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■^■Miifti

BRITISH AMERICA.

VOL. I.

.■ *■.

f*ll.^ or NIAGARA.

OLIVEB & BOYD, EDINBURGH.

HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE

ACCOUNT

BRITISH AMERICA;

rOMPIIBHIINDI!<rO

CANADA UPPEK AND LOWER,

.NOVA SCOTIA, Ni:W HRUNSWICK, NKWFOUNDLAND,

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, TIIK I1KRMUDA8,

AND THE FUR CUUNTRIl!^ :

TIIBIR HISTORY rROM THB lARLIMT ■■TTLBM«NT ; THB BTATIMTICK A (U

ropoOBAPHv or bach district; thrir commbrcb, aoricultvrb, amu

PISHBRIBS; THBIR SOCIAL and political, condition; AS ALSO AN ACCOl NT
or THB MANNKR8 AND PRBSBNT BTATB or THB ABORIHINAL TRIBBS ;

TO wnirn u aiidiii,
A rOLL OBTAIL Ot THB PRINCrPLRH AND BBHT MOOBB OW

£MIORATION.
BY HUGH MURRAY, F.R.S.E.

♦ WITH

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY,

BY JAMES WILSON, F.R.S.K. & M.W.S.

R. K. GREVILLE, LL.D.

AND PROFESSOR TRAILL.

SIX MAPS BY WRIOHT, AND TKN BNORAVINOS BY JACKSON.

IN THREE VOLUMES.

VOL. I.

SECOND EDITION.

li^

EDINBURGH :
OLIVER & BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT ;

AND SIMPEIN, MARSHALL, & CO. LONDON.
MDCCCXXXIX.

ENTERBD IN STATIONERS* HALL.

Printed by Oliver & Boyd,
Tweeddale Court, High Street, Edinburgh.

^%'\^'\

i .■

PREFACE.

The Work now submitted to the Public will, it is hoped,
equal in the interest of its subject any hitherto included
in the Edinburgh Cabinet Library. The territories
of British America, even after having lost enough to
constitute one of the greatest states in the world, embrace
a very large proportion of the earth's surface, and pre-
sent natural features at once extremely grand and
romantic. The native inhabitants were distinguished
by enc^y and intelligence above all the other rude
tribes of the Western Continent, and displayed, perhaps
beyond any similar race, the most striking peculiarities
of savage life. Their long and fierce struggles, before
yielding to the superior numbers and martial skill of
Europeans, gave rise to scenes much more interesting
than ever diversify the routine of civilized warfare.
Finally, the exploits by which those regions were added
to the dominion of Britain are readily acknowledged to
rank among the most brilliant that adorn her annals in
any age.

These colonies, too, have acquired an augmented im-
portance from the great changes effected in our own times.
Their rich and varied products, their vast extent, and the
strong direction which emigrants from Britain have taken
towards their shores, encourage the expectation that they
will one day become the seat of great nations, equalling
or even surpassing the power of the mother-country. A
deep interest is naturally felt in their future prospects^

V\i

I ' i

^ ^*«i

iS5 1

PREFACE.

more especially when connected with the numbers,
amounting during the last twenty years to nearly half a
million, who have removed thither from various parts of
the United Kingdom. Hen c it has happened that many
among us, who do not even know an individual hi the
adjacent county, find themselves hound, not by friendship
only, but by the most intimate ties, with the dwellers in
those transatlantic regions. All such persons must be de-
sirous to receive information in regard to the capabilities
of the country in which their friends are placed, and the
hopes that may be entertained as to their future prospe-
rity in that distant land. It may be added, that to the
merchant and manufacturer, British America affords a
market already very important, and susceptible of al-
most indefinite enlargement.

The Author, thus deeply impressed with the import-
ance of his task, has anxiously sought every means of
rendering its performance complete and satisfactory. In
tracing the condition and history of the aboriginal tribes,
as influenced by the early settlement of Europeans, he
has had access to extensive works and collections in the
French language, to which fci-mer writers in this country
appear to have been strangers. He has devoted much
attention to the still more important object of delineat-
ing the statistics and present state of ihe colonies ; an
undertaking which was attended with considerable dif-
ficulty, on account of the rapid changes which have re-
cently occurred, and rendered all previous information
in a great measure useless. Hence, besides the works
of Bouchette, McGregor, Martui, and others, it was neces-
sary to examine the tables published by the Board of
Trade, the voluminous reports laid before Parliament,
and to compare them with the narratives of the latest
travellers and residents.

