on the canal was commenced only after many years of discussion,
phanning, legislation, litigation, and bitter opposition by the varied inter-
ests which considered themselves more or less injured. But the work was
^
.|\
\
\
PROGRESS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
3oo
ai'tually coninieuced in .Inly, l<Si>2. The esstimated excavation is ajtproxi-
matt'ly 411,000,000 cubic yards — about one halt' that of tlie Suez canal ; but
the length is only L".> miles, compared with 101 miles for the Suez canal. The
total cost is estimated at something over fL* 7, 000,000. It is expected that
the work will be actually complete<l before the close of this century.
/
''n
V. (iKOUKSV.
It may be that many, who have read of the incredulity of all Europe when
the voyages of navigators during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries first
demonstrated the sphericity of tiie earth, will be surprised to learn that this
knowledge had been ac(piired almost two thousand years before, and had
since then been forf/uffrii. To Eratosthenes, a Grecian, belongs the honor of
tirst making a measurement (aljout the year li30 n. c.) of the size of the earth,
whicli. wliiie very nule and inaccurate, used the same fundamental principle
iis is now employed by geodesists. lUit the appliances of those ancient
(.Jrecians and of the Arabians, who later carried on the work, were exceed-
ingly crude. Even during tlie sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when
the French. Englisli. and Dutch were working very hard on the problem, and
were gradually obtaining results which came closer and closer to those now
known to be correct, the api)liancHs for measuring angles were so rough and
inaccurate that it was only jjossible to assert that the earth is spherical, with
a diameter of about 7000 miles. The seventeenth century was nearly past
when I'icard first used spider lines to determine the "line of colliuiation,"
or the true line of sigiit, in a telescojje. This marked a new era in methods
of work, but the eighteenth century was about half gone when it was tirst
autlinritatively proven that the earth is not a sphere, but is nu>re truly an
•'oblate spher(jid," — sucli a figure as would be obtained b}" flattening a sphere
at the poles. Some idea of the accuracy of the work done, even at this stage,
may be obtained by considering that the ccunputed ti.attening is so slight that
if we had a perfect rei)roduction of the earth, reduced to a diameter of 12
inches, the flattening would be less than ^ of an inch — almost iini»erceptible
even to a trained eye. The very highest mountain would be considerably less
than jijj of an inch in height on sucii a sphere.
The present marvelous state of the science is due to the great improve-
ments which have been made in the construction and use of angle-measuring
instrunu^nts and of "■ base bars ; " also to the development of the mathemati-
cal theory and processes involved, notably that of the •■method of least
squares.'' As an illustration of the accur.acy attainable in the construction
of theodolites, the writer recently made an elaborate test of the error of the
centering of one of these angle-measuring instruments. ( )f course no tiirecf
measurement is possible. The result is based on a long series of observa-
tions, which, when combined according to certain mathematical principles,
will give the desired result. The error was thus computed to be fotii/-two
miUiontlin of an inch. To realize what is meant when an tiigle is measured
with a •' probable error " of a few hundredths of a second of arc, it should be
remembered that one second of iirc on a circle 10 inches in diameter is less
than jrt,\j,^ of an inch. The accuracy which has been attained in tlie mea-
surement of base lines is not easily realized by a layman. An engineer
realizes the practical impossibility of measuring a line twice and obtaining
3o6
TlilUMl'HS AXD WOSDEHS OF THE XI Xm CENTURY
/irrrisi'/i/ tlic s;mit' result to the finest >iiiit ot uieasmeiiieiit. Tlie initiated
are tlierefore able to aiiineciate the aehievenient ol measuring a base line
having a length uf over nine miles, with a '• ])rol)able error'" of less than one
live-millionth of its length. The words •• probable error." as used above, have
a seientitically exaet meaning, but they may be taken by the uninitiated as
representing a measure of the precision obtained.
At about the close of the last century- the great mathem, ieian, Laplace,
had declared that the resiUts of the surveys which had then been made were
inconsistent with the theory that the form of the earth is exactly that of an
oblate spheroid. That tV)rm woulil re(|uire that the e([uator and all i)arallels
of latitude shall be true circles, and that all meridian sections shall be e(,ual
cllii)ses. Laplace showed that the discrepancies between the actual results
obtained and the results which the theory would call for are too great to be
considered as mere inaccuracies in the work done. With the (>xtension. dur-
ing this century, of the great geodetic surveys, carried on by the various
governments of the world, more and more evidence has develo])ed that the
meridia'i sections of the earth are not eijiml, which is equivalent to saying
that the eipiator is not a perfect circle. This has led to the next stage, which
liiis been to jirove that the form of tlit^ earth may be more closely represented
by an "ellipsoid " than by a spheroid, that is. that c/vr// section of the earth
is an ellipse. Several calculations have been made to determine the length
and location of the principal axes of such a figure. Uut these calculations
are considered unsatisfactory, because evidence has developed that the true
form of the earth caniu)t be represented even by an ellipsoid. This figure
is symmetrical above an<l below the ecpiatoi'. There are reasons for believing
that the s.iuthern hemisiihere of the earth is slightly larger than the northern,
and that the form of the earth is laure nearly that of an "ovaloid." — a figure
of which the ordinary hen's egg is an exaggerated example.
All the above forms, the sphere, sjjhcroid. ellijisoid. ami ovaloid are geo-
metrical forms which rei)rcsent with more and more e.cactness the true form
of the earth, but even this increasing Exactness will not accoimt for the dis-
orejiancic's and iri'cgidarities which have been fouml at vai'ious ])laces, and
M'hich cannot be explained on the ground of inaccurate work, (ieodesists
have l)een forced to the conclusion that the true i'oiin of the earth is not a
regular geometrical form, but is a ••geoid.'" that is, like the earth and like
nothing else, unless we a<lmit the exag;;erated comparison that it is "like a
potato.'' It should be understood that the wor(ls "form of the earth" do
not refer to tlie actual surface of mountain, valley, or ocean bottom, but to
the actual ocean surface, and to the surface which the free ocean woidd
assume if it could [lenetrate into the heart ot the continents. The astound-
ing accuracy of the work done may be appreciated when we consider that the
differences between the •' geoid " and the more accurate mathemati(^al forms
are distances which should be nu'asured in feet rather than in miles. l'<ir
many purposes, it is sutticicutly exact to consider the earth as a sphere.
For some very precise work it is n<'cessary to consider it as a spheroid. Tlu'
more t'xact forms Imve little or no utilitaiian value, and the vast amount of
work that has been sjieut on these researches has been due to man's thirst
for knowledge as such. — due to the same enthusiasm which advances the
sciences in fields which onlv broaden man's knowledge of the world in which
we
live.
1'
PROGRESS IS CIVIL ESGlSEERlSd
Xil
initiiitod
base line
tliaii (im-
OVC, llllVf
tiiitcd as
La\)lai'('.
atlf \\ t'lv
liat of ail
panillcls
1m' ('([iial
il results
rcat to lit-
sioii. (hu-
(■ various
lliat tlif
to saving
itji'. wliicli
'lirt'scntt'd
tile caitli
the liMigth
ilculatious
It till' tnii'
'liis tii^urc
believing
* noitheni,
— a figure
(1 are geo-
' true form
For the dis-
|)laees, and
(Jeodesists
til is not ;i
h and like
is " like a.
earth '" do
oni. but to
ean would
le astound-
er that the
ti<;al forms
aile.s. I'or
I a s])here.
roid. 'I"he
amount id'
inn's thirst
vailees tlie
d in which
VI. KAILKOAKS.
The aehievomeiits of engineering skill on the line of bridges, canals, tun-
nels, etc., liavo been great, but their effect is insignificant compared with
the social revolution that was created bv the invention and development
(if railroads. The railroads of tliis country represent a value of alniiit
.Sl-j^Of^.OOO.OOO — one sixth of the national wealth. Tlieir jiay-roUs include
ahmit iS")(MM><> employees — .}^ of the wt)rking population. They sup[iort,
directly or indirectly, about r»,0(l(>.(KM> people. They collect an annual revenue
of about iiiil,liOO,()0(),0()(), which is greater than the value <d' the combined pro-
ducts of gtdd, silver, iron, coal, and other minerals, wheat, rye, oats, barley,
potatoes, and tobacco, prodiuied by the entire nation. Such a stupendous
social institution retpiires special discussion, and it will be found treated
separately under the heading of •' Involution of the Kailway."
VII. TIXNKLS.
Tunnels are of exceedingly ancient origin, if by tunnels we include all
artificial underground excavations. From [)rehistori(! times natural caves
have been used as burial places, and, following this practice, tunnels and
artificial ro(!k chambers have been cut out by kings and rulers in 'I'hebes.
Nubia, and India iluring periods so ancient that we call the study of their
history archa'(dogy. Nor were the ancient tunnels confined to tombs. The
Mabylonians constructed tunnels through material so soft that a lining of
brick uiasoiirv had to be used to sustain the work. The lioiiians constructed
a tunnel over three and one half miles long to drain the waters of J.ake
Kiiciuo. About .'{O.OtlO laborers were occupied on this work for eleven years.
Tlie nineteenth century can hardly boast t)f works that represent a greater
aiiioiiiit of labor (iiieasur(>d in mere days of work) than some of these ancient
monunieiits of (Minstriictive skill, iiut the masterpieces of this centur\- are
works wiiicii have been greatly aided and even rendered possible by three
modern inventions, — comjiressed-air drilling niaidiines. modern explosives,
and the comi)ressetl-air process used in subacpieous work. The advance in
methods of tunnel surveying is as great and nearly as imi>ortant. I'rogress
in excavating tunnels is necessarily slow, because the w(U'kiiig face is so
small that only a few men can work there at a time, and the rate of advance
depends ujion them. As an illustration : although the Mont Cenis tunnel
lielongs to the latter half of this century, the hr.st blast being made in 1H.")7,
yet, for the first four years hand drilling was em|)loved, when the average
progress was about nine inches per day. Then machine drilling with com-
pressed air was adopted, when the rate of advance was multiplied five times.
The invention of compressed-air drills simultaneously solved two ditticulties :
(1) The compressed air furnishes an extremcdy convenient and safe form of
]iower, which enables holes to be drilled mucli more lapidly than it is pos-
sible to drill them by hand. (2) The compressed air, after doing its work,
is exhausted into the tunnel, and thus furnishes a continuous supply of fresh
ail'. The necessity for ventilation has often required the construction and
operation of expensive ventilating plants. Add to these improvements tlie
lighting of the tunnel, even during construction, by electric lights which con-
sume no oxygen, and the comparison between ancient and modern methods
358
TIUIJMl'HS AND WONDERS OF THE A/A™ CEXTriii'
AMEUU AN PORTAI.. ST. CI.AIll Tl'NNKI
OK DKTKOIT. MICH.
NOKTII
become.s cspeciiilly marked. JU'tbri' tin' invfiitioii oi' exidosivt's. liard rock
was souiftiiiics broken In- l)iiililiiij; wood lircs next to the rock, and llieii.
Avlieu the rock had heconie very liot, cooling' it .suddenly with water. The
sudden contracti(jn would .split the rocik. A'entilation was attein]>ted by wav-
ing; tans at the tniniel entrances. AVith torches and tires to consunw the
precious oxygen, and no eft'ec-
tive Ventilation, it is a wonder
how those earlier tnnntds were
constructed. The coni|>ressetl
air methods for suliaijueous
work will he referred to under
a sju'cial case. 'I'he essential
priiu'iples have already been
described under caissons.
Ti'.NNKi. Sriivi;vi.\(i. — 'Ihe
tunnel surveying developed dur-
ing this century is one of the
marvels of surveying work. Tf
a tunntd is to be several miles
in length, not only is the exca-
vation comnienced at each einl,
but one or more intermediate
shafts are fretiuently sunk to
the level of the tunnel, and excavation is extended in each direction from
the shafts. Jt is extremely important that these sections of the tunnel
should ••meet'' exactly. If they should fail to do so b}- any apjireciable
amount, the necessary niodificjitions are frecpu'utly costly and therefore jus-
tify the most elal)orate preca>itions in the surveying work, especially since
the surveying costs much less than the conse<pu>nces of such a blunder. The
Hoosac tunnel is over L'r),O0(l feet long. 'I'he heading from the east end met
the heading from the central shaft at a point ll.L'74 feet from the east end
and lofJ.'J feet from the shaft. The error in alignment was five sixteenths of
an inch, that of levels ••a few hundredths," error of distance "trifling." The
corrected alignment was then carried on toward the heailing irom the west
end. which it met at a point lO.l.'iS feet (nearly two miles) from the west end
and L'Ood feet from the shaft. Here the error of alignment was ^^ of an inch
and that of levels about 1 g inches. The surveying work of the spiral tunnels on
the St. (iothard Mailway (to be described later) is another example of marvtd-
ously accurate work under ]iecuiiarly unfavorable circumstances.
St. (lOTUAnn TrxxKL. — To appreciate the magnitiuh' of the problem in-
volved, of M'hicli this great tunnid is the crowning feature, some idea should
be ol)tained of the Alj)ine topography lying between Silenen, in Switzerland,
and liodio, in Italy, less than forty miles ajiart. The idea of connecting
Switzerland and Italy by a railroad passing over or through the Al]is, by uti-
lizing the St. (iothard I'ass as far as ])ossil)le. dates back to ISoO, or even
earlier. An enterjjrise of such magnitude could be consummated only after
years of discussion, jdanning. surveying, negotiations, and even international
agreements, in 1S71 a treaty was finally ratified between Germany. Italy, and
Switzerland, by which the construction and financiering was duly authorized.
,'}•
PROG/tKSS IN CIVIL ESGISEERISG
3S9
lard rock
mil lIxMi.
tcr. Till'
by Wiiv-
suiuc tlic
11(1 ottVc-
a Wdiidt'i-
iii'ls were
imin-esseil
iliii(]Ut'(ms
to under
essential
idv been
ms.
— 'I'lie
lo|ped dui-
iiie of tlie
work. If
eral miles
i the exca-
eaeli end,
terniediate
\- sunk to
^tion from
tlie tunnel
ijijirefiable
MO fore jus-
'ialh- since
nder. Tlie
st end met
le east end
cteentlis of
iug." The
111 the west
c west end
of an iiieh
tunnels on
of marvel-
roblem in-
dea should
ivitzerland,
I'onnecting
Ijis. by uti-
>0, or even
only after
ernational
Italy, and
luthorized.
On August 7. l.HTL', the contract for tlie construction was signed, with a
]proviso that the work must be completed within eight years. On A]tril .'{(t.
1,S,S(», the advance headings met, and
thereafter the mail
soon tnereaiier tne mans were regu-
larly carried thrtiugh, although the tunnel was not actually comideted in the
s]ieciti(,'d time.
'V\w route adopted was bold enough to stagger the financier, if not the engi-
neer. Starting from Sileiieii. Switzerland, it reijuired a climb of nearly L'OOO
feet to reach (iiisclienen, the adopted northern portal of the tunnel. This
would re([iiire an urcrni/)' grade of L'dO feet per mile in the ten miles (d' dis-
tance, or ail actual grade of .'mO feet jicr mile in the upper jiart id' the line,
if the river valley were followed. The line was therefore •• devtdoped," that
is, the distance was puriiosely ima-eased liy ado[)ting an indirect line, in order
that the grade might lie less. It was found possible to run the line from
Silenen to l'l'afi'ens|)ning, a distance of about six miles, on the comparatively
low grade of i;!7 feet jier mile. .\t this jioiiit the line suddenly plunges into
the mountain, and curves around in a circle, which is, roughly. HOOd feet in
diameter, wliih; it continues an ujiward graile of IlilJ feet per mile. After
traversing 4.S4;'» I'eet of such tunnel, the line again emerges into the open air,
having turned nearly three fourths of a cinde in the solid rock. About lidOd
feet farther on the line actually crosses itself, the ujijier line there being 1()7.\
feet higher than the lower line, which is at that point within the tunnel, liy
this device, whicdi is called a spiral, the line is run at a practicable grade, and
an elevation of 1(57^ feet is surmounted by introducing 0980 feet of "develop-
ment." Near the entrance of the Leggistein tunnei, the line is less than oOO
feet away (horizontally) from a lower part of the line, which is about .Sod
feet lower in elevation. Sjjace forbids a further description of this climb of
2000 feet to Goschenen, where the
line plunges into the bowels of the
earth, and does not again emerge
until it has traversed in'iie diid one
iliKirter mi/rs, and has reached the
southern slope of the Alps. Even
here the portal is o7r>o feet above
sea level, and the valley down to
] Sod if) is steeper in jilaces than the
valley of the Keuss. Four spirals
are used in descending about L'OoO
feet in an air line distance of less
than 1'.) miles. In one place even
the upper line, where it crosses the
h)wer line, is in solid rock. Imagine
standing in the gloom of a tunnel
and considering that vertically be-
neath your feet — more than 100
feet further down in the bowels of
the earth — there is another tunnel belonging to the same line of road. The
great majority of tunnels are straight. A few have curves at one or botli
ends, but nowhere else in the world can be found such examples of sjiiral
tunnels carved out of the living rock.
OK ST. ('r..\lli TI'.N.Ni;!,, NOKTII
OF nKTKorr, micii.
3«>0
TUIUMI'HS AM) iVOXDEIlS UF THE A/A'" CESTUUY
St. Claiu Ti xxki,. — A gliuici' at a iiiiip of lower Canada and Miidiit,Mn
will sliow that all tlu' rail traflitMif lowi-r Canada, andcvt-n that Iroiu .Montreal
and C'nt'lx'c, that passes as tiir west as Chi('aj,'o, must, either eross the l)etrt>it
Iviver at Detroit or the St. Clair Ifiver. at or near Port Huron. I'lans lor
hridginj^ the river have heen lre(|nentl_v made, hut tin; Canadian <,'overnnn'nt
has atoadilv relused jiurmission. The trattie alonj; the river in ISIMJ amounted
to over .'!."i,()()0,0(M» tons, or more than was shippeil at the ports of either New
N'ork, liondon, or Liverpool, and greatly in excess of that which passed
through the Suez canal. Such trattie must not he impeded even iiy a draw-
hridge ; and therefore a tunnel wlis the only alternativ*'. The jiroblem was in
nniny respects unique. I'.orings showe<l thai the tunnel must jiass through
(day and occasional ])ockets of (piicrksand. and therefore it woidd he necessary
to employ a iiueumatic method. iJrunel had u.seda "shield " on the Tlnuncs
tunnel half a century before; hut all of the earlier tunnels constriu'ted by
this method wert^ in\u'h smaller, and the ditticulty and danger increase very
rapidly as the size increases.
In 1SS(> the -'St. Clair Tunnel Company." virtually a creature of the
(Jrand Trunk Railway (Company, was organized, and in ISSS work was be-
gun. After a false start, nnide by sinking sliafts which were afterwards
abandoned, open euttings were conmu'uccd at each end. which were ex-
tended to points (JOOO feet ai)art. between which the tunnel was excavated
and lined. The circular lining, iiaving an outside diameter of lil feet, is of
(;ast iron, made in segments whicdi are bolted together, having strips of wood
three sixteenths of an inch thick placed in the joints. Liipiid asphalt was
freely used as a pi-eservative and to nuike tigiit joints. The tunnel was exca-
vated for nearly 2()(M) feet on cijieh side as an ordinary open tunnel until
the excavation was actiudly un<ler the river : then a diapiiragm with air
locks was built on e.-ich siiie, and that part of the tunnel lying inider the
river — liliilO feet in length — was constructed under air pressure. Several
curious facts were developed during the construction. The material exca-
vated outside of the shields was thrown inside, loaded m\ to cars, and
liauled by mides to the diaphragm. It was fo\ind that horses could not
work in compressed air. Glides ciould do so, i>ut even they were sometinu's
affected by "the bends." a disease akin to iiaralysis, Mhich frecpiently
occurred among the men. The shields were forced forward by twenty-
four liydranlic rams, each having a capacity of 12') tons, or ."UKM) tons for
each shiehl. Usually a force of ll'OO to l."»(M» tons was suHicient. Afuch
gas was encountered, which, on account of its exi)losiveness, prevented the
employment of blasting to break np the boulders which were frerpiently
found. The advantages of electric lighting in compressed air work were
exemplified in this tunnel. In August, l.SJMt, about one year after the
shields were placed on eacdi side of the river, they met near the centre.
The ])rogress of each shield averaged nearly ten feet per day. Consider-
ing the frequency with which the cost of great engineering work exceeds
the original estimate, it is remarkable to note that in this case the actual
cost (ifili, 700,000) was less than the original estimate, which was about
.ii>;j,ooo,ooo.
Waltkk Lokino Webb.
y
lit'lii,L!im
Ot'troit
lans 1(11'
I'Tiinit'iit
IllOllIltt'll
n'v New
1 ]lllSSCll
a (Iraw-
111 was ill
tlirim};li
K'cc.ssary
• 'I'lianics
iictcd liy
ISf VITV
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN THE ANIMAL WORLD
I. or AN I.MAI, MSI'.ASKS,
TiiK wars <if Xapoleim, wliicli in thf t'aily yeais of the nineteenth century
so seriously att'ected tiie goveriiiueiits ami institutions ol' Europe, liail an
equally iiiarkeU iiiHiienee upon the developinent of the aniiuiil industry in
the countiies that were lirought within the sjihere of tiie military operations.
Tiiis chapter of tlie history of that [leriod appears to have been nej^lected
by writers who have imlustriously delved into details of suitjeets of far less
interest and importance, Knoii<;h has been chronicled by various historians,
however, to show that in many isases tiiose enga};ed in successful operations
for iinproviii!,' the breeds of domesticated animals wei'e forced to abandon the
work to which they had devoteil their lives, and for which long study and
experience had spc(Mally fitted them, and to l)econie units in the vast armies
whicii were organized only to melt away in the bloody and disastrous cam-
paigns of tliat ei)ocli. l?ut it was not the men alone that were taken. 'I'he
licst horses were seized for the use of the otticers and the cavalry, for the
artillery and the transportation trains. The sheep and swine were slaugh-
tered for the subsistence of the armies, and tlu^ cattle were driven off for the
same ]mrpose. Xeither.the choicest Hocks and iierds nor tlie most magnifi-
cent individuals pi'oduced by the breeder's art escajKMl. The fruits of many
years of patient effort in selection and in guiding the forces of heredity were
iilotted out; the animals left were few and inferior. To crown all these dis-
asters, the most deadly f-irms of contagion were gathered from their hiding
jilaces with the animals that were seized, the plagues which these caused
were propagated among the vast aggregation of beasts that; were required for
the service of the armies, and, finally, they were disseminated throughout all
sections to whicli these armies penetrated.
The agriculturists of (ireat Hritain, thanks to the isolation due to the con-
siderable expanse of water which sejjarates their territory from the mainland,
esca])ed not only the invasions of armed and destructive hosts, but also the
l)estilences which accompanied them. While, therefore, the farmers of the
continent were struggling to save a few of their remaining animals from
the ravages of glanders, rinderpest, foot-and-mouth disease, ])leuro-}meumonia,
and other plagues, those of the British Isles were perfecting the work of their
ancestors without molestation. These circumstances, lost sight of by many,
explain to a "ertain extent the a])parently marvelous success of the Uritish
husbandmen in developing so many breeds of horses, cattle, sheep, and swine
to the wonderful perfection which we see at the end of the nineteenth century.
The favorable climate, together with the abundant and nutritious htu-bage,
have undoubtedly been factors in the production of the I$ritish breeds, but
the power and opportunity to select the best animals and retain these for
breeding purjjOses must also have liad great influence.
Hii'
;wj
TRIUMI'HS AXU WOMilinS OP THE XIX' n L'ENTUUy
Tlie crt'fcl cf (•oiitagioiis diseases in n'tardiiiK tlic (Icvcloinut'iit ol animal
life iiiav 1)1! ai>|ir('fiatt'il troiii the fstiiiiatc, caiclully iiiadc. that in the rlosinit
ycuis ul tilt; i'i,i,'iiti't'nlli fcntury the cattlf ijlaguc (^i in(lcr|icst) alunt- drstroyt'il
in KiiroiK' two liiindn-d million head of cattle, valued at Hcvcn billions of dol-
lars. Dniing tlit; first halt' of the nini'lci'iith conturv, cattlf plaijuc, jilt'iiid.
imcumonia. anil ioot-and-moulh discast' wi-ri! jiurticularly disastrons to the
animal industry of the CoiitintMit of Kurope, and nn(|nt'Htional)ly. also.
througlio\it Asia, whitdi apiicars to have hem thr ori.v'inal liahitat of these
plagues. Jhiring the last third of this century the development of veteri-
nary science, together with the enactment of sanitary legislation and the
enforcenient of intelligent measures of repression, have practically eradicated
the cattle plague from the countries of Kurope. and wi- have only to iu)te. as
important, its invasion of (ireat iSritain in 1.S<m. which led to the a(h)i)tiou of
the i)resent most exctdleut sanitary organization, and the oxteusi\i' <iutl»reak
on the continent following the Franco-rrussian war. During the last six
years this plagiie has swejjt over large sections of the African continent,
destroying nearly every bovine animal in the regiims first invaded, and Jiad
it not been for the fortunate and timely discovery of a successful method of
preventive inoculation, the cattle industry would have been absolutely anni-
hilated.
I'leuro-pneumonia, almost eipially destructive with cattle ])lague and much
more persistent, was widely disseminated over tlu' continent of Kurope dur-
ing the seventeenth century, and reached Kugland about 1H4(I. Many years
were lost in f\itile contentions over the sidiject of contagion, and it was not
until the last twenty years that vigorous nu-asures for its extermination were
enforced. In the meant, ae the contagion had been carried to Australia and
South Africa, where it has since renuiined domiciled, a constant source of
loss to the cattle growers. The losses from this disease in Kurope iire now
comparatively uninijiortant, but in the countries of Asia and Africa, and in
Australia, it is .still a great incidms. Foot-and-mouth disease, less fatal in
its effects than the other maladies mentioned, appears to be nutre difficult to
control, an<l. in the closing years of the century, we find it prevailing exten-
sively over the jyincipal countries of ("ontineutal Kurope.
The diseases which have most seriously affected the development of other
S])ecies of animals are the glanders of horses, the variola of shec]) (sheep-iiox),
and the three diseases of swine known in Europe as erysipelas, swine pest,
and swine ])lague. These have been extrenu-ly prevalent and fatal in many
parts of Europe, (ilanders. swine pest, and swine plague have been iu'ought
to the American continent, and have been even more destructive here than in
their ancient habitat.
The diseases which at present are regarded as most serious attracted but
little attention at the l)eginning of the century, or were unknown. Tuber-
culosis has now become the great scourge of dairy cows ;in(l other highly
bred cattle, ruining many of the best herds and threatening the health of the
consumers of milk, if not also of beef. Texas fever, a disease of cattle first
studied in the United States, but now known to be widely di.sseminated over
the South American, .\frican. and Australian continents, has during late
years retarded ojierations for imin-oving and increasing the stock of cattle,
and has seriously restricted the marketing of animals from the infected dis-
tricts.
luiiiiial
iisiny;
troycd
of (lol-
ili'iii'iN
tl) tliu
llls(..
tlicsc
vctcri-
lll tlic
iciitcil
ion (if
lirt'iik
st six
itincnt.
ml )iii(l
tlioduf
}■ iiniii-
THOIIOUKHHUKU.
:mi4
THJij.uriis AXD \\(>.\nj:i{s or riii-: .v/.v" cHsrunv
TliiH brief siuntiiiirv rcliitivc to cuiitaKidiis iliH*'aHt>s iiinl tlicir t'tlVcts is all
tliu iitti'iitiiiii tliat can lie givfii in this article to ciiiiilitions wliicli iIudic^Ii
all historic tiiiu's havu Itceii ini|i()itaiit, and, in many cases, have been 8U|ii'enie
in their iiitlneiicu u[ioii the tontli'iieius ami duveU)|)meiit ot tht! animal |Mi|in-
latinn. As the twentieth centniT apinoaches, liowevef, the influence oi the
animal pla^jnes is on the wain', ami witii a lew more veais <il active seicntitic
investigations they will all be ho tiioroiighly contiolleil that the (lisastinus
visitations of the past c;mi nexer be repenteil, ami they will not even lie a
himli'unue or menacu to the stock !,'rowi'i'.
II. INCltKASK IN N( Mlli:iIS.
Am minht be exiieetetl, there has been an increase in the nnmbeis of the
ilomesticateil animals held in the various countries ot the wi>rld, but this
iiiciease has been far Irmn uniform, and cannot be measured either liy the
j^rowth of the population or tin; dej,'ree of prosperity. I'",vidently the density
of population, tho developnu-nt of manufactures, and the Icitility of the soil
have had much iuHueuce.
in the I'lMted Kin,i,'dom there were I. ,•)(»»,(»(»»» huises in ISOO. and init
L',(HMI,n(H» in ISitS. Duriuf,' this time the cattle had increased from .^(MMi,!!^^)
to 11,(MM>,(MMI: the sheep from l.'."'..(HM».(MM) to ;M.(MM».(»(M> ; and the swine from
.'!,(MM».(K»(I to ;;.7lM».(MM). Thus, while tln^ cattle doubled in nund)ers duriu},'
the century, the luu'ses inereaseil but one third, the sheep one fourth, and the
swim- one fotirth. As in the same period the population of the country was
au<,'meute(l from i(;,L'(M»,n(MI to I •»,(»( )(»,(>(»(», or two and one half tiim's^ it is
not ditlicult to see why ICiiKland has become the w(U'ld's ;^'reatest market tor
aninuils ami animal products.
It is imp(ntaiit to note the increase in animals in a few (d' the principal
countries of iMirojie. In Krance there were l.S(l(».U(»(» lauses at the be,!,'iu-
lunj,' of the century, and there were .■{.4iS.(l(M» in iSiMJ. The cattle increased
from (>,(MM).(MM» to i;t..'i;i»,(MIO ; the swine from i.."'>(M».(l(»0 to (».HM1.(»(HI: the
<,'uats from SI >().(»()() to l..")(M),(ltM>; while the sheep decreased from .'«),( KKMKMt
to 1.*1,1.'0(>,(MMI. That is, in round riund)ers, the horses, cattle, and floats
doubled, the swine increased nearly ."iO per cent, but the sheep were dimin-
ished one fourth. The popnlation advanced fiom l.'7,.']r)(>.<KM) to .'iS,r>()(».(HK»,
or about 40 per cent.
In (lermany, from ISL'S to 1S!>L', the horses increased frimi U.-'iOtMidO to
.■?..S,'i(),()0(»; the cattle from U,770.(>(Mt to 17,r>0(MI<M) ; the floats from 7fl(>.<HM)
to .S,00( ».(»()() ; the swim- from 4,r.(MMMH) to lLM74,(l(M>; and tho sheep de-
creased from 17,.'{((0.(M»0 to 1.'>.(!()(>.(I(M>. The population increased dnrins; the
•same time from 1'1».70(MMK> to 4<».."')(M).00().
In Euroi)ean Russia, from ISL'S to 18SS. the horses were incre.ased from
12,(K>0,0(»0 to 2(>,000.(MIO ; the cattle from H»,000.(MI() to L'.S.S40.0()0 ; the sheep
from .'{(MMMMMM) to 47..".<K),0(»0; while the swine decrea.sod from l."").8(M),(M»0 to
0,2(I0,(M)(). The population during this period increased from 4r>,00(),0()0 to
{)0,(I00,000.
These are the countries in which there is most interest on accoiuit of their
influence upon the markets of the world. In regard to Kurope as a whole,
Owing to the lack of statistics, we can oidy estimatti approximately as to the
condition at the beginning of the century. From such data as are available
*^'
run ciiSTfHY's i'HoaHi:ss IS Till-: am mm. WOUl.h
:ui.i
is all
ii'iiii'
lOjiU-
tl.r
ii ilic
inlls
tl.c
iliis
tli.>
isitv
>nil
it ii|ipi'afM (liat tlicrc wiMc aiumt L'(i,(MM»,(MH» liniHcs. <i|..S04).(H)i) catllr. 1,'.7.-
oIlO.tMM) si |). ami .'iri,*)lM),<iuii Hwiiif. 'I'lit' |i()|iulatiiiii n| Kiiin|M- at lliai tiiiM'
is iilai'fil at 17."),(MH 1,00(1. In ijic var l'.»tM» llu-n- will Im- in KiiiniM- imi tar
ll'Dlii II.LVtO.OOO lliil'st'H. lOM.OIIO.Ooi) cattle. jHO^^r.^OOO HiiiM>|i. atlil .'id.SOO.OOO
swiiir. 'I'll'- |in|>Mlatiiiii will rcacii alxiiit .'ISO.OOO.OOO.
I''i'niii tlii-sc ti,i.;m')'s it wmilil apjicai' that, tiikiii,u all oi Kiiiii|ic, tin- hit-
man |iii|iuljitii>ii lias iiicirasiMl iiinr*> rapidiv tluiii liav(> any of tlifs)* s|i(>fi)*H
ul (Iniiirsticatcil animals. In dtlii'i' wunls. tlii' )i(>|inlatii)n is L'.l" times what
it was at the ln'i^inninu <i| tli'' ci-ntiirv. whili- thert' ai-e Imt'J.I I timt's as many
hiirscs, 1.7."» limes as many (sattle. I..V> times us many swim', ami 1.14 times
as many slieeji.
This ^I'Dwin},' ilelieiencN in the stotik ol animals. enn|>lei| witli an in-
creasing ponsumptiiiii nl meat pei' eapir.i. has led to the importatidn of
}ri'eat niimhers nt' animals ami V.iv^i' i|iiantities nj meats and ntiiei' animal
W.\TKHIN<; TMI-; COWS.
|iriiiliicts. The result iii'4 trade has stimnlated the i)rodiiction of animals in
other parts of the world. ])arti('nlarly in the I'nited States of America.
Australia, and Argentina, in all of which there has heeii a marvelous de-
velopment.
There are no reliable statistics as to the nnmlier of animals in the
I'nited States at the heginninj,' of the ( eiitnry. _ Some havo estimated that
here were only .'idO.OdO horses. <>(M>.0(M» cattle, and COO.OOO slieep: lint the
writer is of the o])inion that there were from oOO.OOO to 1,(»(M>.(»00 horses,
at least .'JjOOO.OOO head of cattle, and from L'.(MK).0()0 to ;!.(HMMt<l(» sheep. In
].S4(t, with a iiopnlation of 17.(l(i.'i.<»lO. there were 4.;«)(M»0() horses. 14.'.t(Mt.(lO()
cattle. 1 !).;!( 10.000 sheo]). and l'(;..".00.(t(M) swim- : while in IS'.Kt the nnndier is
placed at 1 ."i.SOO.OOO horses and ninles, 44.<»()(>.0(Kt cattle. .'lit.dOO.OdO si p. ami
.'{8,(100.000 swine.
In ISSS the horses of Canaria imndiered 1. 100.000. the cattle ;!.7UO.00().
the sheep I'.dOO.OOO, and the swine l.L'o,"),000. In the same year ]Me.\ico was
credited with L'.OOO.OOO horses, ;;.0(lO.O()0 cattle. 2,()()(»,(I(M» sheep, and o.OlMt,-
000 goats. Taking the whole of North America, ami making allowances
366
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
for the increase since 18.S8 in (Junada and Mexico, it may be fairly as-
sumed that at the ('h)se of the century there will be about 11>,()0().(KI(>
liorses and mules, 5ij,000,OOU cattle, *")(MMK>,(K)0 sheei), and 4(>,()()0,(t(M»
swine.
In South America, Argentina far outstrips all other countries in animal
I)roduction. 'riit^ liorses, which in 1804 inimbered .■).87r>,00(», had increased
by 3 S'Ji") to 4,447,000; the cattle increased in the same period from 10,21o,-
000 to L'1.701.',000; the shcei), from l';i.llO,00() to 74..'!8(»,O0(t. The popula-
tion in 180*") was only .'i,0()4,000. In Uruguay there were, in l8!)r>, 402,.'>48
horses, r),l'48.000 cattle, and 14.;i;{;>,000 sheep. In Paraguay there were, in
189<), 24G.O0O horses and iMOO.OOO cattle. The lasi, returns from Chili
(1882 ?) give 4.')(t,000 horses, l,r).'{0,000 cattle, ami 2,i)00,000 sheep. As to the
conditiou in Brazil, we have no reliable statistics.
The animal industries of Australasia have shown tlu! most wonderful
development diu'ing the century. In 180(», there were but L'OO horses, 1040
cattle, and CdOO sheep. In 1810, there were ll.'JO horses, 12.440 cattle, 2r>,()(>0
sheep, and 9540 swine. In 180(», there were l,02.".,r)r>4 horses, 12.701. (iOO
cattle, 110,524,000 sheep, and 1,000,(»00 swine.
In Asia there are large numbers of animals, but it is impossibh,' to give
statistics, except for British India, where, in 1805, there were 1,1.52.000
horses, 40,0(»0,(><'" cattle, and 17.200,000 slieeii.
Mr. Simonds endeavored to ascertain the number of each class of live stock
in the world in 1800, and Ids conclusions may be accepted as api)roximately
correct. He ])laced the total number of horses in all countries at O.'J.-ldO.OOO,
the asses and mules at 1 0,.".l 8,0(l( ». the cattle at .•!09,8(»7.00(t, the sheep at
o88,9.'!5,000, the swine at 102,;>2(>,0(t(», and tae goats at 59,971,000.
Iir. IMl'KOVKMKNT OK ItKlCKDS OF A:,1MALS.
The increased number of animals now held in various ])arts of the world
does not give an adecpiate idea of the enlarged jjroduction of animal food
products, as compared with one hundred years ago. I>uring the last cen-
tury there has been constant improvement in the various breeds of ainmals,
with a view to perfect their form and shorten the time required for their
growth. The breeder has learned how to stimulate development, and has
fixed the quality of early maturity, through hereditary intluence, until it is
now transmitted with the same regularity as are other characteristics.
Cattle are no longer fed until they are three or four years old before being
sent to the butcher, and it has been fcunul that they can be made to yield an
equal quantity of beef of better (piality at eighteen months to two years.
It is the flesh of such young aninuils which has been much discussed under
the title of " baby beef." Not only is this beef commended on account of its
tenderness, its high nutritive value, and the more even distribution of fat
through jhe muscular tissue, but because this shortening of the feeding
period enables the farmer to produce a greatly increased quantity of human
food from the same number of acres. That is, by reducing the age at which
bullocks are marketed from three and one half years, as was formerly the
rule, to twenty months, it is possible for the same farm to produce one third
more animals in a given series of years.
It may be admitted that not all of the stock of beef-producing animals, nor
\
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN THE ANIMAL WORLD 307
even the greater part of it. has ac(iuirecl this extreme degree of early maturity,
but most of it has devek)i)e(l somcwluvt in this direction. The large-boned,
gaunt, and long-horned cattle of Texas have nearly disapjjeared. and even in
.Mexico they are being rapidly replaced by others of better quality. TJie
most important fact is that breeds exist which can be depended upon for
the speedy transformation of the entire stock of cattle wlien the necessity
arises.
A similar hastening of jnaturing has been accomplished with the mutton
breeds of sheep, with numerous varieties of swine, and to a considerable
extent with poultry.
The devel(Ji)ment of the dairy brpeds of cattle has also been remarkable.
A TKMl'KKANCE SOCIEiy. (HKIIIUNO.)
It lan be best appreciated by contrasting the half wild cows of our Western
"plains, which yield but two or three quarts of milk a day at their best, and
none for lialf of the year, with the highly siwcialized types which produce
twenty to thirty qimrts daily when in full flow, and with which the milk
secretion continues from year to year without interruption.
The yield of butter has been increased equally with that of milk, and
among the dairy breeds there are some which are specially valued becaiise of
their ajititude for butter production. AVhile the unimproved cow yields but
one fourth to one half pound of butter a day, good specimens of the best breeds
produce from one and one half to three pounds, and in numerous instances
still greater quantities.
In the product ion of wool there has also been a wonderful advance. The
libre ha.s been increased in length, the fleece has been distribtited more uni-
308
TRIUMPHS AX I) WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
fonaly ( ^;r tlu- surfiict' of tlic boily, ;ind the (luality of the Hbre has been
modified to conlonu to the rciiiiireiiKMits i'or iiuumfacturing the iiitiiiite varie-
ties of fabrics deniauded by nioderu civilization. The fleece of to-chiy is pro-
bably three times as heavy as that of a eeiit\iry ago.
The iniprcveiiieiit in the ^Merino ty])e has been truly wonderful. Xot onlj'
liave the beautiful long aiul silky wools of the Kambouillet and Saxony breeds
been developed by persistent selection, but the body of the ^Merino. ft)rnierly
small and almost useless for its flesh, has been brought to a standard closely
approaching that of the best mutton breeds.
It is unfortunate that the changes of fashion liave. during the latter part
of the century, made the production of the extra fine wools less profitable
than the coarse varieties, and that, as a consecjuence. nianj' flocks whicli
AIST CIMTKS. ((JKISI.KI! I
had been bred to the very highest degree of ]ierfectiun in this direction
have gone to the shand)les. and their jieculiar points of excellence have been
lost. ^
With poultry, a vast nund)cr of varieties and strains have been developed,
among which the most fastidious tnste may readily find its ideal. Some of
these have been jierfectcd Ironi the standpoint of iitility. while with otii. the
guiding ])rinciiih; has been ])urely a'sthetic. Thus there are breeds which are
characterized by their size, rapid growth, and excellencte of flesli..^ others which
have been developed simjily as egg-producini; miichinos and which have even
lost the niMtcrnal instinct i'or incubal ion : and still otlieis in whicli the beauty,
the complication, and the jierfection of the feathering constitute the principal
claims to attention.
The standard weights of the heavy varieties, such as Urahmas and Cochins,
STUliV
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS LX THE ANIMAL WORLD 369
Hbre has been
! intinite varif-
to-day is i)i'o-
ful. Not only
Saxony breeds
I'iiiti. formerly
;an(lard closely
the latter part
less prolitalde
• flocks which
this direction
ence have been
leen develojied,
ileal. Some of
withotli. the
•eeds which are
i.i others which
liich h.ave even
lich the beanty.
te the principal
as and Coeliins,
is now 11 lbs. to 12 lbs. for cocks, and 8.J lbs. to 9J, lbs. for hens. In the United
States, there has been developed a distinct American class of medinni weight
fowls, of which the I'lyniouth Kocks and Wyandottes are the most popular
varieties. The cocks of these varieties weigh from S.J lbs. to 9J lbs., and the
hens (U lbs. to 71 lbs. They are valued both for their flesh and for egg pro-
duction. The rapid multiplication of varieties by modern breedei-s is illus-
trated by the Wyandottes. which came into existence during the la.st third of
the century, and of which there are now Ave distinct varieties : the Silver,
Ciolden. White, IJiiff, and Hlack.
The breeder's art has been most successfully brought to bear in stimulating
the function of egg ^iroduction. Not numy years ago. an average yield of I'Jo
to 150 eggs annually from the hens of even a small flock was considered all
FRENCH fOACH-IIORSE " GI.ADfATOU."
that it was possible to obtain, but at present there are varieties which may be
relied upon to i)roduce more than L'0(t eggs annually. In some instances, it
is alleged that an average of nearly ;i<H» eggs a year has been reached iu small
flocks which have been given s]iecial care.
It should not be forgotten that there has also been great improvement
in the various breeds of horses. The heavy draught horses have been
bred into a more compact form, with better legs and feet and less slug-
gish disposition. The most noticeable advance has, however, been in the
lighter grades of horses, and this has largely been accomplished by infusing
the blood of the I']nglisli tluiroughbred. The French, by systematicalh- breed-
ing the Jieavy mares of the country to thoroughbred stallions witli careful
selection of the offspring, ])roduced an extremely valualde breed of carriage-
horses, known there as the i/nni-saii;/, and which have been imported into the
United States as French coach-horses. These animals, beautiful in form
and action, have been brought to a high degree of perfection, and the breed
is so well established that its good ipialities are reliably transmitted from
generation to generation.
24
r
370 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX' " CENTURY
There are also Gurmaii coach-horses and siniihar breeds in several other
countries, which have bt-en established by following the same general i)lau
as that adopted by the French. These breeds are peculiarly the product of
the nineteenth century, and are in their most valuable condition as the
century closes.
The Anu'rican trotting horse has without doubt been one of the most
remarkable triumphs of the breeder's art wliich the century has seen. Ori-
ginating in considerable obscurity, but undoubtedly owing much of its
excellence to the tiiorouglibred, the trotter was born with the century, and
has continually increased its speed until the very end. It now gives jtro-
mise of continuing its evolntion tiirough at least a considerable part of the
twentieth century. In the decade from 1<S(H) to 1810, the be.st recorded
speed at this gait was L*:r><) ; from IJSIO to l.SL'd, the time was lowered to
2:4Si; from \KW to 1S4(», it reached L':.'!l?, ; from l.S4() to 1850, the limit was
2:1'<S; from LSoO to l.S()(>, L';l'.»i; from I'xOO to 1S7(), L':!?^ ; from 1870 to
1880, 2:123 ; <'i"o»» ^^'^^^ *" '""^'J**' --^^^'i '■> '""^ *'™'" ^''^•^'* *" l**'-^'*^' -=^*^i-
This extraordinary and (constantly progressing increase in speed during
the centur}- has excited the interest and admiration of the world. It is,
however, quite generally admitted that too much attention has been given
to speed and not enough to disj)osition, size, conformation, and sound-
ness, to bring the animals to their highest value for otlier than racing
purposes.
Owing to the relatively small extent of agricultural territory and the
great development of manufactures, (ireat liiitain lias become the best
market in the world for animals iiml animal products. The purchases of
cattle, sheep, beef, and mutton have been particularly large. Consideri'ig,
first, the importations of cattle, it is found that during tiie five years from
18()1 to 18()r» inclusive, the averages uund)er was 174,177; from 18()(; to
1870, the average was 194,047; from 1871 to 187;"), 2ir>.;)90; from 1876
to 1880, 272,745; from 1881 to I88r», .•{87.282; from 18S(! to 1890, 4.^S,098 ;
from 1891 to 189."), 448,139 ; and for tiie two years 189(5 and 1897, r)90,4;{7.
This uni)aralleled growth in the consumption of foreign cattle has had a
marked influence in enccmraging the development of the cattle industry of
some other parts of the world, i)articularly in the United States, Canada, and
Argentina. The export trade of the United States has developed even more
rapidly than the im])ort trade of (Jreat l.ritain. In 1871 this traffic was in
its infancy, and but 20,0.30 head of cattle were exported, valued at $400,000.
By 1879 the nund)er had increased to 13(!,720, valued at $8,300,000. Tiien
came the British restrictions prohibiting American cattle from leaving the
docks where landed, and reijuiring their slaughter on these docks within ten
days from their arrival. These regidations were a rnde shock to the Ameri-
can cattle grower, and led to measures here for the control and eradication of
the cattle diseases which were cited by the English authorities as the cause
of their unfavorable action.
Although the pleuro-pneiunonia, about which most ajiprehension was ex-
pressed, has long since been extiri)ated, and an elaborate inspection service
has been organized to ])revent any affected animals from leaving our shores,
the restrictions have been continued. Fortunately, the trade was only tem-
porarily embarrassed, and has continued its growth notwithstanding this
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN THE ANIMAL WORLD 371
obstruction. In 18SU tliese exports first exceeded l,'lMt,(KH>, and tJie following
year rciiched .■!y4,.S.%. Since that time the number has Huetuated between
l.',S7,(M)U and ;{91',(MK), until 1898, when it reached the enormous aggregate of
•ioiM-T*."), valued at .tio7,.S00,00(J. Not (|uite all of these cattle have gone
to iJreat Britain, but that has been the destination of bj- far the greater
part.
The exports of sheep have varietl widely, according to the fluctuations of
the markets at home and abroad. From 1S7(> to IHTli the number varied
from o9,(X»t) to G0,O(M»; from 1874 to 1889, it varied frouj 11U,0(M» to 337,(H}{).
PACING IIORSK "STAK POINTEK. ' TIME. 1 M. 59^ S.
In 1890 the exports were but r>7,500; in 1891. (;it.90<> ; in 1892,. 40,900; and in
189.3, .37,200. beginning with 1894, the exports of sheep again increased,
reaching in that year 1.32,000 ; in 189;") they were 40r).CKX) ; and in 1896, 491,000.
In 1897 there was a decrease to 244.000, and in 1898 a further decrease to
200.000, valued at .|il,213,000.
The export trade in horses and mules was inconsiderable, varying from
2000 to 8000 a year until 189."), when 14.000 horses and 4800 mulf s were
shipped to foreign ports. This trade increa.sed in 18% to 2r».12fi hovses and
60.34 mules, together valued at about $4,000,000. In 1897 a further increase
was made to .39,032 horses and 7753 mules, the value being .§.5,400,000.
And. finally, in 1898 there were exported the largest number ever sent
37ii
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A/A'" CENTURY
from this country, amounting to 51,1*J** hor.ses and OU'JCi mules, viiluecl at
$G,(}1)1,()00.
Swine are not exported in very large numbers, as they do not stand ship-
ping well. The largest number sent al)road was l.l.S.nsi. in 1.S74. the value
of which was .1t!l.(JL'r»,.s;!7. In l.Si»7 and 1S<».S there were only 1(>,S00 exported
each year. Very few of these cross the ocean.
This resume of the development of the international traltic in live animals
and the status of the aninuil industry would not be comi)lete without some
reference to the markets for animal products. The ijuantity of foreign meat
consumed in (Jreat Britain is most remarkable. The imports of fresh beef,
which from l.S()l to 18()r» averaged but ir>.77l.' cwts.. had increased in the years
185)1 to 1895 to an average of :i,(»L'0.(>()8 cwts., and in l.S'.»7 exceeded ;i.(>00,(M»O
cwts. The ])roportion of tliis supjdied by the I'nited States is indicated by
the returns for 181K), giving a total of !'.(>")<>, 70(1 cwts. of imported beef, of
which this country furnished 2,(>74,()44 cwts.
(ireat Britain also imported .'{.19.'>.L'7(i cwts. of fresh nnitton in 1897, more
than nine tenths of it being frozen carcasses from Argentina and Australasia.
Of fresh and salted pork, the United States supplied 4,18.'{,8(M> cwts. out of
a total of (),5();{,688 cwts. The ])rineipal other animal products imported
by that country are, 1,700.000 cwts. of lard, L'7G,458 cwts. of rabbits, and
1J68.'},810,0()0 eggs.
The continent of Europe consumes considerable quantities of lard and
salted pork, which are largely furnished by the I'nited States, notwithstand-
ing the unfavorable attitude of the governments towards such traffic and the
existence of man}' annoying and injurious regidations. Fresh meats from
America have been practically excliuled.
The British markets for dairy jiroducts and wool have also had considerable
influence upon the prosperity of the animal industries in various jiarts cd' the
world. The rapidly increasing demand for dairy products is worthy of atten-
tion. In 1877 there were im])orted into the United Kingdom l.(>.'i7.40,'{ cwts.
of butter and margarine. In 1897 the imjiorts had been raised to .■),L'17.80l
cwts. of butter and 93().r)4.S cwts. of margarine, or a total of 4,l.~4,o44 cwts.,
being two and one half times the (]uantity imported in 1877.
The quantity of cheese imported in 1877 was 1 .('>r»;>.920 cwts., and had in-
creased to 2,()(ia,(;08 cwts. in 1897.
The country supplying the largest (piantity of butter in 189G was Denmark,
with France second, Sweden third, Holland fourth, and Australasia fifth.
Nearly all of the margarine came from Holland. 'The largest quantity of
cheese came from Canada, the United States being second, with less than
half the quantity furnished by her neighbor to the north, and Hollaml
third.
The quantity of wool inqiorted by the I'nited Kingdom, France, Germany,
Austria, Belgium, I'nited States, and other consuming countries, increased
from 200,000 tons, in the decade 1821-1S30, to ;i,;500.(K)0 tons in 1871-1880.
'This wool came principally from Australia. Biver Plate, South Africa, liussia.
and Spain.
The excess of imports of wool into the United Kingdom over the exports
were, in 1892, 312,217,111 lbs., and in 189(). .383,84ii4.')0 lbs. Of the total
quantity imported by the United Kingdom in 1890, the United States supplied
THE (CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN THE ANIMAL WORLD 373
but 4,500,000 lbs., while Australasia fuvnisheil 477,000,000 lbs. ; Cape of Good
Hope, 7(t,000,000 lbs. ; Piitish East Indies, 4.'{,000,000 lbs. ; Natal, 21,000,000
lbs. ; France, 20,000,0(10 lbs. ; Turkey, 10,oOO,OOOlbs. ; and Kelgiuni, 11,4(K),000
lbs.
The tendency of the last decade of the nineteenth century has been to
displace horses and adopt mechanical motors. The great increase of steam
railroads, cable cars, electric cars, bicycles, and automobile vehicles has so
reduced the demand for thesa animals that their value has decreased over
fifty per cent. While there is still a good market for horses suitable for
carriage use. for drays, for army service, and for agricultural purposes, buyers
AUTO.MODILE OK HOUSELliSS CAltUIAOE.
are becoming more critical and the future is uncertain. As it is five or
six years after a breeding establishment is started before any of the horses
produced can be placed upon the market, the effect of this un<!ertainty is to
discourage would-be horse breeders and influence them toward other euter-
l>rises.
The end of the century also finds the sheep industry in a depressed condi-
tion on account of over-production. The vast quantities of wool grown in
Australasia and South Africa liave clogged the markets to such an extent
that Australian wool in the London market has dropped from IM. per jiound
in 1877 to 8jd. in 1897, and South African wool from lojd. to 7id. during
the same period. Other wools have fallen in about the same proportion. Al-
though sheep are raised for the production of mutton as well as wool, and the
374
TRIUMPHS AND WOSDEliS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
teiuloney in the rnited Stiitus lias been towards the breeding of luuttuu sheep,
the value of tiiese animals has been reduced about one luilf.
There have been periods of (h'pression witli the cattle and swine industries,
but prices have been well sustained. The European markets are yearly re-
quiring larger supplies, and the stock of beef-produeing cattle in tht; United
States, in jjroportion to the population, is rapidly diminishing. The decreased
number is in a sligiit degree cimnterbalaneed by earlier maturity ; but when
due allowance is made for tliis. it is plain that the United States has not the
surplus of lieef which it boasted a few years ago. .\t the same ti .le, our meat
trade in the markets of the world is tlireatemil with nuire si-rious c()m[ietition
from South America, Australasia, and even IJussia.
The century closes in a period of wonderful achievements in the t'.\tension •
of transportation facilities and in the education of tlu' masses in all parts of
the world. The i)rodiu'er in South Anu-rica. Africa, and Australasia keeps
abreast with tiie most eidightened stock-growers of Kuroju' and America in his
knowledge of the best breeds, the most economical methods of feeding, and
the most desirable handling of his products. There is no animal j)roduct so
perishable but that it can now be sent from the antipodes to London in good
condition. All of this has brought surprising changes in the traffic between
different countries and in the nu)diticatio)i id' industries to meet new condi-
tions. The producers of the most distant j/arts of the world are aggressively
entering our nearest nuirkcts. Competition is becoming nu)re intense, and
commercial rivalry is assuming more the ai>pearance of warfare than hereto-
fore. The nations of the world are actively eng-aged in assisting their people
in this struggle. They diffuse information as to the best and most econom-
ical methods of inoduction, they seek out new markets, they subsidize trans-
portiition lines, they assist in the introduction of new kinds of goods, they
sustain their subjects in the most aggressive i)ractices, they exclude the pro-
ducts of competing countries by tariffs and liostile sentiment, by discrimina-
tions, by unpacking, delaying, or damaging goods, under the pretext of
insi)ection, and by burdensome charges and regidations. Some countries
have gone so far as to absolutely prohibit competing products for compre-
hensive but indefinite sanitary reasons.
The outcome of this commercial warfare cannot be foreseen. The struggle
has been, and is, fiercest over the international traffic in animals and animal
products. The greatest forces of the world are to-day contending as to what
the future shall be. The United States has only recently begun to realize
that it also must take part in this commercial struggle, if it w(mld retain mar-
kets for its products and secure prosperity for its peojde. Its trade has been
unjustly prohibited and discriminated against, its niercliants have been un-
fairly treated and insulted, and its protests have been treated with ill-disguised
contempt. Notwithstanding all these efforts at repression. American trade
has gone on increasing at an amazing rate, the forbearance of the government
having been far overbalanced by the energy of the people. Having grown to
be one of the greatest i)owers of the world, witli magnificent resources yet
undeveloped, the United States will no doubt maintain its position and con-
tinue to supply the markets of the world with the best aninmls. the best
meats, and probably with the best dairy products.
D, E. Salmon-,
LEADING WARS OF THE CENTURY
I. WARS OK THK rNITKI) .SXATKS.
The progress of the nineteenth century, in everything that pertains to
civilization, arts, and sciences, has been greater than the total progress in
any decade of centuries in the history of the world, and this is ecjually true
in regard to the art and science of wak ; for the expenditure of blood and
treasure in tlio prosecution of the wars and the fighting of the battles of this
century far exceeds that of any other like period.
. The first year of the nineteentli century dawned upon the United States at
peace with the world. In September, 1800, Napoleon, finding that he could
not coerce the young nation into " an entangling alliance," and fearing lest
the United States should join Knglaud in opposing him, found it his best
])olicy to conclude a peace. The brilliant achievements of the newly organ-
ized navy, under Commodore Tr\ixton, not only illuminated these early pages
of our history, Init established a prestige never yet forfeited ; for the history
of this branch of our service is unparalleled from the first eft'ort, during the
Kcvolution. of Esek Hopkins, to that of George Dewey at Manila, and Samp-
son and Schley at Santiago.
War with liARMARV States. — In 1803 the United States determined to
end the jtiracy of the Barbary States, and an expedition under Commodore
Preble was sent to the Mediterranean. The Philadelphia, while pursuing a
pirate, was grounded off the coast of Tripoli, and captured by the Tripolitans,
who made slaves of the crew and prisoners of the oflicei's. In February, 1804,
Captain Decatur, with seventy-six men from his ship, the Intrepid, boarded
the Philadelphia, killed or drove off the Moors, fired the vessel, and returned
without the loss of a man, although fiercely attacked by the shore batteries.
In July, Commodore Preble, with liis squadron. Laid siege to Tripoli, but
liis bombardment was ineffective. General Enton, consul to Tunis, induced
Hamet, the brother of Yusef, who had usur[)ed the sovereignty of Trij)oli, to
furnish him a troop of Arab cavalry and a company of Greeks. With these,
and a band of Tripolitan rebels and a force of American sailors, he crossed
the Bar(!an Desert, stormed and captured Derne, an eastern seaport of Yusef.
The latter was glad to make peace, and a treaty was signed June 4, 180/>.
IxDiAN Wars. — From 1800 to 1811 fighting with the Indians in the
South and Northwest was constant. General Harrison and the celebrated
Indian chief Tecumseh were the ])rincipal actors.
War of 1812. — The contest between England and France for the domin-
ion of the seas was the cause of the war of 1812. England declared the
German and French coast to be in a state of blockade. Napoleon, in 1806,
made the same declaration regarding British ports. In 1807, England pro-
hibited trade with the coast of France. American commerce was injured and
almost destroj'ed by the combined action of the two powers. Four years
:n«
TIUL'MPJIS .l\n WoMtKllS OF Till-: MX'" VKSTURY
well' coiisunHiil in in'wotiatioiis, witli (Mnistiiiit ii^JKveHHions on the part of
Kii^flaiiil, unil on >\\\uv \\K isllj, ('iiiij,m'i'>s lU-cliiri'd wiir. Tlic ^,'n'iit crnir of
tilt! ciiuipuij^'U was the atttMaptcd invasion of Canada. Had the war boon
niiule entirely upon tho st'a.s. an early peacf nii^lit have cnsned,
'I'he war hfj^an on tht- Lakes, ami. lepnised in the etTorl to make a stand
on the Canada shore, and tallin'^ l)aek. Iliill siirrendi'red Detroit. Angnst o.
Again, at (^iieenstowii, October \'A, the .\nierieans were defeated witli tho loss
COMMODOUE STEPHEN DECATUR.
of a thonsand men. Altogetlier the first year of tlie war was a disastrous one
on land.
At sea, the navy, consisting of not more than a half-dozen frigates, with
its magnificently disciplined officers, had been eminently successful. On
August 13, the Essex, Captain Porter, captured tlie British sloop Alert ; on
August 19, Captain Hull, commanding the Constitution, destroyed the Guer-
riere off the Gulf of St. Lawrence ; October 18, the Wasp, Captain Jones,
captured the Frolic, but later in the day both the Frolic and the Wasp fell
into the hands of the British ship I'oietiers. October 25, Cajitain Decatur,
with the frigate United States, cai)tured the Macedonian off the Azores ; on
December 29, after a desperate fight in the South Atlantic, Captain Bain-
bridge, commanding the Constitution, defeated the British ship Java.
LEADIXG WAUS OF THE i HM'UHY
87T
The caniiiaiK'H <>t' iHl.'i upeiii'd on thf Caiiiuliiiii troiitier with tho Huveml
llivi^^it>lls in loiuniuiiil nl' (iniiTals llanisnii, Dcarlxirn, ami Kamiiton. On
.liiiif >S, (It'iu'ial Wiiulu'stiT, with right ImndrtHl KiMitnckians, diovt^ tho
Jtiitisli and Indians, nnder I'ldctcir, t'nun Fv«'iR'lito\vn, on the Uivt>r KaiMin,
liiit ii'tuiniii^,' witii a t'orrt- of tiftt'i-n Inindri'd, tiicy obligt'd Winidit-Htcr to
.-iiiicndrr. which he only (Minscntt'd to do uikUt Proctor's jnoniisc to iirotcct
tlic Anit'iicans ironi tlm Indians; whioli promiHo Proctor trcacln'ronsly dis-
I'c^'anh'd, and niarciicd away, leaving' tlic sick and wonndcd Kcntnckians to
he massacred. Ilcnccfoitii thi^ Kentucky war cry was, •• ItcnicndxT the
ii'ivci' Kaisin," and many were the Mritisli an*l Indians who had canse to
dread tliat slojjan. May ">, (Jeneral Ilanison, re in forced by (Jeneral (Jrewii
Clay and iiis Kcntncky troojis, rep. scd the Uritish and their dusky uliics
lUKJer Tt'cnms(di. tJuly L'l, they returned i'our thousand strong, but were
again reiiulsed.
ilie Anuiricans, by wonderful exertion and hard work, built and equipped,
COMMODORE PEnilY AT BATTLE OP LAKE'EIIIE.
at Erie, a squadron of nine ships with fifty-five guns, tlie command of whicli
was given to Commodore Perry. September 10, Perry won his grand victory
on Lake Erie, over the English squadron of six ships and sixty-three gune.
This was the turning point of the war, and Perry's name goes down to pos-
terity with the immortal names that never die. On October 5, General
Harrison, conveyed by Perry's ships, landed his forces in Canada and com-
pletely destroyed Proctor's army, Tecumseh being among the slain. So
ended the war in the Northwest.
In the meantime, General Dearborn was fighting with varying success in
1
37»
TltlL'MI'llS AM) noyDKliS OF THK XIX'" CEMUHY
Upper (,'iiuiii 111. •lackHoii, in tli<' Sdiitli, wiih iiwiigiiig tlitt Kurt MiiiiniH iiiuh-
Hiiert'. liiiully nuHhinn tlu' I'lrekH fiuly in tliu lu'xt y»'iir. TIn' llriliMli. unilfi
the (iiliouH Admiral CiKtliniii*', pluiult'it'd ami rava^'i'd ami hiii'iicil cvima tiling
in I't'acli, ti'oni l.rwislown to tin- Caiolina cna.st, .siM/in^ tin' nt'^nnt-N ami .Hell-
ing tlu'm in till' \\ I'st Inilit's. Unrin',' tliis year the Ann'iicnn navy contimifil
to Im' sm'CL'sslnl, nifctin^,' lew lossrs, tlKingh the tightiny was cvt-n niitiv
lU'siicratt'.
.Inly .■>, IHl I, tin- Ami'iicans (It-lVattMl the jlritisli at ('liip|>('vva; ami (ui tlif
Wth was lon>,'iit llm liattic (if liimdy's Lam', wlii-rt' (IcmM'al.s Itrovvn and
Scott wtTi! wonndi'd. In this (U'spciatc battle, eiKld Inindred men were lost
on either side; and tlion^di the liattle was iindeeisive, it had the elYeet of a
vi(!toi'y for the Americans. .Viignst 14, live thonsand troops, nndi-r (leni'ral
Hoss, were lamh'd on the I'atnxent, and, defeating,' (Jeneral Winder, who
made a stand with a liandfnl of men near IJIadenslmr^', proceeded tti the cit\
of Washin},'ton. After hnrning the capitol and White House, and other
linildings, they hastily withdrew. The attempt to take Haltimore proved
abortive, and on Septendier II the Itritish reendiarked. It was at this tinu'
that Key wrote the "Star S|)anyh'd Hanner." Augnst IT), the em-my were
repulsed at Fort Krie with the loss of one thonsand men, and a month later
were finally driven back. Tin- whole llritish .squadron on Lake ('hamplain
surrendered to Commodore MacDonongii after a terrific light for several
lumr.s, on September 17, and on the .same day the Itritish army of twelve
thousand wa.s forced to retreat from t'lattsburg by (Jeneral Alacomb's force
of forty-five liundred.
In Florida the Spaniards hail allowed, if not eneouragod, the FInglish to
use their territory to fit out expeditions against the United States. .Iiukson,
with two thousand men, took possession of I'ensaeola on the 7th of Novem-
ber, driving out the liritish.
December the li.Stli the British opened fire on New Orleans; again, on
Jamiary 1, 1815; and on January 8 I'ackenham, with twelve thousand men.
m.ade his sujirenie effort. Jackson's force was now about six thousand. The
liritish were driven to their 8hii)s after losing two thousand killed and
wounded, their general being among the slain. The American loss was seven
killed and six wounded. The war was kept \i\) on the ocean until March,
the last capture being that of the liritish brig I'enguin by the American
8looi)-of-war Hornet, in the South Atlantic.
The treaty of (Jhent had been signed on the i;4th of September, 1814, and
the news of the glorious victory at Xew Orleans reached Washington sinud-
taneo\isly. with that of the signing of the treaty. The war had been so dis-
tasteful to the peojile of New England that Massachusetts and Connecticut
had ])assed laws directly antagonistic to tiiosc of the United States, and
lu)stilities between the Federal and State governments were feared, which,
perhaps, were only averted by the ending of the war. The issues leading to
the war of 1812 were left unsettled by the treaty, but England never again
attempted to interfere w itli American .shipping.
Skcom) War with li.VRnAuv Statks. — Immediately on the clo.se of the
war of 1812, the Algerians, sujiposing that the American navy was badly
crippled, began again their de])redations on American commerce. Commo-
dore Decatur was sent to the Mediterranean with a squadron, and once more
LEAOlXf/ W.ms OF Tim LKSrUUY
nt
^.ivf tli«'m nil Aiiu'VU'iiii (Iml)liinK. iliiin' 17, iHl'i, ho lU'.stroyt'J two Al^fciiiu'
vi'ssi'Im; .Fuiic I'M, in tniiit ut' thf city oi' Algii is, lie ilciniiiKlfil the rclt'iiHc of
all AiiKM'icMii |ii'isi)iit>t.s. iii(li!iiiiiiti('iitii>ii tor all ))ii>|ii>rty di-stroycd, mul a
n'liiii|uisliiiitMit i)t all claiiiiH tor tiibiitu troiii tliu I'liittMl .StatcH. 'I'lit* Ut-y
i|uii'l<ly iis.si'iiti'd to tlio terms, ami HigiitMl a treaty of |«'ar<'. Tunis, Tripoli,
.mil .Morocco were likewise Itroiight to terms, the I'nited States thus taking
tlie lead of all the other powers in its determination to break up the piracy
of the Harhary States.
.Mi:.\H'.vN \V.\K. — The Kepuhlii! ot Te.xiis became, by its own lecpiest and
i.v .\ct of (longress, one of the I'nited Status .July 4, l84o. Mexico iirepared
jur war; the I'nited States took measures to protect the new State. March
■III II '*'*^ -***
siiiooi.snii' s.Mt.vToii.v.
S, 1H4G. CJeneral Zachary Taylor marched with fifteen hundred men to a jwint
on the Uio Grande opposite Matamoras, where he erected Fort Jirown.
To the secretary of war, William L. Marcy, and to General Wintield Scott
w.as due the plan of campaign, the biittles of which, like instantaneous Hashes
of victory from the beginning of the war until its close, illnminp the pages of
.Vmerican history. Then, as now. (Congress was slow to resi)ond to the needs
of the military branch of the government.
April 24, 184G, hostilities l)eg.an. (Jeneral Taylor iidvaiieed into Mexico
and, ^May S, won the brilliant victory of Pah) Alto, and again, the next day,
the battle of Kesaca de la I'alma. Taylor's force was less than one third
the number of the enemy, whose loss was one thousand. These two battles
crushed the flower of Santa Anna's army. Taylor returned to the relief of
Fort Brown, where the br.ive g.arrison had sustained a cannonade for IfJH
hours. Septeml)er 24, Monterey and its garrison of nine thousand, men were
taken by General Taylor with six thousand.
380
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THk XIX'" CENTURY
February -.'!, 1<S47. Taylor gaiiied tho glorious victory of liuena Vista, in
which the Mexican loss was I'OOO, the American, 714. At times the Mexicans
were within a few yards of l'.rag<,''s !,'uns. "A little more yrajie, (.'ajitaiu
IJragg,*' was Taylor's celi'brated order, the execution of which decided tin-
day. The American loss was severe in otticers. Taylor's force, depleted liy
more than two thirds, which had been sent to reinforce (Jeneral Scott, was
barely fort\-tive hundred; the Mexican troojjs numbered twenty thousaml.
Captain Fremont, assisted by Conunodores Sloat and Stockton, had subju-
gated California; (Jeneral Kearney and Colonel Donijdiau, Northern Mexico.
Doniphan defeated the ^lexicans at Uracito, December L'o. 184(). and at Sacra-
mento, February S. 1847, and took possession of Chihuahua, a city of
forty thousand inhabitants, and nuirched to join (.Jeneral "Wool at Saltillo,
March L'2.
Early in January, 1S47, (Jeneral Scott reached the mouth of the 1-iio Grande,
where he awaited the eight thousand trooj)S sent by G«!ueral Taylor. This
raised his force to twelve thousand. These were landed at Sacritieios. The
Anu'ricans debarked just below Vera Cruz between sunset and ten o'clock on
the night of March 8 witiiout a single accident. With wonderful skill the
investiture of Vera Cruz and the castle of St. ,John de UUoa was completed.
On March TI the (Jovernor of Vera Cruz was summoned to surrender. Day
and night the mortar batteries played upon the city, the tieet ably assisting;
and on the 2!)th the stars and stripes floated above the walls of city a:id for-
tress. The Americans lost but two officers and a few soldiers. April 1<S. the
magnificent victory at I'erro CJordo, where three thousand ^[exicans were
captured, was won ; April 19, Jalapa was taken ; April '22, Pecote, the strong-
est of ^fexican forts, was captured ; and May 1"), I'uebia surrendered to
General Worth. Ten thousand prisoners, seven hundred cannon, ten thou-
sand stands of arms, and thirty tliousand shot and shells were captured
within two months. When the army entered Fuebla it mimbered but forty-
five hundred.
Keinforcements reaching him, Scott set out from Puebla to the valley of
Mexico on August 7. August lj(t, the heights of ('outreras were assailed and
taken, and the battle of Churubusco — witli nine thousand Americans against
thirty thousiind ^lexicans — was fought and won. September 8, Molino del
Fey was taken ; September 13, the heights of Cha])nltepec. The Mexicans
fled from the capital, and the victorious American army marched in and took
possession of the city, September 14, 1847. Mere Scott and his noble war-
riors rested until the treaty was concluded at Guadalupe Hidalgo, February
2, 1848, and peace was proclaimed. .Tuly 4, by President Polk. Guadalupe
Hidalgo, New Mexico, and California were ceded to the United States.
•f lo,(X)0,000 paid to Mexico, and the debts due from ^Mexico to American citi-
zens weie assumed by tlie United States.
The Civil Wak. — It is not here the place to rehearse or to discuss the
causes which led to America's Civil War, a war jjcrhaps the most stupendous
recorded in history. Looking backward, after the bloody foot-prints have
been well nigh obliterated by the growth of a generation, we can see that the
trend of human progress, the political problems confronting the federated
States, in the solution of which were evolved elements of discord, the inher-
ited antagonism between the Puritans of the North and the Cavaliers of the
B'^HHUMWiM
CENTURY
)t' liiiena Vista, in
iiiies tlio MexiciiiM
in; gnipe, (.'aptuiii
vhich (lecidotl tli.-
force, (lepleti'd In-
icneral Scott, was
twenty tliousami.
)ckton, liad subju.
Xortliern Jlexico.
S4(K and at Sacia-
uahua, a city oi'
Wool at tSaltillo,
)f the Kio Grande,
ral Taylor. This
i Sacriticio-s. The
md ten o'clock on
inderful skill the
oa was completed.
) surrender. Day
iet ably assisting ;
s of city n:id for-
(rs. April IS. the
d ^[exicans were
'ecote, the strong-
a surrendered to
cannon, ten thou-
Is were captured
mbered but forty-
i to the valley of
were assailed and
Americans against
ber 8, Molino del
. The Mexicans
•died in and took
d his noble war-
idalgo, February
*olk. Guadalupe
B United States,
to American citi-
3r to discuss the
most stupendous
foot-prints have
can see that the
ig the federated
iscord, the inher-
Cavaliers of the
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BOBEKT E. LEK AT CIIAI'ULTEPEC.
382
TRIUMPHS AXD WOXDEItS OF THE A'/A'"' CENTUHY
South, all combined to luuke the cuiiilict inevitable. For more than a (leeaii'
of years grievances had been jjrowin.i^ and rnniblings were heard, like the in-
l)risoned tin-s lieneath tlie siirl'ace t)t' the eaith, until the election of Al)rahaiii
I incoln as President, pledged to a policy believed to be inim al to the Soiitli.
caused the outburst of tlie volcano, whose tierce tires and nioi.,>.ii lava for four
years spread desolation over the land.
Time and milder judgment have very nearly smoothed iuvay the wrinkles
of discord, and the close of the century tinds the nation a reunited jieoplc.
whose new compact is written in the lii'e-blood of her sons on the battlefiehls
of the recent war with Spain.
December L'(t, IHCiO, South ('arolina ; January 0, 1<S(»1, ]\Iississipi)i ; January
10, Florida; .lanuarj- 11, Alal)ama; January 18, CJeorgia ; January L'.'i. Louis-
iana, and February 1, Te.\as, one by one asserted their su])posed right to
withdraw from the federal compact, and enacted ordinances of secession in
their several state conventions. Each State, as it took action, claiuied ami
po.'isessed itself of all government property', forts, guns, aiunuuiition, withiu
its borders, and armed its militia for garrison duty. A convention of dele-
gates from the seceded States, held February 4, 18(»1, at Montgomery, Ala-
bama, organized a new federation, to be known as the Confederate States of
America, chose Jetferson Davis President and Alexander Ste))hens Vice-1'res
ident, and set the whole machinery of a provisional government in working
order. July 20, Kiclimond became the cajiital of the Southern Confederacy.
Virginia seceded Ajiril 17; Arkansas, ^lay (i ; North Carolina, ilay 20, and
Tennessee, June 8. Kentucky declared neutrality.
Lincoln, u|)on assuming the executive chair, ^larch 4, 18()1, found the
treasury dejdeted, the army of only sixteen thf)nsand men scattered in the
West, and many of its best otticers already with the (./'onfederacy. The navy
had been sadly neglected by Congress, ]iartly because this braiu-h of the
service had been steadily antagonized by tiie West, s(j that at the beginning
of the war, both as to vessels and armament, it was by no means in a condi-
tion for active service. As in the army, some of its most valuable otticers
had espoused the cause of their native States, and the South Atlantic and
Gulf ports, being in possession of the new federation, left the United States
vessels no place of refuge. With unlimited means at command, the l^nion
navy increased the nundier of its vessels to 088 — 7r» of them ironclads —
with 4443 guns and 30.000 men. before the end of 1802. Torpedoes and
steel rams were first \ised during tliis war. and monitors, just invented, were
used by the United States. With a nucleus of 10 vessels, around which to
build its navy, the CJonfederacy had, by November, raised the inimber to 34.
Until the blockade became effective, "cotton was king;" for, in October.
1801, tlie Nashville, running out with a heavy consignment, brought back
into Charleston in exchange a cargo worth .f!3,000,000. Vessel after vessel
was bought from English shijibuihlers, among them the celebrated Alabama,
which, in the fourteen months of her service, captured sixty-nine prizes,
and <lestroyed ten million dollars' worth of merchandise. The armored ram
Stonewall was bought iii P^rance.
April 12, 18G1, Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor, was forced to surrender
to the Confederates, and the first shot at the old flag ushered in tlie long,
bitter struggle.
LEADING WARS OF THE CENTURY'
383
Troops were called for by Lincoln. Lieutenant-General Scott, the veteran
;.. io of Mexico, was iu couumuul of the army. In three months, three huu-
iind thousand men were in the tield. One hundred tlumsand had swarmed
to tlie Confederate ranks. General McClellan was sent to the front and,
aih f the resignation of Stjott in tiie latter part of the yeai', was made com-
iiiaiider of thi- army.
July L'l, the battle of liull Run was fought. The Union troops were dis-
astiiiusly routed and retreated in confusion to AVashingtou. The army did
little more during this year.
April Ul, after setting fire to and destroying the Navy Yard and shipS;
CASTLE WILMAM. MIU'lAHY PllISON, GOVKllNOIl'S ISLAND, NEW VOKK HAKBOR.
Norfolk was evacuated by the I'nion forces. The frigate Merrimac. which
had been sunk, was raised by the Confederates, plated with iron, renamed
"Virginia." and became the scourge of the shipping off the Virginia coast.
The na\y, as is usual, and because of its very organization, got in its effec-
tive work much earlier than did the army, and the seizure of the forts and
IKirts on the coast of the seceded States began at once. Fort Hatteras was
taken August L'!) ; Port Koyal, in South Carolina, November 7. November 7
a naval officer, by overhauling an English mail steamer and taking off Messrs.
^^as()n and Slidell, who had been ap]jointed commissioners of the Confederate
States to France and England, very nearly caused a complication with the
latter power, ^fr. Seward's diplomacy settled the incident amicably, and the
lonnnissioners were allowed to proceed upon their mission, which, however.
384
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
proved futile. By the close of the year, .Maiyland, Kentucky, and Missouii,
at first doubtful, were securely in the Union, though many of their citiziiis
were in the Southern army.
18r>L'. — February (», tJeneral Grant, ommandinj,' the army of the Tenui's-
.see, with the assistance of Commodore I'oote and liis gunboats, captured Fmt
Henry, on the Tennessee Uiver, and, on the IGtli, Fort Donelson on tlie
Cumberland. The Federal forces had reached the number of four hundu d
and fifty thousand, of which .McClellan had two hundred thousand.
Jlay 23, at Front IJoyal, and .May 2'>, at Winchester, "Stonewall" .Tackscm
defeated the Union troops and forced them across the Potomac. Hanus,
Fremont, and McDowell, concentrating their forces, bore down on Jacksun,
who slipped through their lines, and, on June '.), defeated Shields at Fort
Eepublic.
The cry of the Northern press was, "On to liichmond," and ^IcClellan
endeavored to obey the command. He had arrived not far from the city,
between the York and .Fames rivers, when he was defeated in the bloody
battle of Seven Pines, May 31 and June 1. The Confederate (Jeneral Joliii-
ston Avas wounded, and General Lee was assigned to the command of tlie
army of Northern Virginia, which he retained until the end.
The Seven Days' l)attles, from June 2') to July 1, were fought at fear-
ful cost to the Confederates; nevertheless, "it was a glorious victory." and
the siege of llichmond was raised. Lee advanced toward Washington, met
the armies of P>anks and Pope, and defeated them in the second battle of
Pull Kun, August 2!> and 30, and at Chautilly, September 1 and 2, forcing
Pope's army to retreat to Washington. The cliimor in the South had been,
" On to Washington." Lee crossed the Potomac at Harper's Ferry and took
twelve thousand jtrisoners. McClellan, who had been recalled, met the
Confederates at Sharpsburg (Antietam), September 17. and fought a battle
with undecisive results. Each side lost about ten tliousand men, and Lee
returned.
The Union army under Purnside, who had su]ierseded McClellan, met a
fearful repulse at Fredericksburg, December 13, with a loss of fourteen thou-
sand. The Confederate loss was five thousand.
December 31, January 1 and 2, was fought the terrible battle of IMurfrees-
boro, Tennessee, where Pragg's force was 35,0(>(», and his loss in killeil,
wounded, and missing, 10,4G(>. Hosecrans's force was 43,400, and his loss
12,595.
March 8, the Virginia attacked the Union fleet at Fortress Monroe and
destroyed the Cumberland and the Congress. The next day, the Monitor
attacked the Virginia, and, after five hours' fighting, succeeded in disabling'
her so that she returned to Norfolk. Tlie ^'irginia was destroyed by the
Confederates before evacuating Norfolk, May 10.
Admiral Farragut, with a fleet of 45 vessels, entered the Mississij)])! auil
bombarded the forts of St. Phili)) and Ja<'kson. Despising the fear of mine-;
and torpedoes, he continued on his course, defeating the Confederate fleet,
and, together with (ieneral Putler, entered New < trleans Ajiril 25. Durini;
this year the navy, with the assistance of land forces, had retaken all imi)oi-
tant ports on the Virginia, North Carolina, and Creorgia coasts, seriously
interfering with the blockade running, upon which the Confederacy dependei'
LEADING WARS OF THE CEXTUHY
:w5
ky, and Missouri,
of their citiztiis
ly of the Teniics-
its, captured Fort
Douelsoii on tiie
f of four hunditd
ousand.
)ne\viill " .Ijieksnii
'otomac. liauKS,
own (in Jackson,
[ Shichls at Foit
" and McClellan
ir from the city,
d in tlie bloo(iy
ite (Jeneral Jolm-
connnund of tlie
J fout,dit at fear-
ous victory," and
Washington, met
second battle of
1 and 2, forcinj;
South had been.
s Ferr>- and took
eealled, met the
I fought a battle
lid men, and Lee
McClellan, met a
of fourteen thou-
■e«s ilonroe and
lay, the Monitor
ded in disabling:
lestroyed bv the
for its foreign supiilies. The year 1802 closed with no advantage having
been gained on either side.
ijSi;;!. — On January 1, Lincoln issued the threatened Emanciijation I'ro-
flamation. This destroyed the last hope of the Confederacy for recognition
1)V England. No event of importance occurred before the middle of spring,
w hen Hooker, who had relieved liurnside, made another advance ujK)n Uich-
GENEKALS KOHKKT E. I.EE AND STONKWAM. JACKSON.
derac}' dependeo
mond, and was routed by Lee and Jackson at Chancellorsville. May 2, and
on the 5th was forced across the Rapidan with a loss of seventeen thousand.
'J'lie Confederate loss was less than five thousand. In Jackson's death the
Confederacy received a blow, the consequences of which may never be esti-
mated.
Lee's army again crossed the Potomac for an invasion of the North. The
Union forces, under Meade, marched in an almost parallel line with Lee's
25
1
38U
TIIIUMPUS AND WOXDEliS OF THE MX'" CEXTUltY
through -Miuyhinil into Pennsylvania. They met and ioiiylit at Gettysburj,'.
July 1, 2, and .'J, one of the decisive battles of the world's iiistory. Lee was
forced to again retire beyond the river. The Union eould well afford thf
loss of twenty-tiiree tiioiisand men, but Lee's loss of twenty thousand of tlie
choice troops of his army was irreparable.
In the meantime, (irant had been sent to open the ^Iississi])](i. and after a
si.K weeks" siege, on duly 4, Vicks'iurg, with nearly thirty thousand prisoners
and vast quantities of stores, fell into his hands. These two almost sim-
ultaneous victories greatly encouraged the North, and formed the turning
point in the history of tiie war. duly '.». itanks's victory at I'ort Hudson
accomplished the desired i)ossession of the Mississippi River.
]>ragg. wlio had been sorely ])resse(l by Hosecrans. made a stand at Cliicka-
maiiga. defeating the I'nion Cleneral liosecrans, Sejitendjer lit and I'll, and
forcing him to retreat to Chattanooga, where he was besieged by l>ragg.
Cirant. with Sherman, coming to his aid, the battles of Lookout .Mountain
and Missionary liidge were fought. Novendier L*."> and L'o. and I'uagg was
driven ba(.'k into (Jeoi'gia.
The Federal navy was gradually taking ])OKsession of the whole coast, and
Charleston was tightly blockach'd. In March tiu' Cimfederate ship Nash-
ville was sunk in tlu> entrance of the SavanmUi Kiver.
During this year botii governnu'uts were forced to resort to conscrij)tion.
Lincoln ordered a draft, and, in .Iul\. a three days' riot in consetjuence pre-
vailed in New York, during which two nnllion dollars' worth of property was
destroyed.
18G4. — In March, (Jrant was ])ut in command of the whole Unlrm army,
the grade of lieutenant-general having been revived in his behalf. He left
Sherman in command, repaired to Washington, and. May .'!. started on the
third campaign against Ivichmond, with a force of one hundred ami forty
thousand. Sherman, with one hundred thousaml. was to mandi to .\tlanta.
The whole strength of the I'nion army at this time was about seven hun-
dred thousand, (irrant had spent some weeks in formulating his plans of
campaigns, from the main features of which he never <leviated. The I'nion
had at last found the man, and it the same time had ac(iuire(l the wisdom to
leave the conduct of the war to his judgment; ))roving, also, that "there
is no war on record that has not given its man to the world or shaped the
destiny of some other."
Crossing the Kapidan, (!rant encountered the Confederates, and the fight-
ing, on the oth, 0th. and 7th, of the battles of the Wilderness, was terrific,
but the residt uiuiecisive. At Spottsylvania he fought from the 8th to the
liStli with fearful loss, June 1, he was reimlsed at Cold Harbor, and again
on the ."^d. and fighting, more or less desultory, continued in that vicinity
until the IL'th. Since tiie opening of the campaign, the L nion army had lost
sixty thousand men ; the Coniederate thirty thousand. Grant moved on
Petersburg and began the siege which lasted from June until the next April.
The western ])art of Virginia had seinnled from the eastern portion, and,
June 20, was admitted into the United States.
To divert Grant, and, if possible, to raise the siege of Petersburg, in July,
Lee sent General Early to threaten Washington and Baltimore, which he
accomplished without, however, affecting Grant's jiosition. Keturning laden
.JiL
tniid ;it Cliicka-
I'.t and !'(». and
fj^od by ISraij!,'.
koiit .Mountain
and IJratri; was
rliolc coast, and
ate sliip Nasli-
to consciii)tioii.
onsi><iupnce pre-
of i)roj)t'ity was
)le Union arniv,
H'half. He l.d't
started on tlie
died and forty
irch to Atlanta,
lont seven Inin-
iig his plans of
'd. Tlie Union
1 the wisdom to
so, that "there
X or shaped the
i. and the tight-
ss, was terrific,
I the .Sth to the
irbor, and again
in that vicinity
II army had lost
rant moved on
tlie next April,
a portion, and,
rsbnrg, in .Tuly^
iiore. which he
leturning laden
UE^E1{AI, ULViiSKS !S. (iUAlCf.
if
I
I i
1 1
IL
388
TRIUMPHS AND noXDEHS OF THE A/A'" CESTURY
with spuila, Kiirly tunit'd. ami tlriviiii; back the iMMli-ntl tntdps iiivadud
I'enu.sylvaniii, biiniiiijj; (_'liaml)fi->lmrg. and cauu' back iij,'aiM l)riiii^iiij,' vast
quantities ot siiiiplics. Sheridan was sent to dispose of Kaily and to ravage
tlie valley. At \Vineiiester. he met and defeated Karly in a very severe tight
on October -0, almost destroying the force under that general's command.
Sherman set out for CUuittanooga on ^lay 7. marching towards Atlanta. At
Dalton he nu't (Jcneral .lohnston's army of fifty thousand men. .lolmstou's
masterly retreat from Dalton to Atlanta is unrivaled in military history.
He made a stand from -May iTi to June I at Dallas, but. being outflanked,
^vas obliged to fall back. The next stand was made at Great Keiu-saw. on
June L'l', when he re|)ulsed the Federals. On the L'7th. Sherniau made a
powerful assault, but was again repnlseil with a loss of i'our tliousand. John-
ston's loss i)eing four liundred ; but. again imtflanked. .lohnston was torced
across the Chattahoochie, and July to found the «"(iiifcderate army entrenched
in Atlanta.
Johnston's retreating tactics caused the i)eoi»le to (damor lor a "fighting
leader," and Davis, in transferring 'the cimmaud from .lohnston at su(di a
crucial time, committed a grave ermr. Johnston was superseded by (Jcneral
Hood, whose chief ambition was to tiglit, which, in this case, was a great
mistake in judgment. On the L'Oth. L':.'d, and L'Sth of July. Mood assaulted
the lines of the besiegers, oidy to lie rejudsed again and again. In tliese
lights more men wore lost than during Johnston's long, skillful retreat. An
injudicious movement by Hood separated liis command, obliging him to
evacuate Atlanta, of which .Sherman, on Septendicr L'. took jiosscssion. In
its advance on Atlanta, the Union army had lost thirty thousand men. Hood
saved his army and made his way towards Nashville, hoiting to divert Sher-
man from (icorgia. At Franklin. N\ive'id)er oO. he nu't Oeneral Schofi(dd,
and drove him back to Xashville, from whence (leneral Thomas nmde a
sortie, und fell upon Hood's troops, December ]">. comjiletely routing them.
In the two fights. Hood h)st in killed, wounded, and cajitured over eleven
thousand. \Vith the remnant he escaped into Alabama, and these finally
reached .lohnston, participated in his last light with Sherman, and were sur-
rendered at Kaleigh with the troops of their old commander.
November 14. Sherman burned Athmta. cut all tclegra]ih lines and began
liis "March to the Sea,'' ravaging, devastating, and utterly destroying every-
thing in his reach. He was oi>i)Osed by the t'onfederate cavalry, which
successfuUv defcmled the cities of Macon and Augusta, upon which the
Confederacy mainly depended' for the numufacture of munitions of war.
Sherman entered Savannah on December '2.'2. the advance having cost him
only oti" men killed and wounded.
On .Tune li>, the celebrated sea fight l)etween the Kearsarge and the Ala-
bama took place off Cherbourg, France. The Alabama was sunk after a five
hours' fight. Admiral Semmes was rescued Ijy the Deerhonnd, Ixdonging to
an English gentleman, and thus saved from cajjture. August T). Commodore
Farragut. overcoming the Confederate ram Tennessee and the gunboats,
sailed into ISIobile Hay, commanding his fleet from the maintop of his Hag-
ship.
180;"). — The ojiening of the cami>aign of ISGa found Grant's army still
before Petersburg. Un Ajiril 2, he ordered an attack along his whole line,
iiios and hei^an
stroving cvevy-
I'avalrv. which
pon wliich the
itions of war.
iving cost him
^ and tlie Ala-
uik after a five
1, b(donging to
/), C'linunodore
the gunboats,
^op of his flag-
SHliUMAN S MAKCH lO TIIK SEA.
nt's army still
his whole line.
aiKt
rjiii'Mi'iis A\n n(>.\inciis or the xix'" cENTUitv
which h;iil liccii .so lt'ii;;lhi-in'(l tiiat tli'- lines nl' Lcc'n dfilctcil iiiiiiy wi-ic
very thin. Tiu' ('onliMU-niti'.s wimc diivcn liai'k witii hcavv juss. Jji'f ti-lc
j^nipiii'tl tn Davi.s: ".My lines an- lirukcn in tlncc iilaccs; we can hold I'ctcis-
liiir^' no Ioniser. iJichniuml nuist he t-vacnatcil tlii.s cvcnin^f." 'I'hat nij^lit
.\(lniiral Sminics, in ni>cilicncc to onlt-r.s, dcstroyt'd thi' Coiitc(h'ratf tiui-t in
the .lanw's l!ivcr. ificiiniond was in the )iossession of ihc I'nion forces the
next day.und on .Vi>ril \ Lincoln held a reception in Davis's vacated mansion.
liiie attempted to lireak throiiMjli (irant's lines at Apjtomattox. hut closely
pursued hy Sheridan, and lindin.^j; further retreat impossihlc, he suriciuh'i-ed
witli ahout twenty-six thousand men on the ',(th of April.
(irant's maiLfnanimons terms weie worthy of his fame. The troops weic
jiaroled oil I'oudition of promise not to take up arms until exchanj^ed. 'I'he
otticers were permitted to keej) l)ai,';,Mi,'e and side arms, and all were to retain
their horses, as, (irant said, "they would lie needed in the crops."
Turuinj,' northward from .Savannah. Sherman routiuued his march and
reached Fayetteville. North (.'aroliua. Wilmiu^'ton hail been captured early
in the year hy a laml and naval force, .lohuston had been reinforced hy the
yarrisou which had been forced to evacuate Charleston and the remnant of
Hood'.s army, and had .several severe tights, with no decisive results, with
Sherman, who tmtered Italeiuch ; and here, on Ajiril L'Ct, .Iidiuston's army snr-
j'eudered on the sann- terms j^ivei. by (irant.
December 'M and January 1 I''ort Fisher was cajitured, .ind on .ranuary
IL' Wilmiuj^ton was entered by the Fedeials ; l"'ebruai'y IS, Charleston was
eaptur.'d.
The regular battles during the Civil War numbered Si)!', Lincoln called
in all for L',(;!MMMM» men. There were actually in service 1.4'.Mt.(t(»(>. There
were 4()(MMH) disaideil; .'KH,. •((;'.» perished; L'L'O.fKX) were captured, and L'(J,(KH»
died in ca])tivity. The exjieuses ot the war were i*!;!,')! »(),()(»(» jier day. The
national debt was .Si'. 70(M MM >.(»(»(>.
This great .\uu'rican War was fought on both side.'i v;ith a ctmrage and
fortitude never before experienced in the annals of warfare. As oompared
with the statements of forces and losses in battles of European armies,
the casualties in tl;e battles of the Civil War were three and four times
as great. And tliis proves that in the American ^Var each side met " foe-
mon worthy of their steel." These overwhelmingly fearful casualties are
not to be ex])lained otherwise. And each section res])ects the other nuiro
than before the war — a war in which the eonciuered felt not, nor said,
j/crriir!, and in winch surrender to greater numbers and heavier artillery in-
volved no saeriiice of belief in the truth and justice of their cause. Was there
ever an armed strife that brought forth greater generals or more knightly
valor, undiminished courage ami unHinching fortitude on the ])art of comba-
tants ? Together must the names of (irant ami Lee go down to jiosterity as
great types of the American soldier, — tlie one, noble and generous in victory;
the other, though a hero uncrowned by success, a warrior still more heroic
in defeat.
Tiiic Si'amsii-Amkkkax Wak. — The proximate causes of the war with
Spain are tersely set lorth in the .loint Resolution decdaring the independ-
ence of Cuba and demanding the withdrawal of Spanisli sovereignty there-
from, wliich says : —
XTUL'y
LEADISa WARS or Till': CKSTUHY
aoi
ti'il ItllllV Wciv
I' INS. \jw tele
Ml Iiold I'ctfiN-
'I'liat iiiH;lii
t'di'ijitc ticct ill
iiiuii forces tlic
UMtcd iiiiiiisioii,
ox. l)llt cltisi'lv
lit' suireiidt'ii'il
ic tro()|i,s Wfi'c
i'Iiaii,L,'('(l. Till'
wt'if to retain
|IS."
ills iiiaivli and
• •aptiired early
inforeed h\ the
lie reiiiiiaiit of
i'l' results, witli
ton's army sur-
iid on .raiiuary
I'liarloston was
liiiie(dii called
Um.OdO. Tliore
red. iiiid !.'().(»(»()
]it'r day. 'I'lie
a courage and
As C()iiij)ared
I'opcan armies,
uid four times
side met '■ foe-
easualties are
;he other moiv
not, nor said,
ier artillery iii-
i.se. Was there
more kiiightly
|)art of comba-
to ])o.sterity as
ous in victory;
11 more heroic
the war with
the independ-
■rpigiity there-
'' ir/iiri'is. The abhorrent conditions which have existed lor more than
three years in the island of Cuba, Mt near our own bordei'.>, have shocked
the moral sense of the iieople of the I'liited States, havi- been a disgrace
to Chri.iian I'ivili/atioii. ciilniinatiii),' as they have in the destruction of a
I nited States' battleslii|i, with I'lid of its otlieers and crew, while on a
li'ieiidly visit in the harbor of Havana, ami cannot lonu'er lie eiidiirc(l, a.s
has iiccn set forth by the I'resideiit of the riiited Slates in his iiiessajjo
lee's SIKHENDKU at APPOMATTOX.
to C^ongress of April 11, 1S08, upon which the action of Congress was in-
vited ; therefore,
'• Ji'esolri'd, by tlie Senate and House of- Kepresentatives of the United
States of America in Congress assembled :
" First, That the people of the island of Cuba are, and of right ought to be,
free and indejiendent.
>' Si'fuiid, That it is the duty of the United States to demand, and the
Government of the United States does hereby demand, that the Government
of Spain at once relinquish its author-ty ami government in the island of
Cuba, and withdraw its land and naval forces from Cuba and Cvdian waters.
302
TiitUMi'iis AM) n'uM>i:iis or the XIX'" cestuhy
" Th'utl, Tliiit tilt! I'rosidi'iit (»1 till' L'nitfd Stiitos lie, ami hf hori'by is. di-
I'fi'tfil iiiid oiii|Mi\v(>nMl til iisi- till' ciitiio liiiiil Riiil iiiiviil iiii'i'i'> nf tlit> I'liiti'il
StiUfs, iiiid to ciiU into tin- in'tiiiil scrvii'c id' tlit- rnilfd States llif militia id
the Hevt'iiil States to mih ii fxtint as \\\\\\ lie in'tii'SMiiry tii lany tlii-sc icsohj-
tiims iiiti) tdlrrt.
•• Fiiiiit/i, That the liiitcd States lit'r(d)y disiduiniH aii\ dis|»u,siti((n or in-
tontion to fxcndsi' HovneiKiity, jiiiisdirtiou, or oDiitiul over said Island.
e.\('i'|)t for till' iiacification tluTrid', ami assiTts its di'ti'inniiatidii when that
is rumiilt'tt'd to Iravc the '^'nvi'nimi'id. ami nuitiul oT IJu' Island to its
1U'I)|(1('."
This ri'solutiou was sigiu'd i)y tlu' I'lusiiU'iil at Il.'JI o'clock A. M., April I'n,
18US.
it was oil Kchniary ir», 1S<»8. that the ratastro|)he referred to — tlie blowing
MoliKii I ASTI.K. SAMIAIiO. IIIIA.
up of the Elaine — occurred. On Ajiril 'J't, the formal deolaratiou of war was
made.
Spain had tliree fleets. — Admiral Cerveni's flying' squadron, the Asiatic
fleet under Admiral Montejo, and Admiral Camara's Heet of heavy armored
vessels.
The American navy is always ready for emergencies, and even with the
grudging appropriations made by Congress, the "new navy,"' while not pos-
sessing vessels of such large size as tluise of some other nations, was much
more formidable than was generally supjiosed. Congress, apprehending tlio
outcome, had given the President •iJii'iO.dOO.OOO to jnit the country on a war
footing. In rejdy to the call for ll'o.OdO volunteers, five times that number
offered themselves.
It had been more than fifty years since the United States had encountered
a foreign foe, and since the close of the Civil War, tor a third of a century,
peace had reigned.
April Hi), by cable to Hong Kong, Commodore Dewey was ordered to find
and destroy the Spanish Asiatic fleet, which he proceeded to do on May 1st,
UMvl)y is. (li-
r 111.' Ciiit.'d
III' iiiilitiii u|
tlit'sc n'Nolii-
nsitioii or ill-
sail! Isliind.
II wlicii tli:it
iind til its
I of war was
the Asiatic
ivy anuored
ADMraAI, OEOROE DF-VTET.
394
TRIUMPHS AM) WOShERS OF Till-: XIX'" CENTURY
■without tlie loss of ;i siii;^lc man. Kiitt'i'ing .Manila liay. scornin;;' toipf.
(Iocs and mines, his womlci'lnl battli' at Caxiti' is tin- aclmirali<in (ji' the
■world.
Schley, with his Hying s(|nailron. watched in Hamilton lloads for an attack
by the enemy on the Atlantic coast. Havana was liiockaded iiy Sampson's
.s(|uadron AjMil -'2, iind his searchlights seen from the Cniian ca]iital were
as the handwriting on the sky. foredoonung Spanish rnlc. J lis tactics
were to take no risk with his \essels while awaiting the ap]iearance of the
Spanish .shijis. so lie failed to retui-n the greeting of the shore batteries.
The hrst casualties of the war were in Cardenas harbor .May 11, when ujinn
MAI.N I)i;cK OK CUriSMH (IIKAtiO
the Winslow. while chasing a decoy gunboat too far under the fire of the land
batteries, Ensign Hagley and fou'.' .sailors were the first men of the navy to lay
down tlieir lives.
It was known that Cervera had sailed from Cadiz toward the West Indies.
Sampson urade a tour of I'orto Rico to hunt the Spainard, who mysteriously
eluded the sight of the Anu'ricans. San .luan was bombarded on Ma' IL'.
On ^fay .'>0 Schley, who in the meantinu' had arrived oft' Santiago, (lis])a*ched :
"1 have seen the enemy's shijis with my own eyes." Cervera had then been
in the harbor ten days. On the ."1st. Schley commenced a bondiardment. and
the forts at the mouth of Santiago harbor and the vessels within replied for
an hour. .l\iue 1 Sainpsoji came, and all hope of escape for Cervera was c\it oft".
On that night Lieutenant Hobsou executed his bold, heroic nlan of siidving
7 7.'}'
iriiiii.i; t(H']ic.
itii)ii of tlic
HI' iiii attiick
V SlllU|i.-,(iii".s
»'ll|litill WlMV
His tiictii's
raiicc ui tin.'
tti'i'ies.
wlu'II lljidll
of the Ifiiul
iiiivy to];ly
^''est Indies,
lystei'ioiislv
01) Max IL'.
(lisiia*,c|ieil :
1 tlicii lieeii
(liiK^nt. jiii'l
rpplicil lor
was cut nlf.
of siiikiiij'
396
TRIUMPHS AND WOXDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
the Merriiuac in the chaniu'l of the harbor, which was accomplished without
the loss of one of his seven co-heroes, although subjected to a deadly tire
from forts and vessels.
The first troops landed on Cuban soil were the marines, G')!) in number,
under I.ieutenant-Colonel Huntington. This battalion had beiMi on board the
I'anther since ^May -'I, and the )uen were eager to land. After Sampson had
slielled the shore and adjacent hills and woods, on the afternoon of .June 10
the landi;ig was made and the American flag raised for the first time on
Spanish territoiy in the west. No SiJauiards were seen until after the tents
had been erected and the evening shadows were falling. Then for five nights
and days tlu>re was no sleep for these men, than whom there wen; no greater
heroes in this short, sharp war. With few exceptions they received their
"baptism of fire," and nobly did they acipiit themselves.
I am told that when almost utterly exhausted the first platoon reached the
summit of Cusco hill, so exactly in unison was their fire that the Spanish, be-
lieving that mac'''ne guns were opening upon them, turned and ran, never
pgain making a s^and. Tlir~ first to consecrate the soil with his life's bhjod
wa Dr. .lohn I'lair (Jibbs, who left a .ijilO.OdO jiractice in New York to go as
surgeon of the battalion, and who hiul greatly endeared liimself to both offi-
cers and men. Sergeant (roode. om; of tlie finest subalterns in the corjis, and
four men were killed. The good condition and health of this battalion during
the whole campaign were due to the fine organization of the commissariat
and the strict discipline maintained in this corps.
(ieneral Shatter arrived off Santiago, dune 20, with a force • f 77.'i officers
ami 14,."i(14 men. (ieneral (iarcia, the ('iU)an commander, with four thousand
insurgents, was at .\ssuadero, eighteen miles west. There he, Shatter, and
Sampson held a consultation. On the L'L'd, the disembarkment of troo])s was
begun. On the morning of the L'.'Jd, (ii neral Lawton with his division ad-
vanced to .luragua. MajoiM ieneral Wheeler, after landing {)()4 of his force,
pursuant to (ieneral Shatter's orders, moved rapidly to the front, and. passing
throiigh Lawton's lines, jjiished on to I.as tiuasimas, attacking and defeating
Geni'val Linares on the morning of .lune 24.
The entire .Vmerican force was pressed forward under (ieneral Wlit>eler,
(ieneral Shaffer being detained on the shi]is to attend to the landing of the
armament and siipplies. ( )n the 20th. the commanding general left his ships
and pitched his camp on the Santiago road, and on the next day orders were
given for an attack along the whole line. In carrying out these orders, (ien-
eral Lawton with about six thousand men attacked El Caney, a small town
about five miles north of Santiago. The garrison consisted of r>20 men, the
defenses being one block-house and a shore ff)rtification. It was not until
four o'clock that (ieneral Lawton's success was comjtlete. His loss was
4.37 killed and wounded, and but J^O of the eiuuny succeeded in escaping and
reaching the Spanish lines. While Lawton was nu)ving on El Caney, the
cavalry division, unmounted, and Kent's infantry division were ordered to
move forward. Crossing San .luan Kiver at a point about five liundred
yards from the enemy's fortifications on San Juan ridge, the left of the
cavalry rested on the main Santiago road and the infantry formed to the
left of the cavalry. Tliese troops were subjected to a very heavy fire in
advancing from El Pozo, in crossing the river and in forming on the other
LEAD/ya WAliS OF THE CEXTURY
397
side ; they, however, most bravely cliargecl the enemy in their strong i»o.sition
on Ki'ttle ilill and San .Juan ridge, and drove tiicm preripitately from tiieir
-trung tortifieations : the Ani.'M'i(;an h)s.s being 1."»4 killed anii ".►'.•7 wounded.
• iKNKUAI, JOSEPH WHEKT.ER.
(('(ipyriirlit by AiiiK' Diipmit, 1809.1
Tiiis placed the Americans in a jiosition eonnnanding the fortifications around
tlie city of Santiago.
'I'lic Spanisli Meet, consir<ting of five armored cruisers of 7.000 tons and 2
torpedo-boat destroyers, attenqited to escape from Santiago at ".•..'><> o'clock on
Sunday morning, July 3, just nine weeks after the destruetiou of Montejo's
398 TRIUMPHS AND WOyDKIiS OF THE XIX'" CEXTURY
fleet. Schley ami Samiisdu destioyed the vessels and made jirisoiiers of 70
otticers ami KiOO im'ii ; ."J")** were killed aiid 1(>(I wounded.
Fightinu' mure or less severe tx-curred until tlie Kitii. when nt-t^oliatious
for surrender were inaugurated, resulting in the capitulation of Siintiago,
I'lifCl
IlKKOKK SANTIAGO.
July 1<), tlie Spanish fortilications. twenty-four thousand jirisoners. and a
large amount of arms and ammunitiou. At noon on Sunday, .Fuly 17, 181)8,
the Anu'rican flag was hoisted (jver the heiuhpiarters at Santiago.
(ieneral .Miles started on the invasion of I'orto l{i(!o, July 2"), and reached
Guanica at daylight next morning. lie landed with three thousand five
hundred men, marched toward Yauco, five miles distant, which he entered
(HUTS of 7<*
LEADISG WARS OF THE CENTURY
ayi)
alter a skinnisli, and "vas irccivecl cntliusiastipally by the citizons, as he also
was at I'oiicf. where he was joined l>y CJeneral Wilsfin. wliu had eouu* with
till' war ships, and who was made j^o^ernor. Tlie army fontinned on to San
.luan along the military road, iiifi'tini,' very little opjM.sition.
duly -{), the French ambassador, M. .lules Cambon, acting for Spain, made
overtures for peai'e. The protocol w.'is signed on April I'l. by M. Cambon
and Secretary of State Day. A cessation of hostilities was proclaimed. At
the very moment of the signing of the protocol, the last uaval battle took
AOUIXALDO, THE T.\G.\L LEADEU.
place at Manzanilla, Cuba, and an artillery engagement at Avlwnito in Torto
Ific-
The one-hundred-days Spanish-American war was concluded by the treaty
nf I'aris.
It will l)e >)nly in the retros^if^ct that we may tell the results of this con-
flict. As the fntme unfolds them ti> o\ir view, it may be that it will have
iieen more momentous in its conseijuem-es than we can now determine, (hie
thing it has i)roved, that is, that this nation is really rnniiff/ : for. from all
sections and from all grades of life, men tlocked together to fight and con-
quer under the old Star.s and Stripes.
400
TJilUMI'HS AMj noyDEJiH OF THE A/A'" CEML'Uy
II. KIlKKKiN \V Alls.
Nai'oi.k.omc Waks. — Tlu' lun.LC i-uiitfst bt-twciMi Fniiiee and Austria brgim
when tliL' (iii'(jn(li;st iiiiiiistry ut' Fraiu't' duclartd war. Ajiril I'd. 17(L'. Ilv
the executiun of Louis XVi., January I'l. IT'Xi, tlie Kt-volutidu tlin-w down
the gauntii't to all ancient Kurope. England, whose syiniiathies had hitherto
been more or less with France, began to take measures to bring about more
cordial relations with the other i)owers of Euro[ie. Spain, Portugal, Austria.
Prussia, and iJussia, tor the time seemed to I'orget their sevei'al grievances as
they Ibund themselves eoni'njuted with a totally new luovt- on the chessboard
of European autonomy. The year 17'.l4 saw the French Ifevolution jirogress-
ing trium]i!iaiitly, and all Eurojte. except England and Austria, appeared
ae(iuieseent in apathetic indilt'ereiiee. Jn ITi).'* the royidists made a suiireme
effort to recover jiower. but were oruslied by the ".Man of J)cstiny,*' and the
l)irc(^tory, consisting of five nuMubers, of whom C'arnot was one. eame into
jKtwer. Dominated by the martial genius of C'arnot. "the organizer of vic-
tory," the Diiectory ■svoii the eontiilcnof of the army. Scdierer. the e(.'a-
mander. lacked the (pialitications to undertake a successful campaign against
Austria, and l>onaparte. succeeding him. .soon infused his own spirit into the
armv and bound it to himstdf with a devotion that never failed.
Early in the year l.S(K», Napoleon, having been ma(h' first consul, took up
liis abode in the ohl palace of the kings of France, the Tuileries. The his-
tory of Xapoleon for the ensuing fifteen years is the history of Eurojie. it
is, therelore, best to begin with the close (d' the eighteenth ceiituiy. in order
to api)reeiate the situation at the <hiwn of the nineteenth.
Austria and F3nglaud, with several small (icrman ]irincipalities. were still
in arms against France. The plans and movements cd' the armies under
Napoleon showed him to be verily a master in military skill. Opening this
cam^mign, he left Massena with about eight thousaml soldiers to hold the
territory from Nice to (ienoa, so as To keep the Austrian army in Italy busy.
He sent the lihine army, under ^[oreau, to threaten ISavaria and to secure
the most im])ortant position between the IMdne and ihe l)aiud)e. ^loreau
drove the Austrians to I'lm. .ind (lis))osed his left Hank to support Najioleon.
]\Ieantime, he himself was recruiting another army for ojierations on th >
To. l?arr)n de ^bdas, commanding the Austrian troops in Northern Italy,
besieged Massena in deuoa. whicdi. after severe sulTering. surrendered, leav-
ing I)e ifelas free to join the army of the I'o. Xajioleon was between de
Melas and Austria, (ieneral (Ht. with eighteen thousand men, attenqited to
reach I'huH'Uti.i. but Lannes. with twelve thousautl. defeated him at iMonte-
bello, forcing him back to Allesandria. Na]i<deon hastened across the I'o to
Stradella to intercept De Melas and jireveut his breaking through the French
lines to Flacentia.
The night of June l.'i. ISOO, the French army was scattered, watching
nlong the Fo and the Tessino for the Austrians. while their army, forty
thousand strcuig. with ten thousand more not far distarit. was ready at day-
break fif the 14th to cut its way through the armies of F'rance. and reacdi
Placentia. The French force was but eighteen thousand, but Victor with
his division held his ])Osition firndy, and the great leader, Kidlerman. was in
command of the cavalrv. Backward and forward surged the battle with
LEAhING WARS OF THE CENTUliV
401
viiiviiig iurtuiit', iiiiil lit noon victory seciiifd iifiduid upon the biuiiiers of
Austria. De Ali'liis was so oertiiiii that the batth' was won that hu gaHoiied
lnR'k to AUt'sandria and sent disjiatchcs to tliat ertVct to the i^ovprnnicnts of
NAI'OI.KON. 1S14, (MKIS^OMKH.)
]Cnr<i]H'. (Jenoral de Zach was kdt in eoniniand to oonduet tlic jnusuit and
to drive the Frencli across tlie Scrivia. Xajioh'on. dismayed, lioping aijainst
liope that Desaix. whom lie had sent towards Novi the (hiy before to look
out in that quarter for De Melas, might hear the thunders of the battle and
2G
I H
11 i
40-J
TRIUMPHS AND WOMUCItS UF THE A/A'" CENTURY
rt'timi. siiw liiiii in the ilistaiicf. hurryiiijj; with his troops, who, tliough worn
and tiri'il, were eagt'V tor the tiglit, iiiid NaiRileoii saw already the tide ol
battU> turned.
J)esaix liad found no trace of the Austrians, but lie had heard the sound <il
Itatth' at day dawn, and he knew that De Midas was there, and that tiiere he
was needed, and not at Novi. lit- ronsrd liis division, and hastened back
to >ia|ioIeon. A short eonlt-renee witli his ehief, to whose (luestioning he
answered. "The l)attle is lost, but it is only three o'eloek, there is yet time
to win another," ami the battle <d Maiivnj,'n. glorious in its eonse(jaenc(!S to
NaiM'leon. stuiiendoiis in its ■.•ainage. was won ; but l)esaix. the brave jiala-
din, lay dead upon the field. Di- Meias returned from .Mlesandria to meet
the victorious army lie had left — Hyiii!: in disorder — tliorouij;hly routed.
Dn December U, Moreau and Ncy won the lidd of lloheidindeii, and the
" l)eace of liuneville" was concluded. February IK 1S(»1.
The result of this campaitrn was the cession ni Austria's strongliolds in
the Tyrol and IJavaria t( France, as also a nundter of imi)ortaut holdings :i
Italy. France secured the left bank of the IJhine. the lielgian provinces and
Tuscany, and the king of Najdes <dos< u Ids harbors to England. In March,
I8O1;, by the " treaty of .Vmiens.'" j)eace was concluded with England.
The coalition of Denmark. Sweden. ISussia, iind I'russia, witli !•' ranee
against England, in 1S(H). fomented by Nap(deon. broke down in iSOl, after
Nelson's battle of Copenhagen.
England had sei'ured tlie supremacy of the sea and donnnion over India,
rescued rortugal, Naples, and the States (d' tiie Cherch from France, and
restored the Sublime Torte to Turkey. Finding .Napoleon again militating
against her interests, ami resenting his i-ucroacdiments. England declared w;ir
against I'^rance in the spring of 180.'?. Russia esjioused the cause of Eng-
land, Prussia held off, and Austria was friendly, though not in fighting trim.
The third coalition eom')ri.sed England. IJussia. and Austria.
Powerless to hurt England on the seas. Nai)oleon, who had the year j)revi-
ous been proclaimed emperor, attacked .Vustria, invaded her territory, cap-
tured her army at I'lm. proceeded to Vienna, and occupied a great part of the
valley of the Danube. On Decendjer 2. lSi;."». tiie "Battle of the Three Em-
perors " (the battle of Austerlitz) was fought. The " Peace of Pres.sburg,"' con-
eluded December 2(5. left .Vustria shorn cd' her ancient prestige, her title of
(Jerman Emi)ire, and of a great i)art of her jxissessions. The '• Sun of .\us-
terlitz " melted the third coalition. In the meantime the battle of Trafalgar,
won by the immortal Nelson, crushed the naval power of both France aiul
Xp.nin.
In September, 18(H). I'russia declared war against France, and. to the
amazenuMit of I'^urope. alone inidcrtook to engage armies flushed from their
rcent victories ami stdl in (iermany. October 14, Napoleon utterly defeated
the I'russians at .lena and .\uerstadt. and entered Perlin a conqiu'rer, tlie
king having Hed to Kiinigsberg. Ilussia came to the aid of Prussia, but ar-
rived too late to acconi])lish .mythiiig excejit to check the advance of the
French, whose armies wintered on the \istula. The next summer, however,
the Russians met their final defeat in this camjiaign at Friedland. and Kiinigs-
berg was taken. The "Treaty of Tilsit" ended the operations of this fourth
coalition .Inly 7, 1S07.
LEAI)U\<i WAHS OF TIIK LKMURY
4(M
1 he fifth coiilitiou aguiiist NaiMileon coiiiprist'il Eiighiiid. Austriii, Spain,
;.;itl Turtiiyal. Th« decisive hiitth' of this ciiiniJiiign was at Wa^'raiii, 'luly •"»
iii.l ('(, l.S(t!>, ami tei'i'ihle as were tlu! coiisimhu'Ikm's of hisih'fciit to Austria, so
( ripiilfd Wiis >':ii)oleoii that lit- uilliiij,'I\- granted tlic armistice of Ziiaiiii and
I Miichidid the " I'eace of Vienna." When the Hftii coalition ended, Napoleon
iiiid acMiiiired the lUyrian jiroviiicjcs and part of the Tyrol for France, and
.•\eiitnidly the Kniperor's (hinghter.
Marin Louisa, for his wife.
in I.SIL' came war with IJussia.
,iud lliat most disastrous campaign
which cost France nuut! than three
luuidri'd thousand soldiers iind Xa-
|iolcon his empire. Russia. Kng-
liind. I'russia. and Sweden formed
l.hc coalition now. and 'rurkcy iiad
iiuide peace with IJussia. Napoleon
crossed the Nienu'U in dune, lialted
;it Wilna to put his new conscripts
ill liettcr order, addressed words of
sympiith\ to I'oland. ;ind took mea-
sures to keep .Vustria conciliateil.
Tlie Russians retreiited iiefore him.
lie met ;ind fought and defeated
tiiem lit Smolensk, .Vugu.st 17 : they
retreated in good order, liiirningand
ilcstroying iill in their reiich. 'I'he
teirihle battle of I'xirodiiio was
fought September 7; the defeated
liiissians again retreated in good order, pursuing the same tactics. Napoleon
iciiched .Moscow Sei)temlier l."», but the heroic measure of Uussia in destroy-
ing that city was ecpial in its results to several, victories. October 15, the
l''ren(di troops con'inenced their fearful reti'eat. 'i'he IJussian armies giew
bold, they harassed the I'rencdi troojis, weak from hunger and cold, and frOm
Moscow to VV'ilna their p"()gress was one continual guerilUi warfare. From
Wilna, tlieir flight to l'"rance. necend)er "i, wiis even more disastrous. Of
the grand army that set out in the spring not one fourth ever returned.
Affairs in Spain had fared badly for I''rance. Wellington defeated the
i''rench army in Spain, and finally exiielled it. France, though sometimes
shaken in lier devotion by the conscrij)tion that was draining her children's
lilood, still liad faith in Napoleon, and in 18l;{. having raised another grand
army, he undertook to subjugate Prussia. His first victory was on the plain of
Lntzen. The I'russians and Russians retreated in good order through Dres-
ilen. Nap(>leon jiursued and drove them from l!aid<eu. (Ui ^fay L'O and 21,
and established his headquarters at Dresden. Austria now joined the allies,
in their attack ui)on Dresden, August lid and 27. they were defeated, but
Russian troops and the King of IJavaria coming nj) made Napoleon's
position untenable. The allies were awaiting him at Ijcipsic. The battle
raged for three days, and Napoleon withdrew on October 10, utterly de-
leated.
AIlMIItAI. lUJUATlO M;1.S0X.
404
Tlilf'Mrns AXU WOSUEIIS OF THE XlXi" CESTUHY
Jamiury !'•'>, ISM, Na|iolc(iii. Iiiiviiij,' rjiiscd luiotlicr iiniiy, loft I'liris In
assume cuminaml. Thf allies — Kiij^laiid. Austria. I'mssia, and Ku.ssia —
wiM'o iiiorc dfti'iiiiiiit'd than t'vcr to crusli hiiii. Many Imttlcs Avert' l'()iif,'lit,
and tilt! loituncs tit war varii'd. IHiitMifr tli'lVatfd iiiiii at \m rotliicrs tin llic
Ist tif Ffliruary. Na|itilc(in was the victor at .Mtintt-naii; unswci'csst'ul ;ii
Stiissiins. Martdi ."i; vifttirituis ;r, ('ravdhne. Mart'li 7; and dcl't'idcd hy liluchiT
at Liiiin, Marcii',). Willi ni<irf tiian liall' iiis army lust, NaiMiliMni wtirrifd tlic
allifs in tiicir n-ar; lint rdnciifr laarfhcil nn I'aris. 'I'lic prt'slijjt' nl' Napoli'tin
and l'"r,iiii'f in Kiimiif was at an cntl.
'I'lie l-ni|irt'ss and tiie rt'j,'fnfy retiri'd to ISlois. (tn MarcluM I'aris surren-
'dtMt'il. anil tilt- j-'.niiifror of ilnssia and tlie Kini;' oT Prussia I'ulcrt'd the fity.
A lU'iivisioual .miVfrnnu'iit. with Talleyrand at its iiead, tleposed Napoleon on
April '2, anil on April (J he alidieatid. May .'!(l. tlie P'ir.st I'eaee of I'aris wa.>
conrhideil lietweeii Krauee and llif allies. I'l^auec was to have her lioundarie--
as they were ill IT'.tl'. ami also her foicii,'U possessions, exeept Tohago, St.
Lufia, ami Mauritius, whieh. with Malta, were eeded to Ku,i;laud. The JJoiir-
boiis, in the person of I.ouis Will., were restorcil ; hut the l^'ii'iieh peo]ilr
were not i-onteiit. so that when Naimleon ajipeart;d at Cannes on March I.
1S1."». he was fjreeted with joy. even liy tiie trooi>s sent out to ii)iiiose him.
This astonishing news was eiimiiiunieated to the ( 'diiuMi'ss of the .Mlies assem-
bled at \'ieniia. The allied armies at onee gathereil oii the ijorders id' I'' ranee.
Wellington landeil in l-'landers. and rducher's Prussians joined him, Wel-
lington, tinding Napoleon in front of him. ttdl back to Waterloo, lest the
aii|iroacli of ihe Prussian.'; should be cut off. Napoleon hurled his force on
lilueher at Flnores. ami victoriously drove him from the held on the loth.
Kt-y. who had been sent to confiinit Wellingtfiii, fought at (^>iiat re Pras. and
the folhiwing day joined Napoleon. (Mi the iSth of .lune. iSlo, Napoleon
made his supremo anil final ett'ort to recuperate his lost I'ortuncs and to n -
establish his eni]iirt .
The story of the battle of Waterloo, than which none ever fought was more
decisive in its eonsequenees. has been told and retold. The battle was at lirst
uudeciiled. victory seeming to incline to Na]ioleon, though the luiglish anii
(ic.rmaus witii unHijiching lieioisiii .dill held the litdd until the afternoon,
Mhen IJluclier, with his Prussians, at last arrived. Napoleon jiereeived thai
the supreme moment was at hand, ami that his only hope was tti crush Wel-
lington before Pducher"s advancing cdliimiis could be thrown into line of battle.
He sent forwanl his magniMceiit Imi'-iial (iiiard. They chargeil with ehivalric
splendor, fought with heroii- ilesperatitui. were re]iulsed. — and the star of
N;i])olci>n set to rise no more.
I'^iudiiig his can.-e irretrievably lost, leaving the remnant of his army in
command <il ^Marshal .'^oiilt. Najiolcnn tlcil ami. I'ailing to iiud a passage to
Anieric.i. suriendcied. This battle, magniticeiit in it;; results, ensured to
England a long jieace. and raised !ier tt) the tirst rank, for military jirowess,
among the nations of the wmld.
Napoleon's skill at Waterloo w.is up to the highest stamlard of his most
glorious work; but he was ovei \vli(diucil by )irepouderance in numbers.
His entire force with whitdi he comlucted this campaign was bandy 1(»4,(K)(),
while the combined armies of Widlington and P>iuclier numbered 220.0(10.
The Congress of Vienna restored the mirii':, rei/hm; rejdacing dethroned
TUHY
fit Paris tu
nl Ikiissiji —
wt'i'f I'oii^'lil,
tliifis oil llic
(IK'CCSsrill ;it
l.y IMiicliri-
I \v(irri('(l tlif
lit Napok'oii
SUITCll
I'liris
icil tlic city.
Niipolcuii nil
III' Paris \va>
li<iiiiiilarii'^
'J'libago, St,
The Boin-
ll'licll ]HMi|ilc
Oil Ma loll 1.
n|i|i()sc liilii.
Allies assi'iii-
rs (if {'"raiicf,
him. WVi-
ll'll, ll'St till'
liis force on
n\ the ITith.
re ISras. ami
i"), Najioleoii
s ami to ]•( -
;iir was more
I' was at first
Kiiglish aiKi
c afternoon,
■reeived tha.
1 (;rush Wel-
iiie of battle,
itli chivalric
the star of
his army in
i passa),'*' to
ensured to
try jirowess,
of his most
n numbers,
ely 1(»4.()()(),
L'i'O.OOO.
j; ih'tlironeil
4(Nl
TKIIMI'HS AM) WOSDEUS OF THE XIX'" CEMCHy
iiiDiiiiirliH ii|<>ii tlii'ir lit'i'i'ditarji (loiiiiiiiks, Init iIk- itarcelin^ (uit ut tin- siiiiillii
tcnitinius Hliowt'il tin' I'owcrs to Ih- i|uit«ms arliitnnv us Nii|M)U'()n himsi'll.
'I'lu! .siMiii-dci'ailt' III passivi' suliniissidu to tliti *' [lolii'lt's uf |>riiicfs "' \\a.->
briikfii in ISI'O 1)\ );cin-ial rrvults in luiiopt'. Siianisli-Ann'iican folonifs.
iiiili),'nant at Frt'inOi inU'rtVr.'in'c in Spanisii nuittfiH, lic^an thoir strnggU's
I'm' in 'I'licndcncf.
(JiiKKK W.vn Kiiii lM>Kri.xi>i:N< K. — Since tin' capture of Constantinoi'lc
by tho Turks, in 14*».'{, (irct'ci' iiad lit'cn .sidijcct to Turkey, (tut (d tlir dc-
t't-ats of sovtTal n-hi'llions against the ;,'rct'd. Iviannv, and hrntality id the
.Moslem, — particularly from lin- revolutions ol 1770 ami 17',Mt, — grew tlie
secH't society of the llcta'ria, ccnuMitiuK tin- union (d' tlii' (JrfM'ks for the
struii^lc he^innini; in iSL'l. It is clainu'd that ten thousand (Jreeks were
slaughtered within a few days, and thirty thousand in less than three
months.
.Mahmoud. having failed in iSlVilo crush the reliellion. called .Mehenn-I .\li.
the I'asha of i''i,'ypt, to his aid. Mehenict scut Ibrahim, his son, with his
army and navy, trained in the tactics of Knropean warfare, into the I'elo i-
lu'siis. N'iclory and devastation marked his conrse. Never was grander
couraj;e nor loftier ')ravery displayed than by the (Ireeks. The sieijf) of Mis-
.solon,i,dii lasted from April L'7. 1S1*.'», until .\pril L'L'. ISL'd. Athens was cap-
tured, .lane 'J, 1}>1.'7. The tlccts of Kn;,daiul, France, and Itussia were cnnsint,'
(Ml tlio coasts to prevent attacks by the Tiirk.f on the islands. A)>proa(diin.ii
the bay id' Navarino. they were attacked b}- the Turks and l\i;yptians. whose
couibined fleets were thereuiion annihilated on (tctolier L'O. 1S1.'7. The Sultan
wa.s forceil by the (Kiwers to cimsont to the establishment of the kiufidom of
(iieece. and his dehiy to do so was punished b}' Czar Nicholas, who declared
war, crossed the Ualkaus. and at Adrianople in ISL'Jt compelled the Sultiui to
reco),'nize her independence. Rraut Christian jjovernors to Servia, Moldavia,
and Walhudiia. and to yield l?essarai)ia to Hussia.
.MiNoit Ki lioi'KAN Wai.'s. — The French l{'>V(dntion of IS.'JO. jd.aciu),'
Louis l'hilipj)e on the throiu' of France, brouj;ht about. Iielfjiuiu's indc-
l>endcnce.
The I'olish insurrection of 1S.'11-.'>1,' lost Poland her last vestige of liberty,
enchaining her irretrievably under the tyranny of Wussia.
From l.S4(t to iS.'ili England was engaged in (pu'lling periodic wars in her
Indian possessions. In ISH, her army, nundiering seventeen tlnuisand men,
perished in their retreat from Afghanistan. So with France in Algiers and
.Morocri). .\nd revolts in Spain were more or less siu'iu'ssfnl.
In \S['J. JMiglaud's war with China, caused by .seizure of opium, resulted
in the cession by China of Hong Kong, the trecdcun of I've othi>r ports, and
SIM ,( KM >.(•(« I indemnity.
In 1.S4S, the revolutionary sjiirit broke out iiercely, and the peojile made
strong lejips for liberty and constitutional governnuuit. In I'rance, it (tver-
threw Louis l'hili])pe. estal)lishing a republic, with Louis Napoleon I'lvsideut.
In all Kurojye its echo resounded. Itiots in \'ienna forced Metternich to tlee
to Kngland; Ferdinand, to take I'cfuge in the Tyred and to abdicate in favor
of his son. Francis .losepli. Frederick William was eomiielled i)v the condi-
tions in JSerlin to ])roniise a constitution. The Fraukfiu-t .\ssembly. in I.S1'.».
offered Frederick William the title and prerogative of Kmperor of (iermany.
LHMUNd WMtS OF THE L'EyTUHY
407
ami tluuiK'li, li«'fausc of his rts|u'('l lor tin- llii|iHliiir({s, he dccliin'il tlio honor.
Ill' still touk adviiiitiip' of the sciitiiiiiMit tiiat |iroiii|it('.| the iilli-i' to so
>lii'ii>,'thi'ii thf ilviiasty that laliT il ini^,'ht !)•• held.
lliiiiKary rosu against AiiHtriii in 1<S|S, ami aimo.st won in*h'|H-ml*-n('t>.
Kii>isiith |ii'ochiimc(l Ihin^^an' a rcimhlic, ami Nichnlas ininiciliatt'ly sent aid
III Austria. 'I'ht- Uiissian army. l.'UI.OOO stroiifr. joim'd tin' .Vustrians. 'I'hf
llunf^arians rt'licatt'd to 'I't'iiu'svar, whfic they wim*' did'catt'd with f^rcai
slau;,diti'r, and (ii'oigy .smrt'nth'n'd. Au|.;usi tl, ISlit. Thi' nanu- ot Haynaii.
the Austrian commandtT, i.s lichl in cxfcration for his awful crut'lty to the
4'om|u<M'i'd.
in the meantime Italy rose. Lombaiil}' drove out the Austrians. Charles
Alln-rt. kinn <>f Sardinia, had ih-idartMl war on Austria and erossed the Mineio.
.\|iril S. is IS, Kadeisky. I'omuuindin^; the Austrians, lost (iorto and yielded
I'l'sehie! 1 in May, Imt in .lune he forced iho I'apal ti'dops. who were assistinj;
<'harles .Mlicrt. to surrender, and eoni|»letely routed the Italians at Custo/.za.
July L'.">. and entered Milan. Charles .VUiert was a^ain defeated hy IJadet-
Charles
.\lliert resi},'ned his erown to his son. \'ietoi ICmnuiinu'l, and died sliortly
ifter.
>ky at Niivari. .Mandi '_'.'!. IcSlit, ami N'eiiiee waseaptiired .\uj,'ust
I'
r
I.\. was forced to tlee from Konie. Ma/./ini estaltlislu-d th
Knman reimldic in Novemher. .\ustria. hy the ido.se of the sntnmer of IS lit.
had rcLjained control of her ilisputed possessions. Louis Napoleon, takiiij;
lart au'ainsl Italy, oeeupii-d Home with his troops, tinly «. ISIK, and drove out
.M
i//.ini and (iarilialdi
TnK CiiiMi'.AN Wak. — In IS't.'!. Louis Napoleon wanted war. Hi fomented
tioidile hetween the I'orte and Nicholas, which ended liy a declaration of war
l>y IJnssia. The Czar claimed an<l demanth'd the i>roteet(n-ate of (I'.iristians in
Turkey. Austria, Kranee. and Knf,'lan(l opjiosed the (h'lnand. Nicholas had
intimated to the Itritish minister at St. I'eterslmrj,' that Kngland and Kussia
sliould share the jiartition of Turki'y, — showini; that he was ready to carry
out the will and aims of I'eter the (ireat and Catherine. The JJussian army
was thrown across the I 'ruth into Moldavia, and was at first worsted by the
Turks. In deference to the wislies of Austria and I'russia, Nicholas with-
drew his army from the Danuhian provinces, and so secured tlieir neutrality.
He dislodgeil the Ttii'kish fleet at Sinope. November 4, 1S.').'{.
Kngland and P'rance allied with Turke\ .iml declared war against liussia,
March I'.S, IS.VJ. The allied Heets and troops proeec<led to the l>lack Sea.
Sel)astoi)ol was the great arsenal of Kussia. Twenty-seven thousand English,
thirty thousand Kreneli, and seven thousand Turks were lauded in the Uay of
Kujjatoria. thirty miles above Sebastoixd. Sejitember II. IS.VI, towards which,
live days later, the southerly march began. The allies waded the river .Mnia
under terrific five from tlu' large Russian army, and won a brilliant victiuy.
The attack was remarkable in that it won victory over superior numbers in
seemingly iinpregnabh' positions, and in sjiite of otlieial blunders. Mentschi-
kiitY. the Ivussiaii general, withdri'w the crews fnuii the ships in the harbor
and put them, eighteen thousand strong, in command of the batteries. \\'ith
his own army he marched out of .'^eba.stopol. leaving twenty-five thousand de-
fenders to the ('ity. .Vdmiral KorniloiV and his able assistant. Colonel \'on
Todlebeii. undertook to .strengthen the defenses and to inspire tin; troops.
408
ritlUMPHS AS I) WUSDERS OF THE A7A'"' CENTURY
i :
■'/i
On Oetohcr 17, tlie sie^'c yuiis uf the allies were in jiosition. The Eiiy;]ish
stoniu'd till," Mil'urbs uf the rity. llu; .MiiliikoH' iiiul the Kcdan ; \\w Kn-iicl;
stonii('<l tilt" eitv. liuth wci'f iiiisucccssl'iil. Itussiaii troops jKHired iiiln
Si'hastojiol, ami invited battle outside ol' the I'oititieations. At the harbor ol
I'lalaklava. Turkisli truops recoih'd t'roni tiie iJiissiaii advance, and Sir Colin
Canipljell. with the lli.ichlani J>ri|,'aih'. saved the shi|iiiing and stores by
tinieh' cheek to the Uussians. Tlie battle of lialaklava, October 2'*, v'ave
the town to tlie Uritish ;ifter stubborn H,y:htin,l,^ ni(nt' thim two thirds of
the Lii^ht llri,i,'ade havinjj; been sacriticed to J<oi'd Liican"s niisconstrnction
of ordi'rs.
At Inker. nan. on Nuvendier ."i. sixty thousand Itussians. in I'o',' and rain,
snriirised the liritisli Househohl (inards. and for six hours vaiidy strove to
crush them. (Jem'ral l>os<|uot. with ; ■ j^enius <if the soiiiier, guessed the
l)oint of severest attack, and sent reinl'orcenn'nVs to tlus (inards. The '.ius-
siims were finally driven liack. lattle good irsnited iVom these two stni b(un
battles. Winter put an end to active oneralions. Itain, hurricanes, insntti-
cient slielter. lack of supi>lies, and extreme cold produced fearful ndsery
among tlie soldiers. l!ns: in sutfered as severely ;• < did tht! allie.*. l)esides
having had her Heet on the lUack Sea destroyed and her army beaten.
In .\pril. IS."!.";, the bombarilnicnt began iigain. In .May the allies (ni|>ture(l
K«'rteh and \'enik;de, thus cutting olT Kussiau snp]ilies from the Caucasian
provinces. In dune. .Marshal ''elissier suc(!t'eded Canrobertand sureessfnlly
stormed Manelon ; and. after the abortive attacks. .Inne ]S, of the l'"reuch on
tlie .MiilakotT and tlie Knglish on the Itedan. (icneral Simpson sncceedeil Lord
Itagli.ii. .\ngust 1(>. the Russians crossed Tcheruaya, but were repulsed by
the French. On Septendier X the French ciirried the Malakoff; the liritish
failed to carry the Hedan. Thi' Russians set fire to the city and shi|)s and
retired to the northern part of the harbor, where they held strongly in-
trenched jiositions opposite the idlied aruiics and beyond the reach of the
allied Heets. liussia was driven from the lUack Sea, had lost her ])restige
in the' IJaltic Sen. I'omarsund. (ui the .Maud islands, and the arsenal of
Sweaborg, in the (inlf of Finland. She had saved C/onstadt, and. at
terrible sacrilice. had captured Kars from the Knglish General Williani.s
with his army of Turks. Her vast territory wa.'^ comparatively intact. The
nations were not sutistied. The I'eace of J'aris increased the jire.stige of
T>ouis Napoleon ; \^ postponed the Kastern (^lujstion by ])utting the Chris-
tian stil)jects under the ntuuimd |irotection of the Powers, but virtually
imder that of the Sultan. The treaty (d' peace was signed .Mandi .'JO, IS.'irt.
W.xns IN riii: East. — In IS.-tT, the Indian .Mutiny was caused by tlio
introduction of ICidiidd rifles Delhi was taken after desperate lighting.
September L'O. ("awnp(M-e and laicli'iow were the theatre of horrible scenes.
The relndlion was tinally crushed in IS.'iit.
In the nn'antinu' war with Persia w.is beg\ni and ended by the recapture of
Herat, in .Vfghanistan. In Hecendier. Is,"i7. Fngland and France nnnle war
on China and captured Canton. They secured nniny concessions by the
Treaty of Tien Tsin. and .«il.'.<MI(Mt(>0 indemnity.
Wai: hktwkin .VtsriiiA, FiiA.\< i:. am> Saiskima. — in l.S,"i!>. Loiiis NajKi-
leon made a secret alliance with Italy, (ieneral disarmament was proposed.