PREFACE.

Even with all tliese resources, it was found impossi])le
to render tlic infonnation complete, without obtainmg
personal communications from various quarters. It is
gratifying to the Author to mention, that on the mere
statement of his object, and of the name of the Work for
which he was collecting materials, the most valuable intel-
ligence was cheerfully conveyed to him. Particular ac-
knowledgments are due to IMr Simpson, the enlighteni'd
resident governor of the Hudson'sBay Establishment, who
fortunately happened to be in England. An ill-founded
impression, that the Company sought to shroud its trans-
actions in mystery, had, it appears, deterred former in-
quirers. The Author, however, upon making an applica-
tion, was met with a liberality almost unexampled, and
was furnished with a large store of original information
respecting their trade, and the general state of the fur
countries.

A very well-informed gentleman, who long carried
on mercantile transactions, and still maintains an exten-
sive coiTcspondence in Canada, contributed the valuable
chapter on the commerce of the two provinces. An intel-
ligent friend, filling an important situation at St John,
Newfoundland, transmitted full and recent statistical de-
tails relative to that interesting colony. Respecting Prince
Edward Island, very useful materials were frankly sup-
plied by Mr Stewart, a gentleman deeply concerned there
both as proprietor and manager. To Mr Bruyeres and
other distinguished persons connected with the Land
Companies, the Author is indebted for several important
communications. From other sources of high authority,
which cannot here be fully particularized, valuable in-
formation, otherwise inaccessible, has been obtained.

The reader will appreciate one peculiar difficulty
under which the Author laboured, namely, that while

I :

PREFACE.

Ill-

he was composing the Work, and even superintending its
j)a8sage through the press, the subject was undergoing an
incessant change ; and at length the principal provinces
became the theatre of some very momentous occurrences.
He has assiduously studied to trace, by means of the most
authentic documents, the course of those events, and to
exhibit them in a condensed and connected view. He
hopes that he has thereby conveyed to the general reader
a more distinct idea of their nature than could have been
derived from scattered notices in the daily journals. At
a crisis so important, when the two principal colonies are
about to receive a new form, he has felt himself justified
in sul)mitting such reflections on the various methods
proposed as a long study of the subject has suggested to
him. These, however, he has anxiously sought to rest,
not upon ephemeral interests, or the exclusive reasoning
of any political party, but upon enlarged views of history
and government, which ought alone to guide legislatore
in so important a measure, of which the consequences
will be so serious and so durable.

Emigration, the most important light under which
British America can be viewed, will be found to liave
occupied a very prominent place in the writer's re-
searches. He has endeavoured to supply the intending
settler with more comprehensive and precise details than
liave liitherto been collected. The prospects which will
open to the emigrant, the course wliicli he ought to
pursue, the difficulties to be encountered, and the best
means of overcoming them, have been considered at full
length. In subservience to this object, a very minute
account has been given of the different districts, their
situation, climate, and soil, in connexion -with their
natural and acquired advantages of every description.

The different branches of Natural History, — Zoology,

PREPACK.

Botany, and Geology, — have been very carefully illus-
trated by Mr Wilson, DrGrcville,and Professor Traill, —
gentlemen whose names afford a sufficient guanmtee for
the value and accuracy of their information. These
ample deUiils, combined with others in a former volume
of the scries, wUl present an instructive view of tliose
remarkable features which Nature displays througiiout
the northern part of the American Continent.

To illustrate these various subjects the utmost care
has been taken to prepare a series of Maps, exliibiting
at once the general geography of British America and
its most important localities. One, on a large scale,
comprehends all the provinces already occupied, while
four of smaller dimensions show the topography of those
districts in Lower and Upper Canada which are best
adapted for settlement. Various divisions and towns
that have recently sprung up, and could not be in-
cluded in any former map, have been carefully marked.
To the Thu'd Volume is annexed a delineation of the
whole of the Northern and Western Regions which fonn
the theatre of the fur-trade and of those recent expedi-
tions which had for their object an extended knowledge
of the remote shores and neighbouring seas. The most
picturesque features of costume and scenery have been
made the subject of wood-engravings by Mr Jackson.

■ I

June 17v 1839.

) f

OEVI

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CONTENTS OP VOL. I.

CHAPTER I.

OEVEIIAL VIEW OF BRITISH AMERICA, AND PARTICULARLY

OF CANADA.