Sardinia agreed to it; Austria stood aloof. On April iTt, lHr»J>, Austria ordered
uny
"lie Enj;li.sli
tlit( Frciicli
lioiirt'd iiit(»
If li;irl)or of
1(1 Sir Colin
I stores by
er 2.'), ■'live
() tliiiiis dl'
mstnii-tidu
^' iiiid liiiii.
y strove to
fuesseil the
The '.Uis-
■o still l)oni
lies, iiisiitti-
i'ul misery
e.'. lies ides
iteii.
s ciipturi'd
Cauciisiaii
ueeesslully
I'reiich on
I'eded I.oid
epiilsed hy
tlie Iliitish
ships ;md
troiifirly iii-
iieh of the
IT liresti|:,'e
arsenal of
It, and. at
Williani.s
tact. Tlie
irestifje (if
the Chris-
t virtuallv
30, IS.-)*;/
fed liy tile
' ti^ditin;,'.
lie seenes.
eapture of
made war
IS liv the
mis Najm-
proposed.
ia ordered
410
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A7A"' CENTURY
thf disuriuiuneut of rit'dmout. (h\ the 27th, King Victor Einnuimiel luo-
chiinu'il war. <hi the ."tOth, French troiii>s were in Turin. On May lo, Loui>
Niipoh'on hiniselt diseinharked at (ienoa, where lie was met by Victor Kninia-
nuel. The Austrian lorccs crossed the Ticino, m mntr lor Milan, but hesitated,
because of the French advance. The opening battles at Alontebello and ISales-
tro, jMay liO, 30, and .'>1. were favorable to the allies.
At Magenta. June 4, the Austrians met with terrible defeat. The forces ol
t.he allies numbered ."m.OOO, and their loss was 4000; the Austrian army ol
7."».00() lost 10.000 killed and wounded and 7000 ])ris()ners. The con<iueror.s
entered Milan on .luneS. Francis .Joseph fell back to the line of the Mincio.
and at Solferino the decisive batth; of the campaign was fo\ight on .lune 2\.
Napoleon commanded the <illied armies, which iniiubered about J.'itMHHt; they
fought for sixteen hours. against the Austrian force of 170,00<», gaining a fear-
ful victory. This battle cost Austria L'(t.000 men; the French lost in killed
and wounded 1L'.(KK» and the Sardinians oOOO men.
The allies crossed the Mincio and laid siege to I'eschiera, but while all
Kurojie expe<^ted another fight, an armistice of five weeks was agreeil to, aiul
Napoleon, unknown to liis ally, met Francis at Villafranca antl made a jieaco,
ii|)on which was based the Treaty of Z\iricli, signed November 10. Austria
gave Lombardy to Napoleon for the king of Sardinia, as also the fortresses of
^Fantua and I'eschiera. Italy was to become a confederation, with the I'ope
as ])resident, of which A>istria was to 1)0 a member, because of her holdings
in Venetia. Tuscany and Modcna were to be restored to their jirinces. (iari-
iKildi's brilliant coufpiest of Sicil\ and Najiles. in IStlO. and Sardinia's growing
]>ower, .stjirtled F^urope, but the nations dared not interfere. The general par-
liament of Italy met in lH(!l,at Turin, and made Victor Kmnianuel king of
Italy. Ikome. under the I'ojje, and Venetia, uiulcr Austria, were as yet dis-
menilM'red from "Young Italy."
\\ \\i \wv\\ Dknmak'k. — Christian IX. succeeded to the throne of l)en-
mark November l.">. l.SO.'!. lie endeavored to incoiiiorat<i Schleswig with
Denmark; the (tcrman popidatiou repudiated liini and appealed to the Con-
federacy. The Diet sent troojts into Ilolstein. IJisniarck induced Austria to
join Prussia in setting aside the London treaty of iSo.'?. and the allied troops
forced the Danes back to the intrenchnients of Dnppi'l. The ca])ture of Duji-
])el by the Prussians. Ajiril IS. proved the etliciency of needle guns and ritied
cannon, .lune L'L'. the allies crossed the channel to the Island of Alsen and.
on thcL'Sth, cajitured the Danish stronghold Dennewerke. hitiicrto consideri'il
impregnable. The Treaty of Vienna. October ."»0. 1S04. closed the war.
i'riissia and A\istria together were to control the duchies.
I'liK Skvkn Wkkks" Wai!. — iiie arrangement between Prussia and Aus-
tria respecting the Danish duchies caused the •• Seven Weeks" Vt'ar" of IHtiO.
I'.isniarck induced Victor Knimanuel to form an alliance against Austria.
.March L'7. The Prussians, im .lune 7. without a blow tori'cd the .Vustiians to
retire fntm Ilolstein. igntu-ing tiie protest of the Federal Diet. Austria was
not jirepared for war. Her army, together with that of Saxony, amounted to
two liundri'il and seventy-one tlioiisand. \\"\\\\ Prussia, fully e(pii|)pe(l and
on a war looting with three armies, besides the reservc^s, the grand total
estimated at three hundred thousand, the result was a foregone conclusion.
Prussia ileclared war. .lune 1.'. iSCiO. against Hanover. Hesse, and Snxonv,
L'lir
nuuniel ino-
av l;{, L()ui>
iftor Kiiiiiiii-
lut lit'sitiitcd.
(> and ISalcs-
li«> forces ol
laii army <it
("oiKlut'nir.s
the iliiipid.
on .hine 'J4.
■.(M»(l(t;tlu'_v
ininf,' a fVar-
st in killfil
ut wliile all
;ifi'rl to, and
adc a |)ea(*C',
I(». Austria
fortresses ot
itli the J 'ope
lier lu)ldinj;s
inees. (Jai-i-
lia's gmwinii
j,'eneral ])ar-
nuel kiuij <>r
' as yet dis-
one of l>eM-
deswii; witli
to tlu ('on-
d Austria to
allied troops
ture of Dup-
iis and liHed
f Alsen and.
) considered
.'d the war.
lia and .\us-
ir" of ].S(U;.
ist Anstri.i.
Vustrians to
Austria was
inionnted to
juipped and
jjraiid ti)t;d
eonclMsinii.
nd Siixonv,
41'!
riilUMl'US AND WONDERS OF THE A/A'" CENTURY
■ !•
!■
and next da}' tliivw Irt anni(!.s into tht- lK)stile states. On the ITtlx Fruiu-is
.losepli piiblislicil liis war manifesto. Italy declared war, on the '_'(lth, a^;ainst
Austria and liavaria. In fourteen days I'russia's immense army was luohil-
i/ed. In five days the northern stati-s to the Main were disarmed, and the
Saxon army was foreed to retreat toward IJohemia.
(Jenerai ISenedek was eonuuander of the Austrians. Ujion news of Prus-
sian vic^torii's. he advised Francis Joseph to make terms of jH-ace with Wil-
liam. I'russia fou5.jht for (lernuui unitication; .Vustria to jiroteet her pride.
It was supposed the .\u.strians would lirst enti-r Saxony and dispute the
Prussian advance, liut Itismarok had determined the; war shoidd be brief, lor
I'russia was now master of the si' aation. On .lune L'.'S, the l'r\issian army
marcheil from thret; points towards .losej)hstadt, where IJenedek was pre)>ai-
in^' to ti,i;ht. On the L'7th the Aiistrians were driven back at Soor, next day
at Skaliiz. and on the L'Uth at (Jitschen. Archduke Leopold, on the L'Nth,
and Count Clam (ialla.s, at (Jitschen, both attacked the enemy in disobedi-
ence of orders, and thus forced I'.eueih'k to fall back from his stroni^'est
position towards Koni<Jt?ratz. The .Austrians were also defeated, on the L'Sth,
at Konif,'inhof and Schwein.sehadel, and their loss by this time inunbered
over thirty-live thousand. Uenedek asked i>ermission to retreat into .Moravia
aiul await reinlorcements, but news of the .\ustrian viijtory over the Italians
at Custo/.za reached Vienna, and immediately battle was enjoined \ipon I'.ene-
dek. lienedek jilaced five hundred t,'uns in jiosition. spanninj; a lea','ue
between the Elbe and Histi;it/,.
On .luly 'J, the king of I'russia assumed command of the Prussian hosts
and ordered attack for the next day. The Crown Prince, several miles away
with his army, received orders at four o'clock in tlie morning <)f the 'M to
advance his Silesian army from Kiiniginhof. At eight o'clock, Prince Fred-
erick Charles, with a Imndred thousand, attacked tiie Austrian centre lying
against Sadowa. (Jt'iieral Herwarth, with lour hundred thon.sand men. at-
tacki'd the Austiian right. The whole Austrian army, was hurled against
these two commands for five hours. Princi; Frederick Charles forced )>assage
tiircmgh the IJistritz and took Sadowa, but could not take the heights. .\t
out! o'clock Velreat was being considered, but the Crown Prince coming uj)
with Ins troops the heights were taken at four o'(dock. The fighting on
both sides in this batth? was determined and heroic. The Prussian loss was
over ten thousand, and the Austrians lost twenty-seven thousand killed and
wounded, nineteen thousand i)risoners, with 174 cannon and 1 1 colors. At
Lissa, on .)<dy LM), tiie .\>istrian navy destroyed the Italian Hi'et. .luly L"_'.
an armistice of four we«'ks was granted. The I'eaceof Prague was concluded
August L'.'i. Her defeat cost .\ustria Venetia and the (piadrilateral. nanu'ly.
the fortresses of I'eschiera. Mantua, \'erona. and Legnano, deprived her of
any part in (Jernumy or (icrman attairs, and Ilolstein and Schleswig, and
obliged her to pay 4<>.lMU>.t)()(> thalers, (m«> lialf of whir-h she was to retain in
lieu (d' the ducdiies.
.\nstria emerged from the " Seven Weeks" War" with her ideas somewhat
liberalized, ami thoiigh her territory was diminished her jirogress ami ])ro«-
perity increased. The dual-Austro-IIung!irian emjiire was formed by Francis
Joseph, he nding at Vienna im Emi)eroi' of .\ustria and at liuda I'esth as
king of Hungary. This war also emled the (iermanic confederation of ISlo,
and the Is'orth (lerman Confederation under I'rvissia arose.
LEADING WARS OF THE CESTUPY
4i:(
At the peace of Vienna, OctolMT 3, Austria reeoj,'nize<l tlie kiii^iioni mI
Itiily. and witli the awiiiisition ol Venelia anil tlie <|ua(li-ilatenil loitivssev
I lie "Seven Weeks' War" had ;^'reatlv helped on the cause ot -rnited
iKtly."
Ill April. isr4, I.iiiiis Napoleon sent an anuy of twenty-tive thousand to
siistoiU the Austrian Arehduke .Maximilian on the throne of Mi-xieo. At
llial time the United Stai.es was oeeupieij uitii tiie Tivil War. Tins ended,
Naiioleon was summarily reipdred to withdraw Ids forees from tlie Anieritan
ciMitinent. which he did. .Maximilian was thus left to his fate. and. affr
beiii;; condemned Ity court martial, was shot at <,tueretaro. .lune 11». lNti7.
Tin: FitA.Nco- I'm ssi.vN W.vi;. — I'rince I..eopold. of llohenzollern. was
olferefl the throne of Spain after Isabella had fli.d from .Ma^irid. Leopold
declined. Imt Napoleon demanded that the Km|>eror William should truar-
antce never to i>ermit Leopold to accept. William refused to aictde to the
demand, and Napoleon, nrj,'ed hj- the war party, declared war .Inly !".». iNTn.
On the same day the Confederation plar-ed its forces in tin- hands of William,
as did the South (iormans. This spontaiiecms uprisini; of all (Jermany was
unlooked for. Najioleon's army numhered three hutulred and ten thousand
men. in ten days William had nearly half a million siddiers ready to niarcii
ai;ainst the enemy. Aiij^nst 1'. the first h<.;httook place at Saarhriicken. a little
town over tlie (ieniian frontier. Napoleon and the young I'rince Imiieiial
were present, ami the force of riilans v a.s driven hack. .\u.i;ust 1. the
Clown I'rince of I'russia drove the rif^ht wint' of Mac.Mahon's army lia<*k at
Weiss«*nliurg. and on the r>th. aj^ain was MacMahon ilefeated at Wiirth. I'iie
(ieiiiians. haviiie; separated .Mac.Mahon's army, advanceil into .Vlsace. In the
meantime (ieneral Stcinmetz carried Spichert-n hy stt>rni. and the wlnde (ier-
niaii army went forward. 'rof;ctliei- with the Crown I'rim-e. Steinniet/. on
tlie 14tii of .\n<;ust. defeated Marshal l!a/aine. at ( oiirielles. who retreated
to Met/, and then endeavored to pusli on with his hundred thousand m«*n to
Chalons. \'on .Moltke Imrricd on tin- Crown I'rince to intei-c«-pt iSazainc.
and at Mars la Tour was foui,dit the fiercest hattle. so far. of tin- war. < Mi
either .side the losses nmounted to seventeen thousand. <iravelotte was
foinjrht. on .\ui>iist IS. hetween tin- armies t>f Steinnietz and the Crown
I'rince. Kinj; AVilliam commandiiii: in person. The Kittle lastt-d all d.iy
iieiween two hundred thousand < iermans and (»nc hnmlred and eifjhty thou-
saml French. The (iermans lost twenty thousand men. and succeeded in
loicini; Hazaine into Aletz. Althon,t,di. in one sort, an undecisive hattle.
Ciavclotte pcrhajjs settled the fate of the Kinpire. MacMahon's ]ihiii was.
with his one hundred and twentvtive thousand men n'or-janized at Chalons,
to prevent the (ierman advance on I'aris. He was overruled and sent to the
ii'lief of Itazaine. I)efeati'd in several small fi^dit.--. Mac.Maho.i was ohiijjed
to fall hack on Sedan. The heights and ridt^es alnive .S-dan once occuiiied
liy hostili' troops, surrender or annihilation was the outcome. Ma<*M'dion
was wounded, then l)iicrot. and the command fell to Wimjiffen. Sedan 'vas
liirccil to surreiiiler. Se])tenilnT I, and Napoleon himself jjave his sword to
Kiiii,' vVilliam. I'aris was maddened. The laiipress e.s<'aiK'd to Kni;land.
Napoleon was taki'ii to the castle of Wilhelmslnihe.
A month had hardly passed since the outlniak of the war. ami one oi the
two f^icat French armies with the Kmperor had In'en captured: the other
414
TRIUMPHS AND WOXDEHS OF THE A/A"' CEXTURY
was besieged in Met/.. (};inibettii and other prominent men in I'liris set up
the government of tiie nutionul defense. A rei)ul)lie was proclaimed. The
defense of J'aris was zealo\isly unch-rtaken. Large supplies of provisions
were gathered. Fortitications were .strengthened. The siege In-gan Septem-
ber l'.>, 1870, and ended .laiiuarv I'.S. 1,S71. The direst famine attended it.
(lanil)etta left I'aris in a l)allo<in, and at Tours sueeeeded in forming the
army of tlie Loire and tlie army of tlie North. Uoth were defeate<l. Stras-
bourg was captiired. and Met/, surremiered with a lii\nitred and seventy-three
tiiousaiid men, among tliem three marshals of Franee. The entire Clerman
loss in tliis war was iL'U.TtIO men.
.lauiiary 17. 1S71. i'liiers was elected I'resident of the Third lJe|Miblic.
Knowing the impos.siiiility of further resi.stanee. with half a million (ieiiuan
soldiers. Hushed ami inspired by constant success, on the soil of Franee. and
I'aris ill tlieir aiiaeomia eoils. In iinseled that peace be askeil. 'I'liiers,
Favre, and I'icard negotiated with William and Uismarek. Au armistice of
twenty days was ])ermitted. that the National Convention then at liordeau.x
miglit ratify terms. In the meantime the house ot lloheu/ollern reached tlie
summit of its gratitied ambition, when, on March Is. \\ illiani was crowned
at Versailles. Knii)er(U" of (lermany. The cession of Alsace and Lorraine, and
.SI, <»()(•,( »<>(•.<•()(» indemnity, wiis the price of peai-e.
No patriot name in all history deserves more ri-vercnce than that of Louis
.\dolphe Thiers. I'pon him ilrvolved the tusk of making peace with the
(■eniian foe. of ipudling the civil war. and of so managing the tinances of
l-'iaiice, that her ))eopIe within two years were enabled, to the astonishment
of the world, to pay the eiioinious indemnity extorted by the (iermans. and,
by September. 1S7.'!. the last franc was paid and the last (lerman sentinel
removed from the soil of France.
The civil war between the l>i'i>ublic and the C'<unmune settled the question
once for all, that /'oris, accountable for all the errors and vicissitudes of the
country, is not Frmivi; and there is every reason to ho|ie that out of the
une(pialed horrors of those awful days of carnage the republican government
(d' France arose to remain in perpetuity.
(iaribahli. taking advantage of the fall of Louis NaiKtleon, and earing not
for the king's promises, took posse.ssiim with his troo]>s of the city (»f Home.
Sei)teniber !.'(•, 1S7<I, and on thdy - of the next year Victor Kmmanuel erected
his throne in the (,)iiirinal.
Trm (i-liissi.w \V.\k. — In 1S7r». the l>t>snians. Turkish subjects, revolted.
They maintained their struggle, and the enraged Turks st<nt Mohammedan
troops among the defenseless Ihilgarians. <lestroying unnumbered thousands
of men. women, and children, ("zar .Mexander declared war .Vpril L 1S77.
His army crossed the Italkans and occupied Shipk.i Pass. Hsman I'asha
developed unexpected military genius and skill. For tive months he checked
the onward march of the Hussians and won world-wide admiration by his
defense of I'levna. My the first of i)ecenil«'r I'levna was invested com-
pletely by the Hussians. Driven back whenever attempting to make a sortie,
starvation eompelled Osmaii to surrender with fortv-four thousand tro«)ps.
Adrianople was occupied. The Treaty of San Stefano was wrested in sight
«d' Constantinople. It greatly redueeil Turkish j tower in Kurojie. and eonsti-
tuted Kussia heir to 'i'urkey in Knrope. Itiilgaria was to lie protected by fifty
thousand K'lissiun froojts for two years and to have a Christian governor.
LEADING \VAJ{S OF THE CENTURY
415
■It of Liiiiis
I' with till-
tiiiaiici's (if
toiiisliinci'.t
iiiins. and,
111 st'iitiiiol
le qnostion
kIcs of the
"lit of tlic
overmneiit
fhipo months later. Kiiy[huul foii.ied a secret treaty with Turkey, securiujy
( \|inis and a.icn't'iiig to protect 'I'urkey in Asia. .Viistria. too, was dissatis-
ihmI. anil till' treaty of Merlin was made in 1H7S, lo rectify the balances of
tile nations. IJussia Wiis by this treaty dainagt'tl in prestige and, sliorn of
tiiuniphs, was given only Asiatic jirovinces. 'I'urkey was stripped of all real
Miwcr in Kiiroiii?
t'lllNo
.I.vi-.vm:sk W.U!. — In
Japan's declaration of war against
Cliina. .Viigiist 1, 1S'.(4, she set
tortli succinctly the jirovocation
lorring her to this action, fhc
>ai(l that Korea had been brocght
mill the notii-e of tlie nations of
the world i)y her cn'ort>; that
('liiiiit constantly had inlcrlcrcd
wilii Korea's government, insist-
ently posing as her suzerain : that
when ail insurrection m
korea
l.oris ADOI.PIIK 'I'lIIKKS.
lirokc ou^ China sent troops into
Korea, and that when .lapaii. un-
der tiic treaty of lSiS,">. also sent
troops to assist Kiu'ea to quell the
leiiels. asking China's coiipcratiiui
ill tiie effort. China refused her
rightful (h'niand; that China's
course tended to keeji up tlie
troiilile indetinitely. so that tlie
Old,' course hd't for .lapan was to
declare war.
.\s with (iermany a score of years ]ireviously. wlieii the time came .Ta]>an
was ready, not only with munitiims of war. but with better topograiihiral
knowledge of the enemy's country than they themselves jK>ssessed. The
Kmperor, whose dynasty antedates the Cliristinn era. gave his jjcople a
constitution, and stretching his hand towards Korea he heljied lier in the
same direction. He had Japan's army ami her navy d.illed by expert Euro-
pean orticers. .Xi'senals and extensive niaiiiifactories for the implements
<if war were started, with Kuropcan sii|icriuteii{lents. The latest and best
of ships were both bought at foreign marts and made at home. Her stu-
dents were to be found in the universities of the world. Her agents were
sent to study in their eajiitals the economy of every governnient and the
niachiiK^ry of their executive departments. To find the best niid assindlate
it seemed the iirinciple of her )>rogression. so that lK)th in military skill
and the knowledge of dijilomaey she acquired the ability to hold her jilace
ong the nations of the civilized world. A war alone was needed to prove
that this was a fact.
•lapan's navy eonsisteil of four armored cruisers and eight vessids of
.".OfM» tons each. This was a much lighter fleet than that of China, but
swifter. China's navy had been trained by an able Knglish naval cliief,
Cajitain T-aiig. Her outfit of shi])s was, jierhajis, suiH*rior to that of Japan.
am
410
T.JIJMJ'IIS AXIf noM)EI{S OF THE XIX'" ChXIlt;)
consist in;; ()l live iiinnirrd vi'ssfls. nine pnitt'OttMl cruisfrs, and t(M|K'(I(i lioat-;
hc'sitlcs. 'riic |«iinri|iiil Watth' of tliis ( 'iiinu-.laiiant'si' war was Iniij^ht, uu
Sopti'Miber ir> at. I'in.i; Vang, an old capital ul Koivu. situatfd at the nieetin.;
of sovfval loads. Tic .lapant-sf lantird tiixips at (icnsan. on tlif northfa>'.
and it llwanjif-jo, on tin- northwest. i-oa>t uf Km-a. Tiirsi loinicd the ri!;lii
and left win.i;' of tlif army wlmsc icntit-. nndrr (icnt'iai Nodjii, advanciil
from Sconl. altout onr imndnil milt's lo tin- south, id widrh the .lapamsi'
well' already in possession, (inly one win^ of the army met opposition in
its Jnuicli, a small i)altle liavin;,' U'en fon^dd. The lorees. so far as we ran
learn, w<'re between twenty ami thirty tlion.>aiHl 'd Chinese iind lietw":,
thirtvand forty thousand of -lapanese. .lajiaii's twenty-four years of seien
title preparation, her -.tudy of the art »\ war. the praetieahility of her strate^'ir
movenK'uts. — admired liy the soldiers id the world. — hit ( hina. with her old
send-Oarbarian methods, no <diane»> for victory.
The battle was a bloody one: the d'deated Chinese Hed until they were on
the other siwc oi the Valu Kiver. in .Manchotria. ."^even hundred (soinf ac
counts say fourteen thousand) < 'hine.se were captured, two thousand killed
and Wounded. The army continueil ti'^htini; and couipieriuL; until prac-
tically tin province (d' .Manchooria wa^ in .lapan"s possession, as well iis the
peninsidii of r^iaotun^, terminatini; with I'ort .\rtliur.
The battle <d' Valu. or Mai ^'un Tao. atbuded the liist practical test of
modern vessels, /uns, and jirojectiles in Asiatic waters. I'in!.,' \"aic.; has been
called China's Sedun, anil Nalu. .I.ipan's Trafal<.;ar. .I.,|,an had nine cruisers
and two converted cruisers wherewith to litjht twelve Chinese warships and
four torpedo boats. It is said that .lapan used iindaiiite >hells. 'I'he Hoot <d'
< 'hiiK'se warshii>s. convoyin*; transiH»rts with ten tlioiisand troops, entered the
Vain liiver. The next day. SeptemU-r 17. the .lapanese licet, under Admiral
Ito, went out to meet, them. .\ KuroiM-an otlicer on a Chinese vessel says:
" I'assin^ alony; the I'hine.sf line, the .lai.iiiif.se |Nmre<1 as heavy a tire as they
could biiiiL,' to beai' upon eaidi ship in suecession. and, while they had sea-
rooiii. eirided round their opponents. T'le .l;ip;inese st;ite that no .lapanese
\var-shi| wa.s lost atid oi: ^ tlirec .ser''>ii-.|y lUiiired " A Chinese oHicer says;
" .Vs sooi' as the Chinese on the ]iort side li:id broiii^ht their ^uns to boar ;ind
liad obtained I'an^i' accnratidy, the .lap:inese would work around and attack
the starboard side." Four shijis were deslroyeil and two baiily injiircd. ( >ne
of the Chinese ships was saiil to have Im-cii hit two hundred times. The
Chinese ironchuls that esciiped were lar r sunk oil Wei Mai Wei. I'ort Ar-
thur, captured Ocfoher '_'!. w:is filled to overHowin<j w iih ;immiinition, grain,
a, id otiier supplies.
Chiiiii made tlirec inl'oiin.d overtures lor pe;(ee. l-'iiiidly, Li MuiijL,' Cliaii(j;
went from Tientsin to Shin?onoseki. to make terms, on the I'.ttli (d' .Marc h.
lS!t"i. I>y t',' treaty there made. Ma\ 17. China recoj^nized the independence
and autonomy of Korea, cedeij cert.iin lerrifory in .Manclmoria. all the islands
in the e;ustern part id' the bay of l.iaoluni; ;iiid the northern part of the Vcllow
Sea, Formosa, and all isl.ini's beloii;.;in^ to il.iuid the I'escadores ;.,'roup. Two
hundred million Kujiin;; taels wcr«* ex;icteil as indemnity, to be paid in ei^ht
inst;iilmeiits, one every six months. The inh:ibil,'ints were to sidl out ami
leave, or in two years to be .lap-iiii'se .subjects. !kUssi:i. (iermany. :!;id l''r,ince
recommended that Ja)ian should not jk rmanently possess the j)eiiinsuii of
Feiifj Tiiii. arid •lapnn agreed to their .suggestions.
Tl li)
torpedo l)o;i(
as loiij,'lit II,
I till' iiieetiii.;
Ih- iiorflii-a>'.
iiii'd till' i-i-iii
iJH. iUlViUlci'il
tl"' ''ill>JII|ISi'
"|i)io.siti(iii ji,
lar as wi' i.tn
ami lirlW"";,
I'lirs iif scii'ii-
H'f striiti'i,'ir
. with lii'i'iiM
tlii'v wcri' (III
ll'lj ISil|||l> ilf-
"isMinl kill,.,!
,' until |Hiic.
s w.'ll as till-
tii'al fcsf i,r
aii;^ lias Iji'oii
nine (!riii««'rs
larsliijis iiiid
rill' (ii'ot ot
i. ClltlM'«ll kill'
kIit Admiial
\ I'ssi'l savs :
1 (iro us tlicv
lii-y had sra-
iio .fapaiiesf
otliccr savs :
to hoar and
1 and at lark
i.jiiivd. I hi(>
lini.'s. The
i. I'oif. Ar-
itioii, grain,
Iiiiiir <'hanj^
li ol .Maifcii.
di'pi'ii(U'nr!(«
tin? islands
thi' Vi'Ilow
roup. Two
till in cifrlit
'11 out an,)
ind l-'ranci'
Miinsiiii, ot
418
TttWMI'llS Ay I) WONDKUS OF TIIK XIX'" CENTUHY
Korinosii, as u striiteK''ti<!i'l poHt. w of tlu' grciitt'st viiliu". Koicii iinil •la]iaii
iiiiw i-oiitrol al)St)liitfly tin- •la|iaii Sea. It was only attrr t'niii' nioiitlis ul
ti'^litin^' lliat Japan cuiniili-tclv ('(iiii[U<t<'(I tlic FoniKisiuis ami liail all Iut lu•^^
|Hissfssiiiiis um
Icr h
•r ciiiilrnl
Chiiia paid .Iipan an addiliimal .Ki.'K »,("•<».<»(•<» lor tlic iflcast- ot I'ort Aillmi
ami laaotini^ pcnnisiila. China was well plcasrd. jtiit in April, IH'JT
Itiissia licrsclt' liad <ii)tain('d possossion of Tort Aitliiir and 'I'aliin \\an, am
Di'ctMnlM'r tlif (ifiimms received Kaio L'liao, llie linesl naval statioi
I nl
the province of Shanlnn^'. I''iance snliscipienl Iv olitained Kwann-Chan, tin
best port of Wan^si : ^md i'aij,daml, thiMiKli not joininjj; these powers in tin
demand in favor of China in ISKo, olitained Wei llai Wei in l.S'.»7.
(iifKi o-TiitKisM W.\ii.--ln ISll."). the fearful atrocitii
immitted Itv tli<
•• \inspeakal»lc" Turk lie^Mn to assume appalling proportions. During three
years one Innidred thousand Cretans were murdered. I''eliruary S, IM'JT, the
Cretans proclaimed uidon with (Jreeee. 'I'liedn-eks, unable longer to ondure
the sufferings ui their kindred, determined to helji them.
I'rince (Jeorge left for Crete with a torpedo flotilla February 1(>; C!olonel
Vassos. aide-de-<>amp to tJie king, followed with lifteon hundred men ami t\V(»
batteries on the l.'ith. I'rince Nii-holas led a regiment of artilleiy to the
I'hessalian fnuitiers. The powers sent a collective note of protest to (ireeee,
but it was not lieeded. Cohtnel Vassos lamlcd in «'rete on tho 14th. .Sailors
from the fleet of the powers occupied the const towns of Crete. I'aslia I'cro-
vitch resigned and returiu'd to Constantinople. (ireek reserves rallied
pnunplly. Voluntt'ers offered. Colonel N'assos established headipiarters in
the mountainous interior at Sphakia..
.March IS, the powers bloikaded Crete, t hi the I'Tth. Crown I'rince Con-
stantine jtroeeeded to the Turkish frontier. ( »ii .\pril o, the jiowers declared
no gain should accrue to the cond)atant who ajiproaohi'd Thessalian borders.
.\prilS. three thousand (Jreeks crossed near Krania, began fighting, and were
driven back. On .\pril 17 Turkey declared war. On the ISth, a battle of
twentv-four hours, in .Milouna I'ass, crowni'il Turkish arms with vict(M'\.
.\n<ither hard fought battle, at Iteveni. discomfited tht^ <
iree
(ireek>
passed the .\rta Kiver ami (ireek ironcdatls bombarded i'revessa. On the
I'.Jth, the Turks were iuTliessaly and the <!reeks in retreat to Larissa. After
terrific battles Tornavo and Larissa. on the •J.'ith. fell into the hands of the
Turks. Colonel Smolenski fought desperately at Valestino. but had to yield;
and Volo als<» fell to the Turks. The Turks occupied I'harsaos on May (">.
(Ireece asked the powers for )ieace. .MayS; (!rctan autonomy was agreed to.
and Turkey permitted armistice on the l.lth. The war closed, 'i'urkey wa^
forced to yield all Thessalian territory, and Cicte was relieved of Turkish
op|)ression. (Jreeee was f<u'ced to withdraw all siip|)ort from Crete and pay
.*•_'( MM «>,(»( H» indemnity.
The remarkable feature of this war was thi' intensely hard fighting from
start to close, and the disposition of the jtowers to assist Turkey by interfer-
ing with the (Jrecian navy. Krecpieidly the AustriauK helped the Turks by
placing their guns in position. It was only when the Sultan eompiered Thes-
saly and threatened to keep it that the powers interposed.
The crime committed by the ]iowers against civilization aiul Christianity
by their .iction seems incredible, even though the peace of Europe was
thereby secured.
LH.ilUXa WARS OF THE CKXTLItV
41»
Knui.am»'ih Wauh IX TiiK SoiuAX. — Tlif Klinlivf III K>?V|it liiiil uiiiaiiii'il
^ifiit liiuiis troiii Kui'ii|i<-. KiikIi'imI and France trntk tiiiaiiiial < tnitiul ol tin-
iinti'V' Aral)! I'asha iiiangiiratod a I'i'Ih.-IIuiii and InitititMl Alt-xandr
Ml.
M.iny Kiii'o|tcaiiH \V(Mi> murdcriH', and Kn^dand iMjiiibardcd tliu city, taking
ill>.Ht'S.Hl(>l
1 .lulv V2, IHH'J. (Icni'.al Wcds.drv. at Tel td K.-l
>ir. Si'plcinlicr l.'l,
lnii^dil and dtdt-alfd Arabi, \vl o Med It-avinK two tln>u>iind dt-ail. Fraiict-
witlidrow t'l'oni ihu tinancial ar'anxi-nimt. VhV Kurdish iriuainctl to pnt th*>
K^jvptians in conditidn lui srlf j,'()v<'iiinirnl. Kn^liind lias ifniiini-d i-vcr since.
Muli.ininii'd Aiinicd amst- in the Soudan, [iriKlainiinK liinisidt' VA Malidi,
the Mussuhuan Messiah. Thu liarbaiian liuides Hocked to liis lianner. He
dcl'eated the Kjjyptians in I'onr enganenn-nts, < dtoltcr. ISS.'J. Tlie Anj,dii-
M^iVptian torce ol' ten tiiunsand men, nnth-r (ieneial Micks, was (h'slmved,
ily two escaping, (ienerai (iordon wan sent to the relief of the Kgs jitian
y. He leai lied Kiiaitouni, l'"eliiiiary IS. I.S,S|. The .Mahdists iM'sieged
oi
arm
the city, (iordon sent for reinforcements. I''.ngland was so shiw in sending
tlieni that thev arrived two da\s too late. Khartoum was captured through
treachery, and (iordon, the nnist beloved of ICnglish soldiers for his saintlx
and heroic cliaracter, was put to death on .lannary L'7. ISS.V
(Ienerai Sir Horatio Herbert Kitchener was made Sirdar in 1S!M>, He
started from Cairo with one thousand lirilish and lifteen tho\u;aiid Kgy|t-
tians, iilack and fidlali troo|is, building a road across the desert -,' lii> ml-
\anced. and engineering his gunbo.'its up the Nile. 'I'he il'stancc irom his
base, at Cairo, to ids iiist stondiouse, at \\ ady Haifa, is eight Imndred miles.
April S, ISKH. was fought the battle of Atbara. a fort at the point wjiere the
.Vtliara l!ivcr enters the Nile. Here Malimud, the comiii:inder <d' the liarl)a-
d h
niv (d twelve tin
infanlrv destn
nans, was ca|irureii ami nis army oi twelve inousauii niianiry dcsiroveti.
Osman Higna got away with the greater part of the cavalry. nund>t'ring lour
thousand.
'I'he force was about a month reaching W'ady liamcd. and, September 1, wa?
in sight of Omdurnuin. The Sirdar's line was diawii up in ere»cejit ton..,
with Onidurmaii and Khartoum for its centre. In this position was fought
the first liatthi of Kgedu, in which twenty-two thousaml of the l>er\ islns fell.
The Khalifa iind Osman Digna fled with a scant liandful of fidlowers.and are
now said to be bandits in the Kordofiin. Tlie nnndicr of the annihilated army
of the Mahdists will never be known. The liritish loss of whites was less
than two hundred, aud the native loss less than three hundred. The tire of
the })arl)arians was generally too high toefl'ect great injury. September L' will
be a marked day in Kngland's calendar. The .Sirdar marched into Khartoum,
the Union .lack was raised, and beneath its floating cross<'s liis chaplaius
]ierformed(iordon's fuiuM"il eerenmnies on the spot v. here he was slain nearly
I'onrteen years before.
A liKViKW OK Mautiai, I{ Ksii/rs. — The history of the world shows that
successful war .adds to the glory atid prestige id' the victorious nation, and
this is particularly exemplitied by tlie wars <d' the nineteenth century.
France, so long victorious, da//,led the world. .\t Waterloo, her glory was
cloinled. Napier, in his closing words of the history <d' these events of the
twenty yejirs of war .and turmoil, showed liow thoroughly the Knglish peojde
ai»preciated that their greatness and jiower were due to the glory achieved
by the arms of Britain's chivalrous soiis.
420 rniUMrns .ia7> \\<>m>i:iis or riii-: xi.\"' cEsrvny
Whilt' Kiij,'1iiimI was covcriiit; IumscII with i^lmy. licr olTsiniii;^'. tlu- riiitcl
States, was tcadiiiii; lu-r. in llio war nl ISIl'. that I'ciim; now of ajfc hi
|intkt'ts wt'if nut a.Ltain t(i Ik* turned insiih- out, a lesson whieli tln'tfaf'ter sh,
lieethMl.
(Jreeee. til rol thin ^ willi tlie iiu|iiilse ul li- Inni. adiieveil her inilependein'i'.
ilis|)lav'ii;^' ill! the hernisni dt' her Hellenic aiiee>ti-\.
'i'he .Mexiiaii war aiitleil ;^'re:ftl_v to the j;l(ir\ nl Anierieaii arms ami resnlleil
in tiie ae([nisilii>n of a vast lerritorx, whu.'.c inliai)itant'< i|iiickly assimilatid
themselves tii the reijuirements i>t Amei'lcan citi/enshiii.
The Itevdlulion nl' Is lint si-rved tn uniisdiidale the |i(i\\er id' I'rn.ssia. lavin.;
the li)nndatiiin fur tiie !iii]MMial nown to rest nimn t'le head ul her kiny. while
tiltinj; I'" ranee I'or her liitnre solid ri'|inliliean i-areer.
The Crimean war. except that it <diceki'd the |iolic\ o|' itnssia. |irodneed leu
results in eoiii|iaris(pn with the vast amount ol lilood and treasure so lavisld\
s|ient.
The victiu-ies of Ma^'eiita and Sollciino ilhimined a!,'aiii the eay:les of
I'" ranee. The "Seven Weeks' War.'" while -I ill lurlher con-.olidalin^' (ier-
manv under i'russia. was not without its hlcssiie^s lor Austria, and advanced
'• \'oun,i; ltal\ " i,'reallv toward the ^'oal o| her amiiitioii.
In .\merica. ihc a|i|i<'ai tii arms was maile to decide t li<' i|Uc~| ion> mooted
tl
o -liou the w oil Id
lul
since the nation's liirtii. ( >nc cifcci o| thi-. war ua-> ti
]irowess and soldierly i|ualiiie.-. oj the .\iniMicaii ciii/cii.
The l'"raiico :'iusNian war lilted the di','nity ol ilohen/oUein to it> hei'^ht.
ended I'orever the l'',m|>iie ol I'rancc in a crusimi'^ lall. and tauj,dit the lesson
<d' seientilic |ue|..,ration for uar. tiiaii which no science is more wortliv of
intense s^iidy ami a] plication in all its inandies.
Till' ('liii!o-.la|iani se war was a triniii|ili of a .irrowin;^' ei\ ili/ation over semi-
barliarism, and Idreshadows the ]irom;iieiit roh- that daiian iiia\ lie called
ipon to |ila\ in the twentieth century. The enlaryeiueiil ol her terrilurv
as a tittiin; reward lor her nnsillisii cham|iioiiiiii,' ol hei weaker sister,
MUea.
The (i reco-( 'retail Turkish war shed no i,dory o
called (Miri-.tian nations, and will stand on histor;
to i']iirii]iean civiii/atioii.
the Tiirkisli iior on tin
- sh,
pau'c ;is a crow inn
line
The o|ieiiin;,' ot .Mrii'ii li\ <leiicral Kitchen
er aliil his ''lea
I ad
Ilex eliicllts
read like old-time stories, and the twentieth ccnturx ma\ see threat results in
.\trica Ironi this wouderlul eaiii|iaii;n.
'I'he war id the l.'nited States with S|iain. roiii,dil hecau^c it was im|iiissilile
loiii,'er to allow the atrocities ol her rule on t his I le in is j there at our ver\ doors,
has liriin.^iil coiidit ions not dreamed of. and which, under the |iriividence of
(ioil. may lead to 'greater resuits in the dcvdojiment ol rhristiaii eivili/atioii
thai
1 we now may comiirelieml
.liisf.eii \Viii;i;i.i:i!
THE CKNTriiY'S KAIHS AND EXPOSITIONS
In
IM;. Ai.iitKn llc.s.si;i.i. Wai.i.ai K, in a icfciit wdk. arijiirs that tin- iiiiu-'
iitli (■(•iitiii-v is alt<>''<'tlirr iiiii<iui' in tliat it iiiMii'MiiatiMl a i
lew era. To
;,'ia>|i its iiiaivfli)iis arliifvcniriits, lie tells us. ii sliniild lif (•(iin|ian'il witii a
loiij; liistorical iicriml. ratlicr than witli aniitin'r ccntiiiT. liowi'VtM- liai>i>il\ >!•-
li'i'tcd. Till' ]ini;jfr<'ss it I'nviinns is sci dciuh as aliiicst wlinlly niat>M'ial and
iiiiflifctual, and tin- |iaini lor <'om|ilcii'ni'ss is v;iviMi In tin- niati-rial. I>i'l>;it-
alili' as his i-nni'liisiiiu may lie, tlnM'i> can ln' mo dis|iut)> cithi-r as to tin- ijuali-
lati\i- or •|iiantilali\r |)ro;^M'fs> in tlir niairrial advaiiciMiicnt id' mankind in
ll
H- i-i»ninrv now i h.-iini;. hi ihi- iirrsiMil icirosiicct tin- liroadt-r vi
U
i'unii's a)i|>arciit. — that the nialcrial and thr inlidlcctiial have hi-t-ii allird
tnn-cs that liiivt' fonstantl\ iinsin'il forwanl side 1>\ sidf. nnr di'visin" in
till' >oliiiid<' that ''iMiiMs ni'i'ds h
r i'\|iansion. I he cither ^iiouni
i;,' to til
d tl
ic reall/.allotis ol
tlii>iii;'lit that in |rrai-tii-al a|i|iii('ation lienctit all.
'I'lii' ••vohition of t lie inteniat ional i'X|iiisition of to-da_v is a (•ons|iiiMioii> roiilt
ol thi^ niatfi-ial and inltdlcctual widlucdi. It sei'iiis a lon;^ tiiiii' lii-twci'ii the
lair that was held to allow [leople not elosidy settled to |iuridiase theoidi-
n.iry eoiuinodities nl lilc. lond, elothilii;, and hoiisidiold lieloli;;ilii.;s. and the
ureal c\]nisiiii.iis to wliiidi the nations of the world lirin<< the siiriias>iiii^
• •iiiiMidiini-nts of native tlioiii,dit. .Measured hy years, the time is really lie-
\oiid eom|intalioii : Iml measured liy results, mere time is annihilated. ,inil
tiie |iro;.iii'>s that the evtdiitioii illustrates is founil to have kept a >ie;i(iy
paecwitli man's physical n< ssities and intellectual i,'idwtli. The iiiomeiit
Necessity lias shown that m.inki:!d n led something; to make life li<i.L;hter.
li.nipier. or more comfortalile to pas> thiouL,di. intelli'ct has undertaken tip-
task of ereatin-,' it aiul has fashioned out the .Material.
In the ureal ^•Nposition^ of to-day are .seen the clfects of the marvelous
iidluciii-e wliiidi spraiit; Irom the tail as a market, instituted ^d lonir aijo
iliat no call lor the records is aiisweralile. Of this kind, only a very few
reiiiaiii. Then e.imi- the f.iir de.si;.^'ned to promote the Useful arts and maiiii-
laetiires : the fair to ailvam-e agriculture and .illied iiidiistrie.s ; and the
lair to sliow special artiides. to commemorate historical events, and to aiil
interests of larije public ('(uicern. I'lidcr an ever-increasiuu' i-xpaiisiou,
stimiilati-d l>y iio|iular favor, the lair, with the i<immeicial feature aitaii-
doiied or liaxitii; it «iiily as a ri'>t ricteil liiancii. liccame the cxhihition to
show a lart;er development of the arts, sciences, and meidianic: I traih-s: to
cidehrale j;reut piililie oceiiiii-necs on a inlander scale than eariier fairs hail
done; to promote spe(Mal industries, local or national : to aid ediieatioii liy
i>ermaiieiit displays id' natural or manufactured products; and to promote
the commercial intercourse of the world. l''rom the lirst ol this class of
1 \hiliitions panic the ititeriiatiomil nndertakiniis. lirst known as world's
tairs, and afterward as international exhihitions and ex|Misitions. In some
4_"J TlilLMfUS A SI) WUSUEliS OF lUK A/.V" CESTUllY
tiiii' 111' tlu'sc classes max )»• tuiiiiil every kind ol a ilis]ilay oi inoilucts. iri'
spceti\e (if its |iiir|i(ise nr iinliviiliial name.
Tlu' (leveloiiiiii-iit of the iiKiileni exiiiliitioii iroiii tlie eai'ly lair lias l)ee!,
0(iiiliiu>il to no one coiintiv nor people. I'.vei'ywlieri' the |nirpiise ami proi
have liei'ii the ^allle. A lew years ehanj,'etl the ohl-tiiiie mart, where peopl.
went to liiiy what tluy knew tliey would liml. to tin convenient placrc wln-ii-
tratlesnien placed on view tiie thinjis they knew people wonld need ami
hny. as well as aitieles offered at a venture that people who really didn't
need them miiilit lie teinpled to purchase because of novelty or other ipialitv
'I'lins, the liai'i;ain connier and the department store are several hundreii
years older than the thrifty housewife of to-day reckons.
Trade com|ieiition. then as now. led to a hroacleninir of plans, lival elTorts.
ami special attractioii>. IVmijiIc tpe;j;an to attemi laii> lo see what was new, as
well as to Itny ; and soon, lest they shonM liro of si;;htseeiii'.'. it liecame noces-
sai'v to provide meaii> lor ciiieitaininL,' tlu'm. I'nnch and .luily came on the
scene with |icreiiiiial popidariiy. .Iu;,'i,'lery astounded the youui,' and fasci
nateii their elders. HancinL; and wrestlin.i; rinj^s proved sportive niai,'!iets ol
annuidly increasin;,' strcn.:lli. The fair now liei,Mii to clian;.;e from a striclh
commercial undcrtakiiii; to an uccasion I'lU- holidav hilarity, ami soon trade
anil anniseniciit wci'e stru'4;,'lin'-,' lor ijic mastery. In many ]ilaces. hilarity
led to excesse-.. anil excesses to crime. I'uMic ojiinion demamled the forceful
intervention of the law. and one liy one the most dennuali/iui,' lairs were siij)-
picssed. the notiuious 1 >oiiiiv liiocik c|osiii.j its loiii,' career of dcliauchery and
liuhiiiii,' in iN.Vi.
The cli^iiiav of merchandlNe and the ■'athcriu'' ol customers at the nmst
noii'd fair-- in time Kccai
lie I'callv enorniniis. ami lor man\ \c
lis 111
e .i,'r('at
fairs of the dav
hi'ld
'U and extensive plains. 'I'lien. loo. the fair
assumed an import. nice that led tirsi the local authorit ies, and after them
higher di;.;nilarii's. ti> seek to turn it to theii' imiividual advantage. l-'or a
time no fair couid lie held in (ireat jtritain without a special !.M'ant from
the erown, and it was a widelv olisi-rved custom for royal oi- ecclesiastical
authorities to ,!,'ive permission lo a town or villa,y;e that had snlTered sonn'
misfortune to hold a fair a^ a means of rei'stalilishiuj,' itself. The famous
lair <d' St. Iiiles"s Hill, near Manchester, lunula nd. was instituted as a revenue
to the liishop hy William tlu' Conipieroi'. That it was a valuaMe monopoly
is shown liy the facts thai its Jurisdict'on exiemlcd seven niih s around the
city, and that all merchants who sold wares within that circuit, unless at
t!ie fair, forfeited them to the liislmp.
.\ I'urions ev idence ol early inli'rnalional interest in the fair, as well as <d its
importance and inlluence. is found in the records of l.'tt I. when Kin^ I'hilip
of l''rance sent a fnruial complaint to Kini.' I'alward II. id' j-'ai^dand. to the
efl'ect that the merchants of l''.n<.dand had ceased Ireipientiii;.,' lie fairs in
liis iliuninions with their wood and other j^'oods. to the i^rcat loss of his
sulijccts. I'hilip eiitrealed falward to persuade, and. if iiecevsary. to conr
pel. I'.nvdish people to fieipieiit the fairs ul 1'' ranee as formerly, pnuuisiie.;
them all possilile security and eiicoura.L,'c'uent.
.\s a purely commercial instituliou. the fair had its liesf day when people
were widely se)iaiated. The increase of po|iulation. the deveiopment ol
new life and activitv liv i:rowiiii; cominuniti's, the oiM'idiig of incniis of tiav(d
#■
THE CEyrUliY'S FAIRS AM) EXI'OSITIO\S
4.i3
iictwfi'ii (listiiMt pdiuts, and the fstiiblishiiu-iit (if ston-s ami iiiaikets. wore all
latal l<» tin- coinmcnMal lair. To-tlay, in all Kuioim-. onlv tlirt-e really ;4n*at
.iiiMiial lairs ol' this charai'ter remain, — those ol' Nijni-Nnv'^iiriKl. in Knssia;
Ueaiieaire. in !•' ranee ; and J^-iitsie, iu CJermany. The same conditions that
liroiij^ht the pujiidar nselulness of the (iommereial lair to an end were the
Innes from wliieh the lair as an ex|ionent of industrial achievement has
l.i'iMi developed, and the material progress of the ninete»'ntli century is to lie
traeetl.
For the modern fair in all of its forms the world is indebted to the Sueiety
I'l Arts, of L<indon, an orjjfani/.ation whose fame in Ann-rii-a was so jjreat that
MiMijamin Franklin, in soliciting corresponding mend>ersliip. declared tliut he
UUNICH KXPOSITION. 1854.
woidd esteem It a i;ri'at honor to he admitted and also t^i Ik* |»ermitted to eon-
trilint'' twenty LTiiineas to he exjiended in premiums. What this Sueiety in
its early days did hn' (ircat I'ritaiu it did alsn lur eivili/ation. it organi/i-d
the tirst exhiliitioii <d' speeinieiis of imprnvements in >he ii.sefid arts :ind man-
nfaetures in 17(10; stimtilated native in;j;eniiity li\ judicious awanis of prizes
and premiums Inr exhihils of exceptional nierii : and extemh-d its |Miwerlul
iidluenee to foster art, seieiu-e, im>ehani(;al and agrienltiind industry, and the
fishery trade and colonial comiuer )f the country.
of the many inlluem-es of this Society that came to the I'liited States, it
may Ih> ipiestioned if any had a more lasting henelit for iMith |H>o|ile and
country than that which gave liirth to the meidiaiucs' institutes. 'I'liere are
people still living w'.io are aliie to recall how the large cities in tlie Kastern
:iud Middle States vied with each other in the establishment of two great and
4i»4 iniiMi'iis .i.\j> \\n.\/ii-:t:s or the \l\"' ci:.\TL'/:y
kindrt'ii iiixtiiiitnuis — tin- incclLiiiics" institiiti- ami llii- a|i|in'iiti<'('s' liliraiy
l'liil.i(lrl]iliia It'll ilif citii's in llii- iiiatliT i>t tiiui.'. Iht FiaiiUiiu Institiiti' ln'in .
luiiiiili'd ill ISI'I. I'oiir vi'ais altcrwai'il tin- AiiiiTii-aii liislitiilc was cliarli'i'iii
ill Ni'W \'ink Cilv. Allfr tlit'sr canir llif Massai'liiist'tls ('liarilalil>' .Mi
clianirs' Assiirialimi in Itnstiiii, tlif* Maivlaiiil Instiliit" in lialtiiiiiui'. ain
niuiH'niiis Dtlit'i's. — llmsc iiu'iitiiuii'il lii'in;,' tiir |irini'i|(ai ones that still main
tain annual or uilii'i- cxliiiiitinns. At tir.st. ilic cxliiliil inns ol' tlicsi' institiitf.s
like tlic tiisl uiii'
liriil iimli-r tl
atl'nliaj'r II
national '^ovi'inint'iit.
that ill Talis in 17'.>S. — wi-rr i'nni|)iis('(l nl varimis aitirlcs luaiu'il Itv thcii
(iwiii'is. Sciiin. howt'vcr. the |iii|iiilaiiiy uT the institiitfs ami tin' awanlint; n|
]iri/.('s and ili|>li'iiias lirnii^'ht tu tli<> cxhiliitiuns s|it'ciiiii'ns nt tin- liandiriatt nl
nii'iiihi'i's and liiciids. and the risiiii; iii^hts in tlir arts and niannt'ai'tiiri's
((•(•anic fa'M'i' in scciiii' t in' I'l'i'ii.niii inn id their ■.■■(•nins that such awards cstal)-
lishfd. 'riiiis. till' intlufiici' 111 tin' |irinci|ial snrvivinj,' institutes has spread
lar 1
li'MHIil liieal
llllllt-
I'lireiv natiiiiial exhiliii ,iins have never iuiind iiiiieh |M>|iiiiai' lavnr in tin
nited Slates. \\ hen as a whole iieople we deeide tn liiild line jnr a |inr|i(>sr
of (jeiieral iiileiest. We inetiT to set a laiLie taMe and invite the iiniveise tt
I
liel
1 us eelelira
te. Ill l''rani'e the liist i;at ioiial exhiliit ion was a loan exliilii-
tion. Its elleit. llDUever. Was >ii iliiliiediale tiial the ijo\ elliliielil le|ieated It
the same year, m'^'aiiized nmie elaimrate mies in ISUI ami iSdL'. and decided
to hold them I rieiinially ihereatter — a course that has since heeu interriijited
l>y |iolitical exi'^encies. 'I'liese exlliliitiolis were |irojei'leil to illiistiate the
]>ro','re--s id l'"rance only. In the rnited States there have lieeii no State
I'xhiliitions. exci'iitiiijj; aj,'i'iciiltural rair>. tor which outside coii|ieration has
not liecii inviteil.
The life of the .Vinericaii aj:;riciiltural fair is almost nieasnralile hy the full
t'eiitiiry. This. too. had its ori<.,riii in I'in^laml. The father of the .Vnieiican
system of coinhiiu'd ii^'ricultiiral fairs and cattle shows was Klkanah Watson,
a native of I'lyinoiith. Mass.. who spent the i;reater part of his life in pioniit-
in;^ l.'ii;,'i' imlilic measmes liesides a;,'rienltiire and education. In |S(»7 he re-
luoved from AUiaiiy. N. \'.. to Tittstield. .Mass.. where he enjjaj^ed in ^'cneral
and expeiiiiientai aj^'iiciiltiiie and caltle-raisiii!,'. His elVoits to improve local
farmiui; conditions and to raise a superior lireed of cattle attracted w idespread
interest, and this sii^';-Ii'^t*'d to him that an annual exhiliit ion ot Cattle and of
I'anii products, resiiltiii',' from a more paiiistakinj,' .s\>te,n id' cultivation than
was commonly followed, would prove of material advantai,'e to the iarnier, the
Itreeiier. and the ^cne'al pnlilic .\ccordini,dy. In induced his farming' friends
in the coimtlN to eontrilillte specimens ol improved lueeds of cattle and of
superior products of the soil: and the jirst exhiliition or fail was held in
iSHi. This, with modest prizes for the hest e.xhiliits. proved a completi
success.
!•;
iH'oiirasieii
livth
•suits {)[' his initial elTorts. he went to lioston to solicit
pecuniary aii" for a second and niiich larger exhiliition. .Mthoie.'h he was at
that lime wi(' 'ly known for his piil'lic-spiiited iihilanthro|>y. and also as the
founder of Jie itifliieiitial Berkshire .\j;ricultiiral .Society, liis appeals for iiid
liroiij^ht him little save derision. To show how small concern was ielt liy
liiisiness and piiMic men toward ilie laniMej; industry, a sentence in a lettiT
from ex Tresiih lit .lolm .Vdaiiis to .Mr. WatKoii is siitHcicnt : —
n:y
<">' liliraiy.
it lite l)iMii„'
s •■liiiitcri'il
litalilr .Mr-
illloiT. iiikI
>till iiiiiiii-
iii>litiit('s.
•lllllM'lll. —
•'I liy tlii'ii
W.llllillir 111'
iiilic'iati ,,\
inurarliircs
iiiis t'slali-
las sjui-ad
ivuf ill til,.
I' a |iiii'|i(isi'
iiiivcrsf til
nan I'sliilii-
n'|Matf(| It
ml lici'iili'il
ntcriii|,tc(l
iistratc tlic
II ii«> State
atidii has
1>V 111.' lull
AiiicriiMii
ill Wal^nll.
ill |iiiiiiii'l-
iNor |„. iv-
ill >-fiiiTal
iTovc Ideal
viilespieail
llle ami ..f
atiiiii than
aniier. the
III,' I'lielliis
lie ami III
IS held ill
i'iili||ileti
1 III Siijiril
lie \va-~ at
Isii as the
il.s Jnr ail I
IS (ell liv
III U letter
I
1
• ii
4*j(5 Till I'M /'lis A.\n woyjjiiiis OF rut: a/a"' ckxtury
" Yiiii will Ki't m> iii'l frniii Itontuii'; cumiiu'ri'e, litvralurr, tlieolut^y, nicdk'lrir, llic uiiiviT-lly, aiil
iiiilvcrsul |ii>lilii'» arc iigaiiist Vdii."
Till' t'x-l'n'sidciit WHS eorr«'ot in his ju(l},'iiii'iit. .Mr. Watson iliil not n'ri-ivc w
siiifflf t'iiviiralilc icsponsc td his aiipfals ; yet he In.st not a paitich" i.t' faith in
thti wisdiun !>!' his nnilcrtaiiiiij,'. With tin- pinipfiation only ol tht- larnirrs in
his(Miiinty. .Mr. Watson snccecdeil in ananj,'injj annual f.xliiltitions until ISlC.
when he ii'turiu'd to .Mliany. Tin- same year \w <iri:ani/«'d the lirst a;^ii(ul
tuial society in tiie State of New York, and lH'),'an estalilishinj,' lairs and rattle
shows in the near-liy counties. In ISj'.t he secured the i>as,sa','e ot" an Act 1)_\
tin- Le^'islatuie a|i|iroiiriatiie,' .SlO.ono aniuially lor six yeai> lor the |iioino-
tion ol a'^ricidtui'c and diini<>stic nianutaciun
uidition
il on a
lik
amount
hcint^ raised hy the aj,nicultural societies in tin- ditleient counties. .\ Stale
Society was inc(U|io!ated in IS.'!!.', to wiiich county societies were din'<-leil to
leiioit. while it. in tiii-n. had to renihu- a ciunhincd leiMut to the Legislature
antniallv.
Muce
thei
I an
ricidtural de|iartnient has licconie an iiuli-
d>l.
lart
<d the ptveriiiueiit ol the various Slates and Territories, even ot those that
are |io|iularly helie\cd to lie oidy inetallic producers. The character ol' the
slate ami county a;.,'ricnltural lair has hcen undergoiii}; a radical chanye lor
many years, esjiecially in sections thickly sj'ttled or near larjie cities, and the
chiel attractions have passed Ironi the exliiliition of sleek domestic animals
a ml choice fruits of the soil to horse-raciiii; and hicyde eont'-sts. Innovatiiuis
toreij^n to tiie spirit and intention of the fair ha \e already wroni^ht its .'•iiin
in many places and an' thrcalenin-^' it vreiicrally.
<M American fairs in the oiiuinal commercial sense, tliosi- lu-Id duriiij; the
Civil War. to aid the work of the I'ldted .States .Sanit^iry ("ommissiun on tie-
liattielield and in the camp and hospital, will always !»■ hist<uically conspicu-
ous. iMiriuL,' those meiiiiualile four years it is doultttu! if there v. as a siiij^le
city. town, or viila;j;e in the Northern States tiiat did n<>t put t.uth a special
elToi'i to provide iiceessities ami er.iiveiiieiices for I he suldii'is ami sailors that
Were not supplied hy the i;ov'eriiment. anil the fair was the most pojmlar form
of raisiii}^ the needful money.
ICxhiliitions of special articles, possessini: thi- features of state, national,
and international comhinatioiis. ami in<lependeiit of any localit\, event, or
period of time, are j^rowini,' in Ireipieiicy. .Many of these have a jiredomi-
natini; technical interest. — as the international exliil)itions id' fisheries ami
tishery methods, of life-savinj^ methods and a|iparatus. of forestry products
and systems of forest preservation, and of railway appliances ; while others
eondiine the technical and popular features, as the exhihitions of ele<'trical
apparatus, of improved food preparations, of bicycles, of antomoliile vehicles,
and of wood-u(u-kiii,u; and lalmr savinij machinery.
Special exhi itions in the 'niled States that posse s a larije |iopular inter-
est include the annual showini^ of the art associations and le
lf,Mie:
in th
principal cities, and the annual horse, doj;. and s]n)rtsmeii*s shows in New
Viu'k city. Ainoni; iImmu also are to Ih- noted the permanent exjiositions in
Philadelphia and ('hicai;o — hoth remimlers of the jjreatest international
expositions thai had iieen held up to their ilay. The I'hiladfdphia exposition
is iu'ld in .Memorial Hall, the 1 lu lid in, i; erected in Fairniount I'ark l»y the .'^tate
«d' rennsylvaniii at a oust of !«il.."»(MMKMI, and used fur the .\rt (Jallerv of th-
'/•///> (K.yjrins i-AHis asd kxpositioss
427
'■r-it\-, an I
(V-ntciiiiial K\iHi.situ»ii in lS7<i. It now roiitaiiis m\ .i'l and industrial collfr-
liiin similar to tin- I'anions Soiitli Kt-iisington .Miist-mii in l^ondon. TlicChi-
. •;!;,'() exposition is in tli«' foiincr Art I'alact- id the Worlil's Coliinilfian Kxpu-
>ition in 1S«).'!. and. liavinir ln'cn endowed l)v Marshall Field with .S1,(HH».(X)0,
IS now known as the Field ( olunihiaii Musenni. Its most conspicuous I'eature
is a colleetion showing; the development ot the railwav. and the next, its ior-
KIKKKI, TOWKIl.
•\llls KM'ttMTION. IHSN.
esirv fxliihits. In the line of permanent expositions. Philadelphi.a is to he
credited witli Iwm commercial museums of f'ar-rpaclunjj iuHuenee that will ho
considered further on.
The first exhiliition of the industries id' all nations was that hold in Hyde
Park, liondon. in 1S,-»1. it wa.'i an outjjrowth of the annual exhihition.s of
the Society of Arts, liefore mentioned, .nnd w.is at tirst desi'.;iu'd to Ix' only a
national enterprise, hut on a more extended .scale than the former exhibitions
J-JS
riitUMI'llS AM) WOShEliS Of Till-: A/A'" VE • :iiY
ifi!
mI .lie Siii'iciv . 'I'll!' lali- I'liiifi- AUu-rt. Iiit ' .i.. > ■ i (.'im'ih \ n-tdrri. ImW' sir,
'Mill' i\fi| tlif uifii nf Mii'iw int. tills ]i:irlii'iil;ir <-\liiliii inn ii|M'n to llu* imliiN-
i;. tlic wt'.Iil. Ili.s sii','i;t>»liiin at oiici- nift tin- hivor ul' tin- ( '•mmil ni
*'ic Sii'ii-t\. a-- well as ol tin- Irailini,' tiianiifactuiiTs of Knjiland iiml lln
iirial |iul)lir. A nival warrant was |ii'ni'iii'i-i| a|<|ii<iiiiit".; a riiniinissiuii in
•• !■ . I"-,'!' an I'xliiliitinn nf tin- wm-ks nf indiistrv i>l all nations." .iini nf this
1mmI\ i 'nee Alliri't I aiiif |'!C'«ii|i-nt.
< hi I'rlxnarv -1. \S'iU. tin- ic>iiiiiii>si<infrs li-lt jiistitii'd in making; a |iulili<'
aiinnnn<-<-nii*ni tiiat llif liiiililin^' wmilil rii\i-r an aiia i>l' Irom sixlon ii>
twi'iilv iciT- : tiiat it woiilil In- rivuly lor tin- i-<'cc|it imi <>l' ),'ihiiI> li\ ilaniiar\
1. iN.'il . .mil tliat til) i-xiiiliition wmilii Im- ti|iiMifil to ilic piiMir on Mav I.
loljowinji. Tilt' plans lor a Itiiililini; snlmiittfii 1>\ Sii' .lo.-M'pli raxlon wiir
ari'i-|i|i-i| altrr a larp- niiiiilM-r liaii Um-m i-onsiiji'ii'ii. 'i'lirv r.iilril loi a Nasi
stcnftiii't- ol iron anii •;ias>. >i>int>\viiat similar to tin- ^rcat I'oiisfi vaton lie
liail I'i'rrti'd lor tlif Uiiki' o| lli-vonslnri' at ( 'liatswoiili. .'. contracl wa>
siLcm-il with .Mi-ssrs. Fox and lliMidcrson for tin- (■uiistrin'tion of tlir liiiililin;4.
nndfi' vldrli tli»'\ w»-r«' to reci-ivi- t'T'.'.SiMt, and tin* niatfrials ol ilir liiiildiii',;
were In rrinnin iln-ir |iro|iiM-t\. < hi |-"rliniar\ '.'>. tin- coniiilrti'd >liuctiiri' \\.i>
lornialU di'liviMi-d to ihr i'onitiii>sioii<-rs. It had an cxtrcnn- li'n','lli oj Is.'il
liM't aiKi an cxli'i-itn- lircadth ••! KtX left, witli an atlditimial proji-*-tion im tlir
ninili Milf. <(.".<■( ti'ft lon:4 la 4^ l<'ft widi-.
\\ liih' the iMi'i'tioii III thr i>wililiiijj wa> in pr<i!;rfss, Ih'. I.miii I'lavtair wa>
chosen to dec' li- and classify tU*- wiili' niiigc of articles that was son^dil to lir
liroii;_dit to'Tcthcr under the jjeiK-ral title of "tllijects of linlnstrial and I'ro-
diii'lixe Art '" lie arranvred these under toiir v;real sections: l!aw Mati'iial-.
.Machiiierv, .Mannlactiires. and Fine Art.s. and tliev in turn were dividei! and
siiliiliviileil inio a vast nninlM-r of classes and sinaller divisions. I'he col-
lecting <>| national exhiliits was plai eil in he hands id distrii-t coniniitteo
in all the principal towns ami niaiinlaettirii'g Itki-alities, ainl in response to
invitations extended to all the I'tiitish co'unies and the various tnri'i'..:ii
;4overnnients. nearlv everv coniitrv in Kuro »-. almost every State in tie-
Ni rtli .\merican rnion. the South American repnlilies, India. K^'.^ pi. Persia,
and the fat-olT islands of the s.-as. sent ohji'cs that swelled the total csli
mated value ol exhihits — excliidin;.; the renuwned Kuli 'loor diamond — to
V1.7SI.!»*_'<l.
The exhiliitioii was opened l>y t.hieen N'ictoria on the appointed day, ami
was continued till <>ctolier 11. The total iinmiM'r of exhiliitors was alioiit
l.'t.iMiii. Milling; the III ilays the e.xhihitiiMi was ii|k'Ii u total of li.(H;:>.<.lsii
IM-rsons visited it. a daily avera>;e uf ll/.lll. The larj^est nnmlier in a sinule
day was on Tnesilay of tin- closin*^' week, KH.l.'.iJ."!. .\n attempt to ascerlain
the iinnilier id' lii\ei'.,Mi visitors develojM-d the MneX|M'cted result that not much
niMic than |i).(Mio loreii^ners \ isited London iN-ymid the annual avera|.;c ol
I.Mmki, The linamdal result of the exhihition was really remarkalile. Tiie
total rcci'ipts from all sources an.i'iinleil to V-Vm'i.immi. and the tot'il expendi-
tures to alioiit t; (.■>(•.(»(»<•. leaving a surjiliis oi Vl7ii.<HMl. which was sulise-
tpiently increased to flsr..|;M;.
The distinctions of all kinds th.it wen- awarded. <'ouiicil and pri/e medals
and '* honouralilc mentions," a^ji,'rei;at«'il .*»4(?*4. It is In-re interest inji to note,
as showiu!^ the tnilv iiitcniational cliaraeter of tho Inst world's exhiliition.
thai
line.
metal
111. I.
lalirn
mate
times
T
niiii'i
; II |>iililii'
i\ti'i'ii to
• laiiiiiii'v
II .M;i\ I.
\lii|| Wrif
l<i|- ,1 \ n>l
Viltuiv III'
nill U;|^
i'liildiii;,'.
I'liililiii;^
I'llllc W ;|,
li cil IN.-. I
oil (III till'
Tin-: ('ExrriiY's i:\ius .\sn Exrusirmss ^i»
tliftt foreign giifsls o(rii|iir(l two-tiltlis of tin- rxliiliiiiou s|iiin' iiml kmcimmI
III
nr-tittliH III till- lioiiiir.s. I'li'iti
II I'X
liil.il
oi> 111 in;u-liiiiiT\ , iniiiiiiliirtiuf> in
t.ii. anil inaniilai'lmi'.s in },'ia.>-. ami |)oni'laiii. Iimk nioic |iii/<> ihun all
ilii lori-i^'iu'is iMMiiliini'il. hniM^Micis li-il in llic nninht'i' nl |.:i/.is lor text !!<•
lalirio, liiif arts, ami niisrollani'nns nlallll^al•lllrt'^ ; ami in tlir sirtioii o| raw
liiati'rials lor tooil ami niannlariiirrn tin- tori'n:ii •■xjiiliitnrs ^aim-ii iifarlv loiii
t lines as many |iri/cs as tin- Kritisli.
I'liis fxliiliitiuii ii('vi'io|i('il a iiiimlicr ol Ii-mi vcs it siiontil In- liurm- in
uiimi wlnMi (ionsuitiriii'' tiiose tlial caim; atU'i ', ]'
IS an expcrimcni in a!i
rOfUT OK IIOMII! KIIOM PKIIISTVIK
iWurlil'" ('iiliiniliiiiii l..\|>iiKlt!<>n. Cliiiau'o. ■Mil.'),)
luitricil lii'iil: it was ciiniiniscil in a siii'^lc imililiiij;; ami it was scH-supiiorl-
iii;^. ill all ri's| ts it was a marvelous acliievemeiit. It made tlie late
I'lim-e Ciinsiirt tin- •• latlier." ami tlie Sneiety nl' Arts tlu' |iiom'fi- |iionii iters,
ol the iiitei'iiatioiial ex|iosition.
'I'lie lienetieial iiiHiienee 111 till' lirst wiirlil's eyi.iliition l)e]L;an In lie lelt
niimeiliately. An exliiliiiiun of (lie arts ami inaiiiilaetiiies of Irelaii.l was
lii'ltl in ("iirl\ in llie rollowin;,' vear. ami tlie IJoyal i>iil)liii Soeiely. wliieli iiail
lieen lioiiling similar exiiiliitions triennially. ;^'ol ii|i a niiieli larger one tliaii
iiMial. tliidiiiu'li tlie y;eneroiis |ieeiiiiiarv aid ol' William |lai','an. in IS."."., 'I'lie
hnliliii exiiiltitioii, unlike tliat ol ('ork. waN iniernatioiial in senpe.
Ainerieaii visitors to llie l.omlon exiiiliition liroiii:lit liome witli tlieiii a
]irptty larv'e ins|iiratioii Inr a similar ellinl. ami lielnre tlie elose of IS.^I a
*
4:u)
Tu/LMrtts Axit noy/tHiis of the a/a'" cKsrviiY
iiuiuIm'I' lit citi/ciiH iii New N'ork hail ussdi'iatcil tlifiiist'lvi'S t'nr tluit |iiir|Nis('.
Ill •liiiiiiiii y, ISAJ, tlio riir|M)r.ition ol' tli«' rity of N«'\v Voik KisiiitiMl u Irasr
for tivi- ycui's nl Ki'scrvoir S(|iiarc. <mi tin* (■oiKlitinns that a hiiililiii^ of iron,
ghiss, ami wooil shoiihl Im- riDtcil tlicri-on. ami that the I'litiaiico lci> In the
])ro|M>scil I'xhiliitioii slioiihl not uxcti'd tifty (•■iits. In ISliiroh, tin* ].i>gisla-
tmi" iiiror|Hirati'il tin- Assnciatii'ii lor tin- Mxliiliitinii of thf Imliistrii's nf all
Nations, with a iMiiital of .';iL'IHl,(HK» iliat nii^'lit Ih- ini'ii-asiMl to .■jti.'ilHl.OOO.
Siilisi'iincnM}', tli« Ki-dt'ral (iovi-rniii<>nt roust it iitcd thi' iniililiii); a liomlcil
wai'i'hoiist* and «>xi>Mi|it«>il fiircii;n fxjiiliit.s from tin- |iaymi>nt of iliitii's.
'litis •■xliiliition was thfi'i-loit' :\ iiiivati* rnli't'|irisi-, having no nthrr ntlii-ial
riH-ognition than that nu-ntioni'd. It wuh also an uiifoi Innate aitair lioni
bi'ginnp«i<; tn i>tid. The location was then threi' nr four miles fioni ihe heart
of the city; the area was entirely inadi'(|uate I'tir the |iur|iose ; the day ot
u)ienini; had to Ih- |M>st|Hined, lH><-aiise of the inconi|>lete eomlitinii ol Iht'
hnildin^; and tinaneially the enter|irise was a huge failure.
The exiiiliition was o|icued duly 1 1. I.S.V'!. with niuih eereinony, i»lthouj;h
Btill scarecdv half readv for exhibits or visitors, and was euntinued lur ll'.t
dav!
Then
•re aUint IS(HI exhiliitors. somewhat more ihan one-hail
iM'injj foreij^n. The total eost of the exhihitiou was nearly .SI.<i<I(».(mmi. and
the reeeijits were 8.'t|n.lNNl. Althoui;h a linai><-ial failure and a di>a|i!>oiut-
inent in many wa_\s. this first international exhihition in the Tniied States
was produetive of miieh '^'ood.
The sueeess of the 1. mdon exhdiitiou also aroused the French to de|iai'l
from the exclusively national charai-ter of their toriuer exhiliition> and to
inaugurate one ojmmi to the world. This wis done under the direct ausjiices
of the Iniperial (iovcrnnic;:!. whiidi umlcrtook to comoine certain leatures o|
both the liOiidiui and the New Viuk enterprises; hence, the lirst internn-
tionul exhibition liehl in I'uris was |n-actically a private sidieine supported
by official guarantees. A further depiiitiire was here made in the inattei.of
building, and. instead of the single '.,'reat structure, there were the Palais* de
rindustrie. the I'alais des le-anx Arts, the Panorama, and three smaller
buildings for agricultural impliiiicnts, carriages, and a variety of less costly
articles, .\nother innovation was here iiitrodiir.il. a partial return to the
methods of t)u> coniinereial fair, in the setting apart id' e\hiliiting s|iaccs 4in
the t)pen ground.
The mam buihlin','. the I'alais de rindustrie. was evected by a joint-stock
noin]iany on tli<> Champs Klysees. and provided a floor space of 1,77().<MMI
Kipiare feet. It w.is Imilt id' glas>. stone, and brick, and was S(M» feet long
by 'XA) feet wiile. The various biiililings cost about ."l!>."»,(MMI,(HM>, and tin'
I'alais do I'lndiistrie wa.s erected for a peinianenl structure.
This exhibition was opened on .M;iy I.*!. IS,"!;";, and closed on November lA.
following. It was visited by I.;").'!.'!, (til persons. IScsides p'raiice and her
colonies, tifty-thren foreign states and twentT-tw donies belonging to them
sent exhibits. In all there were L'n.S.'t'.l exhibitors, those of France and her
colonies predominating by only abo'it "»((((. The exhibits were classified on
the Liindoii plan, there being in each ease thirty classes altogether. F^xclnd-
ing the main building, which the Imperial (lovernnient acipiired. the exhibi-
tion cost alH'ut ."S-'.'-'.'itMMMt.
Iletween the first and second London exhibitions thore were many iiidus-
rilK i'KNTUItY'S FA I lis I A'/' HM'OS/Tloys
i:ii
trial aixl art <liM|iluys in tli<^ ('iiitcd Kiii}{iioiii and cdliinit'.s :inil nn liic Ciuiti-
iitMit, aniiin^ wliii'ii slioulii l)i> imtoii tlmsi* of New Hinnswick ami MailraN in
|S.'i:t, Munich in IS.'il. ami KdinliiirKli and .Manchester in iS.'iT.
'I'hi' second London <'\iiiliition was undertaken liy a coninii.ssjon iieaded,
as tlie lir.st, hy tiic I'rinec Consort, under a nuaranti-e fVnd ot .S».1.'.*(<MMH».
Whih' it was in course of jireparation tin- Trince Contort died, and lor a
wiiih* a lieavv pall hun^ over the scheme. 'I'll in. mission here introduced
the Frehch iilea ol .>.e|iarale huildiiiys. The site was at South Kensin^^ton,
iind the main structure was liuilt ot hrick, ){lass, and iron, was nearly rectan-
>,'iilar in shape, and covered an area ot alniut seven acres. With the annexes
the total aii'a under root was alMiiit twenty-three acres.
This exhiliition was opened by the iMike n( ('amlirid;,'e on .May 1. IStlL'.
and remained open tor 177<hiyH. It wan visited liy (>,l.'l l.lO.'t persons, a daily
jiverage ol .'Mv'tl'U, its receipts weru wholly alisorlh'd by exjienses. ami a Hli^ht
''A'.
3
«!!■:
' -am
^
WOMAN S nril.DINO.
(Worlil'i Coliiiiiliinii Kx|><»iii<iii. I8U3.)
deficit was left. Koreiu'ii exhibitors ninnbcred IT.Sdl.aiid received moro tliaa
'.MMMt prizes.
Ill iSli;; the I'lcncli (loverniiieiit .'>nnounccil that an exhibition would 1m>
held ill I'aris in iMiT. that was intended to be iiio'c completely universal in
character and more comprehensive in jilan than any that had ever been hehi.
The Champ de Mars, the ;;reat parade-i,'roiiiid on which the Kcole .Militaire
faced iitainiie^ about lit acres, was pla 1 at the liispusal of the eonimis-
sioners by the (lovernnient. In the eeiitre id' t.iis spai'c was erected the
principal building', an oval structure mainly of iron. I(!(t7 feet lon^' and I'-'ICi
b'et wide, that ctpst .SL'..'!.">7.<»M».
In planniiiL; this biiildiiiv; the eoiiveiiieiiei' of exhibitors and visitors in
ready access to the exhibits <d' any desired country or class was f,'iven the
|ireferenee over arcliiteetiiral effcet. Here, aj^ain. was a dilVusion of exhibits
in detached biiildini;s. and a noteworthy novelty Wiis the reservation of
^M'ound on the park siirrouiidin^^ the main building for the erection by for-
eign exhibitors of .special buildings for the display of articles that conid not
be accoinnuidateil in tliv nuiin structurt'. Tliis feature beciune the most [K)})-
I.'J'J
riiiuMi'iis i.\i> \i().\ni:Ns m- inn .v/.v" ciisiruY
iiliir iiiif III till- I'litii'f i-xliiliitiiiii, lur it ^'avr a iimst ^im|iIii(- illii.^tnitioii <it
till- aifliitrctiir*'. iiiaimt'r*. fii.sliniis, ami iMiiiiitli'N.s j uliaiilir.s nl tlic |^«•ll|l|(•.^
Ut tilt! •v.il,!.
The fxliiliilii'ii \\a> i'|>fiiiil In tlic l!iii|it'ii>r mi Ajnil I. |S(17, and \Na>
fliisfil on ni-tiilxT .'>l. till lowing'. 'I'lii- iiiiihIht ot visitms was iijiwai'l i>l
I't.iHMt.iNMi. ;i daily av.'ia;;.' id iii'aiiy TO.iMMi, and id r\iiil»iti»rs. .*>l..s|"(. In
all, ll.','.*ll iiH'daU and .t^'iand |>n/r-< id liniiuialilr iiiriitiiiii wrif awardi'd
h'rnni U'liiiniiiij; ••' •'iid tin- rN|iin>i's wni' SI..'>U<I.7<>l. and llif rnfi](ts a^;
jrir'^ali'd S'_'.,Sl.".'.(HMi. ■{'Ill' iiatiiiiiiil :ind niiiniri|ial ,i,'n\rriiiiiriits luiilrihiiii'd
••SI.L'tMi.lMMi iMidi. wliiili adili'd to llir ii'c('i|its id tin' I'xliiliit inn |iiii|ii'i- nrati'd
ii Hiii'|iliis iiviT rx|ifiiilitni'i' oC .*<(','_'r(.( 1(1(1,
laiiiilnn'^ lliird i xliiliitimi. Iiiun Mav 1 till Sr|iti'iiilii'i' •'!(>. iNil. was {>rii-
jri'ti'd as till' lirst id an annual mtJi's that slnmld si'|iaiiittd\ luiuntiti' a
(liHtiiii't liiainli id' iiidiistiial idl'urt. Tliiits -llmi' linriv,'ii rniintiics win-
i-fi>i'csfiiti-il : till IT wi-ri- a|i|>riixiniati'l\ KHiii art and TtMHl industrial rxliilii-
ti)r> ; ami tin- visitors iiiinilti-ird l.llJ.(Mi(i. Tin' siTnnd in tin' snii's. in iNTl',
was ■•nntiiii'd to |ii'intin>;. iia|ii'i', niiisir. iiiiisiral iiistninifiits. ji-widrx. cotton
^oiids, and liiif arts ; and tin* (liird, in IS".", was d<'\ oinj to tlic ^'riirral siili-
ji'ft 111 I kciv.
(ii'iMt as was till- iiniM-rsal rx|Hisitiiin o| j'aiis in \Xi\~. tliat at \'ii'iina iii
1S7."! tar sm|iassi'd it in i-xlfiil and '^'randiMir. altluiiii,di its |n'(iiniar_v siirn-ss
Was si'Vt'i'idy alTi'i-ti'd !>> an i'|iiiiiMiiii' o| rlioli-ia. a tinanrial crisis, and local
extortions. As i-arli of tlic in'i'ci-dini^ inlcriiationa! ixliiliit ions had dcxcl-
ojicd a distinctive tc.itni'c, so this id N'icnna intiodiiccd the I'listoiii o| hoidini;
wofld's coiii,'i'c.Hses jor the di.sciission id i;i'eal |iiol)lenis ol iini\ersal a|i|iliea-
tioii.
'rhe exhiliition was o|ieiied on May 1 and closed on Nnvcnilier .'!. jollowiii','.
'I'miistih's reconled the eiitiaiice id r.L'.'il,<tS7 visitors. 'I'heie were ai'oiii
7().<HHI exliiliitnrs. « ho>e iiis|>1ay, in extent and ci)>tliness. eNceeded that id
I'aiis in lS(i7. The ;,'riiss leceipts were alioiil .S'_'.<i<'ti.(i(t(i, iiiid ex|ienditiiie>
alHUit ."«i'.».S,'i(MMM». iiiakini,' ii detiideiiiy id soiiif .'«<7,S.'"»(),(HHt. wliicii the (ioverii-
liniit liiinidated. The rnited States was re|iiesenteil liy Cil.'! exliiliilois. nioie
than hall ol whom were awaided |iii/es.
This hrtii^s the record up to the ('•nteiinial lvx|iusition, at l'hiladel|ihia,
in I.S7(i, and co\ers the third i|iiailei' id tin iitiiry. The actual work ol
niakini; the < 'eiiteiinial ivxhiliition hej^an on March ."!. 1.S71. when ('oicress
l>a.s.s«'d iin Act eieatiii^c the I'liited .States ('enteiinial ('oiiiiiiission. This au-
thorized the j'lesidciit to a|i|>oint a coiiinii^ioiier and an alternate Imni each
Stite and Territory, on the iioniination o| the res|iectiM' 'governors. The
a|i|ioiiitiiii'nts were |iroiii|itly tiiade. and lioiii the whole body id coiiiiiiis-
sioiieis the I'ldlowin;.,' were chosen lor the )iiinci|ial execiiti\e otiicers : {'resi-
dent, .loscidi Ii. Ilawley, III Connecticiit ; \'i I'residetits. .\llied T, (ioslmrn,
ot ( >hio. tlrestes Clevtdand, id' New .leisey. .lohn j). Creii^h, id Calirornia.
Kolicrt F,owr\. ol Iowa, and iJoliert Mallory. ot Ketitncky ; l>iiictoi-(ietieral.
Altred T. tTii>liorii : Secretary, .lohn L. ('ainiilicll, ol' Indiana; .Assistant Sec-
retary. |)orsey <iariiner: ('oiinselor and Solicitor, .lohn I,. Shoemaker,
Details 111 organisation and management were vested in an I'.xeciitive ('oni-
mittcH*. On .luiie 1. 1S71.'. Congress passed an .\ct creatiiiir the Centennial
Itoard of Finance, with laiKc |iowers. This Hoard cstimuti'd that the cost oi
Ntratiiiii lit
lid |ICII|t|l->
. iiiid WiiN
ii|>\viir.i III
I, sill. In
inMd'ilt'il
'i'i'i|it.s i\^-
iintrihiiti'il
irr cri'iiti'il
WHS IU'd-
|i|'ii|||<i|r ;i
I lies Well'
iiil I'sliilii-
ill 1N7'.'.
li'V . ciiltiih
lltTlll Mllt-
N'icniiii Hi
rv Micrch.s
iiiiil Inral
lau ili'M'l-
i| linlilini;
III a|>|ilii'a-
IllllllW ill','.
it'if aliiiiii
I'll that III
|n'iiililmi'>
II' ( iiiVi'lll-
itUIS. Illlll'l'
ila(lrl|iliia.
i work 111
I < 'll|l'_'l'l'SS
'I'liis aii-
ri'iiin rarli
iiirs. 'I'll!'
I rnllllilis-
Ts: I'ri'si-
. ( ■oslmni.
'aiiliniiia.
r-Cii'iM'i'al.
istaiit St'i'-
icr.
ilivt* Coiii-
'I'liti'iiiiial
III' (•(i>t ni
77//i (hJX'nHys FAIHS A. WD hXl'OSJUuys
iX\
ilte vxliiliitioii wniilil lir .'?t|(i.iMMl,(MMi, ami a|i|i<irlioiu>il sluiri-s ot caiiital >tiirk
till' tins aiiiuiiiit aiiiiiii,' tlif .srvnal Siait-s ami 'rririlinifs. mi tlit- Wasis nt
|iii|iiilatiuii. Suli.st'i|iii'iitl,\. a llnant ot Iti'Vi'iiui' wa^ a|i|i<iiiiitMl and vcsti'il
with aiitiiiirity to follfct Hiilis('i'i|itii)iiM and iitlit>r tiiiids.
|)i's|iitf til)' tiiiaiirial jiaiiii' id tlir Hiiiniiii'r nl' |.s7.'t. |ir<'|iaratiiiiis |irii^'i'<'--srd
Ml lavoralilv that iin •hiiv .'( I'li'sidi'iit (irant i,s>iii'il a |>i-iirlaiiiatiiiii icriliii;;
that till* on«>dmiidi'*'dtli aiiiiivfi'Mury <d' thi' iiid*-|iiMidfiici> ol the ('iiitfd States
uiiiild III' ci'lrliiati'd liy iaihliiiK' all iiiti'iiiat imial rxhiliitinu i>t art'<. iiiaiint'ai'-
tiiirs, ami the |iiiid<: "is nt tlir soil and iiiiiic. in l'lnladi'||ihia, in Is7i>. <i|H'n-
iii^ April !'.> ami I'hisin^' Ortnlicr I'.i, and inviting thi' iiatiniis id thr wmld
til takr part in Imth tlic I'clrliratinn and tlir rxliiliitinn. In n'*pii!iM' tu a
lnrnial invitatiuii issiit'd iiy tlu' Sfrrrtary id State, tliirty-twii |(irt'i),'n K'<'Vi'iii-
iiicnts sent lavorahli' replies lor tlu'iiiselves and tiieir enlonicH.
Till' city id' I'liiladiliihia phiced al the dispusai id' the eniiiniissioiierH a
Adiinii.TriiM. in'ii.nixfi.
(Allaiitn Kxponiiliiii, 18115.)
traet in lairmnunt I'ark. aKiircKatiiii; 'J'At) acres, lor the jirincipallmildinRS,
and also made prnpDitiunately larj^e allotinenls lor the exhibition ol live-
stock and ajjricnltiiral iinph-nients.
Five laincipal linildinj,'s were erected. The Main Kxhil«llii!?i nnildiiiK wan
in the lorni ol' a iiarallelo;,'iain. iSSd feet Imii,' and i'''! ret u ide, with pro-
jeitioiis at the centre ol' the lon;;est sides llt> feet loii.i;, iind at the ■litre of
the short ones L'K) feet luiifj. The Iniihliii),' was t re .-ted on |iiers uf m jsonry,
\vriMi|,dit-iron eolnnins siip]iiirtini; wnmj^dit iron ri'id' n-usses rorininj^ li ai|ier-
strm'tnre, the sides of which lor some distance a'u'Vi tli.- }jro-ind I'ln linished
In'tweeii the ecdnnins with paneled hrick work. I'lds linililm>; coveicd l.'1.47
acres, had a floor space of ".>;{(i,IMlS si|nare feet, am! cost >!I.<'.(I0.(MM».
'I'lie Art (Jallery and .Menntrial Hall, desii,'ned tu he a pcriiianeiit strne-
tnre. was erected on an eminence in the I.ansdowne riateaii. Jt is Itnilt of
','ranit(». jjlass, ami ,i(m, in the modern Ucnaissanee style of .'irchitectiire, on a
terrace several feet aliove the level ol the I'lateaii. and cost .St..MI<».U(iiO. Tlie
dimensions are : length, .'{(lo feet; width. I'ltl feet; hei^dit, oil feet, I'rom
the centre of thP structure rises ;i dome of iron jind j^lass, lod feet rn lu'i.i^ht,
2s
4:n
rniuMPiis AM) noMthus or the xjx'" cKyruitr
I Hl|
|i I
r-i
suiiuoiiutc'd l)y a li},'uri' of Columhia with outstrctclu'd liands. This building
was cict^tod l)y tlic Siatr n|' I'cmisylvauia, and is now used as a pfiiiiaiH'ii!
art and iiuhislriai iniist'iini.
Mufliincry Hall was I 1 01.' tVcl '.onj,' and .'!(»(» IVct wide, witli an annex mi
till! sontli sido I'K) Ky -<*N li-rt.and tin- main hnildini^' and annex iiad toi^'etiier
a thior spaee of .ViS, 1 1(» s(inare feel, or ni'aily thiilcen acres. Tlie total eo.si.
was .ijiT'.i'.'.Odd. Iloiticnltnral Hall, near the Art (lallery, was linilt l)y the
city of rhiladelphia for permanent uses. It exliiliits the Moorish arehitee
tare of the twelfth eentury. is .".S.'i feel lon^,' by l".»."> feel wide, :ind is 7- f' il
liiuli to the top <d' tlie hmterii. Its eost was .si,'.'il,<.(;J7. The .\j,'rienllural
liuihlinj,' was erected of wood and ghiss, the ground plan showiiij,' a parallelo
MAdllNKIlY ItVI.I,
(Atlillltll llx|ni»ili()n, IMU5.)
{,'ram C,r,0 feet loiii; l>y U'l't feet wide, and a nave S'.'C. feet hmj,' and 1<»» feet
wide erossfd liy lliice transepts, and eost alioiit S.'i.ll'^iMKi.
(tlher noteworthy ediliees were the I nitcd States ( ioveriinient I'.nildinit,
r»(li feet h)n;.; liy .'ttM) feet wide, pri'pareil to exhiliit the various luneiious nl
tlie public service ; the \V<imen's I'aviiion, eoverini; an area of an acre, and
with its exlnbits of woman's iiai>diwork from tiu* fifteen leadin;,' nations of
the worhl constituting,' the tirst display of tlie kind ever attempted on a
hiri,'*) scab;; twenty-six buildin;;s erected iiy State and 'I'erritorial |4(c,crn-
nieiits ; j'lid many others put up by lorei;,'n ^?overllments or exliibitors.
|!ef(M'e the exhibition closed there were more than two hundred buildinj,'s on
the f^i'oiind.
An interesting^ feature (d tids exhiiiition was the observance of Stati' l>ays,
when the j;overiiors of the States, witli tiieir ollicial stalls and a hn>;e foUow-
iu^ of citizens, made ceremonial visits and lield recepti<(ns in the several
State buildiie^'S. I'lu're were a!s<i nuiiieroiis other special days, when hosts
of ] pie united iii a common interest. relij,'ious. fraternal, social, military.
a«piatic, or educational, adih'il thousands to the <u'dinary attendance.
huriiii,' the <'Xiiibition ■.(.'.H'MKiti persons entered tin' ^'rounds, of whom
r,-.'.''.!'!!.'!! Jiaid 'he full rate of lifty cents, T.'i.'l.d.'il paid twenty-live cents
each, and l,'.Mt('».(.'.H,' had fr< niry. The exhibition represented an oiilhiy
(d' all kinds and bv all interests .\f about !SiL'(l,(MHM«M». TMe I'nited States
THE CKXTUIiY'S F.lHtS AND EXrosiTloyS
486
( Jiivf'ruiiioiit aiili'il it with a loan of iSl.iVMMMHt, whit-li was rcjiaid; the
Stutf <>l l*fiiii>ylvaiiia a|iiinii)riaU'il ijji | ,( M in,( M M i. and tlu; i-ily of I'hihnlfl-
jiliia f,'ave Sil-.^HyXM*. Fryiu ovfiy iioint m1 vifw it was an umiualitiid
^Ut'fl'SS.
■|\\(> yrars alter the ( 'iMitciiiiial l)xi(nsiti()ii aiiotlicr oiic was Inlil in Paris,
winch nut only fxct-cilcil all pirvinus ones in that city in si/c an<l niat^ni-
liccncc. hut niaih* un uniircccihMitL'd disphiy <it' W(ii-k-> ol ait ami liti'i-atiirc
(Ml this iiccasiiin alinnl one hmniifil acres were set apail lor tiie various
Imiidinvjs, liie exiiiliitors nnniliered some ei^jiity thousand, the j;ross receijits
were n|iward (d ."Sl,'.'>0(»,n(Mt, and l<i,((,'lL',7L.'."> visitors were re]i,'islered.
'I'iie liiiid worhl's exiiiiiition in the rnited States was held in New Hi-.
leans ilurinj; the winter ol |S.s|-S."(, ;ind was |ilaiined to eommenioiate the
centenniul ol' the lirst i'.\|>ort ol cotton liom Anierii'a. 'I'lie conception wan
ail outgrowth of the exposition in I'hiiadelphia. and was lir>t carried out on
a ".imiied scale in Atlanta in Issj. anil on a laiL;eione in i.onisville in JSN.'!.
I ndei tlie iHdief that th >tton centennial should In- ctdehrated in the chief
city of the cotton licit, the National Cotton I'lanteis' Association joined heart-
ily ill the scheme suy;L:e.sted li\ Major jv A. IJurkc. of New ( »rleans. lor a
universal exhihition in thatcity. in uhidi ihc <^'i'cat industry ol the .Siiitlierii
Slates should play the nio-i piniuiiient pail. ('on!,'icss aidi'd the movement
'Mi
Ild |(MI IVct
WOMAN s mil. DIM..
(Niwliville Kx|io<itii>n, imiT.)
hy ail Act iiicorporatiii'4 liie Wmld's industrial and Cotton Centennial K.\|m(-
Hition, and. further, made a h-an (d .'<^ I .( il M i.i H Ml and appropriated .'<:;<mi.(hmi fur
II h'cderal jtuildini,'. Itailioad and other corpoiatinns siihscrihed for >>.'•< Ml.) hki
ill stuck, the Stall- <d Louisiana appropriated .s|(I(i,(HMI, and the city i>( New
I irleaiis coiitriliiited a similar sum for tlie en'etinii id a )iermaiieiit Uortieiil-
tural Mali.
I'ormal invitations were sent out to all loreij.'ii jrovernments hy tiie Stati'
I department at WasliiiiKl'm. commissioiicis were appuiiited for the .sevenil
Stales and 'rerritoiies, ami ihi- lini" of the exposition was fixed for DeccmlMT
1. Is.sl. to May .'tl. IS.S.V The site selected was Ihe I'piM-r City I'ark. an
unimproved tract of '_'l.*i acres, and in its centre was erected the Main Itnildiii^,
astriujtuie imilt wiiojlv id' wood, l.'ITS feet Ion,' and '.Ml." feet wide, and with
■f :
4.'MI
T/Hl'.MI'HS AX It U'OXnHllS of THK A/.V" CKSrUHY
a t'Kiitiiiuuus ro(»f |iriiici|iall\ ••! ijlass. Tlif miiro Idiildinj; ciivi-ri'il a space
of tliiilv-tliicf acii's. A Music Hall caiialilc nl scatiiii,' llJMMl iktsoiis wa-
enlist I'lictfil ii> till' (■(•iitr)' (>r tills liiiililiii^'. ami a Mai'liiiiiTV Hall in tlic rear.
All t'xtt'iisidii a( till' siniliH'iii I'liil. .'>70 liy ll'd jci'i, was ilcvoti'd to mills ami
factories in oiteratioii. ami at ri,i,'lit an^^les willi this extension was a laiildiie^'
j;iven up to MiwiiiilN.
Tile l''i'<leral Muililiii;,', |ilaiine(i lor the exhihils ol tlii- I'liited States (iovcrn-
nieiit ami of the States, was .SS,"i leet loiij,' liv ."i(i."> lei't w ide, and in j,'eneial
style and coiistriietion I'ontoniii'd to the Main r>ud<iin.;- Ilortii iiltural Hall.
Iinilt ol noil and .Ljlass. is (JIMI feet loii^', JIMI Irci, wide in main .>t lucluie. and
has a eeiitial lianse|it caii'viny; out tl xtieiiie width to I'.H leet. The Art
Itnildinj;. id coirn.cati'd iron and i,dass, stood iiearlv in Iroiit of the Main
Ihiildiii','. and was •_'."•<» join,' l>\ |iM» leet wide, with a rotunda ."in leei .M|uaie in
the centre. Two other iinleworthy lniildiii'^'s were erecteil hy the Mexican
(iiiveriinient. one in the style u\ a native hacienda, with an interior ;:,Mlleiy lor
the ilisplay (d hortuiillnre and l)irdlile; the other tor native minerals. Kx-
elmlinj; those (d .Mexico, the \arious liuildin;,'s I'ovi-recl an area id L'.(i7o..'i.S8
8i|uari' leet, or sixty-two acns, and all l>uildiii,t;s covered alioiil seventy-six
iu-ri's.
Aiiioii'.' the special leatures of this expo-ition wcii- ihe display ol woman's
work, under diarize o| .Mis. .lulia W.ird Howe; o| the wmk of the colored
race, under char','e o| the lati' I'llanchi' K. r>iiici' ; of the cultivation of cotton
and mannl.icturc id the lilu>' : and of the cultivation, harvest iii^;, and prepara-
tion for market of rice ami siii^ar.
•'a May .*>. Is.S'.i. another universal exposition was ojieucd in Paris. This
was also a comnii'iiiorat ive one. markin',' the ccntenn'd of the frcncli iJevo-
liition. and hecanse of it> political characlci mdy c Inited States and
Swit/.erland accoided it otlicial iciii;,'iiiiioi,. allhou',di most of the {•'.uropean
^overnnicnts eiicoiiraiicd individual paiticipatiou. The ex|iosition. despite
this feature, was u jjraiid siieccss hecause of iis unusual extent and coinpre-
lieiisi\eiiess and its distinctive features. This cspo-itioii cost SS.(>(MI.(mmi. and
had alioiit t'id.iHMi cxhiliitors and more than L'S.l lilt ).(H III reported visitors, the
greatiT IlUlllber. ol colirse. heili),' I'leiich.
The making id' the World's Coluiuliiaii l''.xpositioii. to e(iiiiiiieiiior;ite the
discovery of .\iiieriea hy Columlius, liey:an soon after the close nf the (enten-
iiial Kxpnsition in I'liiladelphia. It was at first projiosed to create a iK'rnia-
iieiit exposiiimi. to lie held in Wash iii'.,'t oil in l.S!l'_'. to illustrate the progress
of North. Central, and South .\meiica. and a lioanl of iironiotiou was ori^an-
ized. r>y IH.S'.l. however, a stroni,' |M>piilar sentimciil had heeii aroused for a
tiiore eoiiipreheiisive display, and eiti/.ens id Washini^ton, New N'mk. Chicaijo.
mil St. I.oiiis vied with each other in pressiiif,' on a special committee of the
certiticate
h- in
M'cn mai
I'niled States .Senate the advaiitai^cs of their respective eit
to the ctl'ect that stiliscriptioiis to the aiiiiiuiit of i^i.'i.iMHi.Otld had
Cliieajiu decided the eontiover.sy ill favor of that city.
On Atuil "J.-i. IS'.MI. ('oiiiiress passed an .\et y;ivin^ a lei^al statnsto a World's
<'o!umliian ICxposiiion, to he held under the auspices and supervision of the
riiited States (ioveriiiiieiil. the oi'^'ani/iiij,' corporation to j;iiaiaiitee the suli-
.scriplioii of !«i|<i.<i(Mi.o(Mi ami the |iayiuent of .s .",(1(1.(1(1(1 lietoic the nation. il
c'onuiiissioiiers should otlicially reco^ni/e the site otfered liy the corporation
Tiih: cKyrruY's fahis A.\n i:\rosrno.\s
437
i Ji H|>iice
'snlis was
till' ii'iir.
mills aii'l
I liiiildiii''
lor tin' t'X|n)sitinii. nil ItccciuIxT L'l, I'lllDwiiii,', I'lisnlt-iit llarrixin aii-
iiiiuii''t'<l tlif tDilliroiiiiir^ t'.\|)nsiii(ui. to l)t' (i|itMit'il (III May 1. Is'.t.".. ami iiivitt-tl
till' iiatiiiiis <il tlic WMild to iiarticipate in it. Coiiirifss a)i|>r<iiiriat«-(l in
\aii"iis Slims a intal ni .';S.">.'_'.'!S.l.'."i(l in iiiinicy aii<l autln>ri/eil tin- cniiiiii;; of
,"».(HHI.(MH» .^niiviiiir lilty-cciit |iifi-i's ill silver to In- .^olil for tin- U'lutit ot the
fX|iositioii.
'I'lif iiiaiia,i,'t'iiiciit, was vcstt'd in a National Conir.sission ol' two roprcscnta-
tivfs ol cacli Stall- ami 'I'lTiitory and ot tlic Uistiict of roliiniipia. and <• .lit
Iroiii till' country at larj^c. 'I'lic sitr was .lackson I'ark. on ilit- .>lion' <if Lak**
MiiliiV'an. to wliidi was added the Midway I'laisanee tract of Sti acres, niakiiiij
III a^',i,'rej;ate f^roimd area of (J.'!."! acres. On the mam ;.;roiuid iimre than l.">t>
noteworthy luiildini^'S were erected. The Midway I'laisanee wxs devoted to
aiiiiisements and tin- illustration of the manners and custoius of the world.
Alir liril.DlNII. KXACr ItKI'Ilonii TIO.N ok TIIK rAUTIIESON.
(Nasliville Exposition, IS'J7.>
II' re, the nm^t cons|)iciioiis ot a luiillilude ot threat and ciirioii.s objects was
the •iii,'aiitic icMilviie,' and |ia>seii,i,'ei-earryint,' Ferris Wheel. All of the e.\-
|>o>ition linildinLfs |)ro|M'r were constructed o! wood. iron, and gla.ss. in coni-
liinatioii with a material known as "start." made l>y iinitiiifj plaster and
jute lilire in water, in the lurm of a jiastf. As all exterior surfaces wero
painted w hitc. the ixposilioii grounds h' canie tiopiilarly known ns the White
City.
The principal Imildinns. with their cost, were those of Manufactures and
I.ilH-ral \it.s. the lar>,'<'st 'd' all. l(iS7 l.y 7S7 feet. .S1.."Mmi.imk»: Machinery,
81.1.'H:tii(M»; Fine Arts. .'»l(i7n.(t(l(l ; A^'ricnltnre. ."^'-l.s.tMHi; .Vdininislration,
)i!i;t.VUIM»; Klectrieity, .*fOi.<Ml(l; Inited States «;overnnient. SJHt.iHMi; Live
Slock. .*<."iS.*,.iH Id: 'j'ranspuitatioii. .'iii.'!70.(i(Mi; Morficiiltiin'. S.'MMi.iKXi; Mines.
!!!il.'C.,V<Mi(); risheiies. .'!<L'L'l,IHI(l ; Woiuans. .'iSl.'i.s.fMMl ; Forotry. SKhmmmi ; and
a liriik imitation of a modern Inited States liattleship. «ith complete arma-
ment and e(pii|iiiiiiit. .51 <•(».()( Hi. |"(iici;,'ii iiovernnieiits appropriated a total
ot !!!»(),."»" I .•">-< ' lor their respective liuildiiij,'s and exhibit.s, France leatliuj; with
JL-< m
4.'»
TJUUMPHS A\D nONDlillS or THE XI.\"i CES'TUHY
.•jil ;.■"»( (.01 M). iiiid bt'iii},' IoUowimI l>y .lapiui, ^("..((•.(MM) ; I'.ni/.il. ."iSOlHVMMt ; Cci-
m;iiiv. ."Sl'l I.L'lH); aiul Austria, 8 H'.». KMI ; and tlu' Stales ami Ti-nittnu's, a
total 111' .S(;,iii'n.,S.'"»(l. 'I'lic I'litiif cii^t I't (•(uistiiictiiiii was .Sl,S.;!L'l',riL'L'.
Ai!(M)i-iliii^ to the ori^iiial Art ut ('omki'i'ss, tin* luiililiii^s tlifii <-i)iii|i)i-tr(l
wi;rt' ilt'dicatt'd on ('(iliiiiiliMs l>a\, Octnlifr L'l, IS'.C with juavrr, music and
an (iratinii !iy (Miaiini'i-y .M. Mt'|ii'\\, an<l dniin^ llial week a nnmiicr td Stalt
l)tiildinj,'s vvi'if iilsK di-ilirati-d, 'I'ln- t'Xpnsitinn \Vii.s litrnially (>|nMn'd with
fM'i'fdin,,'ly inilliiint ci'ii'mindt's on .May I, IS".K>. and was cluscd with an
clllil'i* la>'l\ 1)1' t'nrniality on ( irtnliri' .'Ui, t'lillnwiu;;, in ronsrciurni-c id tint
assiissinatiiiii ')f ("aitcr llariison. ma,\iir ol Chicaifo, twd days liclini'. \ \\
tu Nn\rmiM>r IJ, llif ii'ci'i|its lri>m all siairci's a;,';,'r«nati'd .'*>.'t.'!.l.".Hi,(H>.''», and
the i'X|i('nditiii'<>s, tiji.'U.l IT,'!-').'!. Thi' total nnmWcr (d paid adndssions, v\-
rludinu those juiur to tin^ oprninj^ and alter the eiosin'^. was L'l. I77.-IN,
anil ol all, i:7,."il.".». |(»t ; smallest siuwlfilay nundu-i'. ln.7«.M ; laip-st. on
••CliieaK" l>a.\," 7'-'U.L't»;t. In all tlii'lo v.'ni •i.'i.ll'l,' I'xhiliitois. and medals
nefc auanled to 'J;i.7."i7 ot Ihelii, the jui;\ ^xiimiiniiK' and repuitiie,' on moro
than IViO.IMttl sepaiaie exhiMts.
I'lesfiit spat'f will only peimit ilie liiiefest Hiimiiiaii/inu id' lliis jjicatest id"
all international i\ position^ hit Ihm to hi ill, — malidiless in extent, in eimi plete-
iiess III eonipiisitioii, in '^M'aiiiienr of settin<^'. A pleasing evidence ol' the inlln-
erne the nndertakiiiH was cxpeeted to yield is i'onnd in the remaikalily lai\'«>
nnmlier ol inlriiialional eon','iesses that were held dniinj,' its pio),'ress. This
leainte alone called lor \2\'> separate se-sioiis, at which tlieie were ."i',i7l
speakers and a Hpciial atti tidanee ol more than 7<H),IMM) persons. :hieHv
adults. .Mniosi every eoin'eivalile hraneh o| hninan thon^dii and etVort had
il> individual eont,'ress. I'artiiularly nolieealile aniom; thcNC loruial leather-
ing's was tiie I'arliaimMit ol Weli^imis, in wliieh Christian, I'mtestaid,
Calholie, .lew, and Ituddhisl expounded t heir iloet rinal lieliid's and narrated
the story of theii' sectarian proj,'ress and hopes.
'I'lie Cotton States' and Intenialional Kx|MiHiliiin, opem'd in .Vllatitaon Sep-
temlier IS. IS',(.">, had its orii,'in in two purposes: the first, to f,'i\o the indus-
trial coinlitiiius id' the Siiiitherii States \\ mole adcipiate display than tiiey
liad at Chica^'ii, owiii'..,' to tlin ciinstitiitional inahility id' their Legislatures to
ajipropriite puMic iiinuey lor such a purpose; the second, to promote laii;ei'
trade relations liet wren the .South .ind the l.atin.Nnieriean re pi i lilies and w iili
Kurope. It was set. mi tool Ity private eiilerp ise, and received its lanjest
ottici.ii aid Irom the city council ot .\tlatita. which appropriated ■S7.''>.IHH).
Piedmont I'ark, a tract ol IS'.I acres, two miles Irom the cent re id the city,
and iiieiiioralile because traversed liy the ritle-pits over which (ieneral Slier-
man threw slndls into the city thirty-one \eais hi lore, was selected as the
site. In.i natural diji ol the ground an artiticial lake was cotistrni ted. cover-
in thirteen acres, and aronnd it the principal Imildin'^'s were erected. Not
I. dy the Soiiihern, hut nianv ol the .Northern and WCstern .Stales aided the
eiitiTprise with special liuililiii(,'s and i-xhihits.
Ol the thirteen lar'je lmildiii>,'s, that of the Cnited States (iovernment oecii-
pieil the most coiispiciiiiiis site. The .Administration Ituihlin}; was a lepro-
ducfi/iii oi portions of Mlarm-y f'a.sMp, the Towor of Iiotidon, Warwick Custli-,
•lie Kheiii-lein ill tJermany, and St Mifdiael's, on the coast ol' llritt.iny. On
acoiisidcralilc elevati.m was the .\uilitoriuiu, a lour 'loi,\ huililiie.,' w ith a duini!
TUltY
TIIK iKSrniY'S FAIRS AX It KXPOSITIOSS
430
KHMHMt; (},.,..
I'l' nil will's, a
II i'">iii|(Ii.ti.il
!■. mii.sic. ami
iiImt of Statir
"|iclic:l uilli
'•"^••il Willi ill,
ii'iii'i' III t|„.
I'l'liiii'. ij,
• -!•<>.<>(;.-•. .,i„l
nissiiiiis, rx-
:.'i.i77.:'i.s,
liirp'st, I, II
•Hill iiii-ilals
ill;; i>ii iiini'i>
■i xicalcsl lit"
ill <'i'iiijili'ti'-
"I till- iiill,,.
iikaiily l:ii','('
,'i<'.s.s. Tliis
<• Wfir .Vt7|
Hnlls. vliirllv
'I I'll'TI I, ail
iiii.ii Katlirr.
I'lolol lilt,
iiiil iiarniti'il
:infa on S.'j^
L! tin- iiiiliis-
I than tlu«v
,'i>lutiircs to
'iiioli' laii^tT
icM ainl with
its laii^cst
I S7.\(MH».
ol till' rify,
■ii.'ial Shfi-.
I'tf'l as thi>
1' tt'd, cdVcl'-
•<lr.|. Ni.t
I iiiilnl III,.
IIM-lll oi'iMI-
IS a it'iiro-
iil< t*a«tle,
t.iiiy. On
ith ai|iiiiii<
>iirinoiMit*-tl liy a .^tati.c of Music. Tiif lai;:i'st Imililint; was that *l<>voti-il to
Maiiiilactiii'i's ami Lihi-ral Arts, and tltc iiio>t on^ina! of al! in <l< >i;.;n was
tin- oiu' M't apart for Minerals ami Fuii'stry. which w:i.s ron.stru<a«-il ciitirt'ly
ut wtHiil from till- ilitTfi't-n! Southern States in its iiatur:il t-omlition. witii tin*
liaik on. 'Ihf Fine .\rts ;.;i.l tlie Woman'.-. Iluildiiiv':* were th<- .siio«ie>i.
ami thu Nei;ro Huihlin^' was maile attractive hy >ji«-einiens of the intliistry
of iM",'ioe> in loiiiteeii States. The exjM»ition was closed iH-cemU-r .'U, antl
CH>| aliout .'"il'.IMMl.lMHI.
The inteniaiional I'XjMoition at Nashvilh-. ojn'ii from May 1 to < Jctolh-r
.'iti, |,S<>7. was a eomimiiKMalion ot the one-liiiinlretith anniversarv uf the
• •ll\MI < o| III o\l Ml
tXi(.'hi
IIIIITION. I"
aiiiiiission of Tennessee into tlie I'liion. ami had for it.s nixvial attraction
ii re|,i'oduetion oi a numlier of notaLle Xx lidinijs of untii|uity. Tin- orii;!-
iial |ilan luosiiled tor an e\|>o>iiion in lyNi, the true reiiteiinial year. I>ut
till' |U'oii'eior> eiH-onnli'iiil unusual op|x>sitioii in their •■fTorls to procut'o
the necevsarv liimU, and it was not till earK in |s«.»7 that the ;in iU'|><Ma-
tors were alile to liei;in the creation of the <'etitennial City.
Wettt Side I'ark, a former race-4-iiuriM> ti! tlu> MiilmriM of Nashville, with
iiianv natural attinctii.ns in runnint,' water and forest .rn-wths. was selected
as the site, anil Ci'nteniii.il City wa- made l<-r the luief time ol the e\|io-
sition a full tleii'.'ed ninnicipality, with a nia\<>r. Uard of aldermen, ami a
eoiiiliined |M,lie. and tire dei>.irtment. TIm- re|.i>Nlii.iioji o| notalile t>iiildim.'s
bhoweil on a rcdiue»l scale the I'aitlieiion, tht I'yniiiud «d Cheuj»*, tlie
440
TiUL.uriis A\u noynmis of rni: xix'" cEsruitY
■*<i|
AliUlK
il Tixiis. tli>' lUiic (Jroitu til (Jiipri, a Kliiii|>>f ol tin' liialtu of Vim
100.
ami. in llif ln'iuilitiil iiiiiin I'litruiu-t', a tyjie ol imiIv Kj;y|itiuii anliitciiiirc.
A tla,i,'stalV !,'*)(( Ici't liiyli, rotton ami toUn-co hclils. W-iu-tiaii f;<tiulnla>. \'au-
\\y Fair, a tvpiral ('iiiiii'.-i' taini. an aliiiinlaiicf ot >tatu»'s ol clavsical and
niyliiolo^'ical siihji'ct.s. wali-rlail ami oiil-iinu' wIrtI at work, Lake Katlii'iini'.
Kllin IslamI, tuc nniWicUa Inuniain. ami a hw^v tii-lil lor allilctic sjiorts.
(•re aimiMi,' I lie iii('a>u:altli' Icatnit-s. Tlif Stati- niaili' a >trnni; >lio\viny
w
of its iniiii>iii;i
(iisfiiiiiiiicnt ami ol its ricln'> \ct in u-si'ivi
In all I'.IH aiMcs ol j,'ronml wcif ocimiiiUmI. 'riii- total it'<'»'i|its wtTO
.SI.tisr.L'L'I
tml I
11! ex
|irnilit
nrt's
I.;
.1 t
o a ctMit.
nnn|in' cvjicnso
tcaturi' was that, I'M-lnilm;,' tlic iin'iiminarv woik. tin- \vonn-ii rai'sril tlic
niomy ami paiil the intiic numiiij,' cost ol tin- Wnmairs I>«'|iaitnu'nt. Tliu
turn Mill
,'ls
tt'icil l,,ssr>.7l I cnlianff:
ri
is iN,iio.><ition was sm't-fcilcil in l.S'.t.s \,\ tlic '|'i-ans-Missis>ip|ii and h
teniational i'A|iosition at < im.dia, an uml< rtakini; (l<'.si.i;nc(l to siiow what
hail Ih'imi a('ciini|ilish('il liv tin; |iioni-<'rs :in<l their chililicn in the t;r<'at
Trans- .Missi>si|i|)i \'all('\ .
ore was an nni- '^'ani/fil
ami f^iK'ciallv in a Stati- that loitythriM' vi-ars
tcrritorv in the va>t trait known as tin- Louisiana
I'nnhasi'. Tlir mi- .\as a |plati'an just north ot thf i-ity. ainl in jdannini;
till' ilisplav I'vrrv i-onsioi-ration
wa>
\i\\v\\ to orii,'iiiality. llxci'iitiut; that
tl
11' uroiiiuls toi
ustitnti'il a si'i-oml W hiti- Citv. from tin- us»' «•
.tair.
at Cliii'a.iLro. I'vi'i'v fratun- of ilrsii^Mi ami constvui'tion jmissi'ssi-iI striking; cle-
lUi'iits of liiifi'ii'iii'i' from all similar riforts in tin- past.
'I'lic niiiHai,'t'ini'nt was umlcr tin' prrsiih'ni-y of (iimlon W. Wiittli's, ami
tin' cxjiosition was formally o|ii'ni'(l In I'rcsiili'nt MiKinli y. who. in the
AVliitr House at Washinirtun. prcssi'il an •'Ifi-trir Imtton that starti-il thi'
great iMiLjine. Thf I'niti'il States (iovrrnnient eri-eteil a hnililin}; of the
elassii- style, followin'.^ the lonie order. It was surnioimti'd l>y a colossal
iloiiie sn|i|iortii'j; a eopy of I'.artholdi's statue of •• l.ilierty Knliuhteiiinj; the
World." and had a lino spaee for exhiiiits of a'.>ont Titi.lMMi sijuare feet.
The (ioverniiient aiso rieoj;ni/.ed the iiniiortam-e of the event l>y issninir a
speeial set of eomnuMnorati\e posta^ie stamps. Fine art.s was e.xhihited in
a twin-iloniril hiiildin;,'. a stiiirtiive in two parts, with an elalmrati' iK?rist3'le
hetweeii thein. and all under one ;:reat riM)f.
What alToriU'ii the masses the i,'reat"st (!eli'_'lit were the ethnolo^ieal exlii-
liits and the instrtu'tivi- and amusini; sei'in-s on the .Midway Kesi-rve. These
ineludi'd an Indian villav'i'. with ri'pie.-M'iitatives from fvery triiio lietween
.Mitska and |-'loiiila. a Chinese villa.v'e. an .\ral>ian eneanipnn'nt. a Moorish
town, a ."<\viss \lllai;e, ,i Cairo street, the enli-rlainiu',' Kjxyptian I'vramid. and
till' ,y;i;.;antir pas .en','er-<-arr\ iiiu' Shi'iinan 1 ndireiia — a nu'i-hanieal marvel
op«>rated liy ilrctririly. aftd oim' Inindred feet hi};lierthan the Fi-rrij- Wheel of
Cli
n'.ii
There was also a piiluresipie l;",'oon n- can;?', hiilf a mile Ion;; ami
liyt feet wiili' at its narp-^est |tart. ti-rminutin;.; in .in artitieial lake trefoil in
.sliafie and HHt tci-t aero >
Till- 1 |.Misition was o|)«'ned on .Fnm' I ami was elosed i>\\ « h'^oU-r -II. Ill
that till it was visju-d liy more than '_'.«".^Mt.(MMt |Mupl.'. the larjjest sin^I»'-day
r».V The tMal recei|.t- were not .juite ««L',IKM».1NMI. ami
attend;;
henix
•.>S.
the ex|,inditiiris were aliout .'?1..V*M»'HI.
This ('<iin)ilete.s tliff record of Im- mu!<t notable exjjositiouK aiid tlie iuci-
lilii'Kiic.
'lii>. \'aii
•'•ilii'iiiif.
■-'iHtWilM'
y.
u
a
o
s
o
p
411 riur.M/'Hs Axn wosd€»s of THK XIX"' cestvry
<l«Mitui liii«tt>i\v «>f their <levi'lo|(int'iit. twm tlu- ••oiumereiiil lair t>f tl»' previou
tfiiliny tiji l<i iM-ar llu' "low ot IMtK*.
riuni' p'liiiiiiis !•> iiotf ,1 form ut |icriiiikiu*iit t'xiiiliitioii tliat Iiiih been |iiii
MfU'Iy ri*M«frvHil fi>r tlii?' |M)iiit. The I'oiiiiiten'iul .Miisimiiii, ut' wliitli I'liiladi',
|4iia has t,li«' two niont. ./••t'r.tVf i*Xitiii|il«-s m •xihtfiicc, is a |niri'ly ciiiiiiiuTci;!
4li<v>-to|iiuiMit. >'<'* =><> •■'lacatiiMii*! U-xt-lHHik of uiii<|iif ami cMraniiliiiai y I'lun
(taNx I'lioiiijli the I'hilaili'lphiu <'oinuicr<-ial >iuii«Mtiii ami tin- hiiiiilar iir|iaii
jpicn' "i lilt' I'lnhub'litliia IloiirM- wi-ri' both ^iroji-cUMl IM-Inrc thf foii-iffii tiaili
of the ! Atili'il Statfs lia<l rciu^lird tit<> ftii>Mtiou> Miliiiur that raiisid wonih-r ami
uhiriii JMk*' all over tlii> wtrrhl, iMiCh ha^<' haul a |io\vi'rfiil, ilin-ct, and iinim
dialj' inffti»»HM'»' in Wriiit^iujj aUmf a _'rt'at«'r ujiprrciation al)niail of Aiiioricaii
prodllrts.
'i'hf iiimiwi«»^ial iniiscuiiis -<tatnl Iwtwccn the Anu'rifan iirodiiecr and tin-
Sim'i'4n laiMoi'. i'ht'V uilonii 'h«' furmtr wlifn- M|M'cial artii'li-s arc m-cdfil
.*«d tin' l»<tfr .«f i'(>|iiitiii^lc tiiiiis who can .hiijijiIv their in-i-ds. \\\ a laru"'
o.M)!'; lit 1 itvcliit^f »Kfiit.« an •M'TiMoiiH i-orr<'S]>oiidfiic«'. and a dirt'ct coiiii-
" utiiK-Ht and itn rfiirfwntativi's. tlu'Sf nmscums
tiiiu'h with iIm' 4onnni'ri'iai iiiteri'stH id' tiif
<xli»hiui>n feature, a vast de|>art
.-..ti... , iduetious. first of the I'niled Statl•^
' tlM* wofUI. an- >|»read iM'fore tlic i\i' of tin'
«n«ition witii lh<
k*i»y Ml tiie chmest
iMM.
All tills is
•••'■•'dl tile |ii
respoiul
VISH'
(Minili ■•''• oil ,
leellni, ' \li
lorallth'
Imm'U tlu' lirfllience
iiiady aiiswi rs havi-
teiiiiam
Hality.
\,\ al|M>
.1
>•' notetl tlie laet thai niaii\ id niu
> lolishi**! at their iieadt|Uaitiis cid-
■arly n«?ed»»ri in their reKpeeliy»
i ke|if in luind : \\ hat \\.\--
interhinCiouRl ex|)OKition '
{,*»• .>i'\ •''id item- iif eoHt and at-
Anoilmr .n
And at tile el<
.ed ill tl.
ft
»'ijii-li''% .lllii lllliver-
|iiiilialily tiie liest iiiswcr i<'. ■
wllieli Olli' felitliry will Ih- el.'s.- .i|»«'n
Tht'80 innliiih) a <ireater Anieru ' <
iS'.Mt; an l''x|torl Kx|Mi.dtii>n and W
the kind ever held, under th<' juinl au^_.i.'
the Franklin Institute of I'hiladelpliiii, iiMi>A»
IS'.MI; a I'liiveiMiil KxjMisitioii in |»ari». in ?*1»**
at ItnlTalo and an inteinational one in (ihuis-
teniiial ami Int'^Miiational !Cx|M>sitioii in 'I'oli^i
|iositi(iii at I.iei^e, |!el.;iiini. ill I'.NKS: and a 1.
Kx{iositioii Ml St. I.oiiis, ill llN)-i.
it IIP'' 'hall :i liiiii»li-eil years,
' III ih. .■#»rts III llils line with
d
•rei.il « "i
• t 'iiinnie
jri-s.".
il M
5ia#
W^mmt-
.•)■
irevloii
I'liila.l.M
illillU'UMjll
llll\ I'lilli
II' i|r|iiill
■i^'li tiaili
>iiil)-riiiMl
ml iiiiiiK
Aiiici'iciii
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN COINAGE, CURRENCY,
AND RANKING
I. IIANK?* AMI IIANKIXli ItKSOl )1( KS.
I UK liistiirv lit' iiaticiii lniililin^ cuiitaiiis im |iaralli-l to tlic iiin^ri'ss and
<lt>v«'lii|iiiii>iit lit tin* I iiiti>il States in tlu' past imi- liiuiilri>i| years, ami tliu
must ai-riirati' ami sliikim; imliratiun <it' this n-maikalilr i^inwtli mav In- simmi
III till- i-vi)tntiiiii lit iiiir riiii'i-ncy ami liaiikiii); sy.>tfms. As tiir xaiiatimis in
ti'iniMMiitiin' ami tin' (•iiaiiK*'x in atiiiiis|ili(>ri(- |ircssiiri> arc niiMHurcd by tin-
lli*M iiHimfttT ami l>ariini<'tcr, mi an- tlir tlmliiatinnH in a lunntry's wt'altli
)4.iii^f<l liv tlif Itaiiks ami ntliiT tinanrial iiistitnlinns. I.iki'vvisr tin- ilc^'i'i'i-
<>l civilixatinn t<> wliicli a cinintry has attaini'il is ri-tintiil liy tlic |iortVction
I't its nii'iK'tary iiiacliiin'iy. A Hit liavinj; trifd niaily i-vny nnwisi- i-xpiMi-
iiii'iit comlfnim-il liy llir ltMcliin>{s nt liiston, tlir I iiitcil Stati-s lias linally
r<-aflit>il a |tnMitii>n wIhm*- its riiircncy nnM>t.s tin- two tiimlann-nlal ii'i|niri>-
iiH'iits lit siiiinil tinanci-. iianx-ly, ( t ) tim stamlanl itl valiit' is that in nsi>
iiiicinf; till- nii-at fitiiimi'icial sfati-s of tin- uuilil ; (I'l all ul tlii' I'mrt'iiry is
• illii-r iliiiM'tly or imlin-i'tly riinvt-rtililf into tin- slamlanl ruin.
|)i-.s|titi' soHK' minor laults in onr tinanrial s; stnii whirh niaki- tin- niain-
tfiiam-*' of til*' |M»rity of tin- si-vcral kimis of ciini'm'v a cnmlii-rsonir ami
• '\|M■n^ivl> o|N>ration, and |iri'V«Mit thf hanks from ri'iidi'iin;,' that fnll di-^'ii-c
of assistai.i't' to i'onini«"ri;f .iiiil industry whirh tlu'V would atTord nmh"' laws
lliat did mi' nnnn-f.^sarily n-strii-t tlndr rijjhtfnl Junctions, all our nmni-y rc-
.s|ioiids to I ■«• two cssiMitial tests — safrty and coiivcrtiiiility ; while the hanks
ha\c U'cn aiiwiuK tit*' most imwerfnl factors in placini,' tlie i'nitcd Statc.i in
ihc front rank 'd' tlu* nations of the eartli.
Our linancc- may Im- likened to a friani,'!c, ol whidi the hase — the j^idd
.-^i.indard — has ljfH*n in aetnal existence since lS70(mui'li longer than thai in
lawi. and tli<> otlin^sidi* — xafoty — uIho iiHsnred, wanting' lint another addi-
lion — claHticity --frf'i coinpU-te the symmetrical ami |ierlect li^nre, TIimI
lai*t rfniUHit** of «
I'urrein-y will he sujiplied h\ the wisdom and
iiity of our )wo|ilr. \» iior to \h> donlited.
I'l'e are tW'i res|M'etH in wltU-h the tinaiicial policy of the I'liited Slates
;.iue ill 1. ii:iarison wrfh nio-it other j;real commercial eoiini I'ies ; (l(s(,
inproteett-d liy the devices in use idsewhere. a- it docs not
1,'old is the {tank of rrance does « hen pild is wanted
.rotciM I lie jjold reserve hy raiKiie^ tie' rate or discoiMit
. Knro|M' nmy do; Hecond. hanking' is pnietieally fn-o
f nder these conditions we have reach»'d a )>lace that
.^••mshm.'ut o| I he (dd-world count lies, t htv stock
C-' mated hvtie Director of the Mint, in 1>»<1»«, was
jmu-*-
x«;.W,iMHMMK» 111 silver. No otl»*r nation '-w
lU'd
itliU
iiina — ownid u> uiueh »Uvi-t. Imt it Lml no ^old,
Ill
iniiMi'iis .\sh W()Mn:i:s or riiK a/.v" iicsrunY
1
iiinl till- |H'ri'ii|iita of Kilvi-r ill Cliiiia in utily )il|.*,HiiiK;iiiiMt i!l».'>() in tlir Ciiiti
Stiiti-K. Our iii.ik <>i ^'iilil is iiiiiri> tliaii iloiililf tliiit <i|' liniit Itiitiiiii, ^'ifutt
l>v a liuiiilri'il iiiilliuiis iliaii thai nl' l-'raiKT. aiiil aUn i'M'itiU tlial ul (iiTiiiaii'
lull li>''al tril'l*
ami ItUshia. HI mn silvrr stuck, .s.*i(il.."iOn,(MM» is a lull li",'al li-ii'lfi', am
$7t'i,7iHi,(NH>a liiuiti-ij Ic^'al U-ihIit, tlic latti r siuii ir|Hi>siMitiiiK tlic HiiliHiilian
OliillH,
III ('III' iiaiikiii^' jMiwi-r lite situation is i-i|iially lurtiiiiati'. Miilliall ilftiin .
Iiaiikiiii; |iiiui'r as tin- iiaii;-u|i <M|iilal ul |iaiik>4, tlif ilt'|iiiHits I'M'liiHivc i>!
saviii>;s liaiiks, ainl tin- aiiinuiit <il niMvi'itilili- |ia|i<'r nimics . lit- sIkiWn tin
yrosvlli <>l tliis tniiii <>t' wealth tn liavc In cm as Inllnws, Iroiii lH|n to IX'.M : —
MII.I.IONS I'lilNDH Hr>:itl.lNII.
Urcat Uiiuut.
rmtetl HUltu.
KrtiiH'f.
Ill
;riii
liKriUMI).
(Hluii Mtotu.
T.IUI.
IMt
IMH
la-i
Will
••I
i.uai
I'J
£11
;ni
.urn
u,:i:i;
III the two ^M'l-at essentia^ nf tiiiaiiri;il stn-ii^'tli — thf i|uaiitity ul' iiii'tallic
iiioiicv and iMiiikiiii.' |miuci- — \w have tai (iut-lri|i|ieil every other nation.
This is all iiiiiailiii},' >i'.,'ii ol our ailvaiiee lowanl a |iositioii of eoiniiierciai
and indii^tri;d «u|iieiiiacy. The sceptre ol tinaneial power has crossed the
Atlaniic Iroiii Kiiro|M- to the New World. Wf are gradually aci|iiirin); com
niand ot the World's markets, and in time we shall s iir hanks — ever the
handmaids of eoiiimei'ie — e\t) ndiiiv their operations to the most distant
ipiurters ot the earth and earrv iie,' evciywheie the lienctieent inlluences ol
modern civili/ation.
New \ork as a tinaneial ci-ntie has ticeii ;:io\\ ini; w it h aslonishinK rapid-
ity ill recent years, l-'mm |s7'.t to |,S'.»«l the hanks llelon^,'in;,' to the New
York <'leariii«-lli>nsi' Assiwiation iiicrviised their deposits liom .*>'_'."• I. "t'n.iMio
to .S'.t|it,."i(MMMMi. :ind their s|H'cie — chietis ^,'old — Irom .S." l,7nn.(Mi(i to
.Hl'l !:.',(;( M (.( M M I. the latter item luivill;,' aliout donhled ill the p;ist two \cars,
Ix'ini; 8Hil.7<MMNN» in 1S<»7. and ^L'd'J.tind.iMMi. us almvc ntatcd. in iS'.Ht. The
ai;v,'rc;:ate of hanking; institutions in the city — national hanks, stal. hanks,
trust I'ompaiiies. and savings hanks, exclusive ol private hanking firms —
]iad, alxMit •laiiuary 1. tN'.K). capital, surplus, and pmlits amountiii),' to
.S.'tll.CtMi.iMMl: de|Misits ol .si.'.tiJ7.,S(Mi.(MH»; and total resoui(;es of nearly
."!i»l.',."><MMMMMMMl. One liaiik — tiie National t'ity — with over .S] H.'Min.iilMl
of di'|M>sits, is the largest in the I'liited States; wliilo the Itowery Saviiijjs
Itaiik, with r_M.<MMi de|Misitors and .*!r.7.1MM».(MMi of ileposits. is the hir^'cst id
its kind in the country.
The pri'sent status ot the ditTeieiit classes of hanks in the I'nited .States is
f.iirly siiown hy the followim,' tahle compiled from the .\nniial Iteport of the
('oniptrolliT of the Currency, for the year l.S'.th : —
A')'
rii()(^iih:ss t.\ nnsMiK, crnitKSCY, .\sh u.xsKisa
ii.'i
''•• liiitfd
•''•nniiiiv
'"'Iff. iiiiil
■iilisiiliiiiv
■II ilt'liiii'>
lii^ivi- III
'IhiU.s till
IMM: —
T1.UI,
.DM
a,:ti7
IIH'f.'lJIic
I' iiiiliiiii.
'iiiiiM'i'cial
n.-scil tilt'
rilij; nun
- fVl'l' til)-
't ili>taiii
llrlici's (i|
>iK nipiil-
lln' Ni'w
l.riMI.IMMI
MI.IMIO ti,
*■" vt'urN,
W.' Til,.
>• liank.s,
HriiiH —
Iltlli),' to
I iiraiiy
l.ndo.iMio
Saviii^js
llp'St III
"itati's is
It ul til,.
l'HIM(il*AI. ITKMn liK HMontiKH AM* I.IAIIIM I IK.H IIK Al.l. CI.AHHKH itV HANKH IN TIIK
IMTKH l«rAIK», .11 I. V II, l-t",
Xmliiiinl
lUiik..
Hlitir llallka.
I.1WI1 A Triial
rnlii|MII|i'ii.
lUiikii
l*rl**U
lUuk*
Ti^UI
\A«m»
riilll'ilKUtwiHilKia
lltliiT IhiIkIii . .
lOll
> l|illll ....
.■^iiriilii* aihI |ir<it1U
IN-|it*i»lla ....
I'lHitl n-MHiri ■••
ftJ.li'H.T.'i'.iA'V
■j)tA,;i'ii:,t»i
•i'iii.'..<tt.:iTr.
4w,»v.',:-.'j
il'.>.Mi|il.7t.'i
:u.v.i:i,i.«.i
■.',iiT<l,'.'.ll,.'''il
;i.ii;;,ii7.'..H.">
D<i:t,74i>,)«(i
l.|V>.llll<
\.u.^".yx\
v!.ii,.v»;.:i\i
|iill..VH..M:i
'<l.'.;Ul-|,«lll
I ,;u;,iw4,Miii
fAltlMli'.'.HA fl,IITIi,7;n,.1KI
IM.lMMtll I Ul.ir.'|i,7'.1l
I.HI.TUI.IIJ
iiii..».''<,r«v.
i.i;'.',|:«,:iti;
Ki|,i;;n,tii|
;iV,ir.'»„WI
l...;i:u;,i..ii
ix'.*;...!';!
'.',lf.'»,'.li''.4ii1i
'J,'.'4I,M4,I>II|
f'>',.iiii,i«iii M,i>;M,);-u,iiia
4*'.'7.«;:i 4i;4.)'A->,Kt:i
n,i<.-,T.l:f.'
lil.T.'l.T.'iii
.■..iit:..Ml
ll'.'.llN'i.lWl
iil.i;ui,:iK,'
I,:i7ii.'i'>ii,;.%<
ij'7.T!«i,i;»
7 ;'.',7:iii.l»<i
:i.7ii,ii-.M,";-;
N,iiiiii,«ia.MU
I'lii'i'i- Will' .'l.'i.SL' iiutiiiriiil liaiiks tliat ri'|i<ii'ti'il, ami 't'.Hi.'i uiIh r liaiiks, 11
tntal <>( '.IIH.'i. Till! tntal liaiikiii^ ItiiiiU, tliat is, i'U|iital. hiir|iliis ami prntitH,
ami imiiviijiial ilf|Hisit><. nt all liaiiks ii'iHiitiiii;. aiiiuiiiitril tu iri7.ll<'>,.irM,.'i<t.s.
\Vi' raiiiml i,'tt a rnri'rrt iimii'i'stamiiii:.^' lit liii'.sf ti),'iiri's williinil vjnin^' Itack
III rarliiT ilairs ami iiiakiii>; iiiiii|iaiisniis. In IT'.ts iIhmi' witi' twriitv-livc
stall' liaiiks ill tin- rniiiitiv. against .'I'.Hi.*) ri'|iiirtiiiK tn tlir ('itiii|iti'iilli'r nl tlio
<'iii'i'i'm'y III I'S'.KS, wliirli IS |ii>i'|ia|is alHiiit *,Ni |H'r ri'iit III' till' total nt' sm-ii
inslitiitiiiii-' miw fxistinu-
A liiimii'i'il M'ai's a;4i) tin' iMpilal nt' tlir statf liaiik-s was Ir^s than twt'iity
iiiilliiiiis, i'iiiii|ian'il witli N'.':!:!.M71.iil.'l now ri'|Mii-tiHl. They liail. all tnlil. Init
S| l.iMMi.tMMi 111 s| II hall as miii-li as is iinw hilil I'y luii' Ni'v\ ^'l>^k rity
liank al'iiii'. Tlirii' ciiriilatidii was only .S'.t,<Mi(),(MMi, <'iiiii|iarril with iiiiiii'
than !<«L'<Hi.iHHi.iNHI of iiatii>iial hank I'liciilatimi imw niitstamliiii;.
■j'lii' iialioiial liaiiks alsa nlmw a ri'iiiaikalilf '^mwlli. In ISliK thi'if \w\\-
ItllJOiiaiiks in i.iii'nilinii, n |.iiitiiit,' *•-<'.■'<"'•'"<"' tiipital. S.">I7.'.mhi,(MM» im|i\ ii|.
mil ili'|Misils, .SIT.."i(HMH>!< s|<«Tit'. iiinl 81..'»17.7(M»,(MM» tntal n'Hituri't'H. Tiiiity
M'ai's l.ili'i' till' inimlti'i' ul' hanks hail inrrra-M'il t<> .'i.V.to, whih- thi' rapital wan
.';<r.os.;ilHi.iHiu. till- imIiMiltial ili'|K>sits .iSL'.l.'.'tl'.KHi.iMMi. ami spi'i'li' '';^.'I71.<S|:(,(*HI,
whih' thr tulal ii'soitrcfs hail iiiiTfiisiMl to iijii. Iti.'I.SIHi.lHHi.