Extent and Boundaries —General Aspect— Limits of the present
Work— Canada, its Boundaries and {general Features — Lakes —
Superior— Huron— St Clair— Erie— Niagara Channel — Lake
Ontario— Islands and Rapids of the St Lawrence — The Ottawa
—The St Lawrence from Montreal to Quebec — Its lower Course
—This Region remarkable for its Waterfals- Niagara— Its
Description — Supposed Changes in its Position — Climate — How
it differs from that of Europe — Effects on Agriculture— Boundary
Question with the United States — Reference to the King of
Holland— Its Issue, Page 17

CHAPTER II.

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING CANADA AND ITS

BORDERS.

P^caliar Condition of those Tribes — Their Physical Character —
Form — Colour— Hair and Beard — Bodily Strength — Dress— Or-

CONTEXTS.

naments— Painting and Tattooing of the Skin— Modes of Sub-
sistence — Hunting — Cultivation — Food — Houses — Canoes —
Spirit of Independence — Internal Order— Marriaj^es — Rearing;
of Children— Intellei-tual Character — Oratory — Style of Compo-
sition — Religious Ideas — Importance attached to Dreams — The
Manitou — Ideas of a Future State — Reverence for the Dead —
Ceremonies of Interment — Superstitious Modes of curing the
Sick — Indian Wars — Their Motives — Preparations — March —
Mo<les of attacking and surprising the Enemy — Return — Treat-
ment of Prisoners; Tortures; Ad<jption — Treaties — Indian
Amusements — Music — Dancing — Smoking — Games — Different
Tribes inhabiting Canada and its Borders, Page 44

CHAPTER III.

HISTORY OF CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH.

Earliest Discoveries of the English and French — De la Roche —
Chauvin and Pontgrave — De Monts — Champlain, employed by
him, ascends the St Lawrence — Founds Quebec — Dealings with
a Party of Natives — Joins a warlike Expedition — Victory —
Torture — Transactions in France— Fresh military Encounter —
Foundation of Montreal — Various Transactions — Voyage up the
Ottawa — Great Expedition against the Iroquois — Unsuccessful —
Difficulties in France — Appointment of De Caen — Peace among
the Indian Tribes — Duke de Ventadour Viceroy — Rupture of
the Treaty — Quebec taken by the English — Restored — Lai^^e
Supplies sent out — Death of Champlain — Great Power of the
Five Nations — Treaty with them — War renewed — Destruction
of the French Indian Allies — A Remnant flee to Quebec — Iro(j[uois
Masters of Canada — Loub XIV. determines to reinibrce the
Colony — Expedition under De Trac}' — Government of De Cour-
celies — Frontenac — De la Barre — His fruitless Expedition —

CONTENTS.

Denonville— His violent Proceedinj^? — Critical State of the Co-
lony — Second Government of Frontenac — Capture of Corlaer or
Schenectady — The Fnfj^lish under Phipps attack Quebec — Re-
pulsed— Nej^otiations with the Indians — Invasion of their Ter-
ritory — Death of Frontenac — De Callieres — Peace, and speedy
Renewal of War — Attempts by the Engli.sli to concjuer Canada —
Treaty of Utrecht — Charlevoix's Account of the State of the C<j-
lony— Its Prosperity — Administration of Du Quesne, Pnj^e 97

CHArTER IV.

HISTOnY OF CANADA UXDER THE BRITISH.

War between Great Britain and France — Advantages f^ained by
the latter — Expedition against Canada under Wolfe — His first
Repulse— Lands a second Time — Victory — Death — Concjuestof
Canada — State of the Population — Their good Treatment — Re-
fuse to join the Rebellion by the United Colonies — The latter
invade Canada — Siege of Quebec — Repulse and Death of 3Iont-
gomery — Americans driven out of Canada — A Constitution grant-
ed — Division into Upper and Lower — Rise of Internal Dissen-
sion — War with the United States — Advantages gained by Britain
on the western Frontier — On the Niagara, &c. — The Ameri-
cans take York (Toronto) and Fort George — Obliged to retreat —
Their Successes in the West — Fruitless Attempt on Montreal —
Events on the Niagara Frontier — Large Reinforcements from
England — Failure of Sir George Prevost— Peace — Discontents
of the Assembly — Administration of the Duke of Richmond —
Earl of Dalhousie — Sir James Kempt — Lord Aylmer — Increased
Discontent — Commission of Inquiry — Earl of Gosford — Assem-
bly still refuse Supplies — Resolutions of the British Parliament —
Disturbances in Canada — Insurrection — Suppressed — Political
Movements in Upper Canada — Sir Francis Head Governor —

I r

ii.