Till- Inlal wiallh nl' the I'niti'il Stati's in 1S'.».'» was rsliinati'il at iiiori" tlinn
.s,s(i.iMMi.tMMi.<MMi. — far I'xr Hiik' in thr at,'j,'r''Ki't"' ll'i'' "' i>"v nihii iiitry
ill till' wiiihl. It is i'X|n'('tt'il that the rciisiis ul' I'.MMl will show our total
wi'allh to III' moiv than SIlMi.lHHI.ltOO.IKHl. or prolialiiy donlih' thai of (iri'at
lirilain, tin' iirxt ricln'st nation.
Kilt wliilt> tin- nation is piling iiji wealth at an iiiii>xaiii|ilt'i] intc. it caiimit
III' saiil that this is a lainl '■ wIuti' woallli ai'nimnlatis ami im-n ih'i'ay."
(iri'at. ill its inati-rial rrsoiirci's, thr roiintry was iicmt lii'l'oii' siiont;i'r in
Ihosf fh'iin'iits which coiistitiilc thr rhirl' ii'lian it national powrr. A
nniti'il I'iti/t'iiship, |Nissi'ssiii<.; an lioni>sly lli.it aihiTsily rannot siilly ami an
iiitrlli^'>'m'c that whi'ii oiii'i' aroiisi'il pi'iirtrati's tin- mn>t i'uiinin<,'ly I'oiiri'ah'ii
t'i'oiioiiiir sopliistrii's, working' out tin* |irolili'iiis of tlio t'litiiri' iituh'r laws ami
I'omlitioiis assiiriiii; to the imliviilnal tlit> ]ar.i;('st opportiinitii's, |ioints to a
(h'vclopini'iit in tin' twintifth I'i'iitury in no wisi' inlVrior to that oi tlie huu-
(lii'il yt'urs prfcciliiiK.
II. rolNAlii; AMI I'llolU I TliiN or I'lirrlOIS MKTAI.S,
Thr ]iri'vailini; sysli'ins of roina;,'!' in this I'oiintry ami anion;; all fjrpat
c'liiiinii'n ial nations arc the result of (levulopiiicnt ami growth, (iolil ami
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-S)
1.0 ^K^l^
itt 122 122
ly
1.1
S Li 12.0
Lil HLL4 |i6
HiotDgrafiiic
Sdences
Corporation
v
iV
<^
^
^. ^
33 WfST MAIN STRHT
«VHSTfl,N.Y. 14SM
(716)872-4303
//
A,
J
446
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX"' CENTURY
silver have become the jji-incipal money metals by a process of natural selec-
tion, wiii(!h has chosen the instruments best suited to the pu"poso. In rteent
j'ears, and under the laws of development, nearly all the great trading coun-
tries of the world liave selected gold as the standard of value. In the future,
gold itself nuiy give way to something better, for it only relatively meets the
essentials of a ]>erfect standard.
Among Clreeks, Komans, and Oriental peoples, cattle were generally used
as a standard of value. The modern rupee of India is the old Sanscrit word
rnujiit. a herd. Capital is but tlie estinuite of Koman riches in cattle. The
Latin y/cr«*', cattle, is the root of jiecitnia, riches, and the origin of our wor<l
l)ecuniarv. Tlie Icelanders measured vahu-s in dried fish ; the Hudson liny
countrj- in skins ; the early Virginians in tobacco ; the Indians of the rnitetl
States and Canada in wami)um ; the Chinese, even in recent times, in scpuires
of pressed tea : the Africans in bars of salt and slaves.
These primitive devices gradually gave way, under the demands of inter-
national trade, to the use of metals as standards of value. Tin, copper, gold,
silver, and iron all were used, and, at hrst, passed by weiglit. (loverument
coinage of money is thought to date from the seventli century n. v., and is
credited to the Lydians and to Pheidon of Argos, the otticial stamp being a
guarantee of the lionesty, weight, and purity of the coins.
Modern coinage dates from the reformation of the coinage of Itome under
Constantine. wiio introchiced tlm gold .so/ldii.t of lti!o.()2 in value, and a silver
coin of like weight but of relative value. After the time of .Fidian. this silver
piece, called si/h/iKi, was given such value as that twenty-four of them ec^ualed
a gold sofiiins. In the Frankish Emjiire, under the ^lerovingifin kings, the
relative A'alues of the sn/idns and siliijiia fluctuated greatly. In the eightli
century, on account of the scarcity of gold, there was a gradual transition to
the silver standard, and a silver unit, also called a solidm, was substituted for
tlu^ gold soli(/its, the former being divided into twelve pence. This silver
niiliihiK afterwards became the shilling of England and Germany. At first .'JOO
pence were coined out of a pound of silver ; but under Pepin the nund)er was
reduced to twenty -two snliill of twelve pence each — 204 pence — out of a
pound of silver. Under (Charlemagne it was provided tliat only 240 j)euce.
or twentj- nolidi of account, should be stamped out of a pound of silver, and
this system was introduced, Avith more or less success, in what is now France
and Germany. As to form, it has remained, up to tiie most recent period,
the basis not only of the countries of Cliarleniagne's Empire but of England.
After the time of Henry VIII. came a period of coinage debasement wliich
culminated in lool. A thorougli coinage reform was effected under Eliza-
beth in ir)(>0. The first large coinages of gold in England were made under
James I. These continiu^d until the death of William III., in 1701. Still,
silver continued to be the standard metal, and in 1(>{)5 another attempt was
made to reform the currency by a recoinage of the silver pieces, most of
which had been clipped or worn, into a new full-weight silver coin. These,
however, were soon exported, in spite of a reduction of the current value of
the guinea, in 1717. The gold standard in England gained a nearly complete
victory by act of I'arliament in 1774, which provided that silver coins not of
full weight (there were hardly any others) need not be accepted in payments
of more than twenty-five pounds, except by weight. This provision, after
rRY
tural selec-
Iii I'tueiit
uling couu-
the future,
meets the
rally used
iscrit word
ttle. T]u.
our word
dson Wixy
w riiitcd
111 S(]uares
s of inter-
l'l'<'i', K<'ld,
'voniiiipnt
«'■. and is
I> being a
>ino under
id a silver
tiii.s silver
111 ecjualed
kings, the
tlie eighth
msition to
tituted for
'his silver
t first ;j()0
inber was
•out of a
10 j)ence.
liver, and
w' France
it ]ieriod,
i^iigland.
lit which
er Eliza-
tie under
L. Still,
mpt was
most of
These,
value of
omplete
s not of
lyments
n, after
PROGRESS IN COINAGE, CURRENCY, AND BANKING 447
several renewals, became permanent in 1798. lu 1797 coinage of silver was
susjjended, and the single gold standard practically introduced, though its
operation was somewhat interfered with by the existence of a i)aper eurrency.
In 181() the present English monetary system was introduced. It held fast
to the gold standard, by the provision that silver pieces should be used only
as divisional coins, and with a legal-tender power limited to fortj' shillings.
Properly speaking, there was no coinage in the United States during the
colonial period. Maryland had a mint at one time, and one or two of the
other States, but they practically amounted to nothing. In the early colonial
period the substitutes for coins were wampum and bullets, as in Massachu-
setts ; skins and furs, as in New York : tobacco, as in Maryland and Virginia.
OLD UNITED STATES MINT, PHILADELPHIA.
The coins in use before the Revolution were, to some extent, those of Eng-
land, but more largely those of Spain, circulated in South America and
traveling u]) to the United States. The unit of account was the Spanish
milled dollar or piece-of-eight, though, up to 1775, accounts were kept in
pounds, shillings, and pence, a pound consisting, then as now, of twenty
shillings, and a shilling of tweh-e pence ''colonial" or "pound" currency.
Four jjounds of this "colonial currency" were reckoned as equal to three
pounds sterling.
This colonial composite system of current coins was regulated by coinage
tariffs. Such a tariff, issued in 17fi0, valued one ounce of silver at six
shillings and eightpence, the Spanish milled dollar at six shillings, the
guinea at twenty-eight shillings, and the English crown at six shillings and
I
448
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
oiglitpenoe. All foreign coins were viilueil in i)r(j)iortion to the value of
the Siianish ijiecc-of-cight. Sonio of the colonies stanipeil the shilling;,
wliich constituted a huge part of the money in cinnihition. It, howevci,
varied greatly in value in the different colonies. Thus, the Spanish dollar
equaled live shillings inCJeorgia; eight in Morth Carolina and New York; six
in N'irginia, Connecticut, New llamiishire, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island;
seven and sixpence in Maryland, ])elaware, I'ennsylvania, and New Jersey;
thirty-two and sixpence in South Carolina. The Spanish dcdlar itself, Avitli
•\vhicii these conipaiisons were made, was freipiently below legal weight, and,
therefore, varied in value. "Where the pieces mentioned in the tariff of
177() were of full weight, the ratio there established was the English ratio
of one to lo.L'l. the ratio for bullion being nearly the same.
After the tariff of 177(5 had been in operation for six years, the colo-
nies began to feel keenly the difficulties caused by the variety of coins
constituting their metallic circulating juedium, and the need of a special
American coinage was frequently expressed. In 1782. Kobert JMorris, super-
intendent of finance, submitted to the Congress of the Confederation a
scheme for a national coinage and the establishment of an American mint,
which met with approval. Jefferson recommentted the decimal system, with
the dollar as the unit. Neither of these proposals was carried into effect
till, in 17SG. the Congress of the Confederation chose as the monetary unit
of the United States the dollar of o7o.(i4 grains of pure silver, which unit
had its origin in the Spanish piaster or milled dollar, then the basis of
the metallic circulation of the English colonies in America. This American
dollar was never coined, there not being at the time a mint in the United
States.
The Act of April 2, 1792, established the first monetary system of the
United States. The bases of the system were : The gold dollar, containing
24.75 grains of pure gold, and stamped in pieces of JjflO, .|»o, and )8!2.r>0,
denominated respectively eagles, half-eagles, and quarter-eagles ; the silver
dollar, containing 371.25 grains of ])ure silver. A mint was established.
The coinage was unlimited, and there was no mint charge. The ratio of
gold to silver in coinage was 1 : 15. Both gold and silver were legal tender.
The standard was double.* The Act of 17!)2 undervalued gold, which was
therefore exported. The Act of June 28, 1834, was i)assed to remedy this
by changing the mint ratio between the metals to 1 : 10.002. The latter act
fixed the weight of the gold dollar at 25.8 grains, but lowered the fineness
from 0.{)1():"{ to ().8'.ll)225. The fine weight of the gold dollar was thus reduced
to 23.2 grains. The Act of 1834 undervalued silver as that of 1702 had
undervalued gold, and silver was attracted to Europe by the more favorable
ratio of 1 : 15j. The Act of January 18, 1837, was passed to make the fine-
ness of the gold and silver coins uniform. The legal weight of the gold dollar
was fixed at 25.8 grains, and its fine weight at 23.22 grains. The fineness
was therefore changed by this act to 0.900 and the ratio to 1 : 15.988 -h. Sil-
ver contitnied to be exjiorted. The Act of February 21, 1853, reduced the
weight of the silver coins of a denomination less than $1, which the Acts
of 1702, 1834, and 1837 had made exactly jn-oportional to the weight of the
• This was true so fnr ns tlic law was ((Piici'mi'd. Imt not actually, as may be seen by roading the
ecntonces imiiKMliuti'ly fulldwiiig the alxivc stati'inviit.
iV
value oi
sliillin-;.
liowever,
isli dollar
i'ork; six
i« Island;
y f/ersey ;
self, wi'tli
iglit, and,
tariff oi
lisli ratio
PROGRESS IN COINAGE, CURRENCY, AND BANKING 449
silver dollar, and provided that they should be legal tender to the amount of
only $o. Under the Acts of n\)'J, 18U4, and 1837 they had been lull legal
tender. l>y the Act of 18u3 the legal weight of the half dollar was re-
duced to 1!)2 grains, and other fractions of the dollar in proportion. The
coinage of the fractional parts of the dollar was reserved to the govern-
ment.
The Act of February 12, 1873, provided that the unit of value of the United
States should be the gold dollar of the standard weiglit of iTt.S grains, and
that tiiere sliould be coined besides the following gold coins: A (piarter-eagle,
or two and-a-half dollar gold piece ; a three-dollar gold j)iece; a half-eagle, or
five-dollar piece ; an eagle, or ten-dollar piece ; and a double eagle, or twenty-
dollar ])icce, all of a standard weight proportioiial to that of the dollar piece.
Tliese coins were made legal tender in all payments at their nominal value
when not below tlie standard weight and limit of tolerance provided in the
act for tiie single piece, and when reduced in weight they shi>uld be legal
tender at a valuation in proportion to their actual weight. The silver coins
])rovid('d for by the Act were a trade dollar, a half-dollar or fifty-cent piece, a
(luarter-doUar, and a ten-cent jjiecc, the weight of tiie tnule dollar to be 420
grains troy ; the half-dollar, twelve and a liaU" grams ; the iiuarterdollar and
dime, respectively, one half and one fifth i. 'le weight of the half-dollar.
The silver coins were made legal tender at their .lominal value for iiny amount
not exceeding .f!;"* in any one payment. Owners of silver bullion wi're allowed
to deposit it at any mint of the United .States to be formed into bars or into
triide dollars, and no deposit of silver for other coinage was to be received.
Section 2 of the joint resolution of July 22, 187<), recited that the trade dollar
siioidd not thereafter be legal tender, and tliat the Secretary of tiie Treasury
should be authorized to limit the coinage of the same to an amount sutticient
to meet tlie export denumd for it.
The Act of March .'3, 1SS7, retired the trade dollar and prohibited its
coinage. That of September 2(5, 18'J(), discontinued the coinage of .the one-
dollar and three-dollar gold pieces. The Act of February 28, 1878, directed
the coinage of silver dollars of the weight of 412i grains troy, of standard
silver, as provided in the Act of January 18, 18i>7, and that such coins, with
all silver dollars theretofore coined, should be legal tender at their nomi-
nal value for all debts and dues, public and private, except where otherwise
exi)ressly stipidated in the contract. The Secretary of the Treasury was
authorized and directed by the first section of the act to purchase from time
to timi! silver bullion at the market price thereof, not less than !i!»2,000,000
worth nor more tiian .'fi4.()()0,0U() worth per month, and to cause the same
to be coined numthly. as fast as purchased, into such dollars. A subsequent
act, that of July 14, 1890, enacted that the Secretary of the Treasury should
purchase silver bullion to the aggregate amount of 4.000,000 ounces, or so
much tiiereof as might be offered, each month, at the market ]irice thereof,
not exceeding .fSl.OO for 371. 2o grains ot pure silver, and to iss\u> in payment
tiiereof Treasury notes of the United States, such notes to be redeenuible by
the government, on demand, in coin, and to be legal tender in payment of all
debts, public and private, except where otherwise expressly stipulated in the
contract. The act directed the Secretary of the Treasury to coin each month
2,000,000 ounces of the silver bullion purchased under the provisions of the
20
4.50
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX"' CENTURY
•act into staudiinl silver dollars until July 1, 181)1, and thereafter as much as
might be necessary, to provide for the redemiition of the Treasury notes
issued under the act. The jmrchasing clause of the Act of July 14, l.S'.Mt, wii^
repealed by the Act tif November 1, IX!),'}. The War llevenui' Act. of June l.'I,
18!KS, authorized and directed the coinage of standard silver dollars to the
amount of not less than one and one half million dollars a mouth, from tin
bullion in the Treasury i)urchase(l under the Act of July 14, 18*,>0. The Acl
of June 9, 1879, made tiie subsidiary silver coins of the United States leg;il
tender to the amount of ^li). The minor coins are legal tender to the amount
of twenty-five cents.
The following official figures give, by periods of ten years, the coinage
of the United States from the establishment of tiie Mint to the i)re.sent
time : —
Years.
Gold.
Silver.
Minor.
Total.
17!)3-17tlfl
SG9(i,.WO.00
3,0(;7,iMi7.r>o
2,348,915.00
2,579,017.50
17,745,422.50
58,909,439.00
152,915,050.00
'290,780,131.00
370,718,88:1.50
411,7C.«,'277.00
'74,800,'2'J5.00
$l,21fi,ir>8.75
3,154,087.75
('.,107,903.75
14,787,327.05
28,ll'2,i;)('..(i0
22,223,7:!;t.00
47,'23,S,8l3.0O
13,037,007.90
14'2,190,178.(',0
;)05,8G9,08I.'20
li«'.,'J48,501.05
S,TO,111.42
1('4,8(15.79
102,.''.:M.07
178,37-2.70
;m,810.2!
30o,.>ao.;)3
1,135,,580.03
8,5(H,070.00
•2,231 ,009..-.0
8,127.3(n.,5('.
",504,84il.a')
?1 ,902,800. 17
18(KI-180iP
1810-181'J
8,019,601.82
17,544,717.85
18'.'0-182y.
1830-lS;iO
40.192.309 31
1840-1N40
81,494,0I2.3;<
401,280,443.03
312,927,808 JKI
1850-18511
18CO-!80!i
1870-187!!
1880-1889
51.5,140,071.00
725 70" OCul 70
1890 to June 30, 1897....
518,019,570.30
£1,880,338,91)8.00
f720,792,l'29.85
?'28,814,558.20
J2,Ck55,945,&40.01
At this ■writing the report of the Director of the ]\Iint has not been pub-
lished, but the coiimge for the full year 1897 may be stated as follows : gold,
$70,01.'8,484 ; silver, !8il8,48(),(>97 ; and for the year 1898, gold, )ii!77,98r>,7r)7 ;.
silver, I8i2y,034,()34. From January 1 to June 39, 1899, the coinage was : gold,
$65,915,020; silver, $12,780,441.
It is sometimes thought that the silver dol; u's are not a full legal tender,
but this is not so. They are an unlimited legal tender for all debts, public
and private. The Treasury does not, in practice, redeem silver dollars in gold,
but successive (Secretaries of the Treasury have announced their readiness to
do so, if necessary to keep the silver dollars from deiireciating, — that is,
preserve their parity, — which the law directs.
Silver certificates and gold .certificates are not legal tender, but entitle the
holder to receive the kind and amount of coin named on their fac^e.
The value of gold bullion in a dollar of that metal is 99.991125 cents, or
practically 100 cents. The value of the silver bullion in a dollar of that
metal is about 45 cents. It varies, however, with the fluctuations in the
market value of silver.
It will thus be seen that the bullion value of a silver dollar and of a gohl
dollar differs greatly, but the equality of the purchasing jiower of the two
coins is due to the fact that the silver dollars are receivable for jmblic ami
private debts, that they are indirectly exchangeable for gold, by depositing
them in the banks, and that the government is pledged to redeem them in
gold, if necessary to preserve their parity with gold.
HY
« much iis
'Illy notes
lcS!M», wiis
)tJuiicl;!.
Eirs to till"
from till
Til,. Avi
iitcs legal
10 amount
Ki coinage
le present
Totftl.
?l,!Hi2,8(i0.1-
lvWII,(«I.(l4
H,(il9,ri(!I.8L'
l",r)44,717.8r.
■li;,l!L',3ll!).31
■«ni,'2S!>,443.o;s
3r'.',ft'.'T,xfis.!io
5ir.,i4(;,o7i.c(i
72ri,7fi'J,(i(B.7«
5lN,CI<J,r,V(,.3(l
,(i36,046,M(i.01
been pub-
W's: gold,
•,98r,,7r,7;
'as : gold,
il tender,
ts, publie
■s in gold,
din ess to
-that is,
ititle the
cents, or
■ of that
s in the
f a gold
the two
blic and
positiiio-
them in
d
^
•A
I
li!
452
TRIUMPHS AND WOXDEHS OF THE A/A"' CKNTUllY
As early us ISL'O tin* United States begun to export domestic gold, begin-
ning with an export of Jjjil, ()"»(),( )8.S of gold coin and bullion, iind receivin;/
an import of S><>"<S"-1'*' ^'l' to 1<S!)7 the grand total of exports of gold cuin
and bullion amounted to .'*<l,',18(i,L'.'iS.r)41, and tiie total imports to JiJfl.llL;.
1,'{S.7(!(>, an exeess of exports over inijmrts of .fljOTliOtti^TTu. In IH'.W tin'
imports of gold eoin and Imllion into the United States were ifilL'O,;}!)!,*)?!.
and the exports i!(;ir).4()(i,.'!!M. making the net imports ■|il(»4,9.sr),l,'8.'5.
From 1821 to 18U7 the grand total of exports of silver coin and bullion
from the United Stales was !i)<l,ir)l,',(!S8,77(), and the imports .'i}17."!(),.".l.'r),8Sl,
making an excess of exports over imports of .'ji(4l'l',.'>(»l.'.8".(."». In tiie iiscal
year 18U8, the silver im])orts were .'t!»;{0,'.)l,'7,781, and the exjjorts .foojlO."),!'."'.),
making the exeess of exports .5-4,1 77, 4r)8.
The total product of gold in Ih' I'nitcd States from 17!*2 uj) to 18!((i was
.fiLMl.".,(»."!4.7(Ji>, and of silver !i!il.414,'.)7tM>00, making a grand total of the
jm'cious metals of )ii3,r)r>8,(Ml4,7(i((. The total value of the entire wurld's
production of gold, between the years 14!>;i and 18%, was .'Ji!8.'.>s;;,,'!L'0.tl(Mt.
and of silver .'iSlO "">(>.700,800, making a grand total of gold and silver of
f!l<>,.">4(l,OL'l,4(tC
As a com pari: oi the money status of the United States at the beginning
and end of the century, the following figures are interesting: in 18(M) tiie
population was .";,o08,48,'J ; the estimated bank notes outstanding, .'ii!l(>,r)(l(),(»00;
the estimated specie in the ctmntry, .'ii!l7,.')()(MMM) ; the total money in tlie
I'nited States. .SL'8,()(K>,()(t(» ; the specie in tlie Treasury, !iiil,r>(K»,(H»(> ; tlu'
money in circulatiim, .i<l,'(i,r)0O,(l(H>; the amount per capita, .1i<4.'.l!». In ISDS
the iiojailatiou was 74.r)L'l*.(Mt(t ; tlu' total coin in the United States, including
bullion in the Treasury. !iii1,4'.>S.<l'.»;!.-_'4<»; total ])itper money, .1t!l.i;iS.44(».ll'(i ;
total money of all kinds. iijiL'jfi.'M, l.'v]..'>7o ; coin, bullion, and pajicr money in
the Treasury, )ii»7tt!l,r»;}7,48(»; total circulation, .fil,8.'{7,sr)(),81)<i ; circulation per
capita. !i!>l.'4. (')((.
Perhajis no law relating to the coins and currency of the United States has
been so widelj' discussed, or has borne more directly on the attitude and
"influence of i)oliticaI parties than the Coinage A(;t of 1873. This act grew
out of a proposition to revise our coinage laws, made by .John .lay Knox to
the Secretary of the Treasury, in April, 1870. ]\Ir. Knox, in his rough draft
of a bill, provided for a silver dollar of o84 grains, to be a legal tender for
sums not exceeding Jiiio.'X*. Thus, the standard silver dollar of 4lL'^ grains
was eliminated. It did not aj>pear in the bill as it ]iassed the Se.iate, Janu-
ary 10, 1871, nor in that reported to the House, March !). 1871. The bill
underwent protracted and thorough discussion, and on ]\[ay 27, 1872, was
passed in the House. As ])assed, it contained the original provision for cimu-
ing a silver dollar of the weight of 384 grains — t">-ice tiie weight of the
silver half dollar. These dollars were to bo a legal tender for amounts not
exceeding .S').0(>. The Senate amended this House bill, by substituting a
trade dollar of the weight of 420 grains for that of 384 grains, .at the same
time jireserving the legal-tender limit of .ISo.OO. \a the amended form, it
passed tlie Senate. January 17. 1873. and the House, February 7, 1873, and
became a law. It will be seen that the sliinchird silver dollar of 4121 grains
was never in the bill, and could not, therefore, have been secretly omitted,
as was afterwards charged. It was omitted from the first draft, and all
ny
I'l'ceiviii;,-
K'>ltl coin
SI.IVJ.-
1 l.S'JS the
11(1 1)ulliiiii
l(),."!l'.")„S,Sl.
tilt" iiscal
iS'.Mi \v;is
ill of the
I'l' world's
.■!,.'ii'o.(;o(».
silver of
l>i'!,niiiiiiij,'
I 1S(M) tin,
•..■)0(),(I0(»;
•'.V ill the
M»<»<>; the
111 ISDS
ilH'lll(lill<r
"iJiO.ll'd;
money in
latioii jier
•States has
tilde and
act grew
Knox to
iigh draft
f'luler for
-5 grains
te, Jaiiu-
The bill
872, was
for eoin-
t of the
Hints not
tilting' .1
the same
form, it
873, and
'h grains
omitted,
and all
CAnPF.XTETlS' HALT., PIIII.ATIEMMIIA.
(First Site of First United Slates liaiils.)
454
TltlUMl-llS AND WOSDKns OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
tlin)Ugh. lifciiuso iioiii' were lifiii^ coiiit'd, iiud thosi! that hiiil Itct'ii coincii
were exporteil, the silver IhiIUoii in them being, at that time, wurtli more a-
bullion than coin. I>y joint resolution of {.'onj,'ress. approved .luly LfL'. lS7f.
the trade dollars iirovided tor in the act were dejiriveil id' their lej^al-tend
(piality. It was supposed they woulil eireulatu in t'hina. hut they provi
useless even tor that purposti.
•li
III. i:.\IiI,V n.VNKIVG I\ TIIK rXITKD STATKS.
The iirst hanks in the I'nited States owed their origin to Robert Morris
and Alexander llaniilLon. Morri.s, as early a.s 17(1.'{. eoiieeived the jdan of a
bank to assist in developing American trade, and in 177'.>, Hamilton proposed
the organization of "The Company of the Itank of the I'nited States."
These jtlans did not mature, but were followed, at the suggestion of Thomas
Paine, by an association of ninety-two s\d)scribers to a fund of ,'iO(>,(MMi
l)ounds J'einisylvaiua currency to support the IJevolutionary army. This
association became known as the I'ennsylvaiua liank. It cimimeneed busi-
ness .Inly 17. 17.S0, and after a career of a year and a half, during which time
it greatly aided the government in furnishing army sui)i)lies, its affairs were
wound up.
On Ma}- 17, 17.S1, Hamilton presented the jdan of a bank to Ccmgress.
which was to be tridy national, and '• createil avowedl}' to aid the United
States." Its name was to be the hank of North America, witli a subscrip-
tion of !B400,0()() in gold and silver, and its notes, payable on demand, to be
receivable for duties and taxes in every State. Congress a])proved the plan,
and Morris, tlien Superintendent of Finance, ]>ublished it, with an address
showing its advantages to the government and people, then suffering from
the ill effects of a dei)reciated currency.
The r>ank of North America was organized November 1, 1781, and began
business January 7, 17S'_'. It creditably fulfilled its mission '"to aid the
United States," and, after the exi)iration of its charter, became a State
institution. In 18G4 it entered the national banking system, thcuigh retain-
ing its old name. This bank wiis followed by the J?ank of New York, which
began business June 9, 1784, and by the ^lassachusetts Hank, which began
business July ">, 1784.
FiKsT UxiTKi) Htatks Haxk. — This institution grew out of the recom-
mendations of Alexander Hamilton, and formed a part of liis scheme of
strengthening the public credit and bringing about a closer union of States.
His plan was incorporated into a bill which passed the Senate January 3.
1791, and the House, January 20, 17'.)1. Washington signed it February 25.
1701. The bill was hotly oi)posed as unconstitutional by Secretary of State
Thomas Jefferson. Attorney-Crcneral Kdmund Kandol]>h, and in general by
representatives from the Southern States.
The capital of the bank was fixed at ij? 10,000,000, one fifth of which was
to be subscribed by the government. The remainder was subscribed by indi-
viduals, and two hours after the 0])ening of the books the capital was over-
subscribed to the amount of 4000 shares. The central bank was located at
Philadelphia, and afterwards branches were established in New York, Hoston,
Baltimore. Washington, Norfolk, Charleston. Savannah, and New Orleans.
IJusiness was first opened in Carpenters' Hall. Philadelphia, December 12,
:r
'" eoiiie.i
iiKirc ii
I'l'. In?!.
.•il-t»'ii(lii
JHOVcil
t MoiTJ-,
>liin of a
)r()i)ost'il
States."
riioinas
■'i(i(i,iMi()
IV. Tl.is
K'cd l)u,si-
liicli tiiui.-
airs were
riwaniiss l\ cois.iaii, ciiuiKycY, am> /m,va7Av;
455
17U1. Ill iliil.v. 171>7, tiie site was removeil to ii new iMiildiiit,' on Tiiinl
Street, below Ciiestniit, and it remained tiieru till lli'- dissolution of I lie hank,
with the exifeptioii of a brief removal to (lermantown in 17US, during tlie
epideiiiie of veilow fever, 'riioiigh this bank [(roved a jirotitable enlei|)rise
tor tiie goveniiiient, it failt'il to secure a renewal i)f its charter in l.Sll,
chietly beeaust; so many of its shares hail passed into ioreiyn hamls.
Kauia' Statk IJanks. — From 17iM) to ISll the minilier of State banks
inereased from four to eit,'lity -eight; their <"irculation from .*!L',r)0( >,()(•( ) to
)iSL'l',7UU,UUU ; their capital from !5»l',oOU,UUO to i;?4l',GlU,UUU. In the same time
THK OIRARD BANK, PniLADELPHTA.
(Second Site of First United States Bank.)
the metallic cirenlation of the country rose from SD.OOO.OOO to ^.W.000.000.
These banks failed to meet the monetary necessities of the War of ISIL', and
in 1S14 practically all of them south of New England suspended specie pay-
ments. Their notes were poured out in all denominations from six cents
upward, and. with coin redemption stopped, they depreciated rapidly. This
led to great financial distress in 181cS-1820, and to excessive bank failures.
The seriousness of the general situation, and the declining credit of the gov-
ernment, led to the establishment of the second Bank of the I'nited States.
Skcoxd Bank of thk United States. — In October. 1814, Secretary
Dallas laid a report before Congress, in which he dejirecated the uncertain
amount and value of the jjajier currency. "There exists," he said, "at this
time no adequate circulating medium common to the citizens of the United
im
TUIUMi'llS AND WOyDEItS OF THE XIX'" CESTUHY
StiitcM. 'riit' iii(iiii'y«'(l tvaiisiictioiis of |iriviit»i life iin! at a stand, and thr
fiscal oiK'nitiidis of \\w yovcniiiifut labor wilii cxtii'iiic iiiconvciiifiice." llr
then rcconuncndt'd as i\w. ifniudy tht^ cstablisiiiutMit of a national banking,
inHtitution. A i>ill, Itast'd upon hallas's plan for such an institution, failcil
of passage in tiic House in IHll, and a^'ain in 181"), tiiou^'h passed by tin
Senate. It was, liowevor, finally pasHcd in an amended form, but was vetoed
by President Madison.
On l)ecend)er L'f, l.Slo, Mr. Dallas laid before C-on^ross another plan for a
national liank. A bill was fi'ained authori^^in^ such an institution, with a
capital of .5.' !.'•.< >()(»,()( 10, i«i7,(t(K».(M»0 of which were to be subscrilied by tiie
fjoveriinient, the central l)ank to be at Philadelphia, with power to establish
branches, pay nn-nts to be niaih? in specie at all times uidess otherwise author-
ized by ('on^,'ress. I'liis bill jiasst'd both Houses of Con^'ress, and w.as sii,nied
by President Madison, April 10, IHIO. When the sidiscrijition books of this
bank were closed, it was found that the subscrljitions fell short of the author-
ized $.'{.■>,( )(!().( MM) by .S.'!.(MM).(MHi, wiiicli amount was taken by Stepiien (iirard.
The bank could not lend more than .'!i»r)(M>,(MM) to the government without
aiithority of ('on>j;ress, was to i)e the; fiscal agent of the Treasury, and to
receive deposits of public; moneys. No notes of a less denomination than
$r).00 were; to be issued, and the penalty for refusing to pay notes ordeitosits
in specie on demand was twelve per cent ])er annum until i)aid. It l>ei,'au
business .January 7, 1X17. Owing to the impending financial crisis and bad
management, the bank verged rapidly toward insolvency, but was resuseitatt il
under the vigorous management of a new jjrcsident, Lang(lf)n ('lieve:.. who
was elected March (>, iHP.t. He was succeeded by Nicholas l^iddle in l.SL'.'S,
who was destined to see the fall of the great institution.
The national bank incurred the hostility of the State bank.*!, which called
it a monster becaiise it refused to allow the notes of the local banks to
accumulate as dei)()sits in its branches without redemption. Various States
passed discriminating laws against it. Jackson, in his message to Congress
in ISI'O, attacke<l the constitutionality of tiie law establishing it, and charged
that it had "failed in the great end of establishing a uniform and sound cur-
rency." At this time the Mank was an imposing institution with its capital
of .for),000,()00, its i»ubli(! deposits of si.K to seven million, i^-s private deposits
of a like amount, its circulation of .|il;i,0(M>,(H>0, its ann\ial discounts of
$4(),0(M>,(MMt, its annual profits of over .f!;?,O(M»,00O, its palatial establishment
in Phi]adeli)hia. its twenty-five lirnnches throughout the Union, its five hun-
dred employees, its stock distributed through nearly all parts of the world,
and its notes current at par at home and aJ)road.
.Jackson's message was not received favorably by Congress. His aversion,
it was thought, was due rather to his belief that the IJank was his enemy
than to. any dislike of a national bank. The growing hostility between him
and Henry Clay induced the latter to make the reiu'wal of the l?ank's charter
a political issue. AVhen the bill rechartering the I'ank was passed in .Tuly,
1<S.T_>, .lackson vetoed it, charging, in the main, that the liank was a monopoly.
This brought the question of the further existence of the Bank fully into the
arena of politics, in the presidential election of l.s;{2, with the " Hero of Xew
Orleans " on one side, and on the other " monster monopoly," "Old Nick's
money," and " Clay's rags." .lackson won, and speedily decided to remove
State
Itaiik
tance.
and Ht(
. and till'
••0." II,.
liilllkiliiL;
'>ii, tailed
•<l l),V tin
:n vetoi'i!
PROGIIESS L\ COlNAdli, CUUHENCV, ASD ILiyKliXO
4fi;
thn jiiiblic di*iK)MitH I'lnm tiit; Miiiik. 'i'liis dcciiiion itrt'ciiiitiitod a liitti-r war
l)«'t\vi.-<Mi JackHtiii and ('ongrt'HH. Hut •larksoii did imt Hwcrvit t'loni liis pur-
poHt'. Ky iH'An it lit'caniu appari'iit tliat t\w Hank ciuitd not stnim a renewal
ol' its <'liartt'i' Inmi ('(in^'ress. As a cunressidn of its deteat, and just tliiiieen
days bel'ove the exjiiialion td' its fedeial eiiarter, the Hank ohlaitied lioni tiie
State of I'ennsylvania, Keinuary IH, lS.'t(i, a charter I'or tho Tinted Stati'8
i!;ink of I'ennsylvania, for a i>eriod of tiiirty years. Shorn ot its iini)or-
tance, in a restrieted tield, yet with enormous (iajiital. it fell into lar^'t' hond
and stook iuvt'atnionta of (luestionabln value. Its tmuhles wern aggravated
/'I
'i' III III
'? ! I!! tiM
Llk<V
BECONI) UNITED STATES BANK. PniLADELPniA. NOW TITSTOM nOURE.
by bad manngeniont. It susjionded during the panic of 1(S.37 and the next
year, and again for tiie last time in 1S41. Uiddle resigned the presidmcy in
1840, and four years later died ]ioor and broken-hearted. Thus perished
what is sometimes enlled the third Hank of the United States, its predeces-
sor, the second Hank of the United States, having fallen v victim to political
intrigue and loss of prestige. The shareholders lost their entire investment
of !ii28,00(>,0(K>, but the circidating notes were all jtaid, and also the deposits.
The government got back its investment of !if7,0()0,000, and made ^G,093,1G7
besides, from its (ionneetion with tho Bank.
State Haxks and Ixkei'knkent Tiieasuuv. — After the removal of de-
posits from the Bank of the United States, Septendier 2G. 183.3, the public
revenues were de])osited in selected State banks, sonu'tiines called " ]iet
banks." In 1830 eighty-eight State banks in twenty-four States held public
4£8
TRIUMPHS AXD WONDERS OF THE A'/A'"' CENTURY
deposits to the aiuouut of .'?4y,.'>77.()iS(;. As tlie State banks had thrown their
inHuence against the national Ijank. tlii,'y were rewarded by allowing them
to use the public money intrusted to them as a basis of extending their loans
and lor enormous issues of their own notes. I'.anks were started for the sole
purpose of issuing notes which they could use in buying puljlic lands. As a
consiMpienoe the government lost heavily through the depreciation of tliese
notes and the failure of the banks. On July 11, 18^5(5, the Secretary of the
Treasury issued a circular forbidding the receipt of anything but sjiecie iu
payment for public lands. This caused a run on the banks and aided in
hastening the financial crisis of IS.'!?. .\u act of Congress of June 23, 188(!,
authorizing the calling in of )iiio7.4G.S.<sr)'.> of the public funds deposited in the
State banks, for jnirposes of distribution, forced the suspension of specie
payments by all such banks, with very few exceptions.
The unsatisfactory trial of both f(!deral and State banks as custodians of
the public funds led to the establishment of Avhat became known as the inde-
pendent Treasury system, by which the go crnnu'ut collects its money and
keeps it in the hands oi the United States Treasurer or sub-treasurers, mak-
ing disbursements when reipiired. An act putting this system into effect
became law July 4, 1.S40, but was repealed the lu^xt year. It was repassed
August G, 184(5, and remained in oi)eration until the passage of the Xatioiud
Currency Act in February, 1803, which gave the Secretary of the Treasury
the right to designate certain national banks as de])ositories of public funds.
There were in such banks, on February 4. 1899. United States dejiosits
amounting to $>81.120.S73. secured by United States bonds belonging to the
banks and deposited in the Treasury, amounting to Jii89,l()0,240. I'rior to
the adoption of the national banking system the country had a somewhat
disastrous experience with what has been known as " wild-cat " banks. Jlany
of them were organized for the sole purpose of issuing notes they never in-
tended to pay. "While th.ey were numerous and dangerous, it must be remem-
beied that in a number of States the leading banks carried on oidy a
legitimate business, and State banks as they exist to-day compare favorably'
in cheii i,..- . agement with the national banks.
^y. iiisTonv of thk i.kgal-tendek note.
? lie Irst act authorizing the issue of legal-tender notes, known popularly
a-^ gri'i ihu k- was approved by President Lincoln, February 25, 18(32. It
piC idt .' fur the issue of .*»ir>0,000.()00 in notes, in denominations of not less
fchaa .'Jy.OO. Holders of these notes could deposit them with the United
States Treasurer or assistant treasurers in any sum not less than .^oO.OO,
or any multiple thereof, and receive United States bonds bearing six jter cent
interest. The first notes were issued March 10, 1862. An act authorizing
a second isstie of .«iir»0.00(X()00 was signed by the I'resident, July 11, 1802.
Of these ^35,000.000 were to be in denominations of less than $5.00. A
third issue of 18)150,000,000 was authorized ^larch 3, 18(53, but this act de-
prived the legal-tender note of its convertibility into six per cent bonds at
the option of the holder.
The withdrawal of this privilege worked no ]>articular hardship at the
time, for l)ond issues and various interest-bearing certificates were plenty
during the period of war. IJut after the war had closed and the issues of
PROGRESS IN COINAGE, CURRENCY, AND BANKING
459
kii tlu'ii-
I'g them
'ii" ioaiifi
I the sole
As a
Jof tlu'se
|v of tlie
[lecie iu
laided in
p, 18.'i<;,
|<1 in tlie
If sjieeie
new securities Lad ceased, tlie absence of this provision began to jjrevent the
absorption of the legal-tender notes.
The highest amount of legal-tender notes outstanding at any date was on
.Taimarv 3. 1S()4. .'«;440.X!,S,<M)L'. Their depreciation was hasteneil by the issue
of tlie short-time interest-bearing securities in large amounts. J)uring l.S(W
the average gold premium was 11.'}.;); during ISCui, U~}.'2 ; during l.S()4, L'0.3.3.
In .July, lS(i4, this premium reached its highest point, an average of 2."».S.1.
Iu l.S()."> the country began to feel the necessity of a contraction of the
currency, with a view to as early a resumption of specie payments as the
business interests would permit, and the Congress expressed the i)ublic senti-
ment bv an almost unanimous resolutitm. On March 12. ISfilJ, an act was
apjiroved calling for the retirement and cancellation of not more than
•S1<I.0<M(.(KM» of legal tenders within six months, and thereafter not more
tlian .*!4,(MKi.()(H) 'luring any one month. The effect was to reduce the legal
tenders outstanding on December 'M, 1<S<)7, to .|>iJr)G,()00.OU0.
This reduction, together with the rapid payment of notes of other classes,
used as currency, led to so sudden a contraction of the circulating medium,
and such stringency in tiie money market, that Congress, by act of February
4, l.S(>S, ]irohibited the further reduction of the legal-tender notes. The
amimnt outstanding, October 1, 1872, was iiji.'J/ir), 000,000, and on January 1,
J874. .S.'W2,it70.Sir>, the increase being due to a construction on the part of
secretaries of the Treasury to the effect that they had power to reissue
retired notes which were held as a reserve. On June 20, 1874, Congress
enacteil.that the United States notes outstanding and to be used as part of
the circulating nu'dium should not exceed .|!,382,000,000, and that no part
thereof sho\dd be held or used as a reserve.
Another attempt was made in 187;") to reduce the aggregate of legal-tender
notes, preparatory to the resumi)tion of specie payments. The Resumption
Act of Januai'v 14, 187<», authorized, among other things, the retirement and
cancellation of legal tenders till the amount outstanding should be reduced
to§!3(K\000,(t(K); *;.'r).318,984 were retired under this law, but further reduc-
tion w;is ])rohibited by act of M.ay 31, 1878. The amount outstanding at that
date was .*»34r),()81,016, and this has continued to the present time, no new
issues having been authorized.
On January 1, 1879, the resumption of specie payments took place as pro-
vided in the act of January 14, 1875. At this latter date, the only legal-
tender coin recognized by law was the gold coin. Hut, in February, 1878,
the coinage of standard silver dollars was authorized, and they were to be a
legal tender for all debts, unless otherwise exjiressly stijmlated in the con-
tract. This led to the claim on the part of those who favore 1 silver that the
redemption of legal-tender notes, provided for in coin in the act of 1875,
could be effected by the use of silver dollars. But the general, and doubtless
sound, construction of the law of 1875 has been that it was an express con-
tract to redeem the legal-tender notes in the coin then recognized as legal
tender, and in no other ; and so the Treasury has redeemed legal tenders
since 1879, in gold, when the same is demanded.
In 1809 the United States Sui)reme Court, the bench not being full, de-
clared the acts authorizing legal-tender notes to be unconstitutional. F>ut
subsequently, the bench having its full cpiota of nine, the Court sustained the
460
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
constitutionality of the acts, on the ground, mainly, that they were a proper
exercise of the war power vested in the Congress. In 1883 the Court decif' d
that the reissues of tliese notes, made in time of peace, were constitutional.
At the time of the resumption of specie payments there were $lo5,(K)(),0()0 in
gold and bullion on hand to provide for the redemption of such notes as might
he presented. By Act of July lii, 1881,*, it was provided tliat when the redemi)-
tion reserve of gold coin and bullion in the Treasury fell below $10(),000,0(Xt,
the issue of gold certificates should cease. This is held to indicate that Con-
gress regarded .filO(>.()UU,()00 as the limit below which the redemption reserve
should not be permitted to fall.
If this reserve had not been called upon to bear other burdens, there would
pn)bably never have been any doubts as to its sufficiency. In 1878, however,
began the coinage of silver dollars and the issue of silver eertilieates. These
notes were kept at par in gold by their interchangeability in the operations
of commerce for legal-tender notes. They were thus an indirect charge on
the gold reserve. From 1878 to 1890 they were increased at the rate of over
Si2,i>(.K»,(.KK> a month. In tluit year (July 14, 1800) an act was ]<assed provid-
ing for the issue of I'reasuvy notes in the purchase of silver bullion, •.hich
provided also for the coinage of some of the bullion jmrchased into silver dol-
lars. These Treasury notes were redeemable both in gold and silver, and as
the government never availed itself of its option to redeem in silver when
gold was demanded f(n' them, these notes as they wei-e issued became a further
burden on the gold reserve provided for tlie legal-tender notes.
By the beginning of the year 18i)i> tlie legal-tender notes, silver certificates,
and Tr«»asury notes had reached an aggregate of nearly ^800,000,000, all
depending on the Treasurj* reserve for gold redemption.
This reiliiction of the percentage of gold held to the amount of the demand
liabilities raised doubts as to the ability of the government to maintain gold
payments, and the legal tenders and Treasuvy notes were presented for
redemption. The dej)letion of gold was so great that on one or two occa-
sions there was danger that tlie reserve would be exhausted, and resort was
had to the sale of bonds to procure gold to replenish the reserve.
The issue of further Treasury notes was stopped by the repeal of the act
of 18H0 in ]Sovend)er, 18!),'5, and since this repeal confidence in the ability of
the Treasury to maintiiin gold redemptions has been gradually restored.
Under the provisions of the Act of May, 1878, the legal-tender notes when
redeemed cainiot be canceled. They must be paid out again, and therefore
when reissued, they may again be presented for redem])tion. This consti-
tutes the so-called endless chain by which the gold in the Treasury is always
liable to be drawn out.
v. THK NATION- A L BAXKINT, SYSTEM.
The desirability of ])erfecting the banking and currency system of the
country was re.adily perceived fm the breaking out of the Ci\ il War in 18()1.
Secretary Chrse in two annual reports, those of 18G1 and 18()2. recommended
a system of national baiiks, whose supervision should be bj' national author-
ity, and whose issues of notes should be based on deposits Oi oonds of the
government. After several unsuccessful attempts, a bill, introduced by Mr.
Shermari. passed both Senate aiul House, and became a law February 25, 18G3.
proper
decii' (I
ional.
;>,000 in
niiglit
redeiuj)-
HHMlOo,
at Toii-
leserve
PROGRESS IN COINAGE, CURRENCY, AND BANKING 461
'J'his act embodied the essential features of Mr. Chase's reports. Under it
the first charter was issued to the First National Bank of Philadelphia.
The formation of national banks proceeded very slowly at first. In order
to liold out greater inducements for the State banks to enter the national sys-
tem, the act was amended on June 3, 1804. The first report of the Comp-
troller of the Currency, November 28, 1SG3, showed that only l.'M national
banks had been organized up to that date ; but when the act of June 3, 1S()4,
went into operation, new banks were formed more frec^utintly. A more rapid
increase took place after the passage of the act of March 3, 18G5, imposing
a tax of 10 ])er cent on the circulating notes of State banks. This increase
was from (538 banks in January, 1805, to 1513 in ()ctol)er of the same year;
with an increase in capital of from !§> 135.018,874 to !5)393,1S7,200 ; and in
circulation of from iii;(;(),70<),375 to .f 171,321,5)03. Prior to 18(>9 national
banks were required to make their reports on fixed dates, but after March 3,
1800, they were reciuired by law to make tlieir reports to tlie Comptroller five
times a year on some ])ast date fixed upon by the Comptroller.
National ]>an'k T^aws Axn KK(irLATio.\s. — The national banks are
under tlie supervision of the Comi)troller of the Currency, who is appointed
by the President on the recommendation of the Secretary of the Treasury.
His salary is .fioOOO a year.
A national b;ink may be organized by any number of persons not less than
five, on permission of the Comptroller. Tlie capital retpiired is not less tliau
$50,000 in any (!ase, and this minimum ajjplies ouly to towns the poi)ula-
tion of which does not exceed 0000; in cities having a jjopulation exceeding
50,000, the minimum cai)ital is !i>200,000. For j)laces having a popidation over
0000 and not exceeding 50,000, the capital rc(piired is .§100,000. One half of
tlie capital must be paid in before the bank is authorized to begin business,
and the remainder in installments of not less than 10 per cent on the entire
amount of the capital, as freipiently as one installment at the end of each
succeeding month from tlie time it is authorized to begin business. Capital
.stock is divided into shares of $100 each.
Tin; banks are managed by a board of not less than five directors, chosen
by the stockholders. Executive oHicers of the bank — i)resident, vice-presi-
dent, cashier, and assistant cashier — are chosen by tlie directors.
Sliareliolders are indivi(hially liable for the debts, contracts, and engage-
ments of the bank to tlie extent of the amount of their stock therein, at the
])ar value, in addition to the amount invested in such shares. Tliii; is what
is known as the double liability of shareholders, and is one of the features
adding to the strength of the system.
National banks are designated by the Secretary of the Treasury to act
as depositaries or cxistodians of ]iublic money. Such deposits are secured
spe(!ially by a dejiosit of United States bonds with the Treasury.
All national banks before commencing business are required to transfer
and deliver to the Treasurer of tlie I'nited States, as security for their cir-
culating notes, United States registered bonds to an amount not less than
one fourth the capital wL.n-e the capital is .$150,000 or less, and to the
amount of .$50,000 where the cajiital is in excess of $150,000. These bonds
must be taken by tlie banks wliether they issue circulation or not.
Circulating notes are issued to national banks on a deposit of United
!P
462
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
States bonds with the Treasurer. Notes are limited to DO per cent of the
par vaUie of the bonds, also to 90 per cent of the cajjital of the bank. They
are over-secured, and no holder of them has ever lost a dollar by reason of
the failure of a bank.
The notes are secured by the government bonds, there being a difference of
the 10 per cent between the par of the bonds and the notes issued, and the
bonds nearly always command a premium. They are further secured by the
first lien on the assets of the bank, including the double liability of share-
holders, by a 5 i)er cent redemptioit fund in the Treasury, and also by the
margin between tlie capital and the amount of notes permitted.
National bank notes are redeemable at the counters of the issuing banks
and at tlie Treasury m " lawful money "' of the L'nited States. This term,
as commonly used, means legal-tender money, and in i)ractice, jierhaps, L;iild
coin or legal-tender notes.
Keserves of national banks are the amounts of mone}' kept on hand to ])ay
their deposits and current checks and drafts. This reserve is to be kept in
lawful money, — gold and silver coin or certificates, and United States cur-
rency certificates or legal-tender notes. There are three central reserve cities,
namely, New York, Chicago, and St. Louis. National banks in these tliree
cities must keep a reserve of 2~> per cent against their deposits, and this
amount must be kept in their own vaults. There are twenty-four other
reserve cities which are also required to keep a reserve of 2~> per cent, but
one half of that amount may be due from other banks in New York and
other central reserve cities, approved as reserve agents by the Comptroller of
the Currency. Banks outside of these reserve cities must keep a reserve of
15 per cent, three fifths of which may be due from approved reserve agents
in the reserve cities or centriil reserve cities.
In times of panic when there is a run on banks they may use this reserve
to pay their depositors, and it often hajjpens that the reserve falls below the
amount required by law. Under such circumstances the Comptroller may
notify the banks to make good the deficiency ; failing to comply with this
request witliin thirty days, they maj"^ be closed.
National banks are not permitted to make loans on real estate. The regu-
lations prescribed by the law for the management of tliese institutions are
very stringent, supplemented by a system of exanunation and reports.
In 189G the Comptroller of the Currency estimated that the government
had made a net profit of .|»lo7,4.'i9.248.i)8 out of the revenues derived from
the national banks. It Avas estimated in the same rej)ort that the average
percentage of dividends paid to creditors of insolvent national banks was
7o i)er cent. There have been no losses on circulation. In 1878 the Comit-
troUer estimated that the annual losses ui)o:i all the currency issued by State
and private banks amoinited to 5 per cent annually.
The national banks are not monopolistic. Any body of five reputable citi-
zens can form one by getting together .foO,000 capital. The total shares of
the national banks are approximately 300,000.
Profits on national bank stock are not exorbitant. For a period of twenty-
nine years the net earnings on capital and surplus have been only a little
over 7 per cent.
Since the establishment of the national banking system 5171 banks have
i
of tlie
Tl.ey
i.asoii of
sliaro-
bv the
PHOGltESS IN COINAGE, CURRENCY, AND BANKING 463
been organized, of which 1224 liave gone into liquidation, 3G8 have become
insolvent, and .'JoT'J are in operation (February 4, IS'JUj.
There is a marked falling off in the number of new national banks organ-
ized in recent years. In 18UU there were 307 organized, but in liSii8 there
were only 50 organizations reported, and that was the highest number re-
ported since Wd\i, The capital of the national banks is also decreasing, but
the deposits show a large increase.
At present the State banks are gaining in numbers more rapidly than the
national banks.
Pkofit on National Bank Circulation. — Many supi)ose that national
banks make an undue profit on the privilege they have of issuing notes to
circulate as money, based on a deposit of bonds with tlie United States
treasurer. Official figures disprove this. The total national bank notes out-
I
■
BANK OF ENGLAND, LONDON.
standincr, Febraary 4, 1899, was $20.3.636,184.50. The law permits these
banks to issue notes to the extent of 90 per cent of their capital. This capi-
tal, on February 4. 1899. was $608,301,245. Tlierefore they might have had
notes at issue on that da^e to the amount of $545,871,120.50, instead of only
$203,636,184.50. This is conclusive evidence that there is no .substantial
profit in the issuing of such notes.
In the figures furnished by the Comptroller of the Currency for 1898, lie
shows that the profit which a national bank could make by taking out circu-
lation on a deposit of $100,000 of United States bonds, on October 31, 1898,
was less than 1 per cent, (^n that date eight leading baidvs had no circu-
lating notes at all out. The meagre profits of national banks explain why
they do not supply an adequate paper currency. Tlie restrictions on them
make it impossible to lender any substantial assistance to business in this
respect. This is especially true in times of panic. Possessing gigantic
strength, they are compelled to see the industries of the country attacked
by doubt and distrust, and are nnable to go to their aid because of the
restraints which forbid them to exercise their legitimate functions.
J
464
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A7A'"' CENTURY
VI. FOKKIOX HANKINO AND FINANCK.
Most foreign countries issue metallic! money only, excejit those that are on
a jjaper basis. In general the jiaper currency is issued by banks, many of
which are more or less remotely associated with the government. Some
of these banks issue notes on the .security of the government or other stcx^ks
and bonds, while many emit notes based on no special form ot security, but
upon the general assets of the bank.
As compared with the United States there are but few banks in the prin-
cipal foreign countries. England lias less than one hundred; Siiotland less
than a dozen ; Canada but thirty-eight chartered banks. As in other foreign
countries, the Canadian banks have numerous branches atUiiated with tiie
head office. National banks in the Unitetl States are prohibited from having
■
p^^^^^^ps
1
SMS
. r
1
m
■
r'
p. B
J — _
ass.
V
1:
1
1
V
1
11
:, -IM ill k : iii ; ii^ M ii . '
(JEUMAN HANK. lil'.KMKN.
branches. The I'ank of Fraiice. the IJank of England, the Imperial IJank of
Germany, the Austro-IIungarian IJank, the Imperial liank of Itussia, are all
more or less intimately associated witli their respective governments.
The Bank of England was incorporated by royal charter, .luly L'7. 1(H(4. its
incorporators lending .-t'l.L'OU.OOO to the goverinnent. in return for which the
Bank was i)ennitted to issue notes to a like amount. It had a ])ractical
monopoly up to l.Sl'(), and even now. it is believed, no bank witliin a radius
of 65 miles of London may issue notes. It has suspended, specie payments
more than once. In 1844, tli'- banking and issue departments of the Bank
were separated. ()n<> fifth ol llii' rest'rve may be silver, thougli in practice
the reserve is kept in gold coin and bullion. Its notes are based on gold,
except .-yKjjSOO.OOO, wliich are secured by the government debt and other
securities. It is comiielled to buy all gold offered iit a fixed price, ])aying for
it in notes. So it must redeem all notes on demand in gold, ^^'hen so re-
deemed they are canceled and, after five years, burned. No notes of a less
T.
•It are ou
iiiuiiy of
Suiiie
'1' stocks
ii'ity, but
tlie prin-
aiid less
ioi'cij,'!!
*itli tiib
1857,
Jul.
1860,
*•
1861,
u
18fi2,
tl
1803,
t(
18tU.
ki
1865.
All
1873, Jul
1879,
ift
1889,
(t
18!t3,
It
IS'.t.-,,
1)0
18!Mi,
Jul
1897,
"
1898,
it
PROGRESS IN COINAGE, CURRENCY, AND BANKING 4So
ileiiouiinatioii than tivi* ixnuuls are issued. Tlic Ikiiik cliet'k.s gold Pxi»ort.«* \>y
raisiii'^ the rate of disodiuit. The buildiiif^ cover.s about tour acres of j^rouint.
and (Muploys over eK-veii liuiiilrcd pi'i'sons. It is th(! kcystoiic of tlie entire
.system of I>ritisli credit, and conunauds the assistance of the (Joveruuieiii
Avhon needed.
The Scutc-Ii banks issue notes on their own credit to tiie amount outstanil-
iii"^ at tlie liiue of the pass;ij,'e of tUo Uank .Vet in 1S44. Their rate of
interest is said to b«> the same at all of their thousand otiiees. A unitjue
feature of the Seoteh baukiii;,' system is that of cash credits, ity means of
which a oerson of i^ood credit may j,'et liis checks cashul witimut a dejK)sit
of actual m>>ni'y. the lianks simply enteriii!^ the credits on their books.
Tiie ISaiik t>f France has a inono]ioly of note issues, charges a premium on
gold for exjiort, and may redeem its notes in either gold or silver. The Im-
perial I»ank of (.Jermany and a few other CJerman banks issue notes on gold
and other securities, and further amounts on their general credit. Uevond a
fixed sum. called the emergency circulation, a tax of five per cent is levieiL
Other Kuropean banks arc genorally inodch^d on the same leading principle
— a eentral Uiuk of is.sue, with numenms branches, and associated with the
Government directly or indirectly. The Imperial ]>ank id' Iiussia issue*
notes j)ractically covered by gold and redeemable in tliat coin. .Jajiaii trieil
a system of national banks combined with Government paper money, bat is
now substituting a sy.stem of bank notes issued by the ]>ank of Japan.
VII. rXITEI) .STATES (iOVEUXMENT DKBT SIXCE 1857.
In 18."i7 the Government owed only .KilO,()()().(M»0 over and above the cash
lield in the treasury. At the breaking out Of the Civil War the debt had
increased to al)out 8S(i.()(»0.0(K). Hy August .'U. LSD"), it had increased to
Si2,7r>(;,(MM».(XHI, with an interest charge of li;ir.().0O(),O00. In twenty-eight
years, down to June IW. ISiKi. the Government extinguished ^1,917.">«>»>,WW
of its debt, i)aid S2,;MU.(MM».(M»0 for interest on its debt, and S11S.(MM).(XM> for
premium on bonds redeemed, making a grand total of !ii4.4((0,(K)0,0<M). or an
annual average j>aymenr of $1 "(7,000,000 for the entire period.
The rise and fal! of the imblic debt from July 1, 1857, to July 1, 1898,
appear more fully in the following table.
Years.
Total debt.
Pclit Ie«s cash in
tlie Treasurr.
18.57, .Iiilv 1
§28.(199,831
04.842.287
90,580,873
,V24, 1711.412
1.119,772,138
1. SI 6,784,370
2,844,ii49.r,2«
2 2.U,482.9»3
2.-.'15,495.072
1. 1! 19,0.52.922
1,545,98.5,0811
1,708,871.(170
1.71)9.840.323
].SI7.()72.(;(15
1,796,531,995
?!).»U8.(HI
18«0, ••■ 1. ...
59.!»64,4<>2
87.718.'i«0
18(11, " 1
18(12, " 1
505.312,7.52
18(i:j, " 1
1,111.3.50.T37
18114, " 1
1.7(i!»,4.5>.277
2,7.56.4;1I..57I
1865. An-ii-t .31 ...
1873, .Jiilv 1
]87!l. "■ 1
188!>, " 1
18:t3, " 1
2.10.5.462.0«»>
1,99«.414,'J<X>
97.5,9;i!>.r.T*>
8;»,y«i> 47-5
18:t.5, Kecemberl
18!«1, .llll V 1
18!»7, "■ 1 . .
948.477.fH-2
95.5.2!)7.iv{
98A.H.V; mn
1898, " 1
l,0-27.08.5,4y:£
30
460
Tin UM PUS AXD WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CESTUllY
In 1S(m tlu' annual intt'irst chargo on the puljlic debt was JSlad.".)?".*!",)?.
In 1S<>S it was oiilv .*i;!l.;!.S7.lOcS.
Fnuii IT'.H tt) l.S'.KS tin- gross receipts of the (iovcrnnicnt were !?.'>(»,.■) 17,-
(M».'i..'!.'>(i.(K> and the gross expenditures .'i!'l.".M()!S,r)!(7,L't')7.1.'l. Tlie net ordinary
receipts, wliieli do not include loans or proceeds troni the issue ol 'I'reasurv'
notes, were .I? Ki.-|,;tL'l,;5;!r),l'(t lor the tiscal year ended .lune ;>(», ISUS. and tin-
net ordinary exjuMiditures, which do not include payments on account of pre-
miunis or inten ^t on the puhlic deht, were !i)>K(o,7Sy,r»L'().">7.
VIII. rOSTAI, SAVINdS HANKS.
Many believe that a system of postal savings lianks could be generally
introduced iiUu the I'nited States. Such banks doubtless appeal tn ihi'>e
who have more eontidence in the Government than in any as.-ociation of in-
dividuals. Their safety may bo conceded, for when tiie (iovcrnment fails
other institutions are likely to go the same way. I>ut when people depo>it
money in a postal savings bank, they make a loan to the (Jovermnent.
Tliis implies that the (Jovernmeut must be a ))Pr]ietual borrower, whereas,
until recent years, the I'nited States has been a debi-paying nation, and in
the course of aifairs may soon be again. Unless we are to have a large per-
manent ilebt. tiie deposits in postal savings banks would have to bo invested
in general securities. Such investments could not well bo made by the post-
ottice officials of the conntry.
In (ireat llritain these banks have been in existence for about thirty-eight
years, and tlieir number has grown to alxmt lL'.(tO(». with more than (i.(M>O.U(M>
depositors. The system i)revails in a number of other countries. The more
concentrated and ])aternal system of government prevalent in countries hav-
ing the.se banks renders their management a much less difficult problem than
it would be in the United States with our large areas, vast number of post-
offices, and general diversity of conditions. In (Jreat Uritain the deposits in
the postal savings banks are made at the money order ])ost-oftices in a ])ass
book lield by the dejwsitor. Withdrawals are nuide by tilling up blank
forms, and these withdrawals may be made at any money order jxist-offiee.
Bejwsits are invested in the public debt, and the rate of interest is about two
and one half per cent. The ])ostal savings banks of Great I.ritain contain
deposits api>roximating )s!r)L'7,000.()00 ; those of France. .Str>2.(MKMKMI ; those
of Italy, §90,000,IK»0- those of Belgium, ^G7,0(»0,0()0 ; those of Canada,
S31. 000.000.
IX. .SAVINfiS BAXKS IN TIIK UNITED STATKS.
There are no w(U'thier financial institutions in the country to-day than the
savings banks, ilost of these are organized on what is known as the nnitual
plan. They have no cajiital. no stockholders, and all the assets are held in
trust for the benefit of tlie depositors. They are managed by a board of trus-
tees, who serve without pay. The investments which the banks are jjcr-
mitted to make are generally restricted to high-class securities insuring
safety. The savings banks in New York State, especially, are closely re-
stricted in investing their funds, and failures in recent years are almost
unknown. A deposit in one of these banks is hardly less safe than an in-
vestment in Government bonds. The savings banks are the primary schools
r.<');t7.
:!<»,r,.i7,.
r<iiii;irv
■f.isiin
111(1 tlif
(il \tU-
PllUGllKSS IN COIXAGE, CURRENCY, AXD U.IXKIXG 1«7
<if (•(■(luuiiiy anil thrift, ami I believe tliat an cxttMisioii of tlic iiivitual sav-
lilies l)aiik wystiini tiirtiir,'ii()iit tlic ciiiiiitry. muli r iir<'|n'i- h-^a. safuguanls,
Mdiiltl 1)0 (if till' greatest lieiu'tit to tiie jieople ol llie I'liiled .States.
Tiin deposits in banks <>f iliis kiiiil are usually limited by law to aiiiouiits
nut exeeediiii,' .S-'t'UKt to one di'iiusitor, as iliey are not intended to be iisi-d by
the wealtiiier class of jiuople. The following sUilisties will [m found inter-
estiiig.
SAVIXdS MASKS IN Till; UXITKD STATKS, 1S07 181(7.
(Slntetncnt of cuiulitiuii fur ««i'li |H>riu(I of leii vvari>.>
1867
1807
1877
18S7
18U7
Niiinticr of haoks
4!I0,4'JS
.1f98,r)lJ,!»(|S
rf(M)
•171
1,ISH,JII-J
*;i:i7,iHiit,4:.2
•2S:t
ti7.-.
•J,.|li:..:il4
.•'Stitip^ld.^ioii
;i«i
r>M4
.l,tlf).()i;i
.•*l,i:i&,247,;i7l
imo
Niiinliii- (if ili'|>(i4it(irii
Anioitnt nf (li'|i(isit«<
Aviium' t(i eiuli il«|)iMit(jr.. ,
n, -JO 1,1. Id
*l,'.Ktu,.ivo,(».i.-.
;i72
In addition to the mutual and stock savin<?s banks in the I'liilcd Stato.s, a
system of school savings banks, introduced into the schools of the United
States Ity d. H. Thiry, of Long Island i'ity, N. Y., is worthy of mention.
Such banks have been very successful in inculcating habits of thrift and
economy among the children of the country.
X. TlIK CI.KAKINII-HOITSE.
A clearingdiouse may be detined as an institution for saving time, money,
iind labor. Its uiuh rlying jirinciple is that of setting off one claim against
another.
A bank in a large city receives every day in its mail a great numbev of
checks or drafts drawn on banks in the same place. It does not present
these checks directly to the banks on which they are drawn for payment, but
sends them by messenger to the clearing-house. Let us say, for illustration,
that the First National Hank presents to the clearing-house checks on other
banks amounting to .flOOjOOO. At the same time the other banks send to the
clearing-house checks they have received drawn on the First National Hank,
aggregating !ii7r»,(M)0. A payment of .i)!l.'i),0(M> in money to the First National
Hank will be all the cash required to i)ay checks representing $17."),000.
The economy in the use of money is still better illustrated by the following
statement of an actual transaction. On a day in the latter part of 181)8 the
Bank of the State of New York took to the New Yiu-k Clearing-House checks
on other banks amounting to !8!ir).r>47,.")8.S.S2, and other banks brought checks
against it amounting to .'iiir>,r>47.4()1.8i'i. The sum of these items was $^1,-
2'.)4,!)S5.G7, and they were pai 1 with .'ii!l81.97 in money, which rejiresents the
credit balance due to the Hank of the State of New York. Tliis instance
shows what large transactions may be effected with small sums of money by
employing projier banking machinery. Hanks multiply the usefulness of
money many fold.
The New York Clearing-House Association was organized September 1.%
1853, and the first clearing made by the Association took place on October 11,
408
TIUVMI'IIS .IM> WOMiiaiS OF Till: A7.\ '" (EyTUltY
IS,").". 'I'lic Itiiiiks lM'l(iiij,'iii^,' tn tlic New Vdilc Clcaiiiig-IInii.sn A.ssDcialinu
ivpdrti'il (111 April 1, IS'.tlt, luans and (liMcoiiiit.s. -S 7 ?".».'. •*» I, !(»(»; clfjioMit.H, Ji)i.S',I.S,.
lUr.ttiHi; .H|ifcif, .Ijiisr.l U,;in(»; ciifulation, .'!!<i;vS7t».()0(».
t'l.KAiiiMi-lliMsK liOA.N Ckiiti KH' ATiiH. — Tlii'Mi' iiic xiiiiidy (IcviccH that
tilt' WaiiUs lia\r iiivt'iitcil lur iisr in tinifs of panic. Tlifv aro issiu'd by a
('niiiiiiiu I till' ( 'li'arin,i;-lliius(' Association on tlu- di'posit of appi'o\cil
sccuniii's li_) llic liaiik desiring tliciii, and art- used only to si'ttlu lialiinccs
N|-,W YOItK CI-KAUFNCMIOUSE.
lietween t-lie hanks. They five not money. Imt serve a useful iiurjioRe in
dinnnishiiii; tlie demand for money ; for when the hanks aj^reo to accept
these certificates among tliemselves, it makes that much money availahle to
he loaned or paid to depositors. In ISD'i and in other years of financial
stringency, the issue of these certificates afforded great rtdief to hnsiness
interests and saved the country from some of the most disastrous results con-
sequent upon such jianics.
These certificates are not to he confounded with clearing-house gold certifi-
cates issued by the Association on deposits of gold coin. They are used in
|-<i>ciiifi,,i|
ItN, .'Jif.SK.S..
|icCM tllMt
H'll llV il
'i:iliiiici'.«i
I'ltUGUESS IS COISMiE, CUHHKNCY, AND lUiVKINU
400
making iKiyiufiits of Imliiiin's l)ct\vi'fii Imiiks, and ((bviiite tho lu-wHNity of
t'K'i|U(Mitly passing the at-tnal cdiu t'l'uia Inind tu hand.
(►n April II, IMttS, tin- cIcurinLis at tlio New Vnik C'lfaring-IInusf for
Hiat day iinioiintfd to .'jf.'i.'il.'.SMl.'.rtdr — tlif lar^t-st amount. i>\v\- ri-pintcil up
to tliat time. Tlif balances to bt- paiil in monry wrrt' .l!!17..'>lo,l."il.', or oidy
al)out fivn per ci'nt. For tlif year iS'.tS tlit! bank clearings at Ni-w Vnrk wero
.*:iU.".l71,7«l.<>.Sl. and for tin- wlmlc country, !i5<1S.7."iU.(MHI,U(mi.
An investigation of tlif anioiint of credit jiapcr used rcspccitivcly in tlio
wliolt'salc and retail trade was made by tlie Comptroller of tlie Currency in
ISiM). In his rep(ut for that year tlie Comptroller says: •• From the face of
the returns the conclusion to be drawn is that (17.4 per cent of the retail
trade of tho country is transacted by means of credit paper (checks), that
'.(."•..'t per cent of the wholesale trade is so carried on, '.(.">. I per cent of busi-
nt'HS other than mercantile, and ".>!.'..'» per cent of ail business."
XI. I'A.NHS AMI rilKII! t'Al'SKS.
A jiaiilc is generally due U inflation and speculation, and tlipsp, of courac,
liave their origin in various hources not easily determined. An unusual in-
crease in the production of jireeious metals, bountiful crops, a speciihitivo
craze taking possession of the public — such as the tiiliji mania in Holland —
all tiiese and many other causes lead to specidation. Tho fall in prices duo
to a stoppage in speculation brings on the iiaiiic Sometimes the catastrophe
is produced by war or rumors of war. (dten by the most trivial eircnnistances,
and nut iiifreiiuently without any apparent cause. Ik'i'ore everybody had
desired to buy ; they now became as eager to sell, and this rush to convert
securities and commodities into money j»reci]iitates a panic.
Crises may lie divided into commercial and financial. The last one in the
Cnited States, whatever may have been its ultimate developments, was in its
inception and culmination essentially a financial [lanie. The Treasury and
the banks were both regarded with more or less distrust.
. Panics or crises more or less severe have occurred in the l-nited States in
1811, 1818, 18L'(;, 18;i7-.'i!), 1848. 1807, during the Civil War, 18()l-Gr). 1873,
1882. 1884, 1800. 189.'i. Some of these should hardly be called panics, as
they were mere local disturbances. Different causes have been given for
each of these revulsions. Overtrading and speculation were doubtless re-
s]ionsible for them. The panic of 18;" was coincident with large net imports
of merchandise. On August 24, lSr)7, the onward wave of prosjierity. which
had l)een steadily rising to a great lieight. received a check by the failure of
the Ohio Life Insurance and Trust Co., foUowed by numerous other failures.
On October 4 every bfink in Mew York, except the Chemical, suspended
specie payments, and chey did not resume until December 12.
The speculation in gold in 18(>'.> culminated in what is known as the lUack
Friday panic. Sejitember 24. 18()!). I'iske and (rould were conducting a sjiecu-
lation ill g(dd, and sought to corner it. T'hey fcu'ced the pric;- uji to a high
figure, but the Government suddenly ajipeared as a seller of gold and broke
the " corner."
The year 1873 witnessed another revulsion of confidence and anotlier dis-
ruption of the commercial and financial affairs of the country. liusiness had
long been unduly expanded, and the collapse finally came. The failure, on
470
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A7A'^^ CENTURY
September 18, of the honored firm of Jay Cooke & Co., whieli had not tn\\\
been identified with tli'' building of the Nortiiern Tiieitie ]{. K. but li:ul been
a strong supporter of tlu' credit of tlie Government when it was in the direst
distress, was the first bad news. Jlouse after lio' ^ fell. The Stock Ex-
change closed its doors on September I'O, and did lujt reopen them until
Scpteml)cr .'iO. More than fifty Stock Kxciiange firms suspended, and several
of the leading banking institutions of Xew Vurk and other cities had to stop
business.
During this panic the New York Clearing-llouse Association issued clear-
ing-house certificates to those of its members who needed available funds,
and during the trouble issued .'i!L'4,0ir),O()0 of them. In ^lay, 1SS4, it issued
$l'4,9ir.,()IM»; in the l.S9(» panic, .'i|!l(;,()4r).0()() ; in IS'.t.'i, ii);41,4<iO,(KM>.
Following tlie resumption of specie payments the times were good for
several years. The production of the ]irecious metals was averaging .'JTo,-
0()0,00U or jnore per year. From l.S7i) to 1.SS3 we imported about .«!]'M>.n(M>,-
000 of gold. Kailroad construction reached :i higher point than was ever
recorded, either before or since, nearly 40,000 miles of track having Ix-en
laid in five years. All seemed well, when another collapse came in May,
1884. This was preceded bj- the failure of (hant tS: Ward, and it was fol-
lowed by tlie failure of the .Marine and the Metroj)olitan Banks. The dis-
closures of bad faith on the ])art of men occujjying j)Ositions of great trust,
made the 1884 panic one of distinct characteristics of its own. The previous
activity in all lines of enterprise may have made the revulsion timely, but
individual dishonesty greatly aggravated the situation.
The panic of 1.890, in the United States, was but a reflection of the great
Barii'g faihire in London in the fall of that year. This crash was due to
South American speculations, and was one of the greatest failures of modern
times. It is the opinion of many well-informed financiers that this was one
of the causes which oi)erated to produce the panic; of 189.'{ in the United
States. The course of the United States in regard to the jmrchase of silver,
doubts as to the tariff, deficiency in revenues — all, perhaps, had their sliare
in creating distrust. Hut back of these were the conditions superinduced by
an era of inflation and speculation. The 189.'} jiaiiic bore most heavil}- upon
the banks. There was a continued denuind npon the Treasury for gold, and
the deposits in banks were withdrawn so rajjidly that hundreds of failures
ensued. The period of depression continued for nearly three years, {.'id lias
been succeeded by an era of general prosperity, which it is hoped may be
long continued.
Bkaufokd Khodes.
only
Itft'U
iiest
Ex-
uiitil
vt'ial
.stop
for
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN FRUIT CULTURE
Fkom the cai'lit'st histories of eivilization we U'arii that the cultiviition of
fruits has been a deliglitful pastime and also a substantial means of living.
Tlieir tenipting colors, fragrant perfumes and luscious flavors are unecpuUed
ill combined attractiveness and satisfaction to the human senses by anything
else among all the products of nature. Their juices are at once appetizing,
nutritious, and wholesome. .Millions of people have subsisted upon them
largely, from time out of mind.
It is, therefore, not a matter of wonder that our forefathers, when they
came to the shores of this New World, brought with them seeds, cuttings,
and jdants of tiie best fruits they had at their old homes. Thus it was that
the apple, pear, jieaeli, jjlum, clierrj-, grape, olive, date, almond, European
walnut and chestnut, and numy other less valuable fruits were first culti-
vated in North America.
The r>EiiiNxiX(i. — Previous to the beginning of the nineteenth century
tliere had been considerable develojmient in fruit culture in the colonies.
Small apple orchards were qiiite common in the settlements, from New Eng-
land to the Carolinas. The pear, peach, plum, grape, and a few other fruits
were cultivated in less degree. The Spanish had introduced the peach and
orange in Florida, and the French had planted the grape and pear in their
sjiarse settlements in the Mississii)pi Valley and near the Great Lakes.
There are to-day, and yet in a healthy condition, near Detroit, Michigan,
several immense ])ear-trees from these first plantings, that are nearly three
hundred years old. The Catholic fathers planted the vine and the olive, and
occasionally the date palm, at their mission stations along the Ilio Grande
and on the Pacific coast.
Thus we see that when the year 1800 ushered in the century now closing,
there were many feeble beginnings in the way of fruit culture scattered over
the Continent. The Indians, contrary to what we might have supposed,
helped materially in the distribution of some of the orchard fruits. In
17'.K>, when General Sullivan made his famous raid against the tribes which
composed the historic ''Six nations," he found bearing apjde orchards in
Western New York. In Southern Canada and Michigan the Indians occa-
si(mally i)lanted the apple and ])ear. The tribes living along the Gulf of
Mexico had peach-trees in their little cultivated patches, having obtained
the seeds from the Spaniards ; and to-day we find the descendants of these
Spanish or '•Indian" jx'aches commoidy grown throughout all the Southern
States, and to some extent all over the peach-growing sections of America.
Thk ExrK.iti:\ii:NTAL S'rA<iE. — During tlie life of the generation which
existed for the first thirty or more years of the century the culture of fruits
was still principally in the exjjerimental stage. Some of the foreign species
and varieties had not jjroved satisfactory, and they were being critically
472
Till UM PUS .lyn WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
tested or iibamlouod. New vurictiss were Leiny origiiiatetl on our own soil.
Our native fruits were being brought under culture, too, and with the most
satisfactory results in many cases. It was learned that we had in them the
foundation of almosr unlimited develoj)ment. Their progeny has revolution-
ized some lines of friut culture. This is esjiccially true in our viuej'ards and
bcrry-tields.
There were men of noble and patriotic cast of mind, who devoted their
lives to the develoimient of this lovely and wholly hunume work. They
deserve to rank beside the heroes of our battleHelds. 'I'heir victories were
tliose of jieace, and were followed by an increase of the delightful products
of the orchard, vine_\ ard, and garden.
(.)nce that our forefathers were free from the bondage of Kuropean greed,
this art of peace kept pace with our civilization on other lines. There is
nothing in the whole list of our scientific attainments or nuiterial industries
that can show more substantial i)rogress. Nor is there a nation on earth
that has so rich, varied, and adaptable soils, together with climatic conditions
so admirably and generally suited to fruit culture; nor a people more alive
to their opportunities in this direction.
The A<;e ok Pkooiikss. — During the generation of fruit growers who lived
from almut isyo until the time of the Civil War, the region lying between
the Alleghany .Mountains and the Missouri liiver, and extending from the
Ottawa Iviver in Canada to the mountains of Tennessee, which is now the
great ajiple l)in of America, as well as its granary, was being rapidly tilled
with energetic settlers. These pioneers carried with them carefully selected
seeds, cuttings, and trees of the best varieties of fruits known in their Easterr.
and .*^outhern homes. These were planted in the rich, virgin soil of the new
territory, which was then known as '• The West.'' Under the happy influ-
ences of a congenial climate and careful cultivation, they developed into
fruitfid orchards and vineyards, yielding finer specimens, and, in some cases,
larger crops than had ever been known in the older parts of the country.
This gave a great impetus to the culture of fruits. The first large com-
mercial orchards of the apple, peach, and pear in the central United States
were then being planted in Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky.
The South had not jet awakened to a knowledge of her possibilities in
fruit culture. Under sliive labor the land was almost solely given up to
cotton and tobacco. Florida had not then even dreamed of her wonderful
develop nents in orange (iulture. In Missouri. Kansas. Arkansas. Texas, and
tlie great Northwest, where now there are fruit ])lantations of almost \in](ar-
alleled extent, only the first trees and ])lants Avere being set. and it was only
thought /i'is.<!/>/r f/i'if some (Itnj fruits could be produced in .abundatice there.
The Hocky Mountain and I'acitic States had scai'cely been heard of, even ji.s
Territories, and only an occasional ])lantation of vines and trees around some
mission station could l)e found.
TiiK .\<iK OK TiiiiMrn. — At the close of the Civil War. which had some-
what distracted the attention of our peojde both North and Soiith fmm the
progress of the ])cacefid arts, there was a yreat expansion of our niral pojiu-
hition. The love of travel had taken jinssession of many who had been in
the armies. They were no longer content with the narrow boundaries and
the poor lauds of the old Eastern farms. They wanted new fields for their
%■
i<oil.
llKI.St
a the
itioii-
s and
their
Tliey
wore
nets
COCOAMT TKKE, I'AI-M ISKAllI. FLA
474 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
eiiergit's. Tlic building of the great railroad systoms ai'ross the continent
solved the qufstion of the settlement of the " Far Wt'st,"' and the niythieal
"American Desvf' that was supposed to lie this side of it. 'I'he prairies
^\ fre covered '.vi*^^h homesteaders' shanties, sod houses, and '• dug-outs." The
furests of iliehigun, Wisconsin, Minnesota. ^lissouri, and Arkansas fell be-
fore tlie axe of the pioneer. 'J'he '• Uoys in lUue "' who had seen the natural
advantages of the; Southern States, while then; on the dread errand of war,
began the rehabilitation of the country they had helped to devastate. They
tuiiiv with them their Yankee notions and Western vim, and planted many
kinds of farm crops, trees, vines, and berry bushes ui)on the old plantations
where little else than cotton and toba(!('() used U) grow. Florida- was veri-
tably turned into a garden of orange trees and truck i)atches. The chocolate
hills and rich black lands of Texas were planted to grapes, peaches, and
berries. The dry plains and mesas of the IJocky ^lountain region, that
were naturally almost devoid of vegetation, were irrigated and made to pro-
duce the most delightful fruits in abundance. Tiie giant forests of Oregon
and Washington were invaded by the lumberman and the hoineseeker, and in
their stead were planted trees which yielded the largest and best of fruits.
And California, — what shall we say of her wonderful valleys, grassy foot-
hills, and timbered mountain slopes ? All of the fruits of the tem])erate
zones are growing there, and in some places the hardier of the tropical kinds
succeed. California is indeed a land of fruits.
Taking the whole of North America, excp])t the frozen regions of the
liritish jiossessions, and Alaska, where few cultivated fruits can be grow n ;
and half-civilized ^[exico, where progress is scarcely known ; the last thirty-
five j-ears have witnessed such a<^lvancenients in fruit culture as seem almost
beyond belief. It has truly been an age of triumph. Not only has the terri-
tory of its successful culture been wonderfullj- extended, but the whole plan
and science of fruit-growing has been almost revolutionized. Old things
have largely ])assed away. New varieties, new methods of culture and new
markets for the products of the fruit farm have been found. Some of the
old varieties have been retained, but manj- new ones have been originated
here ; some 1 y chance and others by scientific breeding. Valuable kinds
that had long been lying in obscurity have been brouglit into public favor.
Others have been imported from foreign countries. Almost the entire world
has been ransacked in order to obtain fruits that might ])rove of value to its.
At the beginning of this period of uni)aralleled jn-ogress the experiments
of former years had shown the success or failure of the different species and
varieties already in cultivation in many parts of the country; and now. at
its close, after nearly forty years more of experience, there is scarcely Ji sec-
tion within the entire domain of North American fi'uit culture where it is
not quite well known what is and what is not adapted to each locality.
The methods of culture are changed from the old ones, which were largely
those i)racticed in Euro])e, to such as have been evolved by the jjcculiar
necessities of our soil, climate, and varieties. This is especially true of our
vineyards; for, except on the I'acific slope, where the foreign grapes succeed,
our native vines reciuire much less severe iiruning, and a much more roomy
trellis upon which to grow than those old kinds. The first vineyards were
planted very thickly and trained by the stake method, which is the French
THE CENTUllY'S PROGRESS IN FRUIT CULTURE
47.-
iitiiK'iit
ivtliiciil
imiiiics
Till.
IVll b,.-
iiaruial
of war,
'J'llf.V
'■ iiiaiiv
atioiis
IS veri-
"■olute
s. and
that
to ])IO
( >l'Oj,f()|l
, and in
and Gi'i'inaii style. I reniember woikinj^ in sucli vineyards just prior to
1.S70, iind of se(;ing the dwai'finj^ and dwindling ciYect upon the vines. Xo-
tiiing of the kind is now seen this siiU- the Koeky -Mountains, because our
VuKuican grapes will not endure sueh treatment and continue to bear well.
Jlorse culture has in a great nu'asure succeeded hand c\dture. AVithout
such a change it wotild be ini))ossil)le to ])r()titably cultivate tlu; vast stretches
of orchards, vineyards, and berry -tields that are to-day fouiul in many parts
of the country. The connnou i)low and harrow were about the oidy tools
available thirty or forty years ago. They are now supi)lcnu'nted, and in
sonu' cases superseded, iiy various kinds of cultivators, weeders, and ini-
])roved plows and harrows. They are made to c;..ry out the modern idea of
frecpR'ut but shallow stirring of the soil. This method of culture disturba
the roots but little and retains the moisture in the soil, by keeping the
surface tiuely pulverized, thus forming a " dust nudch.'* Some of these tools
are so made as to enable one man with one horse to easily cultivate twenty-
live acres per day, and with a two or three horse implement, to thoroughly
pulverize the surface over fifty or more acres in that time.
The tendency during the last luilf century has been towards heading
orchard trees lower. The old style was to have them with trunks so tall
that a horse could walk under the branches. Low heads have the advantage
of giving the winds less purchase upon the roots, the fruit is more easily
gathered, and the sun is less likely to scald the trunks.
The old idea of our forefathers was, that apples were chiefly to be used for
making cider, peaches for brandy, and grapes for wine. We have become a
nation of fruit-eaters, as compared with our predecessors and the Europeans.
The greatest inii)etus ever given to American fruit culture came from the
increased demand in our own country for fresh fruit. It is a staple article of
diet here, rather than a luxury, as it is in most parts of Europe. Xearlj' all
of our fresh fruits are consumed in the homes of our people, or exported.
A very little is made into cider, brandy, or wine, and the larger part of
the remainder is dried or canned. The pro])ortiou of grapes made into wine
east of California is trifling, whih^ there it is considerable. The enormous
production and consumption of berries of various kinds liy the Americans is
unparalleled in the history of the world ; and nearly all of this has come
through the development of our wild berries.
Instead of buying largely of foreign fruits and their products, except such
as are strictly tropical and cannot be grown within our borders only in a
Hunted w.ay. we have nearly stopped their importation, and have, in turn,
become exporters. The rapid increase in our population demands more and
more fruit, and it is not to be wondered at that our imports of oranges and
lemons is increasing ; but if it was not for our honu^ ]iroduction of these
fruits the present amount would be more than doubled. Our raisins and
dried jn'unes have almost driven out the foreign products, and their (juality
is so good that there is a growing denmnd for them in England and some
other foreign countries. 'I'he same is true of our canned .and ])reserved fruits.
Our apples bring the highest ])rice of any that reach the markets of Europe,
and the demand for them is increasing. Fresh jiears and i)eaches have also
been sent to England in limited ipumtities from as far west as California and
Oregon. Our oranges also have an enviable reputation there because of their
47G TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY
beauty and delicious Huvor. (;)ur apples are sent to Mexico, China, and
Jajjan. The street venders of Bombay. India, cry tiieir sale with great gusto;
"American a^jjles ! true Americun apples!" and sell them at a price which
would ro([uire more than a whole day's wages of a gooil workman to buy a
single one.
The world is beginning to know tlu? value and goodness of our fruits. We
are selling, inside their dainty skins, a jiortion of our sunshine ami water;
for the golden, i)ink, and crimson tints are from the glowing sun, and the
■water, which is the nuiin \)HYt of all fruits, is fresli from nature's fountain.
GirowTii OK Ari'LK Ciltihk. — From the first settlement of the country
■well into the present century, the princ-ipal purpose for which apples were
cultivated in America was to make cider. This was a common beverage in
England and on the continent of Europe, Avhence our forefathers came.
Here they introduced the Old World custom of drinking liard cider " in sea-
son and out of season." In ITl'l. in one "town" near IJoston, wherein lived
about forty families, there were nuide in one year three thousand barrels of
cider, and in another of two hundred families, near ten thousand barrels.
This is fifty barrels to the family, which seems ample for a great many
drinks per day tor each person, with plenty left to sell to the cider-loving
citizens of Boston. Colonel John Taylor of Virginia wrote, in 1813, neai'ly
one hundred years later: "The ap])le will furnish some food for liogs. a
luxury for the family in winter, ami a healthy iiijuor for the farmer aud his
laborers all the year."
Hut hard cider did not always satisfy. " Aiijilejack," which is the strong-
est kind of brandy, suited the taste of many of the old-fashioned folk much
better. The Virginia gentleman, the Dutch burgher, whose amide acres
fronted upon the Hudson, the solemn riiiladelphia Quaker and the staid
I'uritan of New England, all loved their dram and took it frequently.
Besides al'"ohf)lic liquors, vinegar was nuide in considerable <iuantities.
But as late as the middle of this century there was scarcely a good family
apple orcliard to be found, such as we now have, with varieties arra)iged to
ripen from early to late. Xor were there many commercial orchards of cou-
se(pience. The famous orchard of Robert L. I'ell, in Ulster County, New
York, was a remarkable exception. It consisted of 2(),()0(» ti'ces, all of the
YeUow and (Jreen Xewtown apples. Fruit from tliis orchard sold at whole-
sale in London, Englaml. in 184'), at the enormous price of iJi^L'l.OO per barrel,
but the next year the i)rice had fallen to .*!().(KI in New 'i'ork city, ready for
foreign shipnuuit. This orchard gradually fell into decay, and was not soon
followed by others of so large acreage. The Xewtown aiii)le proved unsuitable
for general culture, aud is now grown only in two localities with nuich suc-
cess. In the numntain "coves." or sheltered slopes and valleys, of the Blue
Kidge, in Virgin.ia aud Xortii Carolina, where it is called " Albeumrle I'ij)-
pin," there arc; many orchards that ]n'oduce as tine fruit as any from the I'ell
orchard, and it now sells from .fia.OO to .*>12.<lO and more jier barnd in Eng-
land. In the higher foothills of California and Oregon this variety does
equally well, aud apples from there are being sold in England during this
closing ]ieriod of the century at almost fabulous prices.
In the old days, if an orchard furnished an abundance of apples for cider,
brandy, vinegar, aii]ile butter, some for drying, and a few of fair quality that
would keep for winter use, it was all that was expected.
aiitl
wliicli
I'liy a
We
atcr;
1 tJie
till,
•iiiitiy
;e ill
:iine.
sca-
ivcd
•els of
iri'els.
iiiiiuy
oviiig
learly
)K's. a
id liis
478
rilWMJ'HS AM) WOyHKliS OF THE XIX'" CENTUnY
Most of the trees in those ohl orchards were iiilVrior seedliiiys, mid it is
no wonder that the iieo])le (d' those days did in it use ajiples as we do. A lew
of them were very j^oud, and it is from sueli chance iavorites tliat we have,
jtreserved to us, hy yraftiu^'. the Haldwin W'iuesiip ami iiiindreds more that fill
our ondianls to-day. We have devtdojied a new rai'i; of Amerieaii seedliiiys.
Most id the old varieties that were so hiyhly esteenutd across the ocean are
now rarely mentioned. Our newer and hetier kinds have largely suiiplanted
them. As time advanced more choice varieties were added, until \\v may now
confidently boast of havinf^ the he-it apples in e.\istence. Whoever has eaten
our dtdicious (Jrimes tiolden, .lonathan, and Northern Spy, need not look for
better kinds, because they cannot now be found. Indeed, the name '•Seek-
no-farther" has been triumphantly applied to (Uie variety, llowevi-r, we are
still seeking and expecting to produce by skillful breeding, if not to find,
others which may be even better than those we now jiossess.
\ history of the reiuignized and named varieties of ajiples of American
origin would be a Injok in itself. It should begin almost with the first settle-
ment of the country. At the beginning of this century the Early Harvest,
Baldwin, Swaar, Esopus Spitzenberg, Kliodc Island (Jreening, Y'ellow l>ell-
flower, and a few others whi('h are yet pojiular, were already grafted into
hundreds of orchards, some of them being as far west as the .Mississippi
Kiver. William Coxe, in his e.vcellent book on fruits, published in 1<S17, men
tions 1(K> kinds. William I'rince, of Long Island, who kept the first nursery
of note, had 110 varieties of ai)i)les in his published list in liSlT), of which
about halt were of American origin. Xow there are nearly 1000 kinds offered
by the nurserymen of the country, and the books on poniologj' contain nearly
5000 varieties, a large part of them being American. Truly this is jjrogress.
We have the best and by far the most extensive apjde country in the
world. The largest apple orchards in the world are in America. The biggest
of all belongs to F. Wellhouse & Son, of Kansas, in which there are KiOO
acres. There are others in Missouri, Illinois, Iowa, C(d<n'ado, and New ^lex-
ico that are nearly as large.
The variety principally grown in these orchards is the Ben Davis. It is
a thrifty, rugged grower, a most productive bearer, and a handsoiiu; apple
to sell. Its brilliant red stripes, large size, and ability to keep, make up for
its deficiency in flavor. It is, to-day, tlie business ajujlc of America. Bald-
win is the business apple of the Eastern States. Both these varieties are
well known in evi-rj' market of this country, and wherever our apples are
exported.
The first government record of exported apples was in ISL'l, when ''()S,r)43
bushels." or about L'l'.TSl barrels of ajiples. were sent abroad. In 1897 there
were 2,o71.14.'> barrels exported, which is the largest (pumtity ever shijiped
to foreign ccmntries in one year. During the same year there were also
exported neaily .'il.(H>0,(M»0 ])onnds cd' dried apjdes, Ol.OdO gallons of vinegar,
and 7.''A00() gallons of cider. Certainly this is a good showing for the sur-
plus products of American apnle orchards. The year 1898 gave a lighter
yield, but 1899 v. ill. perhaiis. about equal it.
The I'eai? — Whoever has eaten a delicious little Seckel jiear must know
that its equal in richness and spicy flavor is not to be found. This little gem
is one of the triumphs of American fruit culture. How far beyond and
THE CKWC'llY'S PliOGIlESS AV FRUIT CULTURE
479
Jl it is
|.V luw
liiive
|at fill
liiiy.s.
|iii lire
allied
now
|«Mtt'll
I'li (or
Isci-k.
I'"' ill'O
tiiid.
alxjvp thf old "cluikc " \*-.\\ of our gnmdl'atlu'rs' days is this oiu". and matij*
more of tlie delicious jK-'ars that giow iu our orchards and gardens tiKlay I
Tear growin*,' was only a side issiitj until lately. A few trees were phiiited
ahout our fun-fiithers" houses or iu the edge of the ajiijle orehard> ; hut
these were ofti-n .-»|>routs from s(une neighbor's seedling trees. As the uj>[ie-
tite for g»M)d fruit increased, the talse idea that pears sluiuld be grouml uitii
pressed into cider, called |M'ri-y. decrtased. until now no one thinks of wast-
ing this delicious fruit l»v making it into an intoxieatint' drink.
The Uartlett is our most popuhir pear of good (pnility. It originated
in
I'-eikshire. England. alMtut 177(», where it was called Williams. When
brought to America early in this century and planted at Dorchester. .Mass.,
the original name wa.s hist, and it was renanuMl in honor of Enoch Hartlett.
who tirst propagated and ilistributed the trees and grafts. The olil tree, from
whieii came tlie millions that have been and are now a source of delight and
profit to our |»eople, is .still in bearing condition at Dorchester, and I have
lately eaten as giNid I{.irth'tt pears from it as ever \\pre grown. The variety
flourishes In-ttcr in America than iu its old home, ami every year large shi[>-
ments of the fruit are .sent to England and sold at a very high price.
Some lifty years ago there were brought from (.'hiiui seeds of a type of a
pear that was entirely new to this country, and was called by us the "Sand"
pear. The only ap]iarent reason for giving it this name is, that it is gritty,
hard, and little lietter t(j eat tiian so much sand. ]?ut the seeds made trees
that grew with remarkable vigor and were much alike, and so was their
fruit.
From this stock came uji a seedling some thirty years ago, in the garden of
Peter KietVer. in IMiilailclphia, that has almost revolutionized pear growing
in America. It is sujiposed to be the result of a cross between a Chinese
Sand i)ear-tree and a IJartlett that stood near each other, although this is
mere supposition. Tlie fruit is only of medium quality, and stmie say it is
very iioor : but it is large, very beautiful when full\ nuiture, late in ripening,
and endures rough handling with as little harm as so nmny potatoes. It is
very iKjpular with the canners. The greatest point in its favor is the free-
dom of the tree from blight, its vigor and almost never-failing and abundant
bearing. It is the business jiear of to-day, despite its inferior quality.
TiiK Peach. — When the jieacli was first planted in America by the Span-
ish and French, and later by other nationidities, there was little thought of
it ever becoming a great commercial fruit. The trees that sprang from the
seeds brought across the ocean grew so luxuriantly and bore so abundantly
that their iirosrenv was soon scattered far and wide. Peach trees were earlv
foiind growing wild, like our native trees, wherever seeds hiid been drop(»-»l
by travelers or hunters. There was no attempt at commercial peach orcbanl-
ing until well into the jiresent century, and for the first half of this there
were scarcely more tham a few seedling orchards planted for family use or for
making bran«ly. In some sections dried peaches were an article of trade
1>efore any commercial ](each orcliards. in the true sense, had been jilantetl;
but they were always the jtroduct of women's work, and were prepared under
the disadvantageous conditions with which they are usually hampered. It is
no wonder that the grade was low, for the peaches were generally of |>oor
quality, and no other mode of drying was then known than on boards anil
480
TItlUMI'US AND n'OXDlCIiS OF THE XIX™ CEXTUIIV
Wdoilfii trays, oxi»psi'(l in tlu' oin'ii iiir to tlics, iiiotlis. iiiid dust. All that vvn-
sent to market was tirst taken in at I lie stores wliviis the eonntry iieople I'anie
to tratle. and it was a mixed mes-., indeed, that was thus cidleeti'd. Wliat
fi-e-;h |ieaelies were sold lirouLtht a veiy low luice, rarely niort! than twenty-
live cents per lilishel.
Karly in the century bndiled iieaeh-trees were almost iiid'inown in America.
A tew were liroiii;ht over I'rom l''iiince anil the fruit houses of Kn,i,'land. all ol"
which did very well here. However, it was soon leariie<l that there were
seedling's of .Vnu'ricaii ori,!.nu that were e(|ual to the best of the foreign
kinds. .Vmoiii,' the tirst of these were Heath, Karly York. Tillotscm, and
oldmixon ('lini.; and Free. A Utile later, two lartj;e yellow freestones came
up by accident on the premises cd' \\ illiam Crawford, of Middletown, N. .1..
one ripening; early and th.e other late. Karly (Crawford and Late Crawford
are, after more than sixty years of trial, still very popular upon the markets.
Many other kinds, <ince po|iular, have louj; since been discarded and for-
gotten.
Just before our Civil War tlie Halo peach was discovered and, beinj; earlier
than any kind then known, it became very i)()pular. About lS(;."i. the Ams-
deii, Alexiinder, and sonu' others canu' to notice. They were a month earlier
than the Hale. A jjcach, called I'eeu-to, wa' imported from .southern China
about the same time, that ri[)ened still a month earlier; but as it belon^'ed
to a very ditfen^nt race from our other peaches, and was e.xceedinyly tender,
it has been found stutable only to Florida and other s(!mitr(Ji>ical regions.
The most popuFar peach of the present day is the Klberta. It was origi-
nated by Samuel H. IJumidi, of (teorgia, about twenty years ago. Its large
size, creamy, yellow color, and good flavor, added to its productiveness, make
it very acceptable to both grower and oonsiuuer.
The most extensive peach orchards in Anu'rica are located in (leorgia.
North Carolina, Southern Missouri, Western Colorado, and California. A
few are each more than a thousand acres in extent.
The advent of patent evaporating machiiu's, about 1H70, aided greatly in
the production "f high grade dried fruits of all kinds, and the i)each shared
in the progress. California ami Oregon alone shipjKid in a single recent yeiir
nearly 4<>,(MMt,0(Kl pounds of dried ijcaclies. The jx'ach is canned more than
any other fruit, as maj' be seen upon the shelves of any grocery store, or in
the fruit closets of the coiiutry housewives. Whether eaten fresh from the
trees, served uj) with cream and sugar (a dainty dish unknown in Kurope),
evajwrated or canned, the peach is one of tlu? blessings of our great country.
TnK PuM. — There are three general classes of ])lums grown in America
to-tlay, the iMiropean. Amerii'an, and .lajiaiu'se. European plums were intr;>-
duced here at an early day, but were grown very sparingly until within the
last thirty or fiu'ty years. The i)rincii)al reason f'lr this is the presence of a
deadly enemy to the jduni, apricot, and some other fruits, commonly known
as the ]>lum eureulio. It is a /ift/r enemy but a itiHjhtjf one; for it deposits
its eggs in the young fruit, and they soon hatch into little grubs that work
their way into the fruit ami cause it to die and drop off. V/est of the Conti-
nental divide there are none of these insects. There the soil, climate, and
all else seem to cons]iire to enable the jdum-grower to prosper, (ireat prune
orchards are planted in the fertile valleys from New Mexico and Colorado
THE CEXrURY'S PIlOdllESS IN FRUIT CULTURE
481
westward. Some of them cover thuusands of acres in a body, and thn yield
i.s endinioiis. The rainless aiituiuiis of California permit tlie diyiii'.' of tho
fruit in tlie open air and in tiit; nio.st economical and perfect way. i'"rom an
infant indnstry twenty years ago it lias now grown so great that, in 1H!»7,
Ciilifoniiu alone ])rodueed nearly US,0(M»,(MMt pounds of dried ]irunes. Oregon,
Wasliin},'ton, Iilaiio, and .some other western States are almost equally well
suited to tills industry.
Kast of tlie Itoeky .Mountains iduin-growing is not so easy. The cnrculio
damayes all chisse.'-' of plums to sonu; extent, but tiie European kinds seem
to lie much less able to endure its attacks than any otiter. 'i'liis led to the
selection iuid cultiviition of the best varieties of ouv seveial native s]iecies.
Tlieir fruit is not so large or so ricldy tiavinvd as seme of tiie foieij,Mi kinds,
but niucli of it is very good, and the brillianl, red. iniride, :, id yellow colors
are greatly admired. Tiie .Japanese plums are of quite rei 'iit introduction.
Till- beginning was in l.S7(t, vviieii the Kelsey, Avhien is tiie largest, tlie latest
to ripen, and about one of llie least valna' le varieties of tliis class was
brought to ("alifornia. Later imp(»rtations liave brought ns many very valu-
abh' kinds. The trees bear well, the fruit is mostly large, handsome, of good
(piality, and resists the stings of the curculio quite as well as our native
kinds.
One of tiie most interesting and promising steps in plum-growing is only
be';iiining to Ije made, in the crossing of the tliree classes named. The most
skillful and patient worker in this tiehl is Lutlier IJurbank, of California,
who has already produced, by artitieially pollenizing the Howers, some most
excdhmt varieties. Some of thest' new varieties are larger than any plums
ever before seen, (leliei;ms in llavor, and blood-red to tlie stone.
TnK (hiKHKV. — Asvay back in the liistory of our country, cherry trees
were iilanted here and there, but only for family use. T'lie list of varieties
was meagre. Most of them were sour, bitter, or small. Now we hiive hun-
dreds of named varieties and of all grades of color, from -ireamy yellow to
black, and both swct^t and sour, early and late.
In Washington, Oregon, and California the cherry does better than in any
of the regions farther East. The first cherries of the season to ripen are in
the famous Vaca Valley of California, and sometimes shipments from there
reach New York as early as April 1. The largest cherry trees in America
are found in the foot-hill regions of Pennsylvania and Virginia. Trees are
sometimes seen there that have trunks three feet in diameter, with a spread
of branches of more than fifty feet. Such trees sometimes yield more than
fifty btishels of fruit at a time.
'I'liK AruK.'OT. — All over the Eastern and (.'entr.al States the apricot is
almost an entire failure because of the ravages of the plum curculio. After
many years of trial its culture there has been almosi; abandoned, except by
those Avho are willing to follow the jarring of the trees to catch the insects.
Across the Continental divide, wliere this enemy does not exist, the apricot
nourishes as well or lietter than anywhere else in the world. It is one of
the profitable fruits from western Colorado to the shores of the Pacific.
California dried and sent to market in one year over ;{(),000,(l(K) pounds.
There is also a. great amount of apricots canned there every year, a large
jiart of which are shipjjed all over the world.
Hi
482
THlflM/'HS AXn WnXDERS OF Till': A' /A""' CENTURY
TiiK (/iixt'K. — AltliniiKli suiir iind unlit tnr eating Irdiii tlif liaiul. tho
([111
lice is oiu' III' tiiir inn.st ilclicioii.s Iruits wlicn (MKikiMl. N'd sttn'c ut swt'ct-
iiicats is iM)iii|ilt!tt! witliDiit 11 ^'iMicroiis supiily of i|iiiiit!t' jt'U.v. 'I'iiis truit
(li'iivtlits ill a iiinist, sdil and a immiI liiit not st'VtTc cliniati'. Ilowcvcr. it siic-
• initt
lll'O
i'ccdrt very wull dvit tin' main part of North Ann-rifa. Almost every li
jtliit liUH 11 true t)r two. In western New \ork many eommerciul (lui
orehards have been planted within the last twenty-live years, sonu' of tl
leni
bei
ny of forty acres in extent.
Amkuu'AX (Jk.vi'k Ci i.ti itK. — In no department of American pomology
lias there been more remarkable advancement than in j,'rape-'j;i'owin},'. 1 1 was
the belief of those who lirst i)e;,Mn to i,'row fruits here, that tiie j^rapes (d'
Ciuiiuin, I'eriiia, (ireeee, and IJome, whi(di were bront,dd, down tlironj^di the
ages to the vineyards of modern Muiope, would j^row iMpialiy well in .\merica.
IMie j;reat reason for this Ixditd' was the abuudauct- (d' wild grapes (d' many
kiiuls that were found from Nova Scotia to Texas.
One of the lirst tidngs the pioneers of eivili/ation did in New Kngland. at
Hoannke Islaml, and at Jamestown, was to make wine of the native grajies.
The Spaniards in 1 "i(ll also made wine of the wild grapes of I'iorida. After
testing the wine and finding it inferior to that produced in their (dd homes,
the}' were more determined to grow vineyards id' the (dmicesl grapes of
Kurope. The Fremdi established a vineyard of this kind in Virginia, and
another in southern Illinois; and William I'enn diil tht^ same near J'hila-
delphiii in Kt.S.'i. The most notal)le attempt that was made was by .lohn
.lames Dufour, a native of Switzerland, lie came to .Vmeriea in iriH!. am'
at onci; set about doing the wisest thing that he coiild have done, by lirst
vi.siting ;inil luitieally e.vamiuing the vineyards that had already been starte.t.
He was not favorably impresseil by what he saw, for the Kuropean vines h.ul
done very poorly, because of some unknov.-n disease or weakness that seemed
to cause them to make but feeble growth, or gradually dwindle and die. The
cause has since been four 1 to have been the fungus diseases and insect pests
that are peculiar to the eastern halt' of America. lUit Dufour thought the
right varieties had not been tried, except a few that he found near I'hiladel-
jdiia. From these he secured a start, and in IT'.tn (U'ganized a stock vmw-
pany with iJilO.OOO in cajiital, to plant a vineyard, Henry Clay being one; of
the stockholders. A tract (d' (l.'i.'l acres was selected near Lexington, Ky.,
and there he began work, in the most enthusiastic manner. lie induced two
of his brothers to come from Switzerland to join him, and they brought other
varieties of their best grapes, lint after three years' trial he gave it up as
a liopeless effort and turned his attention to the cultivation of our native
grapes.
The beginning of successful grape culture in America maytj^said to have
been mad(! by Dufour. in his next or second attem])t, which whs in l.SOL'. at
Vevaj-, Ind., on the banks of the Ohio, and with a variety of the wild Vitiit
liilivusm, or fox grape, found near the Schuylkill liiver before the Kevolu-
tionary War. It was at first called the ''('ape'' grajie, from a mistaken
notion that it had been brought from the Cape of (Jood Hope. It was also
known by several other names. Although this grape was the first of a very
long list of native varieties which have made our country famous in grape
culture, it has long .since been entirely abandoned for better kinds. But the
h:\rirn v
III titf hidul. the
o store of swct't-
I'll.v. 'I'liis tniit
I [owovur. it Hiu'-
II' (st ('Very Ik mm
iiimcieiiil ([iiiiicD
•s, .some of tlu'iii
•ricaii poniolnyy
;ru\viii},'. It was
It I lie f^f,i|ies of
WW tlildiij,'li tlie
ivell ill Aiiierica.
f,'rji|)es of niuiiy
«'e\v Kii^'liiiiij, at
e native j,'rai)es.
i'iorida. After
ileir old lioiiies,
lieest jjrapes of
in Virj,'i:iiii. and
1110 near J'liiia-
I' was liy .loliii
oa in i7'.»(!. am'
done, hy first
y l)een started.
|iean vines had
ss that seemed
and die. The
nd inseot pests
ur thoiifiht tliB
near I'hiladel-
1 a stoeiv coiii-
y lieiii",' one of
;e.\inf,'toii, Ky.,
e iiiilneed two
hrouf,'iit otiier
trave it lip as
of our native
tN^aid to have
i!Hs*in ISOl,'. at
tiie wiM Vlf,)!
V the Jievolii-
m a mistal<eu
It was also
first of a very
aous in f,'rape
lids. But the
o
Sr,
O
o
u
a.
K
H
t.
O
u
Q
(-
Q
<
Hi
O
£
o
%
i
484
TRIUMPHS A\D WONDEJiS OF THE A7A'"' CENTURY
vine}-ar(l at Vevay. jilauted largely of this variety, was the first really suc-
cessful one in Anicriea.
The next forward step was the introduction of the Isabella and Catawlxi.
both having originated in Anieriea. not long j)revi()\is to iSl'd, although of
unknown i)arent:ige ; but, perhaps, as the results of aeeidental erossing Ije-
tweon our native wild grajies and some of tin; foreign kinds. The Isabt>Ila
is supposed to havi' originated in South Carolina, and was brought from there
by -Mrs. Isabella (iibbs ;ind jdanted in lier garden in Jirooklyn, N. Y.. where
it eanie to Uie notice of AVilliani K. I'rince in ISK!, when in full bf-aring.
He named it Isabella in her honor, and introduced it to the general i)ublie.
The Catawba is supjiosed to liave originated as a seedling near the Catawiia
Eiver, in >.'orth Carolina, but was not generally known until .Major .lohii
Adlum, of the District of Columbia, found it in Viearing on the premises of
».'"s. Seholl. a tavern keejier of Clarksburgh. .Md. lie was at once delightetl
w.tli its good (pudities, and planted it in his experiment grounds at George-
to'vn in 1JS19, and introduced it to the fruit-loving i)ul)lic soon after.
T'le next impetus to grape culture was caused by the intruduction of the
Delf.ware and Concord. The exact origin t)f the Delaware is not known, but
it came to public notice about 1855, through the efforts of Mr. A. Thoiusoii
ar.d iJeorge W. Campbell, of Di-laware. (,). It was learned afterwards that
the same variety was growing in l.sno. in the garden of a Swiss immigrant.
Paul H. Provost, at l"'renchtt)wn. >;. .1. It may be that it originated at this
jjlice from a chance seed, and that cuttings were thence carried to < »hiu.
It is evidently a cross between the foreign s]iecies and one of our nativt-s.
and is tonlay about the best of all the grajjcs grown in the Eastern States.
The Concord is a pure native seedUng, jiroduced by Ephraim W. P.ull. of
Concord, ^lass., and iirst shown to the ptd)lic at Uoston in l.S.">."). It has
proved itself to be the greatest blessing of all grapes that have ever \)e*-n
grown in America. Its thriftincss aiul reliability under all circumstances
fire unequaled. It is iu)t onlj' good in itself, but it has been the parent of a
!'aCL I'*' seedlings which have filled our vineyards, gardens, and markets with
the uKi t delicious grapes, and at a very slight cost of labor or nu)ney. Who-
ever gathers or buys a basket of blue-black C'oncord or AVorden, purple
Brighton or opal Niagara, should render a silent tha!ik-otTering to the
memory of Ephraim W. Pull, Mho made their existence a possibility.
The first commercial vineyard of imj)ortance was planted by Xieholas
Longworth, on the hills overlooking the Ohio Kiver, about ten miles Wlow
Cincinnati, and it w is largely of (Catawba. Ma .y others followed his exam-
])le. and from about iS.SO to ISdO so great an interest was shown tliat the
lulls bordering the ( )hio for many miles were dotted with vineyards. Put
nr dew and black rot devastated them and ahnost destroyed their usefulness.
Tli'jse diseases are now largely overcome by spraying with a .solution of
sulphate of copjier.
In northern (Hiio, about Cleveland and Sandusky, and on the islands near
the southern shore of Lake Erie, the Catawba was i»lanted with nnieh b»'tter
success, owing. i>erlia])S, to the climate not being so favorable to grajH- dis-
eases. The lake region of western New York is jierhaps more den-ely
planted with grapes than any section east of California. Thuusands of car-
loads of grapes of high quality are shipped from there every year. The
XTURY
lirst really siic-
a ami Catawba.
.'<». although of
:al crossing be-
Tlif IsalK-Ila
iglit fruiii there
n, N. v.. where
11 full lj«^aring.
iieral ])ul)lic.
ar tlif < 'atawlta
til Major Joliii
Hu' jiroinises of
oiue tleligliteil
iiiils at (ieorire-
ttor.
'(hut ion of the
not known, l>ut
r. A. Thomson
ftcrwards that
iss ininiiurant.
ginated at this
irri»'(l to « »hio.
of our natives,
itern States,
ini W. l!nll. of
IS.".;;. It has
have ever l)een
cir(Ministanees
tlif i>arent of a
I markets with
money. Who-
'orden, purple
ftering to the
ibility.
I by Xicliolas
n miles lx»low
wed his exam-
lown that the
nt'vards. IJut
eir usefulness.
a solution of
10 islaiuls near
Ii much Ix'tter
? to grajM- dis-
nn.re den^t-ly
usands of ear-
•y vear. Tlie
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN FRUIT CULTURE
485
Southern States liavo awaki-ncd somewhat to the importance of grape culture.
Some of tlie poorest sandy lands of North Carolina and Florida have been
jilanted to vines and found to ]iroducc, when fcrtilizcil. cxcellcut grapes.
Texas is also a most productive grape region. Their t.'arliness causes them
to tiiid a ready market in the North.
lint in all of North Auu'rica .there is no section where the grape flourishes
with such wonderful success as in California and other regions beyond the
liockx' .Mountains. There the tcndertjst and most delicious of all the grapes
of France. Italy. Persia, and Palestini' rijicu their luscious clusters beneath
the glowing skies. The grapes of Eshc-ol, 1 inuigine, did not surjiass those
now grown in Calilornia. .\rizona, New .Mexico, and Idaho. All u|» and
down their fertile valleys and to(jt-hills nuiy lie seen great stretches of vine-
yard after vineyard. The raisin industry alone is immense : and the product
is of such high (luality and is produced at so low cost that the importation of
European raisins is becoming less each yerv, and may soon be [iractically at
an end. We have already begun exporting our raisins to England and other
piirts of the world. Over 1(»,').( »()(),( MM) pounds, tilling .".(MM) ears, were shipped
from Calit'oruia alone in one yi'ar. Single clusters of grapes liave frequently
been grown in California that weighed from ten to tifteen pounds, and four
or live pound clusters are very (M)ninion. Truly. America is a laml of grajies.
TiiK l>i'.ui!ii:s. — America stands alone in tlie (lopular use of berries. E.x-
cejit in the matter of gooseberries and currants, which are r-ther plentiful in
some parts of EurojK', and a few strawbuiries and raspberries there and in
Japan, there are very few beriies grown outside of America.
The strawberry was lound wild here in all sections. The fruit was small
but of most delicious flavor. .V few of the varieties grown in the mother
country were brought over hei'c. but they did not flourish. Ab(>iit- 1,s,'!4 C. ^1.
Hove}-, of Cambridge, Mass., grew some seedlings of the old Pine straw-
berry, which is an offshoot of the wild strawberry of the west coast of South
America, and his introduction of varieties naiuccl Hovey and Roston Pine
marked the first step in our modern strawberry culture. Next came the Wil-
son, which (U'iginated about tSoO on the grounds-of John Wilson, of Albany,
N. V. This variety really iiopulari/ed the growing of strawberries, because
of its hardiness and productiveness. Soon after this the Crescent was found
at New Orleans. La. Other kinds were soon originated from seed by exjieri-
mcnters. and chance seedlings were found coming up in all fruit-growing
regions. It was not long until there were hundreds of named varieties of
good (piality and that bore abundantly. Within the last decade or two there
have been hundreds nuire originated by the most skillful hybridizers using
our native species and the foreign ones also. Others just as good were picked
up wherever they chanced to grow from seed. Thus, we now have the most
wonderful assortment of varieties of the strawberry in the world. They are
early. nuMlium. and late. The facilities for shipping are so conveinent that,
now, it is possible to have strawberries in the fancy markets almost every
day of the year, from some section of our great country. In the flush of the
season they are so cheaji and ab".;iii..nt that the jioor can enjoy them ;dnng
with the rich. From little garden pati 'les fifty years ago. and very small
ones too. we have now come to grow them by the thousand acres.
The ras]iberiy is another of our delicious berries. At first our jiioneers
486
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX"' CENTURY
were satisfied with those they couUl gatlier from the wild bushes. Follow-
ing the same plan that was used with most other fruits, the European rasp-
berries were brought over the sea and planted in the gardens of America.
But they did poorly, and about 1850 our people began to plant the native
varieties. These grew and bore well. Now we have liundreds of the very
choicest named kinds, blaek, red, purple, ami yellow, early and late, and
more being originated every year.
The history of the gooseberry is almost identical with ihat of the rasp
berry. The foreigJi kinds, although bearing very much larger fruit than
our n.ative kinds, vere ruined by mildew. About 1S4~» Abel Houghton, of
Massachusetts, gn^w a seedling from the w'ld berj-y, which was named
Houghton, and from this came another seedling, the Downing, which was
originated at Newburgh, X. Y., some years later. These two varieties are
now among our very best kinds. Since the benetits of spr.iving with fungi-
cides luive been known, the larger and milder flavored En;^'lish kinds are
being grown with considerable success.
The blackberry is found native onl^- in America. It has been one oi the
nmst useful of all our wild fruits from the earliest sett! -ment of the coun-
try, and was used by the aborigines for centuries before. Until about 1840
there was n(jt enough thought given to blackberry culture to make the least
attempt in that direction, when Captain Lovett. of lieverly, Mass.. gave the
name Dorchester to a chance variety, and distributed it. Soon after 1850
the Lawton was taken from its wild habitat on the banks of the Hudson
Kiver. This variety was the first reallv good blackberry that was named
and distributed. The Kitatinny followt-d about ten years later, having been
found wild in the movmtains of western New .Fersey. At least two white
varieties, and several having ])iuk berries, that were found growing v;ild,
were named and sent out. These novelties are yet cultivated by a few
auMteur horticulturists. It may seem strange to say that we have white
and red blackberries, but it is a fact. At this date we have many kinds of
later introduction, some early and some late, and of most delicious flavor.
l'< rhaps all Americans know that cranberry saiu'c goes with Tlianksgiving
turkey. No country in the world has so many cranberries as North America.
The bogs of Cape "od are Yamous for this fruit, and the Pilgrims of I'lymouth
colony knew of them, and served them on their rustic tables. Now the wild
mar.shes along the Atlantic are nearlj' all under cultivation, and the product
has l)een increased many fold. Fully 1.000,000 bushels are marketed when
the cro]> is good. The same is being done with the bogs in the vicinity of
the Great Lakes. Criinberries grow in untold (]uantities on the marsiies of
Alaska.
CiTurs Fiu'iTs. — AVlien the Spaniards invaded Floritla in search of gold
they brought with Iheni seeds of the oitrus fruits from the regions of tlie
jVrediterranean. Tliere the orange, lemon, and lime were jilanted in the
genial climate of our Southern borders. The fruit was carried hither and
thither, and soon esca])ed the bounds of the cultivated areas. Tlie forests
in ])l.aces were tilled witli w'ld orange trees, the most of wiiich bore fruit of
]ioor (luality. When the tide of immigration st t s(mthward after the Civil
AVar. these wild groves were bnddeil to good varieties, and new land was
cleared and planted with small seedlings. These were budded to good varie-
NTURY
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS FN FRUIT CULTURE
437
ishes. Follow-
Eiiiopean ra3i>
lis of America,
laut the native
(Is ot the very
and late, and
at of the rasjv
ger fruit than
1 Houghton, of
h '.vas named
ing. whicli was
o varieties are
ing with fungi-
lish kinds are
jeen one oi the
nt of tlie coun-
ntil about 1840
nuike the least
Miiss.. gave the
oon after 1850
of the Hudson
lat was nauu'd
er, having been
east two white
. growing v;ild,
'ated by a few
we have white
many kinds of
cious Havor.
Ii Tlianksgiving
North America,
us of Plymouth
Now the wild
ind the product
marketed when
the vicinity of
the marshes of
1 search of gold
regions of tiie
jilautcd in the
ricd hither and
s, Tiie forests
ch bore fruit of
after the Civil
I new land was
d to good varie-
ties in due time. Orange culture was soon a fixed industry in Florida. Tins
increased rapidly up to the time of the severe freei:e of 1894-9*), wlien there
were shipped over 5,000,000 boxes. Since tlien the results of the freezing of
the trees has greatly lessened the product, but it is steadily increasing again.
The lemon has attracted much less interest than the orange, but I have
seen one lemon orchard in Florida of more than two hundred acres, and there
ai'e many smaller ones.
The lime is but little called for, and is therefore grown more as a novelty
than for commercial purposes.
The pomelo, by some misnamed " grape-fruit " is a very large, wholesome,
and delicious citrus fruit that is becoming tpiite popular where it grows, and
in the northern markets.
OUAN(iK OUCIIAUD OK I.VMAS PHEI.I'S. SANKOICD. FI.A.
In California the orange was first jilanted by the mission fathers centuries
ago. The first real orchard is said to have been planted at San Gabriel in
1804. Before the discovery of gold in that far-away region very few orange
orchards existed there, and they were of small size. Up to 1872 very little
more than this was done, Avhen the founding of the colony at liiverside. and
the fortunate introduction of the l>ahia or Xavel orange from Brazil by our
government, at this juncture, was the start of ]»rosperous citrus culture on
that coast. Now there are annually about 5.00((.0(Ml boxes of oranges sent
out of that State alone, and the amount is steadily increasing. A large part
of these are of the jtistly famous Navel variety.
licnion growing is also becoming a great industry there. Orchards of one
hundri'd acres are rather connnon. and some are fully five times larger. Over
2,000.000 boxes of lemons wen? produced the past season.
The Olive. — Among the liistoric fruits of Palestine and southern Europe
the olive holds a conspicuous place. Numerous but futile .attempts were
488
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE AVA'"' CENTURY
1
made in early times to establish it in Virginia and along the Atlantic coast,
the climate there ])roving iinsiiitahle. JUit in the warmer parts of California
the olive is perfectly at lionie. The first olive orchard of consecpience was
planted by EUwood CJooju'r, at Santa liarbara, in 1<S7L', and in liSTO he made
oil from the fruit grown on the trees. Now tliere are many extensive
orchards in many i)arts of the State. It is estimated that there are nearly
2,()0(),(KM> olive trees now growing in that State. The oil and pickled frnit
are steadily becoming iKjpular in our fancy markets in competition with the
foreign jjroduct.
Thk ¥ni. — Very little is done in iig culture east of California, although
the trees are not tender along the Gulf coast, except in case of extremely
severe winters. In California it is a decided su".cess, commercially as well
OLIVE OIU'IIAUU, QUITO UANCH, NKAU SAN .lOSK. CAL.
as for mere ]ileasure. 1'he past year dried figs to the amount of nearly
4,(l00,00(> jiounds were sent to market, and the quantity has been constantly
increasing for several years.
Till', PiNKAi'i'i.K. — Those who have never seen ]>inea]>ples growing are apt
to think they are jiroduced on trees. This is far from the fact. 'J'hey grow
on the tips of stalks about two feet high. The plants have large narrow
leaves that cluster at the ground, from the centre of whi<'h these stalks
spring. A few ])atches wert; jilanted on the islands near the Florida coast
in ISfiO, but it is only about fifteen years since the first vigorous attempts
were madf to grow this ddicious fruit in the TTnited States. Florida is the
only region within our country where the climate is :iufficiently moist and
warm for it to flourish. Along the east coast, from Hock Ledge south-
ward, and on the west coast lielow Tampa, are the most favorable sections.
Many acres are devoted to its culture there. Frosts damage the jdants some-
times, but they soon recover. In central Florida, many acres are grown
URY'
THE CENrUltY'S PHOGKESS IN FRUIT CULTURE
489
laiitio coast,
if Califonii.'i
'•lucneo was
''7(; lin made!
y exk'iisivo
e are nearly
)ickli'(l fruit
oil witli the
ia, altlioiir,'h
f cxtreiiu'ly
ally as well
under sheds. Tlieso are made of frame-work, whieli is eovered with slats or
boii!,'iis as a protection from frost. Upwards of ;{,(M)(),(K)0 fruits of market-
able si/e are now produced in Florida annually.
Oriiioii Fiu ITS. — The date is ju.st beginning to be set in the arid regions
of Arizona and southern California, and with good prospe(!ts of success.
Already many trees are in liearing, and the fruit is of excellent (piality.
'I'hc ciioicest varieties have been imported from Africa. The guava is being
grown in the warm parts of Florida and California. The mango has been
fruited in the warmest parts of Florida and ('alifornia.
NiTs. — 'J'he sweet almond of sonthern Enropi' has long been tested iu
America, but nowhere with success except in California, where there are
almond orchards of several hundred acres each. The I'ersian (wrongly
h*
t of nearly
t constantly
i'ing are a])t
'I'hev grow
rge narrow
hese stalks
orida coast
IS attempts
orida is the
moist and
Mlge south-
le sections,
lants some-
are grown
,...-?.
.XT''" , T' . *;r
J^
PINKAI'IM.E KIKI.n AT PAI.M DEACII, FLA.
called English) walnnt is a great success in the richer lands of California,
where orchards of majestic trees have been in full bearing for many years.
Of our native nuts the ]>ecan is the best of all. and it is about the only one
that has so far ])roved worthy of cultivation. It is found in a wild state in
Illinois. Missouri, and Nebraska, and .southward to the CJulf of Mexico. The
creek and river bottoms snit it best, but it will do very well on almost any
rich land. On some of the hammock lands of Florida hundreds of acres
are now ])lanted to the pecan. The largest jiecan orchard '■< that of F. A.
Swinden. of I'rownwood. Texas, which covers over five hnndrcd acres, and
is lieing increased from year to y»>ar.
Our native chestnut is of better cpiality than the foreign kimls. but the
nuts are much smaller. The largest arc from Japan, some of which are two
inciies in diameter. ^lany of these choice kinds have lieen imported, and
otlici's were originated from seeds, which are now being planted in orchards.
The best of the Enropean chestnuts have also been imported, and new kinds
490
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A/A'" CENTURY
have been grown here from the nuts. Nearly all of these varieties succeed
in Anu'rioa, and many small orchards have been ])Ianted. Some have grafted
sjtrouts from our native chestnut stumps and small trees with these improved
kinds, and found them to grow and bear abundantly.
The cocoanut is strictly tropical, and can only be grown in the very
warmest parts of Florida. It will not endure as low a temperature as the
pineapple without injury. As a commerci.il venture its culture will probably
never pay in America, but for ornamental purjmses and as an interesting
novelty it is already a success from Lake AVorth .soutliward. The waving
plumes of this giant p.alm .are n source of constant delight to those who are
privileged to see them. The huge clusters of nuts are indeed an interesting
sight.
Surely we have a gre.at and fruitful country, from the cranberry bogs of
.arctic Alaska to the w.aving cocoanut groves of Florida. Tliis century closes
and the new one begins with wonderful advances in fruit culture beyond
those of a hundred years ago.
H. E. \xs Deman.
! ■
riiY
■ies succeed
iive grafted
e improved
1 tlie very
tare as tlie
1 jji-obably
interesting
.'lie waving
3se wlio are
interesting
ry bogs of
tury closes
un beyond
Demax.
THE CENTURY'S COMMERCIAL PROGRESS
CoMMKRciAL activity has three phases, trade, shipjying, and shipbuikling.
In each of these tlnee phases of commerce the nineteenth century has wit-
nessed a remarkable jjrogress. The expansion of both domestic '.lud interna-
tional trade has far exceeded the anticipations of those who livtul u hundred
years ago ; and the agt-ncies of transportation by water, the numerous auxil-
iaries of commerce and the shipbuilding industries, 1 ,ive underg(jno a teehni-
cal revolution so complete, and with consetpiences so beneficent to our social
and industrial life, as to make the commercial progress of the jiast hundred
years one of the salient features of the history of the century. We shall
better appreciate the nature and scope of the commercial i)rogress of the
past hundred years, if we glance for a monuMit at a i)icture of the commerce
of the world at the close of the eighteenth century.
I. MAIX FEATUKES OK THE WOUI.d's COMMEIiCE AT THE CLOSE OF THE
EUillTEEXTlI ( KNTIUV.
A hundred years ago, the volume of trade, both domestic and foreign, was
necessarily kept within jjroportions relatively small as compared with present
traffic, because of the slowness and high costs of inland transportation.
Domestic inland traffic is directly dependent upon facilities for water and
land transjjortation, and until the railroad came -iito use. some seventy years
ago, only those countries having numerous navigable rivers or well-developed
canal systems could extend their eommeice much beyond the cities and dis-
tricts adjacent to tide water. In all ages since the world became civilized
enough to engage in commerce, an overland traffic by caravan or wagon has
been carried on ; but the amount of commodities could not be huge, ami the
kinds of goods transjjorted were necessarily limited to articles of high value
])er unit of bulk or weiglit. Such an inland trattic as this did not establish
the basis for a large coa.'twise or over-sea commerce.
At present, bulky commodities ])roduced long distances from the sea-ports
comprise a large portion of international traffic, aiul sujjply the coast cities
with the raw materials from which they manufacture the articles they con-
trilnite to swell the volume of foreign trade. AVhen the njeans were wanting
for the inland transportation of these bulky commodities, only a few coun-
tries, such as riuenicia, the Italian cities, Portugal, the Netherlands, the
United Kingdom, and the IJritish colonies in America, could develop an
important maritime commerce. Duriig the past fifty years, the improve-
ments in transportation have been such as to enable all industrial countries,
inland as well as maritime, to engage extensively in the world's trade. Com-
merce has become general ; ;ind countrii's like Switzerland and Saxony readily
market their wares the world over.
The volume of foreign trade, as late ; s a hundred years ago, was really
J
492
THILMJ'HS .LVZ> nOXDEllS OF Till-: XIX'" CENT UK Y
small, even in ilic case dl' the iiiiist imi>oitiiiit conimeicial nations. The
iniiK)rts and I'Ximvts of tlie I'nitt'd Kinj^iloni in ISdO anKnintt'd to about
8;{t;o.nn(MMi(t, wlilcii. for a ]poi>ulation of ai'pioxiniati'ly lS.(l(i''i)0()^ would bo
about >>:.'(» per capita. At tliat time tlu^ U'adc of tlic I'liiti'ii iviiij^doni was
al)out one tenth wliat it is now. At tint present time tiie foreij^n (•onimere{!
of the L'liited Kin,i,'doni amounts to nearly !^UH) for each inhaliitant of the
country.
Tin- thirti-en Itritish eolonies in America and the ori,i,'inal cominonwcaltlis
of the I'nited States were all maritime States with na\ii,'able rivers, and
their ind\istries, bunberinif, fisheries, production of food products and tobacco,
called for the I'xchantje of lar.nc (piantities of comniodities with the manufac-
turers of the home country, and with the tropical ishiuds of the West Indies.
For their time, then, these States wen? larjje traders. The statistical infor-
mation which we jjossess (d' their couimeice is meaijjre. but we know that
the total trade of the eolonies with the mother country in 1770 was alunit
§l.">.lHli».(HM> a year, or somethiui,' over four dollais per person. There was a
trade of considerable jiroportions with the \\'est Indies, some with the ."\ledi-
tcrraneun countries and Africa, an(', alter tiie colonies became States, with
the East Indies and the Orient ; but in all probability the foreign trade of
the Americans did not reach t.en dollars per capita until after 17!M). .\t the
present time, in spite of the very rapid growth ot population in the I'nited
States that has continued throughout the nineteenth century, our foreign
traile is equal to tweiity-tive dollars per ]ierson.
It is w.ien the counncnre of the eighti'cnth century is viewed from the
standpoint of the transportation agencies by which it was served — the size,
s]>eed. and efficiency of the ships — that the contrast with i)resent conditions
be<"omes most striking. 'I' wo hundred years ago, the "idO ships owned at
London averaged l.">7 tons. A century ago, a vessel of JidO tons was still
considered a large ship, aiul as late as 1S4(> vessels of that size traded from
the United States to India and China. The (Jrand Turk, of od-l tons, built
in 171H, was probably the largest ship built in Anuu'iea tip to that time.
During the fourth d(;<-ade of the nineteenth cc'itury numerous vessels of over
1(M»0 tons were constructed, and in lS4t> the (ireat liritain of .'?0(l(t tons v,-as
ordered. In her day the (ireat itritain was more of a marvel than is the
recently lavniched (.>eeanic, of L'S.ntKt tons dis])laeenu'nt.
When we consider that these small vessels in use a century ago took from
a nuuith to six weeks to cross the Atlantic, — their sjieed being about one
third that (jf the freight steamers of to-il;iy, — we realize the great difference
in the etticieiiey of the merchant marine of the present as (U)mpared with
that by which commeice wiis served in ISOO. The etticiency of th(> shijis,
however, does not dejM'ud aloiu' upon their size and s|iet-d. The e<immercial
auxiliaries wliich enable vessels to enter and clear harbors without delay, and
to load and uidoad cari,'oes (puckly. — lighthouses, beacons, buoys, spacious
wharves and docks e(piii)ped with mcchanieal a])pliances for handling freight,
— ..»ake It possible for VCHstds to spend a greater portion of the time at sea.
A nu'rchant marine to-day has fully five times the efficiency that one with
an equal tonnage had a century ago. ^\'e shall better see how this has been
brought alM)iit, liV brietly reviewing the technical revolution which has taken
place in ocean navigation (hiring the past seventy years.
THE CEXTUnrs COMMERCIAL PliOGJlESS
4fO
Tho
almut
Itlll 1)0
111 was
iiiicrco
>1' till)
H. TIIK rKNTlliY S TKrilMCAI- UKVOLl IION IN ( (IMMKlsrK.
During tin- tir:.t luiir dfrades at tliis ct'iitiirv tlu' wooden sailin^^ vessel was
tlte sole earner of oeean traHie, and in the con.stnietiou antl o|ieiiitii>u ot .sucb
ships the Anierieans had >](fei;il advantages and manifested ].eeuliar in,'etiu-
itv. For turty years the Anieiiean sailin;^' dijuier. wliose tiiu' lines made it
Htaneh and sjM-edy. had Ween "the t\ pe and modid ot excellence in »hij>.
huilding:" but U-fore the iiiiddle of the century tlie supremacy of tiie
wooden clipiier-sliip had Ix-.n destroyed, and the technical superiority of
steam a'ld iron had iMjen demonstrated.
There are six disiinet steps in the tecluiical evolution of the ocean liner of
A ('I.IPPKIl SHIP.
ips,
the present ilay. — six changes which mark the epochs in the history of the
suhstitution ot steam and steil for sail and wood. The first step in the evo-
lution was taken wiien the steam enijfinc and the ])addle-wheel took the place
of wind ami sails. Like most eiioch-makin<,' changes, this one was made
slowly: indeed, it was jueceded liy thirty years of hesitation and conserva-
tive exj>erimentatiiin. lloiiert l''ulton. taking advantage of ideas and plan*
whiel' he had obtained in Kurope. ])rodu(eil his Clermont in 1807. and de-
monstrated the ]iractiea1»ility of the steamship for river traffic. Five years
later, Henry IJell of J^cotland constructed the rioniet. the first passenger
steandwat built in ^vurojie. a vessel oidy forty feet long, ten and one half feet
in width, and of four horse-jtower. The Clermont was somewhat lar'::er.
having a length of 1,'}<I feet, a beam of eighteen feet, and a hold six feet iii
depth. She succeeded in making five miles au hour against stream. Tbe»e
1
4M
TltlUMrUS AX I) WnSDEltS OF TlIK A7A"' CESTURY
little vpssfls attracted jjreat iittentioii. and tlm iirohlfiii of (■(uistnu'tiiur ships
that coiilti cross tlic i>cc,iii Ity steam jiowcr licj^an to l>c studied, in lSi<.». the
Savannah was titled with enviines and crossed the Atlantic, usin^' hoth steam
IKiwer and sails, liut the vessel did not [irove a success, and lier en.u'incs were
taken out the toliowini,' vt-ar.
Indeed, it was not until XH'Xi
that n vessel steamed all the
way across tlie Atlantic; and
this shij), the IJoyal William, a
Canadian craft of tour or five
iiunclrf<l tuns, was alile to make
tlie trip from (,»uelicc to (iraves.
end on the Thames only liy
stoppinj,' for coal at I'ictou,
>i'ova Scotia, and Cowes near
Portsmouth. I'^n^land.
The tirst steamships to cross
the 0(;can without recoaling
were the Sirius and (treat We.st-
ern. which arrived in New York
the same day, April l',"!. iS.'tS.
the former vessel having sailed
from I-ondon and the latter
from Liverpool. This achieve-
ment on the ]iart of these two
wooden craft. ludthcr one capa-
ble of carry int,' more than seven
The New York "t'ourier and
HOIIKUT Ki'i/rox,
luindred tons, created a great impression.
Enijuirer" said, in its issue of .Ajjril 24. l.S,'{.S; —
'• \Yliat may be the ultimate fate of tiiis excitement — whether or not the
exjiense <d' e<iiiipmciit and fuel will admit of the employment of thece ves-
sels in the ordinary jiacket service — we cannot jin'tend to form an opinion;
but of the entire feasibility of the i)assage of the Atlantic by steam, as far
as regards safety, comfort, and dispatch, even in the roughest and most
boisterous weather, the most skeptical man must now cease to doidit.''