H 1

I ii

CONTENTS.

Rising and Defeat of Mackenzie — Aggressions from the United
States — Conduct of their Government — Mijision of the Karl of
Durham— Recent Events, Page 173

CHAPTER V.

TOPOGRAl'IIV OF LOWER CANADA.

Boundaries — Surface — Divisions — District of Quebec — City of that
Name — Situation; Edifices; Upper and Imwct Town; Vici-
nity — Fall of Montraoreiici— Isle of Orleans — Tadoussac and
the Sajfuenay — Lower Coast — Shores above Quebec — Trois
Rivieres, Town and District — Montreal District — City— Ca-
tholic Cathedral — Other Edifices — Rural Districts — Settlements
on the Ottawa — Country South of the St Lawrence — Settlements
on tlie Richelieu — Southern Part of Trois Rivieres District —
Eastern Townships — American Land Company's Territory —
Southern Part of Quebec— Townships — Lower Shores of the St
Lawrence — Gaspe — General Summary, 241

CHAPTER VI.

TOPOGRAPIIV OF UPPER CANADA.

Boundaries — Surface and Extent — Progress of Settlement and
Cultivation — Climate and Soil — Divisions — Eastern Division —
Eastern District — Johnstown — Bathurst ; Perth and Bytown —
Central Division— Midland District — Town of Kingston — New-
castle District ; Coburg and Port Hope; Peterborough — Home
District — City of Toronto — Settlements on Lake Simcoe — West-
ern Section — Its early Settlement — Gore District — Canada
Company — Guelph — Gait — NiagaraDistrict-— Town — Queenston

CONTKNTS.

— Falls— London District; Colonel Talbot ; Town of London —
Huron Tract; Goderich — Western District; AnUierstburj; and
Sandwich— General Summary, ^<^ -^-^

CHAPTEll VI I.

AGUICUI.TURE OF CANADA.

Local Peculiarities — The Climate— The unbroken Forest— Mode
of Clearing' — Ashes — Soil indicated by the Timber— First Crops
— Wheat — Other Grains — Grasses, Flax, Hemp, Tobacco — Live
Stock, Quality and Treatment — Horticulture— Floriculture —
Maple Sugar — Agricultural Processes — Hunting and Shooting
—Fishery, 331

ENGRAVINGS IN VOL. I.

Mai> of British America To face the yipneite.

ViGNtTTE — Falls of Niagara.

Native Indian Costumes, Poge 50

Tattooed Indian, 63

Infant in a Frame, Bfi

Indian Warrior, 84

Map of Eastern Townships, To face page 2^A

Map of Eastern Districts, To face page 291

Map of Central Districts, To face page 301

Map of Western Districts, To face page 312

(

f'\

HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE
ACCOUNT

BRITISH AMERICA.

CHAPTKR I.

Gvnernl View of British America, and particularly of

Canada.

Kxtent and Boundaries —General Aspect — I -imits of the present
Work — Canada, its Boundaries ami {general Features — Lakes —
Superior — Huron — St Clair — Erie— Niajjara Channel — Lake
Ontario— islands and Rapids of the St Lawrence — The Ottawa
— The St Lawrence from Montreal to Quelwc — Its lower Course
— This Region remarkahle for its WatoHais — Nia^^ara — It.s
Description — Supposed Chanj^es in its Position — Climate — How-
it differs from that of Kurojx? — Effects on A^mculture — Boundary
Question with the United States — Reference to the Kin^ of
Holland — Its Issue.

That portion of North America chiimcd hy Britain, and
which is generally recoj,nii!5i'd by the civilized world as
belonging to her, fonns a region of immense extent,
embracing consideraldy more tlian a third part of thi;
entire continent. On the nortii its boundary is the
coast of the Arctic Ocean, westward as far as the 141st
degree of longitude. The region beyond, by a treaty
concluded in 1825, was assigned to Russia, though the
survey of its shores, still very incomplete, has been

VOL. I. A

I r

i: I

GENERAL VIEW OF

chiefly effected hy British navigators. The line of the
northern shore runs nearly ahjng the TOtli parallel of
latitude, though at different points it slightly deviates
from it. All tlu^ large islands in the Arctic Sea helong
also, l)y right of discovery, to England ; though their
value, unconnected with the several fisheries, is hy no
means considerable.

The eastern limit, coinciding also with that of the
continent, is formed by the Atlantic and its bays, from
the Strait of the Fury and llecla, in about lat. 70° N.,
to the mouth of the St Croix, the southei-n boundary of
New Brunswick, in lat. 45° 5' N. Along this coast, too,
Britain has several large islands ; on the north. Cock-
burn and Cumberland ; farther south, Newfoundland,
with the exception of a small portion occupied by
France ; and tbose of Cape Breton and Prince Edward
in the Gulf of" St Lawrence.

From the St Croix, the southern boundary extends
in a long irregular line across the continent. After in-
cluding New Brunswick and a large part of Canada, it
strikes the St La\vrencc at St Regis, in long. 7*1° 45' W.
about sixty miles above Montreal. From that point the
river, with its grand chain of connected lakes, divides the
British territory from the United vStates. Commencing
again at the head of Superior, the frontier stretches
to the north-western angle of the Lake of the Woods,
in lat. 40° 20' N. ; and following this parallel it runs
across the continent to the Rocky Mountains, beyond
which considerable uncertainty prevails. By a con-
vention signed at London in October 1818, all questions
connected with this remote region were left open for ten
years ; but that period was allowed to elapse without
any decision being formed on the subject. The United
States, Britain, and Russia, advance respectively cer-
tain pretensions which do not well harmonize, but
these our present object does not lead us to examine
minutely. Farther north, however, the boundary of
the provinces claimed by the court of St Petersburgh
has been fixed in a direct line along the 141st degree of

BRITISH AMERICA.

west lonffitudo, extending from Mount St Elias to the
Arctic Occcan.*

The British dominions in America .are understood to he
situated Ijetween the parallels of 41° 47' and 7H° north
latitude, and hetween 52° and 141° of west hmuitude. It
may l)e ohserved, however, that the eastern and northern
houndaries are hotli insular, and comprehi-nd vast tracts
of ocean. If we assume limits on the mainland, we nuist
take, on the cast. Cape Charles in Lahrador, in about
long-. .55° .30' W. ; and on the north, Ca])e Clarence in
Boothia, in about lat. 74° N. ; though indeed on the latter
side no considerable mass of the continent extends be-
yond 70°. Thus the whole area amounts to nearly
4,000,000 square miles. Of this vast space the greater
j)ortion wears an aspect peculiarly dreary, ])eing buritd
the greater part of the year in snow, and ])roducing
nothing valuable except the skins and furs of the Avild
animals that roam over its surface. Yet there seems
rciison to think that, as cultivation advances and the
means of intercourse are im])roved, very extensive tracts
may be found fitted for all the productions of the tem-
})erate zone.

The tenure bv which Britain holds the larg:er share of
these wild domains is of a peculiar and somewhat equi-
vocal nature. Her claim, which is not admitted by
the original owners, is allowed only by other powers
equally destitute with herself of any natural right ; and
yet, when we consider that though she (lis})osscsses a few
naked savages, she plants numerous colonies consisting
of a civilized and industrious ])opulation, there will ap-
pear little reason to condenm her conduct. If ]>rovision
be duly made for the subsistence and wellbeing of the
natives, it will be acknowledged that the benefits of
European occupation are so great as fully to compensate
for any defect in the title.

It is not, however, our intention t*) take a minute

* Boucliette, British Dominions in North America (2 vols 4to,
London, 1831), vol. i. pp. lU, 13-18.

I* ■SSI

GENERAL VIEW OF

\i i

survey of those outer tracts, many of which are un-
known to Britain lierself, and whose inhal)itants haA-^e
never heard lier name. These have hecn the object of
recent discoverv, the results of wliich have been satis-
factorilv stated in a former volume of the Edinbura-h Ca-
binet Library .'•''■ The present work will relate to the
smaller, but more important part, which has been regu-
larly reduced into pro vinces,an(l is gradually falling under
cultivation ; com])rehending Canada Upper and Lower,
Ts^ova Scotia, New Brunswick, Cape Breton, Prince
Edward Island, and Newfoundland, with certain detached
settlements on the shores of Labrador and Hudson's Bay.

These colonies are naturally divided into two classes,
distinct in their situation and character : 1. The in-
land provinces, watered only by great lakes and rivers ;
and, 2. The maritime ])rovinces, or such as extend along
the shores of the Atlantic.