The employment of steamships in the regular jtacket service was as.sured
in 1S.'>!I. when Samuel Cunard founded the famous Hnglish line that still
iM-ars his nanu'. and ordered four steamers of moderate size that cost between
four and live hundred thousand dollars each. These, however, were wooden
vessels, and it was not until 185(5 that the conservative Cunards constructed
any iron ships.
The c(.nstruction of iron ships for ocean navigation marks the second im-
poi-tant jihase of the technical evolution (d' the i>ast century's commerce. It
l)egan on a small scale about IS.'U), and in IS.'iT an iron vessel. The Kaiid»ow,
of six hundred tons was built; but the first large iron steamer was ordered iu
iS40. and was the famous (treat I'ritaiu before referred to. constructed by
Itrunel. the engineer who sidiseijnentl}' built the unfortunate naval monstro.s-
ity, the Great Eastern. The com])letion of the Great Britain, in 1843, was an
imiKJrtant event in the progress of ocean navigation, not only because she
was five times
fact that Urn
propelling the
Till' Hubstiti
lihase of the
sul)se(pitMitly 1
of the MM'cw a
two hundri'd ;
cess of the Ai
I'.ritain.
The superio
iron shii»s coi
adopti<in of i
slowly. lu'h
fore ISoO, .in
reason why tl
was probably
conservatism
ern, finished
and ])addlc-w
ISr.;?. .ibout t
twenty-five ]
British-built
United King
.\merica w
was so high.
77//!: CKNTUHY'S COMMKIUIAL riiOliliESS
405
was tivn times tlic si/o of hor largeHt inm lucilet'cssor, l«it also because of the
lact that Uniiicl dwided, wliile ImildiiiK the vessel, to adopt the hncw lur
Iiropi'lliii;,' tlie ship.
Thi' substitution of the serew instead of |)addh--\vheels represents a third
pliase of tlie technieul evobitioii of ocean navi|,Mtion. .loini Kiicsson. wiio
sul)se(iuently built the famous .Monitor, had (h-nionstrated the praetieability
of the 'orew us a propeUer in l.S.'M}. and, tiireevears later, the Aniiiniedt's, of
two hundred and thirty-seven tons, was fitted with a screw. It was tlu' suc-
cess of the Arcliiuu'des that led JSruuel to adopt the screw on tiie tircat
Itritain.
The superiority of tlie screw over i>addle-wlieels. and the ,i,'reater merits -if
iron siiii»s eomiiared with wooden vessels, have lony been aceejiled ; but tho
l-'.V... •'. • .-,,1. . .
THE ei.EIlMONT. Fri.TOX s FIIIST STK.4Mm)\T.
adoption of iron as a material and of the screw for a proi)eller came about
slowly. Indeed, iron ship-buildiu;jr macb' little proirress in (Jreat liritaiu be-
fore ISoO, ,ind in this country wood w.is adhered to till much later. ( »ue
reason why the Knglisli did not cbantre to the screw and iron more quickly
was probably the great intiueiu'e exerted by the jjowerful t'unard line, wiiose
conservatism caused it to hold to wooden shijis until IS.'jG. The Great East-
ern, finished as late as 18.~»J). was an iron ship, but was fitted with both screw
and paddle-wheels. Of the total tonnage built in the United Kingdom in
ISo.'?, about twenty -live per cent was steam tonnage a.ul a little more than
twenty-five jjcr cent was of iron. At the jiresent time three fourths of all
I'.ritish-built vessels are steamers, and no wooden ships are built in the
riiiti'd Kingdom.
America was slow in changing from wood to iron, because the cost of iron
was so high. We bad wood in abundance, numerous yards for the construc-
-^
IIMJ
TiurMi'iis AM) noypi'Jiis or the a/.v" chxri'iir
iioll of WchhIi'Ii vessels, ami were llie liiiilders of (lie liesi type ol wooden
sliiiiH. Ill liS.").'f. the yi'iir jiisi refeireil to for (iieat llritaiii, twenty-two per
<MMit. of tlie toiiiiiiK'' of tlie vessels Itiiill ill this coiiiitry wiis in .steamslii]i.s, hut
only an ina|i|ireeiaiile jioition was in iron vt'ssels. 'I'lie adlu'reiuic of Aiiu-i'i-
can sliip-linilders and owners to wood is well illustrated ip\ tiie aetioii lakeu
liy the owners (d' the fanuuis hut uiilortunale Ainerieaii Collins line, estah-
iished in ISI7. Tlio c'oiii|iany Ix'K'iiii. in iS.Vi. to run lour |palatiai steamers,
iiuilt without. re;,'ard to cost, and sn|i|ilied with luxurious apiiointineiits, snuie
<d' whieli are retained in \esse!s of the [uesenl da_\ ; liul tin' eoniiiany huill.
thi* ships <d' wood and propelleil them with paddle-wheels. Tim K'reat Ameri-
can ship-liuildiiiLj firm, William ( 'ramo I'v Sons, founded in IS.IIt, did n^t he.LMii
const ructin;^ iron ships till |N7<I. liven in |S!»,S. the tonna^^e of wooden ves-
sels eonstrueted was one and a hall times the steel and iron toniiiiyc. Ahont
twenty-six per cent of our merehaiit marine, foreii;!! and domestic, is now
made up (d' iron and steed vess(ds.
Tlui next impiMtaiil step in maritime iiroj,'rcss, foUowinj,' the iuh)iition of
iron and tlm screw, was talieii aliout IS7t>. wln'ii tiie compound en!,'ine came
into jfcneral use, 'I'houi^di the eomponiid engine liad been used on a small
vosHi'l in Franco as early as 1SL".». it was iirst extensively udoptcd as the
result of the rapid development in steam naviijation wliicdi toctk place in the
seventic ■ !n the c(unpouud en,i,dne the steam, instead of heiic^' used in only
one cylinder in jpassinf^ from the boiler to tli»^ condenser, exerts its force in
two or three cylinders, and even in four, in the quadruple expansion enf;ines.
Tliis results in a threat economy in the amount of fucd used. In the earlier
marine eni,'ines the pressure of steam in the boilers was tliirtei'ii jMJunds to
the scjuare iiudi, and tht! (consumption of coal per horse-jiower per limir was
live and one half pounds; whi'ivas, at the jiresent time, a iiressure of two
liuinlred pounds per sipuire inch is maintained, and the find used luis been
reduct'd to loss than one and a half pounds per honr for each indicated horse-
power.
Ten years after the compound engine came into .t,'eneral iist>. the (du'aiiened
cost of steel ina(h! it possible to adopt stetd in tine place of iron in the con-
struction of hulls. This may be regarded as markint,' a fifth eiioch-makint,'
step in the jirogress of commerce ; because the steel ship was stronger,
lighter, and able to carry more cargo than iron vessels of the same si/e.
The substitution of steel for iron in tiio Hritish yards was made rapidly, in
1870, only ten ami a (piarter per cent of the tonnagt! constructed on the
(.Hyde was of steel ; but in iSSi) the per cent had risen to ninety-seven.
During the past twenty years there have been many improvements made
in the construction and appointments of shi]is ; but the more imiiortan;
(dianges havt^ consistetl in dividing vessels, by means of bulkheads, into sev-
eral water-tight compartments, and in substituting twin screws for the single
s(!rew. The Inniaus ]ilaced twin screws on the City of New York in ISS.S,
ami since then theii' iisi- has lieccjiue general on tlu' larger ocean liners.
The twin screws add .somewhat, though not greatly, to the s])eed of vessels;
but they render ships mur,h safi'r and less liabh^ to be disabled. An ocean
steanu'r with twin screws and water-tight comiiartments can stiffer any one
of the common accndents — siudi as bnniking of one of its shafts, losing one of
its screws, having its rudder damaged, or one of its engines give out, or hav-
I'
I :
]i<'m'(l
I'dii-
kiiii,'
si/c.
Ill
111 the
•> i
f
'1 I
i
THE CEXTUltY'S COMMERCIAL PIWaitESS -.wT
iiiK itH 8i(l« piiiictiirtMl Ity collision — withoir. l>*-iiig (liniihltMl. Although (M>imu
ti'iivi-1 still hiis its (iiiiigrrs, the risks iil tlu* |iit<M>iit tiino uii) fur lesH tliilii
till'} wi'it.' u hull' or II (iiiiirlcr ol ii tciitiirv ago.
The t(H;htiiuiil ]irogr«!ss of cotiiiiK'ri'f during tli*> iiiiiftcriilli icnliiiy is \V(>11
suiiiiiiiiriztMl liy Mr. lit-nry
J-'ry in his hook on tlic
llistory of North .Xtliintii;
Stfiiiii Niivigatiun. written
ill |S'.»r». lie says : —
'•ThcOoiin-tof ISlL' hii.s
iiiiiltiiilicd into twelve
tli>iiisaii(l steaiii>lii|is, iiiea-
Huriiig over .'^ixteen million
tons. . . . Her twenty Icms
have lieeii niiilt ijilied into
11 ship ol eighteen tiioii-
sand ; her torty leet to six
hiindied and ninety -I wo
feet ; and her four liorse-
jiower to thirty thoiisiind
in ii single shi|i. Syming-
ton's lonr-ineli cylinder hiis
grown to one hundred and
twenty inches ; the pres-
sure of steam in the holier
has increased from thir-
teen pounds to two hiin-
died pounds on the square
inch; the two hundred and forty three knots, the maximum of the (Jreat
"Western in ISoS, to five hundred and sixty ; and the average speed from 8.2
to L'L'.Ol knots, while the eonsiiiiipfion of coal h:'s decreased from ahout five
and oiu; half tt> one and one half pounds per indicated horse-power per hour."
The century's naval technical jirogress is epitomized in the White Star
liner, the i )eeanie. The length of this mammoth vessel is (.ver an eighth
of a mile, heiiig 70.") feet. <! inches. \'.\\ feet longer than the (Jreat Kastern
was. When loaded, the Oceanic draws \V2 feet, (! inches of water, and on
that draft lier disidaceiiient is 28,uUU tons. The figures for the Great Eastern
were 2r» feet, (! inches, and L'",(MI() tons. The capacity of her engines is
28,(1(10 horse-power, or twti and one third times the capacity ()f tliose in the
Great Eastern. The pressure in her hoileis is 102 pounds to the s(piare inch,
or ten or twelvi- times that in the lioilers id' her famous predecessor. Though
not huilt for speed, the Oceanic can average oOO miles a day. or sixty per
cent iiKU'c than the (}reat Eastern did. The ( tcoaiiic will aceonnnodate 400
first-class ]iasseiigers, .'>()() second-class. lOOO third-class, and a shi])'s company
of 304. making a total of 2104 persons. In this regard, however, her figures
are fortunately less than those of the (Jreat Easti'in, for that vessel was
designed to carry 4000 jiersons. hesides crew. These figures regarding i)as-
senger accommodations indicate in a forceful way the gn'at advancement that
has heeii made in the comforts of ocean travel during the past forty years.
32
496
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX"' CENTURY
HI. IMI'liOVKMKXTS IN (OMMKKf'IAL AlXl I.IAKIKS.
Tlie progress of comiiieice dining tlit> nineteenth century has been i»ro-
nioted not only b^' the evolution of ships of great speeil and ca|u»eit_v, but
also by the iinprovcmcnts uiadt; in numerous other auxiliaries of coiumerce.
Chief ann»ng these aids to commercial activity have been the betterment of
natural waterways and the construction of ship-canals, the iinprovfuients
of harbors, the lay iny of cables, and the extension of international lKUikiu{j
facilities.
The improvements of such rivers as the Khine, Danube, Ihulson. an<i >Iis-
sissipfii, and of such natural waterways as the chain of (Jreat Lakes in the
northern part of the I'liited States, are conspicuous instances of the hianner
in wlii.'h the canali/.ation of natural waterways has been nndertakt'ii for tlie
]>roniotion of traiKc. That jiart of the Kliine J{iver trattir; which j>;iss«*s
Kninier..^h and Mannheim amounti'd to l.'.S( )(>.(•(•(» tons a year from l.S7«
to is:."), but l»y l.S".>r» it had increased to 10..'{()(I.(KM» tons. The trattie on the
rivers of t)ie .Mississijipi Valle.y, according to census statistics, incrt-ascd fn»ni
l.S,<.»4)v"i2l' rons. in l.S.S(>. to L".»,4.sr>.()4(> tons, in 18S<»: and sine- that y.-ar
the increase mu^t have been considerable. The etfeet of the imp.rovenifnt of
waterways upon commerce i.; most strikingly shown in the ease of our (ireat
Lakes. In the seventies, the demands of traflic were for channels and hartN>rs
IL* feet ip <U'pth. During the next decade it was necessar\ for the I'nireil
►States to increase the depth to 1(1 feet ; and in the nineties the channels had
to be made deep enough to accomnio<Uue vessels of L'lt feet draft. At tli»'
present time the tratlie ui, the liakes is probably over 7(l.<MMi.'HMl tons annu-
ally. During the year IS'.I.S the fri'ight that jtassed the h)cks at the Sault St.
Jfarie equaled LM.<MM»,0(M) tons, two and a half times the tonnage pa.ssing the
Siu'z Canal.
During tlie last third of the nineteenth century six imjiortant ocean ship-
canals have Imcu o]>ened : the Suez, opened in 1.S(')!>; the Rotterdam Canal, in
1S72; tlu' canal coinu'eting Amsterdiim directly with the North Sea. 1S77;
the canal across the Lsthnuis of Corinth. LS'.K}; the .Manchester Canal. IXIM;
and the ISaltic or Kiel Canal, tinislied in lSi>,">. 'i'he Panama Canal was
begun in 18S1'. and the construction of the Nicaragua Canal was commence«l
in 1<S81(; Init the date of the completion of these most important works is
still jiroblem.'.tical.
In the improvement of its harbors every government has bocii active.
Thirty years ago a depth of l'."> feet was considered ample, but after 1S8(» it
became necessary to ailopt L'7 feet as the standard. During the past live
years the larger seaports liavt; recpiired harliors with 'M feet of water in order
to accommodate tVe largest ocean vessels, and the limit has by no nteans U-en
reached. The Cnited States (!overn:uent has just recently, l.SJH), authorized
the deeprning of New York harbor to .'Jo feet. As n(ited b«'fore. the Oceanic
can be loaded to a draft of ;}L'^ feet.
The docks of the great seaports have been improved at a cost of ma ly
millions of dollars. As an illustr'ition of tliis Tiiverjmol may Iw cited. Tlie
city's position gave it great commercial possibilities, but a tror.ltlesonie Ixir
at the month of the Mersey, and a tide with a rise and fall of thirty feet
rnaile the construction of its harbor and docks a ditticnlt matter. The prolv
TTURY
has been j»ro-
1 cajKicity, but
of commerce,
lietterment of
iinprovt'inents
ioiiiil iKinkiujj
Ison. iind Mis-
Luke's ill the
>f the itiaiiiuT
taki'ii for the
whifh |Kissi-s
iir from \ST2
traffic on the
icreasftl fn>m
lice that year
p.rovt-mJMit of
' of (lur (ireat
s ami harljors
r th»* I'liire.!
channels liad
raft. At the
IM» tons aniii!-
tlie Saiiit St.
e i»assing the
t ocean .sliip-
laiii Canal, in
li S».a. 1.S77;
(anal. I.SIM ;
a Canal was
! commence*!
ant works is
liCt-ii active,
ifter l.S«4» it
lie past five
ater in order
) nteans been
), anthorizeil
the Oceanic
r)st of ma ly
cited. Tlie
hlesonie Ixir
t' thirty feet
The prob-
500
ritlUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX"' CENTURY
lera w;is solved by the construction, "niler jnililic control, of a large numlier
of conuiKHlious '.vet docks with gates •.vhich are oj)eued oidy a few hours a
day, during high tith". Tliese harbor improvements have nuide jiossihle
LiveriKtol's i>heii(imenal ex|)ansion in commerce during tlie i>ast (jnarter
of a century, an increase that has given tin; city third i)lace anujng the sea-
]K>rt^ of the world, with an annual tonnage of vessels entered and cleared of
ICi.tMMMMia tons.
The achievements of ^lanchester during the past decade are even more
no'ahle ilian those of Liveriiool. Manchester is situated on a small stream
thirty-tive miles from the ocean ; but she h.as become a seajH>rt for the largest
ocean vesstls. and has docks and wharves eciuipped with the most imjtroved
ajijiliances. Her dock-slicds. for instance, are twin structures, three stories
in lieight. and the arrangements for handling freight are siuh that goods are
taken directly from the ships to any one of the three stories of the sheils.
In the I'nited States, the government and private corporations are rajiidly
improving the hiirb(>r facilities of our ports. During the jiasr ilecade the
(Jnlt ports have received especial attention, with the result that a large ]tart
of our export trade is now moving through the (iulf harbors. As an instance
of wiiat jirivatc corporations are doing, mention may be madf of the fact tiiat
a railway corporation has recently completed a wharf in New Orleans that
cost .Sl'.iMMi.l »(»(».
Itesides tliese harbor improvenuMits. the erection of more and lu'tter light-
houses and signals has made the ajiproach of vessels safer. The Tnited
States AVeather Ibireavi has also don" much to lessen the dangers of naviga-
tion by its weather forecasts and its warnings of ajiproaching storms. .M-
though the Hureau was estalilished only twenty -nine years ago. and in a
.small way. its .services have .so increased and in such a jiractical manner as
to have come to be regarded as indis|iensable by the commercial interests.
The first successfid tran.s- Atlantic cable was laid in lS(i<5; at the present
time there are 170,0(M> miles of submarine telegraphs in luse. The cables now
used for commercial purposes number iJL'O ami include al)out 1 r»(>.(MK) miles of
lines, the other li(>,0(M) miles being short government lines connecting forts,
batteries, signal-stations, and lighthouses. The total cost of these cables
has iM'en about .*!L'">(M^*'*«'*'M). The iuHuence of the cable upon commerce has
been so great as to revolutionize the methods of international trade that jire-
vailed a ce:itury ago; indeed, ocean telegrai>hy has made it no more difficult
to "fTtH?t international sales and purchases than it is to make domestic ex-
changes. Willi thirteen cal)les in successful operation lietween the I'nited
States and Kurope, we have hail no ditticulty in building u]» an immense
trade across the Atlantic; but. with no trans-l'acific line, we are experiencing
much difi. .dty in securing a large ])lace in the trade of the Orient. Of
cotirse the development of our commerce with the Kast is conditioned by
numerous other (actors ; but no one doubts that the construction of the juo-
jKised I'aciticr calile will be of assistance to our commercial progress in the
( Mient.
Among the other agem-ies that h;ivc ])romoted the progress of commerce,
mention should be made of the extension ai\il imjirovpnieiit of international
cirdit systems and banking taciliti
In this regard the I'ldteil Kingih
leads the nations of the world. Lomhm being the clearing-house for a huge
■I
THE CENTURY'S COMMERCIAL PROCRESS
501
jiart of the world's trade. Germsiny, France. jmuI the Xetherhinds liiive also
(U'veloped j,'ood facilities for inteniational banking; but the United States
lias not yet done so. Our merchants are still obliged to settle most accounts
through foreign banks, but it is probable that our recent ac(|iiisition of for-
eign possessions will cause us to establisli some system of international
banks.
IV. EXPAXSIOX OF IXTERVATIOXAL TKAOE DrKFX<J THE CEXTUItY.
In the introductory paragraph of this paper it was stated that the cora-
iTiercial progress of the past hundred years is one of tlie salii'iit features of
the history of the century' ; and, in contrasting the commerce of a hundred
years ago with that of the present, a few figures were cited tiiat indicated in
a general way the growth that the foreign trade of (Jreat ISritain and the
United States has enjoyed. The expansion of international trade during
tlie century merits fuller iiresentation and analysis.
Accurate figures tor the wiiole world's trade are not obtaijiable for tlie
earlier years ; and if it were jiossible to present eoiuparative statistics of the
international trade of the world, as a whole, tiie coniparisons would not be so
instructive as those which i)resent the progress of the coinnieree of those
countries which rank highest among trading nations. Accordingly it will be
most profitable to contine our statistics and analytical study to the commerce
of (Ireat Uritain, (iermany. I'"rance, and the United States.
The progi'css which the commerce of the United Kingdom has made during
the century is shown by the following table, giving the imi)orts. exports, and
t<ital trade for the years ISOO. IS.'iO, 1S'.>7. and the antnuil average for alter-
nate quinquennial periods l)etween IS.m and ISiK).
TAIU-K snOWINll (JKOWTH OK COMMKKCK i»F THK rXITEO KIX(il)()M.
Yonrs.
Iin|M>rts.
Kxp<irt!>.
Total Trade.
ison
?I48.8Tli.(XH)
:ilKt.4T4.(l(M)
8!KI.7-i;),0()0
l,4_'"..!t:iti.(Ht(l
1.8(;l>.77").(I0()
1.8!i7.:i:>:J.(i(K)
•.'.I!i4,!»:id,r.:i4
?iin.-j4(i.(MM)
:i-JI.'>ii4.lHM)
till4.s:.4.(KH»
!ll4."i8ii.lKKI
'.IS(I.818.(KKI
1.4-"..l.ll!ir>.(KMI
i,4;n,oU8,;{4&
^XW.llfi.OOO
]8:)!1
iii-2 (l^tS (KM)
isriiMio
1.4!l.") 577 («•()
]8ill>-70
ISTli 8(1
2,:i4(t..Vi-2,()(H)
•2 84.1 .V.):i (KK)
lS8(i ltd
■■t,:)5I,n47,'K)0
:t,(i2ii,. 5:10,8(19
18!IT
During the first four decades of the century, the growth of the commerce
of the United Kingdom, though considerable, was not rajjid. — the figures for
IS,"!) showing an increase of ".'> i)er cent over those for l.S(K), — but during
the fifth, sixth, and seventh decades the progress was ]>henomenal. The value
of the exports in 1H7.'5, as compared with l.s;{",», shows a gain of 37\) per cent,
and the total foreign trade increased nearly 4."j(> \)er cent ; tliat is. it was five
and a half times as much in 1S7.'{ as it was thirty-four years previous. Since
1S.S(), the (piantities of imi)orts aiul exports have largely iuctreased. but the
fall in ])rices has been such as to make the increase in the total value com-
paratively small.
The commerce of the German States during the nineteenth century did
II
502
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XI X^" CENTURY
not grow very rapidly until after 1850. During the early part of the centuiy
the great Contiiiciitul wars veiulereil commerce nearly iiupossihle. Peace
was restored in IcSl"). l)iit the German Stiites had neitlier ])olitical nor com-
mercial unity. Each State had a tariff \\ Idch applied against all other States.
Gradually a ZoUverein. or customs union, grew up, which, by 1H."»4, had come
to include all tin; (rcrnian States excc](t Austria. Mnlstein, Mecklenburg,
Lauenburg. and the three llanse towns. Hamburg. Jjiibcck. and 15remen. In
l.S(!(). tlie North (ierniau Federation was organi/.ed. and this paved the way
for tiie formation of the (levnian Empire in 1.S71. The ZoUverein made
commercial progress possible, and political unity gave it a great impulse.
The statistics of the German trade l)efore tiie establishment of the ZoU-
verein are very meagre. A German autiiority, Otto Huebner, estimates the
value of the total import and export trade of the German States to have
been .•?;}()! »,(H!),1'()() in l.S,")(», and .«i.";()4.".).SS.l'()(» in l.sr>.'>. The value of the
imports of Hand)urg. the chief port of (.terniany, rose from an annual aver-
age of !Ji>S)l.',;5L'<>,(l.">(l for tiie Hve-year period l.S.11-iM, to !!!>l.'")7,<)(i(>.47- dur-
ing the half decade l)S()(i-70. The growth of (Ji'miany's foreign eonnnerce
during the past twenty years has been phenomenal, and her trade is now
.second only to that of Great IJritain. In ISSl. the imports were valued at
!j>704.'.)()4,0(>(>, and the exports at .S707.1»7.S.O()0, being slightly more than tlie
imports; whereas, by l.SilO, tlie imports had risen to .SKSd.C 141. (•(»(>, and tiie
exports to .'ii!7'.>L'.(>L'(>.<l(H>, a sum nearly a hundred million dollars less than
the value of tiie imports. Tiie i'oieign trade of the country, iiarticuiiirly
in imports, has continued its rapid growth since 1S*.M>. tlie lignrcs for 1S'.>7
being, imports .'5>l,2ol,7r)G,<Sl)l.'. and exports .*!!I77.447.1'.IS. a total traih- of
31M.'<><.>.L'(»4,OC.O.
The foreign trade of France at the beginning of the nineteenth cetiturv
consisted of ."i!!H( »,;"■)( »(),()(>() worth of imports and .'»!r)0.0(H),(HM) of exports, a total
of .5b'>'.>.i~>0(».<M)(l. The Continental wars, up to lSir», were even more disas-
trous to French trade than they were to (Jerman ; but with the restoration of
peace, commercial progress liegan. and iietween IHl") and IS.'Jl the total trade
increased from .fllU.l'OOjtHM) wortli to iSKJS.l.-.lMKM) wonh. The growth by
decades since 18.'{0 has been as fcdlows : In 1840. the value of the total for-
eign trade was .fiL'78,;58."..L'0() : in 18.-)0. !ii;.'{r.8,748,4(t(); in 18(;(). SSO.lCr.O.'.'Od; in
1871, lii;i,24L',7Gr),()0(); in 1880, .i;i.(>4().7l2.;itK); and in 1800. .'«!L'.(M>.VM7,r.l().
These figures show that the rapid expansion of French commerce began
about 18r»0. The highest point was readied in 1801; but since then there
has been a slight falling off in the total trade, due to a ilecrease in imports.
In 1891, the value of tiie imports was Sl,l.">.07;{..".10; in 1807, .S001,r>;!7.r>(»0.
The exports were v;dued at !iii020,8.SO,i;i(> in 18<.H ; and at !S!yL'(;,<.»t)8..'{<»(» in
1807. The total trade for these years was .|!L',07r.,8lL',440 for 1801. and
S;i,018,r>.'!,-,.800 for 1807.
During the first (piarter of the century F'rance had a strong balance of
trp.de in lier favor : that is, she .sold more commodities than she bought; and
between 1825 and 1840 the exjiorts and imports about balanced each other ;
but hince that date, with the exception of the years 1871 to 1875. when the
huge war indemnity was paid, tiie balance "f trade had U-en uniavor.able, as
would naturally be expected of a country such as France, whose people are
extensively engaged in manufacturing. France, as well as the United King-
/Ar
THE CENTURY'S COMMERCIAL PROGRESS
he century
)le. Peace
il nor coiu-
lit'i" States.
1, liuil I'oiiie
cklenbuig,
•eiiieii. In
d till' way
iviii iiiatle
ipiilse.
t til.' Zoll-
iniati'.s tlie
■s tip liave
nv of tiie
iniial avfi'-
l(».t7L' (lur-
I'liiiiiiu'rce
ulc is iu>\v'
^ vahu'il at
•0 tliau the
'0, and the
less tliau
articuiai'ly
s for iS'.t'r
1 tra(h' of
bli cciiturv
rts. a total
lore disas-
toration of
total trade
irrowtli by
total for-
~>!>.L*(M); in
>3,."»7,r>i(;.
rce bejjan
hen there
n imports.
il,r);;7.r)(K).
>t).S.;!(Ml in
iJSltl, and
)alaiico of
ight; and
ch otJH'r ;
wlien tlie
orahlo, as
)eoi>le are
ted Kin''-
dora, Germany, Jielgium. Switzerland, and other European countries, imports
raw materials and food in large ipiantitit's.
The decline in the value of French trade, though due to falling prices
rather than to a decrease in the (luantlties of commodities, has given the
French people much concern. It is not iirobable. however, that tiiis decline
is due to permanent causes. The population and industries of l'"rance liave
not reached a stationary stage ; they are going to increase and cause a natu-
ral growth in the c(mntry's foreign commerce. The commercial ju'ogress of
France, however, can hardly be so rapid as that of Germany and the I'nited
States. These are the countries whose commercial vitality is strongest, and
of these two countries, the United States possesses greater natural resources
and larger possibilities, industrial and commercial. The progress of the com-
merce of the United States merits a somewhat closer survey tlian has been
given its three leading rivals in trade.
V. TIIK TKADK OK TIIK CXITKn STATI'S prUIX*} TIIK CKXTIItV.
The economic progress of the United .states during the past hundred ycirs
is most clearly indicated In' the growth of its foreign and domestic com-
merce. Heing a new countrv. busied with oceui>ying ami developing our
large territory, our domestic commerce has been of enormous proj.oitions.
With nearly two Inuidred thousand miles of railroails. comjirising four ninths
of the total railway mileage of the world, with our chain of the Great Lakes
and our admirable system of navigaiile rivers, it has been possible to exploit
our natural resources on a large scale, and to develoji an inland traffic several
times the volume • f our foreign commerce.
Our international trade, however, although smaller than our donu^stic
tratlic. has been large throughout the etmntry, has grown rapidly, especially
since the vear IS.'iO. the period of the Civil War excepted, and is now increas-
ing in such a nuvnner as to give our foreign rivals much concern. The jiro-
gress of our foreign trade during this century is shown by the following
table containing the statistics of the value of our merchandise imports,
exjiorts. an(i total foreign trade for each decade, beginning with 171X>.
T.MJi.K siiowinm; iMi'oirrs .wi» KxrtHiTs uk mkuch.vndi.si: hy ui'.c.vnKs fkom
I7!I0 TO 18".t8.
Yi-nr.
Eximrts.
v«20. ■->().•.. l.-ifi
7l).!i71.78ll
t!li.7'>7.!i7l)
7l.<i7ii,7:t."i
12.l.iiiiH.!);)2
I44..17.'>.72l!
:i-l:i..">7n,(l"i7
:i!i2.771.7t>8
8:i"i.t):i8,tir.8
s:.7.82S,8(i4
i,2ti).2i)i,itia
Iniporl>.
.'i<2:!.(HK).(MI()
!)1.2ri2.7li8
8."i,4(H).(KK)
74,4r)0,(K)(l
ti2.720.!iri(i
!lS.2-"i8.7()li
17:t.r,n!),:,2(!
:i:..i.(il<i.ll!)
4.ir>,!).M.4()8
rifi7.lt."i4.74ll
7S!).:il().40li
li|li.()4!).(ir.4
Total TraiU'.
171MI . . .
18INI .
.?4.1.20.">.ir.(i
Ili2.224.ri48
1811) .
ir>2,ir)7.!)70
144,141. iltHI
1.14 .3!il ilHl
1820 . .
is:ii(
I84II
22l.!)27.ii:i8
IH.jO . ,
;il7 SS.'i 2"i2
18ISII .
l>87 1'.I2 I7ii
1870
828 7:10, I7l>
1881)
l,r)0;),5!i:(,4()4
l.li47 l.l',l.l)!(3
18!)l)
18!)8 . . .
1.82ti,:i41.rjttT
504
TlilUMPHS AND WOXDERS OF THE A7A'"' CENTURY
I
During the first halt' of tlie century, the cxiiinisinn of our foreijjn trade
was not <'S|i('cially rajiid. The ContintMital wars, la^tinj,' from 17!K» to I.SI0,
and our own war with Eujfhuid. from ISll' to lSir». iuVcrfrrcd (!onsi(h'ral)ly
with iuternatiomd tra(h'. I'rolialiiy our tariffs of IHK!. l.SLU. and ISL'S had
the t'lTect they were inti'udcd to aci'omplish, and rcslrictcil somcwliat tlie
vohimi' of our lorcii;!! . omnu'rct-. 'i'lif chief reason, liowcvcr. why our trade
])ro<,Mcss was much more rajiid after l.sr»(> was, tluit it was not until about
tliat time that the means of inland transportation became ileveloped sutti-
cie:itly to make possilile a lar^'c doniestiu tratiic. W'lien our central West
was able to exchanjje commodities on a larjje scale with the seaboard, then
our foreign commerce began to increase rapidly.
The growth of our imjiorts wiis very rapid bu' the period of fd'teen years,
1H7'.» to l.S'K!. their val\m having risen from iSU.').:::,?;.") to .'!i!S(;(i.4(i(».'JL'l.' ;
but since then there lias been a sliarj) decline to .'ii!(»Ui,()4!>,()r>4. Our exports,
however, have increased in a plieiKHiienal mauiu'r during the past decade.
Prior to l.S!(7. the liighest point was reiiched in l.Silli. when the value of the
exports was ."Sl.O.'Id.L'TH.l IS. hi l.S',17. the value was !!!l,»»r»(».!n);!..Mr). and in
iS'.tM (the otticial vear ending .lune .'50). the value, as shown by the foregoing
talile, was .'ii<l.-ln.L".tl.<,ll.">. In eonseipience of tliis grciit increase in our
exports the total bireigu trade of the I'nited .States has not decreased in
valiM' during recent years, although there has l)een a considerable fall in
jirices and a large falling olf in our imi)i>rtations. Our t()tal trade, dur-
ing (he fiscal year IS'.KS. was much larger than it was in lSiM». and fell only
.SI (».(>()(».(»( 10 short of the value rcachnl in the record-breaking year of 1S<»L'.
The calemlar year l.S<.»S shows a liirgir tr;iile than has Iteen shown by any
previous year, tiie value l)i'ing .S1.S<>S..">1.'."!.( •."»".
The leading in(b!:-,rry of the luiteil Stiites lieiug iigricnlture. our exports
cotisis; largely \ i vioious products of tlic f;irm. In l.SilS the cxpoi'ted agri-
cultural jiroductr were valued at .SS.">.'>.t„s.'>.."»7o, ami cumprised 70.r»4 per cent
of our total sales a'oroad. In spite of these large figures, the preponderance
of agricultural over other products is being reduced witii considerable riipid-
ity by the growth in the exportation of niaiuifaclures. Itefore lS7r> our
exports of manufactures were less than iijiKK >.(»(»(>.(»( 10 a year; whereas, in
the calendar year iSitS. they were .'i!<;!70.<.»'_'|.<,l'.tl. In ISs'o. agricultural ex-
ports comprised .s;!.L'."> jier cent of our exports, and ncinufactures rj.4.S |ier
cent; and in the calendar year ISiJS, a year of exceptionally large foreign
sales of food |)roducts. agriculture furnished only (5!(.0(i jier cent, — less than
seven tenths of the expoi'ts, while niiiuubu'ture supplied L'J.lMl per cent, or
one fourth of the total. The year IS'.kS is a notable one in the history of
American mainifaotures, for it was then, for the tirst time, tliat wo sold to
foreigners more of our manufactui'cs than we bought of tiieirs.
A table showing the total foreign trade of tlie I'nited States from 17S*.( to
1898, the first eleven decades of our national existence, has recently been
l)repared by the ISureau of Statistics in the I'nited .States Treasury Dejjart-
nient. It shows the total imports and exports of merchandise and specie,
and on which side of our traiie account the grand balance ccuucs.
THE CENTUIirS COMMERCIAL PllOGllESS
:*xi
T.vnr.K sn()wix(; Tdr.vi, twadk ok tiik initki) statks nsit-isos.
M«riliuii(li>f
Kxpnrls $;i(»,!i.VJ,;i(l:i, !t85
ImixiiiH 2U,'J71t,!it>l,487
Exifi-s of ICxports 07!2,-2-Jl,4il8
Golil niid Silver
KxpiTls .•!,4(X), (1^:1,581
lni|iiiits I,!i4(),iri(i,:i2u
r.XdsMif Kx ports I,4tl0,47:i,2«l
MiTi'lmiuIiM' mill Oolil iiiiil Silver eoniliiiictl
l-xpi.rl^ :i4,:t.V.>,H2(l,r)(iti
liiip"rl> ;il,!iiO,lll,807
Kxce«Mif Kxpnrt- 2,4:U,714,75«
Th(! tablo shows tliat wt; liavo t'Xpurtcd nearly tliirty-oiic billion (lollars
vortli of coinnioditit's, — aboiit a billion dollars more tlian \v(^ liavc jmndiasi'd.
It also shows tliiit we liavc st-ni out of the country .SI. Ifid. JT.'i.L'Cil more of
till' ]iri'('ious nirtals than Wf have rccvivcd. ( (ur exports ot nierehandise
and };uld and silver combined exeei'd our tutal iniimits by the larjje sum t)f
!ii«-.4.'>l.'.714.7o'.>. it the statistics of oui' iui|Mii-1s iind exports for eiiidi year
since I7S',( be consulted, it will be lniind tlmt diiiini; liie eii;hty-seven years
jireciMtini,' 1S7(» theie were but sixteen ye;!rs i\ hen our exports of merchan-
dise exctM'ded our ini|iorts. 'I'lie baiimce of irade was neiirl» iilwiiys •' unl'a-
vnrable." Since 1S7<>. however, the baliince has nearly ali'iiys been on the
otlier side, there havinf^ been only three years when our exports did not
exceed our impiu'ts.
in return Un- somethinf^. "c have j,dven foreij,'u countries nearly two und a,
lialf billion dollars worth more of conuuodities iind precious metiils than we
liave received in return. A ])art of this hirj,'e sum. possibly one fourth, lias
been paid to foreiiiners for freiifht: on our inipiuted commodities, and we
have also spent larp' sums in foreign travel. 'I'he chief reason why we have,
exported more thiiu we have im])orted is, tliat wo have been borrowing for-
eign cajiital to use in constructing railinads and factories and in dev(do])ing
our farms and mines. Trior to 1S7(». we received !?1.0SJ.;!,'{<»,'.)11,' niore than
we pxjiorted ; we accumulated a. large foreign debt. Since l.S7(), we have
continued to borrow abroad ; but we have been able to liipiidate a [liirt id' our
former debts, and also to "Xchange liirge amounts of commodities and jire-
cious metals i'or capital : for. since lcS7(l, our exports have exceeded our
imports by JSf.'i.ol'.Oot.d"!. If our present large execs.-; of exports over im-
ports continues, we shall soon become a creditor nation witli large sums
invested abroad.
The history of our foreign trade is highly gratifying to our national pride;
our achievements have been signal, well-nigh continuous, and have been more
marked during the latter decades of the century than at any previous time.
The history of the Auu'rican marine, however, presents a somewhat different
picture.
C06
TRIUMPHS A\l) WO^UEHS OF THE A7A™ CEXTUHY
VI. TIIK A.MKKIi AN MAIiINK IX KOKKKlX AM> KKMKSTIC COMMKIUK.
Ill ciiloui.il iliivs iiiiiritiiiif inihistiics lu-ltl an iiiiimitaiit phine. Tlif lora-
tidii of t'. • coldiiit'.s a-lji rcut to tilt' o'jcaii. tlioir (U'lu'iuli'iiee ii|ioii the iimtlnT
coniitry for luaiailiicturt'S ami uikiu the West Indies tor tropical iiruilucth,
their h .'(1 (if forei^'ii markets tor tlieir timhcr. lish, tnb.u'eo. ami food iiro-
dncts, ami their alimidant RU,)j)ly of lumber for sliinhnildiiif;. ail temh'd to
make them a seafaring itcopU-. This fondjiess I'nv tiie sea was espeeially
• '•pii--e ill New Kiii^land, \vlu'>'<' the ictmns of a^^rieiiltiire were r<'.alively
. .j; .. Tlie loiij; Kevoliitioiiaiy War ilcstroyeii many ships and iiirerfeied
ii-rioiisly with oeeau coiamerce, hut tiie stru<,'j,'lo yave the colonists what was
of more value tlian ships, — •; spirit of venture and hardihood. Hi;iulreds of
ships ami thousands of seamen enya,i,'ed in privateering,', and '.>heii ih<' war
ended the maritime instincts of the Americans wen ■itroujjer than they hid
Ih'cii when the declaration of political and comniercial indcpemlence was
declared in 17."(».
The imheeility ot the ijeiieral government under the Articles of Confedera-
tion and the restrictions jdaceil upon interstate traffic ])revented any consid-
erable maritime itro'icss Itetwcen the j'tace of i'aris and the inau;j;uv:'ti(iii of
a truly national ijovern Mit undei- the Constitiitioii. I«ut a staWle j^overn-
ment. sound credit, and iiniforin national laws for the re;.; illation of comiin'rce
i^ave till- maritime insiincts of the Aiiiericans a chance to assert themselves.
ami the tonicfje of our ships f^rew lajiidly larj,'er. < )r.r tonmiLre re;.;isiered
lor the foreij^n trade was only lL.'."..S'.i;> tons in IT.S'.I; by 17".).") it had <,Mdwn to
r»4SM71 tons; in ISOO it amounted to <>)17.1tt7 tons ; durini; tin' next live years
it increased to 7t4.L"_'l tons, and Ity iNKl it iiad reached '.)Sl.(ll<> tons. Such
a growth a.s tiiis in twenty years, Iriun sucii small liej^inniiii^s. was truly
remarkable.
The American ships soon crowded most foreis^n vessels out of our c()ni-
nicrce. in 171KI we carried only 40.;") ])er cent of our imjiorts and exports;
but by 171).") we hiid ,sc(!ured DO jier cent; and. with the exceiitiou of :i short
ji^'riod diirint,' ami immediately followinj,' the War of ISIJ. it was not till
lifty-two years hiter tiiat as mucii as one fourth of or.r foieij,'!! trade was car-
ried under foreign Hags. Moreover, we not only currieil <iur own commerce,
but e iilso entf.ed largely into the <'airying traile of otlier countries. Th'!
great KurojH'an wiir crippleil the commercial activities of lOuropean countries.
ami made it ea.-ier lor our ships to gain control of our own commerce and to
secure employn:ent as carriers for foreign merchants. l)\iriiig the fifteen
years from 17!).'{, the year of the outbreak of the Kr.roiieai: war. to I.SOS,
when the blockade of European jiorts ami the capture of American ships and
seamen led ns to attempt to ])roliibit our ships temporarily from engaging in
foreign trade, our merchant marine ro.ie from a jiosition of obscurity ''';i
jdace of great prominence on the high seas.
As long as ocean commerce was carried in wooden vessels, the maritime
interests of the I'liiteil States continued to pros|icr. The War of 1S11*-1.').
the p.inic of l.Sli), and the coinpetiti(m of foreign vessels after the restora-
tion of pence in Europe, gave our marine a setback, so that it was not unti'
l.i47 that (mr tonnage iii the foreign trade exceeded the tigures for ISIO; Imt
during the period of fifteen years, frtm 1840 to 1801. oni tonnage increasetl
itr
THE CENTURY'S COMMERCIAL I'RUiJRESS
M7
MKU«K.
The Inoa-
tlie niotlier
ftxHl jiro-
tcutlcil to
I't'lalively
iiitcit creel
> W llilf 'VilS
i.inlicds of
Ml lIh' war
II thev hill
(li'uce was
Oonft'doia-
uiy cousid-
2;uv;iti(iii di
)1p "^•(ivtM'n-
' COlUlUI'lCt'
llt'lllSclVl'S.
ivi^istcrt'd
d jj;i'(iwii to
t tive years
Diis. Such
was tndy
>f <nii' coin-
d <'xi>ort.s ;
of a short
as ;iot rill
lie was car-
ooramorcf,
tries. Th'}
1 countries.
crce ar.d to
the fifteen
ir, to IHOS,
1 shijis and
'ngacfiiii^ in
sciirity 'm a
p Tuaritiiiip
>f 1S11>-1.-..
Hie restora-
is not unti'
rlSlO; hut
e increased
IVi per cent. When the Civil War, which proved so disastrous to the abip-
]>iuii interests of tlie I'nited States, broke out in I8(il, our tonnage rvgislerwi
in the foreign trade eipialcd L'.4!>r),S<)4 tons. — the hi},diest jioint it ha:^ ever
readied. Th<* American sailing dipper was for nearly half a centnrr ibe
mi>tress of the seas. As .1. 1\. Solcy says: ''It was iu these shijw tliat tor
nearly half a century not oidy the largest freights of the world weie car-
ried, imt the Knest and most jirolitahle as well, ^lerchants •?:■.. iw;/ valuable
cargoes to exjMirt would wait for the sailing uf a favoritt* clipiier. ai.«l uier-
«'l)ants with giKtds to inijiort would instruct their correspondents tt> wait in
liivc luauiier." As late as 1S.")() the higher grades of coiuniodities were almust
always ship|)ed in the stanch and speedy American dipjier ship.
Since iMIl the American marine in the foreign tratle has plavetl a r&I<e of
decreasing in>iK)rt;ince. Tliree causes a<'count for tiiis. AlxMit the miilaJle
of till- it-ntury our commercial rivals began to substitute iron sbi|it» for
wimhIcii : but we were n«it able to adopt the better nriterial in the wjnislrnc-
tion of our shijis becausi- fif the high cost of iron in this country at titbit
time, liii-at Itiit.tin could build the iron ships much cheat r thaii we m«u!«l.
aiul she soon U-gan to displace us in the cariying trade of the othtr Wrtiii-
tries. .Vnd it was not long before she began also to carry a large sltare of
otir own foreign commerce.
Tile second c-ause for <jur maiitime tledine was the Civil War. In 1J<<»1
our tonnage registereil for the foreign trade was L'.r)0(»,(HM> tons; hy 1S*J»J it
Lad fallen to l.."..s7.7.">< .>ns. a loss of over a million tons. During the war
jH-riml. nearly .S(Hi.(;!rt» tons of our shipjiing were sold .abroad: llojiOll ton*
w.-ie captureil by Confederate cruisers: and other casualties cjci-uned. tH
course there were no ships i)iiilt for our merchant marine during the stormy
years of the war.
Why. it may be asked, did we not restore our shij)S after the war and
regjiin our former proud ])lace on the high seas '.' For the simple, though
]iossibly iinsjitisfying. reason that we did not find it profitable to «io jW.
<.'aj>it;il is invested where the j)rospects for profit are best, and the indmee-
ment to pi-.r money into American shijis for the foreign trade was not string.
It still ret mvrc to build ships iu our country than it did in Europe, and the
expenses of ojientting them when constructed were greater. Moreover, onir
rivals had gotten |>os.session of the lion's share of the world's carrying trade.
and would not release any jiortion of their business without a keen straggle.
At the .same time the American capitalist was offered many opj)»>rtanities
for '.he jivestnient of his property in domestic enterprises. Ihiring thefiiiar-
ter of a century wliich follov.'ed the war, we devoted our energies and capital
to building our railroads, ojiening the AVest, exploiting our mineral and forest
resources, and building the mills and factories whose products are n->w ra]>i<Ily
entering foreign markets in all parts oi tiie world. America's ef»»in;»j'mie
activities were industrial rather than commercial.
The result of these general causes has been the decline of our shipping in
the foreign tnule from two and a half nnllion tons in liS<>l to l^ss than three
«|uarVers of a million tons in ISIKS: but it seems that the low-water mark
has Ijeen reached and that the tide is turning. The man who writes th»- hL-
tary of our merchant marine on the high seas during the first lialf of the
twentieth century will, in all probabi''*^^-. write a record of rapid p»t)greiS5.
COS
TIUUMI'/IS AND WOXDKllS OF TIIH A/A'" C/-;.V777i'J'
Wi* have aln-ady luiide imuli luMilway in suhstitiitiiii; stoi'l for woddcii ships;
.ami AiiK-rica'H t'orciunst iron nianutactnri'r, Mr. Andifw Carni'jjie, iiuvs that
nU'v\ sliijis ran now he bnilt as clicaply on our Atlantii- coast a.. I.fV can
\m' hnilt on tiic Clyih-. l-'nithiMinorc, tlii' opportunitifs tor invi'stnit-nt in
•loincstic inchi^trifs art- hccoMiin;!,' fewer and les.s alhirinj;. and there are j;(>od
reasons lor tliinkinj; American capitalists will be disposed Irom now on to
pnt their ventnres in sliips to sail toreign seas.
The attitnde id' .\nierican capitalists, however, will depend very lar^'ely
on the maritinn- policy adopted by the L'niti'd States. That p<>licy should
iim|uestionaldy ln' as liberal as llu* policy adopted by onr rivals in c«immcrce.
Whatever ciitlercnces of opinion "lay rightly exist as rc;;ards specific mea-
sures tor the restoration ot the .Vnicrican marine to the hii^h se
IS. all I
lartie
should niiXtH' a.s touching' the justice and ticcessity (d' treating our maritime
interests as yeiu'rouslv as (Jn-at Itrilaie. deals with the own«>rs of her mii;htv
marine,
Our (loinestii- marine, beinj; free fiimi foreign competition, has had a pr<
sjM'rity as j^rcat as tin adversity of nwr foieii^n marim
of don
TI
le present tuiinaije
uestic siiipplnj; is iic:irly l.O()(».()(i(» tuns, our ^'rowtli ilnriii!; the period
since the Civil War havinj^ bo-ii marly a iiiiilion tons. The trallie on our
lakes ii'iw employs .">J."i(» vessels, canal boats, and bar,i;es. with a
.■>()( I tons ; and two thirds of this toniia''e i-nnsists of
nortl
lern
t«)tal tonna!,;e of t.t.'
steamships. In ISHS our lake tonnai^e
was
only 874.1(»1,' tons; the 1,'rowth
duriuii .1 decade iiaviu'.,' been nearly SO per cent.
It is hardlv m
iarv to remark that the
di
increase or iieerease
efticiv iicv (d' a marine (lurin<' the last few decades is not measured
in
le
tl
by the
j;r iwth or decline in the tonnaj^e statistics. The modern steamshi|i. aitled
by the many commercial auxiliaries that facilitate it in rt iviii<j and dis-
cliari:iui< its i'ari;o. is a mucdi more etticient transportation aj^ent than was its
smaller predecessor propelled by sails, and loaded and nidoaded mainly by
human lalnir. Our present domestic marine of 4.(HMi.(MH» tons is at least
twice as «'tTeetive as was the doinestie shipping of .'i.OOtt.tMMt by which we
were .served a generation aj^o.
VII. AMKUIC.VN SIIII'IUIMUXO.
Oiiefjreat aiil to the achievement of maritime f,'reatnpss is a strfuiij ship-
buildiuf^ industry, and every nation with comniercial aspirations endeavors
to establish the business upon a sure foundation. F<u' some (Countries, as in
the case <d' the United Kiuf^dom. that is iimch easier than forothers; and
that is one reason why (Jreat Ibitain has so easily succeeded in ma'iitaininij
her |ilace as mistress of the seas.
The business of building ships in the I'liitcd States, to be n.seil in forei-^n
trade, has passed throuijh a ^olilen ap' of triumi)hs. followetl by a jHTiod of
decline and discouraijement. and it is now enteriii'^ upon an ejMich of revival.
The golden af^e came in the days of wooden vessels. It bej^an in early colo-
nial times and la.sted until the miildle ()f this century, when the world lM'«jan
to buy iron ships of the United Kiir^diuii. The mai^nitude of our shipbuiid-
ing industry at the middle of the nineteenth century is indicated by the fact
that during the decade beginniiiiL,' with lH'ti) the tonnage built in our yards
equaled .'{.OSS..*}"'-' tons, an annual averafje of nearly 4(KMMM» tons. ])urin{;
the three jears 18i>4-r»G we constructed over a million ami a half tons.
IIV
ikKmi sliips ;
s, sa.vs that
I.. Lev call
cstlllrllt ill
re art' yotxl
now (111 to
iTV liii-,v,'«'ly
lit'y slioiilil
roiiiiiuTce.
ifcitic iiu-a-
:ill paitifs
11- iiiaiitiiiie
liiT iiiij;lity
had a pnt-
'llt tiiiili,n;e
tlie jM-riod
rtio on our
ri'S. with a
ciiiisists of
thi- urowtli
ase in I lie
r.(l h\ till-
sliiji. :iiili-(l
j^ and dis-
laii ivas its
mainly hy
is at It-ast
wliicli we
troiig sliip-
eiideavors
tries, as in
tliers; and
la'iitainiiii;
in foreii^n
a |M'riod of
of revival,
early coh*-
orld lH'>,'aii
slii|iiiiiiid-
liy the faet
I our yards
s. Diiriii}^
oils.
BIO
TRUwrrns .ixn woxdeks of the xix^'f ckntuhy
The (looliiK! in Aiui'iiciui sliiplHiiltliiiK s«'t in sharply aftt'i- the Civil War.
and, in Npitc of tht> continni'd i^nowtli of oiu' lionu'stic niaiinr, thf lonna^i'
ronstnicttMl hy Aint-iican hniiiliTH steadily dcclini'd until l><<S(i, when only
!>.■(, 1.">.'1 tons wt'i*' Iniilt. Tlu' caiiscs of this dirlinc have Itccn stated in what
lias lict'ii said rc^anlini,' the suhstitntion of iron and sti-el vessels fur wooden.
'I'he jieriod of decline seems now to lie safely passed, for we are annnally
linililiiij; over l'(Ml.(MMl tons on an avera^je, and every indication points to rapid
pro^'ress in the near fiiUne.
What is more indicative of progress than the increase in the tonnafje pon-
strueted is the j,'rowth in the ptMcenta^'e of steanu'rs and iron anil steel ships
liuilt. as compared with tlii' wooden sailin>^ ships tnrneil out. Diirin;.; the
decaile ISTL'-NI, we liuilt ,S(Mt.(MM» tons of steamers and L'-'l,(MMi tons of iron
ami steel ships; in the decade follnwini;. wt nstrncted I.L'nti.nud steam
tons and IS'i.tMM) tons of iron and steel ves.sels; and from IS'.M to iS'.tS our
yards turned out 7>in,l.'iL' tons of steamships ami .'i|.'>..s.'i() tons of iron and
steel vessels. As these tij^ures indicate, the reconstruction of our merchant
marine is progressing' with a lair ih-yree of rapidity. \\ the present time
one half tiur tonna;;t! consists of steamers; hut uui' perceiifaj^e of iron and
steel is still small ;is compared with other coiiiitries. nvcr se\cu tenths of
our toiinaj,'!' consists of wooden ships, whereas our chief conunercial riviil
has practically no wooden vessels whatever. Only 7 jier cent of the French
marine consists of wooden ships, and in the ciise of (iermaiiy less than "> per
eent.
The outlook for iron and steel shipliuildint; is so promising; that a rapid
increase in iron and steel tonnau'e is certain to come. Liirtjeiy throuu'^li the
iuHueiice (d' the reconsi luct ion id our navy, numerous lar'.,'e plants for jhc
eonstruction of steel ships liave heen estiililished ;it JSatli, l'liiladel|ihia. Wil-
mington. Haltimore, Newport News. ."<;in Francisco, and other seaports.
Cities on the .Mississi|ipi Kiver. and especially those on the(ireat Lakes,
iire enj,'iij,'ed ii. huildin;^ ships ol iron and steid. There are sev»'rul steel
]ilants in the Lake ports, and in them we h.ive lndlt the lar^'er part of our
steel tonnage. Our iron ships have lieen huiit (diietiy in the sciilioard yards.
During the present year, 1S'.(!>. the Ameiican yards are husy eonstructinj;
vessels hoth for the navy and for our iiiercliant th-et. and new yards are heiu''
estalilisheil. ilaviuj; lietrun scdlinj; crude and structural iron :ind steel iintl
various classes of miudiineiy in Kurope. even in (Jreat l>ritain. wo shall ere
lonj; be selliuf^ iron and steid ships. The excellence of our navy has lirouj^ht
tis orders tor war shijis. aiul the skill antl invention of our shipbuihiL-rs will
briii^^ us foreign orders for luerehantiuen. •
Vlir. CM SKS AtCOl'NTtXfi KOIt TUi: < KNTI Iiv's COM M i:i{< I A I. IMtOCKKSS.
The commercial. progress of the nineteenth century, the salient phases of
which have lieen dejiicted in the foregoing ji.'iges. has been the result of three
sets of causes, economic, )iolitical, and social.
The economic causes of most im|iortance are die improvements in trans-
])ortation, the reorganization of industry on a large scale, the accumuhitioii
of capital, tog(!ther with the growth of corporations and credit institutions
whereby the utility of Ciipital has been enhanced, and the discovery of large
stores of golu
rilK CESTUKY'S rOMMEIHIAL PIlniiltKSS
011
Ti'iiiis|iortati(>i> in tlio hiuxliniiiil of tnule. Wliatcvcr cnulileM thJH hand-
niiiiil to 'I" l"'i' work c'ht'!i|M'r iiml (luickfr cnliiim's tin- .siii|if miil voliuiit' of
the udilil's coiuiiifirf. Wlicii oiu- i-oiisidcrH that it (!ost iiraily four tiuii's as
much in IHT') to ship wiu'at from New York to LivfriwMil us it did twenty
VfaiH
ate:
am
I fully thrt'c tinx's as nim-h fnuii <'liira.;<> to l,ivi'r|ioiil, o
an readily iinderstund how transiiortution has rtMrnivt-d hindrunccs to iMim-
mcn'c,
('inii|i ami rapid transportation has made an extensive eoniineroe jxissilile.
I>\it it lias lieen the or^^ani/atioii of industry on a lar^e scale that has creali'd
tin chief d*>man<l for eomnieree. Industry at the present time is, to ii hirKt*
extent, so <Mnani/ed as best to promote the territorial and international
division of laliorj and each large producer re>,'ard. the whole world as his
market. The amount of (jonunerce reipiircd increases with the concentration
ami specialization of imhistry. and with every widening,' of the producer's
mar
ket.
It has ln'cn tlie accumulation of ca|tital ami its increased availahility for
purposes of production that have made |Missilile the organization of industry
III its present liasis, and eiialiled men to cons
transportation system hy nn
trui't the highly dcvidoped
ans of which conunercc is a( mpli.^liud. The
laalcrial progi'css of the past century is unprecedented. Industry liasciealed
wcalih as with the touch id' a magic wand; and this rapidly growing wealth
has Ween made availalile capital through the instrnment.dity (d' the corpora-
lion whii'li, hy means of stocks and honds. has gathered iuto giant orgnni-
/alions the property of humlreds and even thousands of individuals. 'J'lio
iiiclii-<tri:il corporations have lieen greatly assisted in their work of coiieen-
traiing and aiiplying capital, hy the hanks and other institutions that havn
enlarged credit anil made a given amount of jiroperty capahle of jieriorming
a much larger woik. 'I'lie exiiansion of industrial credits, fiirtherimue. has
iiceii greatly facilitated l)y the issue of government iionds in large amounts
during the century. These state obligations constitute excellent business
securities, of which hanks, other corporations, and individuals make exten-
sive use
are some id' the factors that have promoted the acciimulatii
)n
of capital and iiicrea.sed the volume of commerce.
Money is not ca|>ital. hut an aileipiate supply of a sound and stable medium
(d' cxidiange is es>ential to industrial and commercial progress. Twice in the
history of the world the disirovery of large supplies of the precious metals
has given a great iiujictiis to industry and trade : once, in the sixteenth cen-
tury, wiien the Spani-h galh'vs brought to Kui'ope rich treasure from the
silver mines of .\merica; and again, in the middle of the "nineteenth century,
when the riidi linds (d' gold were made in Australia and California. The
very rapul increase in tin' commcrci
of tiie I'liited States and <d' the world
at large, whiidi began about l,S."((t. was in no small degree the result of the
rising lU'ices which followed the discoveries of gold. The closing decade of
For nianv years prices de-
tl
le centiirv is witnessing a similar occurrence,
clincd rapidly ; the demands made n]ion the world's gold sui)ply were r.-ipidly
increased at a time when the annual output was declining. Fnmi l.S.~»() to
1S70 the annual output of gold averaged over .'«!l.'{(».(KH).tl(M) ; it then declined
so rapidly that it aimmnted to only a little over .*>HMMMK>,(MM» a year, in 1KS.'»
and 1S86. It was only JSll.S.SIS.Too in 1S',M»; but the present animal pro-
512
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A7A'"' CENTURY
diictioii is nearly 8300 000,000, and tlie fall in prices has been iliecked foi a
wliile at least. The verv ra])id eiilargenuMit in eomnierce during the ]»a>t
two years must have been fueilitated by the recent inerease in the aiuiiial
I)rc)ducti<in oi gold.
A second general eaus«' accounting for the world's jirogress in eouimen-f
is political — tin eonmiercial policy followed by the leading nations of th»-
world. Up to tiie nineteenth century, ]iractieally every country strove t"
]ironiote its trade, navigation interests, and its power as a nation by means
ol tiie mercantile system, — a system of strict and detailed regulation of
foreign trade by means of tariffs and navigation laws. Each country stn^ve
to determine the nature of its international trade, and t-ndt-avured to carry
on its commerce in its own ships. In the case of one cou itry. at b'a.-.t. tin-
lueicantile system was eminently successful, (ircat lir.tain enteriMl tlie
great Napoleoinc wars with a powerful naval and nuMcliant marine, and
emei'ged Irom tiiat struggle the uii(|uesti(ined mistress <d' the ocean. H»-r
indu.-tries also, as well as her ships, were stronger than tliose of otlieret»un-
tries; and she soon concluded that both her foreign trade and lier shipping
would profit by (ioing away witii tlie restrictions of the mercantMe system.
and adopting the policy olCiit ire (ommerciai freedom. She made nomi.-take.
for her industries ami commerce have wonderfully prosp«ied.
Till' success of free trade and freedom of commerce in the I'nited King-
dom had much iidlucnce upon other countries, and, during the third (piarter
of the inneteenth century, several countries ])egan to mo\(> cautiously in the
dire<'tioii that the I'nited Kingilom liad take,!. They soon found, however,
that for thiMn free trade and shipping meant ISritisli trade and shipping,
because of their inability to compete successfully with their iK)werful rival:
ami. iluring the last (pijirtcr of the century, the dominant commen-ial ami
maritime policy outside of the liritish Isles lias U'eii one providing for
the regulation of trade by tariffs, and for the jn-omotion of the mercantile
marine by jiostal payments and bounties. At the present time, the two most
jiowerlul comnuMcial rivals of the liiited Kingdom are the I'nited States
and (icrmany ; and their iiad<' policy is one of regidation instead of freedom.
It would seem, therefore, jiulging by results, that both the I'nited Kingdom
and her competitors have acted wisely, a. id that in both cases the means
adopted were such as conditions demanded.
The third cause of the world's commercial ])rogress during the j>ast cen-
tury has been colonial expansion. (Jermany, France, and other countries,
influenced by the great success of the I'nited Kingdom, have establislnil
colonies in different jiarts of the wiuhl. and assumed control over uneivilize<l
peoples, until there are now ILT* colonies, protectorates, ami dependencii-s.
These iL'o regions comi)rise two fifths of the land surface of the glolw. and
contain one third of its po|inlation. 'J'hes(! colonies and pi'ofectorates im|«irt
annually over .Sl.oOn.iKMi.uoft worth of commodities, iind <d' t!>is large sum
more than forty per cent is bo\it;ht from nuither countries. The last nation
to adopt the p(dicy of colonial expansion is the United States, her priuei|Kil
colony, the Philippine Islands, having be-n made a jiart of her ]>ossessions
because (d' our desire to secure a larger .'-hare of tlie trade of tlie Orient.
L
TURY
•lu'cked foi a
iiij? the |a.>t
I tlif annual
in c-onimerii-
itions of tli»-
n stntve t>>
•n ttv tnean-s
i>.^ii.l:iri<>ii (if
iiiitrv strove
rt'cl to cany
at least, the
••Iitereil the
uiai'ine. an.i
wean. Hi r
other eoiiii-
ler >lii|>|iiii|r
tie system.
no mistake.
niti'fl Kini;-
liiil <|Uart<r
iiisly in the
il. however,
1 shipping.
I'lfiil rival :
lenial ami
ividini; for
inereantile
!• two most
tt'd .States
>i freedom.
Ktnj^uui
the means
! j>ast cen-
oou II tries,
■stablisheil
nnivilize*!
•'iuietiei«'s.
.i,dol)«'. and
tt> im|M>rt
Iar<,'«' sum
ist nation
)>rinei|Kil
ossessions
it'iit.
Q
■A
■A
en
to
bi
IK
I"
:ii
li
lii
('(
SI
ill
Pl
tl
fo
IK
ill
CI
St
Oi
tl
<>l
111
ii
v:
A
U
S
11
li
\
II
ri
li
ti
•.i
ii
li
si
THE CENTURY'S COMMERCIAL I'RUGliESS
513
I.\. TIIK TWKXTIKTU CKNTIHY I'UtlSI'Ki T.
The world is ontcriiij; upon the tweiitietli century with the nations of the
earth bound to eaeii otlier by niueh closer relations than existed a hundred
years aj;o, and chief auion,i^ the forces that draw the countries of the world
lo<,'ctlier is coimiicrce. It is coninierce, more than auytliing else, that has
brought about the existinj; organization of imhistry in which each nation is
deiii'iident upon every other.
I'hi' nations of tiie world are mutually dependent, but their interests are
not identi(!al. In the future, as tliey have done in the past, natinns will coui-
petc with each otiier. each striving to secure for itself a uiaxinnim ot economic
advantage; and this competition will continue to take the form of cdiumercial
riv.ilry. The great international struggles of the i)rfsent day are being car-
ried on to seiMire trade advantages ; and at no time in the pa>t have those
contests been more earnest than they now are. The conHicts of the twen-
tictli century will 1k> commercial struggles, and they will Ix' intense.
In the (!entnries when I'luenicia. (Jreece, Carthage, iiome. and Venice were
sticcessividy jiowerfid. the Mediterranean was the theatre of commercial
activity and international rivalry. The navigators and exjilorers. whose ex-
ploits closed the mediicval iMM-iod and inaugurated the modern era, carried
the world's commerce from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic and tran.s-
fcrred the centres of national greatm-ss from the southern to the western aiul
northern nations of Europe. The great industrial countries of the present
are those of Europe ami America adjacent to the North Atlantic. These
countries originate the larger part of the world's commerce; and the main
streams of international trade are those which connect these countries with
each other and with those regions of the earth Ies» highly developed indus-
trially.
Tim Isthmus of Suez, just north of the Tropic of Cancer, and the Isthmus
of Panama, a short distance south of that line, were the only barriers which
nature placed across an otherwise CDntimnnis water route around the earth
in tlie northern hemisphere. These barriers diverted the lines which the
world's largest volume of traffic tends to follow far to the south around
Africa ;ind South America, or ditl so until 1865), when Eurojje overcame the
barritM' of most conse(|uence to her by the construe tion of the Suez Canal.
Since the opening of that waterway EurojM» has enjoyed advantages for inter-
national trade superior to those enjoyed by our country. Our regions most
hi,i,'idy developed industrially are tributary t<> the Atlantic and (iulf of
.Mexico. To the east of us lies Europe, a region of great industrial advance-
ment, demanding little more than o\ir surplus food products and raw mate-
rials ; to the south are tiie countries of tlie .^^outh Atlantic lying along the
line of the world's secondary commercial routes ; countries, moreover, whose
trade we can secure oidy in direct competition with Europe, which has
already forestalled us at mjiny points. In pushing their trade westward the
industrial States of tiu' I'nited States — ami they an- found in the eastern
half of our country — Hud that the possiiiilitics of a trattic by land are re-
stricted within narrow bounds by the heavy costs of a huig haul over the
clr'vated Conlilleran Mountain ranges, while slii,):ucnts by water have to take
the circuitous and exi>ensive route around South America. Until an isth-
.'W
514
THIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
i
iiiian caniil is coiistnu^tuil the I'liilrd .Stati's will be haiulieapiK'd in its coiu-
jtetitiuii »'. itli Euroiie lor tliu trade of all foiuitrif bordering the racilic
Ocean.
The I'liitiMl States lnoks forward to the coining century, eoiitident of shar-
ing largely i.i the world's eouinieree. With an enormous and rapidly growing
foreign trade, and with her industries sending their wares into all (puirters
of the globe, the future of her trade is certain. Shall we also become a great
niiiritime nation '.' Shall wt- be as successful in the age of steel steanishi])S
as we were in the days wlu-n our clipper-ships, "those strong-winged gulls in
tind)er. put swift girdles around the earth'.'" rn(piestionably. yes I The
(fommereial advantages which our rivals have; possessed lor half a century
have nearly all disajtpeared. ( hir nuiritinu; inst'.iTts are not dead ; and win n
we again turn our attention in earni'st to the '■; k <d' international naviga-
tion, we shall " win anew the wide-reaching seas our sires loved and occupied
so well."'
Kmokv 1{. Johnson-.
EDUCATION DURING THE CENTURY
Tin: iiincU'Piith ('ontiiry has bctii charaett'ii/i'd bv a dt't'p anil abiding
int<ri'sl in jMipular cibicatiiin. (hie liundrt'd years ago tlini' wciv many
cldSf observers who strongly opposed all attempts to proviile schools for
till' masses, lest they sliould be edtieated above their station in life. This
tilling was particularly strong in conservative countries like lOngiand. It
led the Duke of Wellington to remark to one who was explaining to him
till' work of .losejih Lancaster. "Takt- care what you are about.; tor uidess
yiiu base all this on religion, you an' only making so many clever devils."
Sii careful a critic as Alexis de Tocipieville, after his visit to thi^ Inited
States in IS.'!!, wrote to ilared Sparks: "Are the effects of education nni-
Inrmly good '.' Does not a man who obtains an education above his social
coiiilition bectune an uinpiiet citizen ".' " The first triumph :)f the nineteenth
century was the coniiuest of this fear; and then' is to-day a general belief
that it is the duty of each community to provide a well-developed school
system, that each child may have an opixutunity for making the best ami
highesi use of his powers and capabilities.
I'erliaps no single element has contributed more to this change in the
liiipular attitude towards selniols than the writings of the great grouji of
thinkers who. with lofty ideals and keen acumen, have devote<l them.selvcs
to the study and liseiissiou of »'ducational (pH'stions. (iermany lias been
liircmost in its contributions to educational literature. Kiuemost in time
as in influence is .lohu Henry l'estalo//.i (^17I(»-1SL'7). Although endowed
wiili an "unrivaled incapacity for government," I'estalo/zi has yet iiecomo
an inspiration to modern pedagogy, oecause of Ids love for teaching and
the tender sympathy of lii.s nature. After various educational experiments,
he opened, ill ISOn, a school at Vverdun, on the Lake of Neufchatel, which
soon won f'fM' him a Kuropean reputation, and became a centre of interest
to edui'ators from all Kurope. The Kmperor of Russia gave him a jiersonal
proof of his favor, and Fichte, the great (icrman jihilosopher, declared that
lie saw in rest;dozzi and his labors the dawning of a new <'ra for humanity.
In his writings and in his teaching I'estalo/./.i emphasized the importance of
the home in educaf ion ; lie asserted the truth that all instriu'tion is based
on observation: ''Neither books nor any product of human skill, but life
itself, yields the basis for all education;"' and in a t;eneral way he aimed to
develoji the <'liild tlwough his own personal .-ictivity. nither than to furnish
him with useful facts.
Tlie most eminent of I'estalozzi's disciples was Friedrich Froebel (17SL'-
lS."»'j), the founder of the kinderg.irten. After a varied career as a forester,
student at .lena. etc., Froebel went to Vvenlun in iSdH, and lor two years
was a co-laborer w ith IVstah>zzi. The impiils*' which he here received never
lost its force. It brought him to consider the problems of elementary educa-
51(i
TIUUMI'IIS A Ml nOXDI-JliS OF THE XIX'" CKSTIUY
tidii. luul filially V\ 'u 1S.'$7, to his fstiiblislmicni i>t tlir lirsi kimlcifiarti'ii it
Uiaiikfiilmi},' ill I'limiiiijia. His idea may In- wi-li ixpn'ssfd in his own \\or(l>.
— " I can coiivcrt ciiiiilrcii's artivitirs. cnfi'^ii's. aniiiscnii'iits. iii'cii|iatioiis, .ill
that i^'ocs liy tlif iiaiiir ol I'lay. iiiti) iiisi I'inicnis lni- my |iiii'iiosc, ami thcrot'oi ■
tiansrorm play into work. 'Iliis work will lie I'ducation in tin- tint' scmm'
of till' Ifiin." J I IS 1,'rcal liicoiv wa.^ iilcalistii lit- liclirvt-il in tin- unitv <il
th
mil
vcisr. in tilt' essential liaiiiioiiv of tin- worlil. It was the duty of tii
IfaclitT to tit till' I'liild lor liis |ilari' in human socirty. Tliis could he hc.-t
done if the child was taken at a very early aj,'e and |ire|iared for lile in an
iirdiiiarv school. Tlie kinder''arten. or cliilil-!'.irilcii. is thus a school where i
ild
learns soci
il lif.
wliere his play is
■ \.steiiiali/ed and lii> aitivities
diructi'd. The avera^^e course of >tiidy takes liold of the child when he i~
six years of ai,'e; the kindei:,'iirten usually lills in tho two iiiecedinj,' years
As an ediicatii'iial institiiiion, tlie kindcr.Lfarten has met with little piilili.
.siiitno
KC
PI'
liools
)rt ill Kiui
111
Hill
rli in Paris there are a niiiiilicr of •• matfrn
.hich correspond closely to I'^rneliel's plan. In the I'nited State:
\\ liecame the lirst iiliostle ol the nioveliient. 'I'lie ide
diihil
Miss Kli/ahcth I'c;
of cariiit; for the
and in a niimlier of la;i,'c cities kiiider'.'artens were opened under private
reii lielow the re''iil;ir sclicol-aije won in>taiit lavor,
auspices.
.\s their
success liccame i
leaier and more po>iti\i
Ih
•re tal.
ken
um.cr the control of the puiilic. In lS'.l(l-'.t7. the ic|».rt ( f the rnitcd Statc>
Commissioner of Ivlucation shows that tlnrc were l(i77 kindeii^artens in the
I'nited States connected with the piiidic-xdiool systems of cities haviiiL;
more than l*HMI population, a ith an eiiiolliiieiit of M.'.Ml) pupils. The Intei-
national Kindergarten rnimi. lormed lor the purpose of **}.,Mtlierin^ and dis-
seminatinir kiiowleilLje of the kindcruMrten inovemeiit tliroii^'hout the world."
has aided greatly in slimulatiiij^ an intcUigeiil interest in I'"roeliers ideals in
America.
None of tin j^reat fierman philosophers has Iteeii honored with a more
loyal cult than .lohanii I'ricdrich Ilerliait ( 177w-1.SII t, who directed j;eiieral
attention to the necessity of studying the principles of ediicatiiui. In hi.-'
writings and lectures while )irofessor at the I'liiversily of (lottiiiu'cn. Ilcr
liart started an impiiry into the theoretical liasis id' instruction. He fouii<l
the final aim of all education to centre in the formation of moral character,
while the keystone of instruction is interest. "The final aim id' instruction
is morality. Itiit the nearer aim which instruction in particular must sec
liefore itself in ordi-r to reach the final one. is many-sidedness of interest."
Heriiart's influence in aroiisin<,' and direct mi^ thoiijjht has l)een most felt in
(iermaiiy. lint in .Vmeiica his name has lieen taken hy one of the most active
educational associations, ■•The >;ational Herhart Society."
Next to (lermany in its list of great edncational tliink<'rs must coi, ■• I'ai^-
land. .\i the he^'inning of this century there were no " pnlilie schools" in
ICii'dand, in the .\nieiic:in sense of the tern
Til
c !.,'reat pri'paratory school
— Kton. Uiij,d»y. Harrow. Wimdiester. etc.. — although called "pnlilie" li\
the Knglish. were in n-ality endowed hoarding-schools, where as a rule oiil\
the children id' the rich could he found, (ieiieral education wiis earfd lor li\
the villay;e schools ijider the direction of the vicar (d the jiarisli. and usiiall.v
jiresiih'tl over hy elderly dames with varied degrees td' attainments. At the
end of the eighteenth eentury, the work of .\ndrew Mell ami .loseph l<an
EDUCATIOX hi: It I SO TlUi CEM'URY
617
kiiidtTf^arti'ii iit
1 liis <i\vu \viin|.>.
nC(MI|i:iti(>IIS. ,'ill
f. mill tliiMt-i'iiii'
till' tnu' scn.-i'
in tlic unity nt
till' (lulV oT llir
* ('(iiilil !>(• l)c.-i
(I tor lilc in im
Sflldol wllflr .1
i> ac'ti\ itirs arc
lild u liiMi he i>
irciM'(liii}i[ yt-ars.
til littli' imlilic
(i| •• niatf'iiial
riiilfd Stalo,
licllt. 'I'lic iillM
I in-iani iavf)i',
undrr private
licy were taken
• Tnited Siale>
•rtiartens in ilie
f cities liavin','
Is. The Inlei-
liei'inK ami dis-
ont tlic Wdild."
ifliei's ideals in
tl witli a more
lireetcd ,1,'eiieral
eation. In lii>
lifittinu'en. Ijir
inn. Me ioimd
iioral ciiaiacter,
I nt' instruetion
ieular must see
ss of interest."
'(Ml most I'elt in
the most active
e.istcr lie>,'an to arouse some interest. Workiiij,' iude|iendent!y, the one in
India and the other in London, liotii develoi.ed the same un'thod of providing'
general instruetiou at a minimum of cost, by using the jiiore advanced |ni|.il,s
III instriii't the beginners. •• I'.y tlu^ aid of uutnitors,"' said Lancaster, '-oue
I'KSTAI.O/./.I.
(Tlie IVriy I'icluro. Coliyriglil, 18U8, liy U. A. I'erry, .Mulilen, yXuat.)
niastor can toacli a thousand Iniys." In IT'.tS. Lancaster opened the first
Knglish sehi;:il cd' this kind iu Soiithwark. London, placing this in.scriptiou
over liie door: "All that will may send their children and liave tlioni I'lln-
I aled freely, and those that ilo not wish to have education lor nothing may
pay for it, if tliey j>U'ii.se." In 18(18, the Koyal Lancasturiuu Society wa-s organ-
;18
TRIUMPHS AND WOXnEItS OF THE XIX'" CENT U 11 V
izfil, to agitate tor inort' scliools ; and altlioiii^h its iianu' wsis chiui,i;('(l, in ISl I.
to Uritisli and l'"(Ht'i,i,'n Schotd Society, its "'nk has i onti lU'd down t) tln^
jtresi-nt tinii'. ' • ISlS, Ijunrastcr ''anic to A ica . vas 't once jil iccd m
general charj,'! . tlie |iul)lic scIkmv .it i'liiidiitii-lnj lie .vm niade )»rin{'iji;ii
of a model school I'or tnuninj; teifl-iieis. wlici ■ • ;« (>• nl to havi' been tlie
first attempt at a normal sfliool in Aniei, a. A('"v »«Jn.i'r";ive a;;itation in
New ^'ork. in Canada, wImmc in |S'_",» he received an apiii tion from tlie
legislatnre to enable liim In stari liis monitorial seiiools. and <-V(.mi in Sontli
America. Lancaster's work was done.
I'riilialiiv tile u'reatest teacher of the centnrv in Kni:;land was Tlioma-;
Arnuid. whosi' charactt-r will Ion;,' live in literature thron!,di rlie loviiij; jmi
traiiure of his puiiils. Whih' eontribntinj,' little of iniiiortaiice to the stMener
of i>edai;ogy. lie was yet able to work a revolution in the {general conceptimi
of teacher and pnpil. and their rciatinns to ca(di other, lie insi.-<t,ed that hi-
teuchers mnst continne their stuilies after they had secured positions, ami
.so raised jirofessional ideals. •• 'I'he pupil." said he, •■ must drink frmn tic
nmninLj iountain. and imt from the .sla,:.rnant ]iool." Ilis ^vnijiatiiv K"^''
him rare jntwer to nmiild the character ol boys, lie trusted his Imivs aic
they lM»canie Worthy of it. •• It is a shaiiic to tell .\rnold a lie I He alway
Ix-lieves one." — was the (Miniiiion sayini;. .Vs a conscipiencc. there went out
Irom li'nuby "^ehtiol from 1S27 to IHIL'. the years of Arnold's hfadmastership,
a j;r<iup ot clean, healthy, whole-sonled buys, well litted tti bccnmc leaders in
Knf,'lish life.
Many contributions have been made tn the literature of jiodajjogy durinjj
the century, but there is none that has attracted more attention or "tinudated
more earnest discussion than Herbert Spencer's " Kducation." In the lirst
ehajiter of Ids book, Spiiiccr asks the ipicstion which aroused the eduea-
tii'ual world. — "What knowledge is of most worth?" It at onci- directed
impnry into the veiy heart nf eijiicational theory. The course of study, the
order in whiidi subjects should be considered, the time to be j^iven to each,
— all these jiroblems were vitally cuncermMl with the iinswer to this (pies-
tiou. -Mr. Spencer's solution won instant favor: "'How to live," said he,
'•that is the essential (piestion for us. . . . Aud this, beini; the i,'reat thinj,'
needful for us to learn, is. by conse(]uence. the i^reat thini^ which education
has ti> teach. To prepare us for fDinjifrfr livinj^ is the function which ediiea
tion has to disciiar^e." Tins point of view led t<i the accenting; of usetnl
and practieal snbjeets. The human body should be studied. — this is nocics-
sary to fnltill the first law ol naliire. self-preservation. The natural sciences
slmidd 1m' an essential part of education : this is necessary for our aciiuaim
anee with the world in which we iiuist live and work. History and social
.science should be studied : that each one may become fully in toiich with tin'
siM-iety in whieh he tnruis a unit. Naturally, little lime would be lelt fni
brjinches that were a-sthetic or cidtural. and so .Spencer would have the stu-
dent irjve but his surplus tiuu' to these. |!ut the important thiuf,' was that he
should know himself, his world, ami his society, so that he would be fitted tn
do his work in the most comphti' way. His i)ractical intliieucc upon educa
ti«m is l>est seen in the great inerciuse of aiipreciation for the natural sciences,
which has led to the introduction of nature observation and study, even in
the most (demeiitarv schools.
lan.tcinl, in IHI I.
(1 down ( ) tli.'
IlllCt' p) ,('('(1 111
iiiiidc ]irnioi]iii|
liiivi- Im'cii till'
ki' jiK'itiilioii ill
'tioii from tlic
I'Veii ill Soulli
I was Thomas
rtl»«' loving jioi-
fit) tlic science
rail contu'jitjoii
si,st,ctl tliat 111'
positions, anil
Irink li-nni tlic
vnipatiiy j^avi'
I liis Itovs iiii.
■: Jlcahvav
luMV Went Olll
•a(lniasl<'islii|p,
mic leaders in
EDUCATION DUUiXG 'iw: (KXTritY &v»
III Aineri'*" 'li re h: /e lie -ii important coutvilmt as to erlueatiotial tbr»ry
tturing the century. There has he( .1 a porlcct Hood of educational ljoiiJi«,
jKimphlets. and jK-riodicals, whose merit is so great as to extort e»*»n ntlin--
FIlOF.ItKI,. l-OT'NDKU OK Kl NDKIHiAUTKNS
(The IVrry I'ivliircfi. Copyriglit, 1*IS, liy K. A. IVrry, MaMen, Mom.)
taut uilminition ti-oin foreiii;n critics. While there has heen much nnerCTi-
nc>s in i|uality, yet Americans have no reason to ted ashanud <t' fii.*iir iciotii-
trihiitioii to podagogieal literature. The hest work has lieen dut- ebi the
di.seussiou of s|M>ciHc ([uestioiis, rather than in an elalioration of ^ncnl
.V.H)
rniuMins \M) wos hints or tiik xix>" ckstuuy
iili-als. Adiiiiiiistratiiiii. witli its inaiiirdlil prulili'ins, li:ts apix-alcd strnn^ly to
tin- AiiiiTitaii .iriiiu.s; anil ri)iisci|iu'iilly tln' ;jri'ati'.st uaiin-s itl tlic itntuiy arc
tlios<> iif iiDMi will) liavt* ili'voti'il tliriiisclvcs to soiiii' pnu'tiful work, the iiicals
all*! iliiails nl wliicli tlu-y liavc tlinrmii^lily iiiastciiMl, ami so liavt- li-l't •■iiiliir-
iii^ mi'iiiiinciits ot tlicir lives wmk.
The griMt ai-liii'ViMiiiMit <il ili<> riiilinv in tlic I Hiti'il Statrs liius lioen tliu
UH. TiroMAS AIINDl.D. OP lU'ClIlY, KXdI.AXK.
(CiiiirtPity i>f Tlio School .luiirnal, New York.)
ostalilislnnoiit of a systoni of free and pulilic sidiools. Like most of Iho
iiatioii's intcllcrtnal impulses, this spirit seems to have come from New Knj;-
land. There, the denioi latie ideals of the people led to an eaily apprecia-
tion of the necessity lor nniversal education. There <Mn Ik' little doiiiit that
it was from the Puritan s<?tt.lements in .Massatdinsetis that the original im-
i-ulse toward universal education came. 'I'lius. in 1(>I7. rhe Colonial Assem-
bly rc(piired that each titwn containing one hundred families should ustuhlisli
KnucATios liuitisn riii: cKxriiiy
!1
;i j;miiiiiiar Hcluml to itrepim' yniitliH lnr tin- uiiivcrxity. I..iriiig rolonial
liiiii's iiicii'i' and iiinn- scliouls w«t«' stcatlily cstalili^licil. I'mt tlic iii<i\fiiii>iit,
wliiili was /(•alnii>ly Hii|i|ii>rtiil iii New Kii^-laiiil ami iinouiaj,'«'il in tin- Mid-
(III- Statt's, i'S|nriall.v \>\ tlif I'ricinls. im-t witli ii|i|M).siti(iii in tin- Soutli, wlifiv
iiliication was considcrril a laniily ilnty. ami not within tli" inovim ( tin-
Matr. \\ liatcvfi'. tlii'ifloii', uas a('coni|>ii.--lii-d in an tdm-ational iim- jnior
III llic IJfVolntion d<|M'iidi'd n|iuii tin- spirit oi tin- individual colonits ; «i.n-
>((|urntl>. tiit'it' was llir widest jmosiIiIi' divfr;ji'ii(t' in thi' |puli(ic> and
iiii'tiiods of din'crt'nt localities.
Iiiit as soon as tin- Kcvointion had Ihi-h ai'roni)i1islii'd, and indi'|i<-iidcm-t>
liad Iiccoiih' a lact. a imcwid inlfif>t in ^MMicral cdni ;iii(in was cviilcnt. It
IS (xri't'diiij^ly intt'it'siing to walrli tin- ili-vido|>nii :it td the point of \\v\v
liial tiri' s(diools were a m'crssiiy lor tin- fxisH-ni'f <it the i<'|inlilic. and
Iniii'i' must Ihj cHtulilishfd l>y tin- State. I'he rally latiu-is ol tin- nation
,^:f^'^
AN oil) |.o<: si'liiMtl.IIol'SK.
woro not slow to rccojiiiizc this. In tho words of I'lanklin. " A llilih' ami
ii('\vs|)a|M'r in every lionsc. a j;ood school in cvciy district — all studied and
a|piprcciatcd as they merit — are the |iriiici]ial siipiMirt of virtue, ninralify. and
civil lilierty." •■ In |iroporti< u as the structure of a jjovcrnnieiit i,'ives furce
to pnhlie opinion." said Washiiii^ton. "it is necessary that piildic opinion
should lie cniij^ditened." And .lelTerson. with his Inoad philosophical appre-
ciation of deinoeracy. started the hattie aj^^aiiist tln' ideas <d' 'Jovernor jterke-
ley, oT Vir^;inia, when, in ITT'.l. he intriMiueed into the Jieiieral .VsseniMy (d'
\ iijjinia a hill providin;.i for the estalilishmcnt of stdiocds •■ for tlie frt?o traiii-
iiij: of all free children, mah- and female."
The lialf (u-ntury from IT'.Mt to INK* is tlie iM-riod of the battle for free pul»-
lic scliools. It was a hard ti^'ht, complicated in many ."states by local <piestioii8
and conditions that rendered success ;ilmost hopeless. .*^nme opposed Irom
the old point of view that education was an individual matter, — each should
K''t for himself ju.st so niindi a.s was [Mtssilde. OtherH raised the objection of
cost. — if taxation w.as proposed, was it ri;,dit to take money from one ^jroiip
lo educate the children of another? iJeligious disputes himlered proyn'ss.
fl!Ri
riilLMI'ltS .\Sh WitShKliS OF TltH A/.Y'" iHM'l'i:)'
— iiiaiiy (it ilir ilctioiiiin^itioii.s liiul toiimlfil sectarian si'liiiuls, aiul \v<>r<> 1111-
williii^ til si't> tliciii ii'|ilair)Ml liy |iiililii' scIkhiIs, wlirit' no cifcil wimlil In
tan^lit. K.s|n'ciiillv, in Mtnn- StatfS. as in I'l-nnMylvania, wlicn' Swi-ilc. (mm
man. Scotcli, liish, ami Knv;ii>li livi'il siilo liy .>itli', did tin- rare |ir'ii)lcni t-ntfr
as a |iri'|i|fxin'^ rliMiit'nt. Simuld anv lani^na^^i- tit licr than l')n;;li>ii In- laii^'lil '.'
What niH]M>ct should Im; f^ivcn to tin- tiiiditions and nistoius ot i-acli rao'-
th iiMTxatisni l>i",'an to yadd to luu^'ri'ss, it.
i.'roii|i
M
(Hcovcr,
\vl
im
<'<ini|ii'iiniisi'd witli '^mimI ri'luitinrf. At tii>>l. in'ovisinn was niadf uhcii'liy
till' ciiiliii'i-n ot thi> |Hioi- should li:ivi> their school tecs paid liv the State.
'I'hcn |iiililic schools were started exclusively for the |iiior, which were liraiidcil
with the stiL'Uia of
liani
icr SI
■hool>
itiit thoe ilillicuilics on!\ scinciI ti
increasi' the ardor of the |iulilic'.school utlvociites, and at. lcu);th their success
was CO
Uljileti
Some episndcs of the stnl^{|,'le deserve s| iai luentioii. Horace Mann
( l7'.Hi-I.S.V.») has liccii called the St. I'aul of edncatiou in America. In ls;!7,
the .st.ttc jtoard of Kdiication was created in .Massachusetts, and lloiacc .Mann
was aii|iointcd its first sccietarv. I'm twidve years he lahored with unllaj^-
j,'in:4 ener^jy to lniild up tiie piiMic iiitcrc>l in education. |ly speech and liy
]ieii, h
awakened in his .state an appicciatiun ot the value of thu piihli
Ht
L'liool system tliut has never since decayed, lie estahlished on an eiidnriii^
lasis
the I
iiisiiiess side III eniicalinn in tiic State. li\- s\ stcniati/iiii,' the school
t'liiids. The personal sacrilicc was enormous. He addressed public meetin;.;s
all over the country. When he louml that no arranK<'>iieuts had lieen niailu
at I'ittsficid til prepare the schiMilhoii>e for his meetini,', Horace Mann and
(iovcinor |!iii,';{s themselves >wcpl out. the linildin;^' and set it, in order, (hie
of his lirst interests was the provision of ;;ood teachers. In order to spur
the Asseiiiiily to its duty, he lic>,';;ed from his friends the sum of .Sl't.OOO,
which, witii an cipial siiiii appropriated from the state treasury, was used in
the estalilisliiiieii' of the Ma.ssachusetts normal schools at Lexin<;ton and
Itarre (|N.';'.(). Outside of his administrative work, his fame must rest upon
his stanch advocacy ol the principle of "the olilij^atioii of a State, on llu!
Kri'iit principles of natural law and natural etpiity. to maintain free schools
for the universal education of its peoph
In l'eiiii>\ Ivaiiia, the hero ol the hattle for free schools was Thadih
us
Stevens. In Is."! I, a law was passed liy the Ic^jislatuie estaliiishinj,' a stato
system, and aliolishiny; the distinction lictwei-n rich and poor which had licen
noticed in the old pauper schools, 'i'wo years later, a deterniineil elVort was
made liy the couiiiincd lorces of ij^norance, prejudice, and caste, to repeal tho
act of IS.'il. Nolhiic,' liiit the stanchncss of (ioveriior NN'olf and the power
exerted liy the eloi|iiencc of the '• ( )ld Commoner" s.aved free schools for the
Keystone Slate, and so e-.talilished the system which to-day receives more
direct aid from the state treasury than in any other State of the I'nion.
West of the .\lle;,'liaiiies, the interest in popular education has always
hecn deep and tlioroui,'li. Settled in lar;,'e measure liy the steaily sons of
New Knvjiaiid, education found there a most fertile soil. iMorcovcr, by tlu!
wise foresight of Congress, provision was made for school funds in a most
satisfactory way. The ((rdinanee of I7S7, which ori,'aiiized the territory
north of tho Ohio itiver, contained a provision that one section ot land in
oacli township should be devoted to public education. If this grant, whiuli
If
EiwvMios hi'itisu rut: cKMi'iiY
ami were nn
'"■|| would Im
' Sui'dc, (ici
'I'llilciii iMiti'r
'ii Im' liiii;;lit '.'
• 'I I'iifli rare.
• |i|n^'|(.ss. it
aili- w hcirliy
l'\ til.' State.
kviTi' luatii|)'i|
tll\ M'lM'lj (l)
lln'ir MiccH'SM
wa.H iiriKinully Hii','R«'''t«'il l»y •l«'rt»'iNt»ii, hail Immmi i*ar«>iiilly watclu'il, it would
have Ihtii .siilliiifiit tu nulow tlic |iulilii' m-IhmiIh nt uiaii.v Wr^icin Stati-H.
Tlir iiatiiuial ^'uVl•l'llUll'lll ^Mvr to i-diiratiiiii in ilif JiiNt luiiidiid vtain ol itH
hi^tiiry iii'iirly fi^litv iiiillinii ai'n>M id pidilit- lands, hut tlii'M- KranU \vi>r*> iiut
always rniiscrvrd wiili Mdlii'ii-iit i-iiir. In iMMi-'.lT tin- total rrvi'nui' of tlu'
mdiiMil ftyHti'MLs ill lltr liiili'd Stali-s was Sl>>>>.<ill.- 1.'>. ol wluili Irs, tliaii
livi- |><'i' LM*nt wiiH I'roiii state sidiool Iniuls or iimiI id m-IkioI lauds, \\liili' nvi r
ii;,dity-six |HT riMit wtis lU'iivcd limu state and loial taxatimi.
Siiuie little lMi|iee|itiii|l i)l tlie iiulililislty iit the eiiiiininll-sehniil HyHtl'lll ill
the (nited States may lie ulitaiiied tmui the rnlluvvin^' statistirH, taken fri.:*!
the lke|iiMt <d the (niuniissiiiuer id Kduiatmn Im 1S*,N>-*.I7.
riiM.MMN M IIOill. SI \ll>l|i> III III! I Mli.ii >l.\Ti;s
(Mil IM l.lltlMi ritlV.Ml: M l|iiul.>, I III. I. Mils. ilU I NIVI.IislTIK.H).
I. — (iclicrul .Simi.lir..
'I'litlll |»>|M|I||||m||.
NimiiIm I i<l inr-ciii-. .■> Ill IH yi'iir- iif ii({i'
NiiiiiIh'I III ilillVri'iil |ili|iil« I'liriillril iiii llii- h'IiimiI ri'lcUlcr*.,
j'lr ri'iil of liilill |M>|iiiliiliiiii I'liriillril .,,
.Vv'ijiKi' iliiilx iilli'iiililiir
iii;i' li'liKlli iif M'liiMij tiTIII (lUyn).
Miilr lini Ik
iihIc trui-lli'l
Will.!.'
iiiliir i<f IriU'hi'r* .
!'.
1 III iif lllillc ll ill llil«
.\\illlU'i' llliillllllv «IIHr» cif Irlliln I- :
Mall- (iiMiiiynt Irnin till' «liili«lii • mI 4'I .S|iilf«|
I I'liiiili' (iiviriiifi'il fmiii tile iilHti<i|ii-» iif 4^1 Sluloi .
N'millllT «•! ^t'lllHlllltlllTH
IH;ti 71
■'Hl.^lNI.Mlll
|-J,.|ll.'.,i-IKi
"..'Mil.'iSJ
I1i.lt
4,:ii:i,;iiT
ILM
'.MI.'.IKI
I-Ji'.llli
i* I ■.•■.'.'>
41.11
M:{,llll
I Htm 117
A|>|.riiKlliiiili*
:i.
ri.ii'j
V.ilii
if •rhiMil jiri
l"-"l"'"<.v
Kiiiiiiii'iiil .*<lnli>lli'».
-'I.nsli:-J
ll.ii'>i,4lii
'.11. .Vl
III.IISil.ll'JII
I4II.4
l.'II.IMII
•J7 1,1147
4ii:i.:i.i:|
.li.il
.. -U.iy
.•■•IS.:|H
•-Mti.NiH
4>l4a,H|M.7ii:i ^40U,iiiili.liHi|
ltnii|il-:
liiiiriiH' fniiii |K'riiiniii-iil fiiiiiU.
nun niair liiM'
IrMiii l<M III liixi'
rmiii all I'lliir ^
!«7,Rlil.lMH
;i.'i,iNi2,:i:i;;
1JT,iii;ii,7iii
IT
ri.iuit
I'l'lal nriipl*
l)M.ii4i.-i4;i
?:il,!Ki.l.-J4ft
r.\i>i iiiiiiiii'i"
I'm' >ilr>, liiiilililii;>, fiiriiiliiii'. Iilnarii'-, ami ajijiaralii
Ki.r.alaii.- iif liii.liiT. ami MiiMTiiili-mli-iil. .•<4-.>..'tHii.S.VI Il!i..lli.l,.'i|-J
h'l.r all iiiliir |iiir|«iv. *...•.. ;iii. 1 |:i..s|.'(
.-il'.i. Iil7,'il-J M87,:i2tl,lliy
iital rxii<<mlltiiri<< .
lAlH'iiillliiri' jHT i'a|illn nf |H>|iiilatiiiii .
I'lilal i'\|H'iiiliiiiru |ii'r |iii|iil.
1 .7.".
I. 'MM I
li.ili
IH.r.T
Til these ^'i-aiid totals iiiiisl Im- aild< d the iiiillioii and iiioie in atteiidaiioe ut
luivati) seliools throughout the count ly, and the rapidly iiicieiisinj,' miiiilHT
(now L'lT.rri.'!) id those who receive hii^her inslnietion. in universities and
jiiol
essiona
1 and
llollll
ll schiwds. This makes lor the I'ni^eil States a Kiinid
total id |(;.i.'.">."i.(i'.»;i iiupils and students id all i,'iailps in iiulilic and |.)'vate
schools, 'i'lie j,'i(i\vth iluriii'4 the last ^jeiieratioii has lieen most marked.
The statistical table yives an oitiiortiiiiity lor comiiari.Min with the year
6St4 THIUMI'IIS A\J> UdXtH-JliS or THE XIX'" VEXTl'llY
1S70-71. — tln' spall til a iit'iiciiitioii, — and it li;is Im'cu t-stiiuatnl that
within liiis jtciiod tin- avci-iu'f total anidunt of sclnmlini,' lias incii'as«'«l tr>>iii
L'.Ml VL-aiN to I.L'S years. In otlnT words, tlic amount of fducatioa whirh
-1 iruiii.llni -I,, M.i;i;i'v IIuM.dw, n. v
(« oiirii «v ii( Tlw Sflidiil .Iniiriinl, New Yuik.)
fach Olio ft'lt alili- to atTcud lias increased almost one lialf. Siifli is tho inasr-
nitiet'iit result wliicli lias ;^'rown out of the isolated villatre seli<iols of oiir
New Kii^'laiiil anft'stors, fostered liy the demoeralii' desire for iiitellii,'»>int»
found all oyer the eountry.
Ei|nall_v j^reat has lieeii the (•haiii^e in the spirit of the seliM>l. In tin*
early days the seliool, were very eriide. I'oiMilalion was scattered, ami sincr
the children eonld not ^o as far to sel 1 as their elders <lid to cliurr-h. \\\o
nuiiiher of stdioolhniises was very j^reat. They were usually put up l>y tho
jieoplo of the MeiLrliln.iiioiid with little pretense at adornment. The avenisr**
lev:<t
s(dioolliouse was located either at a fork in the roads or on an elevation,
where it shared, with the '•hiindi. the honor of eoiispienonsiiess. We i»iv»"
a ]iicture ol ( Hd Sleepy Ijiillov.- Seliuolhouse. made famous by Washin;.;toii
Irviiig's elalMirale description of Ichaliod Crane, its ruler in the colonial
days. 15ut a structure of this kind is luxurious eomiiared with the hanl-
siiips of iiKU'e sjiarsely settled re<j;ions. I'"r(im W'iekersiiam's •• lli>t<>ry of
hducation in I'l-nnsylvania " the followinji ilcscriptii.ii is culled: •■The |>io-
iipor Mchoolhous ' was liuilt of loirs, sixteen by twenty feet, seven feet to
the ccilini,', danlied with mud inside and out, a mud and stick chiiiiney in the
north end. and in the west a loj; was left out, and the openinj; covered wjti:
oileil iiajK'r to admit lifilit ; holes were bored in tho lo>is and pins driven
in, on which to nail a lont; hoard f(U' a writinj^-talile. and slabs with 1»'«h
rered l'<ir .seats. The early schoolhouses were },'eiierally .situated near
answ
KhUCMloS hi'iilSd TUI-: (H.xrrny
tlip roinlsidi' 111' <'ri)ss-iii;iils. Iifiiij; witlmiil |ilay};ri>iinil. sliiiilc-lrfcs, or iiiipa-
itii
Merc tlif iiiiislcr ki']ii liis cniiiilrs si-IumiI lor a ii-nii of tiom si\ to t\\clvt'
wiiks. Ill I lie wiiilfr time llif iiui>ils wcr« uliiiost Jiu/.i'ii, and tlu'ic wt'it-
otliiT (lanv'rrs wliifli llic lianiy lad of tlio^'C davs liail to I'lii-oiiuirr. Ni'vrr-
tlii'li'ss, niilt'. iiiicoiiiloiialil''. and iiiadi'i|iialf as tlii'v were, ii was licri' that
oui' Ion-tat licrs olitaiiu'd ilirir sraiity sclioolin^. 'I'Ih- iIhit |;'>, lleadin',
Uitin". and 'liiiliniflic, loniied tin- liasis of tin- ••oiii.-c of stiuls. Mitliods
well' very siniiile. Mmdi of tlie earl; in>ti'ii tion was relij^ions in its tieiid,
and tlie eliiid w;is esjieeted to Use liooks wliii-li Would t<'aeh moral ies>o|is.
I'liuii'li liooks. eonlaiiiiii',' creeds and li\iiin> and eateeliisn
mi'dlt lie used
in the scl 1 for .--ludy. 'I'lieii lliere weii' tlie primer-- or 1 ks to t'ludi tlie
A I'iC. '['lie Imiiioiis '• New I'jivdand I'rinier " was pnltlislied in tlie Litter |iart
.ft!
seventeelilll eelitUIN .
I.ater e litions eonlainet
I il
iVmile' eol
llilet-
s ll|ioll
each letter of the
aiii
lialiet. illn^tratcil with sindi iiiia'" rv as the art uoiild
lUoV
A |ia.v'c I roll! the -Child's < iiiiile." piililisheil in London in I7(i'.'. is
shown on iiai,'e .Ci .
It
S Verses Wi'l'e easl
Iv nicniori/ed. and someiinies 'Mve ;i
lasis for a sjicllin;^ lesson. There were no j,'radei| ri'aders mitil thi-. century.
Wiitinji III some nei',dilioriio(ids was taii',dit only to hoys, on the pneiul
}.'riiiiiid that it was an iiniieeessarv ai-eomplislinient for the sex which never
eie,'ai;ed in Imsiness. Ink was home-made Ironi Innised niil;,'alls placed in a
iMittle with water and rusty nails. The writini.' was done witli a ipiill pen,
and one of the foremost duties of the old-iasliioned |tetla','oi;ne was to mako
and mend pons.
INTKUIOII OK srllool icooM. ^I.KKI'V llol.l.uw . N V.
(t'oiirteiiy of Till' H«'li<ml .lnurnat, NVw Y<irk.)
The master set the copies liy w iitiiii,' a lesson whiidi was to 1m» iniitutod liy
the pupils. Tiiere was no set style, hut usually the teacher wrote a hold,
le;4ilile hand wliicli ir time was acipiired with a tair dej^'iee of success.
TlilLMl'llS ASU WoyOKRS OF THE A/A'" CEM'UUY
AritltiiK-tic was t;mj,'lit witliout tcxt-lHiok.s. Sums won' jiivt-n out l>y tli'-
iiia>t<-r anil wurUcd mil on |ia|i(>r t'li llif ili'Nk. Notliiiii; hut tlir iu<M'<' imkII-
lufiitan |iiiiii'i|ilt's \\a> lau>;lit, and tlir lii},'lu-i' liraiu-lu-s of ulKfl)ia and
{(itinictrv NVi'it' unkniiwii in llic |iulili(' mIuhiIs of this tinii*. Sir'IHiik was
<ii I the laMuitr sludii's. Il vJiiV"' I'"''' ■'<'<'l»' Inr tin- nn-nioiA. and imividcd
uii i>|<|Mti'iiinit\ Inr one of tliosr |iulilu' rxlululions in whirh Ann-rn-ans liavc
«|»llin.; Mh ilic liniik," >a\s Wirki'isliani. •• was taught
avH (h'lij'htt'd.
liy att«<ni|ii in^ to lead IIk* |in|>il to ^mvc tin- nanu-s of s\ llahli-N and words liy
iiatiiin;; thi- li'llci's ot wlmdi liicv arc comiioscil. TIk- first h's>on i-onsistcd
i)f coniliinations of a woril wiili onr oi- ni<<ri- consonants, arraiiiiccl so tluit a
kind of rhyme aidi-d the |>niniinciati<in. as nh. lA, il,. cti
" S
dli
.ir
the iHMik " consisted ill iiamiiiL; the letters of words |ironouiu>ed for tiiat pnr-
|Ntsf. Hut X\w cliief enjoy iiiciit id' s|Hdlin,:{ canic from the ohl-fasliioned con-
tests, or
M'
•ilin''-lM'es.
Sonietiiiics it was to diseoser tlie iM-f ^ik
icr
of tlie district; a^'aiii. one di-irici iiiii^ht I'c |iiiied a^'ain>l another. The
sih-Uers wonhl lie arranged in two rows. I'lie lirst word would U* j;iven to
the first s|Mdh'r on one >ii|e, the iie\t. to liis rival, the third to his coiiir.iile.
and so on. If one missed a word, he at once took his .s'-at : ]ircsently the
ruiiK'st wo, lid narrow down to a few, until at last all would have missed save
one, and lie or sin- heeaiiie the chanipion s|i(dler.
Tiie teachers of the time fomii'd a ^'roiip (d' varied attaiiiinonts. and often-
times with little professional eiitlnisiiism. 'I'l-aciiin^ has ahva_\ s suffered
fnuii the fact that a ^reat nnmlter id youii^ men enter u|Min lis practice, wli(»
use it merely as a sleppiii!,'-sioiie to some other and more attr.ictive pursuit.
The iiuiiiInt of those who have taii^jht a few terms, in order to save money
for a college, law, or medical course is le^^ioii : ami this fact has laid tint
protessioii open to the reproach that only the tiiiamlutious am. the nnalert.
follow il iHMinaiienlly. In the early days id' our eoiiniry's history, this
stigma w
will
lo warn
as iiileiisilied Wy the niimher of •• iiiueraiit schoolmasters," men
hrcd from place to place, teaching' a term in one villas* and then
inovin;.; to the next, — "odd in dress, ecceiilrie in manners, and oilentimes
iiitemjK-rate." Tln-ir work was simple in its nature; they were to keep order
and to t4-aeh the ruilimeiits. Tiieir methods in the latter have already Inm-ii
referred to; for the former, they relied, almost universallx, u|N)n the uiispar-
\\\]f, us«' of tlie rod.
The wisdom of the jiracliee of Ho<»nii1(» h.is only Ix-eii i|iiestioned in the
latter part of this century. In the early days it was the one reeojjni/ed pun-
ishment, even for students whose matiirily and attainments would siii;<;esi.
ail ap|K'al to reiLsoii, With this mode of punishment was a.sscN'iatt-d a more
or less int;enious series of devices, such as the dunce-lilock. the foids' cap,
etc.. all c.ilciilated to hring the offender into lidieule, hut utterly destructive
of that );<kn1 feidiiig iM'tween teacher and p . pil, ii])oii which so iitiich strcHH
is laiil to-day.
In the course of the century the old fashioned school has either passed
away or <dse has heen moditied in iterialiy. I'o-day it is to !m' found in only
si«:irs«'iy settled districts, while i.i the cities ami in the more cultured mi^h-
liorhiMNls one liiids carefully planned systems of education that show the
fniitji of the study and direction of some of the k«-f>iiesi minds that our
■ouiitry XvAi |iroduced. Whili! it is inipossihle in the space of a sini,'h- cha])-
A.
Ill Atlnm't Fall,
We sinned all.
B.
This Book attend,
riiy Life to mend.
11 r.c .Inih play,
.\n<l after slay.
I 111- /»,v .l.iih liiic
A riiief al .\iglit.
E.
All F.ai^lf's flight
K out of sii'Iit.
rill' Ml..- /.v.',
N \vhi|>t at Scli<H)l.
A . iiiti'- ilio i:iii<<,
M.in'* Life dnih |i:»ss
H.
\\\ Hrink nixl llfnr:
Slinll never |)art.
I
/■•'//( dill dye,
For tliee and I.
K.
A'lV/i,' Charlts the
(iooil,
No man uf Ulood.
W
Whalti in the Sea
Uud's voice obey.
X.
Xtrxfs the (ireat did die,
And so mutt you and I.
rilli.lt''' iiftHK.
(Cutirlftit <;/"./. If'iroiil WirktrthiimA
L.
The /.\on iMild,
Tlic l.timh (loth hold.
M.
The Aloon gives
I.iKht.
In time of Nii;ht.
N.
.Vif^/inj^it/,:' .sing.
In time nf .Spriiif;.
o.
The Roy.ll (hit our
Kiiij; ciiil save,
I-roni fatal stroke of
Rcliel .Slave.
P.
/VAi denies
His I -.rd, and crien.
J.
Qiiffii / .//;<■<■ came
ill Koyal Slate,
To save the Jews
from dismal fate.
H.
I\,t,hfl doili iimurn
I or her lir>t-lN>rn.
S.
SiiniufI anoints
Whom (iod a|>|MiinU.
T.
Tinif ciits down all,
ISoth great and sm.ill.
U,
L'titih's beauteoui
Wife,
Made David seek hit
Life.
Y.
y H:h's forward .'lips
I icalb soonest iiips.
Z.
/.;, ,heus, he
I'ld climb iht' IrM,
His Lord tu kee.
o'J8
TRIUMI'US AM) WOSDIlliS OF lllE A/A"' CEXTLliV
I
Icr ti) jt'liT to (i// till' cliiiiif^i'.s, yt't soiiu' ol till' most imiKirtaut will he cc
.siiltTt'd.
l'"iir('inosi, ill real iiii|Mii'taiic(' coiiic the cliaui^'t's in tln' conisi' of stiidv —
the list ol sul)ji'('ls whifli the \vt;lU'tliifat«'(l juiiiiK iiiaii may Ih- fxpccti'il
havi! luastrrt'd. I tnc hiiinlrcd vcars a.i;o tlif avcra;,'t' child would liavt;
to till' villagi
•liool lor till' tlii('(
K"
li's" with, iiiavlic. a lilllr tiaiiiiii'' ii
gt'ograiih\ ami |iai'KiiiK. If a I'olh'K'f t'art'(;r was oiicn lo him, in- woidd thcu
go to an acadcinv, iisiiallv a |iii\ali' institution. Ini hj- inliddiii'lion to tlir
(dassio. Latin and (licidv. and to alu<-liia. W hili- iu^liuilion vas );ivri,' in
other liiaiicht's, yt't thcs*' formed the liaeklionc of the eour.sf. Tli'' aviMai;i
a.ue (d admission to college was consideraMv less liiaii it is at pre-e.:*. In
the ordinary eoih%'e there was a iei|uii('(l eonise ^>i study, in whi( h Latin,
(ireek. and hi^'her mallieniaties played the most ('ons|iieuons |iait. The sei
entilii' studies were eoiinted less edueative, and weie usiuiUy rallh 1 poorl\
lau>;ht. lateral uie. history, and philo.-,(i|ihy were .sometinu's inehidiil in tin
(dlle^o (Mirrienlum, and in many wavs the eoiuse of slutly was moihded I'
su
it the lutdi'iences and altilities cd the dilTen nt teai|n|.s. Nowadays this
all cdiaiejed. In the I'nited States a t,'raded si hdol sy.stem has bei'll ercaled.
that is. a eoniplete eoursc ol study has lieen worked out. whereliy eertain
.studies are sjiecilied as siiiled for eaidi year of the siliool lile. This is nol
tin; same for all parts of the country, for the Ameriean strhool system, \iidike
that m (iermany and I'' ranee, is nol national in its oi>;ani/.ation. The author
ilA over the stdiools is vested in the imlividuai Staler, and as a eonsei|ueiiei'
ea(di State shows jpeeuliarities in eonrse (d slud_\, in laws, and in methods
that make tlie whole seem idiaotie. There is. howe\er. moie similaiit_\ than
would appear at tirst slight, .ind while what is asserted in j,'eneral may Uoi
be true <d eaeh particular locality, yet certain lim-s cd' ilevehjpment may lie
<']eailv seen.
Thr s(dio(ds of the country may be divided into three 1,'roups. — tdcmunlary.
secondary, and hij,dier. The elenu'idary sidiools are built in soiin! jilact's upon
the kinderj^arten ; they are ordinaiil\ supposed to oicupy ihe lirsl ei'^ht or
nine years of the (duld's school-lile. and are classitied as prnnary and j;ran
mar scliools. Purins; that period the pujiil studies a great variety of branidies.
— lanu'u.'i.itc studies, reading.', writing;, soellin.ir. ami grammar: arithnntie. geo
graphy, I'nited States history, civil government, nature study. phy>iology and
hygiene. ])hysical culture, vocal music, drawiiig and manna! '.raining in boys'
schools, or sewing and cooking in girls' schools. Several <d' these subjects
have been intro(bici
idv within the last few years. Tlie tendency toward
enric liing the cnrrii'iilt'jii 's r:;i*o manifest to-day ; it is based upon the fact
that by far the larger ]iari of the pnp'i, nev«'r enter the highei' sidiools. since
Iheir education is ended witi? •\\': elementary sidiools. therefore it is thought
iiesirable lo bring so-iio . .f <!!•■» b'.u'.''' subjects into ihe g iinmar school.
With the compl'.ii '. -:,t ihia elvi.nntary comso t!ie pupil passes into the
secondary school. K.c. '"cf ' ih' ■et:tnry this wa» ordinarily a private acad-
emy, either conducted fir p.ihr ir by a religious . ndcfy. In exceptional
cases these schools \vc» ■ ,»!ibi'< ; but a>' th.' licnetit.^' o' higher education were
recognized n. >re coniplelely. ji-e p..j>u!ti'il'.\ of these scIkm^Im increased enor-
mously. I'\ililic high sch K.ls v,'ei'' ipened, and success led to Iheir rapid
nuiltiplicatiun, until tu-day 1' ••;• [hiii ok« ul' tlie uuml u.seful elements in
KDUCM'ios DiiiiXf; Till-: <\':.\Tiiiy
on
— flt'iueiiliirv.
It' ]ilai't's iipiiii
lir.st fi!,r)it vv
iiy and iiv;n\\-
V ol' hiaiiclifs.
itliiintic, p'd-
liv>iii|()i,'y ami
iiiiiif,' in hoys'
Ik'si' siiliji'('l>
(Iciicy Itiwaiil
iipiiii the latt
si'lidiils. since
it is tlmu^'lit
■ scliodl.
isst's into tlic
privalf acad-
II <'.\('<»j)tional
Incafion were
leicased (MKii-
o llieir rapid
fleim-ids in
our system, sendini,' Initli year liy year It-Mlcrs of llioiij^lit and immldfrs ol
o|iinion. Tiieir cotust' id' study lias Itt'en tlie subject ol' nineli eounoverHy.
riic old academy prepared lor the collc'^e ; the new hii^h scdiool jnepares lor
life; conseipiently there ensiled a lireach 'letween the hi;^!i school and the
ciille^e which only now is i)ein); closed. The ordinary hii^h-school course in
hmr years, and includes lan:,'uai,'es. Latin. French. (Je, man. and sometimes
(Ireekand Spanish; malheinalies. ali^ehra, jje nnetry, tri^'onoiuetry. and some-
tinies analytical y:eoinetry and even astronomy; history, literature. |>hysical
i;eo;,'rapliy, physics, ciieinisiry. hioloi^y. j;i'ol(i;,'y. drawiu;,'. and i^ccasioiuilly
political eeuiiiimy, cthit-s, ;ind civics. It v.ill 1k' noticed tlnit subjects I'or-
iiieilv t;uii'ht onlv in the eolh-^'es have been broie^jit into the lii''h-scho(d
ciir
riciiliim. This aj^ain is diu" to the ••eiiriciiint: proei
;ind is illiistrativu
i| the fact that for .so many ol' its students the liij,'h school is the erown of
ijieir education. 'I'he stress laid upon nature study ami the physical scicnees,
and thi , itrodnction of modern hiiijiUii.nes. are aiiioii;,r the ino.>t si^jiiilic;int
cliailHC- of the century, as indiciitivtj of the desire to brinj,' the schools ii
IciU'
•li with tlie conditions of i>ra<"tical lib
l''roni liie hi'di sidio
tl
Mil or academy, tlie studt .,i passes
to th
.lie-
'c or uni-
versity. Within the last di'cadc an attempt has lieeii made to ^;ive a detiiiite
peda^'u^dral content to each of these terms. A m/Zri/r is an institution where
llle iilieial arts are studied for purposes <d vrelier.d culture. .\ ,iiiirirsi/i/, on
the othi'r hand, prepares a man l<u- one iletinite line of wmk. either jircd'es-
>nal or lcelinic:il. l!oth eoiib'i' deL,'r
ees upon
tl
lose w
lio I
lave success
fnlh
ciijupleted their courses, but those of the university (I'll. !>.. .\. M., .M. 1>.,
etc.) are of a hi^dier tyjie than tho.se of tiie eidle^r,. (.\. ]>,.. ph. |t.). There
wi'ie twciitv b>nr collc^'es in the I'nited States in ISdO. TJie si.\ oldest were:
ll.iivard. eslaiilished in l(»,
William ami .Maiv. Ki'.t.'l; \nU: 17n| ; I'rince
lull, irHi; Inivrsity of l'eniisylvani;i. 17l!l; Columbia, 17.">l.
In ISlKi tlieie were 171.' colle,i,'es and universi'ies in the I'liited States,
icprcM'niiiif^ most tif the .States ami Territories in the I'liioii. ^lany of
these iire entirely public, beiiij; supported by Stat*; a|iproiiriations ; soiiit)
receive State iiid ; others were orii,'in.ii!y founded by pii\ate endowment, but
lave become
pub!
ic in their mana.i,'eiiieiit ; some are entirelv private in
both
hi
<'iid
in ai'cordance with the services of sMine dciiominatioii. !ii ireiieril. iill recou
owl
iieiit ami control. .Most are non-sectarian, but many ri'ipiire worship
"K-
III
/e their hifry fiitii't ion in socii-ty and are anxious to disd'ar^'e it properly.
<hii,Miially aristocratic in many ways. — prior to the |;c\olution some col-
icj,'es (da.-.sifyin^' thidr students in ihv' e;it;iloj,'iie iiccordinj; to the social nmk
oi their families. — they have become anionu the niost popular iiistitiiti<uis in
the educational world. lar.t;ely because ol the hi;,di worth of their j^radnates.
I'liiversities, in the scientitic sense of t!ie lerm.did not e\ist prior tit l,S(M>,
1 \ce|it in the b'W medical ami law st-liools and theohinieal .seminaries. The
Aiiieiican conception of the university has been ver\ Iar,i,'ely moulded by tiie
espeiieiicc of (ieriiiaiiy. Tlu! collej^e dues not e.xist as a deLjree-conferring
institution in (ierinaiiy, but its phu-e i.s taUon very larjjely by the (iiimimsiiim.
The (lerimin system comprises three grades of schools: 1. l'o//,:ii /nifi'ii (pri-
mary schools), where the eieriieiitary instruclion is ^jiven. 1'. U\i/tntiiis!a and
l(i'iif-S>/iiifi'» (Hecoiidary selmols). which ])rovi(hi a nine years' coiirso for th»»
jiiipil. usuiilly ('(iverini,' the iiciiod from ten to i.iiieleen years. The aim of
IIH'
!»
:.;mi rnii'Mfiis \\n wusin:i:s i>r riii-: .v/.v" cusTunY
till' liist is to |iic|i;ir(' l(ir the iiiiivcrsitv . wliili the Iliiil-Silinlrn tit tlii'ir
stuiii'iits till' lilt' iii'iliiiiiry biisiiii-ss i-iiliiii^s nl iiti'. .">. CiiiviTsitii's, in wliicli
till' stiulii's ;iir iiiiaii;^'i'ii in I'liiir |;iciillics ; tlu;ol<i},'_v, law. nii'iin'iiH', ami |>lii-
lu>n|>liv. < >ii aiTiiinil III till' t liiirii\i:,'lmi'.->s nl' tlir (iiTiiiaii tcarliin^', iiiaii\
Aiiii'iiraii stiiilfiils liavi' f,'iiiii' to (iriniaiiy tm- tlii'ir iiiiiMTsily (•(iiirst'. A
Kiiiri'i't' frtni'l lias lirtMi iiiuilf ill Aiiirrira ti> ilc\'fl(i|i iiiiivrrsil irs arriinliniL; i<>
till* (ii'i'iiiaii niiii'r|it, with its ili-tailril stiiily i>l parlii'iilar tnjiirs liasfii im a
tliiir><iit,r|i L^'i'iirral riliicatiini. tlnliu^ lii>|i|;iiis I iiiviTsit \ , lialtiiiiiivr. n|>riir<l
in I.S7<>. lias ilmn' must, almi,' tlir>r liiu's.
I>iiriii'' tin- ri'iitiirv a i|i'!t«rmim'il ami micci'- slii
III lia-< lii'cii maiji' ti
Iii'imU iIiiwii till- iilil-lasliiiiiii'ii i-ulli';^!' riurirnliiiii. ^^itll it^ alisiiliilr ami un-
varying,' ri'iiniirnii'iil Irnm i-vny simli'ni. llarvaiii I ni\rrMl\. iiiiilrr tin'
|raili'rslii|i 1)1' its lirilliaiit i-M-riii ivi-s, 'riiniiii'.s Hill ami i'S|M'cially Cliarli's
W. i''lint. Iia> It'll till- '\ay liy prnv iiliii'^' a mtii-s nf I'li'rtivi- nmrsi's finm
whirli till' stmlrni nii;;!il M'li'rt a siilliiii'iil nnmliri to inaKi' up his rii>ti'i.
This has J^'ivrn srnpi- tn I hr fXiTi'i.M'
tli'i'ilnm 111 ill
liiiisi w linii'siimi' ill its I'lVi'i'ls iipmi Imth tin' srhnlai- a
ml niiiM
thai has Im'i
•isil\. It li
li'il tn Ihr ni",'lri't nl tlli' I'lmV riilll;
•Mill tn till' I'm-i'llia'^rllirnl nl' the
nni's; and it lias pmninti'ii imliviiliiality in t'li' ilillVii'iit >imli'nli Ina maik.ii
iii",'li'r. 'I'lsr sm ss nl' tlir i'|i'i'ti\i' systiMii. ami llif ilrvi'inpmi'Ht nl pn,-t
^'lailiial" cnnisi's in tlic university , takm in rniiiirriinn with ihr vi'i-y ^,'iiai
illli'I'i'M III .,il tlir pliasrs nl' lli^lli-r I'llllratlnll. inlisl iniir tiic rhirl iims nl
ailvami' iliiiiii',' tlic ci'iitiiry.
Il i^ r\ iiii'iit. tlii'ii. t hal ihrstmli'iit nl lnila\ ha-^ a I ri'Miriiilniis a'lvaiila'^'i*
iivrr hi ; IVIlnw nl mir hiiiniir:! years ii^'n III ihr > .'iji'it- w hirli III' may -tmly.
rill iirscs liavi' lici'ii ini ii'hiil. iiistiiu'tinii has lii'rii .s\ sti'inati/i'il. iiriv siili-
ji'i'ts. mini' I'lnsi'ly allii'il with pnpnlar nrnls, have licrii il
r\ I'lMiifi
Ml
ain wliirh transcfiiils in iin|Hirtani'i' i'M'Ii tlirsi' alti'iatiniis in ihr riini
riiiiiiii. is that whii-h has I'niiic ll.iiiii!;'li tlii' trai-hrr.
\Vi) have :.icii that tin- ti-ai'liiT nT niir Inri'lathris was a man nf liniilitliil
attainnii'iits ,i il niH'iTtaiii cliiirartiT. ami whih' iIhti' witi' ),'nlilcn ixci'ptions
tn any "^riii'ial (•liticisiii, yot it is lirynml ipii'slinii that as a i-lass tin- trarlifi'-
ship was lint well cstrinii'il. As a nilo, tlnri' was im «tal>li* salary. — tin'
ti'iii'liris •• linaiili'il ainiiml" tit (hi' Iminrs nl thrir pupils or n-cfivfii payim'Ht
in prmlnci' rrniii thi- ranni-rs. At thr sclinnl In- Mas laiiitor as wi'll as nliiiM'
till, (tiitsiilc nl Ni'W Mii'/lami, tlinc was litilc iiili'lliKi'iit sn|N'rvisi(iii nl his
(•llnrts. ami. nil tin- wlmlr. vi'iy littii' I'lTi'i'tivi- linim- i'no|MTatioii. Within
tl
II' ci'iitniv. 1, iw
f'Vi'i. thi'i-i' has lii'i'ii .1 iiiai'lu'il inrri'asc in thi- t'sti'i'iii in
whii'li till' ti'arlii'i- Im hi'lil. ami in tiio impiilar appri'ciation <>f kis work.
Mmt'iiN rv. In-ila\. till' ti'aihi'i' Ki'ttrr ili'si'r\'i's rvici'iii ami rcsprrt. \\ liih' th*-
I'l'iili'ssinii siiil I'liiitains a \a-i tlM.iiin',^ rli'incnt wlm Inok Inirtafil tn a liiliur
in otlii'i' linr^ nl wnrk. yi-i mi tin' wlml.' iis nii'tnl»»M'H pwsi'ss h k*'<'ii inti'iisl
ill thrir wnik ami a ili'siri- Inr pmlcNsinnal impi'iivi-niftrf .\ iimst |,kiwi'iIii!
iiiraiis tnwaiil this riiil has Ihtii IimiihI hi ihr val■lnll■^ h-ai-ln'i's' nfgaiii/itiinii-
ilily ol all ti'ai'liii's wit!;iii a givj-n «ii^
Till' lnsiilii!i'. with iis aiiniial
ISM'll
t rii't. wlm tlir i wn nr I Iiiim- i|a\ s ilisi-iiss schnnl ipii'stinii-- .iml listi-ii In I<'ftiir»
iipnn t'lliirai aiiial tnpirs. has hi'i'ii intrniliici'il ihrnn^'liniit tlu'whnii' i-niintn
wit h ''li'at sllri'i'ss.
Tin- li'arhi'is in thi' varimis Stall's }(avi' nii;ani/<'il Stati
a.sHociatiniis. ami tlnvr air iiinniaciaiili' vi-liiiilar\ nrjraiii/.iitin»«, whoHft u»«ft
lihrcMiiis innusli mi-: <i:.\iri{y
031
m: oI iIiiiiIiI IiiI
fli <'\n'|iliiiii>i
H till' tciii-lici-
saliirv. — till'
ivfii |i:i\ 111)111
Wrll ilS I'llllr.i-
■rvisioii ol his
iiiii. W'itliiii
ln' r.stri'iii ill
I'f liis wfiik.
t, Ullilr l!,.
t'<l |l> il llllMK
kfrii iiitn-fsl
iiosi iMiwnriil
c>r;4;ini/:(li<'li-
:i j^ivrii #^i^
"II li' 1' I'liir.
ilioii- <'i>niilr\
Xaiii/<'il Still'
. wlliiSO KlOct
iii^'S ^ivi- fiicli ti-iU'liiT an ii|>|iortiiiiilv ti r tliat Ini' luiitait witli uilin^ nl' IiIh
uwii kiiiii tliat is sn lii'lptiil iiml s«i su^j^t stivr.
Till- nlilrst iMliii-at'i>ii:il assnciat loll III A iiictii'a, iiiavlii- ill till- world, is thn
ViiH'iiraii liisliliitr ol lii>ti'iictinii. oi'^'aiii/i-il ill IS.'IO, liming its nearly
^I'M-iilv yi'iirs oi' lili- il lia> bffii a vast iiis|iiriiiiiiii to iliuiisainl-. o| ifarhiTs.
it lias ilrawii its .sii|i|H)it iliiiliv
Ii>iiii till' N*-w I'ji^laiiii States ami
irci'iillv Iroiii Caiiaila. Init its in
HmiIici' is wiili'sl'ieail.
All
nil;
il
uii'i-lin|i;s liavc Imtii Ih'IiI ir^'iilaris .
\iii"iii; its Irailiir,' >|iiiits, it lia-
niiliiiiiTcil sili'll men as W. I']. Slirl-
il"ii. I'tiim'i.s Wavlaml. IIi'Iiit Itai
iiaid. fU\ ( >iil ol' till- siicr('>s cti
tin- various State axMiciilioiis. ainl
|ii'rlia|i« siijfKesti
tor more v!''li''i'al aelinii, ^vi'W tjie
l\ til'' lit >sit\
Natimia
1 K.l
neat lolial
isMflatloli,
ill till' oliieets
toiiiiili'il in |N."i7. '\ I
"to I levate the eiiaraeler aini ail
\aiii'i' till- iiili'iesi lit the |irii|e>.sion
III tiMi'li ill); anil to |iroiiio|e the i-ati-e
III iHiiiiilar eiliiiMt ion in the I nitiil
Mati
Its lir>t |i
^nli'iit.
wa'
Zal-
1)11. < iiAiiM.H wiM.i \M iiiaor,
fiii.-iniM OF ii.MivAiiii iMMUKirr.
I iiiirli"'V iif Tlii< .SvliiMil Jdiiriial, NVw Yiirk.i
iiioii Itiejianls, and iiis Hiiccessors
lia\e lieen tin' loreliiost eillleatnrs
i>l the eoiiiiirv. iiii-lii'lin'^ JaiiM's I'.
\\ nkeishani, Kiiiei>on I'.. \\ hile.
W iliiaiii T. Harris, Allieit <i. Lane.
\i'liola> Miiirav Itiitli'i, t "harles It.
Skinner, eie. Its iiieiiilier-^|ii|> has
;,'iiiu n Iroiii HH in I.S.'iT to Id.li.M ( |,S'.(,S). ami il has lieeii eNtimalid thai -oiin' of
\\^ iiiiiveiitions have hroiinht twenlv-llve ihoiisaml |ieo|i|e in their train. In
s|iirit it is thoi'oii^^hly national, nieetiii'.; in every seetion of tlie eoiintry in
turn, so liel|)in^ to |iroinote iinijoniiitv in >ehool ideas. As the .\.ssoeialion
«re\v larger, and its work lieeaiiie more i'iiiii|iliealed, its ornaiii/.itioii lieeaiim
involved. To-day it eoii>ists of seventeen il''|iariiii'nl->. eaeh of whieh i|e-
M'te> itsi'lf to one phase ol ediieati"ii. ii;^iiall_\ re|ioiiin.i,' at the annual iiieet-
iiij,'.
'iini' \S\i'J the National Mdiiear i>.nal As-oeiaiioii (N, K. A., as it is |h.|iii-
arlv ealleii) has a|>|iointi'i| ihrei
lUlillees to ilivesfiyate s|»eeial lines of
>rk ill Mi*)tartttt> d |iai-liiieiits of the sehoid systfiii. The ('oiiimilt I Ten
w-hoKe ehairni III, Charles W. Kliot. was tie- iiistin','ni>lied I'lesideiif of jlar-
\ari| I'liiversitv . Miliniitted a iito>t useful re|Miit in J.SK.'S on .'>ieeoiid:iry .'sehool
^Indies. In IS'.I.I the ( 'onimitlee of {•'ifteeli. of whieh Su|H'rilltemlellt Will
II. \!a\ue|l \\,i> ehainiiaii. then of lironkiyii Imt >iiiei i-iioseii to lie the tirst
'^il|ierillte|ident ol SehonU of ••(^'ealer New Voik," m.ide a valiialile rejiort
"11 elementary edin-iiitiion. :urhidin^ r«'|Mirts o! •4il»-eiiiiiiiiitt<'eH on the Train-
ni},' of 'I'eaeher-. •iirieLition of StUihes. ,ind t\»r Ili^ailtXittioil of <'i|y ^ehmd
53:.'
TIilf'Mf»i«
ms OF rmf xix"> raxri/nr
I
i
I
Syst4'iiis. Ill IxyC '■Mm' Vkf i»»^«»rt nl tlw^ <'i)UUi>«M*><> nf TwiMvc on Kuim
ScIiimiIh, S»|i««riiiti'n»l»'vn H.«i«i\ i^M^iii, nf ii«Wii. ax 'ilMiiriiiiiii Tlit'Ho tUii'ii
nn-nts liiivf iM't'ii iinM'li-ii\,4kii«iir ^Wy liiivc .m-ouiiiuIm**)! a mass nf inisi
wnitliy iiiliTiiialii'ti ; ;' )i<av.- ^ii»«»«.iim| ii)ii>>uiti h|m* a widi- varioly ot
topit's, ami tlitMi' iiiHiii-ii. .' ii|«»(i \t^ •jcin-iiil .^- stfinati/iftion of tin* si'liunl
systfiii lias Im>(>ii i*ni>nti'>us. 'I'Iiom' «4(liti<>iial ,iliir lii's in liic tact thai
tlii'y have iiefii |iii'|iari'il liy t»*a«'lM*r>- ^•'•»•» iliiir(mji(i«ly midiTstiMiil Uh- t(i]ni>
wliifli were Ih-iii); ciinsidrii'J. and rlw, tii^-** luniislicd tu I'dm-iMMrs )j[tMi)>i-all\
that ciHisfiiHiis of |ii'(>t'fssiiin^;;il o|>ii>M«n >i»1m«*Ii lias lo'cn so Ixiiili^ ni-i lifd iii
AiiKM-ira.
Ill this wnrk III ^athi'iiii^ and dis- •' .mt^ui; iiit'i>niiiitiiiii, a mnN^ )iot(>iit
part iia> lii-ni playi-d li\ tin* iiatiuiial ^<iVi-rii>Miii#>iit. Thi- liiiiit^iti<iWHi uf tli<
Const itiit Kill left t'duration as a Statf iii'ttMV'Htt.. t4> b«* \viirk«'d out Uy .mi'Ii
I'lininioi' I -Itli as it should think hi-st. \']*»'W i*i»tl aJAViivs h^iMi a iii^i^i i'
ih'siri* anion;,' ti-avhcfs lor .somr national orjf;4«"»--<*'i<»ii. .1 <■! at last, al'trr rtiU-
Civil War. ( 'oiii;r«'SM estuhlishi'd a ih-partiut'iit. .tt^-i 'Ikmi hr.M- nuMlf .1 ltuivs«ii
«>f Kdiu'iMioii in till' I't-parinifiit nl ihr Interior, h. «4«J7 rf!<in. Mfiiry Him
Hard was a|ipoiutfd thf Hist I iiiti'd States ('o)iiiiii--i'..j^'' ol I'Mueafion. .\
wiser choiee eould not lia.e iieeii made |)i. Itaniaii**'^ 'Kmf^r wi I'dueat.ion
covers a M'liod ironi IS.'Kt. wiien ije was apjiointed Seeiu-^,**-' <»f r^> hoard o!
S'liiMtl ( 'onimissiouers in 1 oniieetiiut. down to the pre>i ,t' h«»K..ii>ud ipies.
tioii. his vM'eatest Work ha^ lieeii the .ir^ani/atioii ot the .Naf><vi«Mi tlw»aii ot
Kilueatioii. whii'li to-dav is a j,'rand i- i leational ileariiii,'-hoiisf. -fw^s'
in lt.«. exeellent reports an aecoiint of idea> and work ol eaeli .'♦fj^r.
otlnTs. Its liijfli t'tti(M«'iicv hu.s licen due, in a Vax^k' measure, to th»- ehaia*'.
ot its eoiunii»ioners : Henry liarnard. Ironi iSCiT to IS7ll; .loliii Kal>ii. iKTT.i
iSSr.: Nathaniel II. I.'. Uawsoii. ISSC-lNS'.t ; William T. Harris. ISW to date
Tlif )ir«'s*>nt ineiimltent has had the satislaction ol liie knowleil;,'!- th;it Ids
)M»sition has Ix-eu removi-d from the list of partisan appointments. |>\ hi->
t.ietliil priideiiee ami i;i'iiiiiiie seiiolaiship. I M'. Harris has lnoii^dit his otiiee
into toiieh with every ^'ood ediieatinnal work for a deeade. and has made hi-<
name a synonym for ;,'eiiial wisdom throu^'hont the whole eonntiy.
The teacher has hi'i-ii aided in his work I \ his piofe.ssional assoeiatiitns.
It is, moreover, true tiiat to-day the teaehe • enters upon his work lietter
(•>piipi>ed for his duties. The normal-seliool system has sjiread over the
wjiole country, and evein year thoiisamls id' yoiin^; men and women are sent
torth witii a pn'paiation that fifty years a'^^i was not even dieamed of.
Sitiee the teaelier lieller doerves respect, he has eomiiiaiided it the more
readily, (iradually the liarhansnis of the sidioolroom have disappeared.
As tlu' symoatliy wiih ediieatiou increased, the necessity lor excessive Hoj;-
tftii;; jwissed away. To-day there i^ a wide \:irietv in oiiinion as to the elli-
cieiicy ol this nioile of discipline. In one State. New .lerscv, corporal
punisltnieiit in sehoid-. is forliiildeii liy law: Imt in most id' the others it is
IMTiutlted in special case* .1- a !,'«''i«'ral part of the teacher's power when //(
l>M-o i>iiri-iitis. The teacher is imw paid a le-jiilar salary, hut inlortiiiiatcly it
is the Inwot paid in any pnd'essioii for wlindi formal prep!r on is leipiiretl.
Ill iS'.Mi '.»7 the averai,'!' iiioiithly \\a;,;es of leaciier-- was. Males. 8 1 1. •'■_'.
and for females, $.'IH..'IS. la comparison with the standard '■ throughout
the country, this is poor pay. Siipciintend' it \ ('. Sd of I'ennsyl-
ll-liY
Kin'(\\rios hUHisa run iHsriRY
.133
Iv 1)11 Ikuni!
Tlu'sc (ioi-ii
!•<■< of trust
1 Miiicly III
it I III- sc'l I
lie lact tliiii
"I llif t(i|iii->
> >,'t'iiiMall\
> iifiilxd 111
AaiiMU HI a rweiJt aiiiiual n'|Mirt, ntati'S tliiit ••oii*' .>iii|H'i'iiiti'niU-iit (•rtiiwi liial
\\ww *«T«' leai-lM'rs in his rnunty tfacliiiig li>r limr dollars U-ss |i«t wur than
H i-imt flif roiinly <i;i an .iVfraj,'*' to kc<'|. 'inr patilxT " Tliw it an *'%rr}f
tioiial <•;!»»•. l>"it It illustrates the Kfiinal trutli.
«»m' oons«M|U«'nr«* of this low jiay has Imm-ii to aocvnt a tPUtlerM'v arhirb u
f,ij.t n'tnoviii.: cdiu-atioii troiii tlif li.st (d thos' |itid'fssion8 in wl»ii-li ut«-n wjil
,.|,jj^v. Tiuui 1.S70-71 to l.S",)()-'.»7 till' ii'.Mifiitane of luali' tcarhers d«»-r»'*«<wl
innnit |iotcit'
iti"»i» of th.
iiUt ))lf «*ui>li
I'll a ni^i^v i'
isl. aft IT fill.
nil' ,1 ]tllM<rM«<
. Ili'iity Wii'
iMi-atimi. A
*»i t'diii-atioi
>• Hoard III
B^IKMld ilUi's.
h'' •■liaia**-.
Kaf'Mi. |«7i.i
!.S.s<» fi.dati-
ili,'i' tli;it his
Ids. |',\ hiv
,dil his idJiri'
las iiiailf hi-.
.V-
assoi'iatioiis.
work lictti'i
ad ovi-r till!
iM'ii ail' sent
driaiiii'd of.
it till' inori-
ilisa|i|ii'ariil
ci'ssivi' lloj,'-
; to till' tdli-
I'y. t'orporal
otlii'i-.s it is
iM'r u lii'ii ill
ii'tiiiiafi'ly it
is i'i'i|uiii'il.
ill's. 8ii.(;j.
thi'oii<{h(mt
of I'l'IlIlSVl-
from 41.0 to 3'_M{; .^MpMMIf im tftHK t4«v m tfir >4tlrr i>^atb^
striking coiitni.st with oit*' buitdrffl v*aiw ««i». •1»ii,»»erf« in
ti-achiTs w»'n' almost univ-tHjiUy ot tlw iwft*^ ««l. .* vanHCf •#
\»- i^ivMi for this chainjc. rh*" i»«»rtitiiiM»t Hdn^wi ^ » i» l »i » tor
I'hild (liiriii'/ ri'itaiu a^'i's •« a<'kif»''>ds;<i't -I^KfUn. Ui»
and th»' intriMlin'tion of a happy — ^. ;«thy i^***^ t«a^-<»
lu'ljwd tlie ti'iiili'iK'y.
lUit of all tin- forces which havf nt. n- ••-^•i^
Thjur j^ J*
miiMi'iLs AM) \\o.\iu:iis or ////•; a/.v" < 7;.v ///« r
iiioii- |»>ti-iit lliaii tlif ^K-itl iiii'iiMsi' III ii|i|ii>riuiiitii>s lor tlic liiv'lit'i- «Miii<-iiti<<ii
III woiiii'ii. At I III' U'l^iiiiiiiiK <*t till- i-riitiir\ tin* I'liiti-il Stutfit wax not in'
liiiiil Kiii<i|m';mi ii;itiiiii>> ill it> |iriivi>iiiii Inr tin- i>iliirittii>ii i>t' M>iiti){ wniiiin
Ni> oiii' tliitii^iil n| iiiakiii^ iiiis tliiii.; Iiki' ilu* >aiiti- |>riivi>ii>ii tm Im>i1i sr\i -
NNiiiiirii wi*t'«' ri-liis«>ii ailiiiissiDii In llii* rnllf^'iN, ami Wfti* i>l>lipil ti> fimti-ii:
tliiiiiM'lvt'H with an ilriiiriilarv t'lhuatinn or iIm- im-i't tltr ixihiim- hI |.ii\ati'
tiiloiau*'' <irailiiall,\. in |iii>tr!^t aj^iin^l iliis -xnw >>{ tiiin^>. )Hv\s' MininaiK^
w«m« 'it'iiH'il .tiiil ;,'iils' lliaii si-iitMils wi'ii' I'slaliiiMlu'il in tin" lai','i' I'llii-s. Tiir
idea nf u si-niiiiaiv, "wiiirli >iiiiul([ In- tu yimn,' wunu-n what tin- i-nlli-p' i> to
yiiimi; nii-n." was liist ;,'ivi'n ilrlinilr >lia|ir li\ ,Man l,\<in. wlnnulli'itrii InmU
for tiial |iiir|Hisi'. anil in l.s:;7. two liniiiirril \i-ars alti-i' llai\,ii>l. Mount II<>1-
^i>Ki- l''rni.ilr Si'ininarv was o|ii'ni'il. Its mi *s was nmiph'li' : ii oITi timI tin'
L"^. *^
^o-yu
^:jML±rkl.
IDDAI. si llool.lliil '<K \M> I'lnit'Xns.
(Onirli'«y iif .\i;riiiilliii;il |i> luirliin'iit, Cornell I'liiMTiily.)
rfiinlai Kii^'lisli ami rlassiral i-niii>i'. ainl its <,'ia.liiatr-. rntiTi'il •/♦'lu'rallv inti>
till' ti-ai'liiii;,' iiiiili'ssiipn. I'lrsfiillv, rullr^^i's lor wciiiii'ii wi'ii' inror]s)iati'il.
of wliicli to-ila\ till' lifst known air N'assai. \\'i'lli'>li\ . Sniitli. ami l>r\n
Mawr. As tin* ili'iiiaml I'nr tlir iiii;liri- iMlnr.itioii of woini-n im-rraM'ii. |iii'-
siMitly it was i|iii'rii'ci. wliy may not llir two M\r> hr trainnl in tin- sanir in-
stitntion '.' !< tln-ri- any n-al mri'ssily for a iln|iliration ol plants with thi-
coiisi'ijiiLMit \\i aki'iiiiij; ol ri'souiri-s '.' 'i'ln- \\'i'>t ha> ailvaiiri'ii far Ih'miiiiI
thr Ka.>t towanl ro-i'ilm atiiiii, ( iliiilin ( 'ol|i';,'i'. tonmliil in IS,"!.'!. ojMMii-ii its
iloois to IhiiIi sfxi-s from tin' liist. ami most of thr institutions that ilrrivi*
tlii-ir sjiirit from tin' Wrsi havf tnjlowi'il tho sanio |ilaii. As a ii-snli. -Minii-
of fill' I'ity systi'iii-. air Iryiii',' ro-riluration in thi'ir liiu'li ■>rho<.ls ami i-li'-
nii'iitarv j;raili's. ainl thus tar. whilf tlirir an' many o|>|>oni'nts. tin- jji'iirral
M-nlirt is favoralilr.
Uiit till' WOIIII'II wi'it' lint I'diitriil with a '^'I'ln'ra! colli'triati' tniinin^ or a
normal conrsi' that tilti'il only for liarhiiij;. \\ ithin ri'i-cnt yrars th«>y havi*
iMitiM-cil into till' otlii'i- |irii|i'ssions with a krrii inthiisiasm. 'I'ln-y an' allowi'il.
7 /.' )•
H-r i'i|iirali<iii
^^JIN lltll IN'
"Hi;; Wiilllch
I IhiIIi sf\i-«
i\ to rmitili:
I I'llViltr
'<' x'liiilijiit-.
• Itiis. Tin
rnllrp- i> t<»
l<Tt)'(l tl||ll|.<<
Mount i|,,|.
t olV. IV.l til,'
:?^
'iioraHy into
ii'orjioiiiti'd.
. aii<l Mini
•rt'.isi'd. |ii'c.
Im" sjiiiii' ill-
»>; with til.'
far iM-yoiid
0|N'l|('li its
tli.it ilcI'iM'
•••Mill, sonic
•Is aiiil <'!i'.
Ill- j,'('tM'i-aI
liiiinjj Of a
• Ik'.v liavf
ri" allowfii.
KDUVMIOS IK • III Mi rilK rKSTIKY
oas
III .1
li'H iiiHiitiilioiiN, to laki' tlii'iiIt>){iiMl i-iHirM'K iittiiik' lor tin' iiiini»try. Tli«
lii^l winiiaii |>li\ "ii-iaii wan K'>>til**»l< <l >» l'*<i'Mioiii tin ncIhhiI .it (ii'nt'va, N.
\ . ; ■<iiii'r tli'it tiiiK- s|M><'ial nii'ili<-.il m-IiooIh |4i|' mimiu'Ii liavt' Ih-ch ()|h-iici1 ami
Koiiii* rollcKi'H liavi- iIi'i'kIi'iI til mliiiit wi'iui'ii on tin- sann- l<rtiiit uh tin- oIIiit
IIK'II
M'vi'rii
In nlo.^t law m'Ium Is, wo-
II iiia\ ill- ailiiiiltcii. ami in
1 Stiiti'.-* tiii'i'i' an' "oiinii
|.i,i<'tiriii<4 at tlic liar. \N liili; tli<'
iiilliii'iii'i' III tiailitiiiii lia-> In-i-ii
-li'itiK'. y
rt tlicrr iN to-<lav lio
nasoii why an Ann'tiraii wuniaii
iiciiilil not ri'i'i'ivi' a
lull
n •ilii-
laiioii anil as iMiii|ilt't)- a training
as lirr linittirr.
In i-oiisiilrrili); llio rliaiip.s in
M'l Mill', till' iiii|iro\i'nii'nl in
liiiililii
anil ri|iii|>iiirnl nnisi
not III' osi'riooki'il, With till' a|H
jiiiTiation III iln- salni' of I'llm-a-
Imn. tlnri' has nuin' an attriition
to I ill- I'liv irunnn-nt ot tin' |>ti|iil
ili.it iiiamri'sls il-i'ir ill
til
•ro-
visloii of tr.Sl-liook--. ill till' I'li'i'-
lioii III lai'iji'r ami ln'iii'i- M-nti-
r>niliKKTION Koll ri..*NTIM' N M Hoot i.liol Mi
|(.'uunr«y ul A|{ii' 'iliiirnl fi'lMriiiiiiil ('■•rni'll
riiivt'r»ii«.i
lali'il liilihlil
and ill ilir aiiornnn-nt of srlnNil );roiiiiil>i. Srhool arrhi-
ti'i'tiiri-, i's|ii'rially whi'ir |>o|iii!,itions ari> iIi'Iim-, has iN'ronn- an ini|ioitant
.xii-ni-r, iiiviilviii^' |iiolili-nis ol li^'ht, lirat. \i-ntitatiort. rti,, top-thi-r with
i|iii'>'ioiis ol' riii'iiitiiri', lit'i'-i'i'iioi i-onstriii-tioii .md ]ilay;;rounds. Tln-ri' was
a liiiii' wlii'ii llir most intiTi'si wa> aiouM-d liv tin' fxtrrior, that tin- srhool
iiii^'ht III' an ailiiriiiin-iit. tn its iifij^hlHirliiMHl. I'li-day thi* iin|M>rtaiil |irol>-
I'liis ol aiiaii''i'iiii'iit rt'ri'ivt'
tl
If most attiiitioii. anil iIi'scim'i
dl\
\Vi
VI' two Mi;;>,'i'slivi' |iii'tiii)'s ot iiiodi'in M'liiHillioiis
I'roli'ssor l.ilii'rtv II.
jiaili'y III ("oiiii'll I'nivi'r.sity, in a |iaiii|ihli-t wlinli has U-m rxti'iisivi'ly rir-
ciilati'ii, has ailvoralrd a jiidii-ioiis arraiiv'i'ini'nt ol shiiililM'iy aioiind a sriiool-
hoiisi', as sjiari' jiri'itiittrd. with a vii-w to tin* I'liniiiiation ol' all liarr and
rlii'i'i'li'ss li'atiirrs Itoin tin* landsi'a|H'. This is i's|M'ri:ill\ aila|iti'il to roiintiy
dislrirts. As a lonijiarison. tin' ni'W Ci'iitral lli;,di .Srhool ol riiilaili'l|>hia
is i^ivi'ii as onr ol tin* JM-st tyju-s of a i'oin|ili'it' rity srhuolhoiisi'. It lias
I n I'irrtrd at a total I'ost ol oxer oih" million doUais.
Till' liirnishiii'.; or a si'IumiI has nndirijoin' rhaiarti'ri.stii' ih'Vi'lii|iiiirnt. Tho
ii.iid lii'iirli, ii|iiiii whii'li nnr ton-fathi'rs sat. has in a lar^i' mi'asiiri' diKa|>>
|ii'.iii'il, and ill its plan' h.-is roiii'' a varii't\ ot drsks |ialti'nii'd with rhiiirs
lilti'd to lai'h I'lirvi' of iln- dark. ilr. I'darklxiards rain*- into ;;i'ni'ial usi<
alioiit till' iiiiddli- ot till' ri'iitiiix. In rcrlain stndii's, iiia|iK. rliarts, iiioiIi'Ih,
I'll'., si'i'in indis|ii'ti.salili', and tip- niodi'rn srliiMilroom rontaiii'^ all llirsi'.
Moi'i'ovrr. as soon as srirniT ti-arhiii'.' had won ;i iilarr in tin- I'lirriniliim, tin*
Ih
oin- with
ly ui'iit ii|i lor lalioratiiiics, that a lii);hi'r ^radi' of work inifjlit In d
till' iiiori' advanri-d |Mi|iil. It is ralhrr a siiii^iilar tart that in many plarrs
ihr iiiililir lii|;li si'lmol Ini in this ih-maiid. rathi'r than thi' murr i-on.si-rvalivi'
^,
>
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
1.0
1.1
7J£|2j8 |25
■ii IM 12.2
IS U£ 12.0
■a
IL25 iU
11.6
Hiotogra;iiic
Soaices
Corporation
:<N-
\\
V
23 WIST MAIN STMHT
WiBSTit,N.Y. 14SM
(716) •72-4503
i\
V
53G
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
college. To-day no high school would count itself able to do its work without
one or more laboratories where each jiupil might work for himself. In the
new high school of l'hilad('l])hia there are physical, chemical, and biological
laboratories, as well as a complete!}' e(piippe(! astronoinictal observatory-.
Text-books were just coming into use at the close of the eighteenth cen-
tury. The " (Jhild's Guide " was being superseded by such works as Xoali
"Webster's Spelling JJook, (irammar, and Header (17".>L'). ^\'ithin a lew years
came Lindle}' .Murray's "English Grammar." the work of a Quaker merchant
who wrote his fanums text-book primarily for a young ladies' school in his
immediate neighborhood. The instant success of tli>'se books demonstrated
what a need there was for such a class of literature. The writing and jjulili-
eation of text-books has become one of the most Hor.rishing industries of the
country. On account of hard usage, a text-book does not last more than a
few years, and this gives continual oi)portuniiy for a new book more nearly
up to date than its predecessor.
Within recent years, less stress has been laid on the text-boo]-, and its influ-
ence is being minimized. In the i-lenu>ntary schools the teacher explains
the lesson, and in the higlier schools the professor lectures upon his sid)ject.
Conse(pieutly, the text-book is relatively less im])ortant. This does not mean
that less reading is being done, but it does mean that the reading covers a
wider ground. Particularly is this true where libraries have been estab-
lished. The public library system is a most valuable auxiliary to the school
system, and is fast becoming indispensable. This is one of the great advan-
tages which city pupils have over those whose home is in the (country, and it
will lead in the end to district libraries. In some States, as in New York, a
successful effort has been made to inaugurate a system of traveling libraries,
whereb}' a case of fift\' or one hundred volumes, relatii'g to a particular topic,
will be lent for a time to any circle of readers. ^Massachusetts has best
developed a library system, since there are but nine towns in the State that
have not free libraries. The growth of the universities has led to the accu-
mulation of great collections for special reseandi and study. In 1800 there
were but eleven college libraries in America worth mentioning ; to-day there
are almost five hundred, of which the largest. Harvard, contains a half mil-
lion volumes. Libraries are of use, not only for pupils, but also for adults
as well. They have aided materially in solving the great question of adult
education.
In the New England towns of the middle part of the century, the lyceum
lecture was exceedingly popular. University extension has recently come
to the front as the latest form of the lyceum system. The idea of lec-
tures to the people by university teachers came from England, where it
was suggested just after an extension of the suffrage had attached a new
value to the education of iidults. Societies for the extension of univer-
sity teaching have been formed in Oxford, Cambridge, and London. Their
methods are on the whole identical, — universitj' men are sent to town
or village centres to give a course of lectures upon some general topic ;
after each lecture a voluntary class is held where questions may be asked
and answered ; at the conclusion of the course an examination based upon
the course and collateral reading is given to those who (^are to take it ; and
sometimes a certificate or testimonial may be given. The method has been
URY
urk without
•If. Ill the
(1 biok)y:ical
viitoiy.
itct'iith cen-
ks as 2soali
a lew years
IT meirliaiit
lihool ill liis
['iiioiistrated
iiml jiiilili-
>tries (if till-
iiore than a
more nearly
lul its influ-
ler explains
his subject,
es not mean
ufjf covers a
been estab-
the school
i^reat advan-
lUtry, ami it
New York, a
ng libraries,
iciilar topic,
tts has best
le State that
to the accu-
1 ISOO there
to-day there
i a half mil-
for adults
ion of adult
, the lyceum
ceutly come
idea of lec-
id. where it
died a new
1 of uuiver-
don. Their
lit to town
ueral topic ;
ay be asked
based upon
take it ; and
lod has been
688
TltlLMrns AXI) WOMtEHS OF THE XJX'" VEMURY
transplanted to AnuMica and generally adopted by the universities, with
greatest success, [lerliaps, in the ^liddle States, where the American Society
for the Extension of University Teaching has organized the Held. During
tlie period ISOO-OJ). S()L* eotirses of lectures were given under the auspices
of the .\nieiican Society to audi-
(Mices aggregating i)5;i.0()S. An-
other nioveiuent of e'pial import-
ance is that done by the Chatainiua
Literary and Scientitic t'ircle, wliich
])repares lists ot hooks for home
reading, with a view to encouraging
system in one's use of spare time.
]'erha])s the most interesting pub-
lic work for adults is being done in
!New ^'ork city, where a lecture de-
))artmenthas been organized l)y the
Jioard of Education, by which free
lectures are given in schoolhouses
to the people. In l,Si)S, 1,SG() lec-
tures were given to (J'.KS.lidO jieople,
and the president of New York's
School lioard has declared that
" these lectures have contributed
more than any other agency to the
distribution of general intelligence
among the masses." These forces
have sujiplenu'nted very well the
work that is being done by the pub-
lic night schools, which are estab-
lished in most large cities, with a
view to providing elementary, and sometimes technical, instruction to those
adults who care for it.
No educational question h;is aroused more interest in business circles than
the ]iroblen: how to train best those who will devote themselves to a com-
mercial life. This has be(!ome a live (piestion recently to the American jieo-
ple. With inii>roved processes in manufacture, the ])ower of production has
grown far beyond the consumption of our own people. . Consecpiently Amer-
ica is competing with the grent imlustrial nations of Europe for a control of
the markets of the world. .Vs soon ;is this conqietition became evident, the
iieSd for a better trained class of commercial leaders was felt. The exami>le
of (icrmany has had a great influence upon other countries. There is a gen-
eral conviction that the leading jiosition among commerci;il nations which
Germany has won for itself is due in large measure to the technical educa-
tion given to (lerman artisans and the commercial education jirovided for
business nu'u. For illustration, the (ierman government bus recently estab-
lished in llerlin a school where young men. j)repiiring for business careers in
Asia, can learn riiinese, -Japanese, .\rabie, and Turkish. (Jerman youths
have been sniijilanting English young men, to an appreciable degree, in the
great commercial houses of London. As a consequence, there has been a
UK. W.M. a. .MAXWKI.l,. SiriOKIXTKNDKNT
" ohkatkh new vouk" senooi.s.
(Courtesy of The Sclmnl .loiiniiil, New YorU.)
UKY
sitit's, with
ican Society
1(1. During
he iuispices
ty to auili-
;.b(>8. Aii-
[ual iiiiport-
', Chatiui<nia
'irch!, wliich
s for lioiiie
cncoiirat^iiii;
spare time,
resting [>ub-
L'ing done in
a lecture de-
nized by the
/ which tree
■ichoolhonses
)S, lcSC(; lec-
\'2{H) people.
New York's
jclared that
contributed
gency to the
intelligence
These forces
jry well the
e by the ])ub-
L'h are estab-
•itios, with a
tion to those
< circles than
:es to a coni-
nierican i)eo-
I'odiietion has
uently Anier-
r a control of
e evident, the
The example
here is a gen-
lations which
•linical educa-
j)rovided for
ecently estab-
pss careers in
irman youths
degree, in the
V has been a
EDUCATION DURING THE CENTURY
539
strong demand in America for the establishment of commercial high selioois,
— public institutions iu which Gernmn, French, and Sjjanish will be taught,
iiigctlier with economics, industrial history, commercial geography, pidjlic
linaiicc, soi'iai science, etc. These institutions differ entirely from the busi-
ness colleges, of which there were 'M2 m the United States in ISU". in that
they are broader in scope and content. The latter (pialify a num to be a
good clerk by teaching liim stenography, ty|)e\vriting, bnokkceping, etc., but
the former aim to give him a broad, liberal education. »Miabliug him to have
an intelligent comprehension of all matters which interest him in active busi-
ness. This movement is too recent to have borne mueh fruit, but in many
of the larger cities of America, as Mew York, J'hiladelphia, ISoston, I'lrook-
lyn, and Cleveland, commercial courses have been established in connection
with the regular high-school course; and in some of the larger universities,
as I'ennsylvania. Chicago, (-olumbia. scdiools in economics and jxditics have
been created, — all with a view ti) eipiippiug a young man for an active busi-
ness career. In view of the present interest in this movement, more may be
exjicctcd in the neai' future.
The close of the Civil War brought the Anieriean people to a problem,
vast in its importance and intricate in its stdution. T'he negro race had had
no o|)])ortunity for education under the institution of slavery. Rut with
their freedom came the necessity for creating a .system of schools which
could be of special help to this new
1)1 idy of citizens. The South has
]ireferred generally that sejiarate
schools shoidd be provided for the
two races. In the ante-bellum daj-s,
the wealthier families usually sent
tiieir sons and flaughters away from
home to obtain their education
nnder better auspices than their
own neighborhood could afford. So
when the war concluded, and there
was but little sign of public schools,
a new system must be created, and
at once. The first work toward ed-
ucating the negi'o was done by the
national government, through the
sclio(ds opened by the Freedman's
Aid Society. The different reli-
gions bodies throughout the coun-
try took a hand in the good work,
l)y establishing special missionary
boards for work in the South. I'ri-
vate benevolence lent substantial
assistance. George I'eabody. the
philanthropist, and John F. Slater, both founded trusts which they richly
endowed to aid in the establishment of schools in the Southern section. But
the greatest work was done through the awakening of the people to tl;e
value of education, leading to liberal appropriations and to a firm public
.sujiport.
UOOKiai T. \VASUIN«. ll)N.
I
f '
i I
I
540
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
Within reeont years, negro education has assnnictl a new and interesting
phase. Hooker T. Washington, principal of the Tnskegee Normal and Indus-
trial Institute, Alabama, is the leading educator of the Afro-Ainerieans. and
li(^ has won his higli place by the success which has attended his efforts at
industrial education. His scliool at Tnskegee was started in IScSl, ami to-day
contains over one thousand students. While fully appreciating the value of an
academic education, Mr. Washington has felt that the Hrst necessity for his
people was tiie knowledge that would earn a livelihood. As a consetiuence,
the industrial side of education has been accented ; twenty-six different trades
or industrit's are in operation at Tnskegee, and one is taught to each student
of the Institute. As a consecpience, its graduates have gone forth into active
life, well ecpiipped to become bread-winners and to fill a useful place in
society.
The care of those who, from birth or by accident, do not possess all the
powers of a nornuil ]ierson, lias aroused much interest during the century.
The deaf-mutes, the bliiul, and the mentally deticient, have each had institu-
tions creatf'd, where they are taught as much of the knowledge of the world
as is possible. The instruction of the deaf and dumb proceeds along two
lines. The manual or sign method of convers;ition, based on gestures, was
founded by Abbe de FEpt-e in 17G0; while about the same time Samuel
Heinicke, a German, introduced tlie oral method, by which the eye of the
mute is trained to perform the part of the ear, by learning the meaning of
spoken words through observaticm of the changes in the position of tlie vocal
organs. tSpecial institutions for these classes abound in Europe u \d Amer-
ica, with tlie difference that, in the former, they are generally private or
maintained by charity ; whereas in the latter they are maintained by the
State. Itev. T. H. Gallaudet and his son. Dr. Edward AI. Gallaudet, have
been the leaders in the instruction of deaf-mutes in the United States, and
have achieved a high degree of success.
The teaching of the blind is of equal value to education. Two methods
are generally followed ; an alphabet of raised letters is employed in some
cases, or, and more generally in the United States, a system of raised dots
or points, which do not resemble the letter in form, but are a kind of
shorthand to the reader. In both methods, the sen,se of toucli takes the
place of sight. In some ceases, notably Laura Bridgman and Helen Keller,
the success has been so complete as to excite universal wonder. I'erhajjs no
institutions alleviate more human misery than do the schools for the blind,
by bringing world-ideas within the limited horizon of this afflicted cl.ass.
Sluch also has been done for the training of idiots or those who are men-
tally deficient. In 1848, the Massachusetts School for Idiots and Feeble-
Minded was opened, and other States followed with equally generous provi-
sion. Within recent years, spetsial schools have been opened in connection
with the school systems of large cities, so that children who need individual
care and watchfulness may receive more attention than they could secure in
the graded class-room. All these tendencies are exceedingly hopeful, as
indicative of society's recognition of her duty to those who cannot satisfac-
torily care for themselves. Humanitarianism in education has been a power-
ful and constant force during the whole of this century.
It must not be forgotten that other agencies beside those established by
EDUCATION DURING THE CENTURY
541
interesting
States ]iav« been contributing to echioation. Tlie Sunday -seiiool inovi'ment is
(jiio of tiie groat efforts of the c-cntiuy, to lielji in training children by a vol-
untary organization. In 1781, Kobert IJaikes employed some teachers for
the poor children of Gloucester, in order that their Sundays might l)e spent
ivo methods
ed ill some
raised dots
a kind of
1 takes the
den Keller,
l*erha])s no
r the blind,
I class.
lo are men-
md Feeble-
Tous provi-
connection
individual
1 secure iu
liopeful, as
ot satisfac-
in a power-
UU. B. BEN.I. ANDREWS, 8LPEIUNTENDKNT OP SCHOOLS, CHiCACiO, ILL.
quietly and with profit. Presently, as the number of Sunday-schools in-
creased, men and women in'offered their services gratuitously. The teaching
followed two general lines, secular ^reading, writing, etc.) and religious. The
former was of help, es])ecially to children who were employed during the
week. From England, the movement came to the West. The American
Sunday-school I'nion was organized in 1824. and has ever since continued
to stimulate the establishment of more schools of this kind. In 1896, there
I,' »
54ii TRIUMPHS AXI) ]\OyDKi:s OF THE XIX'" CEN'rURY
wore lol,',G'.(7 Smidiu -schools in tlu* Tnited States and !K)y7 in Canada, with
a total niumhersiiip of lL',L'.S8,l"».'f and 71.'1,-K{"» resiifctivi'ly, while it has hcpn
coinpntcd tiiat in tin' world the nnnibor t;t' Snnda^-schools' was li4(»,(5o8, with
an cnroUnifnt of l,'4,!ll'.».;!l.'!.
lu Kuropt'an states, they have hccn solvin.i; tin- sanio iiroldi-nis as in Amer-
ica. Tho ini[iortanet; of ednuation once admitted, the next iiroltleni is to
secnro the funds and develop the system,' Meeause of administrative cen-
tralization, tliis has been far easier in I'hudpe than in America. The .Minis-
ter of Education in France or iSermany orders, and his (lirt;ctions are carried
out; tho United States Commi.ssioner advises, and while liis recommenda-
tions influence public; opinion, yet the latter method is by far the slower.
As a consequence, the European schools arc more systematized and lutter
orH;anized than our own. Their course of study differs widely in details
from our own, and generally siiows more inHuenct' on the part of the ]ieda-
gogical expert. Technical ant! professional educration has been develo[)ed to
an exceedingly hij?h degree. Kngland has had a ]teculiar problem to face, in
determiinng the relation between tiio clnirch schools and the secular schools,
and has t)nly solved it by maintaining liolh. .Most European countries have
adojjted the ]»rinciple of compulsory education for children within a certain
age limit, anil the same princii)le has been accepted in thirty-two States in
Anu'rica. in general, it may be said that in the changes in <'{nirse of study,
in equipment, in the teachership, etc., Europe and America have been work-
ing along parallel lines. As a rule, these changes have come more (inickly in
America, where traditions were as yet nnformeil ; ntnertheless. the jirogress
in Eiirope has been constant and very great.
Canada has a well-established and well-regulated .system, in which the i)rin-
cii)le of fr(!0 and public education is recognized. The eight provinces con-
tain twenty-four liolleges, and the schools have over one million pupils. Edu-
cation is more or less (;(imi)ulsory in all of the provinces, but the law is not
very strictly enforced. In Ontario, l^)nebec. and the Northwest Territories
there are separate s(!hools for Homan Catholics ; in the other proviiu'cs the
schools are non-sectarian. There is a high professional spirit among the teach-
ers, so that the schools may be expecjted to keep fully abreast of the times.
The luneteenth century has been a century of continuous advance in edu-
cation. Its spirit has been healthy, its achievements are notable, its work
has been gifiat. it would bt; futile, however, to assert that all is yet accom-
jdished. T'he jiroblems in elenu'utary ed^ication are so many and so impor-
tant that there have been times when solution seemed impossible. Never-
theless', the system is now established and is assured of public support, and
Avith an education within the reaeii of every child, the security of free insti-
tutions is forever guaranteed. Ekanklin S. Ekmoxds.
1 Till' <'(mii)nrntiv« iiitcrost in oiliiciitinii is will illiistrntcil liy the fulldwliifj cxtrai't from an ad-
dress hy Dr. Charles U. Skiniior, rt'cciitly doliverid licfore the N. K A.
" The I'nitcd States, to-day the yniuifjest iif all, Is the f>nly lireat nation of the world whieh
pxpends more for eiliuatinn than for w;ir. I'ranee spends annually S4 per capita on her army anil
70 eents per enpitn on edueation; England, •i?.1.72 for her army and (12 eents for ediiealion: I'rnssia,
S2.04 for her army and ."(0 eents for odueation; Italy, Sl-Vi for Iier army and 'M't cents for education;
Austria, SI..'!!) for her arr'.y .iiid G2 cents for education; Kussia, .*2.0-l for her army and -3 cents for
education; the I'nited States, :(!» cents for her army and Sl.:t,"i for education. Knf;land <! to 1 for
war! Russia, 17 to 1 for war! th<! United States 4 m I for education! The United States sjiends more
per capita annually for education than Enfjland, France, and Kussia combined."
"THE ART PRESERVATIVE
t from nil ad-
I. TIIK riM.NTIMi rUKSS.
WitKX Bpnjiiiniii KiiUikliii rditcd tlic '•(Jii/i'llf." in I'liiladclphia. a eeu-
tmy iiiid a lialt' ai^o. lie set up ilu' type, worked off tlic paper on a wooden
liand-press of primitive eonstriiction, made wooden types for u.se in liis
ottice. and en;,M-aved the euts witli wliieh to illnstrate the articles. In tiiose
diiys i)vintinj^ was an art which tij^nred anionic the mysteries of science,
and was practiced by men of hij;ii social standini,' and advancc'd education.
The sixty years which passed )ietween Franklin's purchase of the "(lazette"
and his death saw the dis(H)very of many scientific wonders, hut the art of
printinj,' moved so slowly as to leave it at the close of the ei,i,'liteenth cen-
tury practically in the condition in which Kranklin found it wiien he l)egan
liis career as proprietor of his I'liiladclphia printin.i,' establishment.
And this condition of aifairs ap[)lied to England as well as to the United
States.
With all the rare ability possessed by the jjrinter philosopher, he was
able to do but little for the advancement of (lie luofession which was instrii-
mental in making for him an international reputation.
In all that pertains to the i)rinting business tlierc is nothing with which
llie nann; of Franklin is connected as inventor; yet ho is referred to invari-
alily as in the higliest degree representative of tlie "art jireservative of all
arts."'
Were the distingiushed scientist, statesman, diplomat, printer, and philo-
soplier toconui fortli from his grave
in the cemetery of Christ Cliurch.
at Fifth and Andi Streets. Thila-
dclphia. and go into one of the
great printing houses of the coun-
try, how a.stonnding to him would
he the revelation ! No more the
wooden types or the unsymmetri-
rical metal pieces ; no more the
wooden hand-jivess. the wood en-
gravings, the ink balls, and the
l)roeess of printing a few hundre<l
sheets an hour. The terrific rapid-
ity with winch the newspapt'rs are
turned ont to-da\-, printed, cut,
])asted, and folded; the tineness of
the work done on books and maga-
zines ; the wonder ol one jiress early pkintino press as used by benja-
jmtting on different colors at the min FRANKT,i:i.
!'' 5-:ii
Mi
TllWMPUS AND \VoM)KltS OF THE XLV" CENTURY
saint' tinio; tlm .st^ttiiit; "1 tyjit- liy iiiucliines st'cmiii','!}' jiodsessetl of huiiiaii
iiitc'llig<MU!ii ; tin- i'a|iiiiitv uiid tlu' .simplicity nl' iiiakiiif; HtiTeotypo jtliiti's ;
tilt! iluxti'i'iiy of foniiiiif,' onliiiary mctiil typfs iiito all kimis of forms; tlif
niillioiis of hooks, — si'iMilur and religious. — |ia[i«'rs, ami gciit^ral literarv
pnithictioiis tiiriii'd out tlaily, would so puzzlt; tlif K'.U'i"''ii' bniiu and cloud
the iindcrstaniling of tlio philosopher as to cause him to exclaim : •• Take nn'
back. () sjiirit of th'ath, antl let \iw forever rest from this Hccthiii},'. snrjjinf,'.
•\vhirlin},' spluu'c of inventive [irof,M'ession."
Wlieu tlie genius of invention was turm-d ttjward the printing art, it is
wortliy of note that tht) i)ress which attracted the greatest attention was the
prodiuition of a IMiilaihdphian who once had lieen an associate of l>enjaniin
Franklin. It was known as the Columbian press, the invention of (Jeorge
Clymer, and was reganled as td' sutlicient con.setpience tt) meet the approval
of tht; printing fraternity ol' (ireat ilritain as well as of this country.
In tlie National Museum in Washington, J). (!., is tlie hanil press which
Hen jamin Franklin used to print his I'hilatlelphia pajjcr. the "Gazette." It
luitl been built for him in Lonthtn, whert^ he hail u.seil it about live years prior
to its being brought to Philadelphia.
What a curious-looking affair it is! ^'et it was little less in the way of
primitiveness compi>,red with that used pritir to ISIT, when Clymer's ('ohun-
bian tfame into use. When these productions are oonlrasteil with tht; mag-
nifieent contrivances of tt)-thiy, from whii!h can be thrown sixteen humlred
l)apers jier minute, — pajiers of ten, twtdve, and fourteen pages, printtMl on
l)oth sitli's, jiastctl and fohlcd. — the comparison is likt^ putting the steandioat
of Fulton by the siih' of the monster ships which t^ross tlie Atlantii! ocean
from New York to Southampton in less than live days.
The ('(dunibian press was looked upon, when presented to the printers, as
an atlvance worthy of note in the art. It is easy to imagine how much prom-
inence was given (^'lymer's invention when it was ]ilaced besiile the olil com-
mon press. To-day, this supposed-to-be great piece of mechanism would not
even be dignified by a place in the most un-modern backwoods printing
establishment. And yet from this were printed the literarj- productions of
Great Urirain, as well as of the United States, in the early part of the nine-
teenth century.
The (.'olumbian mechanical advancement consisted of the use of rollers for
inking the type, — very much like the process now employed in inking the
type when a rough proof is desired, — thus dis])ensing with the balls, which
were managed by boys ; the use of screws under the bed of the press to hold
in jiosition the form, into which had been securely atljusted the type; anil the
a])i>lication t)f a long bar to obtain pressure sutticient to make the impression
on the paper. The picture of this press shows the flat carriage U})on whitdi
Avas placed the type, tlie platen or pressing surface, the bar which forced the
jjlaten upon the type, the spring which carried the platen back to position
when the impression lia<l been taken, and the track npon which the carriage
was moved forward and backward, — ])riinitive enough, and sutticiently simple
in construction to show the limited capacity of the inventive genius of our
great-grandfathers.
It was about 182!) when the (Columbian gave way to the Washington press,
and this was nsed for some time for fine book-work. The feature of it was
an automatic inking roller attachment.
THE AllT I'HKSEHV.VnVK
fm
Wliilc tlie Wasliiugtoii press luul tlio capiuMty for producing line work, it
w.is (K-Heipiit ill tlu^ spet'd ivquireil for nuMttiiiK tin- (IciiiuikI tlicn ^'lowiiii,' tor
hiiiii<s juiil iii!\vspapi!rs. TluMi tlio printers tiirniMl to ii cylinder iiicss wliicli
liad iippeiired in the last decade of the eiyliteentli eeiitiiiT. The London
" I'inies '' hud taken hold of it, and brought it to such a eoiidition tliat its
>lM'ed was raised to soiiiething likt^ a thousand impressions an hour. Koni;,',
ii native of Saxony, in IHlo, jiroduced a press for printing both sides of the
sheet. It resembled two single |)resses placed with their cylinders toward
r;icli other, the sheet being carried by tapes from tlie first to the second cyliu-
iler. Its capacity was ToO sheets, both sides, an hour.
THF, COH'MnrAN PHKSS.
Cambridge University about this time was furnished with a press in which
the types were jdaced on the four sides of aiu-isni. tlie paper being applied by
another prism. It proved unsuccessful. Jn this jiress, however, were first
introduced the inking rollers formed of a combination of glue and molasses.
Hollers are made of these two materials to this day.
('owper, an Englishman, in l(Sir>. introduced curved stereotyped plates and
fi.xed them to a cylinder. Two |)lace cylinders and two impression cylinders
were soon afterward worked together on one press by Cowper. printing both
sides of the sheet at the rate of one thousand copies an hour.
This seems to have been the period wlien inventive skill began to assert
itself in the printing press. The educational advancement of the people in
35
II >1
'I
540 THIUMPllS AND WONDKliS OF TIIK A7.V'" (ENTUnY
tluH country iiiul in Kuroiic, willi tlio lack of fiicility for fiirnisliiiiK inform:
tion of tho ciinipiii^iis of Nii|inlt>oii Itonapiirtc, tiir dcsiru for fiicts rt'Kiirilin
titc cviMits transpiring' in Kn^'limd, rrimrc, ami < MMinany, the nica^'icni'SH of tlir
(IctailH \vhi(;li liail lucn inrnisiu-d ol tiif conilict lit'twi-oii (iri-al Itrituin ami
till! United States in iHll*, (•(nivincfd liic pnlilisln-rs of newspapers in tlin
(M)untry und aliroud tiiat the laws of supply and demand were not eipially bal-
anet'd, Tlu) outconio of this was a press eonstrncted to print both sides of
the sheet from type, and was soon followed by the inti'odni'tion of lour
impression cylinders. Thcau were applied to the reciprocating,' bed to carin
WASniNOTON HAND mESB.
the type for one side of the sheet, the 'slieets being fed from four feedintr
boards, the impression cylinders alternately rising and falling, so that two
sheets were printed during the ])assage one way, the other two on the return
passage. A i)air of inking rollers between the impression cylinders obtained
ink from the reci])ro{'ating board.
The capacity of this press was five thousand an hour, and this was ro
garded as a fe.at worthy of public mention, record of it being made in tin
newspapers of th.at period in a way which shows the general interest in tlu
\\'ork.
The first power-press used in the United States was made by Danie'
Till': . I It T I'll liSlili I 1 77 VK
BUI
'rii'Uihvcll. of Miiston, ill IMJL'. Two of tht'iu wcri' used l>y the Uible aiul
'I iiict socictii'H.
rill' London "Tiiiit'K" liiid siu'Cfcded in upplyiiij,' steam to the niDVciueiit
III the jiriiitiii^ ]ireHS as early us ISI4 — a eyliiuU-r press hein^ hnniglii into
ri(|iiisition, to the use of wliieh tliey liad the fxehisivi- ri^;ht.
hiUowinn thi- Treadwell preHs, iihout l8-'i"», eanie llie iiiiprovi'iiients of
Samuel and Isaae Adaiiis, and the (;«>nL>nil umu of tlie press whieh is still
worked in the honk ofliees of this eoimtry and (Jreiit Itritain. It wa.s mi
oiR' of thrse Adams presses, in IHCi.'J, that vas printed the JMHik written hy
|)r. Elisha Kent Kane, deserihing UIh second expedition in search of Sir
■ Iciliii Kiaiiklin. the Aretie explorer.
OLD WOODEN FUAUB ADAMS IIKU AND I'l.ATKS linOK I'UKSS.
Tt was found that the Adams press could be used for newsi)aper tos well
as exceedinRly tine book-work, it^ construction admitting of the use of plates
or type, and its speed such as nearly (!aine up to the requirements of that
period. In thi.; press a feed board holds the paper, whieh is fed by hand
to a second board or tympan, having points to make holes in the sheet to
regulate the second side. The type rests upon a bed which is raised by
straightening a toggle-joint against the upjier ]dates.
The fountain for the ink is carried at one end of the press. The inking
rollers ])ass twice over the form. The paper is caught by grip|)ers, carried
in a frame called a frisket over the form (or tyjie), receives the impression,
and is carried by tapes to a fly frame in the rear \vhi(di delivers it to the
sheet board.
With the two-, three-, and four-cylinder presses, the Adams press, steam
548
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
I
power and various improvements in the make of inks and rollers, the first
half of the nineteenth century was looked ui>oii as having made for the print-
ing press extraordinarily rapid advameuient. Great Britain held first place
in the protluction of newspapers and books, the United States was a slow
secoml, then came Fiance, Clerniany. Hiissui. Italy, Sjtain, and Austria, in
the order given. The greatest evidence of tiiis march of improvement was
the enormous increase in the production of the liible. and the bringing of the
cost to a figure which then was looked ujion as i«lacing it within the reach ol
all classes. Scientific and literary works were iK'ing jmt out in great num-
bers, news])apers were being started in i-very town in this country and Kng-
laud, and the; editions put out in sucli Euro|)ean centres of advancenu-nt as
I'aris, Madrid, Herlin, IJrussels, London, Liveri>ot)l. l>ubli.i, CJlasgow, St.
Petersburg, Vienna, and Home reached proi»ortious then supposed to be
enormous. The London •• Times " at that jieriod had a circulation of about
30,(K)(», — and this was the leader in journalism. Ih the United St;ites the
leading newspajiers did not issue daily e<litinns greater than I'O.OOO, while a
circulation of 1(),()(»0 daily was regarded as being entirely satisfactory to tlic
business ideas of the average publisher.
The opening of tiie last lialf of the nineteenth century may be spoken of
as a quiescent i)eriod. It was the calm in the affairs of the ITnited States
which j)receded the occurring of stormy events wliich put to the full test the
strength of the young republic, the attitude of the nations of the old world
toward us, and the ])ower of the i)eople sueeessfully to maintain a govern-
nuMit "of the people, for the people, and by the j>eople."
iMillard Fillmore became the President of the United States in July of
1850, succeeding Zachary Taylor, wlio died. The Congress had taken a stand
on the disturbing ([uestion of slavv. ry by the i)a>sage of the fugitive slave
law, and had nnule the first step toward freedom for the negroes by the aboli-
tion of the slave trade in the District of Uulumbia. It wa.s in this year that
New Mexico and Utah were admitted as Territories, the entire pojmlation
of the United States being only l.'.").ll)l.S7r> : ten years later tlie jmpulation
reached 31,44.%321. The j)eople were beginning to realize how im])ortant
was the printing press in placing them in eonimunieiition with the statesmen
of the country. They were looking to Webster. Ualhoun. Ulay. .Meredith.
Everett, Scott, Crittenden, CoUamer. Marcy. — then in the fullness of mental
vigor, — and they were demanding information of their acts in the cabinet,
their speeches in Congress, their views on state rights and slaveiy.
It was at this time that the Hoe .Vmeriean Printing-press Company startled
the world by producing the ten-cylinder press, the s]>eed of wliich was limited
only by the ability of the feeders to supply the sheets. Tlie first one of
them to be used in the United States was that ujkui which the Pliiladelpliia
"Public Ledger'' was ]>riuted. It at once came into general use in Eurojje
and America. Its sjieed was 20.fM)f» copies an hour.
In this ])res„ — still in use in many cities — the form of ty]ie is jdaced on
the surface of a horizontal revolving cylinder <d" al)out four and a half feet
in diameter. The form occupies a segment of only alKMit one fourth of the
surface of the cylinder, and the remainder is used as an ink-distributing
surface. Around this main cylinder, an<l |>;irallel with it. are smaller iiniues
sion-cylinders. The large cylinder being put in motion, the form of types is
TTURY
THE ART hRESERVATIVE
540
)llers, tht> lirst
3 for the prim -
leld first phicr
m was ii slow
id Austria, in
)roveinent was
)ringiiig of tlic
n the reach ol'
in great mun-
iitry and Kiig-
Ivaiiuenu'iit as
(ihisgow, St.
ipposed to 1)1'
iition of about
bed States tin-
.'O.OOO, wliile a
sfactory to the
y be si)okeii of
United States
le full test tiie
the old world
tain a govern-
ites in July of
taken a stand
fugitive slavtf
■s by the aboli-
this year that
ire pojjulation
the population
low iiujiortant
the statesmen
lay. Meredith,
ness of mental
in the cabinet,
ery.
upany startled
eh was limited
le first one of
e I'hiladelphia
use in Eurojie
pe is jilaeed on
nd a half feet
e fourth of the
iik-disti'ibutiii,!4
■iinaller inijires
jrui of tyjies is
, airied successively to all the impression-cylinders, at each of which a sheet
i> introduced, and receives the impression of the type as the form [lasses.
diif person supplies the slieets of paper to each cylinder. After being
pi lilted they are carried out by tapes and laid upon heaps by means of self-
;u ting fivers. Tlie ink is contained in a fountain placed beneath the main
(■\linder, and is conveyed by UK-aiis of distributing rollers to the distributing
surface on the main cylinder. The surface being lower, or less in diameter
than the form of types, passes by the impression-cylinder without touching.
Vox each impression there are two inking rollers, which receive their supjiiy
of ink from the distributing suifaee of the main cylinder; they rise and ink
the form as it passes under them, after which they again fall to the distri-
liutiiig surface. Kadi page of the paper is locked up on a detached segment
(i/ the larger cylinder, which constitutes its bed and chases, termed tiie
■•turtle."' The column-rules run parallel with the shaft of the cylinder, and
coiisecpiently are straight, while head, advertising, and dash rules are in the
DOUBLE CYLINDEIl PHE8S
form of segments of a circle. The column-rules are in the form of a wedge,
with the thin part directed toward the axis of the cylinder, so as to bind the
type .securely. These wedge-shaped column-rules are held down to the bed
by tongues projecting at intervals along their length, which slide in rebated
grooves cut crosswise in the face of the bed. The spaces in the grooves
between the rules are accurately fitted with sliding blocks of metal, even
with the surface of the l>ed, the ends of which blocks are cut away under-
neath to receive a projection on the sides of the tongues of the column-rules.
Tlie form of type is locked up in the bed by means of screws at the foot and
sides, by which the type is held as securely as in the ordinary manner up<m
a fiat bed.
This press was regarded as the highest degree of jierfection, until William
.v. BuUoek. of I'hiladelphia. put out his web perfecting press. This com-
pletely revolutionized the printing business so far as the newspapers were
concerned. It came into use in 18(!1. — just before the breaking out of the
war of the rebellion in the I'nited States, — in time to meet the enormous
demands made upon the jirinting jiress at home and abroad. It had been in
operation but a short time when the newsj)ai)er owners of Great Britain took
550
TRIUMPHS ANU WONDERS OF THE A'/X"' CENTURY
hold of it, and tor several years uo other press was used by the newspapers
of large circulation.
How slow and toy-like it seems in comparison with the monsters of tin'
present day I And yet this machine met the demands of a period when it
was supposed the circulation of the daily press had reached an altitude never
to be surpassed. A newspaper like the New York " Herald," wiiich luul
attained a daily circulation of about 7o,()0U, was looked upon as achievinj^
the higliest degree of success. In this last year of the nineteenth centurs
the " Journal " and " Woild " of New York send out at least a million copies
of their papers 3(5;"i days in the year.
William A. l^ullock worked at his web jjrinting pre.ss for six years before
he liad it in shape to pronounce it applicable to the re(iuirements. It was
not long after it was in successful operation that one of his limbs caught
in the macliinery of one of his presses, and death was the result. As the
presses first were made, aiul indeed for many years tliereafter, the paper was
cut in the press before being printed, and it was a difficult matter properly
to control these single sheets until they were delivered, while the presses
were without any foMing attachment. Jiut these old st3-le Bullock presses
did succeed in turning out 6000 eight-page papers an hour, printed on botli
sides.
In 1873 a great improvement was made in the HuUock presses, which
allowed of the papers being printed on the endless roll before the paper was
cut.
With the aid of otlier im]>rovements subsequently made these presses at-
tained to a capacity of 10,000 eight-page pajjcrs an hour. But an unexpected
limit was found in the-impossibility of delivering beyond a certain rtite from
the fly. Tiien K. Hoe & Co. (about 1877) invented a contrivance whieli
obviated the difficulty. It consisted of an accumulating cj'linder, on which
six or eight sheets were laid one above the other and then delivered from the
fl}^ at one motion. This increased the capacity of their perfecting press to
18,000 an hour. A folding attacliment was then added; next a pasting and
cutting attachment. Thus, in 1879 they were able to turn out a press which
produced 30,000 perfect eight-page papers an hour — printed, cut, pasted,
and folded.
The next great achievement was put in operation in a New York press-
room in 1885. That was the double sujiplement press, which in reality com-
bines two ])resses in one. It was the first press to insert supplement slieets
automatical!}', and it was the first press to print from two rolls of paper, one
roll being placed at right angles to the main roll. As the name of the press
implies, from the sec-ondarj' roll the supplements are printed at the same
time that the main part of the paper is being printed from the other roll.
And by means of what to the ordin;iry num seems a miraculous contrivance,
but which to the initiiited in the mysteries of mechanics is no doubt very
simple, the supplement is automatically inset and i)asted into the nuiin paper
before reaching the fly. and drojiped out folded ready for the newsdealer.
P^rom tliis press has been evolved the superb printing- machine which, ii;
recent yeais. lias astonished the world. On it can be printed eight-, ten-, o:
twelve-page papers at a running speed of 24,000 an hour, or 400 a minute.
and whether eight, ten, or twelve pages are printed the}' all come out witl'
THE ART PRESERVATIVE
551
le newspapers
{lie supplements inset and tlie pajjer pasted and folded. From this press
was developed the next triumph, tlie (quadruple press. :\rarvelous maehines
(lu'se quadruple presses are, and it seemed imjiussible that any press could
he built for many years to come that would beat them.
The printing business stood amazed, awe-stricken at the sight of so many
jiapers being turned out each hour. And be lore the amazement had subsided
tliere came forth the machine wliich is destined to go down in history as one •
of the great achievements in mechanics of the nineteenth century, the
sextui)le press, manufactured by Hoe & Co., which has brought forth as
many wonderful improvements as any mechanical concern in the world.
Although it is impossible to explain in language comprehensible to the
juan wlio is not an engineer how this monarch among printing jjresses does
its work at a rate of speed which is well-nigh incredible and outstrips the
Hight of imagination itself, yet it is possible to convey an idea of what the
extent of the work is.
This machine will print, fold, paste, and deliver 90.000 of a four-page paper
FIKST PEUKKCriNO PliESS.
or six-page newspaper in one hour. It will require some figuring to convey
an adequate idea of how fast that is, for, as a matter of fact, it is faster than
a man can think, and tliat is why I say that the speed of the machine out-
strips the flight of imagination.
Ninety thousand copies an hour is equivalent to fifteen hundred copies a
minute, and fifteen liundred copies a minute means twenty-five copies per
second I
Now take out your watch, and while the second hand is passing from one
second to another try to grasp the idea that in all that brief interval of time
twenty-live six-page newspapers have been printed. You can't do it. It is
faster than j'ou can think.
And yet in that second those twenty -five papers are not only printed, but
the inside sheets are automatically i)asted in, and the twenty-five papers are
all cut and folded ready for delivery to the newsdealers. Is there anything
more marvelous than that recorded in the " Arabian Nights " ? Who said
that there are no miracles in this nineteenth century ? Why, if old (luten-
lierg, — peace to his soul, — or Faust, or Caxton, or even our own Henjamin
Franklin had seen anything of the sort, they would have sworn that it was
5jj2
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
either a luiracle or the work of tlie supernatural, with the dianees in favor
of the latter.
Each page of the averaj^e news]»aper has six columns, and in each column
there is on an average 1800 \vor<ls. Six multiplied by six and the ]irodu(i
of that by twenty-five, and that again by 1800, you will find makes 1.020.00(1.
which is just about the inimber of words that this press prints in a second
when it is turning out six-jjage papers at the rate of twenty -five a second.
Tiiat is something that will stagger any man's inuvgination if he tries to
realize what it is.
This press will print, cut, paste, fold, count, and deliver 72,000 copies of
an eight-page newspaper in one hour, which is equivalent to 1200 a miiuite
and 20 a secoml.
It will print, cut, paste, count, and deliver complete 48,000 coi)ies of a ten- or
twelve-page newsi)api'i in one houi', which is ecpiivalent to 800 a minute
and a fraction over VA a second.
It will print, cut, paste, fold, count, and deiivf^r complete ;{(),000 cojiies of
a sixteen-page newsjjaper an hour, wliich is at the rate of 000 a minute, or
10 a second.
It will print, cut, paste, fold, count, and deliver complete 24,000 copies of
a fourteen-, twenty-, or twenty-four-page newspaper an hour, which is at the
rate of 400 a minute, or very nearly seven a second.
'I'his is lightning work with a vengeance, and yet it is possible that there
may be some who read this who will live? to call it slow. That will probably
be when tliey have found out all about how to put a iuirness on electricity.
No one can predict when inventive genius will reach its limits in the print-
ing press, llefore this press was built, the fastest presses in the world were
Hoe's (puidruple presses, which will turn out 48,000 four-, six-, or eight-
page papers an houi', 24,000 ten-, twelve-, fourteen-, or sixteen-page papers an
hour, and 12,000 twenty- or twenty-four page papers an hour, all cut, pasted,
and folded.
The sextuple jiress has a well-nigh insatiable appetite for white paper.
To satisfy it it is fed from three rolls at the same time, one roll being
attached at either end of the press, and the third suspended near the centre.
It is the only press which has ever been able to accomplish that feat. Each
roll is sixty-three inches wide. When doing its best this press will consume
205 miles of (J.'i-inch wide white paper in one hour, and eject it at the two
deliveries, each copy containing an ejutome of the news of the world for the
preceding twenty -four hours, and each copy cut, pasted, and folded ready for
delivery. It is a sight worth seeing to see it done, and in its way it is just
as imi)Tessive as Niagara. ,
A man turns a lever, shafts and cylinders begin to revoh'e, the whirring
noise oets into a steady roar, you see three streams of white paper pouring
into the machine from the three huge rolls, and you pass around to the other
side and — it is literally snowing newspapers at each end of the two delivery
outlets. So fast does one paper follow the other that you catch only a
momentary glitter from the deft steel fingers which seize the jiapers and cast
them out.
The machine weighs about fifty-eight tons. It is massive and strong, with
the strength of a thousand giants. And yet, though its arms are of stesl and
TURY
anees in favor
I each column
.1 tlie in-oduci
kes l.G20.0(Mi.
iS in a second
five a second,
if he tries to
000 copies of
-00 a minute
ies of a ten- or
<00 a minute
,000 copies of
a minute, or
000 copies of
hich is at tlie
ble tliat there
will probably
)n electricity,
i in the print-
16 workl were
six-, or eight-
age ])apers an
II cut, pasted,
white paper.
!ie roll being
ar the centre,
t feat. Each
will consume
it at the two
world for the
[led ready for
way it is just
the whirring
laper pouring
1 to the otiier
two delivery
i!atch only a
pers and cast
strong, with
3 of steel and
THE ART PRESERVATIVE
533
lis motions are all as rapid as lightning, its touch is as tender as that ot a
vonian when she caresses her babe. How else <loes the machine avoid tear-
ing the paper ? Paper tears very readily, as you often ascertain accidentally
when turning over the page^^. Truly wonderful it is, and mysteiious to any-
Dddy but an expert, how this huge machine can make newspapers at the rate
of twenty-five a second without rending the paper all to shreds.
It has six plate cylinders, each cylinder carrying eight stereotype plates,
and six impression-cylinders. These cylinders, when the press is working at
lull speed, make Wo hundred revolutions a minute. The period of contact
between the paper and the plate cylinders is tlierefore inconceivably brief,
and how in that fractional space of time a perfect impression is made even
to the reproduction of the finest, is one of those things which, to the man who
is not " up " in mechanics, must forever remain a mystery.
I'OUll HOLLEK TWO-UEVOLUTION PRESS.
A double folder forms part of tlie machine. A single folder would not be
equal to the task imposed on it. As it is, this double folder has to exer-
cise sudi celerity to keep up with the streams of printed papier which de-
scend upon it that its operations are too quick for the eye to follow.
Tl\e jiress lias two delivery outlets. At eacli the papers are automatically
counted in piles of fifty. No matter how rapidly the papers come out, there
is never a mistake in the count. It is as suro as fate. Hy an ingenious con-
tiivance — if I should try to describe it more definitely most people would
be none the wiser — each fiftieth i)aper is shoved out an inch beyond the
others which have been dropped on to the receiving tapes, thus serving as a
sort of tally mark.
Truly it is a marvelous machine — this sextuple press. Nowhere you will
find a more perfect adaptation of means to ends, nowhere in an} branch of
industrj' a piece of mechanism which offers a finer example of what human
skill and ingenuity is capable of. And it is free from that reproach which is
sometimes brought against the greatest triumphs of inventive genius in
m
1 1)
BSi
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A7A'"' CENTURY
other departments of human activity, — that they make mere automatons
out of liuinnn beings.
There was recently manufactured by the Hoe Company for a New York
pajier an addition to tliis wonderful piece of machinery designated an octu-
l)le press. Kunning at full speed it will print, paste, out, fold, and count
9(),(K>0 eight-page papers an hour. It is nearly 14 feet high, and 'Jn feet long.
Ten men are required to opersite it. The cylinders revolve 200 times in
every GO siconds.
This monster is divided into two working parts. The printing is done on
the half of the machine to tlie right. The paper passes over the cylinders
there, where it is printed from the stereotype plates, and then runs through
the other half of the machine on the left, wliere it is cut, inserted, pasted,
delivered, and counted from four outlets folding in half-page size.
This press shows four distinct double printing machines, each fed by its
own roll of paper. The paper from each roll i)asses against two sets of
stereotype plate cylinders — one for each side of the printed sheet. The
machine is so perfectly adjusted that by simply turning a screw and moving
a gear a few inches each of the four sets of cylinders can be thrown out of
operation ; that is to say one (juarter, one half, three quarters, or tlie whole
press can be operated at will.
The folder is harmonized for each adjustment of the printing cylinder.
The folding of the pajjers has been brought to the highest state of j)erfection.
The sheets are folded, cut, and delivered by a rotary motion at a speed that
could never have been attained with the reciprocating arras, such as were
used prior to the Hoe inventions.
When a sixteen-page paper is being printed it comes in four-ply thickness,
and then doubles and shoots eight thicknesses nnder the knife.
When a twenty-four-page paper is being printed it passes over the longi-
tudinal folder in six-]tly thickness and passes inider the knife in twelve
thicknesses. All this is attained without the use of guiding taiies. In fact,
the speed could not be attained with them.
As the papers are folded and delivered from the four outlets, with a speed
too great for the eye to follow, the machine itself counts them in total and in
bundles, as is done on the sextuple press. This monster octuple machine
has a perfected system of ink distribution with which no other presses are
equipped. Under the system results are obtained by decreasing the size and
increasing tlie number of ink-rollere around each cylinder of plates.
The arrangement of the type cylinders is such as to make the press one
that can be handled with great ease and rapidity. Along the right hand of
the machine, between the two rows of cylinders, is an ojien pitssageway. It
is large enough for men to pass through either from the ground or from the
gallery near the latitudinal centre of the press.
From this open passageway the ])ressmen are able to watch every move-
ment of the machine's interior working, and from it they are able to make
quick changes on the ])late cylinders. The change in position of only two
ink-rollers is i ocessary to change a plate on anj- cylindei". This is a matter
of great importance to a paper which i)rints many editions, for it is necessary
1;o change plates so often and to economize every minute of time in order to
catch the fast mails which carry the paper to all quarters of the earth.
THE ART PRESERVATIVE
555
On the octuple presses each roll of paper is guarded against breakage,
riiere is a di'vice in the shape of a short endless belt <>t rubber wIul-Ii passes
over two pulleys and rests on top of the roll of paper. The paper is then
pulled from tiie roll as gently as the thread is pulled from the spool of a
sfwing machine. The belt i)ushes tlie roll along at a speetl erpial to and
sometimes a little greater than that of the stereotype cylinders. Hence, all
tension is removed fr<mi the paper.
From the stereotyper's department, where thf y have been made in a few
minutes, come the plates of curved, bright metal. Passed to the i)ressmen,
they are locked on the cylinders as fast as they can be handled. The rolls of
paper have been placed in their proper positions.
This accomplished, the men step back from the machine, the brakeman
pulls the lever, and the giant press begins its work. Slowly its cylinders
revolve at first, but as headway is gained the rumMe that accompanied the
start increases into a shrill shriek as the limit of speed is reached.
LITHO«U.4^PUIC PllKSS.
The paper nishes from its continuous rolls, is printed, folded, cut, and
thrown out from the four outlets at a speed tliat would be over twice greater
than that of any express train if it were confined to one roll. Every paper
is just like every other one, perfect in every detail.
When this has gone on for an hour, two hours, or however long it may
take to run off the editions, the monster press can be stopped in an instant.
AVith the simple touching of a lever all its movement will cease before the
cylinders can revolve five times, and they had been reviving two hundred
times a minute before.
The two wonders just described are confined to newspaper work. This
same American firm has produced i)resses uj>on winch are printed the fine
specimens of magazines where the work takes a striking resemblance to litho-
grn])h printing. They have a speed of 8000 an hour. From them come
booklets of 1(>, 20, or 1.'4 pages. From the ]n'esses of 4000 an hour come
books of 32, 40, and 48 pages. In construction they are complicated and
grand.
Then come the presses upon which are printed different colors. These
are made in England and the United States, and are used with satisfactory
results on prominent publications in both eountaes. A recent issue of the
556 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XlXr" CENTURY
\
I
" British and Colonial I'rintef " directs attention to this advance in mechan-
ism tluon}j;h the medium of tin; Hoe art rotary form feeder. It says: —
•' This macdiine carries the mind back iiatunilly to i»re-rotary days, when the
Hoe multi-feeder held tiic field as the newspaper machine, to the days of the
heavy, and as we consider in these advanced days, clumsy turtle. When the
creative genius of Colonel Hoe evolved the rotary press, the multi-feeder was
almost at once relegated to the lundter room of obsolete mechanics. It is
hardly conceivable that it entered tlic mind of any practical man at this time
that the principle of multi-fed flat sheet printing would ever be adapted to
the production of high art illustrated literature, at a speed eijual, or nearly so,
to the former Hoe news machine. It iias, at all events in our country, long
been a settled opinion that such work could only be successfully accomplished
upon a fiat-bed machine, that tiie mere curvature of a plate must destroy the
beauty of .a tine process block for example, and .that any attenii»t to travel at
a greater speed than 12(H) to 1.">(M) an hour must be at the sacrifice of depth
and sutHciency of rolling. Whether this is really so readers will now be
able to form their own opinion from the pages of the 'Strand Magazine.'
Those pages abound in very varied methods of engraving, woodcut and pro-
cess, line and nature, and reproductions alike from photos and from wash and
crayon drawings. Every page has undergone the i)rocess of electtrotyping,
cast straight and curved subsetpiently, and therefore the conditions of jtrint-
ing at the high speed of 4(K)(l (or to ije strictly accurate, four sheets of 1(>
pages each put through at the rate of \)iH) each, or ."xSOO per hour) are as
severe as could be desired.
"The British printer has yet to acquire a full mastery of its cajiabilities,
and the engineer has e(iually before him in some degree a period of develop-
ment. Some of the jiortraiture, human and animal, is equal to anything
seen. The make-ready (u[)on hard packing) exhil)its the highest quality, and
the distribution of color perfection. The plate-cylinder is made as large as
the desired speed renders jjracticable, in order that the curvature of the
plates may !)■; reduced to a minimum. The ])rovision for securing adequate
distribution and in-rolling is upon a liberal scale, but not one whit more so
than is re(|uisite, extent of surface and speed of running considered. There
are 16 inkers and .'{H distributors, with 1(5 iron distribution cylinders. The
sheets are fed in two at either side of the machine, those from the right
hand feeders being delivered upon the table at the extreme left, the other
upon the inner delivery board. The plates are rigidly secured by special
clutches. To facilitate the imposition of the ])lates, or any attention re-
quired by the cylinder, the short rear portion of the machine back of the
cylinder is detachable and can be run out upon an extended base, and then
closed up and put into gear again. This renders it ])erfectly accessible at the
most essential point. The sheets are of course printed on one side only. AVe
have not yet attained to the perfecting stage in art work in combination with
high speed; the introduction of the Hoe art rotary y)ress, however, marks
a distinct epoch in this class of printing in Great Britain. Color printing-
presses are in use in the newspaper and magazine offices in this country, and
from them are produced the artistic ;is well as the lurid styles of art."
What the possibilities of the printing press are. looking at the degree
of excellence at present attained, it is difficult to predict. It would seem
URY
THE ART PRESERVATIVE
fj57
I in mechan-
ays: —
I's, when the
days of tlie
Wlien the
i-feeder was
mios. It is
it this time
adapted to
)!• nearly s(j,
luntry, \ow^
icomjilislied
destroy tlie
to travel at
ue of depth
I'ill now be
Magazine.'
lit and pro-
n wash and
!('trotyping,
lis of jirint-
leets of 1(>
:mv) are as
apabilities,
of develop-
anything
piality. and
as larg(! as
ture of the
ig adeqnate
iiit more so
ed. There
ders. The
1 the right
, the other
by special
tention re-
ack of the
!, and then
iible at the
! only. We
lation with
ver, marks
r printing-
iintry, and
n-t."
the degree
ould seem
..s if the height of iierfection now had lieeii reaehed. The probability is that
Hn' printer at the end of the first cpiarter of tlic twentieth cfiituiy may look
with .something akin to contempt upon the machines which now are regarded
with so miii'li pride.
Such a thing is possible in t' •; age of invention.
II. TIIK SETTINO OK TYPK.
In the beginning of the nineteenth century, when the little metal pieces
MJMBEUIXO ( AKD PRESS.
of tyjie were ])icked up one at a time and jilaced in the composing "stick"
by hand, there vas attached to the work an importance which elevated it
almost to the ranks of the trained professions. In Kn .land, as late as 1817,
compositors arrogated to themselves the dignity of carrying swords. At
the close of the nineteenth ceiitniy, the art is seen to be passing into the
sjihere of mechanics, — the methods in vogue making it entirely a mechanical
operation, before many years of the twentieth century have passed, there
558
TRIUMPHS AND WONDEllS OF THE XIX'" CENTUHY
!l r- :
I I Xri
it;!
i'l:
11
m
1'^
will have been attained a (le^n'o of ailvuncemrnt wliidi will dispense with
the liand of man in ),'nidin^' tlie movements of the machine. The invenlivf
skill which hroiight the printinj,' press to sm-ii a hijijh point of excellenci' and
speed has been turned toward the work of type-eom posing, ami the forwaril
'march is likely to he as rapid.
(hitside of the actual learned profesHions. no oeeupation has contributed so
many prominent tij,'ure.s to the history and progress of this country as the
composin},'-ro()m. Tliey have tilled important jihices in journalism, politics,
Congress, state legislatures, the army and navy, and tiie world of literature.
Horace Greeley, the founiU-r of the New York "Tribune," — writer, states.
man. and man of alTairs, — is one of the notable figures of the present century,
who laid the foundation of his career at a case of type.
Schuyler Colfax, who became Vice-President of the United States in 18(50,
ji.assetl the early years of his life setting tyi)e.
And. strange to say, thes(! two nu-n. when the presidential chair seemed
a possible realization of their ambition, were opposed by men of their craft
simply becaust! they ha<l seemed to run so far above tlie ••stick" and '•rule."
Simon Ciimeron. of I'ennsylviinia. once Secretary of Win. I'liited States
senator, representative of the I'uited States abroad, and for many years
political master of his great State, was proud to say that he had begun his
career as a type-setter in a country printinj,-<)nice. It is woiih while noticing
tliat this priuter-iioliticiau's life covered nearly a century of existence. His
life spanned every ])residen*^^ from John Adams in 171H> to ISenjamin Har-
rison in 1.SH9. wliile his active political control of IVnn.sylvania covered a
jieriod of sixty-tive years. — si record made by only oiie man witliin the liis-
tory of the I'nited States.
Every state in the TnitJU has contributed to history its quota of printer-
statesmen, printer-authors, ami printer-joui '.alists. How nuuiy of such there
have been in this nineteenth century w(udd be beyond ordinary research to
a.scertain. Hut jjrinters — compositors — can refer with just pride to the
f.act that in all the advanced walks of life are to be found men who have
been members of the guild.
The setting of tyj)e by hand jn-evailed universsvlly until as late as 1880.
That may be jnit down iis the period when there came into anything like
general use the machines for type composition, although experiments in that
direction had been going on for sixty years.
As early as 1820, printers realized that machinery eventually must be
brought into ])lay for composing type. But how to do it was the scientific
as well as mechanical problem. It was argued that the machine must be so
constructed as to pick up the type, uniformly distribute the space between
the words, and "justify " the lines, that is. make them the exact width.
•' It is beyond the range of possibility.'' suggested th^ printer. " Alechanism
never can be applied to art. The great Benjamin Franklin would have dis-
covered the way to make sucii a thing possible, if it were possible — which is
impossible."
And' the scientific electric discovery made by Benjamin Franklin in the
eighteenth century is, at the close of the nineteenth, the motive-power used
for driving the machines for type composition, — the seemingly impossible
has reached the stage of possibility.
THE ART PRESERVATIVE
560
Or. Williiim Church, of Connecticut, iinxhict'd a iniichiiie lookiiiK to ma-
i.iiu' tyiie-iMiuiposition in ISL'O. It did not conit! into nsc, iiitiioiiKh in' spent
i.ugf sums of nu)nev on it, and d<'vot«'d a vast amount of ein'rj,'v toward iiav-
mj,' it taken up both in tliis country and in Kn^land. At tiie I'mis Kxiiil)!-
lion in 1H.T» then^ were exhibited severid niaeliines of this sort, one (d wliich
— tiie patent of Cluistian Sorensen, of Copenliaj,'en — wan used upon ji daily
pajier issued during the exhibition. In 1871, at the International Kxliihition
III Loiuh)!!, there was shown a machine iKissessing peeuliar features. It used
,1 perforated ribbon, through the medium of which tyjies were worked into
position. The macliine was cumltersomc, conii>lieated, ami expensive, and
LINOTYPE ^TYPE-8ETTIN«) MACHINE (lUONT VIEW).
could not be brought into anything like general usage. In 1875 M. Del-
eambre, of Paris, after twenty years' work produced a machine in New York.
It had the same objections as the others. While this machine could do
as much aa the labor of three men by hand, it recjuired a man to operate,
another man to place the set type in lines, steam to keep it in motion, and a
big cost to construct.
Up to this period, all the experiments had shown the want of something
which would obviate the presence of a man to make the lines of the proper
length and with etjual spacing l)etween the words. All the machines which
were anything near available picked up and placed in position separate types.
At the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, in Philadelphia, there were shown ma-
chines which used brass dies and cast a y»e of type. These seemed to pos-
IH
m)
rniVMI'IIS AS It WONUEUS OF THE XIX'" CESTUHY
Ht>HM tliM ttluiutMit for 8U«)(;eHMful UHU, uuil the outcutuo WUH tliu pi'oductiun oi
the inaohiiiit wliicli is now in uho in nil tin- big ntnvs|iiip<>i- dIUcuh in thin
uoiiiitry — tho •• MfigfiithiihT Iiiiiotyi»e." I'riifticully it iiii.s drivi'ii nil tht
othtM' muchiiius out ot imt>, hut how hmg it will hold swiiy is ii (jucsiiou
Aln^ady nit'U ol' gcniiis iiif i'X|it'rinHuitiuK' with two objects in vit'w, — in
frtMiMc of speed, ih'iM'i'iisi- ot cost,- -nnd it is fair to prt'suuK' that l)i'toii
the twentieth ceiitniy has gone very fiii' into hidtory those tsvo objmits will
]nivi> l)ei'n attained.
The linoty[ie, as hero shown, has the appearanee of a heavy and enniber-
Hojne piece of nniehinery. It a<'tually is so only when there are several of
them ))laced in line — tlieu they give to a eoniposing-room the appearance
of a niaeliine Mlmp. This niaehine, instead of producing single type of the
ordinary character, casts tvpe-nietal bars or slugs, each coni))leto in one pieue,
ami havin,!,' o\\ the upper edge, i)roperly justitied, the type charatiters to print
a line.
These slugs present the appearain-e of conipoi-ied lines of type, and serve
the sanu> purpost', and for t'ds reason are called " linotypes."' The linotypes
are produecil and iisscnihlcd autoniatii'aliy in a galley, side by side, in proper
order, so that they constiti'te a " form." answering the same purpo.ses and
used in the sanu' manner as tlu^ ordinarv " forms" (consisting of single types.
Alter being usfd. tiic linotypes insli hI of being, liktc type forms, distri-
buted, are thrown into a umtal pot of the machine to be recast into new
forms.
The maeiiine contains, as its fundamental elements, several hundred brass
matrices. lOaeh nuitrix (M)nsists of a Hut ]ilate having in one edge a female
letter, or matri.x proper, iiiid in the nii))er end a series of teeth, which an'
used for distriunting to their proper phiees in the magazine matrices i-ouiain-
ing ditferent h'Cters. 'I'iiere are in the machine a number of nnitricM's of each
letter, and also nmtiices rc|)re.senting special chanieters, and spaces or (piads
of dcHnite thickness b>r \ise in tabular and other work of a complicated
nature.
The machine is so orgiiid/ed that on manipulating the tinger-keys it will
select nmtrices in the order in which their characters are to api)ear in print,
and assendde them side by side with wedge-shaped sjiaces at suitable points
in the line.
This composed line forms a line nuitrix, or in other words a line of female
tyi)e. adapted to produce a line of raised ju'inting type on a slug, which may
be forced into or against the matrix characters. After the matrix line is
comjjosed it is automatically tvansferreil to the face of the mold, into whiidi
molten metal is delivered to i)rodu(* the slug or linotype, after which the
matrices are distributed or returned to the magazine to lie again composed in
new relations f(jr succeeding lines.
These operations are ])erformed by mechanism, as shown in the outline
here presented.
A is'an inclined fixed magazine, containing channels in which the assorted
matrices are stored, and through whi(di they slide, entering at the top and
escaping at the foot, one at a time. Each channel is provided at the lowt-r
end with an esca])ement device, B, coiniected by a rod, C, with a finger char-
acter of the matrices in the correfjionding channel. There is a kej' for each
my
xlui'tiun 1)1
OH ill tlll.-^
'('II ill! till'
I <iiu>siioii
rU'W, — Ml
hat Im'Idii
DJiH't.s will
ul i'iuuIhm-
St'VITlll ill
iplK'iiriiiici'
y jM' ol tlic
mil' iiit'ci',
I'H to print
ami servi'
liiii)ty|ios
ill in'iipcr
piisi's and
l^'ll' t.\ |PI'S.
nis, ilisti'i-
intd nt'w
Irnil iirass
' a I'l'iiialt'
wliii'li art'
's contain-
t*s 1)1' cai'li
< or iiiiads
iiii|)lic'ateil
iya it will
p in print,
ble points
of lonialc
liicli may
•ix line is
iito which
vhidi the
nposed in
n» outline
? iissorti'd
' top and
the lowiM'
iger cliar-
' tor each
A,
rci]
tlif
i
mo
we(
ins
ins
of I
clo>
act
THE ART PRESERVATIVE
•m.
character, and also keys for quads stored in the magazine. The keys are
UL'tuated by the operator in the order in wliich their letters are to appear in
print. As a key is depressed, it operates the corresponding escapement li,
\\\m\\ allows u matrix to fall out of the magazine through one of the chan-
nels. /;. to the inclined traveling belt, F, which serves to carry the matrii'es
down in succession into the assembler stick, G, in which they are stored side
bv side. A box, JI, contains a number of elongated spaces, /, and a dis-
.harging device connecting with a tinger-key bar, J, by which the spaces are
jionnitted to fall into the line of matrices at the jjroper points d-ring com-
position. It will be perceived that the operation of the various keys results
BiirmBirTon
om.TNK OF TYPE-RKTTINfl MACIIIXK.
in the selection of the matrices and spaces, and their collection in assembler,
G, xmtil it contains all the characters to be represented by one line of print.
After the matrix line is thus composed it is transferred, as indicated by the
dotted lines, to the front of a mold or slot extending through a mold wheel,
K, from front to rear. This mold is of the exact size and shape of the slug
required. Tlie matrix line is pressed tightly against, and closed in front of,
the n.old for the time being, and the. characters, or matrices proper, face the
mold cell or space. While the line is in place in front of the mold, the
wedge spaces are pushed up through the line, and in this manner exact and
instantaneous '• justification "' is secured, liehind the mold there is a melt-
ing pot, M, heated by a flame from a gas burner, and containing a quantity
of molten metal. The pot has a perforated mouth arranged to fit against and
close the rear side of the mold, and contains a jump plunger, mechanically
actuated.
S6
5G2
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
After the matrix line is in place, the ijUuiger falls and forces metal throu},'h
the pot nioutl) into the mold, against and into the characters of the matrix
line. The metal instantly solidities in the mold, forming the slug or liiio-
tvjie, having on its edge raised type characters formed by the matrices. I'he
mold wheel next makes a partial revolution, turning the mold from tlie
original horizontal to a vertical position in front of the ejector, which thtii
advances Ironi the rear through the mold, pushing tlie slug out of the latter
into the receiving gallej', at the front.
A vibrating arm advances the slugs laterally in the galley, and thus as-
sembles tiiem side by side in column or page-form ready for use. In order
to insure absolute accuracy in the height and tliickness of the slugs, knives
are arranged to act upon them during their course to tlie galley.
After the matrices in the line have served their i)uri)ose in front of the
mold, they are returned to the magazine to be again discharged and used in
the following maimer. The line is lifted from tlie mold and shifted later-
ally until the teeth at the top engage the teeth of bar, li. This bar then
rises as shown by dotted lines, lifting the matrices to the distributor at tlie
top of the machine, but leaving the spaces, /, behind to be shifted laterally
to the magazine or holder, H, from which they were discharged. Ivaeli
matrix has distributor teeth in its top, arranged in a special order or num-
ber, according to the character it contains. In other words, a matrix contain-
ing any given character differs in the number oy relation of its teeth fro u
a matrix containing any other character. This ditference is relied upon ti
secure projjcr distribution. A distributor-bar, 1\ in a single piece, is tixeci
horizont.iUy over the u])i)er end of the magazine, and is formed with longi-
tudinal ribs or teeth, adapted to engage the teeth of the matrices and hold
the latter in suspension as they are carried along the bar over the mouths or
entrances of the channels.
The teeth of the bar are cut away to vary their number or arrangement at
different points in its length, so that there is a special arrangement over the
moutli of each channel. The matrices are pushed upon the bar at the end,
and made to slide slowly along it while suspended therefrom. Each matrix
remains in engagement, and travels over the mouth of the channels, until it
arrives at the required point, where, for the first time, its teeth bear such
relation to those of the bar that it is permitted to disengage and fall into its
channel.
The travel of the matrices is secured by longitudinal screws, which lie
below the bar in position to engage the edges of tlie matrices. Tlie matrices
pursue a circulatory course through the machine, starting from the bottotu
of the magazine and passing thence to the line being composed, thence to tin*
mold, and finally back to the top of the magazine. This circulation permits
the operations of composing one' line, casting a second, and distributing m
third, to be carried on concurrently, aiid enables the machine to run at a
speed-exceeding that at which any operator can finger the keys.
One half horse power is generally used in driving a machine. About fivx
square feet is the space occupied by the machine ; it weighs 1925 pounds,
and consumes about fifteen feet of illuminating gas each hour to heat tli'
metal pot. Each machine will do complete work equal to that of five men
by hand. The simplicity of the machine bears a striking resemblance to tin;
NTURY
THE ART PRESERVATIVE
663
metal tlirou^'li
s of the matrix
e slug or liiid-
matrices. Tlie
nold from tlio
;or, which tlnu
it of the lattir
{, and thus as-
iise. In order
e slugs, knives
in front of the
id and used in
d shifted later-
rhis bar then
itrilmtor at tiie
hiftcd hiterally
harged. Each
1 order or ni.'iii-
niatrix eontaiii-
its teeth fro.'ii
relied upon ti
])iece. is tixeti
ned with longi-
trices and hold
I" the mouths or
arrangement at
ement over the
bar at the end,
. Each matrix
lannels, until it
beeth bear such
md fall into its
rews, which Ho
The matrices
oni the bottom
[1, thence to th(!
ulation permits
I distributing w
ine to run at ii
•s.
ue. About fiv>i
s 1925 pounds,
our to heat the
lat of five men
?mblance to tiie
., ... -writer, and this is operated successfully by young girls. When the mat-
u !■ set by the macliine is placed together, the page jjresents a surface equal
1.. au entire new set of type, or, as the printers say, " We take on an entire
new dress every day.*'
riiat is ii j)roduction of tlie nineteenth century. How conimon])lace it
will appear when the achievements of the twentieth century are jilaced on
record.
III. KVKXTS AS TIIKV oniK.
W'iien the nineteenth century ojjened, great events were occurring in tlie
wiirlil. Napoleon Bonaparte was the central figure in tlie eye of Europe. He
lia<l. but a few years i)reviously (1797), gone through the most brilliant cam-
|iai!;n known. He had crossed the Alps, defeated the Austrians at iMontenotte
and .Milh'simo, defeated the Sardinians at Ceva and Mondovi, and conquered
I.ombardy, — all in a few weeks. Tlie year following he had coiKjuered
Ku'vpt. and in 1800 had become the first consul and the ruler of France, to be
declared Emperor four years later.
Then followed, in rapid succession, the events wliich caused the world to
look u])on Napoleon as the probable coming ruler of the universe. It was
in ISO") that he began the war of aggrandi:'.ement. He crossed the Khine,
comjielling the Austrian army to surrender at Ulin ; lie entered Vienna and
routed the Kussian and Austrian armies at Austerlitz. This was followed
by his move to make liimself master of Southern and Central Europe. He
established his brother Joseph as King of Naples; Ids brother Louis as King
of Holland; his stepson Eugene as Viceroy of Italy; and his brotluu-in-law,
.loachim Alurat, as Grand Duke of Berg. The following year he defeated
the Prussians and entered Berlin.
It was not until his abdication at Fontainebleau, in 1814, that Europe and
America breathed freely. His final overthrow at AVaterloo in 1815 removed
him from the stage as an active participant in the world's history of the nine-
te 'iitli century.
In the United States, the close of the eighteenth century was marked by
the deatli of Washington, wliile 1800. 1801, 1802 saw us make a treaty of
]ieace with France, remove the national capital from Philadelphia to Wash-
iii',don, D. C, declare war against Tripoli, purcliase Louisiana from France,
and enter upon the disputes with Great Britain which culminated in a
dech,,ration of war with the mother country, in June of 1812.
Wliile these events at home and abroad were making history, long periods
of time elapsed between their occurrence and their being given to the people.
There was no telegraphic communication which flashed messages around the
ghdie. It was a wait until the mails brought the news. Two months, pro-
bably, elapsed after the battle of AVaterloo ere this country was furnished
with the story which meant so much to the peace of Europe.
What a change in this respect was wrought between the downfall of
Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815 and the downfall of his nephew, Louis Napo-
Icon, in 1870 ! On the fateful second of September, 1870, when the Emperor
of France, Napoleon III., surrendered to the Emperor William of Prussia,
on the field of Sedan, the news was flashed to America in less than two
liours. On thu. hot, sultry day eager crowds surrounded the bulletin boards
'if the newspapers, on which were displayed the facts connected with the
1
Ii:
1
ii I- J:
I
i
I
1, -:<, i
li
564
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
overthrow of the Napoleonic dynasty. The difference in time made it pos-
sible for us here to know all that had been done by the two emperors and liy
Bismarck an hourahcad of their actual happening. For days before that
the crowds had surged around the newspaper ottices, for days afterward tin y
did the same, and facts were given with a rapidity which showed how won-
derful had been the scientific stride between l.Slo and liS70.
Had any one in 1815 predicted the possibility of iuich scenes, he would
have been put down as a tit subject for a writ of de Innatico inquircndi).
Such, too, would have been *^^lu' comment on the one who then would have
suggested the likelihood of , lewsjjaper in this country reaching a circulation
of a million copies daily, — d yet such has become an accomplished fact.
At the close of the first c^ arter of the nineteenth century there had been
no practici.l advance in the rapid transmission of news. This was the period
Avhen the press lacked the facility to rapidly furnish the people with the
events which were occurring in all directions. Newspapers still depended
upon the mails. Home events were many weeks reaching sections remote
from their happening. In this respect there had been some little improve-
ment at the close of the first half of the century. That was the time when
the electrical current was being brought into operation in the transmission
of signals from which messages were being recorded, and these were being
utilized for the sending of information at short distances. Scientific men
were even talking of the possi))ility of connecting distant points on the coast,
and whis])ering their hope for an Atlantic cable. In 1858 that wonderful
event came to pass. The old world and the new were connected by calile
from Valencia Bay. in Ireland, to Newfoundland, in North America, and mes-
sages of greeting passed between (^>uecn Victoria and I'resident Buclianan.
The break which followed soon after the ojjening of this cable stimulated
men of genius and men of ca))ital to further efforts, and the governments of
the United States and tJreat I'rifain came forward with generous aid. Tlie
laying of the .\tlantic cable by the (Jreat Eastern in 18()4, and its sr.ccessful
operation in 1S(>(). opened the doors for the possibilities of the press of to-day,
and the realiz.ation of such scenes as were witnessed in this country on Sei)-
teniber 2. 1870.
Between that memorable year, 1S(J(>, and this, 1899, how wonderful has
been the advance in the transmission of information from all quarters nf
the globe. From the Transvaal l{ei)ublic, in South Africa ; from the desert
liome of the Dervish in the Soudan ; from the domain of Turkey's Sultan,
in Armenia ; from the Holy Land ; from the Oriental empires of China and
Japan; from the snow-clad land of the Czar in Siberia; from the Bosphorus
to the English Channel; from V'alencia across the Atlantic; from Victoria
Land in North America to Patagonia in South America: from ]\Laine I"
Mexico; from the Atlantic to the Pacific; there are each day transmitted all
occurrences of interest transpiring, — and these encompass peace and war.
joy and sorrow, science and art. education and trade. — events which arouse
the passions and quicken the jiulse of humanity.
This is done through the medium of an organization known as the Asso-
ciated l*ress. This wonderful eondjination has nearly forty thousand mil' s
of wire from the different telegraph companies, for which there is paid i
fixed price per mile. This, however, does not include its cable service, tl-'
THE ART PRESERVATIVE
586
ciiarges for which are according to the number of words transmitted. Tlie
service of this organization costs a million and a half a year, divided among
.soviial hundred of the great newsimpers of the United States. During the
rci'cut conflict between Spain and the United States its expenditure tor war
news alone was nearly $tr)00,00(». Tins can readily be understood when the
render is informed that the cable rate from JIanila was !B-.o7 a word. Thus,
a ilisi)atch tilling less than a (juarter of a column of the average daily paper
cost. SIOOO. The rate from Porto Rico, at the outbreak of hostilities, was
■Sl.'.Xi a word, and it often happened that a single dispatch covering the
nie-emeuts of a body of troops in that island, with possibly a pen picture
ot a skirmish with the Spaniards, would cost Ji?2000 in gold. The Santiago
toll was iJil.lO a word ; and whole pages of newspapers were printed at that
rate.
What a gigantic institution it lias become for the rapid dissemination of
news events !
In that war between Spain and the United States, General Toral, the
Spanish commander, .surrendered Santiago on July 14, at 2.15 o'clock in the
altevnoon. At U.25 o'clock the message announcing the fact was received in
I'liiladelphia. On the 12th of August following, at 4.23 o'clock in the after-
noon, the Peace Protocol was signed in Washington by the French Ambas-
sador Cambon and Secretary of State Day, and at 4.27 o'clock — four minutes
later — the information was in the Xew York office of the Associated Press.
Hundreds of such instances of this rapid transmission of news coidd be
recorded in this last year of the nineteenth century, — facts never even
dreamed of when Benjamin Franklin chained the electric current in the
closing years of the eighteenth century.
The journej^ of a piece of news from the far East to the far West is some-
thing worth noting. The trip covers thousands of miles out of a direct
route. As for instance, when Admiral Dewey annihilated the Spanish fleet
in the Bay of Jfanila, on May 1, 1898, the fact was cabled to Hong Kong,
China. There an operator transmitted it northward to IFelampo in Russia,
right on the border line of Jlanchooria, from which place it was sent across
Ilussia to Tomsk, thence to St. Petersburg. From the Russian capital it
zigzagged to Berne, in Switzerland ; thence to Paris ; thence across the chan-
nel to Penzance, and finally to Valencia, to be put on the cable for America.
In two hours from the time the operator in Hong Kong started his dispatch.
it was being hurried across the American continent — north, west, east, south
— for distribution in the newspaper oitices.
When a party of Mohammedans attacked a Christian mission in Calcutta,
a telegraph operator dispatched the news to Bonibaj'', whence it was trans-
mitted to Aden. The next point reached was Suez, from which it was sent
to ^lalta. It was next sent to Lisbon. From there it was given to Paris.
I'rom ]\Ialta it was also cabled to Penzance, thence to Valencia, and finally to
tlie United States.
When that Manila piece of news from Admiral Dewey reached the Pacific
coast in the United St.ates, the date of its being started was yet several hours
behind the time of its arrival. Tlie attack on the Spanish fleet was made
iiM Sunday. May 1. .Manila time. The fact was not sent out by Dewej- until
the following morning, May 2 (still Manila time). It was started on its
5CG
TRIUMPHS AND WONDEltS OF THE A'/A"' CENTUHY
westward course that morning (May 2) at ten o'clock. By the route tak' ii
to Valencia with the relays, two hours were consumed. This brought it lo
London about three o'clock on that njorning of May L', owing to the ditli i.
ence in time. Traveling westward across the Atlantic ocean in advance i.l
the sun, it reached New York about ten o'clock in tlie night of 'Siixy 1. lii.t
little time was lost in retransmission to the Pacific coast, which point it
reached about six o'clock on that Sunday evening of May 1 — fourteen hums
previous, by the day of the month, to its being started from Manila.
In this work of sending out news not a moment is lost that can tie avoidnl.
The aid of the typewriter enables the operator to keep pace witli the sendiiiLC
operator, and his pace has been increased in the past few years by the intn.-
duction of a code system. Here is a specimen of the code system as used Itv
the operator in sending out a news item : —
"^ladrid, ^larch 17 — T (^n Regent h sined t Treaty of Peace btn Spn «S; t
Uni Stas. T treaty \vb frwded to t French Ambsdr, Jules Candwn, at Wasim.
fo exg w t one sined by Pr AFcKinley. No decree q sj wb pud d ' Ottitiiil
C4azette.'
" Ufl rlns btn t 2 govts wi nw b promtly mud. Ix rmrd 5 ^lir to t I'ni
Stas wb Snor. Don J. lirunetti, Duke d'Arcos, fmr Spnh Mir to Mex, wos
wif is an Amn.'
When this seemingly incomprehensible conglomeration of letters leaves
the hand of the receiving operator it reads as follows : —
'• Madrid, March 17 — The Queen Kegent has signed the Treaty of Peace
between Spain and the United States. The treaty will be forwarded to tin-
French Ambassador, Jules Cambon, at Washington, for exchange with tln'
one signed by President McKinley. No decree on the subject will be pub-
lished in the ' Official Gazette.'
'• Official relations between the two governments will now be prom])tly
renewed. It is rumored that the Minister to the United States will be Senor
Don J. lirunetti, Duke d'Arcos, former Spanish Minister to Mexico, whose
wife is an American."
The London "Times" recently has been experimenting with a scheme
whereby reporters in the Houses of Parliament operate the typesettiiii;
machines in the London office by the wire from their quarters in Parliament.
It is only a question of time when this practice comes into use in the
reporting of all legislative proceedings.
In some of the New York newspaper offices, the receiving operator sits w^
a typesetting machine and puts into type the messages which come over tin
wires.
How rapidly we have advanced in this direction in the last half of tlif
nineteenth century is thus shown. What will be done by our successors ii
the first half of the twentieth century, no man can at this time satisfactorilx
predict.
IV. TVPE-MAKIN'O, STEREOTYPING, PICTUKK-MAKIXO.
The manufacture of the small metal pieces called type has undergone littl
change in this nineteenth century. That which has been done has been i-
the way of producing artistic designs, so ari-anged that combinations can b-
formed i)leasing to the eye, and an aid to rapid worknumship. The machinev
THE ART PRESERVATIVE
507
letters leaves
in use has lost its crudity, the productiou has been increaspil, and the finish
hcronie more jierfect. Tlie setting of tyi)e by machinery li!i< ''ecu a serious
blow to this industry, and the time will come when it will be devoted entirely
to the making of job or fancy types.
Henjamin Franklin attenjpted to make metal type in this country, but he
(lid not succeed. It was not until 17% that type-making was commenced
here.
As in many other departures in the printing business, the city of Phila-
delphia took the lead. Binney and Uonaldson, of Edinburgh, Scotland, estab-
lished the first foundry in this eountr}', operating it in riiiladelphia. After a
tievere struggle and with some aid from the State, a business was established
by the two Scotchmen, which afterwards became known as the .lohnson
Foundry, under AlacKellar, Smiths & Jordan, which is still in existence.
They were followed by David liruce, also a Scotchman, and by 1813 foun-
dries had been established in New York and other large cities.
Since that time improvements have been introduced, but nothing has come
forth which deserves to be ranked with the print i;ig-j)ress or the typesetting
machine.
The type founder will tell you how much better are the machines used in
ISlll) than those which produced type in 1850. Hut he cantiot point out any
device connected with it which the mechanical world can designate as mar-
velous, or the people at large regard as a wonderfid invention. Type once
was rubbed into smoothness by boys. Now it is done automatically on th«
machine. By the hand process about four hundred types an hour were cast ;
by the present mechanism a speed of six thousand an hour has been acquired.
I' ntil about 1875, this output hardly met the demand ; now it will do so.
Before many years it will be far iu excess of the recpiirements.
Stereotyping is the art of making plates cast in one piece of type metal
from the surface of one or more pages of type. In the beginning of the
nineteenth century, stereotyping was used to an exceedingly limited extent.
The printers were prejudiced against it for reasons purely selfish. It was
not until 1813 that it was introduced into the United States, and only a few
years previously Lord Stanhope introduced it into the English printing busi-
ness. " The Larger Catechism of the Westminster Assemblj' " professes on
its title-page to have been the first work stereotyijed in America. It bears
the date of June, 1813. Now the process is in general use — plaster, clay,
aiul papier m^ch^ being used.
The process of stereotyping originally was to preserve the pages, so that
an entire edition of a work could be finished without requiring large numbers
of type, and to have it ready for future editions. For newspaper work it
came into vogue to save the rapid wearing out of the type by the impressions
made.
From the practical introduction of stereotyping in this country, in 1813,
by Robert Bruce, until about 185<), the slow, tedious, and troublesome pro-
cess of making the plates by plaster of Paris was in vogue. That was done
by the plaster being poured over the face of the tyi)e. Molten lead was then
run into the cast, after which the plate was finished. The time thus occu-
pied caused the work to be confined to books, magazines, and weekly issues
j,1 Tin
508
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE -Y/A'"' CESTURY
of small journals. When the plate was taken from the oast it was rou{,'li,
imperfect, and unlit for use. Men, whose specialty was finishing, were em-
ployed to make the plate so as to meet the re(iuirenients of the printin;,'
press.
It was just at the opening of the last half of the nineteenth century that
papier nnlch^ began to be used in thlr, country. A few years before that
time it had been brcmght into use in London and I'aris. Its introduction
into the (J nited States found the printing trade ready and willing to acceiit
it, and but a few years passed before it came into general use by the news-
papers. It is a i)e('uliar combination. The paper matrix is formed by paste
of starch, Hour, alum, and water. This is spread over a thick paper, on
which are ))laced layers of tine tissue jiaper. When ready for use, it is placed
on the face of the type and a deep impression secured by being passed
through a i)ress. Then it goes into a steam chest to be dried, from there it
is passed into the casting machine, the molten metal poured in. and a few
miiuites thereafter the plate is ready for the press. LTp to a few years ago,
the impression on papier niache was secured by being beaten witli bruslies
jtrepared for that use. The method had two disadvantages, — consumption
of time anil destruction of ty|>e. The press now used obviates these defects.
The old way took about twenty mimites to produce a plate. Now it is done
in from five to seven minutes. 'I'he machinery here intnjduced has been of
benefit to the trade, but none of it ranks among the great inventions of the
century.
The making of electrotype i)lates had its origin early in the century, when
it was found that stereoty])e plates had a limit as to durability. Klectro-
plating suggested to .Tosiah Adams, in 1839, the idea of a copper surface for
the sterefjtyjie plate. It took ten years to bring it into practical use. Ifis
first successful work in this line was on the engravings and borders for a
Bible issued in New York. It was found to be particularly' adapted to en-
gravings, i)roducing a surface of sufficient smoothness to allow the pressman
to make a print of e.\(piisite fineness. The improvements introduced tended
only toward the saving of time and the e.xcellence of finish. Practically the
same ])rocess is used now that was employed half a century ago. An impres-
sion of the type is made on wax, the electric current is secured by a deposit
of tine graphite, the mold is placed in a bath containing a solution of sul-
phate of copper and is made part of the electric circuit, in which also is
introduced a zinc element in a sulphuric acid solution. The current dejwsits
a film of copper on the graphite surface of the mold. When it has assumed
a sulHcient thickness, it is taken from the bath, the wax is removed, and the
copper shell trimmed. It is then backed with an alloy of type metal. The
finishing process brings the plate to the proper thickness, after which it is
blocked to the height reipiired for printing. That is the pi-ocess. To it in
the last ten years there has been applied the use of steam machinery. In the
old days the making of electrotypes required from ten to fifteen hours. They
now are produced in from two to three hours.
The close of the nineteenth century witnesses the disaopearance entirely
from the printing establishment of the once generally used wood engraving.
The rise and fall of this once sidendid art is practically encompassed in
TURY
THE ART PRESERVATIVE
660
it was rougli,
ling, were em-
: the priiuiui,'
1 century that
i-s before that
I introductidii
ling to aeei'ipl.
•■ hy the news-
•niPil by paste
iuk paper, dii
!e, it is phiced
being jjassed
from tliere it
in. and a tew
nv years ago,
with brushes
-eonsnuiption
tliese delects,
low it is done
d has been of
ntions of the
entury, when
ity. Eleetro-
r surface for
!al use. His
l)or(lers for a
apted to en-
;he pressman
need tended
■actically the
An impres-
by a deposit
ution of sul-
liich also is
ent deposits
las assumed
ved, and the
metal. The
wliioh it is
ss. To it in
ler}-. In the
ours. They
nee entirely
I engraving.
)mpassed in
the period of time covered by the nineteenth century. Thomas Bewick, an
lliigiishman, gave wood engraving an artistic impetus by the production of
iUustrations for his " Histories of Urilish Quadrupeds," wliieh appeared
about 17'J(>. Up to that period the work was cnide. The books an(l maga-
zines of the first decade of the century were illustrated in a way then re-
garded as highly artistic. Tiie application of the Bewick method brought
fortli work which ranked in the line of high art. Of the development of this
work volumes could be written. To simplify the situation it is only neces-
sary to recall how these pictures were made. Sipiares of boxwood were used,
on the face of which was spread a preparation of water-color Chinese wliite.
On this suri'ac(! tlie artist drew his picture, and then tlie engraver's art was
brought into recpiisition — the engraving being done alongside the pencil
lines.
.Villi here it was that the artistic instinct of the handler of the "graver"
a|)|ieareil, — the delicacy of touch being shown in the shading and in the
tiiiish of the lines. By tliis method there liave been produced rare works of
art. as can be seen by an examination of the books printed in the first half
of the century.
The timt; taken in the making of the engravings, liowever, prevented the
]Kissibility of their being used by the newspapers and magazines as generally
as was desired. This want wa.s in a measure met by the introduction of
machine •' grooving.*' The cuts, however, could iiot be used to jirint from
directly in conseipience of the warping ot the bo.\wood, and it was neces-
sary in every instance to make stereotyjjc or electrotype jilates. Then, too,
came the realization of the fact that the reproduction of portraits needed
something which would preserve features and exnression. In those days
some of the pictures produced were ludicrous in the extreme, and it became
a standing joke in the newsjiapers that the best way to cast ridicule upon a
]iublic man was to print liis picture. In the work of reproducing scenes the
nkill of the artist and the engraver frerpiently brought forth results which
were marvels of excellence. For a number of years the wood engraving
business flourished in this particular line, despite the dissatisfaction existing
in regard to portrait work. In the production of illustrations for fine books,
])rinted on good ])aper with flat presses and properly •'under-" or '"overlaid,"
there was attained a degree of perfection in li.ies and shading which raised
the pictures almost to the rank of steel and c ipiierplate engravings. Many
of those engaged in the work of drawing anc cutting were possessed of a
skill which would have won for them distinction in other artistic lines.
This, i)racticaily. was the condition of the profession when the end of the
first half of the niiieteentli century had been reached. Even then, however,
tlie question of a substitute was under severe consideration in scientific as
"well as artistic circles. Experiments were made with copper, acids, and zinc,
but satisfactory results could not be obtained. It was not until 1860 that a
successful s\d)stitute was jiroduo-d. Gillot, a Frenchman, brought forth a
Bystem of etehiii','. By this means a jihotograph from an artist's drawing
was jilaced above a plate of gelatine, chemically sensitized. The parts of the
jielatine exposed to the light became hard, and the remainder was brushed
away with warm water. From this an electrotype could be made directly.
That process has given way to the present system of photographing on ziuc,
i
f
570
TRIUMPHS AND WONDEliS OF THE A'/A'"' CENTUHY
Olid tlie iise of aciil hatha Ibr ctcliiiii,'. (Ulicr impiovenii'tits — principiilh
till' iisy i)f tlio scrtMMi — have rosiilti'd in the iinMhictioii of half-tones \\\tv \\
are hiyhly satisfai^tory in newspaper work. \\y this means there can be jim
(liieod such reproductions as give the features of jiersons so that rocognitinn
is as easy as in the case of ithotographs. With the aid of different si/es nl
soreons. haekgrounds are secured which add materially ty the artistic excel
lence of the pictures. So well done is the work in tliis direction that tlic
plates can he used on the curved cylinders of the huge octuple presses, ami
enormous editions are printed from them. The peculiarity of this process is
that the original can ho reduced or enlarged so as to suit any width of col-
umn or page without affecting one way or the other the fineness of the work
I'en and ink drawings made hy artists are photograjihed and liackgroundecl
with the utmost accuracy as to design and detail. It has been found, however,
that scenes in half-tones do not give as much satisfaction as do portraits, and
it is believed to be only a fpiestion of time wlien there is a return to line
engravings so far as the newspapers are concerned.
When one compares the photographic rej)roductions wliich appear in tin'
magazines and newsj)apers of to-daj' with those of even ten years ago, there
is seen an advancement which tells a wonderful story of the rapid march ot
artistic taste. The outline pictvirc — excellent of its kind — lias the apjiear-
anco of crudity almost grotesque when placed beside the life-like lialf-toiic
reproduction of photographic art.
Wood engraving has been relegated to the days of the hand-press, the
mail news-carrier and the plaster of I'aris jirocess of stereotyiiing. Inventive
genius not only has advanced for the printing ]>ress and its adjuncts ; it has
also laid a heavy hand on art, causing it to jiause and consider how soon the
pencil and the brusli will be superseded entirely by the rhythmic motion of
the machine.
Thomas J. Linuskv.
rrURY
- principulli
If-tonos wlii' ii
ri' fan bo inn
lilt rocugiiitioii
IVreiit «izfs tit
artisti(i excel
ftion tliat tlic
(' prossps, ami
his pnict'ss is
width of col-
s of tlu' work.
l>a('ki,'roniidc(|
niml, liowt'vcr.
portraits, ami
return to lini'
appear in tiie
'ars ago, tiiere
apid niardi ol
as the ai)i>ear
■like lialf-tone
and-press, tiie
lit,'. Inventive
junets ; it has
• how soon tlie
niic motion of
J. LiNUSEY.
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN MINES AND MINING
WiiKX we coiisiiler iiow hugely tiie disitovery and exploration of America
was due to the seareh for mines, tliat the j»reeious metals nii^lit lie found
to repienish the depleted treasuries of Kuropean moiiarehs ; and when we
note that, as a result of this seareli, tiie world's annual production .d' gcdd
and silver had increased in the three hundred years following,' the discoverv
Irom 8-".,r»(>S.00(». ill ir.(M>. to .«i4.S,<".>r>.(MM» at the iie^'inniii^ of the niiiet it'll
century, we view with surprise the little progress made duriiij; this period in
the art of luiniii),'.
At the l)pf,'inniiis? of the present century, we find in use the same gen-
eral methods that *vere fidhiwed in the time of Colunibus. The very first
operation — the search for veins — was oftentimes conducted after the man-
ner of the Middle Ages; for in I'ryce's " Miueralogia Cornubiensis," which
seems to have been one of the leading works on mining of the last cen-
tury, there occurs, among other methods, a lengthy treatise on '•Ilov,- to
Discover .Mines by the Sole Virtue of the Hazel-tree." I'owder, although
it had Ijeeu invented for centuries, had been so little emjdoyed in mining
that it was considered merely as a last resort. In a description of milling
methods, another work says : " The soft vein is generally dug with the
spade and turned out into wooden trays ; but the hard veins are knocked
out with a gad and a hammer. If the ore is so hard as to be incapable
of breaking it in this manner, they usually soften it with fire, lint a still
more expeditious method is the working with gunpowder. A small qituntitif
of'jiiiirdf)' does >/reat fhlnt/s this inif/."
In iStK) the coal miner wiis working by the naked light of the tallow dip.
Cast-iron rails had been introduced but a few years, and rails of wrought
iron, which could be bent to follow the curves of the drifts, were unheard
of. The cars were pushed along the levels by lioys. Water power, where
it could be obtained and applied by means of the overshot wheel, was in
general use for pumping, hoisting, and ventilating. Hut from many a mine
the ore was raised by women, who pulled the bucket up ''by walking away
with the end of the rope " which passed from them over a sheave and
thence down the shaft. In places the ore was still carried up the steep
inclines to the surface on the backs of women and girls. Ventilation, when
not secured by natural means, was obtained by bellows operated by men or
mechanically. A mine which had been worked to a de[)th of one thousand
feet was extraordinary. Though steam ])ower, applied in the form of what
was known as the atmosplieric engine, a device utilizing for suction the
vacuum formed by the condensation of steam in a chamber, had been used
for years in draining mines, the steam engine, as invented by AVatt, had been
introduced for hoisting in only a few places. The powei was applied to turn
a long crank arm, which rotated the drum.
572
run'MPiis AM) noyitjiiis or the a7A"' ckstuhy
%
1.
■i
At tilt' iM'Kiiiiiiii),' (if till' I't'iitiiry tlu' niiiH's ol' (Joriiwiill, wliicli woro tin-
grt'iitost prodiKHMs ill (irt-at hiitain, were tiuiiiiin out ahuiit ."■•,( KMI,(M)(» pouiiils
of till and 10,(IIHl,(i(M) |i(iiiiii|s of cdiiiicr ii yrar, wiiilc tiif wliolo I'liitutl Kiii^'-
(loiii was funiiHiiiiiK only 170,0(11) tons of iron. Sontli Anu'iica, was tiic
Ki'i'iiti'st pntducor of j,'old and Hilvcr, wondcrfnllv licii minus of tlu) latter
liavinj; lireii found in Peru and Cliilc Ihiinliolilt jilaecs tlic production of
the wliolf South Anicrican continunt for llic year liSOO at (ilU^Olio pounds of
silver and itUOO pounds of noltl.
Till) United States at that time had iivactically no niininj,' within its hor-
ders. Sonic small inincs of iron, lead, and copper, whicli had been oponed to
supply the deimiiids created by the J{evolution, were producing' spjismodi-
oally ; but oven as lato as IKL'l, William Keating, in an address before the
American I'hilosophical Society, saiil. '• I'lion the whole W(! think we may
be warranted in saying that there are as yet no mines in activity in the
United States. (\)al, in most places, is taken from the surface. (.'• du^ from
the foot of a hill. '\'\w lead miiu'.s of .Missouri are rich and abundant, but.
the mining is a mere pilferinjj of the richest spots."
In ISOl the Coniisli piiinping system was introdiKV'd. A long rod. extend-
ing from the surface t(» the bottom of the shaft, ofKirates simultaneously a
series of pumps placed, one above the otlu'r, at intervals of about two hiiii-
dred and tifty feet. The lowest one lifts the water from the pumii and
dtdivers it into a tank from which the next one draws its sup[)ly, and this in
turn forces it ujt to a higher tank. With this improved means of drainage
mines began to be sunk deeper, a de, u. of three thousand feet having been
readied with this method of pumping. The manufacture of iron immps.
which had begun to replace wooden ones toward the end of the eighteenth
century, decreased tlu^ amount of rcpjiirs necessary on the ])umps, and aided
in making possil)le better arrangement of underground work.
It was at about this time, the beginning of the present century, that the
method of opening ground by shafts, levels, and raises, which we refer to as
" blocking out ore," began to be more genenilly adopted, displacing the
former mode of following down the ore by a series of irregular, isolated ex-
cavations. With it came overhead stojiing, in which, after the shaft has
been sunk, the level driven and timber«'d, and a raise made, the miner begins
breaking down the ore from ovf r his head, allowing it to run down into
chutes. From these it is drawn out into cars' jnislied along the tracks in the
level. The waste i,s allowed to accumulate on top of the stalls, or timbers,
forming the top of the level above referred to. and serves as a platform upon
wliieh the mint;r stainls in breaking down more ore.
The invention of the safety lamp, in ]<S1,"), is jirobably the most important
event of the early part of the century. I'revious to this the miners fired the
gas in the •' rooms "" with their eaiulles, which were raised tttward the roof
with the aid of a long pole, the miners lying flat on the floor of the level to
escape the blaze, and sometimes putting on wet jackets to avoid being scorched.
As first invented by Davy, the safety lamii consisted merely of a cylinder of
wire gauze surrounding the flame, much as the flame is surrounded by a glass
globe in the modern lantern, excejit that tlie diameter of the cylinder did not
exceed two inches. This was based iqion the theory that the gas set f)n fire
by the light would burn inside the gauze without jieating it hot enough to
UU Y
TIIF VESrURY'S mouliKaS IN MINKS .LV/> MlSfS't; 573
ell wore till'
MMMI poiiiid-,
'iiited KiiiK'-
iiM was till'
if tiio liitti'r
'(i(Iii('tiiiii til
it pouiuls ol
hill its lior-
11 OpOIH'cl U)
K siiasinodi-
* Ix't'ort' tluf
ink we may
ivity ill tlio
I." (Ill},' I'ntiii
luiidaiit, hut
rod. cxteiid-
taiii'oiLsly a
it two luia-
I piiiiip and
and this in
of dniina},'(>
laving hcpii
roll pumps.
! t'iKhtecnth
S and aided
ry. that tlio
! refer to as
plaeini;; the
isolated ex-
' sliaft lias
liner begins
down into
'.aeks in the
or timbers,
tforni upon
t important
rs tired tlic
I'd the roof
the level to
ff seorclied.
cylinder of
I by a glass
tier did not
set on fire
enough to
i),'iiite the gas (mtside. The priiiriple was correet, and the lamp worked .salis-
liii'tiirily when euiTfully used under proper conditions. It was mmhi touiid,
iiuwever, that in a strong air eiirient, or if swiiii}; at a more rapid >| I tliaii
^i.\ teei per sei mid in an evplosive mixture, the surrounding ga> would b^
i).'nited. As a man walking naturally on the Mirface moves at n rate of
liclween five and six feet per seeond, it will be easily seen that evrn wi re
I lie speed eonsiderably dimini.shi'd iindrigiduiid, — and any one who has tried
Id loliowa mine Itu'i'inai' through mine workings knows the 8|H>ed shiokening
is slight, — a very slight swing of the arm would bring the rate of movement
of the lanlern up to tht; danger jioint. Another and a very unexperted factor
in ciiusing explosions with the new lani]i also developed ; mid tiiat was the
great carelessness of the men who useil it. Armed with this device, and
deluded by the ipiietly buruiiig Hame, the miner would scat himself upon a
eiXKINO. DIIIKTINO, AND sroiMNtI WITH TIIK IXIiKllSOLL-SliKliEANT UKII.LS.
pile of coal, draw forth his pipe and fill it, and deliberately open the gauze to
light it. As a eonseipienee, for a time- after the introduction of the safety-
lamp, the number of accidents from exi)losions increased. This latter diffi-
culty, the recklessness of the miners, was presentlj- overcome by having the
lamjis locked, and by depriving the men of all matches before admitting
them to the mine. An improved laiiii>, introduced by Clanny, wherein the
lower part of the cylinder was rejilaced by glass, psirtially jirotected the
flame from strong air currents, and also gave a better light. Later. Miiseler
added an interior sheet iron chimney, which divides the air current so that
the hot air does not strike directly against the gauze, and the lamp as thus
improved is very largely used, especially in Europe.
In 18.')1 the safety fuse was invented, a train of powder having l)een used
before this for tiring the charges. The same year a ])atent was granted to
IMoses Shaw of New York for an electrical device to fire several cliarges
at once. It was at about this time, too, that the jnan-engine was invented in
Germany. Some miner, noticing the slow and steady up and down nio^-'u of
U t
574
TRIUMPHS AXD WOXDEKS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
the long rods which oi)erattMl the |>umi>s in the Cornisli system, had conceived
the idea of nailing stej»s on to thein at intervals, and riding up and down.
As mines grew deeper and the time and laljor reijuired for the men to get
down to their Avork increased, a sjieeial engine, utilizing an improvement ol
tliis device, was emjdoyed for raising and lowering men. This " man-engine "
consisted of two parallel beams, moving slowly up and down the shaft witii
a reciprocating nuition, the length of the stroke being about twelve feet.
Upon these beams small platforms »vere naih'd at distances efpial to the
length of the stroke. The miner wi.shing to descend stepped upon the top
platform of one beam as it started on its down stroke. At the end of this
stroke he found himself twelve feet down tin- shaft, on a level with tiic
sec()n<l jdatfoi'm of the other U'am. which liad in the mi'an time been coming
uji, and he stepped across on to this, which now began its down stroke. Thus
by constantly stepping from one rod to the other at the comi)letiou of each
I ; i' I ■:
! i:
:' :;
l!i
|u|4
-~/9%t_^
[±
' ■'
#»
^^^E^Z! "^B^^^BH^^^D^^^^I^^^H
IN(iF.USOI.I,-SKIlGE.\XT OUPLKX STEAM -AtTUATED AIK COMrRKiSSOn.
down stroke, he was conveyed to the bottom. My reversing the process he
was raised to the surface.
In general, mining progress was slow up to the middle of the century.
The production of the baser metals, here and abroad, increased gradually
with the demands of the mechanic arts, but it wa.s not until the middle of
the century that this factor, joined with the improved methods of transporta-
tion, and of metallurgy, gave to mining that imj^etus which, though through
alternate recurring waves of prosjierity and stagnati<in, carried it forward
until the ann\ial expenditure for technical skill, machinery, and supjdies used
in the industry is estimated tonlay at one thousand million dollars.
The first mining excitement in the United States occ\irred in 1829, fol-
lowing the discovery of gold in the J^uth : but these fields soon declined in
imjjortance without resulting in any improvements to mining methods and
machinery.
The next mining fever resulted from the inauguration of work upon the
co[)per properties at Keweenaw Point, Mich., in 1845. This caused the first
'URY
ad conceived
) and down.
men to get,
I'ovement of
iiiin-engine "
• ' shaft witli
twelve feet.
lual to the
ijHjn tlie top
end of tlii.s
•el with the
been coming
troke. 'rini.s
rion of each
THE CEXrURrs PROGRESS IN MINES AND MINING
OIO
'on.
> process he
he century,
d gradually
le middle of
transportcV
igh through
it forward
il>I)lies used
1 1829, fol-
declined in
lethods and
k upon the
ed the first
laining-stof'k speculation in tliis country, and it is interesting to note that
the century closes with a repetition of this same fever, founded upon almost
the same ground. Yet the conditions havi; clianged wonderfully. Upon the
tl.cn barren j»enius\da. whitened with the tents of siieculators and geologists,
iiiis grown up a multitude of towns. fille<l with tlumsands of people whose
lalitirs are jxTtbrmed at a dej)th of nearly a mile luider ground. Tlio\isunds
iiii.re transitort the ore to the mills, separate the coi)per from the rock, iuid
cut timber for the mines ; while yet other thousands prepare food and cloth-
ing and shelter for all these. During 18<JS, the copper mines about [.ake
Superior produced nearly 1GO,OUO,OOU pounds of copper, and paid in divi-
dends StUlMMMMt.
r
THE SE!t(iE.\NT ROCK UUILL.
This district is the only one in the United States where the man-engine
lias l)een used ; but .is the shafts were sunk deeper and deeper, it was fouiul
that even this method was not sutticiently rapid, and the men are now low-
ered into the mines by cages or skijts. A " cage " is simply the miners'
nanu' for tlie ordinary elevator when used underground, and has developed
trom the bucket in use at the beginning of the century. A "skip" is a car
fsjiecially designed for use on an incline. The ro.idway upon which the skip
runs is so planned, it the top of the shaft, that the rear wheels run upon a
track raised al)ove the one over which the front wheels pass, so that the rear
^nd is elevated and the skij) is duni])ed autoiniitically. At the De Beers
diamond mines in South .\frica are two of these skips which hold nearly five
tons of rock eacli. At the bottom of the shaft are chutes containing the
576
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
rock, and when the skip is in jiosition a man jmlls a lever, allowing the oie
to rnn into it. Another pull closes the chute, a buttmi is touched which
rings a hell in the engine-room, and the skip starts up the shaft. At the tup
it dumps itself and returns to he tilled again. In the mean tinnj tlie otlu'i-
skip has been liUed and is going up while the Hrst is coming down. Willi
these two skips, making ninety-two trips an hour, ftver four thousand tons of
rock have been hoisted in less than twelve hours, from a th^ith of 12;")0 feet.
To hiindle these enormous (juantitic.'S t/emendous hoisting engines arc
used. At tlie Calumet and Hecla mines is a pair of quadruple expansion
engines which will lift cagrs. carrying six tons of ore. a mile in a minute and
a half. The ".Modoc" hoist, built for the Anaconda Mining Company of
Jbitte, Montana, is the largest hoist in the world. It is a double comi)ouuil
beam engine, and is designed to be used in sinking to a depth of GUOO feet.
IN(ii;USOI,l,Si;U(JE.\NT STKAM DlilVKX AIU COMIMIKSSOK.
This nmchine weighs four hundred tons, and has seven separate subordinate
engines for use in oi)erating it. Think of it ! An engine so ponderous that
smaller engines are necessary to apply the clutches that set the reels in
motion; other engines set the brakes, and another reverses the action, if
neeil be. All these art; controlled by levers o])erated from the engineer's
platform, the "runner" having one foot and seven hand levers to handle.
JJesides these there are two indicator discs, directly in front, recpiiring ct)n-
stant attention, for these .-<]iow the exact i)osition of the cage in the shaft.
Yet such wonderful skill have the runners in the control of these veritable
flving nnichines that they instantly interpret the complicated signals, and
drop the cage with such exactness that the car of ore is run from the track
in the level to the track on the cage, almost witliout a jar.
Nor is the lioist the only large maciiine necessary in the e(pii]»ment of the
modern mining plant, for in sinking to great deptiis vast quantities of water
luive to b;' removed. TheCliapin Mining Company, at Iron Mountain, Mich.,
have one of the largest ])uniping engiiu'S in the work]. This engine is located
^
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)
-
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7,
J-f
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^ -***" "ft ,
r'
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87
678
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY
on the surface, driving the pumps after the Cornish style, tliougli it \vo\ilii ln'
difficult to see much of the jiunip of 1801 in this nuiguiticcnt machine. \\ itli
a ten-foot stroke it conveys the power to the pumps tlirough a walking luaiu
weigiiing a hundred tons. In an hour it will raise nearly ;i()(),O0(l gallons m
water from a depth of a ipuirter of a mile.
Imagine the miner of ItSOO '•softening by tire"' sufficient ore to supply a
modern hoist. For the mines whicli now turn out L'OOO t(jns a day can h\ no
means he counted on one's fingers, and IJOOO tons means more 'than a fimt
deep over a whole city block. JJefore the middle of the centiiry the use nf
powder and drill had lai'gely increased, and in lS4o an attempt was miide
to aid the man behind the drill with a machine which swiing a hammer hv
steam power. In ISOo a machine was invented using compressed air in a
cylinder, and this was gradually improved until it became a success in ISCl.
in the MontCenis tunnel. As finally euiph)yed. the power drill is practic;il!y
a small engine, the drill being attached to tlie piston rod and moved rajjidly
IX<iKUSOI.I.-SKU(!KANT STIlAItUIT LINK AIIl COMrUKSSOtt.
f ii:
back and forth by compressed air or steam. The machine has three func-
tions : to strike the blow, turn the drill, and advance it, as the hole is driven
deeper and deeper.
Soon after the machine drill became a success dynamite was invented, ami
these two liave been the greatest factors in bringing about that rapid develop-
ment and ])roduction wliich is the most pronounced attribute of modern min-
ing. Dynamite alone has doubled the amount of ore which can be extractcil
from a face in a given time. Le Neve Foster, in his work on mining, givt--
the rate of advance in driving a tunnel by fire settin',' at two fathoms pir
uiontli. Compar" with this the Niagara Falls tunnel, driven with pitwer
drills and high explosives. .'UL* feet in four weeks.
It is i>robably to the power drill mere than to anything else that we avr
indebted for the development ot' t!ie lir compressor; the exhaust from •
steam drill and tlie heat emitted irom tin; jiipes being very disagreeali!'
under ground. As early as ISOO a AVelsii engineer liad attempted to run ■•
blast by means of a water power a mile an<l a half distant, l>ut it was ni '
until 1cS(m that machines were opcratt <1 to any extent by (•(imi)ressed ai
The great ilifficulty had been the loss of efficiency, owing to tlie clearan(
spaces and the heating of the air. In driving the Mont Cenis tunnel I'l:
THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN MINES AND MINING 579
in ]ier cent of the jiower developed was available, and up to 18M» the etti-
cieney was extremely low ; but to-day as high as 80 per cent is obtained.
The air compressor is simply a force pumj) with ingenious devices to over-
come the loss of energy. For ordinary use the air is comi)ressed to a pressure
nf from ()0 to SO pounds per square inch. This is done in a single cylinder
for low jiressures, but for high pressures two cylinders are used. From tlie
compressor the air is condu(!ted to a reservoir, from which it is piped to the
iiiaciiine which it is to run.
( )ne uf the advantages of air-driven machines under ground is tliat the
exhaust furnislies fresh air to the miners and cools the atmosiihere. The
refiult has been that in metal mines, where there are no noxious gases
escaping from the ground, the exhaust from tlie air-drills', together with the
natural air currents, has supplied sufficient ventilation. In the coal mines,
iidwever. it has been necessary to employ other means. After it was found
ISOEUSOLL-SERGEANT DUPLEX STEAM-DmVEN AIR COMrKESSOU.
that, even with the safety-lamp, gas would be exploded if a large amount of
It had ai^cumulated. more attention was paid to ventilation. Levels and
shafts were divided to produce a natural current; the size of the drifts was
carefully figured in order to regulate it; doors were put in to compel it to
follow the faces ; devices were adopted to sjdit it. a part going to one room,
tlie remainder to a second; and boxes were built to carry one current across
another. Early in the century hand fans run by a wheel and pinion had
lieen emploj'ed for farcing the air down the shaft, but it was soon found that
the circuit* ..iou produced in this way was inferior to the result of eduction.
Large lurnaces were then constructed at the bottom of the ujicast shafts, in
order to cause a strong upward current. Again, huge air iminps. run by
nuiehinery, were tried for exhausting the air. l!y 1S.")(I exiiaust fans were
coming into use. and these, occasionally replaced by blowers, also used for
exhausting, are now generally employed. The Ciuibal, which has been tlie
most prominent of the fans, has been made as large as forty-six feet in
diameter. The Capell, which is an improved form of the Guibal, has six
580
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
curved veins, or blades, and is made from eiglit feet to fifteen feet in diame-
ter. It is driven (juite rai)idly, making from one hundred and eighty to thi-c
Imndred revohitions, and iiaving a capacity of from one hundred thon^illlll
to three hundred thousand cubit feet of air, i)er minute. The result of tliis
thorough ventilation is that the gas is removed from tlie mine almo>t ;is
rajudly as it enters, and often tiie safety-lamjt is no longer needed by the
common miner. Nevertheless, it has by no means become useless, since
as all indicator of tiie presence of gas it is invaluable. Tlie acticm of tlie
different lamps in the presence of gas varies, bnt in general the size nf
the tianie increases in direct projjortion to the increase in the anu)unt nf
gas mixed with the air. Each morning, before the men go to work, tlie
tire boss takes his safety-lamp and makes the round of the mine. When lie
goes into a room he watches the Hanie. and if it burns ujt to the jioint wliieli
indicates that it would not be safe to enter with a naked light, he makes
a mark on the wall which serves as a danger line beyond which the men da
not go.
Another nKicliine. which, like the fan. has been developed by the demamls
of the coal mines, is the coal-cutting machine. I'robably the lot of no mini
was as hanl as that of the coal-digger at tlie beginning of the century. After
he had performed the dangerous task of exploding the accunuilated gases.
lie was often forced to work all day. lying in tlie most constrained attitudi-.
Ajiplied in this nuinner. his power was largely wasted, and nuich useless dust
and small coal was ])rodnced. Tlie first effort at relief was a machine which
imitated the miner, striking a blow with a jiick worked by a lever, and mak-
ing as high as seventy blows a minute. These have been generally replaced
by quite another type of machine, one which dejtends on the action of either
a rotary bar. a rotary wheel, or a chain cutter. These machines are ojieratcd
by either air or electricity. The .Jeffrey rotary bar cutter will undercut a
block of coal tliirty-nine inches by titty-four inches in si.x minutes. The
chain-cutter is an endless chain carrying cutting knives and traveling hori-
zontally. It is claimed that these macliines will effect a saving of about ten
cents ,1 ton in the cost of mining.
"When in 184cS the finding of gold in California was reported, tVdlowed in
]S">1 by the discovery of tlie Australian fields, large numbers of men were
attracted to the ]ilacer mines, who later, as tlie jilacers became exhan^;te(l.
turned their attention to vein mining. Nor did hydraulic mining itself fail
to progress. AViien the jilacers were first discovered, the miner, standing in
the shallow stream, washed the gravel, a jtaufnl at a time, and secured from
fifteen to twenty-five dollars a day. As the jilacers Ix^came poorer he built
sluices, and. shoveling in his gravel, turned tlie stream in to wash off the
light rock, while the iieavy gold was caught in the interstices between tie
blocks with which he had paved the bottom. If the ground became clayey,
he brought part of tlie water through a hose and used it to break up tin
lumps in iiis sluice box. Then as he gradually removed tiie gravel and tli-
banks about him liecame higher, he turned Ids hose toward the bank aic:
brought more water from a higher level, until, to (piote Howie, "a forty-ind.
wrought-iron pijie lias been substituted for canvas hose and a stovepipe, ain
an inch stream rejilaced by a river of water disdiarged through a nine-iiic
nozzle under a four-hnndred-foot pressure."' Hy this means, at North Hlooin
rUHY
eet in diaiue-
jlity to tliree
eil tlujiisjiiid
•esiilt of this
u' iilniost as
t'tlt'd bv tlip
seloss, since
U'tinii of the
tlu' si/[' of
' amount of
work, till'
When lie
jioint whicli
t. lie niaki's
the men do
he demands
)t of no man
tnry. Aft.r
lated feast's.
ed attitude,
useless dust
•hine wliieli
r. and niak-
Uy replaced
on of either
ire o|ie rated
undercut a
nites. The
velinjj iiori-
f about ten
followed in
f tnen were
exhauf;teil.
g itself fail
standin,!,' in
eured from
•er he built
ish off the
etween tin
ime <daye\ ,
'ak u|i till
k'el and tic
bank auo
forty-incl!
■e]ii|»e. an<
1 nine-iuel
rtli Bloom
582
Tin UM PUS AXD WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
ili^
I' if
field, C'iil., nearly a luillioii yards of gravel, coiitaiiiinij but two and nine
tenths cents per etiljic yard, was moved in a single season, and at a ])rofif.
As the nks became jiooier. the miners turned their attention to tiie ri\cr
beds. In Now Zealand, in the earl}- days, they worked the banks as iur
down into the river as they (!onld reach with a spoon dredge. Then a dre(iv;e
was made resend)]ing a ladder of buckets, continiuilly revolving, and (i|m r.
ated by wheels driven by the cuirent. When the river got low the curnni
became too weak, and a steam engine was sid)stituted. Then a rev(jlviii,'
screen was put on to separate the large rocks from the tine sand, and gradu-
ally the modern dipjier dredge has been evolved, with its pumps, scrcm,
distril)ut(us. and tables and sluices, haniUing L'OOO yards of gravel a day ;it
a cost of three cents a yard.
In l.S.'ii) the Cnni.-tock lode in Nevada was discovered, and it is to this dis-
trict that we owe the "sipiare set" nn^thod of tiudiering. so largeh' in vogue
in wide veins to-day. Some of the *' bonaniias," that is. pockets of rich >m\
were of enormous size. For cxamiile. one found in the " (iould and Curry "
was 4(H> feet long, ISO feet wide, and KJO feet deei». As the walls were not
sntHcient'.y solid to stand unsupported, and a singl, Mick of timber was ton
short to reach across, splicing was tried. It was soon fouiul that this weak-
ened the tiud)er too nnich, and the method of scpiare "setting" was invented.
This consists in framing tind)ers together in rectangular sets, having a S(piiire
base of four ])ieces, usually six feet long, ])laced horizontally as sills. lulu
these are framed posts, surnuiunted by a cap of foiir additional timbers whirii
become the base for the next set. The timbers •.vie \isually twelve inches
square, and cost on the Comstock about SH* a set. From 1870 to ISOl there
is said to have been used up on the Comstock 200,000 acres of forest, valued
at .'j;4.'),0()0.()()n.
The amount of tindier which is consumed iinder ground in a single ye;ir
must be enornu)Us. ^Ir. ('. W. (roo-'ale estimates that in liutte alone, iu
ISJ)."*, .'{7.r>00,(M)() feet, e(pial to y?.")!) carloads, were used in the mines. As
the timber decays iu from five to iifteeu years, and has to be re))laced, efforts
are constantly directed toward decreasing the large exjjense which is thus
ccmtinually recurring. In shafts aiul levels for i)ermanent use iron is au
economical sub.stitute. Wherever possible, new methods of miiung are bein„'
introduced. Thus in the Lake Superior iron regions, the mine development
is pl.jined along lines almost unheard of ten years ago. In the first jdaer
the gravel which overlies the ore is stri])ped off, even if it is fifty feet thick.
This is done with sttsam shovels, which load the gravel ujion cars. These
ai'e then pulled away by one locon»)tive while a second i)laces Tiew "empties '
in ;>ositiou to be filled. One shovel will load from 1.10 to ITo cars a ilay :
that IS, will take from .'ioOO to 4i"jtM) tons of dirt from the sides of the pit and
jiut it upon the cars. This method obviates the use of timber for holding u|
the surface.
After the overlying gravel is removed, shoidd the conditions be favorabh
the ore is t.iken out with a shovel. If this cannot be done, some methm
depending on rock-filling is adojjted. At the Aubiini mine, a"!er strippin
ami driving the levels, raises are made to the surface at interv.als of al)oi;'
fifty feet, the ore broken down around them, starting at the surface, an
dropped down through them. This leaves ojieuings in the shape of inverte
Uli Y
o and 111 lie
a ju'dtit.
to tllL' l'i\rl'
auks as l;ir
fu a (lr(Mli,'e
% anil (i|M r.
tliu ciirniit
a revolviii,'
and griulii-
ijis, screen,
el a tl:iy ;it
to tliis (lis-
ly in voLjiU'
of rich ore.
md t'urrv "
lis were not
bor was ton
: tiiis weak-
is inventi'cl.
IlfJ a S(|U;ile
sills. Into
il)ers whicii
elve inches
IS'.H there
rest, vahii'd
single year
e alone, in
mines. As
iced, efforts
ich is tlms
iron is an
g are hcin.,'
pvelopment
' first jilacr
ft-et thick,
irs. These
"empties '
ars a day :
the pit and
holding u|^
! favorahli .
ne metlii"
r strippin.
Is of ahoir
irface. an
>f inverte
hiM
t ! i
rm
TRIUMPHS A.\n WO.XDEltS OF Tllli XIX'" CENTURY
ooiu'H, havinu; tlu-ir bases iit tlic siirt'iwui. AiMitioniil raises are then imulo
liall'way between llie otlieis, and the remaining nuiterial extracted.
At tlie Kayal mine they take out romus twenty-four feet wide by thn r
Hundred feel lonj;, with a twenty-four-foot piUar between them. Thesi'
rooms are earried up from tlie first level to the surface, and tilled witli gravel
which is run in from above. Then the |iillars are mined by "slicing auij
caving';" that is, by runnini,' drifts alont; tin sides of the [lillar and cavin,'
the ore down from the roof. .Vtter renM)ving this ore another drift is
run. the roid' caved, and another slice taken iitf. It i.s claimed the saviu','
in tind)er by usiii!,' this nietiiod amoinits to ten cents on each ton of ore
mined.
.Ml of these, and many other inventions, have constantly tended to dc
crease miniiii,' costs, ^'et the industry is earried on to-day in so many ont-nl
the-way jiiai'es. and inuh'r sueli varyinj; conditions, tliat the cost per ton ol
the ore mined vacillates between wide e.vtrcnu's. .\s an example of what
can l)e accomplished. workiuLC on a hirge scale, and where supplies are easil\
and (pni;kly obtained, the Atlantie ndne. in .Michiiian. may be mentioned.
This mine produced, in 1SJ).S. ."Td.OOd tons of ore. at a cost (d' sixty-six cents
jier ton.
AVith all these -wonderful advances in mine mechanics, engineering, venti-
hitiun, and lighting, have come the fonmhition and develojunent of miiung
schools, the rise of technical societies, and a general governmental recogni-
tion (d' the im|)(n'tanee (d tin- industry. It is not so very far back in tlif
preceding century that we find among the statutes of England the ff)llow-
ing : •' Stealing ore out of mines is no larceny, except only tiiose of black
lead, the stealing ore out of whi(di is felony without benetit of clergy." It
woidd be interesting to know the nam<> of the gentleman who owned the
black-lead mine, for. in modern parlance, he certainly •' had a pull." P.y
18.'!.'! mining legislation had so far progressed in England that laws were
enacted regulating the employment of chihlren under grcnind. In this coun-
try, in KS.'IO, a sta»— geological survey w.-is iniingu rated by Massachusetts,
and this institution aas since been copied by many States. The nuijority (d'
the St.ates where mining is carried on have jiassed laws tending to increase
the safety of men working under ground.
Abroad, carefully prepared codes describe the method of lease or sale of
mining rights, .and detine the rights of owners of ground. In this country
the first legislation of this character was in 18(»7, when the government min-
er.al bearing lands were withdrawn from .;ale and ordered leased. In l.S.'U
the miners refused to i)ay the royalty, owing to the large nnndicr of illegal
entries, and in 1847 the lands were opened to sale. It was not until J8(t(»,
after fifteen years of self-government among the miners of the West, that
('ongress earnestly undertook to regulate the ac(pnsition of mining titles on
the public domain. L«igues beyond the towns, miles from the nearest roads,
hurrying from the scene of one excitement to another, pushed by the crowd
of constantly arriving adventurers, with surveyors unobtainable and courts
not accessible, almost without time to measure, and in a region absolutely
unlocatable, it had been imjiossible for the miner of the West to secure a
legal title to his land as contemplated by the act of 1847. Accordingly, there
had grown up the custom which gave to the discoverer of a lode the right to
;i rcrl
(,r I'
{>i<>iii
i.iiind
ll.i:
of thi
nonuii
claim
depth
coven
Shou
THE CESrUHY'S I'llOdJiESS LV MLXES AM) MlMWa 585
;i I'.'rtain leiiKtli nt' it, and it whs tins right which wiis recognized i\v Con-
)^n>s, and heciunr the lijiHiH of tlio liiw of 1S«J(J.
Sn far our story has iMicn of i.roj,'rt'Ss, but wiiat shall wo say of the action
(.1' f'oiigreHs, which, in 1H7L', al)rogated this law and subatituti'd for it the
|.i(ilitic l)r('('(h'r of litigation callt'il the law of the apex'.' To i|uotc Dr. Kay-
iiiiiiiil: '• Tlie leading (•i»ara<'t«'ristic ditlVrs from all iircvious mining hiws of
tills or any other country. Tlie ohl rigiit of discovery, which was tin- l)asis
of tlic minor's title down to ISTli, lias dwindled under the present law to a
nominal importance. It is true that the discovery of tlie lode witliin the
claim is made a preroiiuisite to location, jlut the right tu follow the lode in
depth beyond the side lines of tin; claim dcjiends no longer upon having dis-
covered it, but on having included its top, or apex, in the surface survey."
Should the nnner be so fortunate as to have a vcni whicii outcrops plainly on
•my. rowKu I'I.axt .w .ieuomk paiik, n. v.
(Ingersoi: ^»rgeant Duplex Cc-liss Con(len.'<iiig Air Compressor.)
the snrface, he may stake out the ground without ditticulty. so that the vein
crosses the end lines. Hut if his vein does not ajjpear on the surfacie, and he
fails to guess its direction correctly, and finds, on developing, that it does
not cross the end lines of his claim, he is suddenly cut off from all extra-
lateral rights. Or should he, in laying out his lines along the rough, jirecipi-
tous mountain-side, fail to make Ids end lines parallel, he again finds his
rights limited. Nor has this law been made clearer bj' court decisions, but
rather it has been complicated.
Certainly this is a peculiar condition of affairs. The century whicli has
wi'^'icssed an advance from the hazel rod to the diamond drill, from the spade
to the steam shovel, froir. tire softening to dynamite shattering; a century
during whicdi a clumsy car pusheci over cast-iion rails by a boy has grown to
a cable train, and a two-hundred-ponud bucket raised by women has devel-
o))ed into a six-ton self-dumping skij) hoisted by electricity; a century produc-
tive of new devices which tunnel nu)untains. cross ravines, or sink through
(juicksands with equal ease ; a century which has seen the touch of a button
680
TliWyfl'HS A.Wn WOXPEliS OF THE A'/.Y"' CENTURY
(111(1 tilt! turn of a wliiM'l l)riiig |in\vt'r from tliiity iiiilt-s iiway to liK'lit ainl
Uniiii tilt' luiiK', as well as o|i(M'att' t\w drills ami liuist; such a century rlosrs
with a law in force in the Ki»'iiti'st niiniiij,' country in the worhl which makes
liti^'ation one of the exiieoted staj^es of mine ilevehtpment.
At the lH'>,'iiinin),' of the eeiitiiry the mining eii>,'incer advisoil whore In
sink, the niaiiner of working, ami the method of dealing with the water •
to-day h<( must not uily Ix! a mining, civil, and hydraulic expert, but ii me
chanical and electrical engineer, a tdiemist, and a lawyer.
The time was when he who leveled forests, huilt himst^if !i home, ami
brought the land under cultivation, was reganh'd as the true |(iiMie<;r of civil
ization. In later times the miner fairly divides this honor. I'ursuing ii
hazardous occupation, he has invaded most out - of - tlie - way and desolate
l)laces, creating untold wealth, founding towns and States, and inviting vast
and substantial populations. My his industry and enterprise ho has not onlv
revealed the sevpnty-seven noii-nictalli(! underground lu-oducts which in tin'
United States alone, in 1S<,»<». had a value approximating .'$r)(»(t.<tO(l,0(Hl, hut
the twelve metals — precious and useful — whose value in the same year
approximated .filiTO.I >(•(),( (00. Around his gold mines — deep and ])laccr —
have grown California, Nevada, the Dakotas, (Colorado, and even Alaska;
while empires have s|)rung up at the sound of his pick and the introductinii
of his mighty machinery in Australasia and South Africa. In the develop-
ment of silver lie has contributed wealth, popul.ation, aiid iiKstitutiims to (Col-
orado. Nevada, Utaii, Montana, and Arizona. His iron and copjier mines
have transformed the barren coasts of the (Jreat Lakes. The (juicksilver
mines of Southern ('alifornia brought San .lost^ .and other towns to wealth
and importance. In the history of I'reka and Leadville. Col., we have the
romance of both the gold and lead mine. And so, wliether the miner un-
earths tin' ores, the coals, the wonderful variety of buried materials whicli
nature has jirovided for the use and comfort of mankind, he so fre(|nently
becomes the source of wealth. ])opulation. ami permanent civic organization
as to give him high rank among the "true pioneers of civilization."
GK01{(iK A. 1'AC'KAUD.
my
• liRlit an.]
tiiry <'I()M s
ii<'li iiiuki >
I wIlPIO III
1h( WJltcl
, but ii nil'
lioini', ami
<M' <)l' civil
iirsiiinj,' :i
il ilesolatc
vitiii',' vast
IS not. onlv
ich in Ihr
)ll,l)l)(), lint
lanic yraf
jilacci' —
Alasiva;
troduotidii
dpvt'li)|)-
nxH to (N(|-
\wv mines
uicksilvt'i-
to woaltli
Iiavo tilt'
minor un
als whii'ii
T('(iucntiy
U'anization
X'KARD.
ART PROGRESS OF TFIE CENTURY
I. I'.MNTINf..
At no period Niiict' the Hpnaissance has t licit' liccn micIi niarkctl jtrojjrosH
in certain walks of art as during the jicrioil nl rccDnstnictinn in the |iiiliti-
eal, social, eeononiit% ami ii'sthetit; worhl imnu'iliately loUowin.:,' the French
IJi'Volution of 17((S. Tlic armies of France, returning,' from the i'on<im'st i>f
Kiinipe. hrou^'ht home n Paris tlie tre.asurcs of art ravishetl from the ^;reat
capital cities. 'I'he vast ]iul)lic (galleries anil numemns private collections
ostahlisliptl under the tirst Kmi>iro contained accumulations of pictures.
marl)les, lironzes, tapestries, decorations, and hric-ii-hrac hmnKht from Italy.
from (iermany, from the Low Countries, from Sjiain. and ewn from Russia
and I'^Kypt, of extent and value unparalleled in the history of the hnman race.
'I'liese treasures were dispersed under the Kcstoration ami returned to tlieir
former owners; hut, in the meantime, tlieir educational iuHuenco nj)on the
people of France, ami especially of Paris, had produceil profoiiml and jternm-
nent im[iressions which abide to this day. 'l"o this practical education af-
forded by the moilcls and examides of all that is noble ami exalted. j,'athcred
from the galleries and safe deposits of the civilized world. France is jirimarily
indebted for that cultured skill and that refinement id' good taste which have
enabled her to take and hold her acknowledged position as the leading nation
in the realm of art in the nineteenth century.
At the beginning of the century the art of France was resting inert in the
bonds of classic trailition. Academic conventionality held almost undisputed
sway; only a few painters of portraits, as, for example, Madame Vigee-Lebrun,
Isabey, and decorative artists like (Jreuze, venturing beyimil the limits of the
hard and fast rules prescribed by scholastic ])edants. The only subjects
regariled as legitimate fiu' artistic treatment were illustrations of mythology
orof (rreck or Roman literature. Sacred pictures illustrating the Riblical
narratives and lives of the saints were ])ermitted for ehun h adornment and
for religious jjurposes ; but historic and story -telling pictures of the order
now known as genre were classic in subject and academic in treatment. Even
in jiortraiture, where a likeness was the main consideration, military heroes
were represented in (Ireek armor and distinguished civilians were invested
with the dignity of the Roman toga.
The high ])riest of ancient jjagan worshiji in I'^'ance iluring the first rpiar-
ter of the century was .Jacques Louis David (174S-1S1,'.'")). Daviil was a master
of such real power that he was court ])ainter to Louis XVI.. director of Fine
Arts under the Republic, and again court painter to the Km|>eror NaiKdeon.
His great work. "The Oath of the Horatii," now in the Louvre, first exhil)-
ited in 17S4, was universally admired ami is still highly esteemed. This was
followed by a triumphal procession of classic com))ositions. the most notable
of which were •' The Rape of the Sabiues," usually considered to be his
588
TIUUMPHS A.\D WOXDEnS OF THE A/A'"' CENTURY
laast'irpiece, "The Death of Socrates." •• Paris ami Helen." and " Brutus aiwl
His Sons,'' all of which have Ijeeii reprodueed luauy times in prints. David
was iniluanced. late in his career. l»y the nmiantic reaction, as shown by liis
•' Najioleon Crossinj^ tlie Al|>s" ami his •• Floatin-j Martyr,'' imt lie chain
j)i(ined classic art all his life, his hj.st wonls expressing an aspiration to paiiii.
the head of Leonidas.
Tiie downfall of the classic dominion in FVance was luoiiijlit alwut by tin-
revolt of (ieri(!aiilt and Delacroix. alx>iii l.s:.'»i. .lean Louis (it'-rieault (1791
1.S1,'4) was declared by Viardot t«> have reve;ile<l an era when liberty in art
was revived toj^etlier with |>olitical liijerty. joiniiiij the s^rMieral movement of
the human spirit in the march of pnj^ress toward independence. Hi.; epoch
marking ])ictiire. •■The Haft of the Me«lus;i." in the Salon of ISlil. created an
intense excitement not only in arti>li«- cin-les. wh -e it opened the batth-
between romance and classic tradition, hut also ani>..i;^ tlu^ people. Instead
of Greek heroes, posinj,- like antiiim- .•itatm*s. this thrilling picture jjortrayed
a group of French sailors. f«erishing ami<l the horrors of shipwreck ami
starvation, the subject Iteing a scene in tin ;;v.iV.l tragedy inciihuit to tin-
loss of the frigate Medusa in l.SHi. a «;daniity which the nation was then
mourning with unspeakable grief. Ween wept ami strong 'ueii jtalcd
before this terrible illustration of human agonies endured unto death, but
ilie a(rademicians attacked the work an<I the aiiist willi almost savage fury.
(Jeiicault, a genius, sensitive ami m-rvous. ouailnig before the storm which
beat upon him, Hed to Kngland. l>ut. pining in exile, returned home, only to
die. crushed and broken-hearted.
Ferdinand \'ictor ICugeiie Delacroix (17itS-l.siV:!) was a man of tinner lilire
than his friend and fjdlow-stud.-nt. anil his was the stnuc' hand to take up
th(! gage of battle when (ierieaiilt feil in tlie light. For daring to depart
from tli(! clas.-ii: traditions. tlie>e two yosni'.,' painters of the coniiuoiiplace
subjects of every-tlay huuiau tnigetly am' romantic drama were savagely de-
nounced by the academicians as tniir'>rs. as charlatans, as assassins seeking
to murder art. 'I'lie persecution kiile«l i;>-ri<-ault. but Delacroix laugheil at
it. As Theophile .Souvestre said of iiim : •• The blindness of ignorance, the
intrigues and clamors of envy, have not arn-sted him for an instant in his
valiant iind glorious course." Ky the splendor of bis genius and the virility
of his work, as shown in his gr^at pictures. '-The I •ride of .\bydos," "The
Two Foscari.' "The Amende ''.•nur.dile." and the magniticent series of
Oriental studies by wh'-h he is oest known, he established the romantiir
school on a iinn basis and attracteil t<> it neairly all the talented and promis-
ing young painters of Paris.
Among these students and unknown ]i:iiuters were many whose names
subsequently became fanu)us. as Horjjce VcriM-t. Paul Delaroehe. Haron (iros,
Ary ScheiTer, .Mexandre Decamps. — artists whose iiol>lc jiroductions gave to
the romantic sciiool its finest triumpli.s. In the mean time, classic art was
ably and effectively supported by the )listin<.ruished labors (d' l^mieiii.pm
Ingres. pui)il and successor (d Ihivid. Cnillaume (Juillon-I.ethiere, llippolyte
Flandrin. and .lean Kaptiste K'egnauit. The .\cadenn . though defeated, still
lives, and modern lovers id' art find tliat. esjiecially in decorative design,
there is niucdi to adndie in fdassic snbJM-t.s.
After the revolt of the romanticists the must im|K)rt;uit movement in the
VTURY
I "Brutus aii.l
iriiits. David
shown by liis
i>ut he ehaiii-
•atiou to pain I.
t aljout by tin'
lieault (1791
liberty in an
niovcnicnt of
. ill i t'liorh-
lU. created an
ed the battle
I lie. Instead
ire portrayed
lipwreck and
•ident to tlie
ion was then
,' 'neii palfil
to deatli. but
savaLte fury,
storm which
ionic, only to
r tinner fibre
id to take lip
iij,' to (h'part
■oninionplace
SMvai,'<dy de-
sms secUinjj
i laiiffhcil at
:norancc, the
stant ill his
1 the virility
vdos." "The
nt series of
he roinaiitic
and jiroinis-
hose names
Haron (Jros,
ions fjavc to
ssic art was
Monieni.pu*
'. Hippolyte
■fcated, still
five (lesion,
mont in tlie
AIIT PHOGlillSS OF THE CENTURY
589
world of art also to(/k place in France, and is known as the •' Revolution of
ts.KK" To understand tliis movement it is necessary to i-onsidcr rhc state of
art in England, as tlie "men of liS,'{(»" in France derived their inspiration
iioiu tlohn Constable, an English landsc^ape jiainter. At the beginning of
the century the two great artists of England were Sir David Wilkie and
THE nOI.V WOMKN AT 'nil': TOMU.
J. y\. W. Turner. I")iivid Wilkie (178r>-lS41) was a i.ortrait, hi.storic. and
genn' iKunter. and no English artist nji 1o his time had ever attained such
wide |>ojmlaritv as he enjoyed. His ).ietnrcs are all known the world over,
as witness sncli tith's as -Theltent Day." -Village roliticians."' '-Tlielilind
Fiddler," "King Alfred in the Neatherd's Cottage." •• Tin- Village Eestival."
•• !{ea<ling the Will." "The Chelsea I'ensioners." •< lUind Man's IJiilf." " The
Villag.' Sch(Mil." and '-.lohn Knox iireaching."
Joseph Mallonl William Tiinii'r (ITTr.-tsr.n was one of the most remark-
590
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
I \.\
able artists tiuit evor lived ; a most orijjinal {genius, •' without ancestors and
without heirs."' He was a lamlsoape jiaiuter anil a most earnest ami faitiitul
student of nature, as siiown \>y liis wonilertiil illustrations, in ijlack ami
white, of the scenery of Kngland and Wales. In his |(aintin),'s. however, lie
interjireted rather tiian jtortrayed nature, investing,' his sul)jeets with tiie
granileur and glory of liis imagination. His pictures were "golden dreams."
revealing tiie beauty, the majesty, tlie sa<lness, and tlm terror inspired liy
nature, not from observed details "Ijut from the image or ideal in his own
njind.'' Of liis numy masterwcu'ks nientiou can only l>e made here of "Cros.s-
ing the JJrook."' " Dido in Carthage."' •' I'alestrina."" ••The (iolden IWiugli.""
"Hannibal Crossing the .Vlps."' " I'he Slave Shij.."" •• Itattle of the Nile."
" liurial of Sir David Wilkie at Sea,"' and perhaps the greatest of all. '• The
Fighting Ti-nieraire.""
Turner created no school and left no siu'cessor. but he mjule a distinct im-
pression (m the art of England by stimulating an active interest in landscape
painting. I'atrick Nasmyth. .Vugnstus Wall Callcott. John Linnell. and a
score of arti.sts turned to the sttuly of rural scenery, with the result that
they succeeded in e.staldisliiug what is known as the Norwich school of land-
scape art. l>y far the most important name in the annals of this jH'rind.
after Turner"s, is that of .lohn Constable (177(>-liS;!7). Constable presents
the contrast of diametric ojiposition to Turner. His pictures, so far from
being "golden dreams," are more like east-ii'nn realities. When Turner was
an idealist. Constable was an uncompromising realist. If the om- painted
poetry, tlie other painted ])rose. ami often very rugged, plain prose iiuleed.
While Turner subordinated fact tn fancy, illuminating his stdijects with tin-
glow of his fervid imagination. Constable devoutly stood lud'ore nature in
the attitude of a worshiper, and faitli'iiUy labored to represent as truth-
fully as his powers permitted exactly what he beheld. In contrast with the
shining canvases nf his brilliant contemporary. Constable"s jiictures seemed
dark, dull, and heavy to the IJritish ](ul)lic. and the original geinus of the
conscientious artist was ni>t recognized. His greatest works. " Dedham
Vale."' "The White Horse."' "The Hay Carl,"' "Stratford Mill," "Sali.sbury
Cathedral."' "The Haiidwiw.'" and others were exhibited in succession during
the second decade of the century, before an indifferent public, only his fel-
low artists and a few connoisseurs caring for them, the painter meanwlnle
starving in neglect.
In ISL'l two of his pictures were shown in Paris, and were then instantly
understood and aj)preciated. Tiiey created a profound impression and. as
has lieeii justly said, inatigurated the second revolution of the century in the
realm of art. Hy this revidution the artists were driven out (d' their studios
and out of the city, to stuiiy nature in the spirit (d' humble sincerity shown
by duhn Constable. Among the young stiulents who went forth to encounter
jKiverty. hardship, and the severest toil were the "men of liS."»(»," the founders
of the I>ai'bi/on srdio(d id' painting. Millet. Uousseau. Diaz. Corot. Troyon.
Daubigny. and Dujire left i'aris and the ways that then led to success, and
sacrificed themselves to what they .s;iw to be the truth in art. They carried
the stiidy of otit-door nature further than ever lud'ore: created the standard
of modern landscape art, and attained immortal fame, though not until their
leader and prototype had jierished in poverty.
\Vlll^|•^;llS <IK l.OVIv lIKUlil'KHKAr.)
/
i392
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A7.Y'" CENTURY
\ '■ .ri!
i
m
m
Jean Fran<;ois Millet (l.Sl."V-l,S75) has been called the greatest painter «i
the nineteenth century, and his niasteiiiiuce, '*The Angelas." is regarded \<y
many as second only to the "Sistine Madonna'" of Ka|ihael in the brief i;;it;i-
logue of the world's artistic; treasures. He lived the life of a jKjor peasant
in the rural village of ISariiizon, attractins,' around him. late in life, the al)ltst
of the " men of IS.'JO." and producing there those works which have plaii d
his name first on the annals of our time: "The Sower," " Waiting," '• Sln<ji-
shearers," •• Woman Carding." ''The (Jleaners," "Shepherdess and Flock."
and the few others that constitute the tale of his exceedingly careful ami
long-considered compositions.
Theodore Rousseau (1.S1L'-1S(>7) was declared, by Kdmond Alnrnt. to lie
the Moses who led the landscapt! jtainters of France out of the Egyptiiiu
bondage of academic; convention into the promised land of liberty, where
rivers ran water, where trees were roottMl in the ground, and where animals
lived, moved, and had their being. As late as 1S4S the Sah)ii rejected Rous-
seau's noble \york. " The Alley of Chestinit Trees," one of the finest land-
sca])es ever painted; l)ut this was the last act of the academic tyrants, tlic
foolish offense against the great master causing the old classic; pedants to Iw
relegated to oblivion. Rousseau took up his residence in 15arbi/on, and in
the forest of Fontainebleau and tin; adjoining country studied those rural
ami pastoral scenes that have given him his place as one of the first, if imt
the very first, of landscape painters. Of these magnificent examjiles of land-
scape art, mention can oidy be made here of "The Village," "A I'ool under
Oaks," " Kdge of the Forest at I>arbizon."' " .\ Fcuvst Interior." "Watir
Course at Sologne," and " Hoar Frost," these being the pictures best known
to the public through reprodu(;tions in black and white.
If Turner was a painter of " v'olden dieams." Corot was a jiainter of silver
dreams : the pearly ha/e of early morning, the pide sky and misty tree-forms
of a gray clay, and tlic soft, low tones of a still, cloudy afternooji attriietiuj
his lo"ing devotion and commanding the consc-icntious exercise of his skill.
Jean Raptiste Camille Ccu'ot (ITlMi-lS"."!) was certaiidy one of the happiest
artists that ever lived. Like the other "men of l.S.'iO." he was ostracized in
the Academy, and he- was never allowed to receive the first medal of tin-
Salon, but he had every other honor and compensation, and, late in life. w;is
given a magniticent gold niechd by pojiular subscription. For many yt\ir>
he could not sell a single ]>ic;turc. but, being fortunatcdy indeiHMulent, in ii
modest way, he continued to paint tii" sid)jcMts which, as he said, delighteil
his heart, ami to treat them, as he again said, '• witii trutli to your own
instiiu^ts, to your own method <d' seeing, witli what I call conscientiousness
and sincerity."' In due time Corot concpiered his world and. in the heigli'
of his ciareer, was earning not less than .SoO.O(M» a year by his brush. Me wa
a con.stant visitor at I'larbizon, maintained a (dose intimacy with his friend
there, ami studied in the vicinity many of the hundreds of landscapes hi
industrious and tircdess hand rcjoiciugly ]iroduccd.
Jules Duprc- (ISIL'-ISSO) and Charie's Franc;ois Daubigny (1S17-1.S7S) ar.
distinguished members of the"ls;!(t" L;roup. eacdi stamling at the head >'
the dejiartment <d' landscape art to which he was especially devoted. Xai
eisse-Virgil Diaz de la I'efia, called Diaz (liS(»7-lH7(>). another of the fratei
nity. was not technically so thoroughly trained as his fellows, but he was
( liniSTMAS (IIIMKS. (IlLASIIFIia.D.)
si
t\
til
I'l
('(
ai
f.
ot
I
I
r
a
I
s
II
11
t
I
1
('
f
i
i
r
ART PROGRESS OF THE CENTURY
593
stronger colorist thiiii any ot them and a roiiuintieist of tlw most jiroiiouiu'ed
tyjie. Constant Troyon (1.S10-18()5) was ilie most omincnt iMltlc-painter of
tilt' century, lie ciime on the scene utter tlie revolt ot Cu'-rieault was aeconi-
jilished, but was in full sympathy with the movement, anil is nsnallv ac-
counted as one of tiie revolutionists. So also with Jean Leon Gerome (ltSl,'4),
an artist surviving to tlie close of the century.
lie first exhibited in 1847, but he t6ok up tlie line of Oriental romance,
fdllowing Delacroix, and made so strong an imjiression with his illustrations
(it the splendors and gh)rics of the Kast that his intluenee in art will be felt
for generations to come. After attaining fame as a painter, GerOme also
developed marked ability as a sculptor.
In strict chronological order the birtli of tlie iire-liapliaelite movement in
(iUKKK C.IIU.S ri.AYINd AT nAI.I,. (LEIUIITON. )
art preceded the '"revolution of 1S30." as the event actually oec.irred in
Home, about 1S1L*. The movement was not originally known by the name
sid)se(]uently given it. and it did not nttain to inure than local ini])ortance
until it was fully developed in England, about l.SAO. It is to the great (!er-
man artist. Peter von Cornelius (17S,">-lS(t7). that the honor of originating
tlie pre-T>a]>haelite revolution must be given. In 1S11 Cornelius went to
iionie and soon became the nuister spirit of the '• brotherhood of I'ainters,"
popularly called " Nazarites." banded together for tlie study of the thirteenth-
century Tt.alians. Cimabue and fJiotto. and their successors in the century
following. (laddi. Simoni, and Orcagna. 'i'his I'rotherhood was afterward
imitated by Rossetti in Lcmdon. and its pnrjKJses more fully develojied ; but
it was tlu! young German enthusiasts of the previous generation who affected
a revival of the jinre religious spirit, the devout simjilicity. and the altsolute
sincerity of the Italian artists before the era of IJaphael.
Cornelius returned to Gernniny in 1S1(>. became the founder of what is
;!8
oW
Till I'M PUS A.^n WO.XDIJllS OF THE A7A'" CESTURY
kiKivvii as till' Miiiiieli .seliool ot itiiiutiii^, ami was inailr ilirfcliir of tin* An
Institute nf ilii't city. Ml' cxfrriscil a coiitrolliiii; iiitliiriic)- in tiic fvulution i.t
iiKidcru (ifi'iiiaii art ami. imiirt'i-tly, (iii art in I'lni^laml and in Amrrira. His
jtiipil ami sncoi'ssor, Wilhclm 'oii Kaulliacli (l.so,"i-|S7l). iniiiarted vitality
Hill
,(M' to 'lie Miinicli sclntol. attract ill
liis classes s;iid(Mits rrnm ,\\\
civilized couiitiies. I>iiriii,;, the sccdiid and third nuarters id' this cenliii \ ,
Iviiiilbach reigned as the liist artist 'ot fienuau}" and one <d tlip tiist in tin-
nt.rld.
l>ante (ial.riel Kos.setti ( 1 XL'S- 1 SSL') fnumled his ine-IIapliaelite jlnitln i
Jiuod in Lomlon, with •luhn Kveiett Millais — snl)se<|ueiifly |>resident ol the
Iioyal Academy — and Willi;. m llulman lii.nt. in 1S|,S. Tlie ]ir''-l!a|ili.ielii.
nioveiiienl gave ii richer and ;-.tn)ie4er cclnr to Kngli-li ]iaiiitini,' in tin- lalii i
half of the eeiitiir\ . iiml ilso awakened general interest in early Christi.in
art. chat is, the art of the Italian Renaissance. ISeyond tiiis, JJossetn'.
new de]>arture. though widely advertised liy .loliii iiiiskin. had very Utile
permanent elVoct. .Millais soon left the llrolhcrliood and jirodiired his
master-works, the greatest historic-genre i>icturos of his time, in l''.ngland.
after outliving iire-iJajihaelite iiitliiences.
Little known oiitsiile ,1' l-jigland, that nidvement did not entirely ahsmii
liritish art. as jiroved by such a man as (J. ]•". Watts, a master of porfrailiiic,
who maile studies of many of the most mdahle men of the century in
England, liesides many imaginative works of great interest, nthe"-- weir
llolman Iluut. with his powerful ndigioiis conceptions, and the taicnl-. 'i Lami
seer family, the youngest meniher of which. Edwin, is world-famous for his
animal jdctures. The critic and ](Iiilosopher. .lolm iviiskin. stmiied art and
became a proticieiit draughtsman, although never using his skill profession-
ally. His literary works on art. however, have had so wide an iiiHiieiicc
that it seems just to include him in the list of contributors to ait's progress
in this era. His criticism of the fantastic productions of .lames .McNeill
AVliistler brought forth a coiitiov er.sy and law suit, resulting in a venlict of
damages of one farthing to the injured artist, and enough advertising gratis
to secure his fame. I'lio genius of t "• latter fo- aihievnig artistic elTccls
and pcrKOiiil notoriety are eipial to liis sk'U in avoiding oblivion. lie is a
unifjnp and interesting figure, iI. spite ids abnormal vanity, for his ninpic--
tionable talent in many lines of art. and is .\meriiaii iiy birth. -Miglisii b\
udojition, aiul now l-'remdi liv force of circumstances. Edwin .\bbey is also
an adopted son of ISritain. iltliough born in Americ;;. He is better kiiov.ii
through illu urative work in I'lack and wiiitc, Imt his superb deioiatiiu.s
ii tilt" lioston i'ublic Library testify to his great skill as a coiorist. Tlic
most iUustrioi.s growth of fereign seei' on liritish soil has Iteen Loreii/
.'Vlma Taih'iiia. whose wonderful repres"iitations id' «iieek and Jionian liir
lilaci^ him hunt vnnronfs a.: an artist, and hold bidore our eyes a mirror ot
ancieiiL days. Sir Frederick Eeigliton. the recently deceased president ol
the li'oyal Academy, was a true ISriion and a leador (d modern art in En.'
land, as also was Mrs. Eli/abi th 'riiomiison ISutler, with her patriotic war
jiictnres. as vigorous as any mairs could be. A talented young artist, whos.'
untimely death cut short a promising career, was Frederick \\'aiker. who is
said to have been the original :>f "little l>il!ee " in Du .Maurier's famous
novel of .student life in the l..atin (^lauer, "Trilb}."' That masterpiece
I.AM>«I.I-.H AMJ HIS KASo|(ITI>. (IIY lini.-Kl.l'J
500
Til WM PUS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
'S
takes 118 into the iirt atuiosphcn' of I'ari.s, ami we readily understand wliy
there is tlie centre (>f tlie artistic circle.
From thence liave risen most Oi tlie >,'reat modern names, one of the gre;it-
est and most honored being that of Kosa Honlieur. who lias received all
Iiossihle distimttion as an artist and reverenct' as a woman. Her animal
Itii'tiires, especially horses and cattle, are known tlie wor'd over, and tin'
story of her early struggle for study, disguised as a boy, that she might
work unmolested where a girl could hardly have gone, is well known, yet
she never renounced an atom of her wonumliness in adopting maKculiiie
attire. It is hard to avoid dwelling on th'> lives and works of the modern
masters, but we must ]>ass over the intermediate period between the revolt
of IS.'tO and oi'.r own day, touching only an especially shining light here
and there, such as iJules ISreton, with his sturdy peasants; \,{'u\\ Honnat,
Alexandre Cabanel, ami Carolus |)niiin. with their elegant distingm^ jior-
traituie. Hi sides these are Hdouard l>elaille and Alphonse de Neuvillc,
showing faithful studies of soldier life and action; Eugene Fromentin. willi
his picturescpie Arabs; and the ileeoiative allegories of I'nvis de Chavaniics.
'I'he brilliant Spaniards, Mariano Fortuny and J)on Frederick .Madra/.o, ;in'
jiractically Frenchnien in their art, although each is <listiiictly individual in
manner. We iniist also mention Viiicrt. with his delightful little satires on
the hnniaii frailities of the ludy fathers of the Church, and Mei.ssonier, the
niiister of ex(piisite finish in detail, and I'assini, with his small canvases
crowded with Oriental lignres glowing with color. In adilition to the great
French names of this time are Defregger, of the ^Innich Scho(d ; Israels of
Amstenhiiu, Schreyer id' Frankfort, whose works all hold th;it (|uality dear
to the ])opnlar heart, but despised by the high priests of lofty critici.sm now-
adays, thiit is, they have a story to tell, and they tell it.
At the time these men were telling their artistic tales in Eurojie. such
men as Washington .Vllston. the lirst great ])ainter in this country ; Thnmas
Sully, whose rare works in jiortraiture entitled him to paint the t^ieen of
England. Victoria, when a girl ; Henry Inman. also a gre;it jiortrait painter;
George Fuller, a painter (d' poetic dreams; and niiiny others of talent, had said
their say in .\nierica. Almost with the beginning of the new country, jnib-
lie interest had been roused in the fine arts by the efforts of such men a.s
Gilbert Stuiirt and the l'e;iles. Charles and •fcmbraudt, who bridged the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries togellier, and labored to adv;iiice the
cause (d' ;irt. Schools ;in(l academies, with ade(piate gjilleries for exhibition
purposes, became necessiiry ; iiiid such institutions as the Pennsylvania Aciid-
emy of the Fine Arts and the N;itional .\ciidemy of Design in New York
were established. The latter was started in I.SOL', but did not receive its
charter until ISOS; so the l'ennsylv;iiiia Academy. whi(di w;is ineoip(U'iited in
Philiulelphia in ISOCi. was really the first of its kind in the country. In l.SdT.
the minutes bearing the date of ( )i>tober S record iis follows: '• I'ntil the
funds of the institution will ;idiiiit of cipening a school on a more extended
phin. jiersons of good character shall be permitted to make drawings from
the statues and busts belonging to the Academy," thus showing the humble
beginning of art education in .\merica. Naturally, for many years the facili-
ties for learning were too limited to siipjdy more than rudime: tary instruc-
tion, and the pilgrinnige to Paris was a necessity iK-fore an artist eouM
URY
rstiind wljy
I' the greal-
•fccivcd all
Icr animal
'I-, iiiitl tlii^
slic inij,'|it
kiiovn, yet
iiiasculiiK'
he iiinderii
1 the rovolt
light lieri'
Dii Hoiinat,
liiiK'in^ jior-
Nt'iivillc,
I'litiii. with
'iiavaiiiics.
idrazt), ari'
ilividiial ill
satires on
sonicr, the
1 oaiiviiscs
> till' prrcat
Israels of
iiality (h'ar
icisni now-
ropo. siicli
; 'J'liKinas
' (^lU'en (it
it painter :
t, liad said
;ntry, jiiib-
:'li men as
■itlged the
vanee the
exliihitioii
mill Aead-
s'ew York
■eeeive its
[Mirated ill
In l.S()7.
I'lltil the
exteiuh'd
ings from
le l.umhlc
the faeili-
y instruc-
ist eoiiM
rm
Tin UM PUS A SI) WOShKHS Uh' TIIK XIX'" CESHKY
It'i'l <|nalitifil to laiincli out piofeHsioiiaUy. In tlu'si* liittcr dayH tliat iiimmI
no liiiiKiT t'xistH, tor till' nivat ait ni-ImmiIs ot N<'\v York. I'liila(lfl|iliia, Huston,
Cliican"' '">•' '^f- I'Oiiis can aiiiply proviilf all tliat is rt'(|iiirtMl ; Imt tlm rliariu
of the Latin (^iiaitfi' still draws as a ina^'iift all wlio can afford to ^,'0 tlii'ir.
In that ciMitri' is a constant niin^,'lin;,' oi ideas from all sources scckiii),' new
forms of expression, out of wliicli proceed the impulses that vibrate through
the world of enrient art. Naturallv i'non|,'li many of the new de|>artnres are
futile experiments, short lived and not sutlleiently important to discuss; hut
within recent years the movement known as impressionism hiis bi-eii so wide
spread in inthienee, so railical in method, and so vital in result, that it has
douhtless produced a permanent i-tTect on art. Like its predecessor, the re-
naissance after the dark a^es, this iiinuniiinit nnx/rriie was an npheaval ol
all forms of expression; and in painting' it seemed as if a wave of da^/.lini;
color liad hurst over the studios, dienchini,' the canvases with rainhow tint>,
flooding; the exhihition galleries with bewildering hrilliance. The unaceus-
toiiied eyo was overwhelmed, and the confused and wondering jaililie burst
into loud outcry against the insane folly of these mad youiivc painters, who
showed purple and gi'cen gridirons, sjx'ckled with green and streaked with
scarlet, and called them landscapes, marines, and tigiir« studies as they cliose.
Of cour.se the iiendulum swung to its limit, the radicals carrying things to
extremes after the fashion of their kind, and making foolish caricatures of
work that was really great. l>y degrees, however, .sober sense jirevailod, the
new i(h'as became better understood, the public ]ioiiit of view ehangi'd, and
it was seen that there was method in this madness. 'I'he new movement
was intended simply to interjuet what the artist saw most forcibly expressed
by any given subject, or, as the nann^ implies, to record his lirst impression
and convey the iilea rather by suggestion than by explicit statement ami
detail. Applied to out-of-door subjects, these priiudples were carried tiut by
tlie /)/i'ln nil' (M>lorists. as they were styled, from their efforts to suggest
atmosphere glowing with light, a feeling of space and sunshine. ICdouard
!Manet was the leader of the new school in tigure work, and Claude Monet in
landscape. No two styles could be more wiilely dilTerent save in their mu-
tnal abhorrence of detail; the lirst dark, heavy, and .sondire in color; the
latter luminous and paljiitating, every conceivable tint vibrnting into har-
mony, an examiile which is f(dlowed in this country by (Jhilde ILissam, often
successfully, but .sometimes with extravagance, .\fter reaching extreme high
water mark, the flood of brilliance has somewhat subsided, iind latter-day
])ainters do not find it necessary to observe tlu^ world through a prism.
While returning to more sober statenn-nts of simple truth, without trying to
copy a kali'idoscope. the vision men have had of pure color sparkling with
light h;is given them an insight into .Mother .Nature's method that has left a
lasting impression upon the minds and niiinners of tlie best W(U'kers ami
lifted the whole tone of modern |iainting. Whether one was jireparcd to
enjoy truly imi)ressionistic ])ictures or not, the force of them in a collection
of works in the old manner of hard outline and heavy shadow couhl not
fail to be lelt like a beam of light in a dark room. However one might pro-
test against the invailer, the old Iriends looked dull and flat after a time, in
spite of the most dt'termined loyalty. The style of the Hudson IJiver school
was narrow and petty, full (d' triHiug little details, the cohu- often bein.;
that II I
ia, Itiistnii.
till! cli.ina
K'l tlioiv.
kill),' iifw
ti' flllnii!;li
iiliii'cs ah'
■ii'iis.s; liiit
II so wide
liiit it lias
'•r. tlic re-
licaval III
ila/zliiii,'
l>i>w tiiitN,
!• iiiiacciis-
ililic buist
lltl'IS, will)
akcd wiHi
licy cliosc.
tilings til
iMliirt's (i|
■ailed, the
iiK'i'il. ami
IIKIVCIIlcIlt
t'xpn's.scil
iii|ir('ssi(iii
iiieiit and
t'll (lilt liy
<) sin;f;t',st
Kddiiaid
Miiiict in
tlii'ir niu-
olor; till'
into liar-
ini. (it'ti'ii
•mo liij,'li
attcr-day
a ])iisni.
tryiiif,' to
lin<,' with
lis Iclt a
kcrs and
|iart>d to
ollcction
iiild not
i.irht jiro-
tinic, in
r school
n liciii'.'
Aiir mod II ESS OF the centiry
MO
(orcpil and tlioatrical in t'rtfct. 'Ilu' slrikiiiK Hct-nery (»f tiiat noWU' Htruuin
iiis|iir*'d the ilYoits of Anii'iicaii landHca|ii' |iainliTs id tli<- t\Mi dccadis Irum
IS.'IO to I.S."i(l. Asht-r II. Diiiand was a Ifadi-i' anions tlniii, and tor nianv
yi'ai'H tlie manner of a Ki'iu-ration jiast liehl swiiy until tlii* new nu-thud forwll
a |ila(i' for itsidf. It was an aniiiHiiii,' cxipoiirnci' in followin'.; i-xhiliitioiis of
laii' M'ars to mi'i*. oni' afti-r anothi-r, tin- h-ai'i-rs, ht\\)^ fstaliiislifd in tlu-ii own
|iartifular iiu'IIkhIs, finally hroakiiiK away from lifi'luuK liabitH uml comini;
mill lini' with the new movcnii'iit. sonii' kii'|iing stip Inavtdy with tin- vi-^or-
oils iifwromcrs, sonir halting along with ,iititiil atti'iii|its at a jaunty stridf.
'J'hc strong iikmi ni'ithcr hung hark in sulky inditft'ii'iii-f nor tiling tln-nisolvex
wilill_, aliout in t'xuhcrant frn'doni, Init ki'pt i|ui('tly on thf fvcii ti'iior of
tlii'ir way, ahsorhing what was hcst in thf m-w. holding fast t<> what wa.s
lii'st in tlio old, and |irodui'ing the kind of work that is inili>|MMiiltint of
■si'liiiols and eras, luit intrinsically gn-at in itsidf. In I'aris. the voiingt-r
woiki'rs who lifgan st'iiding stiangi- wild landsca|ii' and tigiiii' pifturi's to thf
fxhiliilion at thf Salon of thf ('hani])s Klyst'fs. thf most im|iortant annual
exhibition in thf world, were indignantly ifji-rtfil iiy the Imrritifd jiir\ of
sflfftion. Kijiially indignant at tlifir tifalnifiit, thf young paint. -rs. who lidt
thfmsflvfs to III' thf foiiiiiig nifii. gathon-d thi-ir n- jfi'tfd trfa.Min's togfthfr
in an indf|ifndfiit fxhibitioii of tlifir own, and fstablished a rival salon in
the Clianip df Mars, which has come to hold an eipial fiwiting in thf world
of art with llic oldfr institution.
liy rfferenci' to •• nic n " we do not at all cxcliidf women, for thf re is no
sex in art, and women of our time paint as well as nifii, holding eipial rank
ill the exhibitions, fipial places on the jiirifsof sflfction, and rfcfiviiigfi|ual
honors and awards. Oiif of the foremost woinen of tin- day is a I'liiladel-
phian. Miss Cecilia Ileanx, whose portraiture ranks among the highest. Mi.ss
Mary 1). Ca.ssatt is also a I'hiladelphian. although long resident in I'aris,
and highly esteeiufd there, ller iiaiiie is nifntioiifd in a rfcfiit notice of a
Salon exhibition among those of distinguished men, which concluded with
thf words " and othf r strong nif n." nifaning thf if by no grain of disrespect
to the woman, but only honor to the artist, flassifying Iht as among tin- first
painters of the time. I m])ortant exhibitions nowadays are likfly to eonUiiii
strong works by many wonifii. such as portraits by .Mrs. Sarah .Sears of Itos-
toii or .Mrs. IJosina iMiimet Slif rwood of Xcw \'ork. eliild studies by Kllen K.
liaker. or animal studies by Mrs. Helen C Hovenden. widow of the late
master of modern genre, Thonias llovfiiden. whosf unlimfly death the art-
loving public of this country has not ceased to mourn. His faithful studies
of Anifrican domestic life have touched the people, who are, after all, the
tinal art critics, despite the claims of those who ffel theiii.selves esjiecially
ipialitied by taste and training to tell otlifrs what they must and mii.st not
like. .Many tinifs public opinion has been uiidiily slow in setting the seal of
its ajiproval on worthy works, but once established in the heart of the jMipii-
lace. immortality is assured, and that place belongs luefiiiinently to Thoma.s
llovfiidfii. as proved by the throngs that st 1 In fore his |iictiirf •• Itreaking
the Honif Ties," at the World's fair in Chicago. That cosmo|M»litan eollee-
tion showed, among other interesting devf lopmeuts, a strong school of vigor-
ous young Norsfinen. hardy vikings of art from Scandinavia, of whom
Anders Zorn was the leiuler, with a variety of figure subjects, studied in-
600
TJUUMI'HS AXIi \lO\DERS OF THE XIX'" CENTUHY
I'l
ildors iiud out, with an uiicuiiventioiial friHtluiu and dash as insi)iring us
the bioczcs of ]iis nativt* tjonls. I'rinti- KuyiMH-. thi- liandsnnic popuhir sec-
ond !'(in of the Kinj; of Swrdt-n. was no na-an contiihiitor to tins si-hool.
Krit/ von Tliaulow is a Norw.-^ian l»_v hirtli. 1 ut iicinji wt-ll rccoijni/.rd in
rrancc In* lias taki'ii np \\\> aUKlt- at I»i«'|i|>«\ althoii|,di si ill tindin;,' inspira-
tion in his nativi* land, lit* is an ex|ii>nt*iit of th<- theory of tone in |)aiiilin,i;,
as it is IcclMiically lt;:iii'd. This n-k-rs to the ipiality of liainiony. or per-
fect balance id liicht and > hade and itdor. it d<M-s not depend upon the key
of the picture, whether li^ht and bright ur dark and sondire. hut <'onsists in
keejiiiig the relations nf the diflffrcnt masses of colur true to eaidi other, the
small details sidMlnutl to their |fr«>|>er idatfs, yet each having its correct value
in the whole.
The Scntidi jtaintirs. stiniidat>>«I no doubt by the success of their literary
bn'tliren, ha\e estal'lwheil the <ilasjp«*v s<di<>ol <d' art. nin>t orij,'inal in iis
methods, and in snnie ca.ses highly i4-ciiliar in its results, but with umpies-
tionable sireni;th in its m<>iv st-rinus and less fantastic work, .lohn l-a\ery
is a leader amoni,' these men. lierntany jirides herself on one ot the i,Meatest
liainters of modern times in tlio [wr^ioi! of Ad<dpli I'riedriid' Men/el, a I'rus-
sian. born ISl."i, contem|M(rary with .M«M»onier. .Vs the latter was devoted
to the l')i' jieri'r lit the |-'rc;ii-li. ><> ".vas .Men/.el to his hero, i'"i'ederick tin-
(Jreat, and liieir vivid portrayals of ilifir ivs|Nftive sovereigns will keep the
personality of these ennipifri>rs trf>h as hmg as ;irt lasts. l''or many yurs
.Men/el has been artist iaureali- to the i-ourt at l'>erlin. paintin;..; iiiilien/ol-
lern family portraits, liattle ,(itfos ami M-«*n«*s of court splendor in the most
masterly manner. I'he lliiniririan. Munkacsy. lias bei-n widely known by
his huge religious works, lately ••\hibite<l in thi» eonnlry, — •• (Jlirist Iteiore
I'ilate ■' and the •• Crueitixion." His work shows great power and much
originality in conception, altliongli •■(ti-n somewhat morbid, a not unnatural
condition, as the unlortmiate artist h;is lon-ome il(||M•le^sly insane. The oppo-
site extreme id' expression is to U* found in liie gorgeous coloring and superb
compositions of Hans .Makart of Vienna, notably his "Coronation of Cathe-
rim' Coriiaro at N'enii-e." A revival ol inten*st in religions subjects has re-
cently appeared, possibly stinnnati-«l by the work of .Mr. dauies Tissot, a
Parisian, who has givi-n ten _\ears to tiie )>r<Hluetion of a ^;erics of careful
studies cd' the life of Christ. Th«->«' litth* |i:iintinL;s, mimbering some live
hundred in all, are tin- result <d" rh.M- n*s«'aridi in the Ijdly Land into the
eitmlitioMs ot life ami customs which jinvaded at the time ol Christ, ami
are a tribute (d reli','ious devitiion. Whether tlirough thi- iidluence or imt,
Magnandiouverct has been inspir>-il to iwiint a iiundH-r of stmng scenes ol bib-
lical subjects, t'Mi conceptions of the |.ast ."^upiH-r b«'ing very powerlul. .\
young coliued man, H. n. Tanner. Iia."« aeliiev«*d kiicposs on similar lines, an
••.\nnunciation " receidly >h"iwti '.iivin-i evidence of deep and ori','iiial tliom^lit.
Curinusiy enough, the women ]>:iint>T« of distinction do not seem to be given
to religious sulijects. * hie iU>rioiis lack in must of the work exhibited in
recent ycai's is ihe al>^ence of any iiii|iortance in subject. The artists have
been so coiiiMMiied to express what tliey s;«w in the >iuiplest luanner, that
they have carefully avoide>i s«>eing or thinking aiioiit anything but the sim-
plest things to lie expressed. '.Vh<l«- soiiit- {"iwerfnl work has resulted, it has
often been labor worthy of a better eau.M*. fur the pictures produced have had
lilt
or
ill',
it
t!..
TUHY
inspiring as
' |">]Milar see-
llll.-> Sclllllil.
vcdirni/.t'd III
liiii.i; iiispiia-
iii imiiiiiii;,'.
iiKiiiv. or |icr-
ii|ii>li the key
It <'iin,si.sts ill
ill iitlliT, till-
I'lincci value
iirir lircniiv
iKiiiai in iis
^> itii nni|Ui'>-
luiiM I,a\i'i\
till' .iiriMlot
n/.cl, a I'nis-
was ilt'Vdicd
I'Mlfi'ick the
n\\ ke(>|i the
iiiaiiy \'-ar.s
l; lln||i<||/ii|.
in till' must
V kiiciun liy
Miri.sl iiffiprr
' and nnii'li
>t iiiuiatiiial
i'li<> (i|>|i()-
: and .sn|icrl>
m id' Catlic-
I'l'fs lias rc-
's Tissdt. a
< <»f candul
? sonx' live
id iiitii till'
• 'liiist. and
•ncf or nut,
I'lifs (il liil).
'Wl'ltlil. \
I' iiiirs. an
ill tl '^Iit.
Ill III' f,'iM'n
iliihitiMJ in
|■li^ts liavi-
niiii'i', thai
Il till' sini-
lt<'d. il has
I liavf liad
ART PROGRESS UF TIIK CEXTUnY
UDl
liitlf to toll iK'yond the skill nt' tho paintor. A nobly painted nal)l)a«p lit-ld,
or a suiM-rbly handlfd stoni' wall with the tail of a wmnan's skirt (lisai>|K-ar-
ini; around a corner, may lie masterly paintinj;. lint it is not threat art; and
it is to be hojied tliat the day ot ineanint,di'ss ranvases will soon pass, and
till- i-oniin;,; juiinters will not lie content to iliscmirse <i;randly about nolliiii!,'.
Anioni; the lejuiers of current art. in Anii'rica. t!ie place of hoiinr in por-
traiture Indoiigs to .John S. Harij;ent. who easily ranks with Itoldini and
li.Mijamin Constant in i'aris. lie is closely followed by Kdmnnd ('. Tailiell,
.iohn H. Alexander, with his love fur Ion-,' tiowiin; i,M-aceful liiu's of drapery,
AT rUK >nitlXK OK VKMW, (AIMS ■rAI'KM\.(
I{oiM-rt Voiinoh. and William M. rh:iM'. .lohn .MiClurc ilamilton has made
some striking; studies of sonic of the most proininent | pie of mir time,
amonij tle'Ui <iladst'-ni' and I'ouc I \lil. i'.lilm X'eildcr. .lohn l,:il"ar','e.
Will II. b.w. ('arroll I'.cckwitli. Abbott Thayer, and V.. 11. lUasiitield are
ti'.;ure |)iiinters whose subjects are fie(|iieiitly of a d irative or senii-reli-
K'K'Us character. The latter is noted for his literary as well as artistic ability.
«ieorj;e II. Ilon^'hton. tlion^di called an American, really belontis to Knirlaiid.
wlicn* he jiiiints interior ■icnre snlijects nsnally of olden timi's. .lohn Swan,
the animal jiainter. is also Kn.i,'lisli. The names of Moran and Sartain arc
distiiii^nished in the history of .\nii'rican art. each lamily ha viic^' contributed
s<'v«'nil jrenerations id' taletiteil painters. The elders were contemporary
with Ihiiiiel IIniitin;4ton. hnij; president of the National Academy of Design,
h
(I
t I'M
G02
TliWMPllS AND WOyUERS OF THE A/A™ CENTUltY
and Eustmaii Johnson, whose " Old Kentucky Home" was famous. WiUiaiii
T. Dannat. Herbt'it Deiinian, Kivilerick ISridynian. and V, L. Weeks are nil
strong ti<;iire painters, the hist two heing especially given to Oriental snli-
jects. Winslow Homer inchuh's ti<j;urcs with his marine studies, often piv-
senting groups of peasants on a stormy shore, while Alexander Harrison ;iii<l
W. T. Uiehards usually confine themselves to marines pure and simple. 'I'lir
ragged, dirty little street Arabs of J. (J. lirown have Imjcu exceedingly popu-
lar, and so have the landscapes of H. ISolton Jones, The li.st of inodeiii
land.seape ))ainters really (le>erving of mention is far too long to give m
anything like complete mention. A few leaders, such as Charles U. Davis,
Homer Martin, the late William T. I'icknell. and tJeorge Inness must suflice
to close our talk on the painters of tiiis century.
II. SCILI'TI UK.
Human progress seems to advance in waves, sending forerunners to an-
nounce the gathering tide ; and the ebli and How of force is felt in all manner
of enileavor, but in nothing so instantly or accurately as in the tine arts, flie
most sensitive and subtle forms of hiuuan exjiression. The jjlastic arts iiiv
as keen to record these changes as the pictorial, and the coming power of tiif
nineteenth century found a few prophets in the dying years of the centuiy
jiassing away. Antimio Canova (ITriT-lSL'!.'). born near Venii'c. left many
griiceful and di'licalely tinished works. Jlis "Three (iraces''and groupul
"Cupid and I'.syche ' are well known, also his colossal bust of NajKjleoii
and seated statue of Washington for the State of Carolina. France ]ir(i-
fluced a muster in Jean .Vntoine Houdon ( ITIl-lSL'S), more vigorous tlinn
his contem|M>raries. as seen in his poweiful work, thi* seated statue of \'ii|
taire. His s.atue of Washington, in the state capitol of Virginia, while jtre-
serving a faithful likeness, has a singular air of French elegance. Despitf
his strength, Houdon was not more accurate in study than the great Dane
Thorwaldsen, born at Copenhagen. 1770. His famous '• Lion of Luzerne" is
known to all tourists, ami his bas-relieis are familiar the wcirld over. Hi-^
i'hief religious works, tin' <'olossal figures of Christ and the twelve ajjostles.
are in the church at Cojienliiigen. where he died in 1.S4 1. The greatest name
of this ])eriod in Kngland was John Flaxman (17.')r»-l.SL'<!), who was as succes>
ful a teacher as he was a worker in his art. He was the originator of tli''
canu'o designs on tht^ \\'e(lgwood ware, being ]tartic\darly hajtpy in delicati-
relicts. Christian Daniel Hauch (1777-1.S.">7) aehieved the place of lionm
among (icrmau sculjitors of this time by his heroic iniiierial monuments, ol
wliiih the most imitortant is the e<p.estrian statue of Frederick the (Jreat.
.Mlhough. for many generations. Ifonie was the >recca of artistic pilgiim-
and most ol the great names iiiive at one tinn- or another been enrolled up<i;
the list of students Kojouining withui her gates, the race cliaracteristit s ol
each strong mind weic liable to find ey]>i-essiou in spite of classier training;
and when the mature urtisl lirought forth his own creations indt-pen lent "i
the touch of school or master, they were liki'ly to j)rc.sent his (,wn nation.r
tendencies of thought. Of late yi'avs. with increased facilities lorstudyin-
other art centres, of int(.'rconimunie;itioii of ideas by travel and ini'reasin..
iluiilication c»f works of art by various reproductive jiroccsses. the •• ar'
atmosphere "' seems to have extended so as io absorlj. and in a great measur<
obiiter
Tini^
li.ill »
Schi
Lud
puri
ose
to tl
iuHi
uity
s. AVilliaiu
t'fk.s arc ;iii
rit'utal siil).
f. ol'ten |iiv.
arrison ainl
llll'lc. 'I'll.'
inglv iiupii-
ol' inoik'iii
to give ill
■s ir. Davis.
must sutti<'(>
iicrs to all-
all niauiiiT
nc arts, the
<tic art.s aiv
owcr of till-
tlio ccntuiy
left many
III group of
1 Najiolcoii
raiico |)i(p-
porous tliaii
itiic of \<)1-
, while jin'-
e. I)(>s|)iti-
groat J)aiif
-.nzeruc" is
over. His
.'»' ajiostlt's.
'atcst iiaiiii'
as siicccss-
iitor of tile
in (h'licat.
' of Ilollnr
iiiiii-nts. Ill
' <!iTat.
!• pilgrims,
olli'd upon
I'lisfii s ol
! training;
It'll lent ol
n natioiiii'
r stiiilyiiij
iniTcasiii;;
tl an
t measnn-
Ain I'RuaiiEss OF the cestvuy
tMKi
oliiiterate, distinct line.s of racial diHerencc in maniHTs of expres.sion. tin-
fuiulami-ntal priiifiplcs of truth bt'iiig mori' generally sought for ami applied.
'I'luis. the uniiiistakalily 'reiitonie a.speet of (ieniian senlptiue in the early
half of this century shows in the great monument to "German Unity." hv
NAPOI.F.ON I fPANOVA.)
Schilling, at Xiederwald on the Khiiie. ami the Wallialla decorations, liy
liUdwig Schwantlialer, for King Louis of Havaria. (ieriiiaii seriousness of
purpose lends a di_'iiity ot appearance, even if it lieeoines somewhat grandi-
ose "t times, ami (ierman pi:iiistakiiig accuracy |iertects the tcidiniijue even
to the liiiish of small details. During the same periods, in Italy, the classic
influence was more dominant where the Itoniaii school still held sway, and
cot
TltlUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX"' CENTURY
(loliciicy (lett'riomtml into iiisiiiidity. ami liiiish lu'caine finical. Ueligious m A
classic uWji'cts weiv most lrc(|iuMitly iiriMluccd, Ipcsidc mort- vital work ui
portraits, statues, and busts. Siuue tlicrc wcit' who stru(^|.;h'd for frci'd<p:u.
amoiij^ tlicni Lorenzo Uaitoliiii (ITTT-ISod), a FhuiMitim- proffssor, wlio^-'
Ki'oup. entitled •• Cliaritv." is in the i'itti i'alace. Luij,'i i'ampaloni a<'hiev.ii
a surprising t'amt; for his figures id children, one of which, from a inonument
on a Polish se|>ulchre, has been widely coined in cheap plaster untler the
erroni'ous title of -The I'rayini,' Samuel."
Jn Fraiuc, the atlvance of sculpture has been more continual and consist-
ent, the national artistic teinperamenl iindini; aliundant means of expression
in the jilastie art. The French dramatic instinct has a sure percejition of
tin vlTect of a pose, the vahu; of j^racid'nl or vigorous lines and the i)alanre
I' propcution, so that whether uinler bonds to academic tradition in matters
'/f fechniipu'. or broken loose and workiic,' under individiuil inspiration, the
French sculptor is likely to create an art'stie r<'sidt. 'I'he minds id the cuni-
mon jieople are nn)re awakened to al..l^til• impressions through the p-neral
excellence of the public nionuHieiits and sculptural decorations, so freely dis-
played t!irou;.;lioMt the iaud. than are the masses in countries where art is at
a low standard. IntU after the miildie of the century, French .sculiiture,
like the rest.
uiainlv of sniiMitli and delicate iiuish and inclim-d to In
romantii', thou'di l''ran('ois Ifuile was
ilul anil vi''orous, as shown in his
patriotic j;roup •■ Le Chant du Depart "' on liie Arc ile i'riomphe. in Knj^land.
the seeds of I'Maxnian's sowiu;.^ slowly bej,Mii to bear fruit in an awakeiiin,'
pid)lic interist, tliouj;h the earlier eH'inls were >edalcanil conventional ratlur
than spirited, the most important wiuks beini; di;.;nilied and stattdy inonu
meuts and memorials. Westmacott ( 1777-1 So<»). I''rancis (hantrey (17N1.'
ISH). whose lar.je forluuf was beipicatlied to the ttoyal Academy as tli>'
" C'hantrey l''uud ; " .lolin (Jibsiui ( I7'.M-1.S(;((). a pupil td' Canova ; Henry
Weeks (i.st»7-lS77). who made tlie lirst bust of N'ictcuia as (^men ; and
Alfred <J. Stevens ( I.Sl7-IS7o), am u few of the luoie notable men of the
past LTi'ner.ition. Thomas W'oolner ( iSl'.l-IS'.ll.') expressed the feelin.u cd' the
pre-ltaphaelite movement in si'ulpture. as did Hunt, Uunie-il ones, ami IJos-
setti in paint iui;.
American sculpture be;,'au with tlu; new ceidury and, like nn'st .VmeviiMU
i^rowths. be^'an in a very snwdl way; for althou^ch iJush had nuuh- a few
ti>^ures, notably a fountain now in l-'airmoinit Park, one of the first pieces ot
scidptui'al woi'k in theeountiy was that (d' a poor New Jersey stone-cutter,
•loiin Fra/ee. who tried to comfort himself for the ileatii (d his ehilil by mak
iiiK ii memorial ti^iirn of lum, aIthon;.:h he had never seen a statin*. From this
mea;.ire lie;^innin!< started a line id' ever-ini'reasinii; strenijth. until now. in ili'
ilast
!!• arts.
in all others, we can hold our own with the best in tl
le worl'i.
(tf<ourse the earlier students, led bv lioral io ( ireenoie'li. of llosfon. Iliram
I*
d' Ver
nonl. .lud Thom;is (
I'ord.oj New \'ork. made iheir wav t.
Ijome. where they appliiil 'he Iriiditioual methods to ti.iditional subjects will
ccmventional results, (irt 'noiiudi's colossal statue of W'ashini'ton is in th
Capitol 1,'roniids ; Powe
( iret
■k SI
l\e
Is o\\
ned by tin Unki' of CIcm
laud; and Crawfiud's •■ (tr|dieus seekin;,' Furvilice," now ni the Poslon Mu
scum, ami ••('(dossiil LiU'rly " in the Cajiitol. ar(> his best-known works
Krastus P;ilmer. (d' .\lbany, contempoiiiiy wiih these, developed his t;ilent ;it
UUY
ART I'lWanESS OF THE CESTillY
tM)5
eliyious and
tal Work III
or liffdoMi,
ssor. wluKf
•ni a<-liii'v. il
I hiiiniiiiii'iit
uikUt tlif
md foiisist-
(■xpi-cssion
Tl't'litioll of
till' liidaiHtt'
ill iiiatt(*rs
iratioii, tlie
t till- iniii-
tln' K'-iuMal
• lifcly dis-
Tf art is at
I sc'iil|>niii',
liii'-d to Ih'
own ill his
II Kiif^laiiii.
awakriiiiii,'
oiial rallirr
tolv lllllllM
ivy (I7SL'-
■iiiy as till"
kii ; Htiirv
iH'i-ii ; and
ai'ii of tlic
linu' (d' till-
', and li'os-
Aini'iiran
adf a tiw
t i>ii'<'('s ot
I'lli'Cllttrl-.
Id liv iiiak-
I'loni this
io\v, ill tin
till' Wllllii.
•n. Iliraiii
■ •ir uav to
ijrrts w ith
1 is ill till-
■ of Clrvr-
ostoll Mil-
in works,
s talent at
liuine, and seciured iiiodtds and sui)jt>cts from liis own nei^jliboi-hood. giving a
(listiiH'tly Aincrican rhaiacli'i- to his work. Among the most nott-d of tlio
Anii-riran coliniy at Ifonn-, altlioiii,'h not paiticiilaily givi-n to Ain>-iii-aii siil)-
ji-els, was William W'etmure Story, of iSaU-m, Mass., lioin in ItSllt. i'homas
STATtIK OF BENJAMIN FllASKI.IN. (IIOVI.K. )
Hall. Imrn in tin- same State in tin- sann- yi-ar. wn^ of tin' sami' class in Koine;
iiiit his tlit'iiies an- more |.atriolii', notahly tin- •• Kiiiani-ipation " ijroiip in
Washiiiijlon. ' Harriet Ilosmer is the liisl Ifiniiiine nanie on the .VniiMiean
list of setiliitms. She also settled in iloiiie. win-re slie eonijtleted many works.
William Henry Uiin-liarl ami l!ainIol|ili iioners were l»oth ol the idealist
! '-l^
(106
TRIUMPHS AMi WOXDEliS OF THE A/A'" CKXTURY
scliool, tlu' litttir ('(iiuiilctiii},' ("rawfonl's luitiuisheil Wasliingtim inoiuiinrnt
at IvirliiiiiiiKl. 'I'lii' luiiiu' ot l{(ii;iT.s is iiioif tnmiimiilN oiiuiicctt'd with I r
familiar I'ltli- statiH'tti' grmius of fvcn-day doiiifstif scfiics .sn aiipcaliii;; in
till' iH)|iiilar tastf. '\'\w si-iilptor .lolm li(»j;t'is. <>t .Mas.sacliusftts, iias a!>ci
made a Irw ]ai'i,'t' works, anum^ tliciii tin- iiiiicstriaii status ol' <ii-ii<-ral !;■ -
luilils, ln'tiiic (lie City Hall, riiiiadcliiliia. Ilfiuy Kirkc Itrowiiv ( ISM-Inm,.
niadf a iiiuulicr id' f(|iu'strian statm-s ol nntf, our <if \Vasliiiij;ti»ii ln-iimtln'
Hist liron/c actually ca^t in Aiiit'iica. Mis liitiiii' ol (tcin-ial Scott was cn^t
I'roiu ca|itiirt'd cannon, relics ol tlic Mexican \\:>\-. Ili> [injiils. Larkin Mcaiii'
and .1. (i. A. Ward. l)oth attained lii^li jdaces. the latter l>»'ini; I'speeially
jironiinent in the |iro.','ress ol' .Vnierican scul|(lurc tliroii.i,di such works as his
colossal \\'ashinj,'ton tor the New \"(irk 'I'reasnry Ihiildin;;, and his •• Indian
Hunter." •• ril<,Miiu," and ■• .shakes|icaiv," in t'entral I'ark.
Alter the middle t>l' the century. Freiu-h art l)ecaiue emotional iiid dr.i
matic, the notorious •• Daime " lor the Paris Opera Mouse, hy .1. 1!. ( ari- . ,\.
being one ot the first of the new utti-rances. I'aul Uidiois was h-ss aston-
ishiii;,' in manner, and Henri ('haim was still more restrained, althoMj^di l:ir
more vital than the old conventional school. The name of I'n'di'-ric Au,'M^t"
liartholdi should he kimwii to every .American hy reason of his eoloss.il
statue of "Liberty Knlightcuin;^ the World." now standing; sentinel in New
^drk harbor. This, and his liguienf Lafayette olTeiin^ his services to Wasli-
inj^iou. were jirescuted to America by the I'reiich ,i,'overnmeut. .Vntoine !,ouis
Harye ( I "'.(•"•- 1 S7.">) was a sculptiu' mii i/inrrls, a law unto himself of liis own
(h'velojiment ; and though he has many followers, as a si ulptor id animals he
has no rivals. In many branches of art he was {iroticienl. but his best-kuouu
Works are the marveio\is studies of animal life, modeled with inlinite skill.
When the great wave of impressionism rose and HiHtded the land, eurryiic,'
nuisic. literature, ami the drama before it. plastic art as well as pictorial wa-
caught up too. anil whiiied into i. variety of strange forms, .\ngusie iiodni
led the new movement in sculpture, his m.;iiner JM-ing copied with varyiie,'
degrees of success by lesser lights, and like all new movements run to fooli^li
extremes by incomiieteiit followers. His heroic group. ••The l'>ouigeoi.«
Calais," will indicate his sl\le. I'roin extreme realism on on
>idi
iti.
portrait statues in the last detail of modern costume, silk hats, kid glove-
and in one case holding a cigar, to the vague suggestions of a shapeless nias
of marble, out of which protrmie iiniinished limbs and half-dev«>loped heiuls
sculpture has been pushed from side to side, but is settling' into a vigorous
stead
V. onward niovem
lent, in uhieh the best men of all nations stride alou'.
together. In tlie limits of a short article it is im|Kissib1«' to m«'ntion all
deserving names, but a lew will serve as types, and the Americans are wel!
Wiuthy to head the list.
Daniel French's grand ..lajestic golden tignre of Liberty, towt sing abovi
the Cotirt of Honor, the imperial hi»tess ol the \\ orhTs Fair at Chicago,
placed hint at once on a pedestal of famo. From the promiin-nce of hi
Ix'autiful Coluiuiiian !''ounlain opposite the golden (ioddess. I'rederick .Mac
Moiinies became known the land over. His greatest late work is the crowniii'.^
of the soldiers' and sailors' memorial areh for Prospect I'ark. ISrooklyn. wit!
a colossal (piadriga of 'l'rium|>h and groups of the army and navy. .Vugus, u-
St. CJamlens, though a cosnu)iH»litan, is truly an .Vmeriean sculptor of th
nny
ART PlWGkESS OF THE CESTLIiY
(Ml?
11 iiiomiiuriit
i'ti'(! with ihf
:il'I"'i'liH),' 111
Its. lias ill"!!
li'MK-nil l;c\.
■OSM-lssc,
on iM'ill^r tllf
•oil M;|S (•a>t
.arkiii Mfaiic
IK t's|i('cially
Works as Ills
liis •• Iiiiliaii
lii-t rank, wlioso statiios of Ailiniral l"arra,i,Mit in Nfw Vnrk. Lincoln in riii-
iM},'!'. and tllf stiiniy I'uritan. Cliapin, in Siniiiicticlil. Mass., aro wt-ll kn<i,\ii.
olm Warner is anntiicr distiiuttivfly Anit'riraii inudiict. altii(iu:,'h lie had tho
aii\Mnta«;<' (d' soniu trainiii;.,' in I'aiis. His work is l''rfti{ !i in tiM'liiiic|ii(' Imt
iii.t Kri-ncli in sjtirit. haviii;,' ilic native traits ol' t'reedoiii and oriuinalitv. as
siii'wn in lii.s tij,'iire ol' William idnyd (iarrison. and later in his relirt [.or-
I raits on tho art liuildinj,' at the ('ohinihian j-air. This ijreat oeeasitjii olTeied
(i]ii>(iitnnities to Anieriean seiil|itiirs of wi.icli they took fnll advanta'^'c, show-
ing' the iiiyh rank to wliieh they were entitled. It made an Anu-riean (d'
Carl I'litter, the tiilented .\ustrian, who.se decorations on the IVniisylvaiua
l.'ailroad Station, l']iiladel|iliia. are well known. It added furtlier lustre to
the name of .loim .1. Itoyle. whose heroic -'Indian Mother" in Kairmoiint
iial ind di',1-
1"'. < arj., . ,\,
< less astoii-
alflioiiih far
iMie .\u,'Mv;t,i
his euh).ssal
inel in New
•es to Wasli-
ntoine Lonis
<d" liis own
f animals \\<-
bestdcnou n
nite skill,
nd. earryiiii,'
•ietorial was
u'nsic Kodiii
killi varyiie,'
in to fo(ili>li
toiii'geois of
» side, with
, kid j,d()ves.
peless mass
oped heads,
a vivjorons.
stride aloim
mention all
lis are wej!
iiiiijr alwivi
at ('hieai;o.
eliee ot hi-
h'riek Mac
le eldwnilii;
iklyn. will
AugtisliH
|>tor of til ■
■rilK W.\slllNi.TON MOSCMKNT. KAIUMolSr I'VUK.
Tark. and seated statue (d' lienjamin Tranklin, are matters cd' just jiride to
riiiladeljdiians. It j^ave jiroiniiienee to such men as Loradn Taft. with his
•graceful woi'u on the Horticultural ISuildiiii.': Philip Martiny. on the A^"!-
ciiltural iJuildiu.!,' ; the jjreat Colnmlius i[uadriL:a. by K. (". I'otler and Daniel
Kicmdi, who.se licautifiil nditd' of •• I>eaih Staying' the Ihind id the Sculptor"
is a masterpiece. All visitors to thi' White City will rememlRM- the vijjorous
animal stinlies by Kdward Kemys, and the Indian lij^'iiies of A. ('. I'roetor.
The seulptuial coniinissions of the t'onu'iessioiial Liinary in \N'ashini,'tou
have produced a remarkable collection (d' works by talented Americans, and
every great exhibition brim;s interesting j'xamples from tho.se already named,
and such others as Herbert .\dams. Kdwin Klwell. Itessic I'nttcr, with her
dainty little st'itiiettes, portrait W(uk liy rharles (iratly. Catherine Cohen.
C. K. Dallin. stmnge visionaiy suggestions, in the Kodiii mnnner, by CJeorgo
iSonnard, and an array oi lesser names too numerous to mention.
008
TltlUMl'llS AM) WOShEUS OF THE A/A'"' CKSTUIIY
For tliis rt'iison, but tVw nf I lit- imtal)li> iiaiii "s ot in ''c u fi itimiors fan 1 •
ncn. " w(" T, lliuno Tlioniycnitt. ol Kii>,'lunc!. niUHt not U' overlouki il,
wJi:»B»' . ...... ji!' •■ MuwiT is niiM 11 uliniri'il ; nor ( »nsl(uv Ford, nion- voutlilul
jti.t* ;";yia:'.() in style. Jolin lli-nry l''olf\, ol Dublin, has had a pronoumtd
eifi < t \n Kr(;li.sli siMilptuiv, Ihmii^ a HUiuH'SHt'ul tt'acliiT, inoludin^ uuiunK' Ids
pu]». .H»»vf'ri 'stin^^uishcd women, anionj^ them the I'linn-ss F.oinsc and
the Karl of l'.ij<i 's ^^randdaui^hter, .Miss (iiant. (iforf^f rin\v<u'tirs tiir:i
cotta ndiet'H must concdude the list of Knglish works. A lew IJussians have
ri'a(dic(l fniiinMic", niainiy by animal studies. .\ntoe(dski. a -lew of \Viln;i.
of poorest |iarent.»','e. lias doni' |M(W«'rfid lij,Mire work of a .>erioiis, rallir
mehundioly sort, tl*»' mo.st im|Mirt:iiit lioinj,' a •• Christ I'lonnd." What is bi st
in modern Italian and (Jerman work is lUMctii-ally P'reneh, and of tins Fri'inli
tiiemselves I lie list is t(io Ion;.; to eoni|tlete. .\ few must sulllee, sneh as .b'au
Alexanilre l-'al^juiere. who a-jures. like <'ar|ieaux. to j;ive vitality by means
of vigorous aetion to his tivjures. F.mainiel I'' rennet has worn with somi .lis-
tineti(ni the inai'tle descended troni Marye's shoulders, \idal, another |in|iil
of Marye, was iiimd for twenty years, yet naineil two nn-dals for correct
anatomy in his modelin','. Carrier JSelleiise's •• Mebe Aslet-p" is an examiie
of the dfdieate style, and Alfnd Uoueher shows the other extn-me in In-
renderiii}.; of sturdy niaseiiline fij^ures, todinj; or racing, strixin^: to |preseiil
in seul|iture the pM-ture ot human strnj;',;le for esistenee. as did .Millet in his
j)aintini,'s. 'i'hese materialistic' studies represent the H^ht for the bread and
breath of life, while tin' impressionist eotitortioiis of the Kodin school try tu
.sn,i;;4est the conflict <d emotions. t;ood and bad. and the battle ut spiritual .mil
j>hysieal desires and it^velopment.
III. < KKAMUs AM) (il.VSS WOKK.
From time immemorial to the present day men have been fashioniii;,'
.shapes of clay, experiment iie.,' with ilifferent kinds, ditVereiit de;..;rees of heal,
and ditfereiit chemical combinations to b)rni j^la/es and colorings. The Inn-
damental processes of pottery makiii}; have chan>;ed bit little sinno pndiis-
torie times, and wall pictures ol' the days of the I'toleuiies show the potiei'>
wheel whirling much as it does at present, althoiij^h. of e mrse. many niodeni
inventions have \H'e\\ made to faidlitate difTen-nt forms (d wor'- In tin'
famous Sevres factories in !•' ranee, estaiiiished under royal pat oiiaije and
still remainini,' i,'overnmeiit property, a modern device has rendered possible
the makiiij,' of lar^e vases of extremely thin ware. To jirevent the delieat«
jtaste id' which these are maile from collap.'-iin; by its own weij^ht before ii
can harden, the vase or jar is moulded in an air-li^ht ehainber. the niouiii
of the (dijeet sealed, and the air exhausted from the chamlM-r, leavin)^ tin
object in a vaeuuni. The 'lir contained in itself is suflicienf to hold up tin-
sides until they harden and dan^'cr cd' collapse is over, when it can lie hied
Attempts were made in vain to ecpial the dtdieaey of the Chinese ejjjj-shell
ware, when, one day an eibicated Chinese visitor to the factories observed
the method employed, and exclaimed. "This is the way we make those cups,"
and, taking a mould. In- dipped it into the li<piid paste, rinsed it around ainl
eni|itied it at once. A thin lilm like a soap bubble remained in the mould,
which hardened eiiouiih to form the dainty ware the wiukeis had U'eii trviii.:
witlumt su(!ce8s to produce: so the Chinese method was at once .ulopted.
I
rrjty
.til • i'i:uijni:ss of inn t estchy
009
i>,'iit'rs can 1 •
■ DVl'llookl i|,
DI'I- VOlltllllll
I |il'<illii|iliri'(|
),' a'lioiij,' Ills
I-ouisf aini
ivorlir.s ti'iia
iissiiins liavf
•«■ (tf WlllM.
riniis, ralhi-
Wliat is lii'st
I tlio Fiiinli
^iii'li ii.s .lean
ty hy iin'uiis
illi siiiiM .lis-
iMitlii'i' |iii|iil
s l'(ir ('(irrt'ct
an fxani|i|i;
rrinr ill iiis
l; ti> prt'si'iit
.Millet in his
If lircaij aiiij
■^(•iionl trv t'P
'Spiritual and
I tasiii(inin>;
rccs of Ileal,
<. The liin-
■iilicc |(lehis-
tlie ptittel's
lany ninih-iii
.r'" In til.-
t iMia;,''- aii.i
red |i(KS.sililr
the ileliente
;lil liel'iire ii
. tiie niniHJi
leiivill>,' til.
Iiiilil ii|i th>'
•an lie lireil
»8e •'Kfj-sJiell
es (iltserveit
hose eiijis."
arotiml ami
the iiioiilil.
heeii tivin.;
I'e adopteil.
\\j<- .. ilie iiiiilille of the la.-«t eeutitrv an ini|>elii)« of ilevelu|inieiit in < iMaiiiir
alt a|i|t«'ared all over tin- mntiiu.ni nt Kiii'u|M! ami in KnKhinil. This wim
pplialilv due to the diM(ivei\ . in ditVereiil places, ol kaolin or tin' fine ehiy
ol wliii'li jMtrcidain is made, which >liiiinlated the puticrv imiuMtrv and
iMiiseil the establisliiiient of many factories which ai)- still woikini,' to-dav.
Tlic I»iesden Works, founded ill 17tMl. Well' hidih-n in an old (oitn
ami
Hull' sccieis jealously ',''iai(leil. Alter .il«iiil aceiiluiy they " cnl inl4i decay,
ImI in I.S('i.'{ were revived iiiid rei-stalilished in lar',;e new ' ,*., -^ of iKcir
null, where dainty flowered ware is pi-odiiccil, whiidi ha.. , ija' omc into
jxipiilar favor. Italian ceramics are apt to he florid a> tivi deil with
decoration, that called "majolica" deriviii); its nam> h' ' Mi.' inland of
Majorca, where it was first made.
I'
avelice
collie:
icii/a, ii
nd ih
I'rciich form of the iiaiiK', ** faiei ," ha^ l>ecn iiM'd 'o d> 411: tc porcelain
in ^'ciieral. The town of l,inio<.;c^, in France, has 'una centre of ceramic
art >ince I77.'t, when a l'"iencli firm otalili.shed a fa f the piodnclion
ot a |H>ciiliarly fine ware, made |Ni>silile liy the Mi|ierio. •i'..,ility of the kaolin
loiiiitl in the iiei^'lilHirliood. I.i IS,'!'. I a lady in New \°oi'k showed the llavi-
!aiid firm a cup of delicate war>-, askiii.; tlniii to match it for her. It was .so
iiiiich finer than anything ti.ey had seen that the\ desired to im|Mirt some fur
their own liii.sincs>. With thi^ enil in view, Mr. |)a\id llavilaiid took the
cup and went to l-°rancc tryiii;,' to find where it hail Inen made, lie wa.->
directed to Limoges and. in the factorio there, he tried to Iia\c Mnvflish
slia|>es and d ration.-, <Mipied in the cx<pii>ile w.in-. The cnii>ei\atiNiii and
slow methods id the |i|ace were not cipial to his deiiiaiid>, and he therelurc
cstalilislied a factory of hi^ own. whidi. since ihe middle of the centnry. has
iiecii the most important in the town.
In Kiijilaiid, the nio>t (•••ieliraled )iolteries arc all over a cenlmv old. and
the ceramic art has been deVelo|ied to the lll!,die.>t device iioth in teehiiicul
and artistic directioii>. The>\oi'ksol the Itoulton liim. w ho own many pot-
teries. are partieiilarlv rich in color and decoration, tlio'-e lioin their lactoiy at
l..inili>tli lieini; es|M'cially fine. So also are th« (.oalport wares, celelnated for
1 heir rich lilin lor. the IJoyal Worcester and the Crown herhy. In these
Knv;lish factories, and also in those on the < 'oiiiineiit. aiti>t.-> of ;;rcal skill
areemploxed a^ decorators, and in the \\'idi,'wood works the delicate cameo
fi;;iires in white relief on a tiiiied .^'lonnd wiie ori:,'inaled hy the famous
sciiljitor. .loliii riaxmaii. In .\iiiiriea, tin' rrcntoii poiierie.-. turn out a va.st
iliiantity of wares of varyiiif; de-jrees of artistic e.scellence. and one factory
has the secret of an old lri>li ware, the Itelleek. of imle.scrii>ahle delicacy,
like an iridescent sea sin II, loie,' thoie^ht to he a h'st art. The Uookvvood
pottery, of moNt artistic ipiality in desii,'ii and color, is made in ('incinnati,
and was the itiveiiliim of a woman who li;i-> ti:iiiied a schoid of i^iils as deco-
rators ; as has also the Tiffany firm in New Wnk for their marvelous ulass
work. An aileipiate description of the wi.rk of this firm woiild '•11 a Iniok. as
they have developed iitidicaiin-d-of |Missil.ilitics in the use of j,'lass for deco-
rative ]iiir|)oses. They have revived for^'otten arl> of coloriii!,' Jind iir entcd
new processes of Ireatiiieiit. that jiive results like fairy work, no two piece.-,
heiiii: alike. These and many other loriiis of imlnstrial art piodiiet- are
hioiij,'lif to ,1 hi<,'h plane of perfection nowadays, although tho word ••an " is
.^'ricvonsly alm^ed. iwiiin applied to ever\ ihiiiK .salaltle, from wrilim; paper to
AlO
rniLMPiis ASD woxniais or iiik a/.y'" cestuhy
si):i|i. Tilt- ^Mt-at schools iiiiil iiistitiilioiis wliicli tenth tlic aits iiiul iiiihistiu'H
coiiiliiucil nil' doiri^' vast ;^'oo<l, liovvcvi-i'. in iiii|i|-o\ iii^ |iiililic ta.'U- ami ten li-
iii;; llic woi'lil to iliscriiiiiiiatf lM>t\v*-t'ii true art iiml falst*. aid tlii-ir iiitliiiiKi*
fiiii ali'iMily lie It'll ill highi'i' staiiilaiils ol' (It'cinatiiiii in artich's of foim i
daily use.
IV.
I.MHSI III \l, AIITS.
Closfly t'ollowiii'^ |iaiiitiiiLC fonu'^ iilai-k ami whitf art in various furins.
I'illit r i't'|ii'iiiliii'tivt' III' (in^riiial work, ami it is ilitliciilt In iiisi'iiniinali' lu'
twfi'ii line ail ami liaiitlirrat't in llif iiianv |irofcsst's fm|iloM'il. I'jii^raviii};
oil iiii'tiil has loii'4 lit'i'ii known, ami >\rv\ was t'onsiili'i'i'ii an i's|ii'('iaily vain-
alili' iiirtliotl o ri'|iroiiui'ini; |iainiiiii;s until within a ^I'lifiation. I'ltfliiii'.,' i>
iinotli
i-r o
I.I
I'ln of lilai-k ami w hilt- work, ami is still |Hi|-nlai', thoii.i:li !•
than lormrilv. \\'ooil t'lP'rasin
uiM'in'.
Ih
lis ri'iitiiry has piissfil lhriiii'.;li
III;
my slant's nj' t|i'\t'lo|iiiii'ni. ami in tlif illiistralioiis ul' hooks ami iiia^M/.iin'^
has iii'i'ii lii-oii'^'ht to a hi);h Htainliii),' lis a tiiii* art. It is .still useil in iiiaiiv
M'l--
•jlll'
wiiys, imt all thosi- in'oct'ssi's that n'i|iiin' liiii' wmk hy h.'iiiil arc hciiij^ sn|
si'ili'il liy the |iholo-iy pc |iri
il' \\ hii'li till'
arc iiiaiiv
kimls
iiiakiin; of plates or liloeks lor printing re<piireil skilled haml work, anil tin-
eniiravcrs and womj eutters were neeessarily artists iheiiisehi's. so tlial while
they were copy inj; lliework of others the\ wi-re also proilnein;^ works oj an
tlii'iiiselves. The plates and prints were, thcrei'on . valimhle and ex|>ciisivi'.
ami. as inotlcni haste !.;rew more and more to di'maml elu-ap ipiiek work, ilie
old eareinl style of workiiii; ;;ave way to mei-haiiieal nietliods ol ^realir
speed. With the dcvelopiiieiit of photou'raphv and its applieatioii to the
enj^raser's art. while a certain indiviiliial artistic eharaeler in the work was
lost, the actual /opyiii<; of painliiif; in all the details of li^ht. shade, .ind hall
tones has ln'cii carried to a hiiili deu'ree of perll'ctiiin. Ity what is known
a.s i>hoto|,'raviiie. every tiny liriish mark and every dilTereiit. lint of colm is
' -produced with si'icntitie accuracy in lilack and white. This is ai'coiiiplishetl
Ity liavim,' a pliotoj,'iapli of ihe oainlini,' taken on .1 gelatine lilm. whiih 1-
snspemleil in .1 lialh of acid in the iiiie of an eleetrii! current. 'I'his eui'ieiil.
playint; over a sheet of copper, sets free tic inoleciilcs of iiictal that aif
deposiled upon the lilm. and tilliii,^' all the liille iiieipialitics of the sni'lace.
produce what is practically a east of the photoj;ra|>li in copper. 'I he plal'.
thus seouied. is k'>ii« «»ver Ity hand and iinislied here and tlicrt* with eii|.;raver' ;
tools, and froiii this prints may he diiplicateil to any cMent. In cnifraM' 1
plates the desij^n is eiit into the metal, incised lines heinj; either drawn li\
hand with a sharji point. calU'il "dry point" work, or eaten in hy ileitis, the
reniainiie.,' surface of the plate bcini; protected from the aciil l>v a j^reasy lilm
In wooil-cntt iie^'. the Llocks show a reverse process, the design Itcinj; leli
staiidiiif,' in tine lines, while the iiiuaininj,' surface is cut away. h<i that a
wood-cut is in reality a carving; in low relief. 'I'lie imidern eh'ctrotype pii
cesses produce a similar result mi a metal hlock hy the action of acid,
method capalile of most sneiMly work ami therefore in deinaml aiiioii); tli
ninltitude of daily piililications illustratiiij^ current events. Of course the.-
hasty results can scarcely he called line art. hut they are devchtpiiieiits e;
artistic industries, calcnlated to iiiei't certain nceils of onr busy civilization.
l''or more .irtistie elTects, various forms of lithoijra])hy have ^;iven Immui
fill results. This valiiiihle jiroccss was accidentally discoverud in 17',M>, hy
\iMII
;..id
i.lle
.ii'lil
vs rit
hell
runy
AiiT I'finiiiiHss OF Tin: cHXTriiy
611
11(1 iii(liiHtiii>H
If illiil ffaili-
liiMi' iiitliii-ii<-i>
's <•! ciiiiiiiiiiii
iriiiiis forms,
■liiiiiiiiiti- III-.
KiiKravirij;
iailv Viilii-
Ktcllill;,' is
■*Sf(| llilnii'^'li
i(i iiiii^'a/iiH's
ist'il ill iiiany
tx-iii}^ sii|ii>r-
kimls. 'I'll,.
• >rk, ami tlii>
-> thai wliil,.
\Mnk.s (il ail
il <'X|M'iisivc,
•k xVKik, till-
■* ••! !,'i'i'aiiT
llinli tit till-
u' Wink uas
ill*, am! h^ilr
t is known
III' ciilnr is
't'iiiiiii|islii'i!
Ml. W llii'll IS
Ills I'lirii'iit.
a! that an-
tin- smtacr.
TIm' j.iatf.
I t'lljrniVt-f's
II tMlf,'r!lVl' I
r (liawii liv
V aciiis. tin-
U'lcasy tiliii.
iM-in),' Icli
. so tliat a
rotvjM- |>ii
of ju-iil. ,;
aiiion<; tin
Hirst- tlii->
Mum-iits Hi
ili/afioii.
vi'ii ix-aiii
17'.Hi, liv
iiiiini; Itolu'iniaii, Alovs Scin-ffliltT. of I'lauii.-. l)(-.-,iriii« to wiitf a list,
aiiil liavm;; no papi-r, Im- si-iawli'd on a IIik- .>lnnf floor til'- a tew worils, ami
lati-r on. coining to pinovc liifiii, in' IkjIIiouk'IiI liini of an fX|M-riim'iii with
,tci(l on tlic stoni'. 'I'liiH hi' tricil, limliii),' the Hlonc t'iit«'n away all aroiiml IiIm
wniiii^;. U-avin^,' t!iat raist-d in sntlicii-ni n-lii-f to |trini from, tin- Icttcriii','
iiiin;; iloiif willi H ^'I'l'i'^.v writin;; suhslain-f lliat rriiflli-il tlit- ;iiiil. l.utrr
i\|icriiiit'iits piiivi'd that tin- i-atini^ away of tlu) ntuin' wuh not iii-ccHsary if
ilii- ih'^iKii "'('re inailf with an oily matt-rial ami tin- rt'st of llit- siirfaff k'|it
mnist with a wt-ak stiliition of aiiil. .\ f,'''''ii^v priiitiii!,' ink ix-iii-,' ainilii-d
would stii-k only to tlit' oily dt-Hi,(n and ntit to tht> acidiilatt'il siirfat-f, whit-li
|)r(N-i-.4fl mad)' |NisHiblu the printing frtitn Hat stom>s. uhit-h wt-rt- not so liahht
I'IIOTOitlt.\iMll( VIKW I'K NKW VoIlK iirv .\M> lllli-oN lllM-.lt, lAKI.N I- Ut»M
arm f*Touv ok i-aiik now luii.Di.Nti.
to wear out as tin- rt-lit-f dfsi.u'iis. St-m-ft-Mi'r died in IX'-M. livini; long
t-iioiii,'h to si'c his invi-ntioii in iist- thidiigliont tin- worhl. altiiouwh of foiirsn
hf t-ouhl not know tin- iinprovt-nu-nts that ohotogiaphy would bring. On tlu»
(• ....'nnial annivorsary td this -.^rt-at disi-ovt-ry in IS".t(>. i-xhil.itions td' litlio-
grapiiif works were held in London and Paris, and tlu- possiliilitit-s and di-vt-l-
opmcnts shown. Mr. .lames .Mt-Neill Whistler ha.s made many very inter-
• stiii',' exiierinieiits with it. as havt- also .Mr. .lo.se|.h I'enni'll anil Mr. Ilnliert
lli-rkonier. The latter has maile iiiniim-ralilt- ixpirinifnts and inventions in
his Im.sy artistic eareer, and has just reei-nlly iierft-it.-d an iiniiiovement on
lithoKiaphv whieh he ealls " |ilate printin.u'." and which has l.i-i-n dnhlied l.y
the irreverent tin- •• llerkotype" prt>c.-ss. It is simply paintins,' in a pecnliar
oily ink on a metal plate, whit h. whil.- the ink is moist, is ilnsted over with
a line iK)wder which adheres to every l.nisli mark on the surface. Une ingre-
(IfJ
THiUMi'iis AM) woxpRiis or TUN xix^" chjsrmy
ilit'iit III tliis |in\vtlcr is it im'tiil tlmt in flfctriciillv ciiiKliH-tildc, iiiid. altfr ilii«
excess III |Hi\viler is iinislii'd nil, tlie plate, Willi wiiiit reiiiiiiiis stii'kiiii; on ii,.'
uily siurilee, is pia't'il in ;in cleetrotV |ie Watll, Till' eii|i|»er il<']i<i^itec| liie|.,,||
liv tlie electrie rnnetit liaiiliMis ami liiriiis a iiei^ative ol tlie niiKinal |iaiiit-
iii^. w iiii-li can l>e sti'i|i|>i'i| tnnii tin- |>iate atnl used in a |irintiiiK|ii'e.sM, kimh;
an alisiilutely taitlilul re|ircM|iieliiiii nl the artist's liandn\<iik. A .^iiiiiMi-
jUiierS''
d -al^'rai.
I.v." 1.
leen 11
iventi'd li\ Mr. Seiitd/. of .Ma\eiii
wild lias develniied the |Missil)ililies (d aliiniiiiiiiii liir plate wtnk. tlie aih.iii*
taije of this material over stoin' or other metal lieiiin its extieiiii- li.i,'litm'-s.
Tliese |iroresscs are eNjieeiallv valiialili- tn artists who eiin work in lilaek aud
white, as their own oiij;iiial i'onee|>liciii i^ pertrrlly lepitidiieid without the
|Htssiliility (if miMcuneeptioii hy some eopyist, as exists where a painiiii); is
iiitei pii'leil liy an etidier or i-nvraver.
• tt the new |iroee-ises or iiiiproveiiieiil.-. on the idd, that have arisen lieeaiiM-
(if till' diseo\ery id plmto^rraphy. it may !>•• said their name is le^don. riint..
^'I'aphy itself is rapidiv lieinir developed into a line art. and has lieeome one
id the most impnrtanl laetors ot modern exi^leliee. it eolldiines srieliee. ail.
and iiidii-.lrv. and is eipuilly neeessary to all tlies eiipatiiins. While it n
ditliiMilt to >tate what was the lirst attempt that led to the sm;^'estio!i r.j
photiiv'i'aphv . it may he supposed the experiments of the Swedish seieiiti-t
Seheele were aiiioii^' the tiist. lie t'oiiiid that the aetimi id' the sun's ray
hiaeki'iied silver ehloride. and others experinieiitiii^ alter him, at the lie<.;iii-
niiii; id the eenlnry, had .i;liiiiiiiei'iii^' ideaN o| the possiliiiity of a new ait.
As has so olieii happened with the dawnlll^' nf Huine ^reat idea, some new
u|ipreeiatioii of a i^reat natural law, the thoii<.^dit wan working' in many minds,
and the diseovery seemed to he almost simultaneous in several jilaces, .\>
early as ISOL' \Vedi,'W(iod puldished in the ".loiirnal of the Ifoyal Institute "
an "aeeiiiint of a method of lopyini; paintings on ^lass and of makiii'.; pro-
tiles liy the avreiiey of li'^hl on nitrate of silver, with some remarks liy Sii
Humphry Davy." TheM- yi'iitlemeii were, however, iinalile to lix the iiiipre--
sioiis they proeured, and a I'renehman. De Nie| , seems to haM' iM-eii the
lirst til succeed in this direction. In iH'Jd, learniii|.; that M. I.nuis .laei|iies
l>a','iierre was expeiimentiiii,' on the same lines, he conferred with him ;iiid
they lormi d a partiier.shui. 'I'he latler seems to have been the more liu>iness
like of the two, and tlie proci'ss they evolved liecame known as the "Ila-
f^ueneotype." 1 >e Nii'pee died in IS.'i.'l, and I»a;,'Uerre eontiiiiied the part
nerslup with his son l>idore, makin.;,' many impro\emetits. and liecomin^
really the pioneer of modern pliiitoj;rapliy. The exti'iit of advance may !»•
caleulatcd from l>avtiierie'> own remark, that "a lani|sea|ie reipiires seven "i
eijjlit hours to he plioto;.,'iM]ihed. liiit a siii^;le >tatiie or nioiiuiiieiit, if >triiti|,dy
li),diled. can lie taken in almut three hours." Cnmparini; this with the install
ianeoiis camera work oi lo-dax, that .,'ives us the iilVlikc moviii'^' li^juies ni
the kiiietoscope. will illustrate t Ic chaie.'e wrou;,dit in two thirds of a century
The earliest |MMtrait work was slow and tedious, the lirst portrait in Now
\tnk pfiihahly lieiii;,' |iroi|iiced li\ I >r. Draper, the scientist, allhoie^di the eele
lirated Professor Morse was va-'tl\ interested in the new science or art, aiul
advanced its cause in this country.
From the lic'innin',' of plioto'.;raphic experiments, the i,'reiitent desire ha-
bei'ii felt to photograph in color, and nuiulierless attempts with nuue or h-s^
VIHY
till. aftiM' tlit>
'kiiii,' mi I In.
■ Ilcil tllCI'I'lltl
iKiiiiil |iiiiiit<
lui'ss, Kiviii;
A >iiiiil.ir
III .MuvniiT.
. lilt' ;iil\;ii|.
• • li,i;lilinv-s,
ill I'liifk aiiil
\v illiiiiit tlic
|>aiiiiiii.,' is
«t'ii iH'caiisf
oil. I'hotu.
Im'COIIH' (ilir
'I'ifiii'c, ;nt.
W'liili' it N
.,'^,'<'StinI| I, I
*li sclent i>t
I' sun's my
till* llCirill-
a iii'w ait.
sonic new
Miiy niiiiiJN,
ilaccs. As
Iiistitiitc "
l:ikili'^' jil'ii-
iks liy Sir
lie illl|l|'CS.
I' Im'cII l!ie
Is •laei|iics
li liiin :iihl
!• Iiii>incss-
t! K.i-
I the |>;irt
lieeiimiii.;
t'c liia\ lie
H seven oi
f >tronu'l.v
lie in.st:ill
(i;;iiies (ii
II centiiiy
I in New
I tllc cele
!■ art. ami
lesirc liil<
ire or Ic--^
MIT riiotiiiHss 1)1' mi: < h.xtiiiy
(u:i
MitcisH have l)cen iiiaile, Wilt I lie |irocc->cH arc mainly "low aiid vt-ry e.\|i»ii-
•.i\i . A new iiietlmd of |ilioti»-|ii'iiitinK in <i>|itr. Iiowevcr, Iiuh n-i>i-iitl,\ ileveU
ii|ie<l very artistic iiossiiiilities, This is a< iii|ili>liei| l.y ineate of tiiree
|iLitos. one lor each ot tlie ilircc jiriniary ccilnrs ; ijie iie^j.ilive having Im-ch
iiiailc ami the plate |irc|>areil for |irintin){ in «>aeli color, tin* inks of each
nilor are apiilicd separately, Due printin;,' proilnces a nil iiiipicssii.n. ili.
ii'clly on this comes a vcllnw impri'ssinn, ami im tc>|i of that is put a lilm-,-
ami as ail uiiulations of colui- are coni|MiMMl of varioiin proportionH of thcHc
thiee primary tints, th \crla. oe,' " nf iJie thne inks piiMlnccs .-i picture
containini.' all the variety of the .•ri'^inal suhjcit. A >lill more rc<-ent iVitt-
I overy makes an ini|iressiiin upon a ^{lass plate that ^ivc^ all three colors on
the same plate; Itiit this process is a secret, ami is too m-w to U- classed
among the successes of iminstrial ai't us yet.
One of the later ami more imtalilc uses of phi>to;;iaphy is fmind in its
:i]iplication to the pniposcs of a.-.tioiioniy, an cvnliition in modern science,
which, alllioiii;li still in its infancy, has already produced wonderful rcsiilt.s.
Ali'iiit the miilille of tin' century pliiitii'.,'iaphs o| tin- mi>on were hcciircd liy
Warien l>i' la l!iu! ami other astronomers, which mially fai-ilitatcd .studi»'ii
ol tl ai til's satellite, iuid these were 'ollowed hy photo^'iaphs of the sun
ami the sun's corona iliiriiiv,' cc!ip>c. It was imt. liowfvcr. until I'rnft ..x.r
IJciiry of the Smithsonian Insiitute oti'.;inatcil the iiji-a of unitiie.' the
camera with the |clesc()j)e that ll.c marvelous |Hissil>iiities of stellar piiot<>.
;,'iapliy were iliM'ovci'eil. If is Hot too much to >ay thai this discuverv has
rcMiliiiiniii/cd the .science of astronomy, cxtciiilinj,' the lield <if human iili>cr.
\aiioii into the realm of the intinitc \\\ tlu' ai<l of cIockw '* attachments^
the telescope is made to follow t he apparent motii.nof the star lo which it
may lie .iicctcd, tlll•ou^,'lloul the nii^ht. il ili>iicil. ami the sensitive phuto.
graphic plate is ex|Hi.sed to the action of li;.,'lit diirim; a (>orres|Miiidin'.; periiMi.
•■ I'.acli imav'c, huwever faint, has a comparatively loiiy time on the scnsitivts
surface, and therefore exerts a cumul.itivc action' The result is that stars
are fi'tiired by the camera wliicii no human eye has ever seen. It is «>»ti-
mate. that the caiiiora has revealed douhle the niimlier of star* dis ered
hv the .lost jKiwerfii' tclc>copcs. In i.SS", at a ••oiiveiitK.n of ii.stnuioiiiers
held in rari.s, it was n-solvcd to pholoi,'raph the entire skies, with tiic piir-
|iose of ii. ikini? a in"v stellar atlas to inclmlc the latest discoveries aimuij;
the heavenly hosts. W ith this ohject the lirmamciit was charted in sipmrcs,
and each oliservalory of importance thiou^diout the wi.rld was us-fui'cil c. i-
tain of these scpiaics to work on. 'I'his monumental laUir is .stul piiii); on,
ami if will necessarily Im- cxtt-mlcd well into the first ipiartetof 'he twiMitieth
century.
ThcM'poch-markiiiK jiapir of l>r. IJontK''". m which he anti'ui .ct-d the dis-
covery <d' the X-ray. was math- piiblii; in the latter part of l.MCi. It jiii!U»>-
ciiatciy attracted the attention of the sciciititic world, and. -• > that ilate,
indlcss successions of cxperinicnis have hccn mailc with tiic m.iivelous my
in all civili/ed eoiintiies. Tlu' X-iay produces no noticeahle cSftft on the
retina cd' the eye. ami we thc\ lore aopiirc knowl.-dv'c of it thron-Ji indirect
aj,'<'iicies. ( tnc of these agencies is the photo!,'raphii- plate, on which, under
certain conditions, the ray acts soinewliat in the sanu" manner as doos a ray
of li^ht. It is not a ray of liyht. in the <.rdinary sense, as it pemtnit«'S
(il4
TlUi'.UI'llS .I.VD ll'OM>HllS oh Till: A/.Y'" i'KSTCIiY
I
()|iiii|U<! liiiilirs wliirlt light raiiiioi travvrs*-. .hist wliat it is .scientists :n<'
iidt yi't itinly to statf. Wut ns iliM-tiviTiT <l<'1inf>^ it as "a li>iP,'ituiliiial viln i
tioii uf liiiiiinitfi'tiiis t-tlicr.'* This vilmition will tra' itsi' many sniistam < >
opaqno ill !i),'lit, as wimmI, |Kt|ifr. v«-<«'t;tlil«" and animal tissnrs and lalirics, ,is
woiil. cotton, -ilk. ftf. ; and. if (lu-ii din'i-tiMl '.)|Hin a |>li()tiv^'t'a|iliic |ilalc, will
produce an iniap- there. Tiie n->ultiii;; piotun' is not id theohject tiaver-ni
liv the ray, Init of any iiit>-rv<-iiiii<4 olijiM-t which it tloe.s not pass tliioicli.
A'' a consei|iicnce. the |tictiir(> i-* ilu- iiiia^f. so to speak, (il a >hado\v. ah<l.
hence has Im-cii called a "shailowjrniidi." To illustrate, if the ray is directed
thron;,'h a human iKidy. it will ;»ive a ♦• sliado\vj,'r.iph " td' tlie hones, or id i
liulict or pic( f nii>t;»|. if such («»nM<;n snli>tancc Ih- encountered on its «a\.
A^^'aiii, the ray will tr.tvers«' a iliaiuimd and east no shadow, hut it will nut
pass thioiiijli the titie«f imitation wer made, tin* •• shadow^'rapii " showin,'
the uiaiuifactured article.
Joll.N \. Si;.\if.
Mir:-
wot I
I-
the
toUi
uh.
'7 •/.• )'
'^'ll•llti^t.S .'lie
iiiliiial villi. I-
V Mll)sliinris
h1 laldirs, .1,
if plate, w ul
it travciMd
ass tliiiiiiMJi.
^Iiadow. aiiij,
.V is (liicctcil
ii'iu's, (ir of ,1
I oil its wav.
I it will iii.r
II " sIlOMill,'
\ . Sic.vi(>.
TIIK ('ENTUllY'S ADVANCE IN SURGERY
At TIIK l>A\v\ UK TIIK Ckntiiiv.— Ill till- vi'ar l.")7'.ltiie <'<'lol)iatf(l Kininh
ir:^i'<'ii. Aiiil'ioisc I'aii-. pidltalily llir t^icatc.st hI' liis day. in t'DiiiiiIftia- his
•rk on •• rliiiiirj,'fiv." niadc llir tollowin'; >tatciiiciit, wliirli to
>l tu-d.
IV
is ImiiIi amusing' and pathetic!. He sa\s; •• Kor <iiid is my witiii'ss. and all
;<mm| iihmi know, that I have lalinred tillv vears with al
K<
ran-
and I
laiiis III
til)- dlii>tratioii and aiiipliticatinii nl ( 'liiriir^'ciN : and that. I hav<- so rcrlaiiily
toiiilicil t)i<- work whereat ! aimed that aiitii|iiity may seem to have iiothiiif^
uheiein it may exeeed as lieside tiie j^lory ol' invention, nor posteritv any-
thin.^' !• It Imt a eertain small hope to add soiin- thiiii^s." This <;i'eat man had
.srateely pas.sed away when the praetiee (d siii>;eiy of his day was a thiiifj of
the |>;»>t, due to the reali/alinii of thai '• eeitain small hope" wliieli lie allowed
as |Mi>-.ilil<> to |»osteiity. Kvery I'eailer, when he retli'cts upon the eriide siir-
j;ery pnietieed in those days, when the o|ieiations were those ol necessity and
not eleeiioii, — that is. were done for ill juries and not for disease, done to relievtt
ami not to eure ; when he remeinliers that not only antiseptics hut also ames-
tlietics were (inkiiown, must lie tilled with >ynipatliy fur this old i,'entlei<ian,
ami WDiider what he wnnld think mnr were he to sei* wii.it pro;,'rcss posterity
iin.s iiiadi' and is .still makiiiL,'.
It is not our purpoM'. however, to carry onr lesearcho so far hack as I'arc^'s
tiiin-. Iiiit to lM';;in with our own centiiry and luiiij; before the reader the ad-
vanet's ill siirjjerv xiiiee the day of mii .rraiiillathi'rs.
In the lM-s.'innini^ of this century siiii^ery was practiced liy many j^ri'at nieii,
llii-n will' did not enjoy the self-Nat i>l'act loll of their pledei-essor. I'ai'i'. lillt
whet ai-<')>inpli.'>lMMl inueh iiy constant endeaviu' ai.d faithful application to ad-
vance thi.'> art and science. Tlicy. too, reali/ed manifold ••hopes," ami their
ehihlreii and ^'ramlehildren have moved on, and to-day are st ill pressiiiL; forward
in the line of invention and discovery. Kut to ns. the art of an hundred ycai'H
api ap)M-ars widely ditTerent froiii that of our da>. .Vna'sthesia had not then
U*en discovered, no i^'crm theory had lieeii evolved, and. conscipicntly, no
such thini; ;is antist'iitic <u' asejitie surn<'i"y was known. The abdomen wan
o|H>ni'd for disease only.,ind rarely; and brain surijery ccuisisted solely in tre-
luiiinin); for fniciures of the skull. Sui'^cry was not rej,'arded as a s|iecialty,
hut every surgeon was also an obstetrician and a practitioner id ^'cneral medi-
eiiie. < Mitside of the treatment id' broken Imiiics. dislocations, gunshot wounds
and iiijurie.'i. Ilu' surjjoon at that lime operated for straiiKnbii'd hernia. I'or
stone in the bladdiT — "enttinf: for stone," as it w.is calh'd ; lor cataract and
for cancer. l><'ntistrv was jii.-i be^;innini.' to be t ik'-n up as a s]ieeially. and
all iiiedieat men extnicted teeth.'and many tilled their cavities. ( tphtlialmii!
surj»ery consisted larj;el\' in opi'i-ations for catiiract. and was done by the u'cii-
eral snrjji'on. t hie department id the sur;,'eon's education at this time wan
Well attended to, and that wa.s his anatoniir knowledge. Our iMxlies were tho
an;
TlilUMl'HS AM) \\oM)hJ{S OF TllK XIX'" CESTURY
saint' then as iiuu ; ami altli(iu^'!i tlir siirp'on iliiri'd iiiit trespass in UMatiunii .i1
tirlds wliicli arc laniiliar i^'iniiinl to the stniltMit of to-day, In- did stmlv t!i>
lindv attcr death, and was ([iiitr as well ini'ornicd ri'j^M riling tlic t;ross anatmnv
ot till' liiimaii licidy as tin' siii'^coii ol lo-day ; and. had aiia'sllii'sia Ih'ch kimuii
to liiin, liu would prolialily have a(M'oiii|ilisluMl ncarlv all thai was (loiii- diii-iir^'
the liiiildli' ot til
•litiliv 1>\ his Slier
cssors.
l»lll
MIL
tilt' liist (|iiarti'r id the cfnliii'y no ureal atlvaii
as niailc
siir^'tMV. that is. nothing; ^l'vtllutiolli/.ill^' ; liiit inanv niiiitls and liainls
at wtnk |it'i-|fi'iiii;,' olil iiifthoils of t)|M'i'alioii ami tlfvisinu' iii'\\\oni
Th.
had tt> trust tt
liisk
d ii|>ii
mil to t'oiilroj till' jiaiii <>t tiif patu'iit. ai
(•onsfi|iii'nlly ti|ii'ratiiiiis rt'i|iiiriii^ niiicli tiiiit' in thiir |M'rrormam'i' ui'it-
avttidt'd wht'ii ptissililf, and. w lii'ii m-t't'ssary. hati Iti Im' iifrforni) d with sih-li
rajiiility that the fsst'iitial tiliject aiini'il at \\a> ct'ti'ii iiii>sc(|, 'I'lu- |ialit'iil
w:ls ^ixt'ii a largt* dttsf id' laiulaniini ami i liiii^f tiriiik tif whiskey tir lirainlv.
ami was then lieltl cir tietl tm the laMe while the siii'^'enn indceeileil with
jiaiii the |ioiir |iatieiit
h
itirk. < hie ean reaililv iiiiileistaml the turtiiiiii'
liati tti eiitliire. ami the linrneil and ot'teii iiiisatisfactoix i>|ieratioii wlijeh
the siiri^eon h.itl ti> |it'i'toriii. 'I'lie emlniMiiee of pain was not the wtirst
part (d the patient's hit. lor alterward he I'aii the ','reatest risk of liltmil
]Miisoiiin^ and ^Mii^'rene. whieh were eoniinoii eoiiiplieat mns in those ilays.
It was the rarest thiiii; lor even the >iinpl('st operation woiimN to heal hy
••primary union," as it was ealleil, — that is. wilhoiit the foniialion of )iii-.
Kvery wounded smlaee was expei-teil to ^'o tliront^h a cirtaiii aimniiii mI
siippiiralioi!. Many patients lost their li\es Iroiii etiiiipoiiml tiaetiires ul
their liiiiies; and a eonipoiiiitl Iraetiire, that is, wliei-e there \va> a wniiml eon-
iieetin^ the seat of fraetiire with the skin, iisiiallv meant niaiiv months in
bed. ami very td'ten the loss of the limit.
KxeeptiiiK f'lr the purposes of niiioN iiiu' ii i'li'tiis from the w ilidhe su
called t'a-saiian operation, liecaiise Ca'sar was fmni ••his inothei's wtimli iin
tinndy ripped ")■ the alitloniinal eavity was praitieally never opiMietl, ami when
it wa.s the patient nearly always dietl. The opei.itiou for the latlieal <'iMt' il
hernia was si Idoiu resorted to. exeeptin^' when straiij,'iilation of the intestine
neeessitateil o|it'rative inteilerem'e to save the patient's lite. I>iiriiin the
latter part of the eii,'hteeiitli eeiitmy the i|uai'k.s, ealliii;,' themselves •• rupture
eutters," were not searee; hut the ^'reat mortality of their praetie.e prothieed
a w
hole.*
some tear aiming
llr
peop
I'll
M'
■ration was so oiteii fatal that
most of the liest siuKeoiis would only jierfoi'iu it tiiider unusually iirjjeiil
eireiimstaiiees. What eaiueil the ileaths was peritonitis, or "(an.urem' (d' the
intestine, ami iiol the method ol operatiii;;; lor al this time nearly e\ei\
methotl of operaliiijj hatl 1 n ilevi.sed that was in vo^'ue fifty years lat«'r.
Itone siiri/ery. the trealiiieiit of fraetiires, tlislocalioiis. anil diseases ot
the l»i!it'<, was ^'reatly improvetl in 'he first half of the eentiiry, this sidi
jeet reeeiviiif,' more attention at the hands of siir^jieiil writers than an\
other.
AvKsriii SI x. — Amesthesia may, eeitainly Iroiii the patient's ]ioint ol
view, 1h> luoketl upon as the Ki'«'i''i'>*t ailvaiieeineiit ever iniwh' in surp-ry. It
was Lrreat not niily lor the re.ison that it i;ave the patient ali 'oliite nneon
seiousm-ss durin'4 the time o I the operation, liiit lieeaiise it eiialileil the surgeon
to work with greater e.xuotiiess uiid less hurry. The eoneeiitioii of the iitia-.s-
;.;a.-
VURY
ruE cKsrrnrs advance is suhoery
617
II aii:it<)iui( a]
lid stinU till'
•oHs aiiatiiiiiv
ii'i'ii known
liitiu- diiiiii','
has iiiailc ill
liainis wi'ii-
mifs. Til, \
patiiMil. aiiu
lll.llll'C WfIC
>l with Mii'li
Tiu' |iaticiit
I or l»iaii(|\.
ltd with
""•I- paiinit
Itioll uliirli
I till- wiir.sf
k (•) ilioiMl.
tlinsf davs.
to heal 'l,y
ii'Ii of |iii-..
aiiiiiiiiii iif
r;ii'tiir<'s n|
v\oiiiid I'oii-
iiionllis ill
ill 1 1 hf so-
I WUIIlll llll-
. and wlicii
Wll <'ll'f ii|
•! int«'sfiiii-
'iirinj; thi-
* •• ni|iliirf
' |)n>diii-t'd
fatal that
ily iirpiii
I'lU' <if tin-
iilv even
latiT.
isoasrs ol
this sill.
than aii\
)ioint of
•K'l'IT. 1 1
t(* (inroii-
•' surf;»'on
till- aiht'.-i-
tiiftic state did not. luiwi'vcr. conn' into lii-iii;^ for tho tiist tiini" in onr oen-
r.rv. for. like most j,'rt'at ideas, it ai;itated the minds of medieal and seien-
ili." men for erntiirirs.
rcntiirv. reeoninicnded thr iniialaiiij;i ot a (certain eominiiation ot oiunm.
(iross tidls lis that 'riieodoiie, in thi- tliirti-eiith
rv. reeoninicnded tin- inlialaiiij;i of a (certain eomiiiiiation n
iifiidork. and other vrj^etaliii- lU-rivativi-s for the luiriiosc of piodui'iie^ sh'eji,
aiidtliat in India simihir lomhinations wt-re for et'iitiiries in nsf. li is iiced-
|t>s. howevrr. to say that tlir clVcct |iio(hn'i'il was imtliin!,' liki' t!iat inllowinif
ilii- use of nitrons oxidr, " laiiy;hiie,' uas." t'liii'r. or i-iiloiofoiiii. aiiil that their
n-e neviT iM-came
1,'eneral. 'rowan! lln' closi' of tlic last rriitiiiv Sir II
11111-
|ihrv Pavy and otlirrs in'rforim'd icjii'atcd cxiii'iMiicnts witli iiitioii> oxide
■,'a-. lint liiiail.v '^'avc ii|i in di'soair. in liu' raiiy |iait of our own ci'iiliiry sev-
OI'BOIC.M. orKllATINo llooM, IIOW.VIUI llo»i'l r.M.. PHII,A1»/ MMIIA. PA.
• ral nietliods of pnidneinj,' •nsensihility u» pain were n •omniended, siieh as
prfssiire on nervi-s and idecdini,' to the di's,Mi'i' of |irof!.icin)^ iiiieoiiseionsness,
hut none of them was ever siitlicii'iitly siirressfiil to render tin ir adoption j(en-
«ral ; and it remaineil for a New KiiK'land dentist. Dr. fforaee Wells, in 1H44,
to tirst use satisfactorily upon himself and his patients tin- eomphtt' state of
iiiironscioMsness produced hy nitrous oxide H''^- ' '""^ 1"""" H'i'ii- however,
failed si|^nally when he endeavori'd to demonstrate ii - pow/Ts Iwfore a Inidy
of medical men. and was snlijected to the most unwarranted iidieule. How-
ever, a pupil of this man, another deiili'>t. nained .Morton, two yeur.s later,
exiH'riineiited with etlior. and finally proved upon himself and on patient*
the wonderful power of the vapor, lie exhiliited his di.scovery at the .M i«sa-
ehnsetts (M-iieial Hospital at Hostoii, where |>r. Warren performed an opera-
«;
(IIR
Tint MI-US AMI uo.\iti:i:s or tuk a/.v" cEsriuY
tioii iijMni a |)iitii-iit )'tlii-ii/('(l liy l>i'. Morlnii. 'I'lu' raiuf ii| tliis inuii ami In
gii'at (iisciivciv .-incad laiiiillv nvt r ihc ccintiiifiit and iiilu ilir l)a>lt'iii lirin
is|ilifr<-. ami in IS 17 Sir •laiius \ . Siiii|i.siin in Kiliiiliur^'li ilisrovcrcil tli.
iina'stlit'tii- piiwi'is nl ciiliiinldrni. 'riicsj' twn at;rnl>. I'tluT ami (■liliiriit<ii'iii.
liavi' fxi^lfil as rivals Im- iHciji'ssiunal lavnr inr ncarlx liall a ci'nturv. un.
iM'in^ niiin< |N)iiulai -ami mtm- ^rciitMiillv iis<'i| in nnr ('(luntrv and tin- ntlin m
anntlii'i'. 'I'luTf is. lidWi'Vff. a lirld lui' the use nf liolji. lln' <i|ifr itur cIki..^
ini,' tlir anav>lli<'l i*' til suit tlir individual rasr. In nnr nw n rinnil rv ctlii-r i-
liiiirr Kl'lir(''*|l> >>^*''' >>■ ''■'' Noi'tli •mil l'',ast ami ililiind'orin in tin- Simlli aii'i
\\'rst. ('Mulnlinni !ias had ninri- di'allis attiiliulcd tn its nsi', Imt in main
<-asi's i> a niiirli salcr i^iia'stliclic tlian dliri'. It i> must aniii.->in;.; tn uIim-ini
the attituili' of tin- sd-.-aiii-;! innsi rvativi- snrp-nn ttuvanl tin- nsi- id ana-s-
tlii-ti('> siMiu alter tlifif disciivi'ry ; tliis is |partii'iilaily tiiifoi' llii-ir ini|ilii\
nil III in iilistfti'ii' |ii-aiiiri-. many cmini'iil olisli'tririaiis maintainiir^ that tin'
|iarliiriinl wtniian was iiitMiih'd to mtlVcr, illli| li'Icfl sifj trinin|)liantly to tin-
llililc liif imthoiilv. It is. (iowcvit, iii'imIIchs to Hit , Miat altlmn^^di many imv
WiMf at liist niirasy in the use id llirsr new iuuml a'^fiits. those nlm did unt
♦ \e .dvailtane ol tliiif wimdeiliil poweis loiiiid llieinselves ra|iidly U-rom
iiiij mil of date and dr^^'ited hy their iiatietits. who ineii'iri'd I'lironsiinusiiess
to till' nldi'i nii'thod of iisiiiK ii|iiuiii and whiskey.
Nolwilhstamlini; the j,'i'eat step made l>y the introdmtinn of ether ami
<'hliiiiiloiiii. the in"dieul iiiaii is to-day still dissatistieil and is eontiniially en-
deavnriiiij to discovef some ap-nt or eomliinalioii oj ajients whiih will |iii>-
tliiee iiiseiisiliility to |iain without iineonseioiisiie-s and without the sli^dil
d;
and the iiin'omfortaMe after etl'eets id ihloridorin and ether. An
ideal aniesthetie then must he a loeal ana-sthi'lie, one that will render the
liejd uf i>|iei'ation iiiM'iisilile ami iiewithmit the sli^htest danger to the pa-
lielll.
l.orM, Av i:.HTiii:si A. — Ai tin liejrinniiii; of our eeiitiiry free/in^ W'illi iee
alone, or with iee and >alt, was the mdy method i'm|>lii\i'd for |irodiieini;
ina'sihelir was. lunvever. not exteii-
h.eal
ii^sen
.iliilit^
■lee/iiiK as a ill
siiely used until Hfly years later, wlun IM. Iliihardsun id l.oiidoii >||(iwimI
the ana-sthetii- idfeet of ^|lrayin^' the siirlaie of the tissues w ilh ether. iMir-
in^ the late sixtien this method id tiee/iiiK l>e*'ame ipiite popular for prodn-
ein^' loeal ntia-sthesia for small operations siieli as cxtriu'tion ot teeth, reiiiov-
iiiir nails, npenini; ali->ee.sses, etc., and oeeasionally was e:ap1o\ed for mori-
protracted opera! ions, ( 'a-sarian seelion having heeii peiiiu'med a niimlH'r ol
times liy the aid of tlii.s ajjeiit. the rhii;olene spray was fuiiml Inter to Im-
more satisfaetory than etlnr in many respeets, and the Iwn toi^ellnr weii
freipiently used.
Another free/iiig ai^ent which is now used very extt'iisivtdy and hits en
tirely supplanted thii»e pist mentioned is the chloride of elliyl. This, when
applied to I .1' dry
^kii
I. liroilllces
III.
in a few M'.'omls eonipieii' liee/iny, and
•iiders (he Hurface comiiarativeiy pai'dess for many of the minor suiKieai
openMii IIS,
I'll
prii|M*rlies of cocaine as a
local
ami'sthelie were known thirty yeai-
u(;o, hnt II wiiK hot until JSHl that Mr. Kohler of (iermany demonstrated its
pra'tie.il applic.ii>ilit\ To-day most of the nperatioiis on tiie eve, nose, and
tliroat are performed under tl.e pain prevention atforded li.\ fhis drtiM. and in
the
III.
It
THE cEsrntv's ADv.wci-: i.\ siHt.-Hin'
610
,.neral sui'j,'itv it lias an fNtfiisivc lidil, Ikmiij; foiiini .>ali.s|'iu't«>rv wIicim'
ii.'t'/iiiU IS iiia|i|ilit'iilili' or :,'tMi.'i',il aiia'silicsia nut ilfsiml, ;is, tm- instuiici', in
K aiDviiij; >iuall liiiiiius. s|iliiiti'rs, iii;,'iii\viiij; nails, etc In tin- fVi-. niisi', and
taroat it is a|i;>li<Ml siiiiply in sulntion tu ilic niiiciins uicnil)iant', tint wlit'i-e
;iii.i'stiit'sia iif the skin is (icsircd, it is nrct-ssarx to inji'ci it iimlfi- iIh- skin
willi a liyiiiiilciiiiic syi'in;,'c. \\ lien iisimI in sliimj,' Milmions this iimuimIv is
liaii),;*'
•Kits,
and it has lalclv Itch sImiwii tliat weaker sointions wlien \iseil in
lanjef i|nan!ilies are just as salistaelDiy auil less (iaiiLjeidiis.
A iceei;! sulistitnle lof roeailic is eueaille ; lull, alt linuj,'ll less iliinj^ermis. it
l^ less satisfaetnry ami nut liaiiuless to tlii! tissues themselves.
Aniisci'IH am> .\si:iti( .Si it<ii;iiv. — K\ee|itini,' the infriiilnrtiun of iina's-
lliesia. no J,'le;iti'|- step has ever lieen Ulilile ill >lll','eiy thaii that wliieli was
l>ic>ii;;lit iiitii use liy the aiitisejitie and aseptie iiiethod of treatiii); wounds.
It is now alioui thirty yi'ars since Sir Joseph i.istiM'. helievin;.; in the so-
llle.l
rill ll
ieor\,
•volvi'd li\ I'asleiir. N'irrln
am
I oth
iilvoea
led
till- use of aiients whieh were ih'stnietive to ),'eriii 'ife in tlie treatment of
wiiiinds. .\t tirst the j,'rea! aiiliseptie. atul the one used most ni-neraliy hy
l.i^ter, was earliolir aeid, whieh was applied to the Wound in solution, and
used as a sjiray diirinj^ tho jierfoniianee of operalious, to |irote('t the wound
from infeetion liy i^erms in the atmosphere, it was not hai',;, however, iie-
li.ii' it was ilisi overed that the daii;,'er lay not in the atmosphere hut in the
skin <d the patient and in the hnids of the surp-on ami in the eondition of
lis instruments a
ml dn
resll
ami
Its ki
SSlIlfJS
lid to tlli'se soiirees attention was uivell with
nown to us all. Other aiilisepiie:
leh a.s liiehloride «d' mercurv
l)orie aeid, afterward eaiiie into use, and within the pa>t ten years the
tiist of these two has lart^ely supplaiite<l earholie aeid. and i.s the one ndialile
and prai'tieal ilestroyer of j^erms. The antisejitie treatment of wounds Was
piulialily not in full swiie,' until aliout iS.S.'t^l.S'Mi. and wa- iiekl\ lolhwed
li; the mori' recent aseptic method, 'riic:,- two can. Imu , never lie sue-
fessfnlly .separate, as the latter is dependent entirely up' le f(Uiiier; that
is. in order to render the lit Id (d' opi>ralion and the I
>( tl
le surp'on
.ise|ilie, the antiseptics must he used. Asepsis meati itlutiit poisonous
pM'ins, and. as applied to sur^Meal tn>atment. it is exs* iiuil that, after the
instruments, the dressinj;s. the patient's skin, the snrK«'"n's and his assistants'
li.inds have lieeii tlioroiij{lil> cleaned with soap and v nr and remlered free
lioiii ),'erms, theie he Use of antiseptic solutions in th< >vound or on the dress-
siiijts. This has heeii a yjreat step forward, this discoviry that it was in tim
skin that th.' serins lurked, and that soap and wati-r and a .scruhhitij,' hrush
wcje as iieeessiiry as antiseptics. Kew surp-ons to-ilav onjploy antiseptie
snhitioiis in wounds unless the wound itself is alreadv infected, when it
1
leeoiues neei'ssaiy. In \vounds which an- clean and made hy the sur'j;eon
under aseptic eoaditicms, no antiseptie driit; is reipiiri'd which may indeed l>o
aitually harmful, for these ehemicals which destroy jrerio- are not altoijether
harmless to healthy tissue, parlicularl\ wln-n used in st - )j .s(dntion.
The discovery of amesthesia atul tin- piomul^'ation ol the jierm theory of
inllammation. toi,'etlier with '.he suhscip.eiit perfection <d' tlie means of de-
stroyin;,' microlies, all within the memory of niaf.y now living;, have revolu-
tioni/ed surn;er.v to such an extent that t!n' smyreiui reaches fearlessly into
lejjioiis whi( h bidore were ii!)]iractic.d)lc. and iiiidertakes ••peration.- whi< li
il
n-M TinrMi'iis a.\i> \yo\i>i:its or tiik a/.v" cKSTrnY
wiTc never even dreaiiied 111 ;i neiieialiuii a;.''". • 'ne can leadilv iinaitine tli i'
111) .siii',i;eiiu wiiiild care to undertake, and no patient woidd ciniure, tin- a^^mr
III an ()|iei'ati(in lasting' lor several liuiirs witlinut an ana'stln-tic : and that '
inii>t lia\e I n only an iiiiniediate and certain dani^er ol deatli tliat eom-
[ii-lled a snr;4eon, in |ire-aiil i^'jitie da\'>. to '>|i<>n an alKlonien or lirain win u
lie realized (lie )^reat |ir(ilialiilit\ ol >iilisei|in-nt mtlaniniation and deatli.
I.el 11>
>k at Millie of till' iiidividiial advaiiees ol' >nr<<er\ sinee the inth
duel ion III aiia'stiiesia and o| the ii>e of j,'enii-destro\ mj; a^'eiil-". eoiisideriii;
lirst. >ini|iie fraeliires.
Ol- Sniii.i; I'UAi II iii>. — Ana-slliesia \va> the means of |.eriuitliie.,' mm
ifeoiis to •• sei ■' li'aetui'e>. in a sali>lai'lory nianiur and without pain ; ami the
ii-e of aiitiseplii v> has pre vented many t>f tiiese fraetiires from iN-eominj; eoin
I lid lraeliii'e>. i.ali'i\ there has Immmi a eliaii'^e in the ^'eiieral treatiiienl ol
!ia luie> wliieli is plo\in;4 a ^'leat advalieeiiielit. l''ornierl\ it wa> the eu^
tolii til kei'ji not oiiiv the iii'oketi liolie itself |N-rfeetly ipiiel on a splllil until
union had i;iken piai'e. hut also to iiiiinoliili/e all the iieii.dilioriiii,' stnntures.
. lints, lUUseles, aui
tend
on."
This meant thai when the limli w.i> taken oil
the splint, not only wmild tin- Imhii' Ik- •• solid." luit there wa.s also a tendeiie\
to li.Slllion of till' luuseles aiie oints. so that it took the patient as loin; to j;el
hack the u^e ol the limli as it did to unite the Inokeii Imne. This is now
oliviated in niaiiv fraetmes hy lM-i,'innin>r Uitli the passive and active motion
of the nei},'lil>iiriiii; niiiKeles and joints at a niiieh earlier period than heri-to
lore ; in fai'i. ii, many fra'tiircs, >ueh as those near the wri*t. hy never allow -
in;,' these adjaient . triietiires to ;,'et stitV at all. 1(111 keepini,' up the passivi
iiit'tioii (while the fniKiiieiits are held tirmly toj;ether) from the verv lir>i
di'"-sinK'- 111 other more cnmplieatcd and serious fra<-*iir«'s whi-re niotinn i--
conlra-indieaii'd. tin
.'lilVi
less a
e of e.iielully applied ma-sai,'!' preveiiis larL;el\ tin-
lid till \vasliii<; of the muscles which results tniin loii^' eonlinemeiit
(111 spiinls.
( 'oMI'ol s
i> i'l! Ai 1 1 hi;
II
Jir. :lill isept le days eoiupol
iind fi
tun
wer>
one of the greatest causes of the aiiipiitation ol liniiis ; and yet. to-day. thcM-
same hreaks, whii'li twoiity-live years av;n would have cost the |>atient hi^
liliili, are. Iiy ml^m^ of antiM-|ities, reiniered aseptic and converted into a sim-
ple tiaetiiie hy the closing,' of the wouiid, and tin- part i> not only saved hm
fully restored to functiiui.
Itovi- MisKAsKs, — Uise.ises of the hones, as iiiHamiiiation, c;»ries. an,! necio.
sis, are now ilealt with very dilTcrcnily from of ohj. The diseased structure
are now thorou^ridv removed; and the iiiHanimatioii which at onetime kept
the patient in misery ami danger for a lonu' tiiin- is >ulMlued from the start.
ttsrKoroMv. — This term, wliieh means the divi>ioii ot a Ixme. is jjeiierallv
applied to the corieetion of def(»rmities, such m^ iKiw-lejjs. This operation
fifty years ajjo was not freipientlv resort -d lo. .mil 'hen .>nly in .evere case-,
tho mihh'i' ones heiiij; left alone os treaiel w ith hniccs. which at Im'sI conhi
do little mor*" thun prpv«»i»t iiiPiM-am- in .h'formity. When the o|i«-ration was
performed on the Imih^*. it vthm then divided, usually with a saw The opera-
tion nowailays for this conditPMi is what is cailed. siiiH-iitancous o.'-teotom\ :
that is, tho wound made is oiih .«s hirifc as the chisel tiseil for .s»*verintf tin*
Ikiiic, aliout one half ii.ili. aud on ini; to our kiiowleilfie of inii'rolir«. and our
means of de^troylH){ them and pieventiuj; their ravu^t-s. hui..in-iis of lej;-.
Tiiy
iiiiauiiic tli;ii
<•. Ilif ;i;,'(i|i\
aiiil that It
li tliat mill.
I>i:iiii win II
(Icatli.
V the infi..
••<iii.si(li'iiii-
nittiii^' sii|.
ill ; aiiii till-
oiinii'^' i'(iiii.
I'lMtrilrlil III
a> the ciis-
-''I'liiil until
stnictiiifs.
> taki'ii ntV
ii t<'ii(|<ii(\
Inlii,' til yi'l
"Ills is lldU
ivo lllntiiiii
laii Iki'i'Im
'•vrr allow-
!'■ passixf
vin liisi
' lllntl'iii |>
'arKi'ly till-
iiitiiicini'iil
tllfCS Wl'l'l'
ilav. lli.-Nf
latii-iit his
iitii a siiii-
>a\»'(| iiiii
iiiiil ii«>crii-
striii'tiui'x
tllllr kr|>l
lit' Start.
p'lHTally
ii|>fiatii)u
•Ml' cast's,
H'St COllllI
iitiiiii was
III' i>iM'ia-
t«'i>toi»i\ :
iTiii:,' flu-
- aiitl mil'
4IB.1
THir.MI'IIS wit WnShKi:s OF rUK XIX'" cKxrt'itr
m
■1:1
in
aiii|iiil;it iiiii-< li>r iikKihiwii
In IS'.Ht, |>r. .Inliii A \\\.li
iiii-iIiimI " nt aiii|iutati<iM at tlir ln>.
tions iii'i'liii'iiii'il alter tliis maiiiH'r ii\ i)^<suu>
wcrt' II (Irailis. ."• (tl wliicli ncciirrfil in «•?*«•■
the |>iiti<-iils liail limt a larp- aiiiniiiit of lil<xv
III In I ists the (i|MTatiiiii was ijiitii' till inu;
ori'iii Ti'il, |tl |M'i' I't'iit. Ill 'J'J ilic aiii|iii:atiiili u -
ilisfiisf of till' Imhii'. aii<l .'l ilicil. |."!.(i jicr i-t-iit. (hit
statistics to uiitlri-staiiii wliar iiiitisi-ptu- nii'tlHuK aiiti
till* ciiiiti'iil III' liriiiiii'i'liai,'!- have iliiiii' to ii'sst'ii till' iiiiir
Tlic still iiiun' n iil use nf salt sdlutimi iiijiTtcil ih
patii'iits sutVcriiit; trnm prufiisc iiciiiiurliaui* has lutflv iN'th .-
iii^t iiianv livi's wiiicii wmilil lia\f otiicrwisf siicimiiuIiciI to tlt»- .
ami tlif nIhm-U siilisfi|iii'iit to iiijiiiy ami i)|H>i'atioii. As iliiistiaiii
trast iK'twcfii till! sc|ili<' and aiitisi|ilii' iiH'tliods, \vt us foii.siiU'r tin ..;.,.
(»f utir (Mvil War ami riiiii|iar«' with that of to-day. and wt- shall si'ti tlu' i*;*-
iiioiis ditlVrciic's ill iiK'tiiods, ami |iarti<Milarly in troiioniy of liiiihHand or^au
as widl as ino! ity.
IIkwokkii —The aiirst and control of h)Miioi-rhai;<' lias nicatly in
proved withi: past I'veiitv li\c years. The niakiii',' <it an a-eptie wniin
doe-, awav la "'ith tin- iiiiieji ilreaded .siTumlaiv heinorihai^e of a ;,'eiiei.
I' . i-.l • •* llioiKlie
Illy n'|M>i(ti* tiit o|»<M 1
.•I -' <-h I
iM'love iiit^ratioii
'<. Hid I .leatli
intlaiiiiii ''"I '
>iitr:kMt tl
- veilieiil
■■.•uin.it i..i,
I il;i.ii "
..- of .;i'
<- i.i.,.
THH ri-jMi'ins J /M.I. VTA-; /.v sritdiaiY
t.»ii UffP. l>y |»n«viMttiii« »iii|i|.iirHii'in, wliicli in tiMimliy llif iuiim- ..I mtuiuIjuv
U.iiicurliam'. Till- iliiiii>,v ami riiiii|,||,afi'i! a|i|iiHMliis nl Imiin'r Aiiyn I'm cun-
ti'(illili« iH'iiiorrliayf li.is 1hm-ii Mi|n'rst(|i'.l liy tin- u.„. (,| t|||. K,||i;ir:-li iuIiImt
i4'uriii<|uct. till' iit-at tii-iiinHtatic riiirt*|)!«,>aii<l llu' «tt'ril(i luiiiiial li;;;itiin'. Nu
n,'i'tiii thinks ti.ila,\ nt a|>|il\ iiiv a Mik liyatiiri- t<i a I)1<mm| vcsm-I ami all«»w-
it to liaii.; oiii ipI till* wtiiiinl until it N<'|iaiaU-.t, mi tlial in (mm* oI Mi-imil-
1 lili'cdinj,' Ik- iHuld ii-jwlilv lind tin' vi-sscl; lint In- a|t|ilir.s an aliMirliahl"
li;;.ttui'f. nxuallx ol <atv{nt. wliicli is sliiilf, nul wiiiili i.^ tiitiirly alisiulMil
its liw tir««m-f* alter it ha" 'tunc Us wuik. .Mnrli hulVfiiii>; has lirrn savi-il
|iiiti*'ittii Uy till* intriNlnction <<f altMU-lialih- maliTiiil.s fni' liKatinii of vi'nsi'Ih
anil >»'\vin»; <>l' w<>nnil->. Kurnn-ilv mi • ol tin' nw.a dn-aiU nt wmuuls \va^ tin'
I'li-iho whiTi- till- wunmls aif not intlaincil
lakiiiL' iiiit ot tin* >titi-li)'
tins IS tiitii- ri>iu|ilaiiiri| ol, itiiil wliin- tin- aniiinil Hiitiiri* is uhimI tlii>n' ih no
ilis.iinilort wliati-vt-r. .Maiiv niiMn> havi'. iluiiii',' tin- |>i.-t. I'iMilmv, Ik-i n cni-
|ilii\i'il I'll' ill*' n'^iiscilatiiin of jialii'iit'' snlli'iin^; Irmii |iiiitnsi' lifnioiihap'
anil HtiiN-k. The iilfu of injfi-tin^' iiit'i tin' vi'iiis ol tin- juitii'iit thus iitTi-ctcd
liliMiil from aiiotliiM- |N-i'>on m- li'om an animal is nm m-w, ami has at tiiin's
Ihmmi i|niti' >.n«-ci's>«fnl. 'I'lti' most j^riu-iallv u>f(l ini'tliinl wa-* In draw ilii>
lilixil from a healthy |H*rson or animal and iiiji'i't it into liif vrin uf tlii>
|iaiiiiii with a synim«* : howt-vir, »o-fullfd "ilirt'ct Iran^liisimi " was also
i>m|ilo\)Ml, and f«insi>''t«'d in |iiiiii|*ini; thi' liloml liirrrt lioni tin- vtin of tint
bmiltliy individual intn that of the |ial!mit. tMlicr inati-rials than lilood havo
Im^'Ii injt'i'ti'd into tin- hlood vt'sst'ls ot |ii'rsmis sullfiiiivr frmii j;rt'at loss of
Itlood. notaldv milk. .Mi of thf-i- nn-thoih have hri-n |>iil n|iiiii tht; shelf,
niver to U- ealUnl into use ik);ain The iliiteimity of the llimteelith eelltni)
Mi<{i;estet| tlie .>nlist itiit ion of a sotntion of rMiiiinoii salt I'm- lilood and. to-day,
the intra-venons injeetimt of normal salt stuution .saves hundreds of lives.
'I'he solution is ma<>>- to resenilih- as elo^ely as possdile the lii|nid |ioition of'
'lie human IiIimmI (tU*' /i"</«<i»' «</««/«/(/(,*). es|ieeially as to .s|ieiilie h'lavily; and
It In always Mtertltiu*d Ity lioilint; Iwfore Immiij;; used, it is free from all the
»l»n>jers which aej-i.' • the traii'lu'-i'iu of one iierson's lilnoil into another.
Vi. .Mll.a|>|Kiiiited ijj ,' ro..iii i^ witjimii ;ls traii-lnsimi a|ii'aratus and its
'iiition ready for ii
J[§ilM'.Mis. — ISelVrenee i.o the riiiiaik> on ase|i>is anil antiNe]i>is will show
t^r#*;i.ler that the I reaf nieii* of wounds has undericohe a i'um|ilete ehan.re in
|iiart»M- of .1 eeiitnr" ; but j^olialily tie' iiu'dirn treatment of j;nn-
Ii' 'i-ate^ this liK'iS** «li»«i anything' els.'. I'litil IXiS.'i, only six
• M i'-d where the iilMltittiHtal I'iivily was openeil for Kiitishi.t
•••wilf*. t-m uee that time hnndi'mlM ti^ «jj«m's have Imih inainl in this was
M. '. •• Jlie in;nri' 'H- I'm'nt^ily eoiisideied aine'Sl 1 1 rtainly fatal,
a»>. i mtii^^\ui' »j ■ c! the iitttieiit assuredly died. Now the aislo-
^m a f mn i d . itf^fWKM-rlwgir < vwfimlled. woiimls — often to the nitinlN>rof six or
"■ \ur-i ' rhe iiiiv-tines elos.d. or an injured section
■' 'ti .iHluniiici) eavitv eteaiised and eloM'd, with
jMake the oiN'rutimi not only a jnstilianle
■ ' I'liere is no coiniiarison with tin' \>rt--
I'lihet' alHlowi'ii or ehest and tlm^' of
•1 the snrip'on, m ease of ){nnshi4 «'i;iid
mjiK'r'' «•«" i^eiiair, wliereas formerly it Wi*»< e.^t^ui. reil
<nj{lit Mr f%<r%i ttmr-
'I' r.i
«f.'l
rmcMrns wit woxuhus or rin: .\ix>" cHsrvitY
iW
till- |iai't ot uimlDiii t(i liMVf till* iNitifiit witlnMii railiriil ticiiliiMMit aiiil mily tn
iiiiiki' liiiii I'liiiilmtaltl)' wil'i ii|iiali'H. 'I'liiis i iixfo nl ilaiiiii;;i' t<> llx* iiiti'itttiic-.
aii<l viM'cra dul tina.-iiiiialls in-itvfr in |ii't-aiitiM-|iiir ila,\s, Imt it \\a'« tiif
rari'-<t <MMMnri'iu"i'.
W liat lias Ih'i'M said nt ^'Uiislmt winiiKh a|i|>lii's also tn stab whuihU ot il.i'
I'lii'st aiiil alMlmiii'ii.
Till: Ai.misrAia I'anai.. — I'mltaiilv iIm- siiikitv of nn |Miitiiiii ol lln'
ImmIv. iiiiIcsm It U* tlif liiaiii. has Ihm-ii i) iiiiii-Ii iiii|i|<ivi-i| ihiiiii.; tlit' |iast til-
tiTii viMis as that nt till- alinii'iilarx raiiil. Tin- t .■<i>|i|ia)jiis or '^iilli-t is imw
o|N<iicil uiih iin|iuiiit\ Im IhiiIi iii<t<>aM- ami injnrv. riii-< ui,<aii is not oiiU
a|>|>i'oaclialili> tliiiiii^'li tlit- link' liiit also tliroM,'li tin- liark j>ait ol the i lii-sl.
Iiv rcsfi'iioii ol tliii litis; ami llir latter o|N-ialioii is tii-i|iiriitl\ iiiaili- iiccfs.
hai'V ii> tlic lixl'^iiit'iit ol iori'11,'11 liodii'N, - liiiilons, lal-i- IimiIi. fli- — >o low
down III till' <"<o|>li i^'iis that thry lainioi Im- iimi'Iii'>I through the iiiuiilh oi
tlii'oiiKli ail o|H>nin^' iiiadr in the iii'vk.
TilK SioM \< II. — I'his oi'u'aii. w hich was roriinTl.v a Imliiddrn liild to tli.'
Miri,'con, is now xulijicti-il to the iiii>st varii-d .■<iii'^ii'al ii|H'iatioii>, liom miii|>|i
«>|HMiiii>; for the |>iir|ios<> ol rciiiox tir.; a i'i>i'i-i);ii ImnIv or CNtaltlisliin^ a iistii
Inus tiai't to till* ri'MTiion o| a |iortioii ol it or to its roni|>lric irscction, a~
has liri'ii >ni'i'rssiull\ ai'i'niii|>lisht'd several tunes williiii I he I'a^l _\ear or two
lor inali.;naiit disease. The removal ol the smaller end ol the Htninaeh loi
eaneer is now a Ireiinent o|H'ration, Itiirini; tiie uar o| the rehellion their
wi-r<" si\t,\-loiir ease> ol wonmis td the >iMmarh, and only one reeoxered. In
oxer si.\ i.iiiidied and tiltv eases td xxmuuU id the inie»tine> there were i.
eorded onlx live ease<. o| reeovi'ix lioni xxoninU ol the small and Ullx-nini'
tioin xxonnds id the lari;e inle^tiiie.
TiiK Intksmnxi. Til XI r. What ha< Immmi said ol the stmiiaili ii|i|ilie-
also to thi-> |iortion id the alinieiilaix ranal. No Mii^eon ean iiowaiiaxs call
hiin^ell' su'di il he is inra|>aliie ol reinoviai; a iIim-.im'iI |ioi'tionot inte>tini'.
it max lie nnlx a lew iiiehes or several feet, and luiii^iii); the dixidint! end-
ol remaining,' intiNtine into siteli a|>|Hisition that healini; takes jilaee ami tli<
fiiiii-iioii IS ii'slori'd. I ntil reeeiitlx. \x hen the means of anastomosing tin
intestinal eaiial \\ere |ieilei-tei|. it xvas the en>loiii of the surgeon to hriiu
the severed ends of the Intestines into the alMloiniiial ineisioii and sntiii>
them there, estalilishiiiv' in this xvay an artilieial anus xxith all its aeeom|i,i
nyin){ diseoinforts. This xvas eeriainlv ln-tter than alloxviiiv; the |iatienl t"
|>erish li'om his dise.ise, lint hoxv inlinitelx |iiet>'ralile is the |iresent nietlnxi
of lirin^'in^' the healthy ent ends of the intestine into aji|iositioii i»nd reestah
lisliiiiv' the ealilire. Il is this operation \xliieh has so iiiiiih rediieed ih'
niorlalily of intraalidoniinal injuries, ^'iiiishot xvonnds, stahs, ete., and h.i
made hundreds id snlleiers from iiite>tinal eainer either xvi 11 a^jaiii or eoin
fortalile for years. The |ierleetiiin of the o|teration oi joining one part "
the alimentary eaiial to another ha> heeii due lar^^'ely to the in^'eniiity am
]ierMev»«raiie« of Aiiiorieaii siir),'eoiis, xvlm have devoted yeaiH to expei-itiivnta
tion and praetiee upon the eailaver and iii>oii animals.
Tin: KiiiM'.vs. — The kidnex his not lieeii liehiiid the other or)^an> ol il.
Imdy in reaping the henelii-. Ill niodirn siii'^'ery. The first ease nf reiuovii
of till kidney xva- don,' in ISd'.t Kv .Snnon, and w;is sin ssfid. it xvas doi
only after a iiumlier of doK> xvere operated on sueeessfnllx to demoii>irai
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THE CENTURY'S ADVANCE IN SUliGEliV
626
tliiit life and lipalth are coiuiJatihle with only one kidney. Since this time
till' removal of a kidney for disease ov injiiry, when its fellow of the oppo-
site side is healthy and performing its function, has been look(;d u])on as an
entirely justifiable oi)eratiou. The surgery of this organ has lately so far
advanced, however, that many kidn(^ys are now treated by more curative
operations. In 1880 the first operation was done for the removal of a stone
from the kidney, an operation which now nearly every surgeon of nitich
experience has performed. The operation for the fixation of a floating kid-
ney, whicli is now so common, was first done in 1881. Now. since Simon's
bold experiment the lives of between two thousand and three tliousaml per-
sons have been thus saved who had otherwise ccrtaiidv died.
Tiiic Ui.ADDKit. — lH)r generations the Idadder has been considered a legiti-
mate held for surgery, Init nujderu methods and techniciue have greatly
extended the domain. One of the greatest advances in bladder surgery has
bi'cn the crushing of stone and its inunediate removal. Until 18L'r> the treat-
ment of all stones in the bladder was their removal through an incision made
in the organ. At that time (Mviale hrst performed the oi)eration of iiassing
a biaded instrument into the bladder and crushing the stone, then allowing
the patient to pass it subsequently at urination. The ojjeration i)ecanie quite
l)()pidar with certain surgeons as early as the middle of the century. The
cutting operation has, however, never been entirely ]mt aside, and even to-day
it is, in many cases, the best and only jjrocedure. In 1878 Jiigelow. of Bos-
ton, devised tiie method which is now universally iised, of crushing the stone
and washing it out at once through a silver tube. This was a great stride
ahead of the old method.
One of the great difficulties in deciding ttpon the removal of a kidney has
been the tnmble of finding out wlicther the other kidney is doing its work,
and this Kelly, of Johns Hopkins rniversity. has done much to overcome in
devising his method of examining by looking at the openings of the tubes of
the kidneys where they empty into the bhjhler. If the kidney is ])erfornnng
its function the urine will be seen flowing from its tube into the bladder.
Hkhxia ok Kri'Trnic. — Probably the treatment of no condition has re-
ceived more consideration from the surgeon of the nineteenth century than
that of rupture, and it was not until 18!)1 that an operation was devised,
simultaneously by an Italian and an American snrgec.n, which has i)roved for
itself all that its originators claimed. Hundreds of operative methods liave
been brought forward for the cure of this troublesome and dangerous con-
dition ; but, until the operations of Halstead and Bossini were brought for-
ward, little ]U'()S])ect of an absolute cure could be ])r(unised a patient, and the
conservative surgeon would oidy undertake to operate upon very troublesome
cases such as could not be controlled by a truss. Now nearly every case
of hernia may be looked upon as curable by an o]ier!ition.
Opkkativk Gvx.KcoLO(iv. — The operative treatment of the disease of the
female generative organs has been revolutionized in our century, and its
revolution has been largely due to American surgeons. The flrst ovariotomy
ever j)erformed was done in Kentuiky. by Dr. E]>hraim McDowell, in ISO'.K
In the flfties, Marion Sims won great renowli for himself and his country by
ins w(mderful ingeiuiity a' 1 boldtiess in this line of work. The greatest
advance here, as in all departments of surgery, has been made since the
40
G26
TlilUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
introduction of antiseptic and aseptic princii)les. To-day tliere is no disease
or condition which, it' seen early enough, cannot be (uired, or essentia !!y
relieved at the hands of an expert abdominal surgeon. Thousands of wonn-u
are now saved every year by these means who formerly would have certaiidy
died or remained hopeless invalids,
Ai'i'KNDiciTis. — This condition must seem to tlie ordinary reader to lie
either a new disease or one much mcn'e prevalent thaii in days gone by. Imt
it is not the case. The cause of this appearance is the fact that in i'ornnr
times the condition was not recognized in its incipiency, and the exact caii-i'
of the trouble was unknown. The condition then advanced until it was
called tyi)hlitis, peritonitis, and obstruction of the bowels, etc., all of whiih
would to-day occur if the condition \'.(>re not recognized early and trcatiiifiit
immediately instituted before the inflamnuition antl infection extended Irom
the apjiendix to neighlxn'ing tissues.
1>UAI\ SuKGKUv. — This branch of surgery is practically a triumph ot
recent years. Fornu'rly the brain was never interfered with except for in-
jury (traumatic), and even then nothing was done excepting for the removal
of pressure, as from a piece of depressed bone, and the institution of drain-
age. To-day the skuil is opened for epilejjsy ; abscr "5 of the brain aie
opened and drained successfully, and tinnors of the brain . removed, thus not
only in immberless instances saving life but — what is equally important —
saving the usefulness of the life and mind. The first actual successes in this
line are recorded by IJennctt and Uodlee in l.S<S4. who localized and operated
on and ultimately found a tumor. The patient died, but the bold beginning
was followed by a nund)er of other siirgeons, till this new region for exjilora-
tion, hitherto untouched, has become a fertile ground for successful efforts.
Abscess of the brain, until twenty years ago, was almost invariably fatal.
^lacEwen in 187!) located an abscess f)f the brain and begged to be allowed
to operate, but was refused by the family of the patient. After the death of
the patient he operated precisely as he would have done in life, evacuated
the pus and demonstrated that had he been permitted to do so he could have
saved life.
Where the cranium is wounded surgeons nowadays will not hesitate to
open the skull, secure the bleeding vessels, remove clots, and thus many lives
are saved. Even comparatively slight injuries to the skull, where the brain
is damaged, involve oftentimes destruction to the arteries and blood is
effused, producing siudi destructive pressure as causes very serious symp-
toms or even death. In other instances, the residts of a blow or a fall witli-
out injuring the skull may cause profound damage and subsequent hemor-
rhage. In all these cases operative interference, now extremely safe and
easy, may readily save life. Gunshot wounds of the brain are now oidy
occasionally fatal, provided opportunity offers for prompt and clean operative
work. Even where the ball has traversed the entire length of the cerebrum,
recovery has followed operation. The results of brain surgery in relievint,^
certain forms of epilepsy are occasionally most brilliant and frequently mucli
relief is afforded. Where the epilepsy is of the character known as focal.
and where there is evidence of irritation of the brain, due to a local pressure,
whether of the cranial walls or of some new growth within the brain tissue,
the removal of these sources of irritation has in many reported instances
UHY
THE CENTURY'S ADVANCE IN SURGERY
627
s no disease
csseiitiiiUy
Is (.)t' WOllli'lv
VL' certiiiiily
cadtu' to 1)(,'
;oiie by. hiu:
It ill t'ornicr
exact cause
iiitil it Was
[ill of whicli
d ivcatiiiciit
:ouded Irom
triuiiqih ot
iccpt I'ur iii-
tlie removal
on of draiii-
le brain are
ed, thus not
mportaiit —
esses ill tliis
lid operated
lI beginning
for explora-
jsful efforts,
riably fatal.
) be allowcMJ
the death of
e, evacnateil
i could have
hesitate to
3 many lives
re the brain
lid blood is
rions synip-
a fall with-
lent hemoi-
ly safe and
e now only
in operative
le cerebrum,
in relieving
lently much
iVii as focal,
;al pressure,
brain tissue,
id instances
been most satisfactory. Again, certain eases of jirotraeted headache, so
severe as to render life iiisuiiportable. have been cured by trepanning the
skull. Certain forms of insanity have b(.'en nioditied and relievetl where this
had followed upon brain injuries. It is of great interest to retlect upon the
methods by which students of brain disease are enabled to determine so
exactly the location of tumors, absees.ses, hemorrhages, clots, scars, iiiul other
alterations of tissue giving rise to epilepsy and brain disorders, and which
atfdid no indication of the diseased locality by any changed condition of the
siufacc. In dealing with other jiarts of the body, if the precise locality of
the part to be operated on cannot be at first determined, there is no hesita-
tion ill the minds of the surgeons in cutting down upon, and searching for,
that wliich he proposes to remove. In dealing with so delicate an organ as
the brain, however, this cannot be permitted; for a variation of the very
smallest dimension will sometimes change the manipulations from those of
|icrfeet safety to the most fatal results. Our knowledge of the location of
the functions of the brain and the areas from whence ari.se governing influ-
ences has been derived almost solely from exiieriments upon living animals.
Among the names of the great pioneers in this directum must be mentioned
those of Ferrier and Horseley, of England; Fritsch, Ilitzig, and Goltz, of
(Jermany. The researches which have thus opened up a new realm of oper-
ative possibility are aiiKuig the very greatest triuniiihs in our means of sav-
ing life and affording oiiportunity for relief of the most serious disablements
known to modern times.
For illustration of how these studies are pursued, it may be of interest to
review the method used by Horseley.
'I'lie iirain of a monkey having been exposed at the part to be investigated,
the jioles of a battery are applied over squares one twelfth of an inch in
diameter, and all the various movements which occur (if any) are minutely
studied. One square having been studied, the next is stimulated, and the
results are again noted, and so on from square to scpiare. These movements
are then tabulated. F^or example, all those adjacent S(piares whii'h, when
stimulated, ])rodnce movements of the thumb are called the region for repre-
sentation of the thumb, or "the thumb centre;" and to all those squares
which jiroduee movements of the hand, the elbow, the shoulder, or the face,
etc., are given corresponding names. In this way the brain has been mapped
out, region by region, and the same miiuite, patient study given to eacdi.
These animals are etherized so that they do not .s-iift'er the least pain.
Such operations, with few excejitioiis, even without ether, are not painful.
The brain itself can be handled, compressed, cut, or torn without the least
jiain. A number of eases have already been reported in which a consider-
able portion of the human brain has been removed by operation, and the
]iatieiits have been about their ordinary avocations within a week or two.
Studying in this way the brain in the lower animals, it is now possible to
get a very fair knowledge of the localization of many of its functions in man.
^foreover. portions of the body can be entirely severed, and, if suitably
]ireserved, can be replaced, and they will adhere and grow as if nothing liad
liappeiied. When a wound is slow in healing, we now take bits of skin,
either from the ]iatient's own body or provided by the willing family or
friends, or even from frogs, and '• graft "' them on the surface of the wound.
t!jl
628
TRIUMPHS AXD WOXniCnS OF THE A7A'" CENTURY
Tlit'V usuiilly ailliciv, !iii(l as (Milai'i,'(Mii('iit takfs jdaco at tlit'ir margins, tin v
coalesce Ity oiic half tlic time ii'qiiiriMl tor licaliiij,'. K\eti a large disk nl'
boiif, one or two iiiclics in dianicicr, wIhmi removed from the sknll, can b(! so
saved and utilized. It is placed in a vessel tilled with a warm antiseptio
soluticiu. whiidi is again placed in a basin of warm water, and it is the duty
of a special assistant to see that the thermometer in this basin shall always
mark 100° to 105° Fahv. 'I"he bone may be separated from the skull so long
as on(^ or two hours, but if ])roiierly cared for can be replaced, ami will grow
fast and fidlill its ac(>ustomed but interrupted duty of protecting the brain.
K(")NT(JKX Rays. — (Jne of the most recent advances in the art of surgciy
is the discovery and use of the X-rays. In December. ISU.j. Professor Itiint-
gen. of Wiirzburg, announced his discover}', and since then its utility has
continually increased, until to-day no large hospital or pro])erly equipped
X-UAY PICTURE OP A COMPOUND FnACTUUE AXD DISLOCATION OF THF, FOUEAIIM.
teaching institution, indeed no first-rate surgeon, is without the X-ray ap-
paratus, liy its >ise many doubtful cases of both injury and disease in surgi-
cal practice are thus entirely rendered clear. In the diagnosis and treatment
of many fractures it is nearly indispensable, showing the exact location of
the break and the iwsition of the fi'agment before and after dressing. I'ro-
bably in no other condition, unless it be in fractured bones, has the X-ray
j)roved its(df of so mucli value as in the lo(;ation of foreign bodies lodged in
any of the organs or tissues of the body. I>efore Professor IJontgen's dis-
covery it was not of infreipient occurrence that an exjiloratory operation
was necessary to ])ositively prove the ])resence of a foreign budy. and even
this was at times of necessity a failure. To-day the X-ray ])ictnre enables
the surgeon to learn the exact location of the foreign body and indicates to
him the best point from which it may be attacked. With repeated ini]irovc
VURY
iiarijins, tiny
iMifTc disk 111'
nil, can bo so
ni iiutisi'})ti(!
t is the duty
sIkiU iilwiiys
skull so loiiuj
nd will f,n'()w
the bnuM.
rt of su !■;,'(• ly
)l't'ss()i' Itoiit-
s utility has
rly equippL'd
p. FOr.EAIlM.
'.p X-ray a])-
aso in sui'ni-
n\ treatment
i location of
ssiii!,', Pro-
is the X-ray
es lodged in
intucn's dis-
■y ojieratioii
ly. and e\(Mi
rure enables
indicates ti>
:ed iin]in)Vr
X-UAY IMCTlltK OK A DISLOCATED ELBOW.
630
TRIUMPHS AM) WOSDKRS OF THE XIX'" CESTUIIY
i
luonts in appuvatiis the tiiiu' of oxiJosiirt' iiMiiiircd Un- inaking t\w pictiuf ..f
the part has heen greatly rt'diuiod. The advantage of this was niade niani.
fest when it was discovered tiiat destrnction of tiie skin, tlie so-('allo<l ''X-iay
hnrns," niiglit foUow h)ng and reiieated t'X})osnre to the rays. It is iidt
always necessary to nnike a ])late of the part to be I'xaniined. since by simply
studying the parts by the eyes throngh the Hnoroscope or the fluoroseoj.ic
screen the surgeon can readily see evi'rything tiiat a pliotograi)hic pictiiic
could show him. The Huoroscope or screen is now often u.sed during tin'
operation of removing foreign bodies ; through it the surgeon can watch tlie
various steps of his operation, his api)roaeh to the foreign body and its tiii;d
removal.
If the field of its ust>fulness eontinui's to exjtand at its present rate, it will
not be long before its use as a diagnostic measure will be as valuable to tiic
medical man as it now is to the surgeon.
r>y such iustrunu'nts of precision as this, and others less conspicuous, tin-
old elements of intelligent inference and argument by analogy and exelusinn
are rendered of less value, and a rapid approach is made to scientific exacti-
tude in surgery as well as medicine. All this has attained a far higher
quality and scope in the last (piarter of this century liian in .any other ])eri()il
of the world's history, and we may look to great advances in the conuiig
century, in all life-conserving and remedial measures whereby the race may
enjoy a larger measure of relief as well as immunity from the onslaught of
disease and the results of accident.
There is shown here for illustration a jdiotographic picture of a limb,
taken by the X-ray now growing familiar to every one. It should be borne
in niinii that while it is a simjjle matter for the casual observer to note ob-
vious solutions of continuity in bones, or the presence of foreign bodies, this
is not the chief item of usefulness to the surgeon, and certainly not to the
medical practitioner. A special training is required to study and interpret
the findings and appearances of the tissues, their altered relationships, densi-
ties, and many other matters entirely insignificant to the uneducated among
medical men or laity.
Again, the ])icture here shown is similar in outline to but a reversal of the
shading seen through the fluoroscope by direct vision, when the greatest skill
is required in noting the significance of altered states in the denser or softer
tissues.
When suits for maljiractice are instituted against surgeons it is not to be
admitted that the evidence or findings of the "highly intelligent" but not
technically skilled witness can have the slightest weight as proving the con-
dition of tissues of which they are very ignorant, not only pliysiologically
but more so pathologically.
J. Madison Tavi.ok.
John II. Gikuon.
my
liicturc nf
iiadf iiiaiii-
KmI "X-iiiy
It is Hot
liy .siiii|ily
iuoroscojiic
hit', picture
(liii'iiij; tlic
I -WlltC!!! tiio
11(1 its tiiiiil
•lite, it will
ial)lc to tlif
)ioiious. till'
(I cxolusinii
titic exacti-
fav lii^'iicr
ther jjoiioil
the t'oiiiiiig
IP nice iiiiiy
iislauylit of
of a limb,
Id be bonie
to note t)b-
bodies, tliis
f not to tiie
d intei'iirct
hips, densi-
ited among
;rsal of the
■eatest skill
er or softer
is not to be
t " but not
iig tlie coii-
siologically
Taylor.
IliON.
PROGRESS OF MEDICINE
'• As a point of history pregnant with valuable deductions, it is good to
look back upon the c(<nditioiis of medicine in loinicr times and tind that it
has always kept pace witii the iirogress uf the physical and mural sciences.
Wliere these, liowever, have been marked by tolly and credulity, medicine
has exliiliited tiie same iniperfeetions."
It is difticiilt to trace the improvement in successive eras, because tiiey
melt into one another by indefinable gradations. During the earliest period
it was believed that [ihysie was an art which was supposed to be most myste-
rious, and it was presumed that the practicers held communion with the
world of spirits. The ])raetice of medicine in those daj's consisted in the
usage of agents necessarily unrelial)le, as, for instance, the word abracadabra
liung around the neck as an amulet to chase away the ague, etc.
Aluch time has been wasted in attemj)ting to portray the first origin of
medicine. IJambilla, a surgeon of Vienna, has asserted that Tubal Cain was
the inventor of cauterizing instrnments. apparatus for reducing fractures, and
other instrnments for surgical procedures, thus endeavoring to prove that
surgery antedated medicine. It is evident that medicine must have had a
very early origin, for mankind even in the earliest ages surt'ered pain and the
train of sequences due to exposure, and hence soon discovered a method of
alleviation. Their category probably consisted of herbs. Unac(piainted, how-
ever, with the construction and function of the hnmaii economy, practitioners
were unable to trace the progress of disease, and the more fatal internal mala-
dies were ascribed to the deities whom they feared. Hence, various supersti-
tious practiiM's would arise and be handed down from one generation to
another. We may imagine this to have been the origin of the healing art,
and such is nearly its present condition amongst the savages of Africa,
Australasia. Polynesia. Sumatra, etc.
Later on, the priests became the physicians, from being the oracles of the
divinity whom the people wished to consult. The various remedies were
handed down from one to another, as medical science did not exist at that
time. Herodotus informs us that even in his time the r>al)ylonians, Chal-
deans, and other nations had no physicians. When any one was attacked
with disease the patient was carried into the jiublic street, and passers-by
who had suffered from a similar affection, or nursed one who had, ad-
vised the sufferer to employ the measures that proved successful in former
cases.
The earliest writers on medicine trace its origin, in common with that of
most other branches of knowledge, to the Egyjitians. They apjiear to be the
first nation tliat cultivated medicine and furthered its ])rf)gress. Many pecul-
iar medical i)ropertios were attributed to the deities. All diseases were sup-
posed to originate from the anger of Isis. Kesin was burned in the morning,
63'J
riUVMI'llS AM) WONnEIlS OF THE -Y/A'"' CKXTrilY
myrrh at iiooii, uud a I'diiipositidii tcriiu'il rypliy in tin- cviMiiii-. in tlif tcm-
l>li's (if Isis, and the sick were taken tiicic to slt'i'|i, diirin;,' w liidi tiic ()i;i-
clt's iui,!,'lit ii'vcal to liicni tiic means wliicii tlicv siiunlil cniiiluy t<i ftl't'cl ;i
curr. 'I'iiis is an illnstratiun dt liic sniiiTstitinns wiiicU [H'l'vailt'il at tlint
tinif.
Tilt' carlii'sl antlicntii' records wliicli we can ascertain I'roni collatei'al read
ill!,' art^ to lie innnd in tiie Scri|)tnres. lli'ic it is >tated tiiat .losepli (•(im
manded liis servants ami |iliysieians toi'nil)alni Inni (I7"i> is. e, i. Tins sliows
that I'^gypl at tiiat time possessed a set oi' men w iio practiced tiie liealin','
art, iiiul that tiiey endialnied tlie (h'ad. This ninst liave rei|nired an idea ,,[
anatomy, wliieii. needless to say, was ernth' and nnscientilie. as dis>ection el
the linnian body at tiiat time was proliiiiiled. tiie penalty iieiie^ deatli.
Aceonlinj; to I'liny, tiie K^^yptian kinijs cncouraj^ed post-mortems, lor tiie
luirpose of ascertain inj;- tlie cause of diseases ; and tiiis methoij was fostered
by tiie I'tolemies, (hiring- wliose reigns anatomy was raised to a liiglier stan-
dard.
Tlirongli tlie wiitings of Moses in tlie sacred Scriptures, we learn that the
medicine of the Hebrews appertained mostly to jmlilic hyi^iene. .Meat of tlie
\u)<i and ralihit was forltiddcn, as being injiirioiis in the l-IgNptian and Indian
climate. The relation (d' man and wife and tlie pnrilication of women were
regulated. The measures suggested by Moses for tlie prevention of tlic
spread of leprosy havo not yi't been surpassed. Ne.xt to Moses, Solomon
ae(iuire(l (piite an efficient knowledge of eonipounding remedies.
The Indian raees were divided into castes, the priests alone enjoying the
privilege of practicing medicine, 'i'lieir medical knowledge was condensed
in a book whi(di they called I'Ki/di/nsdsfii: They believed the body gave
rise, tlirough seventeen thousand vessels, to ten species of gas whi(di con-
flicted anil engendered disease. So far as we know, they were the first to
record a way of testing the speoiiic gravity of urine. Though accused of
many absurdities, they claimed to cure the bites of venomous snakes and
compounded an ointment which eradicated the cicatrices of smalljiox. — a
result which has not as yet been attained in the ]>resent epocli. TheCliinese
attribute the invention of medicine to Jloam-ti. one <d' their emperors, who
lived about 2(i.S7 ii. e. ; Imt possessing no anatomical knowledge, their sur-
gery, to say the least, was barbarous. For over four tliousand ye;irs tlie
Chinese were not allowed to communicate with foreigners, and naturally their
jirogress was at a standstill. They used cups, acupuncture, fomentations,
lotions, plasters, baths, etc. Their midwifery jiractice consisted mainly of
murderous princijiles, and it is only since the introduction of missionaries
that a reformation in the medic;il practice of the Chinese empire lias been
aceomplislied.
The condition of medicine in (Jreece did not differ from that of the "rude
and uncivilized nations." But later, (Jreek physicians are credited with the
most brilliant discoveries. The most distinguished of Chiron's jmpils was
yEsculapius, who occupies the most conspicuous jdace in the history of medi-
cine. .Esculapius is always painted with a stall', because the sick have need
of a supjiort ; and the serjient entwined around it is the symbol of wisdom.
The sons of J'^sculapius are considered the fathers of surgery, and, for their
distinguished valor at the siege of Troy, have been classed by Homer among
the Greek heroes.
AT
n tlif tcin-
I till! iini-
t(i ctTi'cl :i
••il 111 tlijt
ti'r;il M'ikI
isc|i|i com
riiis sliuws
!<• lii'lllill;,'
.'III iilt'ii uf
-M'ctioii (iT
til.
IS, tor tlir
IS I'dSll'ITll
,'lii'r sliiii-
11 tli;it ilii'
li-.ll (ll tlic
Dili liidiiiii
lllll'll Wt'lC
nil (iT llir
i. Sdldlildll
joying tlic
CdlKlcllSfd
I II Illy ^'11 vc
AJiii'li cdii-
lie first (d
iipcuscd dl
iiiikcs aiiil
lll|ldX. — il
lit'Cliiiifsc
erors. who
tlicir sur-
yeiirs tlic
rally tlicir
leiitatioiis,
mainly ol'
issidiiarics
has been
tlie "lude
I with the
uijiils was
y of iiu'di-
havc need
f wisdom.
, for their
I'HoaiiiJss OF Mi:i)i< isE
038
I »
Tho tirst oiH-nition ot venesection, or lilodd-l.t tin:.,', formerly so proniiscfu.
(iiisly done, with at times ,','ddd, Imt dllciier di.sasirdiis. results, and now rarely
resorted to, is attributed u. I'odalirius, uf recoyni/.ed (ireciaii medieal skill,
llie [latient lieing a prinueMs.
Tlie early Creeks ahove all reed.,Mii/ed the value of physical riilture, wliiidi
td-day dccupies a piomineiit place in our curriculum. \Vere the eliildrcu dt'
to-day, likn those of the une-ient (ireeks, cdiupelliMl to I'ollow a rouiinc ol' phy-
sical training, a rugged ediistitutidii Wduld rejilace many a "(lelicaU! " ai'id
'•intirm "diie, ;ind the race prdpa:;ated wdiild tend to devidop a stronger char-
acter. Then the weak-minded, iidw so conspicuously jireseut, would lie eradi-
cated, ami many diseased cdiiditions fostered by an •• inaniiaate " race Wdiihl
disappear.
ilygeia. Irom whence cdiues Hygiene, or the art of preserving health, was
a protended sister of .K.seula|iius. .Viiatomy eouhl not tidurish in (irccce, bo-
cause a most exemplary iinuishment awaited any untoward cdiidiict tdward
the dead. Their peculiar religious beliefs regarding the rest df the soul were
lespoii.sible for this.
The knowledge of the functions df the body in health and disease was ap-
prei'iated by rvthagiuas. I)id'.,'ciies asserts that Alcnaedii, diie ot the i'Ulia-
goieaiis, wrote a work on the functidus. which work would cunsciiueiitly be the
most ancient known treatise on physiology.
The ago of llipiidcrates (n. c K>(»-.".7<ti was marked by a revdlution in med-
ical seienco, "This central figure in the liistdry of miMliciiie " was descendant
of a family in which the practice of medicine was hereditary. He was an ex-
tensive! writcsr on such subjects as epidemitis, acute diseases, disldcatioiis. frac-
tur;'S, etc. Owing to the impossibility of establishing a physioldgy without,
an anatomical basis, his references to these subjects are crude and incorrect.
To nip[iocrates we osve the classifiiration of (Mulemic. sporadic, and epidemic
forms of disease, and their division int(j acaito and chronic. lb; wrote on
diseases of women and epilepsy, and his therapeutics, though cnule, were a
marked improvement on what had ]ireceded. He wrote fully on external dis-
eases and surgical therapeutics. In obstetrics he was a close observi-r and a
tlioughtful teacher. The brilliant theories and practices so diligently ob-
served and urged by tliis master were thrown in the shadow by his thought-
less followers. The well-instructed physician is not ignorant of the oiiinions
of Hii)pocrates, for truly the "divine old man" is the •' Father of I'hysie."
He caused a revolution in the practice of medicine, semeiology, pathology,
and dietetics. He taught jihysicians to observe attentively the progress of
Nature, proved tho inutility of theories, and showed that observation is the
basis of medicine.
An important age, and one of marked progress in medicine, is from the
fdundation of the Alexandrian Library (.">'J0 n. r.) up to the death of CJalen
{\. o. L'OO). Under the I'toleniies dissection of human bodies was idlowed,
and hence, as already stated, the science of medicine received quite an im-
pulse. Herophilus deserves first mention as a dissector. He described the
brain and its vessels, the eye, the intestinal canal, and jiarts of the vascular
system. The valves of the heart were more exactly described by Erasistr,atus,
who discovered the lymph vessels and pointed out that the epiglottis preveuta
the entrance of food into the luugs.
4>:it
TItlUMI'IIS ASH WOShKliS OF TIIK A/A"' CKSTUnY
Aretu'iiH, iiioi'f than any Dtlicr m|> to Ills tiiiic. att('ini»tnl to Idiiiul patliolojry
u|it)ii a Nuiinil iiiuitumir buHis, an flt'ort wliicli sIkiwh tin' .scicntit'u; pi-ugress ut
his u^t'.
Of III! Ilio physiciunH ut' antii|nity. <iali>n was priilKibly tint inoHt brilliani
^(■niii.s. In the midst n|' (jisiinli'i' he Icil liai'k to tin' satVr roail ut' sonnil ih'r-
trincand ai-cniatc dbscrMitinn wliicli ilistinjjuisln'd tin' ili|iiiiH'ratic hcIkioI. lie
wrobi oxti'iisivciy nn anatomy, cHpcciiilly rt'i;ardinj,' tin- ninsclfs. lit- was thr
tirst vivisf'ctor, hy fxposinj,' tin' nniscli's ol animals and dcinonstratini,' tlini
t'unrtions, ami Ids classilication ai'i'ordin;,' to their nsc is at prt'scnt in vo;^nr.
Cart't'iilly rt'j{ulatt'd vivist'ction lias 1 n, and always will be. of inealeiilaliie
beiietit to llie de\'el(i|iment of aei'iiiale medical knowledi;e, and an iiidireil
aid in the alleviation oi Inimaii siitferin^. (ialen divided ilie body into cra-
nial and tlioracic eavitius, and described the orjjans, cte., contained tlii'i'uiii.
Anatomy and |)liysioloj,'y. the fiimlaniental bases of medieine and siir;,'ei\.
made the niosi, |iro!,'i'ess dining,' the peiiod just reviewed, and next came the
<k'seriiition of diseases, their medical and surgical therapeutics.
After the sixth century nicdieint! was exercised almost exclusively by tin'
monks (if the West. They weri! unworthy the name nf physicians, as they
resorted more to prayers, ami were retarded by ii,'m)ranci! and prejudice.
J)iirinj? the seventh ami (!ii,dith centuries there were amoni; the monks a
few traditionary remains of science, orif^tinatinj; from the I'last. 'I"he jirclales,
archdeacons, etc., thoui,'h (•ontinniiij^ the praittice of the healini,' art. were
gradually discouraged by the church, but as late as the middle of the tifteenth
century tin; liishop of (Nilchester was chaplain and tirst physician to Henry
VI. In 14r»'J the physicians of the University of Paris were nut allowed to
marry, the apitlicant, prior to admission, taking the oath of celibacy.
During tho twelfth century tin) school of .Salerinini. through the personal
interest manifested by Kniperor Frederick II., acipiired a degree of reputa-
tion attained by few similar institutions in ancient times. Sciiools in Paris
and England were placM'd on an advanced standing, the professors being
salaried ; and about this period the titles of bachelor, licentiate, and master,
were granted to the physicians.
During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries medicine made remarkable
])rogress in Fninee under .St. Louis. During the reign of this prince the
teaching of medicine and surgery was divided into separate and distinct
classes. Jledical institutions now becanu) greatly encouraged, and in the
leading cities of Europe universities were erected under the ausiiices of
royalty.
Jledical instruction oxjierienced an imjiortant revolution in the European
countries during the fourteenth century. l'"or the tirst time in Europe .ina-
tomy was taught by dissection of the human body. Guy de Chauliac, who
lived at the end of this century, wrote a treatise on surgery which served as
the basis of Euro])ean instruction until Ambroise I'are of France published
his celebrated work ui)oii the same subject.
The fifteenth century was also one of improvement. The Arabs added a
few observations on patholog}-, especially of the eruptive fevers. Some useful
works on pharmacy and materia medica were imblished during this epoch.
During this era the operation was devi.sed for renlacing the nose when re-
moved by accident or disease, by using for the purpose a piece of tlesh taken
rnoGHEss or MiiniciMi
In.iii tlic anil, and applyiiit; it i.\ a ffmftiiiK prnc.'.ss. Alxiiit tlic iiii.lilli' ,it
ihis |«'fi("l till' iiiti-nial admiiiistiMtimi .it in.'iallic diii'^'s was iiitiodiu'rd.
I'liwanis tlic latter cud. tlic iiivfiitinn ol print iii^' tfiidiid to a-sist tin- pioKivs.s
III iiit'diciiu'. Near tin' rl.isr of tids century Nciirvy wan tir.st imticfd in
Wfrniaiiy. Diiriiii,' this period iii<ire eiiL'r>,'y was devoted to postiiiortrm de-
iiiiiiistra,ti()M.< and tin- study of Hyiuptonis of diseases.
To llciicvieni we owe tiie ( iiueiieeinent of tile study of i;ros.s patliolojiy
.ind patliido>,'i('ai iin:itoniy. .Maly:ai^,'ne remarks of luni : •• A eulo^'y wineh \w
merit-, and wiii(di lie sliared witii no other person, and wineii lias not heen
aeeiu'ded to liim up to this time iiy the many historians of surgery, who have
supertieially searched anioie,' tliese p'ccious sources, is tliat lie was tlie tirst
wiio had the lialiit. felt the need, ami si't ihe useful example, wiiicii he trans-
mitted to his siicecsMors, of searchiiij,' in the <'ada\i'r, according; to the till.' of
ids hook, for the concealed causes of discasi'," His ohservatioiis on anatomi-
cal heart lesions, },'all-stone, and presence of pur.isites in the lpo.i\, were
original, didin Keriitd. who has been surnamed "the modern (ialen." divided
medicine into physiology, patholojjy, and therapeutics. The fundamental
maxim of therapeutics, that every disease must he comliated hy c'ontrary
remedies, was early laid down by hiin. and lie (daimed that anything' that
cured a disease was contrary to it. Surgery was placed on a liiKii scale durinj;
this era, us thorough a course as the time afforded was <,Mveii. and a ri'^'id
examination lielil at its termination. Ainliroise I'an- contributed hugely
toward nuikinj,' this a glor'ous century. lle rose from the lowest walks of
life to the hi),dioHt professional attainmonts and honors. He was the first to
control liemorrlia>,'e by tyinj,' the bleedinj,' vessels, thus doiic' iiway with the
former crude and painful method ol pouring ><\\ hot oil. I'hi- procedure
proved (piite a boon to surgery; as an instance it maybe mentioned that
l)rior to the introduction of this niethod in amputations the bleeding was
controlled by means (d' a hot iron, and this iieforc the days of aiucsthesia.
Every age of ancient, media-val, and modern medicine has had its charla-
tans, and tin," more civilization ])rogresses. the more popular these ([uack.s
become with certain types (d' jicople, particularly those of the middle and
lower classes, although no class appears to be exempt, fiatent, unscrupulons,
and nnprincipled. they jday uikui the credulity of the ignorant.
The central figure of the media-val charlatans was I'aracelsns. who was
given to drink and debamdieiy. He advertised extensively, similar to the
charlatans of to-day. and exerted an intluence in his time. *>Tlie S(diool which
he would have fonnded was nothing but a s(diool of ignorance, dissipation,
and boasting — a school of medical dishonesty."'
During the sixteenth centnry the greatest discoveries took place in ana-
tomy, based \i])on dissections, the only rational method of asci-rtaining ana-
tomical knowledge. The lesser circulation of the blood, or that through the
lungs, was ai)prcciated.
The ofticers of the universities were chosen by the students, who assisted
in laying out the curriculum. Coniiiare this with the rigid methods of med-
ical instruction now in vogue. The practitioners were of roving habits, which
were evidently contracted during their student days, as it was customary lor
them to go from one school to another, the poor classes defraying exjjenses
by begging and singing.
636
TlilUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
There was evident iinprovenieut in the soeial and inciital Matus of medical
men upon tlie apiiroaeh <it' the seventeenth eenturv, and tliis period is signal-
ized by the dist'overv ot the eircnlation of tlie bkiod. one of the mo»t impor-
tant ever mack' in medieine. Chemistry now assumed the dignified asj)eet of
a science, wliieli fact benetitcd tiie progress of metlicinc.
It is difKcuIt for lis at the present time to nnderstand why tlie eircnlation
of the blood was not discovered jirior to this period, but to the ancients it
was incomprehensible. 'I'liey believed tlu' arteries contained air, because
after death they were found empty. William Ila.'vey, the discoverer of the
circulation of the blood, did not publish the results of his investigations until
1(>L'S. first submitting them to iifteeii years of proof. This naturally revolu-
tionized physiology. The eajdllary circulation, or that intermediate between
the arteries and veins, was described by .Malpighi in KJL'S. Of course this
was possible only through the means of a microscope. >i'o less remarkable
was the discovery of the lymphatic vessels. I'ernvian bark (the alkaloid
quinine "being more commonly employed) so universally employed as a spe-
cific for malaria, was first used in the early part of this epoch.
During this period ophthalmology (which treats of the disea.ses of the
eye) was cultivated in France, cataract was first recognized, and the diseases
of the ear first systematically described. Altogether the eenturv showed
marked progression, closing with the teachings of Sydenham, "the English
Hippocrates."
The eighteenth century was one of continued jirogress. The eminent
observers <ievoted more time to microscopical work, studying the minute
structure of the tissues and cells. One of the most pronunent is Lieberkiihn,
who inventetl the solar microscope, with which he was enabled to exhibit the
circulation of the blood. The .systematic practice of the preveiuive inocula-
tion against small-pox by vaccination originated in this decade. The first
inoculation with cow-pox was in 1774. Edward -leiiner, the English surgeon,
was "the father of vaccination," which he first did in 179(). About ISdO,
Dr. Waterhouse. then jirofessor of medicine in Harvard College, performed
the first vaccination in America, the patients being his four children.
The treatment of the insane was changed from one of torture and barba-
rous methods to a more scientific one, conducive to the, comfort and return to
health of the patient.
This period marks the earliest examjde of medical teaching in this coun-
try, consisting of the demonstrations of anatomy in I'liiladelphia by Dr.
Thomas Cadwalader, upon his return from Europe. This was previous to
1750, about which time a body was dissected in New York. In \~'A-i}{> Dr.
William Hunter of Scotland delivered a series of lectures ou anatomy, accom-
panied by dissections, at Newport, It. I.
In 17(>2 Dr. Shippen laid the foundation of a medical school in Philadel-
phia, which finally dtn-eloped into the Medical Dejiartment of the t'niversity
of Pennsylvania. This was the first medical school established in this coun-
try. In 1708 a school of medieine was organized in New Vork,and the next
in succession was tlu; ^ledical Department of Harvard Coll(>ge in 17SL'. The
fourth was established at Hanover, 171(7. bidng connected with Dartmouth
College. These were the only medical colleges instituted jirior to the present
century. The first book on American surgery was written in 1775 by Dr.
John Jones, the title being " Wounds and Fractures."
PROaiiESS OF MF.DiriXE
637
« The tendency of tho nineteentli contniy seems to be a continuaHon, and,
perhaps, in some respects an exaggeration of the condition tliat obtained in
iM-inc.' dnring tlie previims centnry ; in otiier words, tlie world has become
practically an enormous school of pathological anatomy and diagnosis— a
■ i'/jy
. jj
DK. OMVKR WENUKI.I, HOLMES.
school inaugurated by iSichat. as repi'esenting so-called scientific or exact
medicine."
Darwin has ]iromulgate(l "the most inHuential ])liil()si)pliic doctrine of this
or any other century."' Our materia mcdica and tlie laws of physics have
been enriched by botanical discoveries, aiding greatly the ex])erimental re-
searches of to-day. Helmhol/ lias given ns an instrument called the ojdithal-
niosco])e, containing a series of luMnbcrcd maginfying lenses, with whicli the
interior of the eye can be explored by looking directly through the pupil of
638 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
the eye, similar to looking through a door into a room. Through his know-
ledgo of physics, Seehach was able to make fame through his discovery
of thermal electricity. Daguerre. who invented photography, must not be
overlooked, as by means of this process, many conditions are directly ap-
preciated by the eye which could not be told in words and still convey an
idea of the tumor, etc., being described. It may not be amiss to mention
here that the biograph will in a few years prove an important factor in
teaching the various operations. One surgeon in France is now employing
it. We must not overlook Edison and his electrical achievements which
directly and indirectly affect medicine; nor IJell's telephone, which is some-
times used to locate a bullet, l^y jilacing the rv'ceiver to the ear and probing
for the bullet with electric conductors, the nuiking and breaking of the cir-
cuit upon contact with the missile is transmitted to the receiver and dis-
tinctly heard. This procedure, however, has been discarded since the intro-
duction by Lvoutgen of the X-ray.
A very significant feature of the age has been the extraordinary develop-
ment of associations devoted to scientific discussions and the publication of
medical literature and journals. The formation of medical societies, espe-
cially iu the United States, has been quite active. Hut lew counties are
without a medical organization, referred to as " The . . . Count}' ]\Iedical
Society."
The American ^ledical Association was established by Dr. Nathan Smith
Davis in I'hiladelphia fifty -two years ago (1847). The first two years no meet-
ings were held, but since then regular annual meetings liave been in progress,
the place of assembly being decided upon by a majority vote of its members.
It has nu^t in the city of its birth five times, the founder has been elected
president twice, ami is still (lOOO) in active practice at the age of eighty-two.
He has attended all its meetings held in various cities from Boston to San
Francisco.
The first medical journal in tliis country appeared in New York, 1797. It
was called " The Xew York Kepository," was published quarterly, and man-
aged to reach its twenty-third edition. Fifty years ago there were about
twenty journals ])ublished in the United States. At the end of the century
there are two hundred and thirty.
In 1810 tliere were six hundred and fifty students of medicine in America,
and one hundred graduates. At the present writing about twenty thousand
medical students are enrolled in our various colleges, ami during the spring
of 181)9 about three thousand five hundred received the degree of M. I).
The original branches, practice of medicine, surgery, obstetrics, physiology,
anatomy, therapeutics, and chemistry, have been subdivided and specialized.
Among the chief of these specialties are gynecology, which treats of diseases
of women ; pediatrics, which treats of diseases of children ; dermatology,
which treats of diseases of the skin ; ophthalmology, which treats of diseases
of the eye ; laryngology, which treats of diseases of the throat and larynx ;
otology, which treats of diseases of the ear ; neurology, which treats of
diseases of the nerves ; medical jurisprudence, which treats of the relation of
medicine to hiw ; pathology, which treats of diseased tissues and organs ;
bacteriology, which treats of the microbes ; and physical diagnosis, which
treats of the art of discriminating disease by means of the eye, ear, and
PROGRESS OF MEDICINE (;3<)
toiicli. Tlie niicleiis of tlie teaching regarding the latter subject is due to
1(1 tlie cft'orts and observations of Corvisart. of France. He was the first to
ascertain the diseased areas of tlie lungs, by tapping on the chest with the
lingers, and listening to the ](itch of the note thus elicited. A low, dull note
indicates that the lung is solid, as in pneuiiKuiia; a Jlat note that fluid is
|iresnit, and so on. I'.y jilaciiig the ear to the chest wall, sounds in iieaUii
and disease are heard, which vary iu intensity, degree, etc. Laennec discov-
DU. NATHAN SMITH DAVIS, OF CHICAGO.
ered by accident that this method was greatly im])roved and the sounds
more distinctly heard if a cj-lindrical tube was interposed between the ear
and the chest wall. Tlie outconip of this principle is the stethoscope.
The name of I'ravaz. the Lyons surgeon, has been perpetuated liy the
hypodermic syringe which he devised. The employment of suitable drugs in
this instrument is tin; method par excellence for relieving pain. With it
drugs can be injected into unconscious patients. Suicides who refuse to
swallow emetics can have their stomachs emptied most effectually of tlieir
contents by a hypodermatic injection of apomorphine.
The thermometer used for taking the temperature of the human body is so
arranged that the mercury does not descend into the bull) until shaken down,
hence after taking the temjierature it remains nuiiiHuenced until shaken
down. Were an ordinary thermometer used, by the time it was removed
from the patient to the light the mercury would descend several degrees.
640
TRIUMJ'IIS AXD WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
Pasteur began tho studies of fermentation in 1854. Through his obsorva-
tions, aided by the microscope, the oiiinion was reached tliat micro-organisms
phiyed an iniportaiit u'Ao in the causation of disease. Many of the hilxira-
tory investigators became ind)ucd witli tlie spirit, and througli their diligent
observations the microbes causing many diseases have been isolated. It,
remained for Ivoch to discover the tubercle bacillus, or IkirUhis tiilicvnilnxin.
which is the cause of consumption. Tlic sputum of a patient, properly
stained, and examined under the microscope, will at once decide whether
that individual has consum]ition.
Having ascertained that bacteria were the cause of disease, sepsis (blond
])ois(ming), etc., it then renuuned to discover a method of killing them, witli-
out any undue injury to the patient. Sir Joseph Lister began ex])erimeiits
ui)on this hypothesis, and in 1S()7 was able to ])ublish favorable results.
But lo I the world was slow to bend to a new thought ably demonstrated, and
for a score of years he was bitterly opposed.
It was Crawford W. Long, in a little village of Alabama, who, in 1X41'. was
the first to init to sleej) a patient with ether, and remove a small growtii.
The patient, upon awakening, had exi)erienced no pain. This method of re-
lieving pain was christened "auiesthesia" several years later, by the distin-
guished l>r. Oliver Wendell Holmes, whose writings did more than those of
any other Anu'rican to eradicate '■ child-bed fever." Every woman in the
land owes hiiu an eternal debt of gratittide. To (ruthrie, of Sackett's Har-
bor. New \'()rk, is due the credit (jf first discovering chloroform, but Sir
Janu!s Simpson, of Edinburgh, deserves the credit of first eniplo^'ing it in
medicine.
The surgeons of America laid the foundation of gynecology, the ]irogress
(jf which has been more marked tiian any de]iartnu'nt of medicine. The first
ovariotomy in the world was performed by ])r. Ephraim jVlcDowell in Ken-
tucky. ])ccenil)er. LSOi). This was ])rior to the days of auiesthesia and anti-
sepsis, and a howling nu)b awaited outside, ready to murder the brave sur-
geon should his patient die during the operation. " In five days," says Dr.
McDowell, •'• I visited her, and nuich to my astonislum^nt found her engaged
in making up her bed." Dr. J. >Lariou Sims, our illustrious genius who
established ;in international reputation, did much to promulgate jjlastic work
on the female genitalia. The dt>eds of medical men are soon forgotten by an
ungrateful piddic, and the sons of ^Esculapius are the last to have monu-
ments erected to their memory. P>ut four exist in America; one. in New-
York, to that grand old gynecologist. Dr. J. Marion Sims ; one in Washing-
ton, to Dr. Sanniel 1). Gross, '-the Nestor of American Siu'gery;" one in
Bushnell Park, Hartford. Conn., to Dr. Horace Wells, the discoverer of an-
aesthesia; and one in the Public (Jarden in lioston to the discoverer of aiues-
thesia. This last bears no name. Antisepsis and anu'sthesia liave played
an lumsually im[)(jrtant role in obstetrics, by dleviating the sufferings (jf
childbirth and eradicating child-bed fever, thus reducing the mortality of both
mother and child.
Physiology has made very rapid strides during this era. Beaumont, in
his famous work, describes digestion in the stomach and experiments on the
gastric juice. He was enabled to observe this in a voyageur wlio was acci-
dentally wounded in the stomach by the discharge of a musket, June, ISliL*.
rit Y
is obsorvii-
■orgiiiiisins
the lahoiii-
ir diligent
)late(l. It
i/'firiiliisis.
properly
e whether
)sis (1)1(1(1(1
hem, with-
qiorimeiits
le results.
rat(Hl. iiiid
1.S4L'. was
ill growth.
;hu(l of !■(•-
the (li.stiii-
in those ot
liin ill tie'
<i^tfs llar-
1, hut Sir
yiui;' it in
])rogr('ss
The first
'11 in Keii-
. and anti-
brave siir-
■' says Dr.
'V engaged
?nius who
astic work
tten by an
ave nuinu-
p. in Xew
Washing-
; " one in
■rer ot an-
ir of aiues-
,ve played
Pferings oi'
ity of both
uunoiit. in
iits on the
was aeei-
une, 18131.'.
H
■<
a
a
<
a
O
u
■<
o
o
M
<
PROGRESS OF MEDICIXE 641
Quite a large opening remained, wliicli Nature ciose.l witli a valve. I'.y push-
ing the valve to one side, tlu- interior oi' the .stuniaeh could he explored.
Througii the work of the experimental physioh)gi.sts in the hihonitories
the study of tlie aetion of drugs on the lungs, heart, liver, stonuu'h. nerves'
etc.. has been greatly enhanced. '
Anatomy is now being taught by the only true method, and tiiat is dissec-
tion. Didactic lectures are given, but tlie student must dissect every part of
the human body before he can receive his degree. Formerly graVes were
.1. MAIMON SIM-i, A.I!.. M.l)..
(IjUe SuriU'iii til till' Wuiiiaii'- Ifnspiliil. .Nimv York.)
robbed, and the bodies s.,ld to the colleges. Xow. however, through legisla-
tive enactment, unclaimed bodies are turned over to the colleges, where they
are preserved either by inje<'tion. -a jiickling ])rocess. or by cold storage.
The ophthalmologists of to-day fear nothing inside nor outside tlie eye.
Oross eyes are straightened, cataracts removed, eyeballs taken out and glass
eyes inserted.
This article would be incomplete, were not a few remarks directed toward
tlie trained nurse.
The first training school for nurses in America was established in connec-
tion with the Lying-in (;harity Hospital of I'hiladeljdiia in ISL'.S. This school,
still in existence, thus has the honor of being the oldest in this country, and
is antedated by onlj' one abroad.
41
642
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A'/A'"' CENTURY
The generally recognized i)r(>fessi()n for women, that of the trained niUM',
is practically of recent {levelopnient. 'i'wenty-Hve years ago the trainini;
school connected with tiie ISellevue Hospital, New York, graduated a class dl
live nurses. This was a marked depaituro in the medical history of this
country. Since then tiie demand for tlie trained nurse has been great, and
no hospital is complete without sudi a training schoid.
The i)rogress of medicine in tlie nineteentli century has been far nuiii'
rapid, creditable, and momentous than during any like period of the \y,i^\.
Tiiis is true not only in tlie United States, but in every civilized countr\.
Its entire scope, meaning, and i)urpose liave undergone clianges equivalent,
to revolution. Antii|iii' superstitions, idle theories, foolish si)eculati(iiis,
absurd i)ractic»'S, the ridiculous jealousies and in<'riniinations of oi)iiosiii','
schools, have been largely eliminated. Medical institutions are upon the
loftiest plaiu! in their history. Teachers are better endowed than ever before.
Periods of scholastic preparation have been lengthened and curricuhinis
enlarged, thus securing for the fields of practice a higher menta'. e(piii)meiit
and more conscionable (l(!Votion to duty. Never l)efore have the auxiliary and
material agencies been turned to so frequent and preventive account. Elec-
tricity, the mi(!roscope, aniesthesia, antisepsis, laboratory experiment, hospital
opportunities, etc., are ever constant inspirations to .skilled treatment iuid
fresh researches. As the grand army of humanitarian woi'kers was never so
large as at the end of the century, so it was never better fortified for attack
upon the enemies of health, fuller of enthusiasm or more deeply established
in the public contidence. One may not, as yet. assert that medicine is ridding
itself of empiricism with a satisfactory degree of raiiidity, or that it lias
arrived at the stage of an exact science, but it surely has a])proached such a
stage as nearly as conditions will allow.
Frank C. Hammond.
'RY
ined miisi',
It! tniiiniii;
I a class III'
ury of this
. great, ami
II far iiioic
f tho |iii,st.
((I couiitn.
equivalent,
leciilatidiis,
f oi)posiiii,'
I uiion the
;vt'r bcfort'.
iirriciiluiiis
eciuipinont.
xiliary ami
lint. EIcc-
iit, hospital
itmeiit ami
as never so
for attack
established
' is riddinjf
that it lias
;hed such a
LMMOND.
EVOLUTION OF THE RAILWAY
The railway as a means of rapid transportation and general intercnuiniu-
nicatioii is one of the most important factors in the (h'velopment of niodtin
commerce and civilization, and, after reviewing what it has done and become
in the nineteenth century, one cannot help wishing for the opportunity to
review the railway wonders of the twentieth century.
While the history of the railway dates hwk far beyond the nineteenth
century, yet the railway, as we know it to-day. is essentially a product of
this century. It dates, in fact, from England in 1<S,'}(», when the Liverpcjol &
Manchester Kailway. .'!1 miles long, was opened, and was operated from the
iieginning by steam locomotives. The Stockton & Darlington Kailway, ^{7
nules, was opened in l.SLT), lint this line was intended only for private coal
traffic, while the other lino was built hn- general passenger and freight service,
and for the use ami benefit of the public.
The United States followed this lead very closely. In 1828 the Delaware
& Hudson Canal Company built a line from its mines to its canal at Hones-
dale. This was a private coal road, however, and may best be compared to
the Stockton & Darlington Railway. The first public railway ojjerated by
steam was the Mohawk & Hudson Kailway, from Albany to Schenectady, 16
miles, which was opened in l.S.'Jl.. Tin; lialtimore & Oliio Kailway was the
first railway enterprise of more than local character, being designed to open
communication with the Ohio Kiver, a distance of 4(M) miles. It was char-
tered in 1827, commenced in 1828, completed to EUicott's Mills (1.'! miles) in
18,30, and to Washington (40 miles) in 1834. It is one of the great monu-
ments of the American railway system, and it was examined by government
commissions from Kussia and Austria in 18.'31 and 1840.
In speaking of the railway we unconsciously associate with it the steam
locomotive, since the two are so entirely interdepeiulent. Railways operated
by horses, or by cables and stationary engines, could never have become the
great civilizing ami commercial medium which the railway operated by swift
locomotives has become. Similarly, the development of the locomotive grew
apace, as soon as it was recognized that the smooth track of the railway —
and not the rough track of the liighway — was to be its field of operation.
At the end of the nineteenth century, after seventy years of development,
the world has nearly /»00,000 miles of railway, on which locomotives of 80
to 110 tons in weight (without their tenders) haul freight trains of 1000 to
30(X) tons. Passenger trains, too, are run at speeds of 40 to 7.") miles per
hour in regular daily service, and even make bursts of speed at 80 to 100
miles per hour. The fact that in 1890 Europe and North America had about
320,000 miles of railway out of a grand total of 370,000 miles, indicates that
this phase of nineteenth-century progress has been due mainly to jjcoples
of Christian civilization, and besides this, it must be remembered tliat the
(U4
TitiuMrns Axp wuxnims or riiii a/.y'" cestihy
riiilwiiys of Asia, Africa. Aiistraliii, and South AiniM'ica have lirfii niiuiil .
Imilt liy tilt' saint' | plfs. 'I"ln' tu'iilral rt'Lfiijiis ol' tin'sc fniir lalliT ^'iMimM-
pliifal ilivisii)iis an* lii-ltls for tWfiiUi'tli-ft'iitury il<'Vi'lti|iinfiil.
Tlu' great trunk liiit-s t)t' railway foniniunicatiuu an* lianlly nmro iin|iiii
taut tliau X\w vast iit'twoik of liraiich ami minor liiifs wliifli I'ouui'i't ami
intt'rst'ct tlu'iu. 'I'lu'Sf lattt-r liiu's hnuf,' the |)t'o|ilf t»f siualler towns aii'l
rouutry districts into closer relation with the larv'e cities, the centres ol
industrial antl intelleftual euer!,'y, euteriirise, anil wealth. They thus teutl id
rediu't! istilatitm and tlependeuce upon jiurelN' Itical restiuiffh.
Railways also serve important military and stratfj,'ic purposes. In Intlia
many of the railways have heen built with a view to the ilfipuse of the iiorlli-
eastern frontier, ami many l^uropean governments assume certain military
authority over the railways. The first trans-continental railways of the
United States and ("anatla were larijely assisteil liy ;j:overnnient sulisitlies on
account of their tireat in)portanee for tiie transportation of tmoiis. The rail-
way also serves purposes of pleasir.v. as well as of commerce and war. Mot
only tlo tl"" ortlinary railways carry miu-h tourist and pleasure travel, lint
lines are built exclusively for smdi travel. Some id' these take people to tlir
summer and pleasure resorts, while others cater to the inheri-nt tlesire of
man to ascend <;reat altitudes ami to litdndd the world in its beauty and
grandeur spreiul btdow them. I-'or this purpose alone have railways been
biult to the summits of the IJockies. the \\\i<. and other mouutaiii ranges.
At the end id' the century the riuted St,:itt\s has about 1S."».(I(MI miles of
railway, whii^h have cost about ."S.").'?.!)!)!) |>pr mile and earn .SfJ.""'*!* per mil''.
CJreat Uritain has about L"_'.(Mto miles, which have cost .Sl'L'.'>.<«K) per mile
and earn about !?-<•.(•(»(> jier nnle. A large proportion of thi> high cost of
construction is due to the high prices for land and to the preliminary jiai-
liamentary proeeeiliu'^s which are necessary in securing the right to build
railways. The average ct)st })er mile of railways in different countries is as
follows : —
I'liited Sillies Sri^i.llllH Suilzerlaiiil (onlinary ) SHH.:!!!!!
India T.^.lllHl l)i> iinimiitain) l(i-.'..")iKi
.lajiaii i»2,IIO(l l!ii.>ia 12-J.lliMl
Iraiicf . , l(ll),(H)() Aiislria-Iliiiipiry 12->,-Hiii
Uermaiiy 101, .">im (iivul llrilaiii 22'',iiiKl
One of the great economic jiurposes of railways in new countries is to
reduce the cost of rapid transportation in bulk far below that of slow trans-
portation in small quantities. Train speed is a matter of secondary impor-
yw
iiVOLUTlDS UF THE U.l/LWAY
M8
uiiicf ill .such Ciwes, tlic tniflic aiTumninilatinn imd i;i|i;iciry of the slowest
Main lifiiiLC lav iH-yoml tiiiit ot road (M- canal traiiNimitatiuii! 'I'latHc will lio
survcd l)ctl.cr ami at niiicli less cost l._v liciiig carried in liiilk on oiH) miles of
railway at 10 miles |.er hour, tliaii on 10(» miles ot railway at ■'!.■> miles jkt
hour, and tlien in suiull lots ou wa,i;ons or canal boats at ;» nn.. s per hour lor
■11H» miles.
The utlvantagos of the rapid transiiortation of iierishiihle freight In rail,
cs]iecially in rc^'ard to food su|i|ilies for cities, were early recognized, anil
iiy lS."il tlie trains hroiM-jlit car-loads ol coiiiitiy milk into Loudon every day.
I'li'vions to this, the supiily was ohtaiiied from cows kept in staliles. which
was an unsanitary and expensive plan. Another immediate result of railwjiy
service was that people l)ej,'au to live farlher out ol the towns, and then
began the growth <tf the suburban rcsidem.'e districts, which are micIi a fea-
ture (d' modern cities and (dty lili .
'I'lie early railways were built merely as local lines, and there was little
idea of their ultimate conneetion or extension. These small individual lines,
however, with their own rate-making iioweis and systems nl' maiia;.;t'ment,
have been ciuisolidated into great systems, thus eilcctiiig maicrial ci'duomics
and facilities in operation. Thus the .Mohawk iS; Hudson Kailway of 1N;;1
was the first of a series of lim.'s now consididati'd to form the New ^"ol■k
Central Kailway; while the Liverpool \' .Manchester iJaiiway of IS.'iO was
the beginning of what is now the London i^ Noiihwestern IJailway system.
Not only is there this consolidation, but also a most cdmprehensive systxnn
for the interchange of tiathe between dilferent systems. Thus passengers
can purchase through tickets and travel ilirongh from I'aris to St. I'eters-
Kllisr TliAI.N OI' STKAM ( AltS
burg, or from I'oston to San Francisco, while freight ears can be .sent through
in a similar w;iy. Tiiis is really a wonderful feature of railway develop-
ment. The following are a fi;w e.\am|ilcs of the great railway systems of the
world : —
lli.>,."i(Kl
1-2-2.1 "Ml
12.">,4ilil
2-2-'i,il()()
Ha i I wnv
lViiii~ylvaiiift(U. S. A.).
Cliicaiii I't North west en I if. S. A.)
CliicHfin, Iturliiifildii \- l.liiimv (I'. ."<• .\.i.
.\t(!iis(iii, Tdpika iV Sisiila Ki- (T. S. .\.i...
(iival Wi'stcni (Kiiffiaiiil).
I.iiiuldii \- Xiirtliwt'stci-ii (Kii.ulaii(l). . ...
l'ari<, l.yiiiis& Mi'diti'i-nuicaii (I-'i-amc). . .
Western (I-'iaiur)
Mediterranean (Italv)
Xdrtiiwestern dnilnil . •
Mile».
Liici)-
I'asseiijter
Kreifflit
S«82
nuitives.
( 'ar.«.
Cars.
.•1.594
.1847
]4n,or.o
TIIHIi
l:!«(l
1176
4!l,484
74(1-2
12llf.
!i:ili
40,72(1
7I2II
lIKli;
ii.5,'j
'J! 1,837
•2.-i7(l
18:17
11201
u3,l,5()
nil -2
2851
844(1
(i,-),4.')0
.'i.-.W
2r.24
58.17
87,320
:i4f4
14H2
4378
2(1,487
35ti8
i:iU
37(«
23,077
.3371
fill2
2121
10,312
646
THIUMI'IIS AM) W()M)KIiS OF THE A/A'"' rKSrUliY
III s(iiii<> ('(iiiiitrics till' vc'vi'i'iiiiiciit iiwiis iiiiil Dponitivs all, <>r ii)>iirly nil, <>r
tliL> niilwavH, iiH ill (ii'iiniiiiv, iii'i^Miiin, luiil the .Mriciiii iiiid Austniliiiii culo
nil's. Swit/t'ilaiiil, in I.S',(,S. (It'cidcd that its yiiviTiiiiit'iit slioiiiil a<'i|iiii'f tln'
railways, in liullaml ami Italy tlu' pivcriiiiu'iit nwiis the railways. Inn
loam's tlii'iii ti> oiit'iatiiii,' ruiiipaiiii's. Kniiict', Itra/il, ami tin' .Ki'.'ciitiii'-
Itt'piililic liavi' liulli state ami |iiivatt' iiiii's, with a fjicattT nr less (|i!,'iri'
of state assistance ami coiiti'iil ut' the latter. In (ireat I'ritain the railway^
are owned entirely l)y private euiiipaiiies, lait their operation is sniijeet to
Kovcrmiieiit supervision in the public interests, in the I'liited States then'
was at lirst almost: alisoliite I'rcedoiu of construction, liut the coiiseipieut
altusi's and linancial disasters, owin^ to unnecessary lines aiidciit-throat coiii-
]ietition, have h'd some of the States to wisely excri'ise some dci^'rei; of control
over railway alTairs. The iiiterfereiice of the federal government in railway
affairs has lieeii slij,dit Init important, lii l.stl-' it aided the construction of
the lirst trauscontinciital railway; in ISIS? it passed the act for the rej,'ula-
tion of rates, etc., in interstate tiatlic; and in IS'.Kl it passed the act niakiii;,'
compulsory the iisi' of ])ower inaUes ami automatic couplers on frei'^dit cars.
(lovernmciit ownership and tipcration of railways is rarely satisfactiu'y
from a linancial or a trattic point of view, Itnt, on the other hand, aii aliso*
liitely >ini"stricted railway eicmeut is lialile tn liecome a serious evil. 'I'lie
best system is undouiitediy lliat, in whicli the railways are owned and oper-
ated by private enterprise, but subject to state supervision, like steamships,
laotories, etc. It must not be bu't^otten, however, that juivate enterprise
is not always available. In Kiissia, for example, the de\t lopnienl <d' rail-
Avay.s would have been but slow on such a basis; and '\'\ Imlia, p)vernment
back ill!,' was needed to induce liritish capitalists to c nter the field. It is
nid'ortuiiate for China that neither the i,'overniiieiit nor the people have been
competent or enterprisiiii^ euou,!j;h todeal with the railway (piestion. 'i'lie pre-
sent system of development by rival interests of various nationalities seems
almost certain to lead to the eventual dissolution of the empire and its parti-
tion aiiioii!^ other nations, as Africa is already in lari,'e measure partitioned.
In the United States railway construction has j,'one by leaps and bounds,
and there is now a vast network of lines, — main, secondary, liranch, and
local, 'i'he hi;,diest records of construction within the ])ast twenty years
were 12..S()(» miles built in 1.S.S7, and ll,(;(»(t miles in ISSL'. while the" lowest
record was IT.'iO miles in ISiKJ. The growth i'roin l.KSCi to ISIK) has been as
follows, the relatively small increase in number of loi'omotives beiny due to
the greater (tower of modern engines : —
■ ■
1880.
taa.r.iM)
48J.I«l().(MIO
STl.'ilH)
2li.4lH)
1899.
Iiicrca«i',
per ffiil.
Mili'HKc
18."),0(KI
T8n,(KH),0(H)
i.aaii.iHM)
' 36,000
88.47
Timnii;;!' I'lin-ii'd
N iiiiilii'i- (if (Ill's
ti-J.OO
62.111
;j«..w
- Perhaps the railway of most recent interest is the fir.st line in Alaska,
which i.s twenty miles long, and was built as a result of the rush to the Klon-
EVOLfJTION OF I III-: liMI.WAY
MT
'like Koltl \\v\iU. 'I'liis was (>|ii-iici| mi K.'l»ni;irv L'd. lsi»'.». rii,. j{ip:,t trans-
. oritiiH'iital iiiilways. liuwfviT. arc ot iiiiiili l)rnail«'r iiiU'ri-si. In |,s;t,"» tlio
Ui'v. Saniiifl I'iirkt'r, a inissiunary in tli.' Ndiiliwrst, ,sii;;K'.'.st»'il a railway
liom tin- Atluiilic to til." I'ai'iHr. ami Dr. Saniut'l K. I'.arluw i.ni|,.iMi| ..iio
tiniii New \imU to till' Coliiniliia Itivcr. !,'(((»() miU.s, tn ('(ist, .'«f|(i.(»M» per imU.,
.mil ii> I'arry tiatHc at alimit .sdvcii miles pi-r lumr. Frmu l.sil tu \s\\) Mr.
.\.sa Wliitiioy ur«u.l CmiKivss to «raiir, laiul tn ai<l iiim iu iMiildm- a liii.- ti..m
i.akf .Mirhi^'au to San Kranciscu. L'd.'in miles, to mist .'Sl.'U.tHlo jicr mily.
i'.ctwfcii 1,S.".;; ami IStil ('onj^n'ss liad >iirvt'ys iiiaileof fivt) ri)ut(!s, Init no
Wi'tinitf action was taken until after the outbreak of the Civil War. in IHCJl.
A n.vii.wAV TitAiN IX iiKi.miM.
88.47
lid.OO
when the federal government soon recofrnized the imjiortanee of liaving
direct commiinioation with the I'aeirtc States, whioli were at that time iso-
lated. Compaiiie.s were organized in l.S(!L'. and work commeiieed in l.SfVl,
under government subsidies and military aid and jiroteetion. On May 10,
l.S()!>. the Union Paeitic; Kailway (from the east) and the Central I'aeitie Uail-
way (from the west) met at Promontory Point. Utah. ll.Sd niileo from the
^lissouri River and ().'?S miles from Saeramentf). Cal.
Now. thirty years later, we have six so-ealled transeontinental railw.ays, no
one of which, however, has its own line from ocean to ocean. !ind none of
which run through trains or cars. In Canada, however, the Cana<lian Pacific
Railway (opened in 1887) has a through line from St. John and Montreal to
Vancouver, with through trains daily betwecMi the latter iwints. 2!M».") miles.
The principal transcontinental lines, with the total distances from ocean to
ocean, are shown on the following page.
i
C48
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A7A'™ CENTURY
liailway.
■
Opeiied. Kcuiti'.
Length.
Tntal
Distaiiee.
1. ('aniiiliaii I'ac ilk'
2. (irciit N'lirtliiTii . . ...
;i. Nditluiii I'arilio
4. I'liiuii I'ai iric
."i. I'liiiHi rariiic
•p. -Vlihixiii, T'lpika i*^ Santa 1V> .
7. SiiiitluiM I'atilic
1SS7 Sloiilrc III 111 Vaiuduvcr . . .
l.S!i:l St. Paul IM .Seattle . . . .
St. I'aiil Id 'laiMinia
W\\\ Oiiialia III Sail I'laml-i-i . .
(Imalia U< rculliiiMl ....
CliiiaLiii 111 San IraiiriMii . .
188:1 New (lileaii- tn San KiamiKu
2!lliri
1827
111 12
11128
|K2:i
2:i77
24811
2!MI.^
.■Iiri7*^
;)242
:t:i40
.•12:i.-.
:141I7
41ii4*^
In Xi.
ami 7 tile lutal ili>laiue i~ fjiveii frmii New Vink
Of tlie varioius oomplett'd and piirtlv coiuijleted interoceaiiic railway.s across
(.'t'litral America, the most iiiiiioitant by tar is tlie I'aiiiiiiia railway, in Co-
lombia, 47i miles long. This was opened as lon<^ ago as Voi^ii), and w;is
originally intended as a link in a route between New York and San Fran-
cisco, o4r)() miles. In South America there ai'c few railways of great impor-
tance, and the interior yet remains undeveloped, with the exception of the
great plains of the Argentine Hepublic. A transcontinental line between
lUienos Ayres and Valjjaraiso. S.-jO miles, is nearly completed, but work has
been stop[)ed for some years, leaving .">() miles yet to be built at the summit
t)f the Andes. An interesting, but as yet visionary, scheme is that for an
intercontinental railway through Central and South America. The distance
from the s(jiitheru frontier of .Mexico to lliienos A^res would be ~tiM) miles.
About 1280 miles of this are built, but comin'ise many small lines whiili
would have to be rebuilt. The total cost would be about .'?l.'L'0,n(Ht.(MI(». at a
low estimate, and the total distance fi'om New York to IJuenos Aj'res would
be 10,.'5nO miles by rail.
In Europe there is a vast and comprehensive netwoilv of railway lines, but
the distances are less, even St. I'etersbnrg and Constantinople being but
about ItidO and ISOO miles from I'aris. While the lU'velopment of railways
has been remaikable, the most stiikiuL; features are the lines which cross
the \\\)A to connect the interior with the .Mediterranean ports. The lirst of
these was the St'mmering railway, on the route between Yieniia and Trieste
(lsr)4). The Mont Cenis railway (l.S(')7) was mainly a surface line, with
heavy in(dincs ojierated on the Fell grip-rail system. Its route followed the
great carriage road built by Napoleon in ISO.'I-IO. The railwa\' over the
Ilrenner I'ass was opened in 1S(iS; in 1S71 the .Mont Cenis tuiuiel superseded
the high-level line, and in ISSO the (ireat St. (iothard rail .vay was oi)ened.
This was followed by the .Vrlherg railway in ISSI, and the Simplon railway
is now under construction.
Euro])e has the only railway within the .\rctic Circle. It runs from Lulea,
on the (iiilf of I>othnia. northwest to the Gellivara. iron mines, 44 miles
within the circle. As the ]iort is closed by ice during the winter, the line is
to be extended to the Atlantic coast at Ofoten. ('>n° north latitude, where the
intluence of the (Julf Stream k(>eps tht! ports open. This end of the line will
be 1.'{(I miles north of the Arctic Circle.
The countries of Asia (with the excejition of India) are but scantily sup-
plied with railways. Even Palestine — the Holy Laiul — has, however, been
invaded, and has now two railways. One of these is from Jaffa (the biblical
u
'/J
m
o
o
•J
650
TRIUMPHS AND WOS'DERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
Joppa) to Jerusalem, ;"J4 miles (1SD2) ; the other is from Beirut to Damascus.
70 miles. British interests have long advocated an -all-rail-to-lndia" pru
ject. The line would start opposite Constantinojjle, pass down the Euj)hratcs
valley, across I'ersia, and along the coast of lialuchistau to Kurraehee, con-
necting there witli the Indian railway system. This great system aggregates
2i'),0()0 miles, and extends up to the liolan Pass and the Khyber I'ass, on
the Afghan frontier. Southward, it has been i)roposed to connect with the
Ceylon railways by a line of bridges and embankments along the reefs and
shoals known as .\dam's Bridge.
Owing to the \igorous opjiosition of the government and people, Chinn
has but ;}(■)(> miles of railway to its 4,L*()(>.()(K) s(iuare miles and its population
of 42(»,0U0.(K)0. Many lines are projected, but are all in the eastern portion,
and the twentieth century will be well advanced before the railway opens up
the heart of the country to civilization. Japan, the very o]iposite of China,
has encouraged railway construction, and now has .'>()()(l miles of railway to
its 147,<)00 square miles and its po])ulation of 4r),0(M),()00.
The most notable of all the railways in Asia is the great Trans-Siberian
railway, now being built by the Russian governnuuit. It was eommeneed in
1801, and may be comjjleted by YMVS. tlie distance from St. Petersburg to
Vladivostok, or Port Arthur, being then about .KnO miles. There are several
large cities on the route, and the line does not pass thvrugh such a wild and
nninhabited country as that through which the Union Pacilic Railroad was
built thirty years ago. It is now open to Lake Baikal, the trip of oL'.'JO miles
being nuule in about 12 days by the slow train, or IS days by the less frecjuent
fast train. The road is roughly and lightly built in many respects, so that
high speeds cannot be maintained. The eastern end of the road will i)ass
througli Chinese territory, thus giving fvussia a tinu foothold in that empire.
Hardly less interesting is the Trans-Caspian railway, from tht> Caspian Sea
to Samarcand, <S.sr> miles, with a branch fi'om .Merv to within i).") miles of the
Afghan city of Herat. An extension to the I'ersian (Julf is also |)rojected.
As the Trans-Siberian railway has developed a new wheat-growing region, so
the Trans-Caspian railway is develoi)ing a new cotton-growing region.
In Africa the railways already extend northward frt)ni Cape Town, through
the land of the Boers and \\\) to P>uluwayo, the old Zulu stronghold, 14(K)
miles. There is a picturesque jjroject for carrying the line on to the Medi-
terranean, a total distance of o50() miles, but this will not materialize for
many years. The Congo railway, passing the rapids, opens communication
between the coast and a long stretch of inland navigation. Several lines are
being pushed from the east coast into the interior, and a transcontinental
railway from St. Paul de Loando, ou the west, has been commenced, but
there is not now much life in this latter project. The French have two
favorite schemes for railways, — from Algeria to Tinibuetoo, and from Tunis
to Lake Chad, the latter line being about IGOO miles in length.
In Australia, the lines of the different colonies are gradually extending and
connecting to form a continuous sj'stem, which is hampered, however, by dif-
ferences of gauge. There is railway comnuinication between the ca])itals of
Queensland (I'.risbane), New South Wales (Sydney), Victoria (Melbourne),
and South Australia (Adelaide). The great stretch westward to the coast
cities of Western Australia is yet in the future, as is also the South Aus-
EVOLUTION OF THE RAILWAY
651
(raliivn transcontinental line I'roiii Adelaide northward across vast deserts
(already crossed by the telegraph) to I'ahnerstoii.
(ireat bridges and tiunield are among the prominent features of the rail-
ways of the world, but 3it..ce forbids entering into details ot these works.
'I'hey are in principle siuiilar to those reipiired for highways, but many of
these great works Avould never have been undertaken for such traffic as is
carried by a highway. The only railway suspension bridge ever built was
llie Niagara bridge, opened in 180.5, and replaced by a steel arch in 1898.
The development of bridges and rrattic may be judged from the fact that the
Victoria single-track tubular bridge over the St. Lawrence, at Montreal, which
ENTUANOE TO ST. OOTIIAUD TUNNEr., SWITZERLAND.
was opened in IS.")'.), was replaced in 18()7-<.)8 by a double-track railway and
roadwav truss bridge on the same piers. The steel arch bridge. 1700 feet
long, across the Mississippi, at St. Louis, cost .'ii!r>.;!0().(K)0. The tubular bridge.
(wOli feet long, over the St. Lawrence, at .Montreal. Canada, cost .|i7.0(M),000.
The cantilever bridge. SOLT) feet long, over tiie Firtli of Forth, Great liritain.
cost $1.'J.000.00(). Tlie cost of the projiosed suspension bridge. .SOOO feet
long, over the Hudson, at New York, is estimated at .f i;i.O()0,000. The first
railway tunnel was tlie I'ortage Tunnel, in Pennsylvania, built in 18.S1. The'
longest railway tunnel is the Simplon, in Switzerland. It is IL'.L'o miles in
length, and is still under constnu'tiou. The ne.\t longest is the (lotiiiird,
Switzerland. It is 0.30 miles long, and was opened in 1881.
In track construction, cast-iron rails began to be superseded by wrought
1
C5ti
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE A/A'" CENTURY
iron in 1820. and many of the early American railways had strap iron hiid c,
timber strinj^ers. Within tlie jiast twenty years steel lias been nsed aliuosi,
exelusively. In place of rails wei<;hiiig IT* to .'>") lbs. per yard, and o to l.")
feet in length, we now use rails of .SO to 1(10 lbs. per yard, .'50 to (50 feet Ioiil;.
Stone blocks and wooden ties were first use<l to support the rails, and tlic
latter are now generally used, altliougli metal ties are extensively used and
UAII.WAY SroNAIiS.
date back to 1840. In 1S04 there were thirty-five thousand miles of railway
laid with this form of track. The next devidojiment will ])rol)ably be a ])er-
maneiit and continuoiis concrete bed for the rails ; as the present construction,
with wooden ties laid in stone or other ballast, recjuires continual attention
and repair under the effects of heavy traffic.
The semaphore signal was introduced in England by ^Ir. (". H. (iregory in
1H41, an<l is now used in all ]Kirts of the world, to govern and ])rotect train
movements. The first interlocking ]ilant was erected in 184.% and the com-
plete jdants — as used to-day — date from l.S,"i(». Now, practically all inipor-
EVOLUTION OF THE RAILWAY ti,-,3
tant junctions are equipped witli interlocking plants, wliich prevent conflict-
ing signals and switches being so set as u. lead to a<'eident. The eleet'-ie
telegraph was patented liy Cooke and Wheatstone in l,S;i7, and in \K\\) they
secured its introdutrtion to govern the train service on the (ireat Western
Uailway (England). The inovenients wen- telegraphed from station to sta-
tion, and a train was not allowed to leave a station until the ])receding train
had passed the next station in advance. This was the beginning of the
'•block .system,'' which is a great element in the .sale operation of tratUc, since
it maintains an interval of space between trains. .Mr. Kdwin Clark's tele-
graph block system was introduced in 185^, and as trattic increaseti interme-
diate block signal stations were estai)lislied between the regular stations, so
as to shorten the distances between trains. This system is compulsory in
Great Britain and is already largely used in the C nited States. It was at
AN AMI:UI(A.N" i:XI'I!l;SS l.(l( (PMOTIVK.
first held that it was not adapted to conditions in this country, where so
many lines have but a single track, but experience has shown that it increases
the facility as well as the safety of operating traffic on single and double
track lines alike.
Steam locomotives were used on colliery railways in England as early as
liS(U. when Trevitliick built an engine, which was the first to haul a train on
raihs, George Stephenson built his first locomotive in 1S14. and in ISLT) built
the "Locomotion" for the Stockton & Darlington Railway. Horses, station-
ary engines, and steam locomotives were all pro]iosed for the Liver])ool & ]\lan-
chester Railway, and in ISL".) the directors (.rt'cred a ])reniiuin of .S-'aOO for
the best locomotive. Each engine was to consunn' its smoke, weigh about 6
tons, cost not more than .'5'27.")(>. and be capable of hauling a train of 20 tons
at 10 miles jier hour. Thisi^d to the now historical trials at Kainhill, in
October, 182S), between the "Rocket" (Stephenson), the " Xovelty " (P.raith-
waite and Ericson), and the ''Sans I'areil " (Hackworth). The award was
nnide to the "Rocket" as the most practicable nmchine, although the
654
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
"Novelty'' attainocl a higlier speed, and the '"Sans Pareii " was also a godd
engine and continued in use for several years. Seguin introduced the Iood-
raotive in France in 18L'7, having nioditied and rebuilt an old Steithonsoii
engine.
The first loconrotive operated in the I'nited States was the imported
"Stourbridge Licni," on the Delaware & Hudson Canal (.'o.'s line, in ISL'i).
Cooper's "Tom Tluinib" was run on the Haltiniore & Ohio Itailway in lS,''i(»,
and in 1.S81 the directors of this road ottered premiums of Si4<MH» and .S.'!.")!!**
for locomotives. Ea(di engine was to weigh not more than .'i^ ttms. to have
four wheels, and to haul loads of lo tons at \~> miles per liour for .">(> davs.
Five engines were i)rcsented. by Davis, Costell, Miiliolland. Childs. and .lames.
The ju'izes were awarded to the Hrst two, the Davis engine "York'' being
rebuilt under the direction of its inventor and Mr. Koss Winans, while the
"Costell "' was put in switching service. In IS.'U the "John ]>\ill '' was built
by the StP]»hensons in England, and was ]>ut in service on the Canulen <!t
Amboy Railway (U. S. A.) in the same year. In ISU^J this old engine was
readjusted and ran from New York to Chicago, 912 miles, under its own steam,
hauling two cars of the tyi)e of 18.SG.
In 1898 there were about ll),o(»0 locomotives in (Ireat Britain and .■>(),.■)( 10
in the United States. As a comparison l)etween the kittle engines of early
days and the huge and swift engines of to-day, it nuiy oe stated that modern
passenger locomotives are now constructed with as many as six driving
wheels, and ten wheels in all. Some of those in use on the Great Northern
Railway, (ireat Britain, have driving wheels of 1(7 inches in diameter. On
the Fitchburg Railway, U. S. A., locomotives are in use which weigh 7o tons.
Some modern freight locomotives have as many as ten driving wheels, and
twelve wheels in all, and a total weight of ll."> tuns.
Since the ajtijlication of electric traction to street railways, it has fre-
quently been said that it would eventually supersede the steam locomotive.
In no instance, however, has it yet been applied to regular railway service,
with heav}' trains and long runs, nor is there yet any indication cf increased
economy or efficiency due to its use in such service. It is successfully used
for local and suburban lines, but these form a class in themseives, and the
conditions of operation are very dift'erent from those which obtiiin in ordi-
nary service. The Baltimore & Ohio Railway has .some lieavy electric loco-
motives, but these are for hauling trains through a tunnel, to avoid the trouble
and discomfort from the smoke and gases from the steam engines.
The early passenger cars were either open cars with cross seats, or had
coach bodies on four-wheel platform cars. The coach-body cars on the ^fo-
hawk & Hudson Railway; in 18.'U, were 7 ft. 4 in. long and o ft. wide. In
183(5 the American type of car was introduced on the Camden & Amboy Rail-
way, having a long body mounted on two four-wlieeled trucks. These cars
seated 48 passengers, and cars for GO passengers were in u.se in 183!), their cost
being .'8f2400. American day cars are now GO to 80 ft. long, seating (JO to 84
passengers, and weighing from 30 to 47 tons. The standard day car of the
Pennsylvania Railway is GO ft. 7 in. long jver all. and seats G() passengers.
Dining and slee))ing (tars weigh from 45 to G5 tons, nuich of the weight being
due to the special equipment for the comfort and convenience of passengers,
and consequently so much dead weight to be hauled. It can be said without
EVULUTIOS OF THE IIAILWAV
65S
.lispnte that in no other country liave tlie niilways dono so nuieh for the
.•onifort and convenience ff ilieir passenjjers, ami liave diarged so little
there i'or.
In Europe, the cars devoloited into the compartment system, with side
doors, tliere being high transverse partitions witli scats on each side, so tliat
in a full compartment half the jiasscngcrs must ridi' backwanl. The cars
are usually short, with two or three axles, hut about ISTli the American svs-
tein of mounting cars on trucks was introduced, and longer cars on trucks
are now somewhat extensively used. 'Within later years corridor cars have
been introduced, with a corridor connecting the compartments. Such details
AN AMERICAN FKKIOHT I-OCOMOTIVE.
as steam heat, toilet arrangements, ample light, luxurious finish, etc, which
have long been a matter of course in this country, are quite '• end of tlu^ cen-
tury " improvements in Europe, and generally below the standards observed
in this country.
Sleeping cars were used on the Cumberland Valley Railway (U. S. A.) in
183G. In 1S.~)<). :Mr. T. L. "Woodruff built a sleeping car, and in 1857 two
were built by Mr. Webster AVagner and operated on the \ew York Central
liailway. Mr. George M. Pullman began his experiments in IHoO, and in
18G4 he put in service on the Chicago & Alton Railway the first sleeping car
with the berth arrangements now almost universally used. He pushed the
business more vigorously than his juedecessors and acquired many of their
patents. The Pullman Pal.ace Car Co. was organized in 1867, and in 1879 its
various works were all concentrated in a new industrisil town — called Pull-
man — near Chicago. In 1898 the comjiany owned 1',4L'8 cars, which were
operated on 121,236 miles of railway, ran l'J0.r)62.758 miles, and carried
4,852,400 passengers. ^Most of the cars are in the United States, but some
are in Europe and Australia. The Wagner Palace Car Co. owns 560 sleeping
cars and 14.3 parlor cars. In Europe most of the long distance sleeping and
dining car service is operated by the International Sleeping Car Co., which
runs cars between Paris and Constantinople (72 hours), I'aris and St. Peters-
burg (120 hours), Calais and Prindisi (25 hours |.
Passenger - cars are now usually lighted by oil. the mineral oil used in
America being superior to the vegetable oils commonly used in Europe. Oil
gas, compressed in t.anks, is very extensively used, atul gives an excellent
light. The system was invented by Mr. .Fulius Pintsch, and was introduced
686
TRWMl'HS AM) WOXDEltS OF THE XIX'" CHXTUIiY
in (Jerinniiy in IST.'J, iiml in tlic I'nited States in IHHl. It is now applii-d t(j
alxxit Hr>.(MM» cars in I'l' conntiics ; .'il'.OOO ot tlicsc cars lu'inj,' in C«i>ini;nn ,
17,<MM> in (Jrcat Ilritain, and l."».tKH» in the Uniti'd States. Tin- electric lij,'iit
is as yet used only on a few of the finest express trains, the cnrrent being gciici-
utcd cither from a stciim enjjine and dynamo in the hagi^a^c ear, or fnun :i
dynamo on each car. driven from one of the car iixles. Storage batteries m;iin-
tain the light when the cars are at rest. American cars were heated by stovo
at a very early tlate, and this dcvelojied into tlie hot water system, willi a stove
and circulating i)ii)es in each car. Steam from the locomotive, however, i^
now generally employed, and its ase is (M)mp\dsory in some States. In Vm-
ropo the passengers have to rely largely niioii their own wraps and rugs.
In American freight cars, great improvements have been introduced, in-
creasing the carrying ca])acity while reducing the weight. The capacity has
been increased from 10 tons of load in lcS7(>. to .'!(>, 4(», and even oO tons in
■JS'.H) ('an iiKirease of .'>(M» to TiOO j>er cent). The w»'ight has 'iicreased only
from 10 to ir» or 17 tons (or oO to 70 per cent). Cars are now being built
entirely of steel, and while their first cost is greater, the cost per ton and ^lie
expenses of maintenance are less than lor wodden cars of similar capacity.
As sleeping, dining, ])arlor. tourist, and other sjiccial cars liave been iiitm-
dnced for ]>assenger trattie. so refrigerator, stock, horse, fruit, ]'oultry, and
furniture cars have been introduced for special recpiirenieuts in freight trattie.
In other countries, however, the use of such special c(piipmcui is nuicli inure
•
'
■M^M
^^
f
S -1
— _ ^
B 1 ^^
«!■
a^ "
1 Wm ii* «■ ■■
■ |B
Bb 'U
r
■-,, '-■' ..^-. ,T.vVj^
•:W-^'^^
* •
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><
1 -1
\.^^^^ij^:::r\':s':.:mt
y-
HHR
i:xri;iii(iu oi-- i..\'n;sT sLiaonxo cAii.
limited. The ordinary foreign freight oars are the same as those of 30 or 40
years ago, being short four-wheel cars, weighing o tons, and carrying 8 to 10
tons. These are not well a hinted to the handling of bidk freight, and greatly
increa.sed economy and facility in sudi trattie would result from the introduc-
tion of the American sysfm. as has l)een done in Australia. In modern
American practice, too, the cars are ecpiipped with antonuitic couplers and
EVULUTIOS OF THE JlAlf.W.lY
tW7
iiower brakes, thus gieatly incicasiiit,' tlu- satVty ami t'acility of oju'rating
lii'uvy fast trains. In ISUo, Cnii^rics.s passed a law n'liuiiiiii; tiiat li\ .lanuary
1. ISDN, all trfi,i,'lil cars slioiild be e(niii»i)eil with automatic couplers and
enough cars cipiipped witii power brakes (operated from the en<;iue) to put
iNTp;nioR or a plt.i.man si,eepin« car.
the trains entirely under the control of the enginenien. The date was after-
wards extended to Janiiary 1. 1900.
As the speed and \vei,i;ht of trains increased, the dangers due to lack of
brake jiower soon became alarmingly apparent, and numerous forms of con-
tinuous brakes were devised, to be a])plied to the wheels of everj' ear, under
the control of the engineman. In 1889, the British government passed the
Railways Regulation Act, making compulsory the use of the block system,
the interlocking system, and continuous brakes. Tn England and some other
42
ess
riiWMPHs A.wij woyDEhs of the xixm ckmujiv
IVreiyii cMiiiiitrics, tho viicuiuii brake (iiitroducfd alxmt 1.S71) is lar','i'ly used,
l)iit it is slowtM' ill action than tin- ciuniirL'ssi-t' uir lirakf. aini is tluTi'tort' less
etli<'i(!iit I'or hni};. iu-uvy, ami fast trains.
Tliu Wi'stin^lioiiso brakt* is one ol' tlii' most iin|>(irtant I'actors m tlif sati-
and I'flii'iiMit handiinj,' of iu'avy and fast trains. .Mr. U<'i. !••,'(■ \Vi'stinj,'liunst!
Itatcntcd liis slraii;lit-air l)i'akt' in ISdll, liis i)lain automatic ijiakf in 1.S71.'. and
liis ijnii'k-action fri'i,i;iit train brake in 1SS7, wl'iK' in IS'.i'J In- introduced hi^
hi}.'li-s|K'ed brake for exja't'ss trains. Up to tlie openin),' (d IS'.U), the West-
inghoiise brak(! had ix-en ai)|ilied to about .V).."»()0 h)Coniotives and '.tlL'.OOH
cars, of which ."Ui.'lOO locomotives, HO.IMK) passenjjcr cars and 7.">(»,(MK> frei;,'ht
cars were on American railways. With this brake, a passenger train of ;{(Mi
tons, traveling at <iO miles per hour, can be stopped in about l.-tOO feet ami
about IK) seconds, or in iL'dO feet and ,')1 seconds in ca.se of emerj^ency. A
freight train of 800 tons, running at .'W miles per hour, can Ije sto])ped in
about Or»(> feet in .'32 seconds, or in .'>(>() feet and 11 seconds by an ••emer-
gency " application. Very few countries have applied continuous i)rakes to
freight cars, except the United iStates and Canada, and (to some extent)
liussia and New Soiith Wales.
The imi)rovenient in train service has been even greater than that in train
equipment, and this improvement has been in speed, accommodation, and
numl)er of trains. Among the notable runs are those across the Anieri(tan
and European continents. The Canadian I'acific Railway starts a train daily
from each end of the line for a through run of L'lHMi miles. In 1SS.S, a through
train service (with sleeping and dining cars) was instituted between Paris
and Constantinople, abo\it iSdO miles, and through trains are run t^viee a
week between I'aris anil St. i'etersburg, KlOO miles. There is also a similar
service between Calais and ISrindisi. iL'ttO miles, in connection with the mail
steamers between England ami India. In iS'.dS. the Trans-SilK>rian Railway
was completed to Irkutsk, and a through train service between St. Pctersl)urg
and that city, iJl'-'JO miles, was commenced.
Railway trains were at first intended t(< iiave speeds of about 10 to L'O miles
per hour, the latter being looked upon as almost excessive, but nnich higher
speeds were very soon attained. There has been almost from the earliest
days a public demand for higher and higher speeds, with eonse(pieut rivalry
between the railways. The United States and (Jreat Britain (and Franco
within the past few years) have the fastest trains and by far the greater
number of fast trains. The highest recorded train speed is that of the Expo-
sition Flyer, L'70 tons total, upon the New Vork Central Railwflv. May loth,
ISK.'J. It ran a distance of one mile at the rate of llL' miles ])er houi'. and
again, on the same date, maintained a speed of 100 miles \)er hour, through a
distance of l\\\ miles. As a daily train between Ni'w York and Chicago, it
maintained a rate of GO to 7o miles an hour, throughout the entire '.(SO miles
of distance.
It will be seen that the speed of " 100-milos-an-hour." which is popularly
looked upon as a sort of ideal, has been more than once exceeded, but it may
be well to explain that such spectacular bursts of speed are really less impor-
tant and less wonderful than the trips of ">() to 10(Mt luiles at sj»eeds averaging
r>0 to <>"> miles per hour for the entire journey. Taking into acctmnt the
loss of time by stops at stations, by changing engines, by the resistance of
I
(M)0
THIUMI'US AM) \\().\l)t':i<S OF THE A7.V'" CIIS'TIUY
lonj,' Ki'ii'l'''""' <■><■•. 't will hv o;i,sily iiiidci'stood tliat, in ordrr Ui luaiutaiii tint
avt'iii','!* s|nM'(l Iriim st;irt tit liiiiHli, tlu^ iiotiiul spcodH must otU'ii raiigi' lioia
«i(» to 7."> or I'Vfii SO miles per Iioiir. 'I'lif rt';,'nlai' daily transi diiliiu'iital tiaiii
of till! ("anadiaii Paritii; Railway lias an avcra;,'!! Mpci'd ^^i .'Id mil<'-> \»-v lidiir,
but maintains tins for tin' trip of '_'<Mli> miles, which occupies \)\\ hours. 'I'his
is a train and a reeonl id' wideli railway men in Kcneral. and those of tlio
Canadian I'.iciiie Railway in partii-ular, may well be proud. There are no
Huch tlirou^h trains in the l' nitcd States, hut in IMTi't a special theatre train
was run from New \'ork to S;in l''raneiseo in .'{ days ~\ hours. In ISSlt, the
time of the transcontinental mails was ."» days Sj liours, hut that same year it
was reduced to I days \'J:'\ hours, whitdi schedule contiiuicd in force until
IH'.lit. On .lanuary t, IHIC.I, a lew mail service was inau,!,'uratcd, makini,' the
.'{KIH miles in '.»,s^ hours, or at an avera;;e of 'M\ miles per hour, ineludiuL; all
stops, and the transfer of mail Itaj^s 'across Chicago liy waj,'on from ouc
station to am)ther. 'I'he actual running speed is often (iO to 7."i ndlcs per
hour for long stnttches. Kngiiics are changed IS times and postal cri'\\s7
times.
{•'ast passenger trains nro a popular nttraction. hut only railway men can
fully ajiiucciate the advantages and economies of heavy trains for handling
freight tratHc. In Kurvpu coal trains weigh from ."(Ht to KM) tons, hut in Iho
Uniti'd States the weight of itoal. ore. and freight traiu> is from N(lO to I'OdO
tons. Automatic couplers and power brakes enable the frei<.;lit trains to i)e
run as fast as passenger trains, with entire safety; improved cars carry
greatci ' mIs, and more powerful locomotives are continually being put in
servic! to liaid heavier trains. The heaviest trains on record are as follows;
(I) IVnnsylvaidii IJailway. l.'tt* cars, ."ilM.'J tons, or ">."»tl(i tons with engine and
tender; (!') >'cw York Central Railway. .SI c;irs, ',\\'i>'> tons, or .■!.■»'.».■• tons with
engine ;ind tender. Both these were run in IHIKS, the length of journey being
Kit) and lit) miles.
The niiiils were carried by rail between Baltimore and W;ishington in lS.i4,
on recommendation of the I'ostmaster-Gcneral. The U. S. railway service
W!is instituted in A\igust, ]S()4, between Chicago and Cliidon, and the follow-
ing figures indicate its wonderful development: —
A V.
iniig t
steady
.since I
I sir
ISTI
1S7,
ISW
must b
iiuprov
oidy li\
tation.
nuMiis
with el
188()
Jtili'iiffc run l>v iiinil cnrs I (i.^Tli't.iMt.l
NiiiiiIht (if mail ciir-i
N'mnlitT iif iiiiiil ili-rks 2,!i4li
8:i,:iJi)
aiiS.IHHl
Mill's (if railway (ipcnitcd nvcr
Tdiis of mail I'uirii'd ....
IS'.iS
187,48.1.187
:t,)i4!)
7,'J!t!t
174.777
l,4:)'i.(i.")()
The railway express business was started in 1888 by Mr. W. F. Ilarnden,
on a suggestion from Mr. Josiah Qiiincy, who had to travel weekly from 15os-
ton to New York, and was in the habit of taking small packages for business
acquaintances. Mr. Alvin Adams became associated with Mr. Harnden, and
in 184o formed the Adams Express Co. In Great Britain, this business i.s
conducted by the parcels-post and the railway companies, but in other Euro-
pean countries it is mainly in the hands of the post-office department.
can 1)0
than t
instanc
the rati
in the j
cent.
EVOLUTION OF Tllh: UMLWAY
Ofll
A v.'iT nMii;irkiil)l.' t.'filiin' n|' liiilwM.v .l.'v<.lo|.m.Mit is that li'..iii tht- l.r^,'iii-
Ilill),' tlliTt) llll>* 1 1 il trlHl.'lIfy In ilic|vas..(l tlullir, lu'tlrf mT\ ir.-, ail<l U
Ht.'aclv ivdii.tioii ill rat.'.s, In tli.' I'liitcl StateM tli.- avmiKo mU'H pi- mile
hiiicf 1M(J7 huvf beuii as follnws: —
Vi'iir
•I'liUiT. rciltN
1S07
|s7(i
INHII
1.(104
'J.442
Kralglit, o*nU
l.lUft
l.'<Hlt
I.4JI
Yrar
■'aaMiigxr, nmiU
IIWA
8.ai8
IHIN)
8.187
IHilA
a.(Mo
IHOH
a.oio
fri'liilil, iruU
l.llll
II.!I4I
li.x:m
II.NIKl
While tilt' MMliictidii ill |)iisHi'iiKt'r ratt-H has lii-cii comiiaiativi'ly small, it
must lie rfmcmlicri'd that the safety, speed. e(iiiituit..aii(l service haveyreatlv
im|ii()ved. The marked fediietiou in l'ieii;lit fates has lieeii made possihfe
(inly liy a still .i,'reater and more remarkalile reiluctioii in the eiist«d' traiis|Hir-
tatiiiii. 'I'his lias been elleeled hy eonsdlidatinn nf eniiijiaiiies. \t\ iiiipnivo-
iiieiits in roadway, lifidf,'t'H. etc.. and by t lie intindncti.iM of heavier trains,
with eiij,'iiies ot greater power and oars ol greater e^ipaeity. This eeononiy
HAI. HUMAN I'A.-
iiN (Ul.ciKADti MIUl.ANl) li. a.
can be still further extended. The reduction in rates lia.s been nuieh greater
than that in tlie prices of eonnaodities. Kates for wheat and h.ay, for
instance, have decreased 2.> and 20 jier cent more than the market prices, and
the rate fnr shipping anthracite coal to tidewater has decreased .')() per cent
in tlie past ten years, while the price of tlit> coal has decreased only 1(> jier
cent. The average freight rate on the •'enn.sylvania Railway in 180H was
662 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
O.iioC) cent per ton piT mile, wliile the cost wa.s O.'M'A) cent. Tiie elioapnes.s
of transportation in tlio United States is shown by the following ligures for
l.S!».S: —
l'iis?.enf;iTs carruMl oiiu mile ]:t, 000, 0(10, nno
Tims (if fn-ii;lit I'lirricd niic mill' >J.j, Odd, 00(1, 0(10
Ki'vciiiic' fnim iia«sciii;iT mtvIcu .»;2(i, (100,00(1
lii'Vfiiiii' friMii fi-ciKlit «rvifc' .:<(!2,0()(l,(l(IO
l>i.-taiico rail'.tay larrics 1 |i;i>M'iif;<T In I'id'n "^l pvolit TiOO milrs
OislaiHf raijw.-iy carries 1 tmi In rani .■>! pnilit I,j:i0 mill's
Avi'raf;i' prMlit piT |ias>fiin('r (iin'linliii}; liaf^yanvi piT milf 2-10 cent
Avcrafti' imilit pur tmi pi'r iiiili' 1-10 cunt
The lowest passenger rates in the world are on the Indian railways. In
Enrope the passenger rates average higher than in the United States, though
the aceoinniodation is interior.
Kailway transportation lias almost entirely superseded barge, canal, and
river transportation, except in special cases. This is due to the greiitcr
si)ced, the greater etHciency of service, tlu^ greater carrying capi: 'ity. and tlie
extent to whi(di s|iurs and branches are built to enable cars to reach mills,
factories, and otlier imbistrial plants. It was for a long time held tiiat the
low rates of water transportation exerted an intluence in keeping railway
rates down, but with the present condition of the latti'r this no longei' holds
good as a general proposition, especially for tlm limited capacity of barge
canals. The rates established for wheat and corn from liuffalo to New Vork
by rail in IS'.I'.I are about O.i'."! and O.IN cent per ton ]ier mile, which is imt
little above the canal rates, while rail shipments are much more advanta-
geous.
The railway system is a vast employei' of labor, directly and indirectly,
and several million [)ersoiis in the United States derive their support I'roiii
the variou.s railway industries, without taking into account such allieil indus-
tries as rail mills, bridge works, locomotive works, and car works, etc. Tiic
number of direct railway employees (exclusive of the em])l(jyees of terminal
and .sleeping-car companies, fast freight lines, etc.) is over S2(».(IOO. or over
l.li l)er cent of the total p(ipulation. A large proportion nf these represent
skilled Labor of a high degree of intelligence. Franco has ai)out lllO em-
ployees jier mile of railway', and !(• per cent of these an* women. The fig-
ures for the United States and (Ireat liritain are as follows: —
United States
1890
1897
Mili< (if railway
Niimlicr (if "iMiiliiyi
N'limiii'r (if cinpliiyi
Niimlii'r (if ciiipliiyi
Great Britain
•< piT Kid iiiilc^ . .
■~ per ci'iil (if piipiilatiiiii
1():t.r.!i7 1S4.42S
740,:i(ll S2:i.47ii
47!i 44!i i
1.2 1.2 I
1&"m
8,042
Id'.i.ildd
1.2:ld
0.4
1889
ISil.-)
;isi.(;-ji;
1,00(1
1.0
21.174
4(i."i.4l2
2.107
1,2
The railw.ay service especially demands some better and more intimate
relation between the employers and employees than that of t\u\ mere buying
and selling of labor for a price,. Moth humanity and s(>lf-in<^'Mest li.ive leil
several railways m this country and abntad to establish relieJ departments,
providing temp(n'arv financial aid in ca.se of accident or sickness, with other
1895
21.174
4iir.,4l2
2,1117
J. 2
EVOLUTION OF THE llAILWAY
663
I'oi'iiis of benefits in iuiditiuii, the object l)eiiiy to induce men to continue iier-
mauently in tlie employ of the road. Suck associutions liave exi.sted in Eng-
land since IS.'iO. in Canada since 1.S7.J, and in the L'nited States since 188U,
wlieii one was staittjil by the Baltimore & Ohio JJailway. In ls<)(i there
were six of tiiese associations in the United States, with an ag^'ic^ate of
about ll,'."»,(KK> members. The six railway .systems owned 1.") per ceiit of all
the mileage and had !'(» per cent of all tiie railway em[iloyees in the country.
J'.efore closing this review of railway development, brief reference may i)e
made to certain special classes of railways.
.Mountain Hail, ways. — These include lines either isolated or forming
VIEW NEAR VEnUUGAP, ON T.INE OF OltOYA UAH. WAY, PKUU.
part of main lines, having grades so steej) as to require .special means of trac-
tion. They may ! (^ operated by (A) cables. (I!) grip rails, or ((') rack rails.
Cables are used for many short lines, but are now rarely adojjted for regidar
railway working. The grip rail system was first used on the ^AEont Cenis
railway in 1S(J7, and has ln'cn used in later years in l>razil and N'ew Zealand.
IJack rails were used in 1S4.S on the incliue near .Madison. Indiana (V. S. A.).
In l(S(')(i they were used on the .Mount Wiisiiington railway (C S, A.), (with
the ]Marsh rack), this being the first mountain-clind)ing railway. In ISSa,
the Abt rack-rail system was introduced, and is a great improvement, it ha."}
been used both for ordinary railway .service and for special mountain lines.
liAi'in TitANsiT. — Street or surface railways for city ti'aftic date fi'om
IS.'il. in New ^'ork. and were operated by horses until ISTil. when cable trac-
tion was introduced. Electric traction was introduced in (Germany in 1881
■\
it
1
rl
il
664
TRIUMPHS AND WOyDKliS OF THE A'/A'"' CENTURY
and in the Uniuul States in 1.SS4. and the growth of this system was such tliat
in l.S',)4 it was in use on JIOOO miles in this country and 1'.).") mik'S in Europe.
Locomotives operated by steam, gas, com|>ressed air, etc.. have been used to
a limited extent. For liigh sjjeeds it was necess;i,ry to remove the railway
from tlu^ street surface. The Hrst elevated railway was built in Xew York
in 18()1), and now Xew York, Brooklyn, and C'hicago have about 100 miles,
ojjerated by ele( tricity and steam. Tlie only foreign railway on this systeia
is at Liverpool (England), the line l)eing 5 miles long, and ojierated Ivy elec-
tricity. The first >uiderground railway was opened in London in 1S()3, and
that city now has several miles of such railway, mostly oi)erated b;, steam
locomotives. Two underground electric lines are in operation and aiiother is
being built. lUidapest (Hungary) and Boston (Mass.) liave also underground
electric railwiiys. New York has for years needed and denuinded a railway
of this character, but political methods and extravagant demands for fran-
chise rights have prevented the commencement of work upon the line.
^IiMT.\KY K.MLWAvs. — Bailways cannot be made available to any extent
f< ■ tactical purposes, but are of great importance as a means of .sup])ly and
eo.amuuicat'.on. They were used by the Russians in the Crimean war (]S;")4).
and were ])roniinent features in some of the campaigns of the American Civil
War (18(il-(ir)). In the Franco-German war (1870). the German armj- advan-
cing on I'aris was closely followed by a militarj' railway, and in the Soudan
campaign of lSOS-i)!>, the l?ritish army carrit;d with it the head of a railway
communicating with the baae of supplies on the Nile.
J'oRT.vnr.K IvAiLw.ws. — These are narrow-gauge lines of light construc-
tion, foi' use on jilantations, in lumbering operations, on engineering con-
struction works, and for pioneer railways. The rails are riveted to steel ties,
forming complete sections of track, sti'aight or curved, which can be laid
down, taken up, or shifted, as recpiired. Such a line, of L'4 iiu-hes gauge, was
used to carry jjassengers around the grounds of the I'aris Exiiibition of 1880.
Snii' llAiiiWAYs. — Thes(! are i)rojecteil as substitutes for ship canals, but
none have been built in modern times, if we except a few small ones ftn"
canal boats, iiu'luding (me at tlie Columbia River rapids, in (>reg(m (U. S. A.).
One was proposed for the Isthnuis of Suez in ISGO, aiul in 1870 Captain Eads
strongly advocated one across Tehuantepec (Mexico), to connect the Atlan-
tic and l*acili(! oceans. Tliis lim^ woidd be about l."iO miles in length, and
tlie cost is estimated at .'ii!.")0.00(».0()0. In 1888 work was commenced on the
Chignocto ship railway (Canada), at the head of the Bay of Fundy, but it has
never been coni[ilett'd. TIk^ general ])rinciple of the system is to Hoat the
ship into a dock and deposit it upon a wlieeled cradle of suitable form. This
would then be raised by machinery and hauled along the railway by a num-
ber of locomotives.
E. E. RlSSKLL TUATMAN.
ADVANCE IN LAW AND JUSTICE
T. IxTKRXATioxAii L.wv. — I'^xclusivc rights aiScrtiMl iii j)!ist centurifis
liave been succeeded by fieeddiu of the seas and privileges on the rivers.
The principle back of the Aniei-ican guns off the Itarburv coasts has pre-
Viiihnl. Crimes of one country against anotiier are punishabU^ in either.
Extradition for nonpolitical crimes is general. Expatriation has been won
for those who would change their country. Internal atfairs of countries are
free from interference ; but a rule may be so revolting, or so hurtful to
foreign interests, as to justify intervention. The Monroe doctrine was inti-
mated in the Declaration of Independence, and has developed with our coun-
try. Kegard for other nations has increased. Protectorates and spheres of
influence are respected, while recognition of insurgent States will not be
hurried. Devastation and weapons causing needless pain are condemned,
■while guerillas arc regulated by requirement of a responsible head, a badge
recognizable at a distance, and subjection to rules of war. The sick and
wounded, attendants, and appliances are protected from intentional attack.
Open, unfortified places are in jiractice spared, and ransoms no longer
extorted. Twenty-four hours are allowed for withdrawal of noncombatants
from places to be attacked. Military occujtation no longer confers sovereign
power ; and compensation on the closing of war has been recommended for
private property of an enemy used in military ojierations.
Imi)artial neutrality is demanded. Nations once bound themselves for
troops in case others went to war. This has ceased. I'assage of troops
through neutral territory is not allowed. Even sick and wounded will be
denied if tludr ])ass;ige wo\dd relieve a combatant's own lines; but neutrals
have interned such refugiH's. The neutral cannot allow litting out of armed
expeditions or enlistment of troops. -letfersoii advanced international law by
demanding (ienet's recall for such olTcnses. ("arri.ge of signals, dispatches.
or persons in military operations is unneutral, and the I'nited Stales insisted
that this ruled the Trent affair. A belligerent's ship of war can r ain in
piu't but twenty-four hours, unhss in an emergency, like need of rcjjairs.
I'oal will be affordeil only to the nearest ])ort. nor will a new supply be fur-
nished within three months. Statutes enforce sonn^ of these rules. Neutral
trade is not lost except on l)lockade. although goods which may be ])ut to
military uses are liable to seizure as contraband. •' Free shii)s. free goods,''
Avas long contended for; and at last the Declaration of I'aris, in lS,"ir), i)ro-
vided even further, as follows; (1) Trivateering is and remains alxdished.
(L') The neutnd flag covers enemy's goods, with the exception of contr;d)and
of w;ir. (.")) ^'eutral goods, with the exception of contrab;ind of war, are not
liable to ciipture under ;ui enemy's flag. (4) lUockailes, in order to be bind-
ing, must be effectual. Sp;un, Mexico, Venezmda, and the United States
declined to adhere to the Declaration. The United States ado]'ted 'J, 3, and 4,
n
am
TltlUMl'llS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
and offered to agree to tlie abolition of privateering if noncontraband pro-
perty of the enemy were exempted under its own Hag. The United States
and Spain refrained from privateering in tiie recent war. I'rivate property
of tlie enemy on land lias long been exempt from e;iptiire.
I!. J^aw-Makincj liiioiKs. — State legislators wei-j originally chosen from
landed proprietors, except. perlia|>s, in Pennsylvania. Legislatures friMpiently
had the selection of governors, judges, and other high oihcials, but the Ohio
constitution in LSOIJ foreshadowed the conung democracy. Distrust has fol-
lowed reliance on legislatures. Their sessions have been limited in about
half the States to an average of less than ninety days, and almost every-
inii|',1'i;ni)i;n( !■; ham. and ><<rAuiv winti:i{ s( knt.
where made biennial. Increase of the members' own compensation is for-
bidden. Their duties are carefully prescribed, roinmou re(|uirements arc
reading of bills on three days; one subject for a l)ill, ami that expressed
in litle; recital of old law. upon revision; jirohibition of riders on appro-
]iriations. Nearly lialf the States reipiire a majority in each house of all
mendiers elected tliereto. ("(institutional icstrictions on state and nninicii)al
indelitedness and loan lollowed tlic burdens assunu'd in tlu' tirst exultatioM
over inventioi s in transportation. 'I'lu> I'ennsylvauia constitution, f r in-
stance. ]iroliibits '-local or special laws" in about thirty cases. s\u'h as in
municipal affairs, descent of ]n'operty, jiulicial proceedings, remitting penal-
ties, exemption from taxation, regulating labor, chartering corjioratious.
I'xiuudaries between legislative ami judicial proceedings have been sinipli-
lied; special legislation in marriage and divorce has been forbidden; appellate
.1
ADVANCE IX LAW ASD JUSTICE
mi
jurisdiction has bfuii taken from Senates once jiosscssiny it. The I'.ritish
House of Lords retains such jurisdiction, but within it sit the great judges,
and tlic lay lords almost never vote on appeals.
Payment of e.Kpcnses of memliers was deriveil from Kngland, and although
abandoned there has continued hert-. .Miuubers of LNiiigress give attendance
remote from lunne, so tliat they receive salaries rathei' than comiieiisation.
Sums for e.xijenses are allowed in the otiier .Vmeriean repuiilics. in l'"rauee,
Australia, Sweden, Switzerland, chietiy in the lower houses. Stuiif an- paid
by the local constituency, but this tends U> create classes. i;e]irc,sciilatives
to ("ongn.'ss were generally elected at iirst on the ^tate ticket, and in sumo
States this continued until the; (Congress in liSTli recjuired district t'lfctinii.
The Revisi'd Statutes appoint the day of their election, anil reipiiii' a printed
or writtiin ballot.
111. TiiK C'oi'UTs. — A feature of Anierican juris[)rudence which excites
the wonder of foreigners is the power in the courts to dcidari iegi>lativc or
executive acts void liecause unconstituti(mal. licfore the Kcvohition the
Khode Island court stnu-k down a statute contrary to the provincial charter;
aiul a recent instance is the decision of the l'. S. Suiueme Court on the in-
come tax. The jiower is exercised on individuals, without dire<'t conHict
between the great departments of goverinnent. 'i'iie judicial power has
otherwise widened. Civil trials without jury are i'rei[ueiit. in the counties
judges exercise much administrative power. Koad ami bridge cases, grants
of lii^uor licenses, appointments to educational and itiier offices, luv illustra-
tions. In what has been termed ••government by i:ijunction." functions both
of the executive ami of the jury have been assumed. l'erlia]is this justities
the demand that all judges shall be elected iiy the peopl(\ FfMpu'nrly tin
choice of judges was originally l)y llie legislature, or by the governor, alone
or with the ajiproval of the senate. The judittial tenure of office has g^'uer-
ally been lengthened to a term insuring a long service. In i'ennsylvania, a
supreme court judge holds office twenty-one years, a county judge tt.'ii years.
Age limit prevails in some .States. In a <lcmocracy. it is not surprising to
find the doctrine sometimes iisserted that juries in criminal cases are judges
both of law and fact. In certain civil cases, the jury is a crude lint ]ioweriid
engine for hohling corporations to strict responsibility for the citizens' safety,
although exccssiv(! or nnlounded verdicts are to be deplored. Much of the
old law of deodands has force to-day in subtler form. \ feature to note in
passing is the duty imposed on the judge to answer before the jury jioints of
instriKttion framed by counsel.
I\'. Civil. I'liocKiMiii:. — Twenty-nine States and Territories rejoice in
escape from pu/.zliug classitications by substitution of simple statements.
Extreme separation of law and c(piity had made the old condition worse.
Etpiity might often soften legal i)ri:ieiples. or law lend vigor to equity.
Much Of this has iu)w ijeen done ; had been (hme. in fact, in i'ennsylvania,
fr(un early days. Its enforcement of e(piitable lights through remedies at law
was largndy fiillowed in the Knglish Judicature Act of IST."! abolishing forms
of actions at law and interblending law and c(piify. This statute has been
cojiied largely in liritish ctdonies. England abolished the cumbrous system
(d' real actions in 1S;J4, and substituteil simpler remedies for assertio-i of
title.
ill
Vi
668
TRIUMPHS AM) n-OXl)/JIlS OF THE XIX^" CEXTUllY
The simplicity of present pvopeclure is accompanied by ability to reach de-
cision mure promptly, and an old re(iroach has been ijreatly lessened.
V. ConiKK ATiox. — Tiie New York llevised Statutes ot ISL'S embraced
nearly tlie entire civil jirocednre, and in ISbS a" Code of I'roeediire " was
adopted, altiiough the original dral'tsmai:. David Dudley Field, complained
bitterly of ciianges. J'\)rty-t\vo States now have nnue or less complete codes
of practice; and criminal codes likewise are numerous. Coditication (d' the
brandies of substantive law may bt; anti'-iputed. Something of this is g()ing
on in England. The I'dll of Sales Act, tlie Kmployers" Liability Act. tlie JJilis
of Exchange Act, the I'ublic Health (Scotland) Act of l.s".>7. the Land Trans-
fer Act of the same year, iii'c instances. In I'ennsylvania. there are codelets
like the Evidence Act of 1S1S7. or tbe Uuilding Law fur I'ldladeiphia of l!S9;{.
Instances t'ould be mnltii)lied. A code intended for all the States on Xewti-
able Instruments has been prepared by commissioners, and has been ad(j|ited
in ><'ew York, Connecticut. Colorado, and Florida. In (Jreut Itritain there
has not been general coditication. wiiereas the continental systems run largely
that way. even in substantive law, being based on the iJonian law.
\'I. Ckimixal JiKisi-iii |)I,N( k. — The granil jury is no longer grand in
many States ; indeed, less than twelve members sulHce in .some ; and their ser-
vice may even be dispensed with under some Western constitutions. Individ-
ual malice has been avoided by the creation of public jiroseeuting attorneys.
'•Standing aside jurors"' resulted from .'{3 Edward I., denying government
challenge exee]it for cause. It has been generally abolished, anii tlie prosecu-
tion equalized by a nundx'r id' ])erempt(jry cliallenges. i'ennsyivania retains
the old ])ractice. Prisoners may now testily. l)ut refusal is not to weigli
against tiiem. Tlie statute 7 William III. allowed counsel in tieason cases,
but England did not extend the privilege to trials for other felonies until
ISoO. The courts in mitigation permitted counsel to proni|it prisoners witli
(piestions. Tenn's charter gave prisoners privileges of witnesses and coun-
.sel, and tliis is now universal in .American eonstitiitions. .Many States pro-
vide coun.sel for prisoners without means, some with conipensation. " Stand-
ing mute" has become e([uivaleiit to a plea of not guilty, L'nanimity in a
verdict is essential to conviction of crime above misdemeanor, exeejit in
Utah, and there it is lindted to capital cases. In civil and in minor criminal
cases about a dozen constitutions in the far West or Southwest either recog-
uize verdict by ])ro])ortion of jury or «dse enii^wer the b-gislature so to do.
England r 'fuses criminal appeals, but in this country they are allowed. Tlie
courts of this country have never been subservient to nnlitary i):ission. and
all friends of the great French IJepublic must rej<iice at the courage of the
Court of Cassation in the Dreyfus case. The Englisii law intlieted denth
for Kit) crimes, sonu' great and many otherwise. ai)ont tiie ]>eriod of our Itevo-
lution. and in ISli* this number had become 2(M». Ameiiean jurir-prudence
never had sui-h stain of blood, yet 1(> crimes were puni.-hable with death
in .Mas.sacliusetts. and L'tl in Delaware, at the time of the IJevulution, and the
]iillory, stocks, shears, branding-irons, and lash were busy. Ht)rrible pri-
sons existed, tilled with every foulness and immondity. The older peni-
t':>ntiary system has been moditied in L'O States i)y the jiarole system under
police supervision, and in 4 the jxihcy of indeterminate sentences within
fixed linuts and ages has been adopted. Uertillon and other methods (d
ADVAXCE /.V LAW AM) JUSTICE
oc»
identification have Ri-eatly Ifssoncil ciinn" in Kii;,'liiiHl. Tlic law <ii' doodand,
whereby tlie vahie of an object causinj,' accidental death was torl'eited lor
charities, was :ibolished in Enj,'land in IS If). Societies to jirevont cruelty to
children, or to animals, attest the advance of retinenient and hnnianitv.
]■
ii!l
IIOX. MKIjVII.LK Kl'Ll.KK.
(Chief Justice U. S. Supreme Court.)
VH. Capital ri-xisHMKXT. — In England, treason and felony, except
pett> larceny and mayhem, were pnnishabh; with death. The fiction by which
males who conld read were supposed to be of the clergy saved first offenders,
who escaped with branding. In the eighteenth century, the fiction was for-
bidden, and death imposed on additional otfenses, so that 1(50 crimes were
so punishable. In IS'JO, the efforts of Sir Samuel Komilly and Sir James
fii
«70
THIUMrHS AM) WOSDERS OF THE XIX"' CEXTUKY
jMackiiitosh, and later of Sir John KusspU, resulted in a more merciful spirit,
and since LSdl murder, treason, and tiring of the great duck yards, liave
been the only capital ott'enses. The American colonies were more humane,
yet Massachusetts j)unished Id and JKdaware L'd crimes with death. Since
the Revolution imprisonment has been the general penalty. In .Maine. Wis-
consin, and Colorado cajiital iiunishnient has l)ecn abolished altof^ether : in
KIkkIc island, except where murder is committed l)y a life prisoner ; in
j\Iii']iigan, except tor Treason. In some States, as in Ohio, the jury may
avert tlic death ])enalty. New York and Iowa, after exiierinients, restored
capital punishnuMit. ''."lie federal law imposes death for nuirder, piracy, rob-
bery on the high seas, rape, treaso.i. The introduction of degrees of munler
has reduced the number of executions. In New York, electrocution has
been substituted for hanging. Capital j>unishment has been abolished or
(jualitied in the Argentine Kepublic, liclgiiim, Urazil, Chile. Costa I!ica.
CJiiatemala, Holland. Italy, Norway, Portugal, Hussia, Switzerland (in eight
cantons), and in Yeneznela.
VIII. roi.KK I'owK.i!. — The citizen of the present day is protected l)y
the ])olice pcnver to a degree which. perhai)s. would have seemed marvelous
a century ago. The sale of food is governed both in (puUity and (lujintity ;
building laws jirescriijc yards for light and air. height and thickness of walls.
and forbid wooden buildings in many jjopulons centres. I'^xplosives are
jilaced under strict regulations. Health laws ])rotect from impurity of food
and from jiestilence, establish q\uirantines. deny the importation of rags,
cattle, etc., likely to breed disease; medicine. ])haruuicv. dentistry, and nurs-
ing are protected from itrnsiance ; immigration laws exclude persons or races
deemed uncongeniid or objectionable; railroads are subjected to provisions
l)romoting safety, comfort, and imitartiality of service; lotteries, gambling,
threatening letters are forbidden; game laws j)reserve the various species
from extinction ; women and children are guanh-d by special laws. Almost
the entire ' ..',ly of this division of law is new to this century, and nuudi of
it is recent.
IX. r.lAifiMKO WoMK.x. — In ISttO. a husband (vnild ap])ro])riate his wife's
personal juoperty not lield in trust, and use lier realty while he lived. Ex-
cept for necessaries or for her separate estate, she could not contract. Her
emancipation began in liS;>;t, in Mississij)pi, and now her property, under the
statutory interests secured to her by laws generally jirevailing. is hers free
from control or interference. This statutory estate includes projierty inher-
ited, or derived by purchase or gift, or in some Stiites by labor. The wife's
power to contract has been extended. an<l in sonu' States has little restriction
beyfuul perhai>s inability to become surety. Uclore this era. some States,
acting on a London custom, had allowed feme sole traders in cases of mari-
ners' wives, or of desertion <u' negler c.
X. ( •nii.DUK.v. — Kegulation of th(» labor of children in luuirs and i-mploy-
ments is usiuxl. debarring them from workshops and fact(n-ies at certain ages
and from occupations dangerous to their morals, as in theatricals, circuses,
rag ]iicking. mendicancy, sti'cet music. Laws ])rohibit their entrance into
gambling, or worse, houses, into jkx,' rooms, or unaccompanied into dance or
concert halls, roller rinks. Vinuleville theatres. Minnesota e.xcludes them
from criminal trials. Sale of licjuor to minors is ])rohibited. Numerous
Mn.iyci-: i\ LAW AX J) jrsTirK
6T1
roppiit statutes iiroliiWit sales ol ciguiettes, cigars, or tuliat'cd. and I' tali and
Wfst Viigiuia loibid sales oi' oi)ium. (dcgou and Klunlc Ishiiul jinihibit
their imliiie use of tiiljueco. New Ilaniiisliire. Iniliana. and Cunneetieut
forliid eliildreii over tliree in alnisli<.ii>es. Nortii Tarulina makes it a niis-
«lenieanor to leave a eliild under seven, and unattended, exposed to tiro.
J'roliii)iting eniidovment inconsistent with school attendance is usual. Coni-
jinlsory education exists in twenty-nine States and two Territories, and largely
thronghout Knropc and the colonies. Fourteen is the more tre(inent limit of
uge. Children's weltare now determines their custody, rather than the rights
«d either jiarent. Laws in some .States protect cliildren more or less Ironi
wills made helove their birth by parents. .Many States provide that bastards
may inherit from their niotlier or from ea(,'h other, and she from them, and
that their jiarents" marriage legitinuiies them.
XI. IkK.vi, EsTATi:. — ( twnersiiip of land is no longer embarrassed by joint
tenancies, nor need conveyancing resort to cumbrous fine and recovery ; while
transfer has been further lightened by title compaines ]ieiiding the adojition,
liktdy, <d the Torrens systeiu of registration and ccrtiticatc. l)cmocracy has
rejected distinctions of sex or age in inheritance, and the half-blood may
share in many States after certain degrees. Disability of aliens to liold lands
1ms been removed in sonu' States, in others there are limitations in acres,
value, or time, while in sonu' disability ceases on deidaration id' intention to
become a citizen. The English doctrine of t:icking. whereby ownership of
earlier and later incumbrances cut out intermediate titles, mortgages, etc.. is
inconsistent with the Anu'rican recording acts.
XII. Coi'viMonr. — After printing became general, the author received
some, if inadeipiate, protection, in England through the Stationers' Company,
or .sonu'tinu\s tbrnugh particular iirivilege: in contineatal countries, through
siudi privilege. The statute of Anm^ contined him to such years, etc., as it
specitieii. and the courts have decided with hesitation that there was no coi)y-
right at common law. The statutory rights have varied. Since IH.'Jl the
copyright period in this country is I'S years, with 14 more if author, widow,
or children are living at ex])iration of tir.st term ; and in England since
1S4'.' it is L'S years or author's lite, whichever is longer. .
The tirst known copyright directed to an author was granted by Venice in
14<.tl. i:' 17!H France allowed copyright to all dramatists, extending it in
17!K! to authors in general. Countries in .symjiathy with France adopted the
iiolicy. Prussia in 17'.>4 extended cojiyright to authors represented liy pub-
lishers at the Frankfort and Leijizig hook fairs. General protection has now
come about, .aided by c(Uisolidation of European stales into great nations.
International cojiyright liegan with separate treaties; and the movement
oulminated in the lierne Convention of 1SS7, particii)ated in by (irrmany,
lielgium. Spain, France. Ilayti, Italy. Switzerland. 'I'unis, Great IJritain, Li-
beria. Authors resident in any country which was a jiarty to the Convention
m.ay have copyright in the other counties. The United States did not join,
altiiough it liadand since has had treaties with a few nations exchanging
such protection. The International Co|)yriglit Law of 1801. however, i.ro-
tects foreign authors but not foreign imblishers. it being required that the
printing shall be done in this country.
XIII. AuMiKALTY. — The difference between the majestic rivers of Amer-
G72
TiuuMrus AND nosn/jis or thk xix'" cK.wriir
iea aiitl Kii^jlisli stit'iuiis was rccctyiii/cd in tlir case (it •• The (Seiipsce Cljiol."
wliei-fiii tlif Siiiiri'iiic ("omt. rt'jt'ftt'd tin- Kiii,'lisli (Idctriiif tliat aiiiiiiraltv lias
U(i jiirisdictioii f.vcciit. on tin- seas or wlit'ic tin- tides »dili and How. 'I'liis lias
insured iinilorniity in tlie rei,'ulati<)ns of travel ami eomniert'e. and has |ii(i-
t«'eted sncli watei's I'roni local interferenee. Inteiiiational rules to jirevent
collisions at sea have been joined in by the I'nited States. I'.y acts of iH.'d
and l.SSI. Conj^ross relieved innocent shipowners of liability for merciiandise
destroyed by tire, and piovided that liability in case of collision. endie//le-
nuMit by crew, etc., shall not e.\ceed the owner's interest. The Hartcr Act
of jS'.t.'! provides that on due dilij^tMiee neither owners nor charterers shall be
liable for faults in na\ illation or in nianauceinent. nor for |ierils (d the sea.
defects in j,'oods, etc., l)nt prohibits aLireeiueiits relieving,' troni liability for
injuries caused by nej,dect in littint; out. provisionini,' and nianninj; the ves-
sel, stowiii;.; the f,.i;j:o, or in caring for or delivery of the same, rarliainent,
in IS'.Mi, pidtecleii seamen Iroin coniineicial greed by refniiring load line> to
be marked on vessels at a hei.i,dit ti\ed in' the IWiard of Trade.
XIV. CoiM'oitATioNs. — Till" source id' corporate life was formerly the
kin,y: ; to-day, the charters are virtually the u'eiieial corpoiation law. ami
special incorporation is forbidden. l''ur a season, minor amendments for par-
tiiMilar companies were tolerated, but constitutions are forbidding even these.
.\plplications for charters must state such particulars as name, nature, and
jdace of business, amount of stock, limit of indebtedness. iiuiniKT and names
of directors. Annual reports must Ik? lodged with the tax authorities.
Doctrines respecting corporations have wonderfully changed. The Dart-
mouth College ease lield that Charters wt^re contracts and could not be im-
jiaired; and thereafter, by constitution or otherwise, the States jirovided that
all new charters should be subject to alteration or repjal. although even th;s
does not authorize radical change of corporate charai-ter. American law has
recognized advantage of freedom in execution of corjX)rate affairs. It has
disjiensed with the burdensome reipiirement of seal to contracts, and even in
Kngland the corporate seal is unnecessary, unless in unusual transactions.
The American courts uphold negotiable notes and bonds given in author-
ized business. The company is confined to the business for which it w;»
created, although a cautious tolerances exists in respect to related enterprises;
and mortgages may be ac(]uire(l if for debts contracted previously and not as
a device. The old theory was that a company could not be held for misfeas-
ance, since it could not authorize its agents to commit wrong; but corpora-
tions are now held for many torts sanctioned by them, such as trespass,
assault and battery, infringement of patents, negligence, and even fraud and
libel. Exemplary damages may be awarded against them. One or another
kind has even been sr.bjected to indictment, in cases of nuisance, violation of
Sunday law, maintenance of disorderly house, habitual omission of lights or
signals, etc. They may be guilty of contenijit. Tliey may be jmuished by
penalties and forfeitures.
A corporation outside its own State cannot exceed either its own charter or
the power granted like companies of the other State. Connecting railwaj's
are sometimes adopted in each of several States, but the ])arts remain foreign
to each other as respects jurisdiction in the federal courts. Foreign corpora-
tions are subject to the police power, but not to interference by the State in
their ii
engage!
tions pi
by taxa
the vail
quired
before
only 11
ADVANCE IN LAW AN J) JUSTICE
678
thoir iiiterstatfi coranuTct-, excopt Congress so iiuthoiizcs. Coinpanir's not
engaged in interstate eonunerce nor in governmental service may have eondi-
tions plaiied njion their entry into a State, and may lie jiractioally excluded
by taxation. Troperty within tlie foreign State is alone taxable tliere, but
tlie value of the fraiK'hise may l)c considered. Usually, statements are re-
qiiired showing location of a','ent. names of otlieers, etc. Contracts made
before eompliau.'e are dirterently regarded, being void in some States, and
only until compliance in some others, and in som<' not void at all where
STATK, WAK AM) NAVY l!lIl,l>I.N(i. W ASH IN<iTON, D. C.
penalty .s imposed. Some States seek revenue by lax laws inviting outside
companies. Thus, by Delaware law of ISi)!), comi)c.nies need not oblige them-
selves to keep their original Ixioks nor hold their meetings there, assessment
beyond subscription is forbidden, and taxation is light.
In ISIio and 181i7 the free organization of trades-unions and banking asso-
ciations was authorized, and thus w;us introduced into English jurisprudence
the i)rinciple of free association familiar to the Eoman Republic. In 1838,
but more especially in 1844. limited ])artnerships with transferable shares
were authorized by general law ; and in 18(12 freedom from liability beyond
subscription was somewhat recognized. .V form of partnership, societe ano-
nijme, has l)een known in France for six liundred years, and by law of 1867
may be organized without special leave. The managers alone assume full
responsibility, and the association bears now a company name. Germany
adopted the principle of general incorporation in 1870, as have the greater
nations, excepting Russia and Austria.
So early as 1784 New York ena(!ted a general incorporation law for
43
074
Tlilh'MJ'llS AM> \\().\ni:ilS OF THE XI X"' CESTl'llY
(ihunilii's, iiiid li)!' liliraiit's in IT'.M). In ISII, woolen, kIus.s, and soum otlicr
ifa
th
>lt
(ItMlOll
(!•
J'avort'd. Tim pri
I'lst'wlicro, and liccanu' (piitt' j,'('ncral by 1H,">0. Pennsylvania adopted the
l)olicy in liS? I, altliouj,di its religions, library and eliarilalile organizations had
enjoyed hucIi law sinee 17'.M.
X\'. lti;i,i(iioN. — Seoiiieil. laslied, tliiown into inison. Iiis tongue cut (ml,
l)anislied to savage woods, sueh. was the late id' the Massaiduisetts (.hiaker
among the tirst settlers, and iJoger Williams sliaivd little better. A hmg
stride had been taken when, in Kl'.H. the ^Massaehnsetls eharter proelaiined
liberty id eonscienee I'or all " except papists." Then was the brave and gentle
I'enn securing ndigious lii)erty to all confessing one (Jod. Vet mu<di I'nrther
])rogress was essential. Itonian Catholics were exidudea from otiice except
in New York and .Maryland; while even in i'ennsyivania no .lew conld sit in
the legisl itiire. Most of the States re(|nired some rtdigious test for higher
olHces ; .Massaclmsetts allowed no voters oi' utllcials outside of the Congrega-
tional (duirch; and iduirch nuunbership was es.-cntial in Connecticiiit and
Kew llami'shire. in 177(1 i'ennsyivania admitted to the legislature any 'vho
btdieved in (Jod and in a future state of rewards and punis'-'ueiits. Massa-
clin.setts threw down the barriers to olHce in 17.St». except thai until ISI'I the
governor should 111' of tile Christian faith; but ot}icedi<dding was limited to
I'rotestants in North Caroliuii until IS.'!."*, iind in New Hampshire until 1,S77.
.lews received the .siune rights as other sects in Connecticut in l.Sl."., in Mary-
land in liSlT). The Virgiina liill of IJights declared that all are entith'd to
the free exercise of religion, anil a few years ;ilterwards. in l7.S(i, proclaimed
further in words written by .lelt'erson that religio\is opinions shall never
affect civil eajiacities, and that no man can be compelled to support religious
worship. Tbe Lake region was secured from molestation for ndigious senti-
ments l)y the Northwest Ordinance of 17."<7. and the Constitution not only
secures all from such inteid'erence by Congress, but jncdiibits ndigious test
tor federal olUecs or estidilishmcnt (d' ndigion by Congress. South Carolina
made the Ei)iseoi)al the State church in 177<'>. Imt dropiied cstablisi'iuent in
17'.H*. Supjiort of religion w;is likewise aliolishcd in .Maryland in ISlO. but
continued in .Massaidiusetts until IS.'!.'!; iind New Hanijishire authorizes
public Prote-stant teacher.s of religion. .Maryland. Kentiudiv. and Tennessee
exclude (dergynu'u from office. Political hicranddcs and iiidygamy are not
within constitutional jirotections. Courts luivc dechircd Christianity part of
the cimimon law; but in present law its force is in its principles. Christian
institutions, in common with other r(digi(Uis or charitable agencies, are favored
in jiolicies and cxemjitions; and blasphenucs. like railings in gener.al. are
forbidden, liible reading in jiublic s(dio(ds is generally discrctionaiy with
the s(du)()l board, although ludd illegal in Wisconsin ; but religious garbs may
not be worn in such schools by teacduM's. A jiublic hospital nniy not be
erected on sectarian gnmnd.
The English corporation and test acts excluded from ottice all without the
established ehnridi. until ',) (ieorge IV.
XVI. SiMM.VKY OK Ahv.wcK. — ] ucrcascd res])ect for the rights of others,
both nulividually and as nations, characterizes the law of this century, and
maybe ])erceived in every dinndion. It has ereatedia new international law,
developed democratic institutions at home ami abroad, almost revolutionized
I'llHTIA AM) ll.VSSANIO.
(Trial Scene IVoin ' :Merelmiit of Venice.";
676
rniuMPns Ayn wonders of the xix™ century
criminal jurisprudence, extended the police power in every direction, and
secured t'reedoni of conscience and separation of clinrch and state. It has
emancipated woman, thrown a jjrotecting care over children, and favored
charities, asylums, houses of refuge. Imprisonment for honest debts has
been abolished, and the wretched sight of debtors imprisoned for paltry suins
no longer reproaches society. Homestead and exemption laws preserve the
family. Honest bankrui)t3 are again lifted up in hope. The legal means of
settlement and recovery of rights has been greatly exjjedited. Kngland has
followed America in making lands assets for payment of debts ; and claims
again:.!, the State have received recognition in some of the States and utider
act of (,'ongress, and. likcnvise in England. Harriers ercluding persons as wit-
nesses have been broken down, first in C( nnecticut in 1.S4S, next in Kngland
in 18,"»1, and now there is little exclusion unless the adversary has died.
Something had been don before in comjielling answers to written inte roga-
tories, but with a weiknt .ss and lack of logic that should have ridiculed the
whole exclusion. I'romotion of uniformity of laws has en'jaged the attention
of State commissioners, who have drafted a code concernir.g negotiable instru-
ments which has bc.-u ailopted iu four States, ('onstitutional amendment
has att'orded an entire race opportunity to develo),- from the low estate of
slavery into >,uA\ condition as the futare shall manifest. (Questions of civil
rights, due process of law, and of erpial protection and privilege, are con-
stantly bringing State laws before tlie federal court.-;, as do qiu'stions of inter-
state commerc '. .Vnti-jiool and anti-trust enactments mark l)oth federal and
State law, and lately liave broki'ti up the alliance of the trans- Missouri
transportation companies, [nheritance and succession taxes were imposed in
I'ennsylvania in 1S1*(>, and now are found in some dozen States. The pro-
gressive feature, or increase of rate with increase of estate, has been .sus-
tained by high authority. Congress has imposed such taxes, but its power to
do so is in dispute before the United States Supreme Court.
Tn the early tlays of the republic ]>roperty retiuirenu'nts existed both tor
ofHce and for voting. New States came in with maidiood suffrage established
either by law or custom. Original States threw open the p<dls. — Maryland
in IHKC Connecticut in 1818, New York in 18L'l. Massachusetts in "iSL'l,'.
The white lalior of Virginia was denied the suffrage in IS.IO. but gained it in
I8."i(>. Similar movement in England is marked by the Jteform Hill of IS.'!!';
and now manhood suffrage is universal iu (lernumy. Fr.auce, and Greece, ami
well ligh so in England.
Llthkk E. IIkwitt.
EVOLUTION OF BUILDING AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS
1. (iKM'.ltAI, 1-|JIN( II'I.KS.
" Do not forget to pay your diius to-iiiglit." is an oxpressioii familiar to the
occupants of fifty tliousaiul IMiiladclpliia lionips, one liundn-d and titty tlhjii-
sand Pennsylvania lioincs, and six lunidrcd and titty thonsand lionseholds in
the Unitt'd States. This nicaus tliat nearly seven hundred tlumsand ianiilies
are contribntinj,' towards gaining liomes of tlieir own through liuilding and
Loan Associations. Tlie entire mendx-rship is nearly seventeen hundred
thousand, of whom fully four liundred thousand are women and children.
The picture '* Paying their Dues'" is a reiiresentative one, and in Philadel-
phia there an^ four hundre(l and seventy-tive such gatherings every year.
Tlie I'hiladelphia associations generally meet once e\ery month, but in some
parts of the State, and in other States, many societies meet wet'kly, so there
are fuU}"^ ten thonsand such gatherings every twelve months in the United
States.
The women have shares in their own right, and the children are either
paying dues for their parents or for themselves the father or mother acting
as trustee. The hoj's and girls know exactly what nights the tissociations
meet, and are generally on hand with their money long licfore the otHcers are
ready to receive the funds and give receipts in the pass books.
What is the meaning of these gatherings ? To enable every member to
heconn' his own landlord — to purchase homes for themselves, by paying
their money into a joint concern for a few years until each one has saved
ein)ugh, with gains added, to buy a home, and in the meantime the entire
receipts .icing loaned to the members to gain homes in advance of the final
reckoning or maturity of the shares.
The nuMubers have well learned the j)rinciple that money makes money
if well used, that if many pay rent for the benetit of the few, through the
building association the many may combine togetlier so as to put the rents
into their own pockets.
II. rnK SVSTK.M. *
For convenience, "a share"' is the ])ayineiit of .fSl.t'O a month, five shares
$!'>.()(), ami so on. The final value of a share is arbitrarily fixed at iJIL'OO.
The money received is promptly loaned to the UHMnbers. on which the bor-
rowers pav 81.<l<> Jier month interest on every S-OO borrowed, until the final
value of .'SL'Ud is reached, which occurs in twelve years or less.
Payments $144.00
(iains , • i"''')'"*
Final value .1i!2(Kt.(MI
A member mav have borrowed .^l.*(K)0 from the association on ten shares of
678 TJUUMriJS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" VEyTUliY
stock (S200 being tlie limit loaned on ciicii slu'ie), and the shares having
niiitiired, or become woitli Sl'OOO. his loan of S-dOO is canceleii and his
home is true. The member who has not borrowed receives J^l'OO in cash for
every share he holds.
The biiildinf; association in its simplest ll)rm. and as it existed in I'hihidel-
phia for many years, took all its members in at one time, and the mend)ers
paid from ^^L' to S-0 each every month nntil the shares matnred. At matnr-
ity all the borrowers received canceled morl,i;aj,'es. and the non-boiTowers
cash for their shares, and the society then closed its att'airs. Ilnndreds of
such associations have wound up their affairs successfuUj'.
Very many associations are now working on the perniaiKMit jilan ; that is,
they admit new members every six months or every year, tiie tirst set being
the tirst to mature, and so on, one set going out everj' year and a new batch
coming in.
VlaX'Ai series is a separate association so far as the dues are concerned, but
the total gains are divided so as to give each dues duUar invested a like rate
per cent per annum for the time of investment. There is really no jxisitive
or final division of protits. The gains are kept in a lump sum. and the divi-
sion is on jjaper only for the purpose of showing the ))rogress made towards
maturity. When a set of shares matures, its jiortiiui of the gain is taken
from the accunuilated protits and divided to the slock that has reached its
final value.
Some assocMatioiis count all the loans as assets and all the dues ami gains
as lial)ilities. In such societies tiie borrower pays interest on his full loan
tuitil the eiul, and gets credit for profit on his dues until one account cancels
the other.
Other associations, at the end of each year, deduct the dues p.aid in from
the loans and charge interest on the net anKuiut only of the loan. Hy the
latter system the borrowers" payments decrease every year, but it recpiires a
longer tinu; to finally cancel tlu^ loan tlian by the former system.
When there is a demand for mniiey. and nu)re than one member is anxious
to secure it. the funds are ofTenul at auction, and the member who bids the
highest premium secures the prize.
The bidding is generally done liy ofTering so many cents per share per
month above the re(piired interest. If a nu-mber secures SL'OdO at U) cents
per share premium on ten shares, his monthly payments are: —
UlK'-i per llloiilll SIO.IH)
IllllMl-^l plT IIMHllll lO.lHI
i'rcniimii [icr iiiipiilli l.(K(
Total . .«21.00
These paynu-nts contiiuie until the shares mature. The dues are the con-
tributed capital, and the interest and pn'miuins are the gains.
III. TIIKIK 1;AKI.V IIISToliV.
'I'heir early history in iMigliind seems to date back as far as 17S1. Tn ^fr.
Laiigl'iivd's '• ( 'entui'v of jtirmingiiam Lifi' "' mention is made (d Certain pro-
posals for estalilishiiig a society for building oix lauds belonging to William
.renniugs, lvs(|. The society was cirgaiii/e(l by rules or articles, similar in
some respects to those employed by the buihling societies of to-day.
o
'A
("
•<
0.
i.l
680
TRIUMPHS AND WOSDERS OF THE A'/A'"' CENTUIIY
Dr. John Ileiirv Gray, in his ♦• Historj- of the liUws, Maimers, and Customs
of the People of China,"' (h-scribes some money-h'ndini; societies which seem
to j)artaiie in some measure of the character of biiililiiig ivsaociations. at least
in tlieir cooperative and ecjuitable features. He tells us that these societies
are called •• Lee Woee," and were instituted by a jierson named j'onj^ Koont;,
an otlicial of great wealth, who tiourished I'lKt it. c. (hiring the.JInn dynasty.
The money was loaned to members and returned in monthly installments
witli interest. Each mendter was compelled to contribute to the fund a sum
ecjual to that which he contributed at the tir.it meeting. One ot the rules
was, " Kach member shall deposit in a lottery box, placed on a table, a
tender or bid for the money, setting forth tlu^ rate of interest wjiich he is
disposed to pay on the amount in <iuestion ; that the tenders shall be taken
out of the box by the jjresident, and the liighest bidder takes the loan."'
When two bids weri> alike the lirst bidder took the loan. A tine was diarged
for uon-jiaynieiit of dues.
iV. AMKKK AX ASSOl lATIOXS.
There is no evidence other than that Krankford, now a part of i'hiladeljjhia
proper, saw the tirst building society that was organized in the United States.
It was called the "(►xford Provident Huiiding Association," and was started
in liS;>l, sixtyn'ight years ago. It closed its affairs in June, 1841. The
second Frankfon'. society, of the same name, was organized in February of
1.S41, and ran out in .Vugnst, l.S.">L'. Isiuic Whitelock was president, Samuel
Pilling treasurer, ami Isaac Shallcross secretary, of the fiist association; and
Henry Taylor pn-sident, Isaac Shallcross secretary, and William Overton
treasurer, of the sec(Uid association.
The Holmesburg Puildiug Association was organized in January, 1842, and
c1os«h1 its business satisfactorily to the nuMnl)ers, June 2o, isr»;{. ,Fohn H.
Duff, a lnml)er counter by trade, was instrumental in organizing the tirst
building society witiiin the compactly built up city of Philadelphi.a, in the
year 1.S47. The name of the society was the " Kensington Puilding Asso-
ciation." The society issued live hundred shares of sto(!k in one series,
and wound up its affairs in ten years and two months after it was organized.
The first advertisement of any building and loan association, so far as can be
ascertained, appeare(l in tlie I'hiladelpliia " Pul)lic Ledger," February ">. 1.S47,
and called for a meeting of the '• Kensington." .Mr. Duff died in 188,3, and a
few montlis before that event he presented to the writer a document now
known as "Thi' Old Vellow Poster." It is the <'all for the first building
society in Old Pliiladel)>hia. a copy of wliich is herewith presented.
Mr. Duff seldom, if ever, held forth in ))ulilic. but his efficient work was
done l»y taking individual rases and converting them to the benefits of obtain-
ing homes for tlu'mselves. l-'reipiently he has been seen on a pile of lumber
with <'halk in hand, demonstrating a problem in building society arithmetic
to converts tn this system of saving.
'I'here has been scarcely a great mind in the country that has not moved
the lips to say some goud word for the building society cause. Henry Ward
Peecher in a seinion said. —
"I think that a young man who places liefore himself not a speculation,
not a fortune. i)ut some nbject that he means to achieve, who selects a jiar-
BU ILDING ASSOCIATI ON
The Subscriber!* boing desirous of forming bH Associaiion for the purpose of assistinc ihe
•nenibcri thereof in the erection of D«vclling Houses, or such other Real Estate as Ibey shall
de«'ni most advantageous, have concluded to bold a Meeting for that purpose
iH mi imie. m mi m
AT 7 O'CLOCK.
•^( ihe Mensingion Engine Haih
On <iueen Street, abQve Marlborough St'
Where the objcclt of the Atso<!iation will be laid before tbe Meeting. Citisena generally,
are invited co attend.
Ralph Pilling,
Joseph Smith,
John Bierly,
John B. Duff,
Henry Shermer,
John Verilear,
Samuel Wensell,
Samuel T. Hay,
Henry Lane,
Howard Bowman
Andrew Himes,
Rich'd. Fordham
David <^uyant,
Oeo. Fordham,
Henry Kriener,
Abr. P. Eyre,
Ed. W. Gorgas,
Alfred Fitler,
Alb't T. Eggleton
Alliert Engle,
And. Flander§,
Thoma§ Bennett,
J. R. Fnllerlon,
Charles Tryon,
Samuel Parcels,
Edward Owens,
Jacob Jones,
John Nevling,
Henry IHosser,
Geo. Kennerd,
Henry Hercer,
George Jflattls,
Jflichael Collar,
Edward Westert
Henry Hiiler,
William Ellis,
John Hearney,
Jos. B. Matlack,
Saml. Biedaman,
J. Shilingbarg,'
James Hill,
George Cramp,
George Coleman,
John Fordham.
January SI, 1847.
Printed at Boyle's cheap Printing EstaUisbmenti'conier of Second i^ad Brown itreeta
CALL i\m KlUsr HriI,UIN(» ASSOCIATION IN IMIILAUELI'UU.
08'i
riilUMPHS AND WOSDEUS OF THE XIX'" <E.\riHr
ticul.'ir ]>{(■(•(! of property that he would like to own. ami aims steadily at
at'([iiiriiif,' it and works diligently for it. and saves for it. will lie almost sure
to smreed. 1 will say that every young man in a city, either througii tlie
instrumentality of a building association when tliere is one, or indeiiendently,
when such an association does not exist, and \\hen at last, liaving toiled and
waited [latiently, the debt is paid and the piece of pro|M'rty is earned, is a
great deal richer than the assessor knows liiia to Ix*. The assessor goes
around and puts a valuation upon his projK'rty for tlie piiriMise of taxing it.
l>ut, ah, thost; haliits of industry and self-contnd : tlmse wise nicasurings,
wliich we call economy, — all these the man has gained over and abtive the
l>roperty. He has saved himself from a thousand temptations. H*; has jiro-
tected himself against remorseless vices, which would have gnawed out his
marrow. And though you call it merely amassing proj^rty. it may Iw amass-
ing manhood. It is ont; step on the upward way."
State otti(;ials who closely e.\amine the workings of these .societies never
seem to tire in their praise. Superintendent Kilburii. of New York, in his
last annual report, refers to the conservative and honestly managed building
association as follows : —
"During the past year associations of this cla.ss alone have returned to
withdrawing members dues and profits amounting to .SS.0l4.li.'>'.<. During
the same period no less than tifty-scven associations were engtigfd in the pay-
ment of matured shan's, and .^.Sl,",>.7r>li were paid to memb«'rs who had faith-
fully contin\u'(l payments through a series of years, ami at htst saw their con-
Hdence justitied. Hut these sums are of small ( oiKsequence when we consider
the comfortable homes that have been erected, ami the families that have
been permanently and comfortably housed through the facilities for frugality
and thrift, for self denial and saving afforded by them. .My attenti<in Avas
recently called to a village of the St.ate in which it was .said that nearly one-
third of the houses had been erected through the agi-ncy of a small local
association.
" Nor is this an exceptional case, uidess the element of projKirtion l)e taken
into consideration. In nearly all the cities of the ."<tate. and in many of the
large villages, there are associations that are mo«lels of their kind, and are
worthy of the admiration and support of every ginnl citizen.
'•Their educational iiiHuence, too, can hardly l»e over estimated. The
Avorkingmau who joins such an association takes |»art in the administrati(ui
of its affairs ami learns his first lesson in finance from those of larger expe-
rience, and, who perhai»s. touches elbow with the lawyer, the merchant, and
the mi.iister as they discuss the safety of an investment, or projier amend-
ment to the articles of association, and will not lend a ready ear to teachers
of socialism, of class hatred, or of tin;Micial heresies."
As shown elsewhere, tlu^ mendiers of the New York .scx-ieties have over
.*i.'{7.<M )().(»( M) invested. The ISuilding .Association League of Pennsylvania, an
organization (d' twenty-six years" standing. com|H).se<l of the most active asso-
ciations in the State, sonu' years ago proclaimed a '• Ik'ciaration of Prin-
ciples." from which we ([uote; —
'• The local building societies of the .Stjite of P.^»nn.sylvania are true coiiper-
ative organizations, transacting no business with the puVdic. am! not amenable
to laws affecting fiuaucial institutions that have dealings with the public.
DUILTHSii AS I) LOW ASSOCIATloys 683
They enooiirage tlirift aiiniP'; tlic wai,'u-\V(>rkfis. lidj) to citato taxalili- [iro-
juTtv ill its bost t(irm — n-al cstatf. educate tlioir members in business methoUs
anil tcaeh tliem Imtli Imv. to save ami how to invest munev.
•• |{y tliis service they have ereated ii state police of tens of tliousamls of
lionie owners, more etticieni for ilie [proicctioM of life and [propertv than a
standini,' army.
••They hiive lessened the cost for the maintenance of almsdn)nses. prisons,
and asylums, ity teachini,' men and wonn-n to lie self-lielpful and self-reliant,
and in that way have benehted the State to an amount far exceeding' anv
sum that cindd be j,'atheii'd by taxation.
••'I"he work of the societies is done ,:,'ratuit(nisly by the <[irectors. and in no
other way couli. thev be maintained, the prolits rcsidtin;^ from the services
of men who, tit.Mijjh they have never jKJsed as philanthropists, are enf(ai,n'd in
the best kind .it charity. ]nl[iin',' men and women who hel|( themselves."
.Joseph 11. I'aist, a prominent I'hiladelphia bnildiny association oxfiert. ha.s
been president of the league since it was organized.
Other States have leagues, and they are all combiiii'd as a National
League, whose motto is ••The .American Jlome is the Safeguard of Anieru-an
Liberty."
At certain inti-rvals the national government. States, cities, and hundreds
of industrial i-nterprises distribute earnings and accrued interest to those
entitled to the same. The viist sums of moiu'y drawn out i>f thousands of
banks and banking institutions rejiresent millions of dollars of canceled
debts. Within a few days after these distriliutions take place, at least nine
tenths of this nnmey fimls its way back into the strong boxes that parted
with it. One tenth of the money is. perhaps, held in the pockets of the jieo-
ple, to be gradually disbursed for eurrent needs until the next pay arrives.
1 do not rememlier having received a statement or statistical re])ort referring
to the building assopiati(Mi share in these distributions
True, there are no set dates for building societies to part with nnmey, but
in I'ennsylvania alone these cooperative comjianies distribute 8L't >,<•<)< MX 10
annmilly in matured shares .•md withdrawals. This is no insigniticant sum.
To-day their aceunndated wealth (mostly savings of people ii the humbler
ranks (d life) is over .SHiT.iHM'.OiMt. and in the Cniied Stall's fully SlIOd.lMKI,-
(MKt. The annual outgo for canceled slnues is about Slot »,()(« »,00U, or fully
!j!H.(MM»,(KMI every month.
Since these associations were organi/.ed. <piite one thousand five hundred
million dollars have l)een returiu'd to the members in the value of h'imes
clear of debt and in cash for withdrawn and matured shares. Despite these
vast disburseiuents, there has been a gradual increase in their assets from
year to year.
neginning with one association in 1S;;1. their number increased in a small
way until probalilv not over two humired societies existed in ISCid. From
that date until the present moment it is estimated that over Si»)0 .lave been
organized throughout the land, increasing at a rapid rate every year, and
leaving at present, after closing out a great number, nearly ."iddO active asso-
ciations distributed among the States as follow.s : —
081
Till IJM r IIS AM) n<K\ DKIIS OF THE A/A"' CENTURY
8Utes.
No. of
SOfiBlipfc
1300
7«l
*M2
3(KI
4112
317
123
2.'>ft
i;w
87
70
6U
34
fl8
16
33
988
Meiub«n)iip.
AsMta.
]Vnii*^vlvaniA
;|IKI.INK)
INII.IKI.I
lUi,;:i!i
i.i7.riiii
llll>.!MI-J
(i?..4l!t
•111. «ii-'
111. 1. VI
J."l,IKHI
2(t.4!t7
'.l.(«:
)i. Dili
II.SJI
S.-J.)ll
I,f!42,17H
.*«1II.7I4.H7I
niiin *
H1I.T7II, llil
(tlinoi-* .
7:i.:iO!i,l!tJ
4l,li;w,!i:i4
Ill*' UDll
;i7,ti24.41H
NVvv V...k
Ma^-arltiisctl?*
•Mi^-inin .
;t7.;w"..ii4i
24,:.07.H4:i
•J." 4117.70(1
(^ililnrnin ..... ...
17 !i:|N. Iiui
luWil
ii,.')!i4.77H
(i,4'.t">.:)(i7
Miiuii'Mutii
4,'2ii(l,tli>)i
T.Mi:».'f
N('I>r;i"^krt . . . .
;i.771,.iri4
:i.'i.')4,78S
:i.:i4:t.:):i.'i
-J.!ll2.!(*>:|
104,:i2ii,:in7
Totals.
4872
S:(i00,!l4I,01!t
It is pstiinatcd that of the above iianipd moinlK'rsh'.p ovor .'i2.",0()0 arc
woiinMi. Of the !ii!tHl(»,(»(l(MMM» of assets, at least ijl 1 ()().( KKMK Ml is a j,'aiii credit
to tlie sharer. It is helicved tliat an average of at leasit three meinliers of a
family eontrihute toward the iiayment of the d'les and iiitcrcst. and altliough
seventeen hundred tl>i)ns;tMd names are on f ,• books, nearly five million per-
sons actually contribute.
These societies have done more to teach the peo])le jtractical tiirift than
any known device ever jiromidi^atcd. Thrift is described as •• j^ood Ims-
baudry, economical manas«'ineni in regard to jiroperty. success and advance
in the ac(|uisition of property, increase of worldly goods, vigorous growth, as
a plant."
" He is a good wagoner tha*- can turn in a little room." — ISishop J. Hall.
" Economy is the iiarent of integrity, of liberty tnd of ease, and the beauti-
ful sister of temperance, of clu -fulness and health. Without economy none
can Vte liidi. ,.iid witli it few („n be poor." — Dr. .iohnson.
While these luerary economiciil ♦mths proclaimed in all ages by wise men,
w}iich they thems(d'-es very seldom knew lio'v to jiut into practical use. have
no doubt caused millions to think and wonder Ikjw to do it. they, altogether,
have not built half as many rounds in the practical ladder of '•thrift'' as the
j)oor workingman who ,uci.cssf>dly induce.-; his next door neighbor to save
one dollar a month out <d' his irnsti' money, and with ir subscribe for one
shave of stock in a well-managed building society. Huilding society ad-
vocates have done much inducing, but alway.^ in a jiractical way. They iiave
':ot nn'rely pnudaimed that "economy is wealth;" that "the best security
for eivili/ation is the dwelling." but they have taken the arm of their friend
anil neighbor and liave le<l \\vca to tlie society moeting-rooni and shown him
just liow thry saved their own money. They li'ive also taken them into their
own homes and told them. '-This is my own home, pail for. or nearly so,
thrcMgh the aid of the building society." In this way lessons in the practical
benefit of thrift are daily given.
miLUISa AXD LOAN ASSOCIATIOXS
M5
"Exainplps <lem<mstrate the possibility of success." said Colton many yi'iiis
a^'u.
Alexaiuk'i- Dumas hioutiht tli-' mattpr liomo to tlic (Lior of rveiy iiiitn wli.-u
lie said. " All the wc.ild cries. • Wlicie is the man whn will save us"'.* We want
a man !' Don't l(»,k f..v this num, you have him at iiand. This man — it is
you — it is I— it is each of us. . . . How to constitute (.nc's self a man ?
Xothin;,' harder if one knows not iu)w to will it; nothing easier if one wills
it."
It W(mld seem that buihling society advocates were created to teach men
iiow to will it. In this line of work they have certainly been eiuincntly
successful. To what class of cit izcns do ih.'se advocates 1 " ,ng, good, better,
or l)esf.' In tiie early history ot tiiese associations they were organized and
almo.st wholly managed by mechanics and laboring men : managed iioncstly.
ccuiservatively, an.l successfully; and to this 'Mdass '' behuigs the homu-
of (U'ganizing. comlucting, and carrying to a point of nuiguitude and use-
fulues.s, that commands the admiration of financiers tlu- World over, the
building societies as mnducted in Pennsylvania and otiier Stati-s.
The honest, tiirifty home-seeker has proved himself tobetlie •• best "citizen
so far as managing a building .society is concerned. When failures have oc-
curred, the main <-auses have been the introdui'tion into the nianauenuMit of
iinaucial ideas emanating from th.- l>rains of theoretical bankers and literary
economists.
The man wlm works at the bench mending shoes has a better idea of what
a <lollar will do than the man who has at iiis command hundreds of thousands
of d(dlars belonging to otlier people, but who never was ble.s.sed with the
necessity of earning a real dollar by his own labor. The con.servative Imild-
ing society is one of good common sense and not of ela.ss. It wouKl be
dirti. .dt to liankrnpt a building .society conducted by men endowed with
lioi.esty aiul good common sense. The "bettr-r citizen" is the man who
sjM'mls less than he earns, pays his ilebts ]U'omiitly, would rather give his
neighbor a di dar than steal a dollar from liim. looks tijion the home institu-
tufn as holy and sacred, strives to own a home ^>i his own. obeys the laws and
looks the world straight in the face. This '■ class." without a penny to begin
with, caused Philadelphia to be known the world over as " the City of
Homes."
In the many interesting eases of men redeemed from the h.abit of uuthrift
through the agenev of building associations, and placed on the road to moder-
ate fm-tuues, there are sometimes two sides to the story. One side is that
related by the imlividual who has been .saved from future i)overty, and the
other side that which could be related by the wife and mother, if she did not
jirefer and really strive to hide I'mm tic outside world the life she had been
leading, its trials and gloom. The man simjily tells how many days in the
week he ])referred not to work, and liow he lu'ver tried to save a ])euny. The
wife could tell how little the husbaml brought into the honu' in the way of
money, and what her awful anxiety had been. ( Mie side is public pnnerty,
for it is t(dd by the husband for the imrpose of inducing others to make a
new departure on the roail to thrift and home-ownershiji. The other side is
sujiposed to be sacred. h\\¥ it is oidy a secret in a sense that it is not ])ro-
(daimed. No man who is often voluntarily awav from his work, having a
.-'i i
080
Tin a MP IIS ixn wnxDEiis of the A'/.V" cextury
"good" seUish "time," spciuliiig thu earuiiiifs of days of actual work, iiood
iniii^'ino Unit liis frii'iids mid m-i.^'liliors arc i'^'iinrant ot wliat tlit- life in }ii.s
homo is, for it is as plain to all as if tins lionsc was constructfd <ii . !<'ar i,'lass.
Eveiy imiii of good hcaltli, who will niakc an honest ami dt'tt-rmint'd itTort,
has it in his powt-rto rhamjc sucli a honif as has hftMi dt'SLTi'.>eil into u palace
of joy, t!onii'ort. and haii|iint'ss, a. id ovfii lit-aiiiy.
ThtMo are many thousands of men ami women tlirou;^liout the land who
would not tiwliiy have tlieir own roof
over their heads hut lor the huilding
society and the thrifty lialiits acquired
t)iroiii,'h it.
'I'lie olHcers and mem'oers of these
societies are men who have, hy dcfjfrees,
worked tlieir way on the |>ath to inde-
jtendeiice. and they are highly respected
by all who know them, and ixiinted out
as i'.\ami)les hy their nei',;hl>ors.
.Meiiiliers of these .societies, after bc-
comin-.^ tirmly estaiilished in thrifty
habits, delight in relating their own
experience as well as that of others. There are thousands of interesting
eases on record, of which samjili'S are '^iven helciw: —
A short time ago, at a house (d' mourning, the members of the family
palled the writer's attention to a girl alnnit tifteen years of age. who had
volunteered her servires to the iamily until after the tuner.al- This remark
was made: "Our ease is sad enough (the death of a fathen. but the child
you saw at tlm door has a lather who has lieen couKned to the liouse with a
lingering illness, 'i'liere are several youn','er ehihlreii. and one girl older
than the one you saw. The two girls have been W(Mking in a mill, but on
shiut time. Their ease is sadder than ours, .ind they were the first to volun-
teer to help us." 'I'lie alio\-e is the sail ]iart of the stoi'v. but there is a silver-
lined side, since asceitaineil. 'i'lie father joined a building society some ycais
ago and bouglit^ a house tor .SlKMMt, and whih' on his sick U-d received a paid-
uji deed for his home, the building society shares having matured.
It is now twenty years since a big, strong man, luider the influence of
strong drink, visited the ollice of a building society secretary and asked if a
now OK $\\W HOUSES.
Mrs.
hail ai!V shares in the societv. The itooks were examined and an
attirmativc answer was i,'iveii. Tlie next ipiestion was. -How much has lieen
]iaid in on the shares '.' " .\nswcr, "Three hundred and sixty d<dlars.'' The
impiiriM- broui,dit his list ilown on the secretary's desk and exclaiujcd : —
"So it is true, is it ".' I will stoji that game; that woman is mv v.ite. and
1 lia\e just heard that she is going to draw out the money and run away."
The secri'tary measured the man. and. riskin;.,' a tight, \letermined to hasten
a climax.
'• So you are the husband id' Mrs. , ;ire you '.' "
" Ves, I am."
" And you are drunk '.* "
" ^'es, sir." •
'• How long have you bceu drinking '.* "
687
nifty
BL'ILDIXd AM) LOAX ASSOCIATWXS
*' For a louy time."
'• Hiivt; yim given your wife any money lately '.' "
'• N(i, sir."
" Have you i;ivrii Ii.t any of tiir iiioii.-v iu this soruety ?"
'■ I ilou't tlimk I iiav.'." "
" Vour wife takes in wasiiiui,' and goes out liouse-citMiiin^;, does .slir- ii..t •.' "
'• Ves, .sir."
•• Vi>u eat at home without payinj,' anytliing icA.anls tin- si.pport i<\' the
liou.se ■.' "
'■ Ves, .sir."
'• Vou have nice ciiilihen. and your wife takes jjood care of them ?"
" Ve.s, .sir."
'• You admit that all this is true '.' "
'• Yes, sir."
'• Ni(W. will vou answer nie an honest ijui-stion " "
" I will."
" J>on't you think that you are just the kind of a inan that a fjood wonmn
like vour wile would hf justitied in running away from
" 1 do."
The .seeretary ;.sked who told
h >u tiiat his wile was going to
jun away : and he answered that
it was a frimd.
The seeretary then addressed
hiiu as follows : —
'* When your wife eomes to
the soeiety, I have noticed that
lu>r hands were scwnetiines split
and bl(>eding from hard Avork,
and I know that she is saving
this money to kee|i you ami tiie
children from the almshouse.
In the first jdaoe, you should
give u]' drinking and keep away
from the peo|de who have been
talking against your wife; and
then I would advise vtm to go
home at onee and tell all lo your
wile, and got down on your
knees before her and ask her
pardon."
To the utter surprise of the
seeiv'tary the man shook hands with him and emphatically gave his woid
that he would act on the advice given.
Not the strangest part of the incident is that the advice was exactly fol-
lowed. From that time until now the man has abstained from drink. As
soon as he g(»t work lie took shari> in the society, and iu a few years thr"': of
his (diildren had subscribed for shares. Only recently two of the children
withdrew shares to buy homes of their own. This is the kind of practical
MTCHtN erj
If t ft it
z >«
filit Jit* r
inj J(»»r.
LOT /v * &0 ft
n.AN OK 5110(1 Horsi'.s.
■
■:.t '■
TJiiuMriis .iM> ]yo\ni:iis or rm-: a/a"' (icyrrnr
work iloue by t-very Imililiiii; Hocii'ty in evi-ry Stale in tiie Union, and tlio
Stiitc as wt'U as tlu' ciiiirf roimtiy is tlu' naiiuT by it.
Of couisc it ^ois witiioiit saying' tiiat tiic bnildiiiK .socifty knows no scnrt
)ilan for tiit- paynjent of chii's and int«'n'nt creator than the liorrower can
afford It diii's, liowcvi-r. point out a way i'or cvciy man to ^ain a lionu' of
his own, l)iit tii<> price of tlie liouse must Ih> in keeping; witli his ineome. If
this rule is not observeil the result is almost always failure to ^ain thu
desired object. It is an old sayinj; that it is almost wise to ^'o in deiit for a
honn-, but It is decidedly unwise to contract for a home that reipiires every
dtdlar of income to keep it up.
Kvi-ry home Imyer shouhl allow himself sonn* inar^dn in order to jirovido
for the possii)le rainy day. The man who cannot save over twenty dollars
a month outsidt* of actual living ex]>enses commits a serious ernu' when ho
signs a I'ontract re(|uiring him to i)ay twenty-tive chillars every four weeks.
In doing this lie robs liiinself lirst. and, .se<'ond. is unfair to his family. It
wonhl \w to his advantage to placo aside three or four dollars out <d' thu
twi'iity dollars nanu'd as a nest egg.
This applies in particular to tl arefid man, who has Iwen taught in tho
.school of thrift. The man who has l)oen uiithrilty may 1k' able (when h«
graduates) to save thirty dollars a UKutth even when he tldiiks he cannot
save anything. Ituilding society managers maku it their business t(» warn
the thrifty not to undertakt! too nnudi, and also to lead the unsaving into
habits of economy.
Only recently a judge on tlic beiiiih said, "Such associ.itions, when juo-
pcrly conducted under judicious restrictions ami maiiagtMuent. are a hi'lpful
blessing and encouragement to any c(unmunity. lint the and)ilions and ex-
travag.ince of some borrowing mcndiers place themstdves in a burdensome
condition. . . . Far bt^.ter for the public, the associations, and their mendter-
ship. that many small loans be maile rather than a few in inimb<'rand large in
amount. .Moderate homes and a moderate price shoidd be the criterion. . . .
Their primary purpose was ami should continue to be to jiroinotc industry,
frugality, and saving, and cojivert the shiftless ami di.scouraged tenant into a
Htdf-reliant and contented honie-lmilder."
Jluilding societies since their inception have supplied the means (nv hon\«'
purchasing, but these companies do not generally take any part in the erec-
tion of house.s. Most of the small homes in I'hiladelphia have l»een built by
those engaged in the business of buildinir houses for sale.
Here is a picture of a row of houses containing seven rooms each. The
purchase i)rice is iPl t(M> each. The lots arc 14 feet wide and (»0 feet deep.
The houses are brownstone and brick. They have g(M»l <'cllars. portable
lieattM'S, and range in kitchen, hot and cold water in kitchen anu bathroom.
On the first floor there are three rooms. — parlor, dining-room, ami kitchen,
and outside shed. Front door opens into vestibule; entrance to jtarlor from
entry, and also from dining-ronm. Two front bcdroiuns over the parlor,
bathroom in centre, ami sitting-room back ni the bathroom. The dining-
room extends over the width of the lot less stairway room, and receives light
from skylight. The kitchen has a window opening towards the back shed or
baek3'ard. A small toilet room occujiics a small portion of the back shed.
Any person known to be prompt in the payment of dues and mtere.st may
k'^
r"
4»
i
i!
m
f.«JO
TRIUMPHS AM) WOSDERS OF THE A/A'" CEXTUllY
imrcliase s'lch u liome by the payment of .1i»L'lM» in cash, and givinj,' a biiihlin;.
society mortgage for tlic balance of the imvchase-money. namely, JjjIlliOt).
The montlilv cost woukl be about as follows : —
Mciiitlilv iliii's
Moiitlilv iiKiTc^t
SO.OO
0.00
M.iiitliU- (otiil .*i|2.(HI
A fairly judspcroiis building society will mature its shares in twelve years.
and at the end of that period the home would be free from debt. Huiing
this time the liorrower must jiay la.xes and water rent, amounting to sonic
Sil'.VOO per year. The total payments would be about as follows: —
l-'ir>t piiviiit'iii s-.>(Mi.iMt
I liiis 1111(1 iiilcri'-l IT-'S.IMI
Taxes iiiiil « liter niil . , * • i ... . . . JHMI.IW
Tiiliil .<l'-Jl>S.iii)
This seems like a considcrabh; sum of money for a house worth 8M(l<i.
lUit it must be remendjcred that th-- l)orrower has lived in the house during
these twelve years, and that he has saved in rent that he wuuld have paid
elsewhere, at least !*!1.S(K».
He liiio (mill
lie llil. .lived
.?22JH.IH»
IH(MMK)
lieill e.i-l ..f l|iill«e , .«J2S.(MI
Now lu' is the full owner of his own home. During the iie.xt twelve yeais
lie will have nothing to pay but taxes and water rent, and possibly some
si' .;ht repairs, at the most not over 8 I'M' all told.
His next door neighlxu' is still a renter, and pays .*ilNOO to his landlord
(hiri •', the second ]>eriod named; and the two accounts conip.'ired show: —
Heiii |in\er SISIHI.IKI
lion-, .ittiier 4(K).IKI
.SiiMiiK . , . .... , . . , . , ,«il4(KM)0
This is eiiual to a saving of, say, SKMMt a month for Ml months, .and if
used in the purchase of ten shares of building society stock would be worth
at the time named .5-0(Kt, instead (d JSl KKl nu'rely saved. The ntughlxu- who
is a tenant is still paying rent and owns m'ither a stick nor a stone, while the
Imilding society borrower owns one liouse free and also has th" command of
."SL'tKMI in cash, all on aceount of his hou.se-owning cxjienment,
V. TMi; UAMM KT.
It is customary for the directors (d' these societies, at tlieir own exjiensp,
to celebrate the closing (d' a suceessiul year, and have as their guests repre-
sentatives from other societies. "The ban<iuet " inelmles otiieers from fully
fifty (!om|ianies, some Ixdng directors of four or five associations. At these
gatherings experiences are relided and subjects for the a<lvaucenu'nt id' the
cau.se are discussed. Kvery individual present on these oc<'asions viduntecrs
the information that he owed all he |ioss(>ssed to the building society and its
teachings.
What the bottles on the table may have contained, it matters not now, for
they are empty and are not capable of doing any liarm.
ISIieitAKr. .J. IJkow.n.
EPOCH-MAKERS OF THE CENTUHY
KvKKY <!(Miturv has liaci its .•|iiicli.mukiiij,' cliaraoters. — nicii iiiid womon
who (lomiiiatud ami (liivctcd ili.' tlioiiu'lits. puriKiscs. activities, ami achieve.
I !
f
AHItAllAM I.INKII.N.
iiiPiitH of their times. The iiiiieteeiitli eeiitiiry is distiiiRnisliod above all
otliers l>y tlie immlier and <iiiality oi tiiose wiio came to stand Inr tiie ince])-
tion, advance, and culmination ol' the world's great movements and who
highly exeniitlilied in their careers the enterprise and genius ol their day.
TRIUMPHS Asi) \vo\nn;}s or the xix'" ckstuhy
The oltj('(;l licrc is to (l('-;i','ii;it<'. .iikI iiiaUc luid iiiriitinii of, .sniiic t)f those
wlio liiive fairly (miihiI tiic titlf ot ciiiicii-inaiuT. witii tlif iiii|ic ot inovidiiiM
a (Icliglitfiil historic stiidv. ami liiitin-r (■iiliainiiig tlic iiitnictivi- vahic ot u
vohmic addi'i'sscil to tlir triiiiii|ilis and woiidcvs of lln' rciitury.
Stati:smi:n. (Ikatoks, .\ni> .li uisis. — Aluaiiaiii l-incohi (h. Fcl)niai'y IL',
]SO;t; d. Ainii II. lSCi.1) spraii.i: Iroiii liic massi's. and i;ii'\v ii|p witli their
institutions vather than with the learning of the schools, lie \r\,,>\\ jm,,
h-adiTshiii iiccausc he was one of the ••million." had hard sense ami was
Irni'. As a I'mciidc cxiioncnt of the sonlinieni ol his party he was elected
I'lcsident in l.sCil. His election was tlie signal for secession .ind war. His
mastery of the most (h'lieatc sit\iation in the history ol his <'onntrv was
siiperit. Mis jialienee, his iieiseverance amid hard trials, his wisdom ot
administration, his ada|.talion to the march of event.s, his strikini; and e(hi-
eativc speeeli, his ileterniination to ]ireservc a union of .*<lates, all led grandly
and inevitahly to the crowning act (d his nohle career. — the alioliiion of
slavery in the I'liited States in l.sr.;;.
There is no sadder chapter in history, and no greater loss for aiiv iiation
or time, than that of his taking olT (after lieing a >econd time honored hy tiic
|ii'esidency) at the hands id an assassin, on
the night of April II. INC.";.
.leifcrxpii Davis (h. .lunc .'5. j.Sd.S ; d. De-
cendier <".. 1,S.S'.») stood for the cause of the
Sonth against the I'ldon. as it took concrete
political form in the shape of the Confed-
eracy, ol which he liecanu' the only I'resi-
11 • '^ip ^^B^F I ili'id. 'I'hongh. perlia|is. lacking the ability of
11 r^— J^^m^iyi« I sni'h leaders as Calhonn and .Stephens, he was
a conscientious and persistent advocate nf
the doctrines which enlminated in war. and
as chief e.\eculi\t' iided with energy and lirm-
ness.
Henry Clay (i.. April ll.'. 1777: d. .Inly L'lt.
IS.Il.') w.is a horn orator aii<l natural party
leader, in statesmanship he was intensely
patriotic and always ahle. iicing highly in-
formed and skiiltnl in debate. He came to stand as the eliampion (d those
doctrines which the Whig party snppoitcd. such as protection to home inihis-
tries. intern.il imiiro\enienis. ami reciprocity. I'pon the question ol slavery
whifdi agitated Congress during most of his career he gcner;illy assumed an
attitude ol compromise, and fatiiered so many measures ol a jiacifyiiig nature
that he was c.dled ••the ;..;rcat pai'ilicalor."
Daniel Wcl.ster il). .laiuiary |S. 1 7SL' : il. (tctolier t-'l. iS.VJi typifies the
gigantic and imposing in New l*'.n',dand intellect and physiipie. .\s early
as ISL'n he stood at the very hcail o| .\nierican orators, a tame soon to he
followed in the ranks (d law and statesmanship. .\t first he opposed the
docfriiu' of protection, hnt sni)sci|ueiitly ga\r' his support to Henry Clay's
" .\mericaii policy." in the I'nifcd .States .Senate, he won the titles of '• ex-
jKninder <d' the Constitution " and "supporter and defemler of the I'nion."
bv his masti'ih deinimiafions of the doctrine id' iinllification.
.iha>i:i:soN nwis.
EI'OVll-MAKEliS OF Till.: (KSrURY 603
■laim.s M,.nnM.(h. April L'S. I7:.S; ,1. .luU 1. ls;;i , ...arh.-l tlu- pn'si-l.-m-y
twi.v, <,i.c.' m 1S17. ;„ul a-aiii in Is-o. His 1;,>| udministnitidii was churac-
tL-nzc.l as "tlio .MU (if -;(mhI f....liii--- ,|,iiiii- wliicl, ii,.\v States w.r.. a-Iiiiitt.-.l.
I'Moridii was ariiuiivd, tlu- l^oiii.-iaiia l.-Miiulaiy ilrii 1, slawry i.n.l.il.ji.'a
iiortli of iTitiiiii lines, ami iiian.v i-nivokinj; coiitnivfrsifs with Kii^jlaiul were
scttl.'d. In ISL';! li.. siijnali/.fd Ins adniinislrarion l.y iircnnil-atin- tin- nuw
famous •• Muni-.H. Dcctiinc," wliirii was a warning' to' iMin.pc thai nKHian-hi-
f
WII.I.IAM K. <;l..\nsToNK.
cal Rovcrnincnts wnild nut lif allowed to iiitfrfeic in tin- affairs of either
North or South Anii'iii-a.
.John (^lincy Adams (h. July II. 17C.7; d. luibruary L'.'J. ISIS) tyjH'd the
I'Vih'iali.sm of the early part of the nim'ti'ciitli cciitury. and won thf highest
jilaco in scholarly statfsmansliiii. In dinlomaey he filled uiany iiromincnt
and difficult positions at home and abroad. As sixth ['resident of the I'liited
States, he was oitposed hy a majority in (Jongress, and eonsecjuently failed
to (listing. lish his administration, lie was the foreruinier of those senli-
rj
I .
'■'i
« iii afl Wii ii O MV i mwi i a' i t i i
0(V1
riUU.yfPI/S AM) WOSDERS OF THE A/A"' CESTURY
im'iits whii'li culiiiinattil in organized uppositioii to tlie doiitrino of liiiman
sliiviTj-.
.Folm ('. CuUiomi (1). Maicli IS. ITS'J; <1. Maicli 'M. IKHO) was twice Vice-
rrcsidt'iit 111 tin- riiiti'il States, ami as Sfiialoi' bi'caiiu' tlio Icadiiij; fxiioiient
of l]ii> doctrinr ot States' ri^dits und ludlilitratioii of federal tarilT law.s. Ho
ranki'd witli Clay and Wi-WstiT as a di'liati-r and constitutional expounder,
and the tiiree w.-re known as ••tiie (Jreat Trio." In him tiie pro-slavery
cause found its subtlest, aiiiest. und most lo^jioal defender. Witii a fidly
stored niin<l of hi^dlly metapliysieal turn, a fearlessness and persisteney that
Were niatihle-,-. and a charaeler aliove ri-proaeh, lie fjreatly endeared himself
in the South, and ids writing's an- held in \\\^\\ esteem by men id his .sehool
of polities.
Kufus Choate (I), nctohir 1. IT'.l'.t; d. ,luly 1.". IS.V.t) was i)rohalply the liest-
p(pii|>|N>d seliolar <d the pidilie men id' the eentury, and was unusually bril-
liant as mutor. lawvi-r. and |iuiilirist. Next to .Mr. W'l'bstei' lie was the },'reat-
ost !iieniber of thf Massurliusrtts bar. lie may lie eiilied the .Vnier'can Lord
Krskine.
Count Camillo I'.euso di Cavour. of Italy (b. .\\i|,'ust 10. ISlO; d. ,lune <1.
iS(il), found a lite-work in the unitieation nl the Italian Statis. jiy pursu-
iiii; a masterly eours" in Kmopean diploiuary he bioui,'lit the states of North
Italy .nto unity, and tinally. lliiou',di lh<' eifoits of (iaribaldi, those id' Soutli-
ein Italy beeanie united with them in one kinplom under tin- ruli- of N'iitor
Kmmauuel in iStiO. 'rh<>u,i;h not a man of "blood and iron." like I'dsmarck.
he was the eipial of his j,'reat (ierman eontempoiaiy in diplomacy.
William Kwart (Ihidsioiie (b. Deennber !.'•.», iStli); d. .May I'.t. IS'.tS) was
lour timrs pmniei- of ICie^dand. As orator, political leader and statesman,
and critic in the immense raii^fc of subjects he (toverril, liis j,'eiiius was with-
out parallel. It may In- said that his was the niiK'htiest per.sonality aini
most eaihiilic and pnwrrtiil intelb rl of any Miclislitnan. !!■• eliampiotn'il the
caiisi- of Christianity aiiioii'^ all natimis, soundid the first trumpet call of
Italian liU-rty, opiio>ed 'I'uikey as a .Mohammedan |iiiwer, raiseil Knttland's
coiiiiiii-i'i-ial p"os)icrity to thr hi'^hest notch, unravilcd tiie eiilaiii,di-nients of
Heacnnslicld's ministry, inaiiv'iiratcd the niosi asloiiishiie.^ leioinis in ,ill direc-
tions, but i'S)iocially in tin* chiircli. eilueatioii. ai'iiy. and aninii^' the hdmr
iniions. It is almost inipi>>--il>li' to name aii\ mitti'i- of natioiial or inter-
national importance in whirh his personality and i^i'iiiiis were not lelt fur
good.
Alex.iinlir Hamilton (b. .Taniiaiy II. 17."i",'; d. .Inly II. 1S(»|) was by all
odds the ablest jiiiist and statesman of tin' early const itiil ioiial era of the
I'niti'd Strifes. He bfciiin' tlir first Scrii'f.iry of the 'rreasiiry, and liftid
the linaiicrs of tin- ','overnmeni from utter pmstr.itiiiii to h\\i\\ prosperity.
As fiscal oisjani/er his success w,is iiniiaialleled, ami all after administrations
of the 'rieasiiry havi' Immmi prjictiiallv alonjj the lines he first laid ilown. lb-
was e.-isily the leader of that party which looked with disfavor on '•States'
IJinSts," and la voted ,i slroiiy; central v'"\''''ii'ii''ii'-
I' iijamin Disraeli, Karl of |teac(ui>field (b. December 'Jl. 1H04; d. April
V.I, ISSI ), stood, as premier, lor Micdish "territorial aiistociacy " and lor
that " territorial expansinii " which fixed the wide boundaries id' the Indian
Kmpire, luadv Qiu-un Victoria KniprcHS uf India, taught both Hiissia and
EPOCll-MAKEliS OF THE VENTUliY 605
India t(. n'fniin from m.-d.lling with Eiigliuur.s possessioius, made the KiiKJi.sli
voice i)nvmiiifiit, in tli.; disposititm of ContiiuMital temtory, and coinpli'tfiy
defeated tlu' seiienies of Kussia against Turkey. Ciidei- him tiie middle
chasses lost, and the laborin,!,' elasses -ained, politi.'al power. His ,Mre..r
greatly hei-htened iht; national institutions and uliaraeter, iw well as the
international reputation and power, of his count rv.
Thomas Jefferson (h. .\pril 1.'. 174.'!; d. duly t,'l.Sl.'(i) .stood in the pa.st cen-
tury as an able exi^nent of American rights, and Ids views were incorporated
i X
i
noMAS .IKKrhKSOV.
into the l)eclar;ilion o| liidepeudcuce, of which he was the acknowledged
author. He cfpialiy stood as the leading exponent of that jiolitical .school of
thought whicli favored dccentrali/ation. or limitation id' the powers of th.!
central governnu'iit. .\fter his eh'ctioii to the presidency in 18(10, he signal-
ized his aduiiiiistiatinu liy what is known as the i.oidsiana pundiase, for
•ii! !.'">,()( )(),(•( HI. In thus eidarging tlie area of the country liy houmlarics of
vast extent, he liecame one of the earliest anil most enthusiastit; of i-xpan-
sioiiists, and that without rci'ereiice to the modernly nu)oted question of
"government without the consent of tlic governed."
|{ichard ColMlen. of Knglaml (lS04-l,S(i,"»). was a Inimanitarian of great
native breadth and liberality, largely increased by tr.ivel and constant ol)-
G(W
TIllUMI'llS AM) WOMUlliS OF Tllli XIX"< VESrVltY
scivatioii. Ill- was a powcrlul It'adcr in tlii* t'aiiioii.s .Maiiclu-stcr Scluxil of
Kiij^lisli statfsiiicii. Ills sliarc in iiKultrn pio'^'n'ss was foiiri'oltl ; Jir>t. in
sfcurini,' till' rc|ical ol llic iiiliims tax nii corn iii ISIU; smiini. in nr;.'injj arlii-
tratii'ii ratliiT tiian anus as a tinal rcstirt to si-ttli* intfrnatmnal <lis|iulcs;
tliini. in nc^jtitiatiii;,' wilii Kranci' tin- ('niiinnTrial Treaty ol |SCi«>. wliicli Mi.
liiaiistoiii- said no oijifi- liviiii; man conlil liavr mtuii-)! ; lomtii. in liis vi;;or-
<ins aini siumtssIiiI o]>|iositi(in of all flloits to fnforci" Kip^'laiHl's r«'cofj;iiii!oii
ot till' Soiitlifin ('oiircdciary diiiini; llic latf rivii war.
I'rinrc Otto K, L. Hisiuank. ol (MMiiiaiiv (1». Ai>iil 1. isl.". : d. .Iiilv .■Id,
1S!(S). lilciidt'il llic iincriiic,' instinct. ^mimI rar-sii,ditcdin'>>. h-rtility in inven-
tion and cxjicdiciits, and adroit diplomacv o|' a stati-siiian, with alisoliitc
Icai-lcssiicss, intlcxiiilc |iiii'|iosc. indoniitalilc cnfi-i,'y. and resistless I'oi
'riioroiiLrlilv (icinian. lie was |ireeniinently and always I'rnssian. and liis
ureal llle-woik wa^ tlic acconiplisliinent ot (icnnaii unity with Prussia at the
head. Tiiis he achieved hy the hiiniiiiation of Austria ami l-'rance. ami the
j^radiKil arressioii of all till' di>tincti\ ely (lerm:- stati-s.
Wemlell I'liillips (IMI-ISSI) exem|iiiticd the woinli-rrnl [Kiwer <A the
skillfnlly c(illoi|iiial in |iulilic speech, ami is a tvjn' of tlu' .\merican orator
who de\iites his ahilitv to correct piihlic al>!ise>. rii;lit j»nl>lie wioic^s, and
educate the piiliiic mind and taste. Chiefly as an avowed aiHii:tioni>t. as
advocate of the temperance cause, as idiampionof tli** Indians ami id' woman's
rii,dils to the hallo!. a:iil as nnliiiii;^ mover in iiiiprovini; 'he nation's penal
institutions. .Mr, I'liillips most lai^cely contributed to pnWlic weal and pro-
t;ress.
.I:imes Cillespie I'daine (h. .Iiine .•'.1. 1S:5(I: d. .lanuary 'J7. IS'.Kii. wheth.r
scrviiii^ in the House, Senate, or ('ahinct, had few fipials as a stati>niiii.
dehaler. parliamentarian, or enthusiastic political leader. 'riioui,di often
disappointed in his aspirations for the presidency, he |o>t none of th.ii won-
derful power which he hail acc|iiired hy reason of his enerj^y, tact, skill.
]ir>rson;il magnetism, and knowlcj^e of puhlic men and measiin*s. lie )M'camt>
the special champion of the doctrine (d n'ciprocitv. and hy its practical
application duiinu; .Mr. Harrison's administration proved it> U-nelits to com-
merce ami international trade ridations.
r>v his splendid series of decisions and o|)inions. .Foseph Story (Septcml)or
IS, irril; Scptemlier |0. 1SI."»| shares witii .John .Marshall the merit of ueler-
ininiui; and of dev(dopin>i towards its fullest capacity the |Kiwerof the I'liited
States Supreme Court, as set forth in the Constitution, over state courts and
state lej,'islation. He also practically constructed tin- I'nited States .\dmi
ralty haw and. evi'ii tiHlay. his "Commentaries on the .\meriean <'onstitii-
rion." in connci-tion with Imth (d' his huej^oinix services, is a standard work.
lie represents the hroad and jxiwerfiil .Vniirican judicial mind, whiidi has
contrihuted so larf,'tdy to the iiitei;rity (d the I'nion.
.lai 's Kent (h. .Inly ."I. 17(1.'!; d. DecemUr 1'J. lKt7) w;is pnifes.sor. jud},'i'
«d' (diancery, justice ami (diief justice of the l'. S. Suprenn- Court, aiul
(diancclhu- id' New \(uk. He possessed inunense lef^al l^•arnin^^. and to him
is jirimaiily due the creation of New WwV. courts of equity. Mis exhaustivt>
• Cftmmentaries upon American Law" is accepted at home and ahioad as
one of the ^reat (dassics (d' .\iiicrican law liti-rature.
Francis Wharton was horn .Mandi 7, ISI'O. and dieil February -1. 1.SS4.
Ki'ocii-M.\hKJ!s or mi-: <i:\Trny
mr
AlthouK'li at III.- aj,'.. ..1 l..ity-ll.m' li.- .■xriiaiiK...! liiu lui tl„- niiiii«tiy, lie
still sl...\vr,i il.r l.-j;al t.-ii-ii-iirv of liis i.iiiul ill a l.mg caiviM as pnili-ssor of
.'iTlfsiaslical aii.l iiit.Tiialiunal law in Itustnii iiistitiiti.iis. II,. .•iiii<'li...| tli..
liti-ratiin,' ot his ].n.r..s>i„ii by many valualiir ami staii.laid w.-rUs .,n law.,
iiiiiiiiripal, Stat.-, national, ami intematiomil, ami. uiultT Mr. Clovchiml. was
OTTO K. I. \(iN la-MAItCK.
of jfroiit scrvipo to thf atliniiiistratidii as Cnitt'd States Kxaiiiinor of Inter-
national Claims in tlu' Dt-paitnu'iit of .*^tat(>.
Louis .\»Iol](Iic 'I'liii'is. of Franc-i> (h. Ajiril Hi. 17!t7; il. Sciitciiihcr .'!. 1.S77>.
was editor, historian, and statesman, and in the latter roh' became a distiii-
fjnished leader of French tlioii(,'ht and polity. His ^fieatest service to h'\n
<'ountrv was after the Franco-rnissian w;ir. win ii the Asseiiilily elected him
idiief of the executive, with the title of •• I'lesideiit of the Itepulilie." In thiii
ca|tacity he was particularly sureessful in nefjotiatiii!,' the terms of peace with
(ierinany. and in fuHilling all the conditions of peace.
.J
!
698
riuuMPns AND wosDEiis uj- riih: xi: cExri/nr
VVilliaiii MiKiiilt'}- (h. .lanuiirv I.".). IS<'t) Ixranic ' .oiuliiig chiniipioii of
the iliicti'iiii' <>r imliistrial inntct'tion a> .1 call;, |icri"il in )iis coii^it'H'^ioiiii'
c:u»vr III INS."! Hun. W D. KflUy saitl of liiiii: •• lie lias ili laiictj all his
colIt'MifUt's in lastt-riiig tin- (U-tails of the taiifV." Tiit- 'I'arilT Art of iX'.Mt
caiiif to 1)«' poimlarlv kiniwn as vlif •■ .McKinh-y Hill." Klftifd I'l-csidt-nt in
/
"^
HON. WII.I.IW! M'KIM.IIV.
(('i>|iyriglii. IS'.Hi. hy K. tiiilckiinst.)
IS'.K;. liis ailniinistiation was >i','iiali/.fil liv that liiiiiianitaiian iiilfrri'r«'iii'f
in lu'lialf of stni^'jiiinj,' <'iil>aii patriot.-*, wliicli I'liliiiinatiil in tlir Spani.sli-
Aint'iican war. ami tlir ninst iiiipr»'i'tMliMit»Ml triuinplinr niuilcrii times, it lui'l
tlu' addi'd distinct imi of roumliii},' out tlic iiiiictcciitli and intioduciiig tlic
twentieth ccnturv.
W AKiMiiKs. — N'a|iolcon Hoiiapartc ('N'jiiK)lenn T."), soldier, statesman, and
tv
Kl'OCII MAKHtiS OF HIE ri:MUnv
uu»
Kiii|M'inr.,t 111.. Kiriichdi. AiiKust IT.. IDH); ,1. May ",. |h.'| ,. was tli.- K'n-atost
«)t tin- woil.r.s mii,st.'is ill tli»' ait .if war. His "iiuiii,.|ou> .anipaiKiis. .•oii-
.lii.t.'.l with a luiiliaiicy ih-v.t liclm-.. .'.iiiiil.'.!. Iia.l l..i- tlifir oWj.'.-t thf
Imiiiiliatioii of tlif .•uiiiilno of Kiiro|M'. aiitl tii.' .■sialilisliini'nt of an iiiip.Tiiil
jMilii-y ill which |Maiii;»' siitiiilii U- sii|iiviiic. 'I'liis lii> .am.- v.'iy mar to .•tVc-t-
iii),'. ill spit.' of clos.'ly <'.>iiiiiiii.-i| anil |.iMsi,-,ifnt oppioitinu. Ndn.. .il the fiv-
<|uciit. foaiitioii.s foiiiic.l totinvart lii.s anilniions an.l stay liis martial pro^rfss
proved al.«.hit«'ly i-«Vttiv.- till tlm^ f .Miiich L'.*.. iSth. was Linn.-.l. whi,.),
pill an army of 7<MMMMl men in th.' -lu linst liim. It was a part of this
army that, hf iiiff at Wat.'rloo. .Iipk .8, ■'.'>, wh.'i.- d.-feat awaited him. l.».
Ket!nT with tin- eclipse of his jjij^ Jo i,. nco and itheiiuiiicnal nciiiiis.
i>i:am > roMii icMii:>iiii. luiiM.. m.w \oi;k miv
I'lysses Simpson (Srant (h. April '.'7. ISL'L': d. duly l'.". ISS.'o. tjiadnatcd at
W.'st i'oint ami hud a hri.'f military cxpiMii'iicc in th.- .Mexican war. On
the lircakini: out of the Civil War he reentered the I'edeial service from
civil life, and liy exceptional fertility of resource achieved a .surics of victo-
ri.'s in th.' West which led to his .'ommand o| all the riiioii iorees. with tin'
s|K'<'ially eonterred title of lienlenant-ueneial. a title snltsec|nently raised to
that id' jiciieial. !>y the brilliant. iH'i-sistent, and simultaneous campaitjns he
carried throni,'li in the Ka>t and W.-st. he fnither elimheil his idle as one of
the world's i;r.'ate~t 'generals, and en.ied ihe eonilii-l with hoiioraiili' peace,
lie was hoMore.l twice with the presidency of the nation, and thioiii;li the
trviii!^ |H-riod of reconstniction his wise slateMiianship cemented the rnioii
his sWord had preserved.
Arthur Wellesl' v Wellinjjtoii of Kiiijlaml (li. .May 1, ITf.'.t; d. Stpteiuher L'-'.
7(1(1
ritiiM/'iis AM) ]yi>M>i:i:s or mi-: a/.V" vEsrvnY
]S.*>L'), iittaiiii'd his first ifal iiiititarv tliHtiiictiiiii in tin- i-aiii|<aiK'ii!i ut tlit- Kii^'-
li^li ill liiilia. II)' liirliici' ailiicil to liis taini' in liu* cainitai^n a^ain>t Kraiiii-
in tilt- S|>aiiisli |ii'iiiii.siiia. Miit liis ;;ri-at('st i{li>rv a.s a waniid' wa.s rcai-lifil
ill ISIM. wlicii, with \\w aid ot thi> I'nis.siaii iiiarshal lUiirhcr. ho dftVat))!
>iiHtoU'iiii at till' (U'fi«ivo hattle of \Vatoil(M>. Ho was alU-rwanU lioiiuied
DIKK <>K Wi:r,l,INftTOS.
witii a scat ill thi' House ot Lords, and as I'liiiic Miiiisti-r <d the Tory ]>art}V
hill his stattv-iiiaiisiii|i ju'ovfil tu lif of an inlt-rior :ind nii|Hi|tular ordt-r.
ilfliiiiith Karl I'MMiiliard von Moltke. ot (ifriiiany (It. ( ><>tolM'r L'C. lS(Mt: d.
April L'l. IS'.ll). was tin- worhl's f,Mi'att'st, I'xpoiK'iit of strictly scieiititic war-
taic. lie made tlic I'riissiaii arin\ a iiio>t piiwcrfiil and daiiK«'rous machine,
and led it triiiin|>hanlly a^'ainst Denmark and Austria. |ty dint of strict
orjuMiiizatioii and drill he made the arinii-s of tlie (ierinaii Confederation
eijiially etfective, as was shown in the I'raneo-Cioriuan war (187(>-71), whicli
Efoi n-M.\Ki:i:s or rui: ihmi iiv
7(H
wiiH :i x-rii's nl luilliaiil viciitiics, I'lidiiij; wiili tin- capituliitK.u ot I'ai'is uml
tht> iliiwiitali lit' Na|iiili-iiii 111. uml liis fiii|iii'i'. His };i'i-iitiie!ss lay in tlio tact
that rndl, MiliiT iMli'ulatioii ;il\vav> ilniiiiiiali'.l \\'.< ■,'i'iMt>'st auilai'ity nf plaii.
Siiiiun jinlivar, III I'liiliMir \ I'miti' (li. .Iiilv '_'."i. I7S."»; il. 'm'itiiiIhi' 17, JS.'Ml},
justly ranii'il iho Huriiaiin' nt' "'riu' Liin'ratm." Tin' lir^i ami t-ifati-st uf
llin.c Sinitli Aiii'Tiraii |iaiiii't-« wlm -.tnirk a>{iiiii-t tin- t\ laiiiiii'al rciimiial sy.s-
trin III' Sjiaiii. ill' arliii'Vi'il tlii' iiiilr]iriiil('iiri' ul 1 lii' lliii'v Sl.ili'?. iif C'nliHuliia.
Uiilivia. ami I'rni. mmmhi'iI tiicir ii'i'ii,'iiitii u liy thu civiii/.cd wnilil, ami iivi-.l
to govern tlu-iii willi tlio vvisilum ami iiioili'ialinii ot' a wim' ixiiiitivf.
llll'NT VON Mol.TKK.
KolMMt K. Li'i' Cli. .Taimaiv
til
11). 1S07: .1. Oi'tiilxT 1'.'. 1S70). K'"'i'^'>!>^'''l iit
Wrst I'oiiit. ami was iii llu' rm
-taut iiiilitarv srrvirr o
t till' I'liiti'il Sialo.s
till till' lii'.'akin:,' lint of tin- Civil \V;
till- Cuuloileracy, and sjM'ciiily 1 ami
|)(I\V('I'S.
Hoiioi-alilf. just, iMicru'i'tic. I'lTsisti-iit. skiliful in otli
ll.'tlii-n transfcm-d ids scrvicfs to
till- liii,'lii-t I'XiMiiii'iit "f its nulitary
ic or di'ti-n-
si\i' wari'aii', .>-Tlioiilrd in stra
ti'u'v. tail of devices and combinations to nver-
cnnii' I
li-;-,'!'
lesperate situations, lie |iiu|oii!ii'd a iiniii'los strut,':,'l
.' to all a-liMimlnii.
ee. ani
1 met defeat and surri'iidcr without dishonor. He readily rank
t»ne 11
I till' world's 'greatest i^'iiii-rai"
J^ajos (l.iiuis) Ko.ssuth ot llaie^ary
(h. .\iiril -7. ISOL': d. Manh •-'<'. IS'.H).
i
TCR! mif'MI'/IS .LV/i \\(tM>HHS OF THK MX'" CliyTCIir
tut writ«>r, lawvcr, ami Htat«'Mimii, caiiii* to Mtaiiil for llitii^'ariaii frn-duin.
After till' ilt'claiMiiuii of iiiili>|>i>ii(li-ii('<> nl liis iDiintiv iit IMI'.l. Iiu UTaint* iu
military ami jHilitical ruler, Imt \va.> loned \i\ Kii^muii iiiierveiitinii ami
(lomeHtie rivalry Irom Ins IiikIi |ilaei>, ami eKea|ieii to inrei^n laml> tn paKs
tile lialame ot liitt littt iii el(M|m'iit liiit frinlli'MH ii|i|ic>uIn in iM-liall iif liiH ruiiNO
ail<l |i(>(i|i|e
(■iii.se|i|>e (iarilialdi, of Italy (I). •Inly 4, 1M(I7 ; il, .luiie '.', \M[1), ty|N-il tli«>
rt'fttless, (larinj; soiilier, tint imimlsive statesman, ami the i-nerptie tlifemler
of fri'i'dom. lie .sliareii ('ounl. favour's <lesire for a free ami united Italy,
ami >;re\v to lie a ^reat pojinlar hero, rpon his ea|ttur«< of the two SieilieN,
he |ire'<eiited thi'iii to N'ictor Kmmatniel. thus eon.>nmmatin>; his lite dream
of nnilieaiion, and his desire foi a ^'overnment in whuii the wishes of the
lieople were, to soiuo »'Xtent, reeojrni/.ed.
Navm. IlKKors, — Stephen Meiatur di. JanuarN .*.. ITT'.I; d. M a reh L"-'. !.'<■-'<•)
attaineil the rank <d' captain in the [' . S. Navy for his j;allanl exploit of
ImriiiiiK the fri^'ate I'hiiadelphia in the harlMir of Tripoli, after Hhe hail
heen eaptured liy the 'I'lipolitaiis. He won further fame as eommodore in
the war of I.SlJ. ami a],'ain in the war with .\l;,'iei>. Tunis, and Tripoli, (.hiiek
to coiiipreheml e'uei'Kcm'ii's ami prompt in aetioii. he was a type of the da.sli-
iin; and alisolutely fearless ,\meiiiaii seaman. True to his tieiN natiin'. he
found his death in a dmd with Coinmodore Harron.
Oliver lla/aril I'erry (b. August I'.'t, ITH'i; d. August 'J.'l, ISIJJ) was rewarded
with the rank of eaptain in the [' . S. Navy for the reniaikaidi' iimiane and
ilasli whieh eventuated in the niemmalile victory ovir the i>i it ish ihrt in Lake
Krie, .SeptemlM-r 10, iSl.'t. This victory ^'ave the .\niericans control ot tli<i
(■I'cat I.aki-s and ha.slened. nnu'c than any sin^'ic event, the compiest. id the
NorthwestamI the end ol the War of I.Sll.'. lie saw further houoialple service
ns eoiinnamler of tho .Mediterranean sipiadron, and died at I'lut Spain, on
tho island of Trinidad, of ytdlow fever.
David l>ixon I'orter (h. June S, l.Sj.'l; d. Kehrunry I.'l. ISUI) jjiow ami ripened
gradually into one of the ^real iraval captains of the nineteenth century.
His coura>;e and ener^jy. lar^e experience, and intimate knowlcdjje of the
rivers and seacoasts of the country titteil him lor the great emcrnenciet »f
t!ie Oivil War. Many of the victories of the I'liioii armies in the West wer ■
du(! to his rikiiM-ration with ^,'unl(oats. lle},'reatly aided in the initial success
of Karra^jut's expedition up the .Mississippi, the reduction of Vicksiung, and
other stron^diolds upon Westi-rn wattus. The meatcsf victory of his life was
the caiiture (d Fort I'islier. lie wrote a history of the l'. S. Navy diiriiiK the
war. a work comniemlcd l>y all naval nations. On the death of Farra>,'ut.
IS70, he reached the hii^'h rank of admiral.
Davitl (Mascue Karrauut (l>. duly o, I.Sdl ; d. Au>,'ust II. ISTO) supplies the
highest type of the skillful, cautious .\inerican naval commander, hacked up
liy cxtraordin.iry dash and iioldiu'ss. His signal achieveincnts during the
i'h'il War were the destruction of the (Confederate fleet in the .Mississippi.
tho capture of New Orleans, tho jiiiHsape of the fortn at Port Hudson and
the batteries at Vicksliurg. and the capture of Mobile. For his briliiaiil anil
HU( (ressful services the rank of vice-admiral was os|K'cially created for hin> by
the goviniiinent. and afterwards that of admiral.
John Adulf Dahlgren (b. NovtMiiber 13, IKOU; d. July 12, 1870) was a prime
aK<!nt ill du
ingtiMi. II
Civil War
ninety vess
(d many iia
by the govi
Kaphael
fully than
liiin, .iH eon
Tlnitod Stj
for him a
services wt
Admiral
experiem-e
(ISOH) he \
ordered to
prompt !j;>(
history of
Oriont was
El'ocn-MAKhus or lUK iKXTrity n»
iiK«'iit in *luvi>lo|iiii<^ thr Nitviil Onliiiiiu)- l>«'|>iti'tiiiciit utiti itM workM at WkmIi-
iiiKtiiii. lilt iiivi'iiti-d iuiil iiiimI** tlii> wi'll-kimwii l>alil((iiMt k»iim. I>iiriii}( tim
(!ivil Will' III' riiiiiiiiuii<li-il till- Siiiitli Atlantic lii<H-katliii^' m|ii;ii|iiiii. nt -xiinu
ninety vi's.hi'Is, ami ilnl ■>|>li-iiiliil m-imii- lur tli<> I'nion raiiii-. Id' wa.s antlinr
lit many naval articlcH ami iMNikN, smm* ot tlii! latUii- lM•ill^ iihihI lut ti-xl InmiWh
liy till" K'uvi'iiimt'iit.
lia|iliai'l Snniiii'H (1). St'iitcnilHT -'7, iMtt'.l; i|. AiinuHt .'Mt. IMT7) t\|M's mnn*
Inlly tlian any otliur tlif naval tIaHli ami ('llii'ii'm-y ol the CoiitfiliMMry. In
hiin, as ciininiaiKli'r nt' tli<' Sunitfr ami Alaliaina, tlii' incrcliaiit nianm' of tliM
.
iiKN. <iif'*i'.i'rK <i\itr M Ml.
Uiiitoil Stall's fonml its direst crn'mv. aul his i'X|)l<iits iijwi Iw ocean won
for liiiii a rami" wliidi ovi'isliailow.'.! tin *• of cvi'ii lii«hoi i.i'.:\i, imt whose
Herviees wen- limili'd to niiiiowfr lields of I'lva' aetivity.
Admiral (leorK'e Mewey (h. I> iiilier VT. iS;;7) ae.innMl ..'.siiieralile naval
experience in tin- Civil War. At liie I. n-akiiii; on, of hostilities witii Spain
(IM<.»S) lie was in ( iiiiami of the I'. S. sipuu'ron in Kastern waters, and was
ordered to dolroy the Spanish fleet in tlie Iriilmr ol Manila. His attack was
jironipt ; -d daring, and it I'lided in one of the most not. il.le victories in tin-
history ol naval warfare. In a lew hours th« entire fleet of Sjiain in the
Orient was swejit iiway, together with lier [lOwer, and the United SUtes was
701
TiiiLMi'iis AM) no.shiJiis or iiii-: .v/.V" cestcuy
liliicfd
111 IKISSCSSlllll
III :i iifw ami iiia.i^'iiilii'ciil island i'iii|iiri' wIuim' niaiiili'
iiaiiri' and ''iiveniiiK'nt ina\ (■li:iii''(' tlic wlmlf liisturv <i| tin- Oiii'iii.il imt
• t til
>rld.
IIIC
Admiral SaiiipMHi's cuiii rilnitiun tn t lie cfiitiiiv 'm |i!-i>j^r»'s.s lies in the 1
(il ikilHid )>r)-|iaratiiiii lor I'liici'^i-iiL-ifs, and |ii'iim|ilitiidi- in mcctiii!,' tlinii.
lit' lifcanif an <'|iiMdi-niakfr in llir liiMuiy id ijn- I niti'd Slalt-s liy means dI
tlicf,'rral and dtrisive virltiiy over tlu' Spaniards, won liy lln' tifi-l umli'i Ids
I'uiiiniand in tiir waters utY Santia;^'ii.
I'lJKAi iii;i;> AMI Tkai urns. — TIk' ilev. .laini's .McCusli (h. A|iril 1. IMl ;
d. NitvenilMT (i. IS'.d) was an alilc liadii <ii tliat j,'i('at sriiiiul iij' liteiiifN
iiii'ii. si-lii liars, fdiiratins. and a^",'rs.ssi\(' laai-ticai tliinkers wliicii this crntiin
chit'Hy Sft'ins to lia\f iniidiirnl.
Ills I'unti-ihntion to iiiimIci'ii progress lies mainly alonK tlnii' lims : —
l'"ii>t. in Ills cllnits to iiiitaiii tln' Vvi'f ('liuicli ot Scotland, and cstaiilisli il.
Scniiid. Ill Ids most siii-cfssrid adiiiiiiist rat hhi ot tin- allaiis ot rriiici'toii
Colli'fjf wliili' In- was prcsidiMii of tjiat institution.
'I'liiid, by Id- niiincroiis, oiit'inal. and poucitiil u ritiii},'-. t'ldftly controxi isial
and |iliilosopliicai.
'I'iie Lev. Cliarlfs llod|,'f (li. Di'ci'iiiIm-i L'S. I7'.t7: tLJiiiif l".l. 1S7S) was a tiiir
fxainplf of tlic modt'in rxposilor o| tlir doi,'mas ot Calvinism. Strong' in
convii'tioii and pi-isistcnt in piii'|iosi', a cIimi. lo'^ical tliinkiT and wrili'i', lu'
naturally Wt'caim' a \t'i\ powcilui leader. Ids intliieiiee i)eiii^ partieidails lelt
in «'stalilisldii^' the present exalted position ot the l'iesli\ t.'iians, espeeiall\
of the old school division. This intliieiice was wielded partly lioin liis idiair
a.s Professor of Oidactie, ICxej4;etic. and Polemic 'riieoloj^y. and espeidally in
the famous Piinceton Itevicw. whiidi owfs its j,'ivMtiiess (diieliy to his
edito!'shi|i and coiit lilnitioiis.
Pliilip SclialV (1>. iSl'.t; d. Oetoher 1/(1. IS'.i;!) is a tyjie of the seliolar who.
through profound research and intcipretation, ha- created an epoch in llicii|o<.;\
li\ his colli riliiit ion- to the idnetcentli ccntiiiv. maiiilv in iiistoiical and ex
e^fctieal liraiich;'s.
Henry Ward P. lier (li. dime L'l. iSl.'i. d. .March S. l.S,S7) easily earned
the reputation of the j,'reatcst pulpit orator of his day. .\s pastor ol I'ly-
moiith ((■tin!,'revfational) ('hiireli in New Vork. his ^,'eiiiiis and remarkalile
eloipieiice attracted and liehl one ol liie lari^est eoiij;re^;alions in the Iniled
States. Spontaneity, tact, einotion were elements of his oralorv. and these
were always siippleii.eiited liy force, depth, sulitilly, and quick ^'lasp ol intel
leet and heart. His versatility was phenomenal, .lournaiism, lileratiiie, jiol-
ities. social life, philaiithrnpy. p.'iroeliial ori;.'iiii/.ation, and even a^'ricidtiire
and nianv other liran<dii-s w(>re touched upon hy him and .dl with results
varyini,' from excelliid to extraordinary.
lialph \Vald<i Kmerson (li. May '_'."., l.sn;!; d. April •_'7. ISS*.') pasaod throiiKdi
the career of teacherand preacher to that of i,'"neral writer, lecturer, and poet.
lie should prolialily lie classed with the nietapliysii-ians or pliiloso|iliers. liis
]nd»licationof •• Nature" in IS.'iri markeil a new era in .\merii'an thoui;ht. i'lom
siil)-eipieiit addresses and works may he ilated the intellectual mo\ement
which was called '/'r'ninniii/iii/nlisiii. mu] which was a ri'actioii ai^ain-t lor-
nialism ami tradition. He lacked the method essential to the Inundation of
a nc-.v pli'lo.sophy, imt hi- works fonu a permanent ailditinu to the lii'.,die-t lit
eratiire of tin- human race.
El'OCU MAKKltS OF Tl/H CENTURY
IMiillips Miudks (li. K.t.'iiiIht i;!, is;!."); «1. .1
iiiiiiirv
705
IS!).".) Wil3 Olio of
tliosc plifi ii'iial |iri';icli<'rsi)t tlic (•ciitury wliu won the lii'iirm- mul liciuts oC
liis auditiiis liy l;irt,'»'ii«'.s.s unil lilM-iulity ol tlioiiglit ; siiiiiliiiililv. fai-iifstiicss,
«<'lt-:
sac
I'iti
iiid i,Mfat luvf, and In licantv and
Hiddoni prrac'lii'd doclrinr. Imt relied on tlie
♦.'flleiiey ol' indent exlimial imi. and tlie tind-
ini; and kindlin:; <>l' tlie ;^'ciuil in eaeli audi-
tor.
Cliarlos II. S|.iii!,' i (1>. .lime 1<». 1,S;;|; d.
.lanuary ."tl, J.S'.tl.') siands as a tyiie of the
j,'ieat i»i|iiilai' in-eaidier and leader in eliaiita-
l)it' work. With Uaplist vii'ws, lit; revived ids
own denoiniiiaiion and exerted a lielpl'iil in-
poise ut idianicter. lie
tl
neiiee on all (ither>
No divine of his tin
10
.swayed so resist lessly tiie ininieiise andienees
he attracted. His piain sermons were .ilways
li>;iitened with liapjiy illustrations and didiv-
eii'd with rare power and personal iiia^'iietisni,
and t hey iiad the except ional <piality of retain-
in;.; niiieh of their (diarni and persuasiveness
when in print.
I'"riedrieli Kroehel of Thnrinitia. (iennany (li. .\pril L'l, ITS'.'; d. .lime 2,
IS.I'J), was a liorii ediioafor, and his>,'reat lile-worklay wliolly in tliatdireetion.
lie studied not so niiicli to ;,'et, kiiowledj,'e of particular Inaiiehes as to dis-
II.
the advocate of tlii!
eo\er their natural unity and hidden coimectioii. lie was tlie advocate ot tlu;
new education, and pusiied the system of IVstalo/.zi far lieyond its aiitlior's
tlieaiiis. .Vceordiie,' to l-'roehe], man .ind nature are >,'overned liy the sann^
laws; ;ind, liy his observation cd' liotli, he reached his idea td' wli;it man's
development slioiild Ih>, and how to aeeomplish it. True devidopmont must of
eoiirse proceed finiii within, frniii self activity. .\iid as every aije of man is
eonipleti- in itself, its perfect development can eoini' I'rom only such develop-
ment in the preeediiit,' aj,'e. Hence, the nect'm.ity of pi'operiy traininij and
ediicaliiii,' yoimi; chihlren. 'I ids course of reasoning,' resulted in ids invention
of file kinderifarteii system. to;,'etlier with ills self-saeriliciny; devotion in
training teiudiers, and in his iieroie perseverance iiotwitlistaniliiiK hitter op-
]iosition, lU' iiidiil'eii'iice.
Victor ('oii>iii. id France (h. Novendier I'S, 17'.H.'; d. .lime lo, lS(i7). was a
maker nf iliec.ntiir\ in loimdinu' the .seliool "f svstematifi
reiio
■1"
eideeticisni in pliilosouiiv. Mis svsteni sets fortii a doctrine of catholic eoin-
pr<
lieiision and toleration of oih
ew mei
I did iiiiu'c in otiieial and
privite life to adviiuiM^ the cause of general education in l''raiice.
William Will.erforee. of Knirland ()•. .\u«ust LM. I7r.il; d. .Inly L".), LS."..'!),
with I'itt and Clarkson. led in the cause of freeinjj; tlie slaves, beiiii; liimstdf
the !,'reate.st type of the Kni;lisli aholitioiiist. For forty-six years he main-
taiiieil imceiisintj and relentless warfare ai,'aiiist slavery, and lijs priceless ^d ft
to the |ireseiil century w;is tiie final ami complete extinction of slavery and
of the slave-trade in tlie Uritisii jiossessituis.
Ilisroid.ws.
William II. I'rescott (li. Mav II. l7'.K"t; d. January 1.'7,
18.V.») proved him.sidf to he an eputdi-maker in tlu' sense that Iio combined
i
700
r III UM I'll S AM) WOSDEliS OF Till-: MX'" CICXTUnY
the worlli nt liistdiy with tin- hrilliiiiicc and rasciiiiitioii nl llic ikivcI, and
(U'vt'liipcd till' cni inly iK'w lii'ltl of Spain's cart'iT at lumn' ami in lui- colo-
nit's. His •• I'l'idmanil and Isalirlla."' '• ('niii|ncst nl Mcxii-ii," •• ( 'un(|ncst df
I't'iii." and •• llisturv <d I'liilip II." all olitamfd a wmld-widi' ciiculatinn, and
liotli plat-i-d and kupt, their aiithni' in the higiu'st raidi (d nindcrn Aini'i'i<'an
liistiirians.
I'"niin;i>is 1*. (I. (Jiii/ot, (if j-'iaiico (h. t tctolicr I. ITsj; d. Sc|iti'iMliir I.!,
1S7I). was iiotli stiitt'sniaii and liistoiian. In tin- Idiincr <'a|iarity lie hiid
Kt'vcral iniiioitaiit laiblic iiositiinis, and I'mni IMO tn ISI7 was, as .Minister
WII.I.IWI Wll.llKliKdUCK.
of FDrpinn AlTairs. really at tlie head of the 1,'nveinnifnt. Ills wy.xwy jiro-
jioscd lelniins lir(iiii,dil un the revnliitioii of ISIS and the dethitineineiit of
Louis l'hilip|.e. 'rhnui;ii ranking as one of the ^'reatest of l''ren()i stateH-
ineii, his iii^du'st and most endiiiin;^' re|nitation ifsts on his historieal
Wfitiie^'s, wliieh aie very niunerons. and tlie ehief of whieli is liis '•(ieiieral
History <d' ('i\ ili/atioii in Knro|ie." His works are classies id' historical
researeh. iuid iiispiriiij,' forennineis of the modern method (d' treafini; history.
.Fames Aiitliony Krond.- (1.. October L'.'J. ISIS; d. October I'lt. ISUI) ranks
as one (d' the briijhti'st of Knt,di"id's writers ami historians. fhon!,'li not one
of the most relial)le. Hi.s writing's are eiiaracteri/ed. in the main, liy ultra-
i:i'()(ii-M.[Ki:iis or riii-: cKsrviiY
lift
Pioli'staiitisni: unit in liis tw<. most iin|M.ii;iiit wc.iks. "Tli.' Kiclisli in
li<'lan.l ill il... iNili (ViiUin." aii.l ••Tlu- llisfry <.f Ki.;,-!;,!,,!," )„. .■ml,,,vnrs
t(. ,jnsti|-v Ills ,M,iiiiti'.v's sfv.T.- tivatn.mt ..f thr liisli l;.,miiiiisis. t., .•stal.lisli
Wvmy VIII. ;,s li |ii,.t .Iliiiiim,,!, uf Kiij,'li.sli imli.|.rii<l.'ncr. uikI also to
l.rst(.\V ll|inn li.T lililli.sUTS imujll ul tlil'.T.idil |>n|,||lail\ .Mlip.iM'ii to licLuil,'
t<» <.»nt'cii Kli/.al)i'tli.
.'nliM L. Mipilry (1.. Massa<-lnis.'tts. .\|iiil 1.1. |.s| | ; ,1. Kii-laiid. Mav L'it,
1S77) l}|.ili.-.s ilic |,atiriit aii.i i.aiii.sfakii;,' mmicIut u>\- tnitli in \\u- y\i^\v\^^\l
I llliM V- M M.\i \l I.AV.
iiu'iit of n.itioiial luHtt'iv ; and also \\w Hym|>atlu'fM', t(rn|tlii(>. mid HpiritM
]iaint)>r of tlii> .sct'iicH, cvimUs, aiul cliarat'tors wliicli lie |irt'M(>iiiM ]{'\n " RIho
of the iMitili l!i'|niiili.'." •• History of tlic I'niti'il Ni'tlii'Hnn(lH,' .m^l •• f jfo
iiiul l»t'atli of .luliii of IJarni'Vfld " an- ail undcnial)!". t/rcat roriJrfliiition.* to
llif iiistorical liti'ratmi' of tlu' present lentury, li«*Hii|eH Ih'Im/ inoiinnifittii
to (lie I'Xai'tiii',' toil .iiid resoarcli of years.
Henry riion^o Hurkle. of Kn^'land (I.. NovoniJHT 24. \W> , <! \fay './«,
IHIIU) i.s a e(»ii.s|ii(iious tvjM' of the patiiiit ami learned In He i>rin-
cipal donation to modern pro^^|•p^s is •• The Hixttiry of ( i,i/.iiio»i iti ¥.n%-
laiiil," a work wliose novel theories created an epoeh in ihi' philoftojihy of
,
7(W
Tlt/I'M/'HS AM) W<>M>i:iiS or THE A/A'" cHsrcnY
liiHltin. anil liiUrd torlli imidi ciiiitiovcrsy. Aci-onlinj; Id liim, civilizatiou
wiiH tliir nut sii niiicli til nini'ul or ri'li^ioiis intliii'm-i* as to ia:it«>ria) cuiiMos, —
Hoil, r|ini;itiN liioii, atnins|i||i-l'i>. ric.
tifiiij,'!' liaMrrnll (I), (icinlirr .'t. IS(H»; d, .laiiiiaiv 17, IM'.H) was fiiually
ri'iiiiwtii'il iiH Htatrsnian anil liistorian. As a inrnibiT nl rn-siil'-nt I'nlk's
raliini-t. Ill- was iiisliiiMirMtal in fimniiin^' tin- Naval Aiailmix at .\iina|>iilis
anil thr Naval < i|i>t'rvaii>r\ al W asliin^'tun. As niinistri' to I'nissia lie
iM'^otiiitfil scvrral i'oriM},Mi troatius, ami al)lv riniiltirinl tin- MiilmiiMit of the
'• Nmlliwi'sl llMiiiiiiaiv " i|iirsiiun. I'ml Ins ^jriat lili-wcuk was liis ■• Mistiuy
of till- I'nilril Siatfs," on -.\ liii-li lir lalnii'i-il nnlirini^'lv till liis ilcaili. It is
ilii> most cxliaiistivi', |iliilosii|iliii', ami iusjiiiinK' of our national liist nirs.
Kii'haril llililivtii (li. .Iiini< L'S, |S(I7: il. .Innr 11. isriri) was om- of tlii>
C'l'iliin s valiialili- riiitiiliutors tn tin- willaii' of tin- I'liili-il Stairs ii\ his
" llisloiy of Hanks," his many works on inoniU ami |iolitii's. ami ilni'tly by
his Kii'at lili'Uuik, "'rill' History of thr Inilnl Stali-s," a iiroihutinn of
({real l.tlmr ami niasti'il\ ili'luil. iit sunirwliat liiMvily written.
'i'hoimiit llahini^lon Min'iinii\ of Kn^laml (li. (Ii'IoInm- L'.'>. IHOO; i|. 1>c-
ci'lnlMT '_'.*<. |H,"i'.>), \^;|s noti'il as essayist ami statesman. Itnt his ^,'i'iiiiis lay
es|ii'eiall\ in hisloiy, in whirh line he was inaMeil to fninish Ihr wi« M with
his ureal life-work, that most remarkulile ami valuable ■■ History of Kn^'lanll,"
whieh ijulekly attainnl a einnlalii'ii never IH-Iore iM|iialeil by any similar
]inlilieati <n. riinii^h at times partisan ami partial, he was .still fortniiatr in
throwing his >,'ri'al strength on the snir of ri:,'ht.
KiHToiis. — llorari' (lreeii\ (b. Kibniary ."t. j.sii; i|. Nnvi-mlK'r 'J'.l, 1.S71.')
was foiinilerol the •• Ni-w \ork I'libnni'." Hi- look rank a^one of the ablest
eilitors iif iiis iliiy. anil sioml the foremost politieal ailvoeatr ami eontrover-
sialist of his time in .\meriea. Ili- maih' of hi> jiapir a splemliil property,
anil through it exereiseil an iitlmnei- liial riMilu'il far ilown amon»{ the
masses. lie lost miieli nl his pnpularitv b\ his advoeaey uf universal
amnesty ami impartial sulfra^'l•. after the ijose nf the (,'ivil War, ami grailu-
ally ilrifti'il into I he l.ibrral lt>'publiean party. This party, in allianee with
thr hiMieerals, plaii'il him \>n the pri'sicimtial tieket in 1S71,'. lie was ilis-
astroii.slv ih-fratril. anil ilii'il horn (he etfeets of hanl eamp'ii);u work ami
(jrief.
.lami's (ionlon |!i iinetl (b, Seplnnlier 1 I7it.'i; il tliim- I. 1S7L'). foumler of
tlie '• Ni'W N ork lleralil," was the most spiriteii ami ilarin',' of those pioneers
who nn'olutioni/eil the journalism of Ih'* eentury. lit his pa|M>r he broke
away from hi^'h priies ami piosaie iie'llinils, ami inaii'imaleil the na of i-heaM
priees, rary news, ami imlepemlent r\pression. Hi' prar'.iially ileMloiM'il
tlm present orKanizatmu of newslmys, the use nl ilie teleu'iaph in .semirihji;
news, ami tin- Ann'riran ''yslem nf iMirnpean and war eorre-^poniienei'.
William Ciilli'ii ItryanI (b. November .(. I7'.t| ; d. dune I;.'. t.S7.S) united
thn Hehohirship nf the t,'eiieral literature and the j,'raie nf a |ii>it with tlie
ijeiiius nl a hii;h-toiied and biilliani editor, lie -^Mve In his paper, lie •• New
\'nrk l'*venin|.; I'ost," a rank and intluenee sehinm aitained in jounialism, et4.
)M'eially when it is eoiiHidered that its palnuiH were ihntiy of I he eilueuted
and hi^;her business ehisses. He repre.sented the i leanest and most inti'llee-
tual ioiini..lism nl the eenlUI.N.
•lohn W. Forney (It. MeptemlM>r 20, |S17; d, Deeember'.*, 1M81') was foumler
iidlt'i'
KI'IXH MAKKliS OF THE CKSrCRY 700
and ..wiicr of -Tl..' riiil:.(|.'l|,liiii I'lvss." Tin- j.miiiulism nf the cfiitury .'im
lioiist nn iiiuiT iiulcliili-itl.li! and hrilliiiiit immi tliaii liis, imr did any joiirnal
(d liis (!ay .pccupy a iiKirc coiiiinandin;,' |.la<'c amid tlic discussions inci.lcnl to
tilt' Civil War and siil.sr.nuMit [iriiods ol if<-onsi ruction, lie was al.s.i editor
and owner of tin- \Vasiiin:,'ton. |). C, ■•Ciironicic"
Cliarlcs And.rson Dana (I.. Aujfust S. I,Sl;i; d. ()ctol)cr 17. IS'.C) is an in-
stance of a scii..lar and |iiililici>t win. loimd a true. tlion^;ii laic, outlet for
liis ijcnius in llic realm of mdependeMt journalism. fnder Ids ediiorsldp
and management the •• New \'ork Sun " liecanu! tlic model new s medium of tlio
country, and its editorial, linaneial. and other ilepartmi'nts were conducted
with an aliility and conscientiousnes^ ihat eonnn.unlcd the wiiicst conlidcnee.
lie was associate editor of "The New American c;yelo|)a'dia.'' and com|iiler
id' the admirahle •■ Household I'.ook cd' I'octrv."
.loseph Midill (1). April C, lSl.';i; d. .March 1(1. iSltKj rose to the hii;h rank
of cditiir-in-tddef and principal owiierof "The ("hi('a|,'o Trilmm'." throuj,di tho
8(diin)lin^,' alTorded hv connection with several minor papers. No man of tim
cfiitury wa.s more thonuij^hly nnlun'd with the tru litorial instinct. Of
dit;niticd and prudent expression, hvoad and keen tiiou'^dit. ever alive to tho
privileges and power of the press, he made his journai a model (d" oxcLdlenco
III all its varied dcpartnn.'nts as well as a c(dossal jiroperty.
.lo-eph I'lilitzi'r (li. JSJT) was founder and editor <d' ■•The. St. Loui' Posfc-
i»espat(di," and afterwards liccamc owner and editor <d' "'i'lie New \'ork
World." Like the chU-r nennett he i;uik.s as oiu; of the dushiiu,' 'ariiig
editiMs (d' ilie century, whose aim is to ,i;ain notoriety and cxtranidiinry cir-
culation lor his journal hy strong;, and often vituperative, attack upiii puhlio
men and thin;,'s, and by tireless offorts to secure general news of a nniquo
and Nciisatioiial character, at whatever cost.
Murat llalstead (h. ISJ'.I) rose to edi' rial distincl-lon, and i«H!ame a stronp
factor in the lifa of the middle West uii,di his connection with t^^e " Cin-
cinnati (,'(uumereial," which he raise. i tlourishiii}^ linaneial cc;'!i ;on, with
immense power in municipal, state, lational polities. In IHiMt ue heeaiue
editor of "The Standard- "^nion," Hrooklyn, N. V.
\Vliit(da\v iJcid (h. Oettdicr L'7, Is-") ^ a type (d' the highest class of Am-
erican political editors, and repre~.iits the liest in that kind of .Vmerican
jimrnalism whitdi aims to be both ilcrt and catholic in its efforts, without the
sensatitMialism id' personality, e ration, m- the horriiih . Ni'Xt to .Mr.
(ireeley, whom he succeeded as i or, he will best be remeinbered in con-
nection with "The New Y'tuk Tribune," and lias made his journal a great
jK>wer aloii}; nearly all lines, particularly those p(ditieal.
S(n:\TisTs. — Sir Charles l.ell. ■ i Scotland (b. November 17, 1774; d.
April '2\\, ISI'J), is a shiningexample of patience and genius for investigation,
discovery, and deiluctiiui in meiJicMl science. The nervous system wa.s his
particular forte; and he discovered the most important |>riiiciple that the
brain is di\ ided into two parts, each i. 'ving its correspond iir^ division in tlie
spinal marrow, and that one set of icrves conveys sensations from tin' liody
to the Itraiii. ani)tlier carrying back to the IkmIv antl its muscles the command
of the br.iin. and tinally that nerves C(uiv"ying ditl'crent sensations are con-
nected with ditlerent parts o! the brain. He was a remarkable surgeon, a
brilliant lecturer, and a medical author of univci-sal fame.
710
Tiiii'Mr/is AM) \\o.\i>/:i:s of thk a/.y"' cExrunY
Siiimifl 1>. (li<i>s (1). Jill}- ,s, ISO.".; .1. May »i. 1S.NJ) rankeil a.s one ol tlin
i>]t<)cli-i!iak(M.s ill lii.s iniilcssinn. As |ili\ >iriaii. >ur>;t'<>ii, aii<l tufilii-ul aiitlmr
lit' showed a Inlty iiiiii. strict ilrvutinn. ni.itkftl i>riKiiialit\. "Mi |><i\\fii'iil
iiitfllcut. llis iiiiiiK'Kiiis Winks i-Miiiiiiaiiilril worUl-wulif attention ami IxTanie
aceepted stiimiaids. 'I'wu ol tiieii!. at ieiwt, were tlie first of tlieir kind ever
]iu)ilished ill AiiK'iiiM.
(ieorK'- (', I-. v. I>. Ciivier. ol I'raiMc ili. Aii;;iist J.'t. 17r»'.»; d. .M;iy 1.1.
1K.'{1'), exiiiliited in iiis eaicer tin- iiiii>ieiise reforiiiation and advanee in iiatmal
liistiirv during' llic lir-'t tiirci' dceades of t!i«' ninet>-eiii)i i-i-ntiHA. lie ex-
jiaiided tlie system of ('om|>ai:iti\ f anatomy a-< tlie <inl\ tnii- lia.^is ot natural
history, and ti-om an iitjerl\ liiaotie and nnintelli$;iliie heap ol dry laits
coneerniii;^' animal stnictiiies lie tiiially didiired tli<- inidrrlx in^. natural
]irim'i|iles ol unity, in tlieir ilassilieatioii and ili>'i>ioh. II*- al>o e'>ialil!slied
many jwisitive lawH ot K''"'"Ky "'"' |'aleonto|o|;y and. l»y hiii v;uit diseovories
and dariiii; eonei'|ptions tlienin, develo|ied tin- i-om|Ktrativ<-ly new seieiiee of
fossil animal-iit'e loan extent liitlierlo iindreamed of.
Charles lioiiert Darwin, id' Kiit^land ili. Keiituary l.'l. IMH.t; d. April IS, |S<»:t),
was one id' those well-ei|iiipped ami persistent seientists whose iiiVi'sti|.Mlioiis
l*-d to the iiiodeiii doetriiieot t he oriv'iii and ivoliii ioii ot >|M-eii-s li\ means
of iiati;.;'! selection ami preservation of favored raees in the strui.'t;''' ''"■
life, llis eoneliisioiis were at lirst, hitteuy reji'eti-il. ••■.|H'«Mally iiy re!i;;ions
scientists, hut ere the eiiil of the eeiitiiis came tiiev met with wide accept-
ance. Only such a ^'eiiiiis and patience as his could liavi- collected. arraiiL,'cd,
and intei|ireted the !,'i^aiitic mass ot facts out oi whudi in- >lowIy di'dnecil
llis concliisioiifi,
Lmiis .1. I{, Agassi/ (li. .May l.'S, l.SiiT; d. I>i-ecnd»-r 1 1. l.ST."!). was the
lU'eiiiter of his (lay as a scientist and naturalist, uf wonderful ph\.->ical and
ini'iital power, vast cnthiisiasm, nntiriie^ industry, and exceptional pro|ien
sitv f<M' ri'scai'cli and nrdcily ari'aiit;i'niciii, he di-veloj^'d the modern M-iei
of ichthyolojjy, propounded new aii<l accepted tlu-ories of ^e<doj;y and of
glacial system-, and estaiilisluil lii,' mauniliei-iit .Museum of Natunil llist-iiy
nt Caniiiiiili,'"'. .Mass. Astcuii-liihuly piojitic as a « rit«'r. he remains a eoii-
biaiit source of inspiration to naturalists and scientists.
Samuel ('. I". Halinciiiann. of (iernnnx (1> .\|iril 11. l7.Vi; d. .Inly 1', l.sl.l),
was an cpocli-iuaker in the tield of medicine. I'.y !s'_'n his ti ries and
i»ul)licati"iis had awakeiieil iinixersal iiiter<'st. .net the hoiine'ipathie .system
iiail liecoiiie all estalilished sidioid. I>espite the lonj; and liitt<T war iM-tween
allopaths and honneopatliv, it is certain that tie- I.itt.-r has eontriinited
larijcly to lemler iiiedniiic free from many old-time inetleMls of an imiefen-
>iil)le, if not actually harmful <u- daiiu'erous kind.
Morae« Wells, of llart ford, t oim. (1>. .lannary Jl, ISI.'i; d. .laiiiiarv 11,
IMS), w;u» a tU-nfisi. llis use ot nitrous oxide (lauirhin^: g-.»s) to render the
pxtnietion of t^-eth painless led to its full' r applie-atioti a.» an aiw^tlietie in
xur^erv, and ln'iiee to fhe discovery of modern an;i"sthe»ia Ity etiier anil
phloridoriii. TlHUfrh rolMx-d of the honor of his dlM-overy l»y tithers. the
^kntiriC Well« if) no U- s a contributor to >iiankiiid of uikt> ot the ^rentPHt
Immiik of fhe century.
fAMiis l'*iteur. of Kiance di. DeeemU'r 17. \X'S2 . <l. ••*«'j»t4'ml>.T »'«. !*.•.'»,
gavi> new direction and impulse to chemistry *i!>i ■«thulo.:y liy the dise.rtr. ry
i-:ro(ii-\t.\Ki:iis or riii: iryiiny
ni
IV
tliiif; fomii'iitatidii am.v ti-iuu MiU'riM>i^»aiiism>, iiiul aUit lluit ilisoaso was, in
iiiuiiy iiist.iiHts, (luc to till' iiivMMuo oi liiniUi in Idumi ,,v tissue, lie tol-
liiwi'il this Willi litH systi m of cultiiru and inocnlatiim. liv uu-ans oi wliidi
ln' iM'irurnMil nii»it nuraciilMi\s ciin's nt even surh a virimis disease ,is liydrn-
jilifpliia. Tin' rasitur Institute in I'aris stands a nicumnieul to his genius and
jiliilanthMi|iy.
riiii.xMiiitunsTs. — Ste[ilieii ( iiiai'd ( li. May L'l, 17.'>(1; d. \h niliei' !,'(».
l.S.'M) Wiw cialiixd, unai'iuoaehalde, penuiious, iiieli^ious, yet siiaiinidy
lilieral in larw'e iiuhlieoreharitaiile alTaiis. Twice lie helped tlie Kuveninmnt
with large loans. I'ulilie ehaiitiesand iin|iroveiiieiiis, lins|iitals, and |i:ii'ado.\-
ie.dly etioU'^ll, even elnuehes, were indeliteil to liilu lo|' inuiiiru'ent gilts. 'I'ho
({leateHt iiioniiiiieMt to his |ihilaiithro|iy is (Siranl Cidh'gv, tounded liy a
hei|ite>t iiC .'!<i.S.iHHI,<HHi, lor the ediieation of poor white male orphaiiH.
ilanies Siiiitii>oii, ot Knglaiid (li idHnit 17<>."»; d. .lune «7. IS.".)), was po.s-
Hihly the lirst philanlliropist to Ustow a large iiulowineiit iijMm tln^ riiiled
•States. With the Nuni o( jitrUNMNN) to littiiMi.iHMt, which i.iiiie to it tnun this
iM'llt'Volent foreigner, tlie yonn^' repuhiic loumled .Hid elidowi.'d the splciidiil
.Siiiilhsoiiian Institute at V, h v'ton ior the spreail ainl increase of know-
ledge, thus iinniiii; Mr. ."^iniih , n in the highest rank id' the world's heiiefact-us,
and electing an iinperishahie iiioii'inieiit at another tiiriiingpoiiit in liiK
progress nf uivili/atioti.
tieoigii I'ealMHly (h. Fehriiary IS, I7'.»."i; d. Noveiiil.cr II, isri'.*) ranks .w
oiii- of til.) eeiitiirv's greatest phiiaiithropists. .\iiioiig his iiohlest gifts werf
.*i.;,."i(i(i,(MMt l,ir lice education and the trainiic,' of tcaejicis in the Soiillicrn
Si. lies, .'«!|,(M)U,iHHl for a >cii!ntitic institute at naltiniore, large sums to
Harvard rniversity. ami a great aiiiouiit tu his native town, Manveis, Mass.,
for educational piirpom- . I'ying in Knglaiid, he left Sl,',r»(M),(HMi \,, London,
to found workiiignicn's homes.
.lohn .laeoh .Vstor (h. .Inly 17. 17«'i.!; d. March !.".•. I.S|,S, used miiidi of his
colossal fortune in philaiiihropy. rerhajis lli.^ largi'sl siic.'le gill, at least
that Ity which he is hcsi known as a UMidacior, was the sum of .'!i|lMi,tiiMi t<i
Jound till! A.stor I.ihraiy ot New York city. This m.lilc institution is eoii-
dnctcd on the pnhlie plan, .ttnl ci.utains nearly ."ttM^lMMi \ohiiiie>.
.lames l.ick (1>. .\iinM-t I,'.".. 171X': d. «MoUt 1. I.s7r.) am.i-sc.l a fortune in
California, out of whnh he pn>vid«'d a trust fund for certain piihlie and
charilal.lcpiiriM.Hes. I'hi- f ind amoimted to .<.ViMM>.iMii» at the timiMtf his
dctlh. To him is d«f i..- lamou> l.ick Tde-. <i|-.- m the I'niversity of
Calilornia, whieh cont 57"«.i>tMi; the t'aiifornia Shool of .Mechanic Arts,
eosliii^ 8.">10.ikH»; the fn-v mioiic Kaths of San Francisco, costing .>il."iO,(7«W;
and numerous otiu-r chanties an.l ln'iielaction.--.
helaml Sta»b»rd (i.. March M. ts;:4: d. .Iniie L'U, IS'.l.'t) ac(|uired a gi-»-»t
fiutiiiie in «'.iliforn..u li»'«pired Iw a
dream at the tiiii" of his little soii'sj
«haili, lie .ieieniiinetl to t-uii.i ami emiow an institution ot learning in his
State. Thi' result was tkf l.cland Staiitord .luiiior riiivcisity, wln-se direct
♦'iidowmcnt wa> pnncly, ami whoso imiirecr emlownie is I'.xpertcu
tu
amount i^ .sjo.immi.immi .ir more.
Khireiice Nightiu/aie was Ikuh. May
jiarents, and, prompted hy philanthiopie in
1S1.';{, in Florence, Italv, of I nglish
itincts. turned heratteniion to llif
re
lid of huuuuuiN. After stiidv in various nursing suhools, she wa.s sent at
f
71i
iHirMi'iis Astt woshicns or Tin: a/.y"' ckstury
tlio lu'iul lit' .1 coriw of trainM"«l mirsi's t<> cin- Inv tlii> sirk iiml wtniiulci moJ-
(liiM's (if tlir Criiiifaii war. iii M'liicli |Hi^iiii)ii s\w <|is|ilaM'i| iuai'\<-loti!^ t>iii'i>.'y
and aliilitv. A K'>al*-!ul |>iil>li«- .siil).scrilM>(l lor lui a tcHtiiiiniiial ot iii<'.''><).li(N).
wliirii hIk- (It'Voti'tl Ui tlif loiiiitliiiff
ut' a triiiiiin^i-si-liiHil lor imrM"
Clara llaiton (li. alioiit 1k:I0) left
n i'I«'i'kshi|i ill WasliiiiKton t<> *M'
Hai,'<' ill till- work ut all«'viatiii(,' iln-
.■»iifVfriii;,'s 111 till* MiMit'i-^ nf the ('i\ il
War, oil till- liattlclit>liirt ami in lii>-
liitjiJM, a woik sliii |iiM'rornii'il uitii
ran- rlii'iK.V ami Mi'll-.ii'iiticr. Sin-
alt<-r\v:ii(ls uidril tin- (iraml Diu'Iicsh
of r>aili-n in i'slalili>liiii^ iirr linspi-
tals (liiriii- till- riaiiio l'rii>>iaii war,
ami was ili'iorati-il with tin- < ioiil u
if liaili-n anil tlir Iron doss
Ci.
rX4 ■ -
ot (ifriiiaiiv. In iSXt sin- or|,'ani^i'il
till- Aiin-riraii I5i'<l Ciosh .Sirictv, for
wliii'li >ln' sccuicil an intvnii'tional
tiiMiv u'^i'iji i' proli rtion. Slir pi r-
Jfornu'il >|i|iMiiliil siMviiri- in ramp ami
tiflil
war.
ihiriiiK till' Siianish-Ainiiii'aii
>l*t.oHKI«<K NHI*«»riS*:AU(5
to t'li' proik-
tlii- (hie
aj,'*'
I
tiollS, ,<.tl(l ol
cxpi'inlilnri'i
>t
shall' i
n proinotiii.
John ].». Uoi'ki'li-lhM (I.. IS."!',*) is a
HpliMuliil t'Nainpli' of tho.M' many and
- v*h<' Iiavi- n-Hjioiuli'd witih asfiinisliiii^' lihi'iulity
l.iiitliropn- iialnri'- Tin' riM'onslriiriion of
iinir or i-iiH^'Wiih'ii' of othi-r pnhlii- in^titn-
.^ilo iM'iii'1.i»''ioiis. i'i','i-t!ii'r I'liilirai'lni.; tiin
"jnilii'i'iif iMiiiiiih' iit^ !■• Mr. Itm-krl'i'lliM's
l:i>r. miarti'i- of
-1»^
thr niiii'ti'iMith ct'iitiiry.
Matthi'W Vassar (I. A | •'
("olli'(,'c, N. v., in l,S(;i. A .
i'rt'i*tin|.t !ind I'lidowiiiK a roll
v^ «^ JUH tiiMUyjf lluiUit^ t '
.iniir
lurtiiu
iimii'il \ asMir
•<1 I 111' uh-a of
ilitaii
il.-iti
icr iiioiiiTati'ly or nr
iiHMi. wlii'if^n i-riinration I'oillil l»«
<\ whii'h ' la-
tioiial. To this imhI In- vjavi- lainl ,
A^'aiii ho Kuve .S.'MMMHHI. ntlior iih'
■t li.r 1.
till .SI.O(M(.(M»il ;(|i'l II
lori' wi'n- I'Xprmi-
ciitlowiiiriil amoiinli'ii to over .■!• I .( M M l.t m i<
IwKXTnHN. — (ji'iir^i' Sti'pht'iison, of I.
JlMl<
12, IS IS).
Ilii' liist (IS| I) t iistriKi
si
t^.^^m^lkt^
ciiKini'. Ill ISJ.T lie iiitroiiiiri'il tiic sti-ani hla
In IHI'L' he liiiilf ami opi'iati'd liis tirst railway, riijli! mil*-- ''<'nK' *t UK0
his I'li'^in-', iiami'il tiir Itockrt, was drivi'ii at tin' rati' ot «• ,•• futimum
hour. Ill' insiiitiil a salVty lamp, whirii is still in iisr m ■ col
A nafnrul pciiiiis and si'lf-taiiKht mi'i'haiiir, hi' n-'iisi'd kni'._ii"-»'«^. iMit
receivt'd by coniiiiuu cuiiaeiit the title of the father uf railwiiyi»>
KiuKii M[Ki:iis Oh' Tin-: ( /■;.vy7 /.•)•
7i;»
Uirlianl M. I[<M- (\». S«-|.tiiiilNr I'.'. |Mll»; il. .Fimr 7. ISMlli «Miiii|ilctfl\ nvi».
Iuti<iiii/«>(1 till' art ut |inii!iii\{ liy iIm> iiiviMitmn nt U\h " li^litniii'^' " mliiry
|ir«-MM, ill Islli. Tliii iiiiirvfl was cainililt' nl iiiititiiit; '.'0,(hH) iiii|iit',Hsiiiiis an
lioiir. Attei' many (;ustl\ f\|ii'rimi'tit^. willi a vk<\v In |ii'iiitiii>; li<<tli siiifs of
a >li)-t>t at oiirr. lie ovolvctl liis \Vflt<|>i'iriTtiii^' pit'.ss. wiiiili iln-w tin- |ia|i«'r
Irmii a roll, jH-rliaps iiiiU-s in l<Mi'^'tli. at tint rate of Iimhi iVct a niiniiti',
priiiti-il iMitli siilrs >iiiniltaiif<iu.sly, ami rut ainl lojdi'ii tin .sli(>i>t> at tlic rate
I
< LAUA ItAUroN
of '.'O.mKV |M»r tMar. «i*i«pi|Ufnt im|.i-ov.-iinMits liav.' .-iv.Mi liis niacliiiips fi
iiiiK-li lar.-iT hoDMlf HH f l ^i tv.
KliiiH Howe (I.. Jiiwr*. ISlll; (1. OctolHT .'I. ISC.T) n.iitiilmtt'il !lic hcwiiik-
li.a.'liin*' t. Ill- <;.'iiturv-H triumi.li-* ami wuiuI.m>. th.-uu'li it is all«'«.'.l tliiit «lif'
n... ..' ; itiuK !•<"'•> <•'•' <'Vf-i.oiiit.'(l m'.'.il.' ami tin- lo.-k-stit(li Ik'Ioii^'s
lietwt»«n wlioiii ami How.- Ioiik litiptlion ((rt-vtiilt-.l, finally
rognitiMiiof til.- ISIC. i.al.'nt of tli.- latt.-r. Moiliti. atioim
l.v jnor.' ivr.Mit luv.Mitors liav.' nia.l'- tli** H.•\vill^'-Illa<•lline
of t^Mlav.
\,. ,, IrtM- :mi. IHl'.t: '1. .Inly !•-'. !>*'•>•-) i»»«l»' t!i.' i>ro-
,,. . , s-4 tl.*- Atlantic an aim of hi^ life. Fortliiiti-ni
Aoml«rlul fiiitli ami i.frs»'V»T«»»'«'. aud ■* last, after a
tlie V
711
rnn'Mi'iis .wn woshkus of thh a/.V" rKxrctir
H^rwn ot (li'fimtH uiiil iiiortifyiiiK lailurt'H, siic*-i-i'<|cil (lH(i(>nii luyiiiK u i.iIiIh
that tlion>iit{lily hi)Iv**iI tlic itinlilciii. Siiici> tln-n .Miliiiiariiit< ti*l<');ra|>liy liaM
Ihmmmiii' iiih'iiI the most usfl'iil ami |i<i\vt>i'tiil tai'turs in tlic private and |)iii)lic
lift' i>r till' Wdi'lil.
Samuel V, It. Moi-Ht* (h. Ajiiil L'7, IT'.M ; i|. April 'J, |N7l.') i-untrilMitfil to
tlif cfntni\'H tiiiimpliH ai.il wurUl'M civili/.ation liv that hri'liaut ami )H-r-<ist-
ent NcrifN of invest iv.Miiini'H. which n snlieil in the tirsi jiractie.il teli^M-aiih.
lie lirou^'ht III.-* invention lN-|ore the vmiIiI in |n|I. ami with the ai<l ot the
government sit up a line ot turtv miles Intween \\ :i>huii;ton an<l Kaltimon'.
oviM- wiiieh iliNpatehcH siieee.s.stiilly p.i>>»e(l, May L'l. IMI, rnmi this moment
his triumph was eomphte, ami h«> U-eame the recipient of many Hatterim;
tlistiiiet Ions at honn' anil aluoail.
.lohn Kries.son (It. .Inly Ml. |Ho:i; tl. ManOi h, lK«Kt) eii Iter iiivent4*il. or first
maile praetiial, the steam tire-eii);iiie, I'le artitieial ilraii^ht for liM-imiotives.
the reyerxihle loroiiiotive, tlu' "link-motion," the ealorie en;;ine, aiul the
HPlvw propeller. l>isiMiiirai;eil in Kiiuhkiid, he eaiin! to the Cnitetl States in
iS.'Ht, where lie revolntiuiii/nl naval warfare hy applying tin- screw pio|Mller
to the r. S. S. I'riiiirtiin. ami eniployin^' a r.tn^'e linihr. In |S.M he in-
vented the .Monitor iron-elail on prineiplen tirHt a|)plif<l in the .Monitor which
defeated tin- Merrimae in Hampton h'oads. Viri;inia, .March '.*. \StVJ. His
eareer was sl^Mlall/ed lis maii.v other valiiaMi* invent ions.
Alexander (irahain llidl, iMirn Mardi .'t. |.s|(l, U'side.s exploiting in .\nn*ric!i
his father's ..diialde system of iiistiiictiin to deaf nintes. typifies the inven-
tive spirit of his a.i;e hy his eonlriliiitmn to pnlilic pincies^ thron^'li the
material siih', uh oxt'inplit'ed in that in(lis|NMisalile aid to miHiern life, tlip
lelephoni. 'with the i iveiitioii of which he is generally. Imt liy no ineaiis
nndi-^piilcdiy. iicdited.
Thoina.H .\lva Kdisoii (h. Kelunary 11, 1SI7) is a sph-iidid example of th»>
tireless, acute, and practical scieiitilic inveiitnr. and is wt II n.mied the idec-
trical "wizard." .Vmoie.^ the tiiiimpli> ot his -kill and k*'I*>u> are the auto-
imitic ttdejjraphic re|M'ater; the duplex teleijr.iph, afterwards developed into
the ipiadruplex and sextii|ilex traiismiller : the printing lelet^'rnph for stock
(piotatioiis; the carUm telephone tiin^niiUer; the u<*rophon<'; the in*-.;,!-
|ih(>iie and mierophnne; the pliiimii;raph and photometer; tltu iiicaiulescent
lamp; and ni.iny nt her de\ ices for electric lii-htinK'.
Nicola Tcsla (liorii tH.^iS), a tormer pupil and assistant ot Kdison, shares
with his master the hoimr of representing' the world's ^•reates^ ami m>>st
]ii'aetical of scientific inventors and discuvciers. His most mitcd investiga-
tions ami discoveries have Ih-cii alon^ the line of arousing; luminous vihra-
tioiis in matter, withinit, at the same time, settini; in actinn heat-vilirations.
He has made the reinarkalile discovery that '.MNt.iNNi volts may |>a.ss harm-
It'Msly throuu'h that lM>dy which L'tNNI would kill, and is «'X|N-rinientinf; to
produce ,'I,<HH),INHI \ ihrations a niiniile in matter. He has also shown that
iHith motors and lights can lie ojieratcd on one wire without ;i circuit His
nitarv motor is usinl in coiiveviiiK powvr from the Ki^>at phuit at Niai^arii
Falls.
Novi:i.isrs. — Sir Waller Scutt, of Scotland (li. Auifiist I.V 1771 : d. Spj»-
fcmlM-r '_'!, IS.'ll.'), extTted n powerful inHueiice on theliteratun>of the century
through thu medium of his stirring {Hietry uud delightful fiction, in ImiiIi of
which he w
striking *<><>
leiiee, and ;u|
ago.
(,'hurh's 1 1
exemplitiei
iiinoi
81'
cut.
Itishnt'
faulty in pi
marked a nc
palliics and :
.lames Ke
typifies ii lai
was a rcmail
hold, and h<
seems to till
tainu'd a wii
library of fii
Hj^,
KroCll-MAKHltS UF TIIK CKSTIfltY
wliiuh lie was iiiust ri'iuly iiuil |ir<)litii'. lli<« tiiiiiifiuiiH wi>rkH, ti'oiniiiK with
xinkiiiK NitiuiliiniM, stmiij; ami iiolilf in si\ le, uic iikmU-Is ut litoiarv I'xn'l.
U'lict', and ain iw cajitivaliiiK' to n-ailrrn of to-.|ay as tlify wuic halt a i-fiitiiiy
UKo.
Cliarlfs Dii'kt'iis, ot Knutaml (ii. Kiluuarv 7. 18IL,'; d. .Jmu- '.», IHTU). alily
«>Xt'iii|iliti<'<l that sciiool ot iiov«!lists wlic, paint lionu'lv social lili' willi all it8
innoi'i'Mt, (iiiuisy ctToits at hnnmr; its smrows. vaniiu's, ami wt'akm-ssi'H; its
scllishni'Hs, nialiff, ami vii'i*; it.s wrongs, snlliiin«s. ami KiMnhn'sm-s. Tliounii
-II! W \l IKII -COTT
faulty ill l>l"t ami styh- ami li.li.Mil.ui.s in tinir .>xa!,'(,'»!fatinns. iiis novols
inaiki'tl a m-w mi in liti-iatuif, ami no lHM)k.s »?v.'r so upi^'al'il to tin- syin-
patiiii's ami j^ooil iiii|inls»'s of rcaiii'is.
.lam.'s K.Miiniorc Cooimt (It. Sf|it.-nilKT I."». 17S'.t; d. S.'pt.-mlier 14, isr.l)
typitii's 11 lai'K'o and appairntly .Midnrinf,' ••hws of ti.tion writfis of whicli Im-
was a ivniarkalil." foivniiin.-r ; lliat s.-h.-ol ..f m.v.-lists whod.'al with stuniiK',
bohl. and h.'althhil advcntniv. in wiii.-h tlu- An^do-Saxnn ii'ind i.aili.nlaily
HOPiiis to lind nnfailinj,' delight. lU.th at home and abroad, his nov.ds at-
tiiined a wid.-, sn.ld.-n. and wrll-d.-siTv.vl pupidaiity. And to this day no
library t>f tiution is tunipU'tc without tlu-ju.
MMi
IMAGE EVALUATION
TEST TARGET (MT-3)
1.0
1.1
11.25
1^1^ 12.5
itt lii 122
!£ La 12.0
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ScMices
Corporation
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(716)872-4503
CHABLES DICKENS.
716 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX'" CENTURY
Nathaniel Hawtliorne (b. July 4, 1804; d. May 18, 18G4) exhibits iu his
numerous hctiomil works a man's breadth and strength of imagination and
a woman's quick perception and spiritual insight. Almost gloomy in color,
overhung with impending fate, and often uncanny, his stories are yet always
fascinating. As has been well said, one catches in them "gleamin^r ^yit,
tender satire, excjuisito natural description, subtle and strange analy"is of
human life, darkly i)assionnte and wciid."
Count Leo (or Lyoff) Alekseevich Tdlstoi
(b. August 28, 1828) is a Russian aristocrat
by birth, but has assumed the dress and
life of a peasant, the better to exploit, his
doctrines respecting non - resistance, com-
munism, labor, religion, politics, govern-
ment, and society. His numerous writings
show a combination of keenness of realistic
insight and wealth of poetical imagination,
of a wonderful breadth of view with per-
fect handling of minute detail, seldor.i ri-
valed in all literature. Whether or not lie
will prove to be the forerunner of a great
revolution in the world's national and so-
cial life, there is no disputing his genius
and pertinacity.
Edward George Earle Bulwer (Baron Lytton), of England (b. ^May 25,
1803; d. January 18, 1873), was novelist, poet, dramatist, and essayist, and
ranked as one of the most versatile and classical authors of the century.
Through his plays, poetry, and novels he introduced a new literary era, and
was the leader, if not actual founder, of the school of melodramatic ro-
mance.
Harriet Elizabeth Beecher Stowe (b. June 14, 1811 ; d. July 1, 1896) ac-
quired great fame as authoress of the epoch-making book, " Uncle Tom's
Cabin." It proved to be a powerful contribution to the anti-slavery cause,
and served to electrify readers in twenty different languages. In dramatized
form it has delighted millions of auditors. The authoress represents
woman's efforts for the overthrow of slavery; efforts she put forth modestly,
completely unconscious of their great power and future influence.
George Eliot, pseudonym of Marian Evans, afterwards Mrs. Lewes, then
Mrs. Cross, of England (b. November 22, 1819; d. December 22, 1880), was
one of the ablest of the world's female novelists, and had but few equals
among men. She was a leading epoch-maker in that introspective school
which always with astonishing skill uses the " plot " in all its events, environ-
ments, and circumstances to develop each character in strict logical accord,
whether for good or evil.
Victor Hugo, of France (b. February 26, 1802; d. May 22, 1885), was, in
his day, the most popular author who has ever lived. Few poems, no
drama, and absolutely no novel have ever produced the immediate and
tremendous effect of his earlier jioems, his " Hernani," and his " Les Mise-
rables." Through " Hemani " he completely defeated the classic school and
became the leader of the romantic school of revolutionary individualists, thus
creating a
l)rose whic
imagery an
ToETS. —
April 19, 1
powers, mi
yet exhibit
/
He created
melancholy
side of his
about them
istics to a
absorbing ri
Henry Vii
sibly the ce
poet of gre
EPOCH-MAKERS OF THE CENTURY
717
creating a new epoch in literature. He invented novelties in poetry and
prose which produced strength, variety, delicacy, harmony, and richness of
imagery and coloring, absolutely unparalleled and original.
Poets. — Lord George Gordon Byron, of England (b. January 22, 1788; d.
April 1% 1824), is a remarkable instance of a poet of marvelous natural
powers, mingling good and evil in accordance with the whim that took him ;
yet exhibiting distinctly, through it all, evidences of a great soul and genius.
LORD HYRON.
He created an epoch in the world's poetic literature. Skeptical, cynical,
melancholy even to sentimentality, and skillfully manipulating the public
side of his affairs to keep up a most fascinating air of romantic mystery
about them all, he succeeded in affecting public thought with these character-
istics to a wonderful extent. As a result, " Byronism," for a time, was the
absorbing rage in all prominent circles, literary and even social.
Henry W. Longfellow (b. February 27, 1807 ; d. March 24, 1882) is pos-
sibly the century's finest type of the people's poet. Though by no means a
poet of great imaginative or creative powers, yet few reached his perfect
718
TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX™ CENTURY
skill as a painstaking and unerring artist ; while none have ever surpassed
him in creating that atmosphere of subtile beauty wliich always seems to
surround and penetrate his verse. As an epoch-maker his influence extended
even to Europe, and especially to England, securing liim a fame wider and
greater than that of any other American poet, and rarely failing to win the
enduring affection of all kinds of readers.
John Greenleaf Whittier (b. December 17, 1807 ; d. .September 7, 1892), as
an editor and poet contributed no little to the cause of the abolitionists.
Together with Longfellow, Holmes, Lowell, Hawthoriits, and Emerson, he
may be considered an epoch-maker in the development of American litera-
ture as guided by the spirit of New England. He types the sweet, simple,
and absolutely sincere poet whose verse breathes forth a strong patriotism,
and is redolent of the healthful home life of tlie Eastern States.
Sir Alfred Tennyson, of England (b. August G, 1809 ; d. October 0, 1892),
was by far the leading representative of those English poets wlio, while not
wanting in the lire and spontaneity of true genius, nevertheless wrote care-
fully, after long reflection, with calculation and toil, as to diction, polish,
and arrangement of sentences and tlioughts. His highly-wrought " In Me-
moriam " and his exquisite, though somewliat sensuous " Id} Is of the King "
were absolutely novel, and mark an epoch in tlie ' ' "^ory of the world's
poetry.
Elizabeth Barrett Browning (b. 1809 ; d. June 29, 1861) is, without doubt,
the greatest poetess of the present century and probably of any other. She
presents an extraordinary instance of the grasp, comprehensiveness, and logic
of man's intellect, united Avith the intuitions, deep emotions, impulses, and
visions of woman. Her especial contribution to the progress of this century
is not only to the wealth of its poetry, but also to the careful and discriminat-
ing consideration of many of its social problems.
Robert Browning (b. in London, May 7, 1812 ; d. in Venice, December 12,
1889) was the foremost of psychological poets. Belonging to " The Komantic
School," he created an epoch in literature by carrying his high ideals and
wonderful efforts of genius ovev into what became known as " The Spasmo-
dic School."
Actors. — Edmund Keene, of England (b. 1787 ; d. May 15, 1833), was one
of the greatest and most popular actors of all time. He typified, and greatly
contributed to the success of, that school of actors wlio rely almost solely on
their own native genius and acquired powers, rather than on the aid of
externals. He has been called both the " Byron " and the " Napoleon " of
actors, and seemed to have the most extraordinary power both of catching
and revealing the meaning of Sliakespeare, with the quickness and vividness
of the lightning flash.
Edwin Forrest (b. March 9, 1806 ; d. December 12, 1872) was a tragedian
of the robust type. His success upon the stage was signal, owing to natural
genius, superb form, and noble presence. For more than a generation he
rendered effective and kept popular the leading tragedies of Shakespeare,
and others suited to his powers. The Actors' Home at Philadelphia was
endowed by him, and stands as his monument.
Edwin T. Booth (b. November 13, 1833; d. June 7, 1893) stood as the
exponent of the refined and lofty in drama. Through his rare histrionic
po^vers he be(
Shylock, Lea'
advantage th;
home. He e:
in New York
Charlotte ?
her histrionic
memorable r
Macbeth, l>ia
Merrilies. S
and her skill,
the admirati
Tommaso
severely tragi
through his g
scries. He
stage. Powe
elocution, in
world, althou
Sir Henry
in 1838, and
so much on g
tion to detail
history of th
look away frc
and accessori
Lyric Dk.
17, 1770 ; d. :
cal geniuses,
of imaginatic
"Fidelio," is
matic music,
to lead in th
lieved to havi
the field of oi
Charles F.
instance of a
the opera of
and success,
popularity,
much to advji
Robert Scl
of the creato:
but a teache
next to thos
and wild, mo
Felix ^leni
was as lovel
organ, or ora
EPOCH-MAKERS OF THE CENTURY
719
powers he became a recognized interpreter of such characters as Richard III.,
Shylock, Lear, lago, Utlidlo, Brutus, etc., but he never appeared to better
advantage than in Hamlet. Hi.s ability was as fully recognized abroad as at
home. He expended $175,000 in establishing the Players' House and Club
in New York.
Charlotte S. Cushman (b. July 23, ISKi; d. February IS, 187()) first won
her histrionic lionors in opera. Her voice failed, and then she began her
memorable career as actress, her most famous personations being Lady
Macbeth, Hianca, Julia, Beatrice, Lady Teazle, Queen Katharine, and Meg
A[errilies. She readily ranked with the great dranuxtic artists of the century,
and her skill, native and accpiired, divided with her own splendid character
the admiration of the general public.
Tommaso Salvini (b. January, 1830) demonstrates that now very rare and
severely tragic school of the stage in which the actor appeals to the public
through his genius and art, rather than through his environments and acces-
sories. He thus belongs to an apparently closing era in the history of the
stage. Powerful, passionate yet self-controlled, magnificent in physitpie, in
elocution, in reading and in deportment, as an actor he really belongs to the
world, although Italian in both spirit and training.
Sir Henry Irving (or really John Henry Uroadrib), of England, was born
in 1838, iind is the leader of that modern school of actors, who dejiend not
so much on good reading, acting and general elocution as upon careful atten-
tion to details in stage-setting and presentation. As an epoch-maker in the
history of the modern dranui, he marks that point where the actor begins to
look away from his own personal art to that displayed in his surroundings
and accessories.
Lykk" Dramatists. — Ludwig van Beethoven, of Germany (b. December
1", 1770 ; d. March 20, 1827), is widely held to be the most colossal of musi-
cal geniuses, in breadth and grasp of intellect, in vastness and boldness
of imagination, and in depth and tenderness of emotion. His one opera,
" Fidelio," is by many considered to be unrivaled in the realm of pure dra-
matic music. His sonatas and chamber music are generally conceded easily
to lead in those two departments, while his symphonies are universally be-
lieved to have reached the utmost limit of development which is possible in
the field of orchestral composition.
Charles F. Gounod, of France (b. June 17, 1818 ; d. October 18, 1893), is an
instance of a composer whose permanent fame must rest on but one work,
the opera of " Faust," in which he reached the utmost height of his powers
and success. No opera has ever had such instant, universal, and constant
popularity. Eclectic in style, and faithful and enthusiastic in his art, he did
much to advance the progress of religious and operatic music in France.
Robert Schumann, of Saxony (b. June 8, 1810 ; d. July 29, 1856) was one
of the creators of the romantic school of nmsic. He was not a piano player,
but a teacher and composer. His symphonies have been accorded a rank
next to those of Beethoven, and for their deep pathos, fine, intense passion
and wild, mournful beauty many of his compositions are almost peerless.
Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (b. February 5, 1809 ; d. November 4, 1847)
was as lovely in character as in works. In symphony, song, piano-forte,
organ, or oratorio, he showed himself worthy of being classed with the great
790 TRIUMPHS AND WONDERS OF THE XIX^" CENTURY
musical masters. His compositions suffered eclipse for a time by those of a
stronger school, but his true position in the musical world is once more be-
coming recognized.
Franz Schubert, of Austria (b. January 31, 1797 ; d. November 10, 1829),
has been called •' the immortal melodist." His fecundity was marvelous, and
he is best known by Ins songs, several hundred in number, and nearly half of
which have immortal quality. He also composed many charming sympho-
nies and operas. His chief characteristics are the freshness of his delight-
ful melodies supported by harmonies of equal interest.
Anton Gregor Rubinstein, of Kussia (b. November 30, 1830; d. November
20, 1894), combined the brilliant pianist with the composer of genius. Hi
he not been preceded by Liszt as an epoch maker, he would undoubtedly
have had the honor of being first of all great pianists.
Frederic F. Chopin, of Poland (b. March 1, 1809; d. October 17, 1849), was
one of the Hrst of pianists and musical composers. His playing, like his
music, was markeil by a strange and ravishing grace, and he was the great
interpreter of the music of his native country. He composed concertos,
waltzes, nocturnes, ijreludes, and mazurkas abounding in poetic fancy and
subtle harmonic effects.
Jacques Offenbach, of France (b. June 21, 1819 ; d. October 4, 1880), was
the chief creator of the opera bouffe, and was an astonishingly prolific com-
poser. He stands for the clever, tactful musician, shrewd to perceive and
quick to seize what catches the public ear for the time being.
Franz Liszt, of Hungary (b (Jctober 22, 1811 ; d. July 31, 1886), ranks as
one of the world's jdienomenul pianists. His strength and technique were
prodigious, his magnetism irresistible, and his power over audiences un-
equaled. By his free, fantastic compositions he created a new school of
composers. He gave extraordinary aid and inspiration to other musicians,
and in reality brought Richard Wagner into prominence before the nuisical
world.
Richard Wagner, of Germany (b. May 22, 1813 ; d. February 13, 1883),
early abandoned Beethoven as an operatic model, and felt that a new era i
music was about to dawn. His nuisical theories first found full swing in
his famous opera of the "Nibelungen Ring," with which, and kindred produc-
tions, he practically created the modern music-drama. In his operas he was
sole author of their wonderful wealth of true poetry, stage effects, dramatic
action, and endless melody. No musician has ever made such bitter foes and
warm friends, and none ever had to fight his way so stubbornly to recogni-
tion.
Giuseppe Verdi, of Italy (b. October 9, 1813), is one of the most remarkable
musical composers of the century, in the respect that his talent has not
failed with age, but has kept pace with the great changes which have affected
the dramatic stage since his youth. In the beauty of his melodies and the
intensity of his dramatic powers he is unsurpassed. Very few, indeed, of
his numerous productions have failed to hold exalted ])lace in public estima-
tion. His best-known works are "II Trovatore." "La Traviata," "Rigoletto,"
"Rallo in Maschera," "Aida," "Otello," and "Fal staff, "the latter written iu
1893, when the author had reached the age of eighty,
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