Canada, Uj)])er and Lower, is as yet the only part of
British America which belongs to the first class. Though
forming, as it were, only one country, it is more exten-
sive, more productive, and more populous than all the
maritime provinces united ; and besides, it is the prin-
cipal resort of emigrants from the mother-country. To
its history and description we shall therefore devote
the first ])ortion of this work.

Canada is bounded on the north by a range of hills
separating it from the territory of the Hudson's Bay
Company ; on the east, by Liibrador, the Gulf of St
Lawrence, and New Brunswick ; and on the south, by
the United States. The western limit is very vague ;
but usiige does not seem to extend it farther than Lake
Superior. Canada may therefore be described as lying
between the meridians of 57° 50' and 90° \V., and the
parallels of 42° and 52° N. ; being about 1300 miles from
east to west, and 700 from north to south. The area is
estimated at 348,000 square miles.f

* No IX. Historical View of the Progress of Discovery on the
more Northern Coasts of America.

t Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 03, 04, 173-102,

BRITISH AMERICA.

Canada, in a general view, consists of a very extensive
plain, situated ])etween two ranges of high hind ; one
on the north, separating it from the Hudson's Bay ter-
ritory, another on the south, dividing it from New
Brunswick and the United States. The grounds which
stretch ak)ng the ])ordei"s of the St Lawrence and the
hikes are esteemed the most vahiahle portion of it.
Neither of the ranges now mentioned aspires to an al-
pine character; nor, if we except Mars Hill in the dis-
puted territory, does any part of them appear to reach
2000 feet. But they extend over a vast surface, are
very hroken and rugged, covered with dense forests,
wliih^ torrents dash down their sides, filling the valleys
with numerous lakes. Botli on the north, in the upper
part of Quebec district, and on the south, in that of
Gaspe, the hills press on the hanks of the river,
givmg to it an air of much grandeur. Higher up they
recede, and form on either side a gradually- widening and
beautiful plain, susceptible of the most perfect culti-
vation. In Upper Canada this level tract attains a very
great breadth, and partly includes the basin of the noble
stream of the Ottawa. On the west it aj)pears to ter-
minate with Lake Huron ; for the northern coast of
that fine sheet of water, as well as of Lake Superior, is
flanked by the mountjiins, — a circumstance which ren-
ders their shores rough and craggy. It is said that be-
hind this rocky screen there is much valuable land still
uncultivated.*

But the characteristic feature of this region is its wa-
ters, more particularly its immense lakes, which, in re-
spect to depth and extent of surface, have no e<iual on
the face of the earth. The Caspian certainly exceeds the
largest of them, separately considered ; but that great
body of salt water, besides being comparatively very
shallow, has no outlet ; whereas the Canadian lakes
supply, without apparent diminution, the vast stream of
the St Lawrence. The smallest of them is tossed by tem-

i'.i^

Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 185, 180, 283-294, 2U7, 298.

(•^

GENERAL VIEW OF

j)ests like the ocean, and on its surface war was recently
waged in ships of tlie first magnitude.

Lake Superior is tlie largest of these inland seas, and
indeed the most extensive body of fresh water in the
woi'ld. Its form is an irregular crescent, having the
convex side towards Canada ; it is very broad in the
centre ; but tlie south-eastern and south-western extre-
mities terminate almost in points. Its length, following
the line of the curve, is estimated by Captain Bayfield
at S()0 geographical miles, the greatest breadth jit 140,
and the circumference about 1500. Its surface appeal's
to be 027 feet aljove the level of the Atlantic, and
the shores afford indications of its having once ])een
40 or 50 feet higher. '^^I'he soundings have been given
variously from 480 to 000 feet ; and the greatest depth
is believed to be a])Out 1200. The trans])arency of the
water is completely crystalline, rendering rocks, even
at extraordinary dei)ths, distinctly visible. The bottom
consists chiefly of a very adhesive clay, which speedily
indurates on exposure to the atmosphere. In violent
gales, the waves rise nearly as high as those on the
ocean ; and though there are of course no tides, tlie wind,
when it blows strongly from any one point, throws the
water with considerable force on the opposite shore. In
spring, too, it is sometimes greatly swelled by the melting
of the snows.

This lake, as formerly observed, is bordered by hills,
which in some i)laces rise precipitously from the shore,
and in others leave intervals of various breadth, amounting
occasionally to fifty or seventy miles. It is remarkable,
that while every other large lake is fed by rivers of the
first order, this, the most capacious on the surface of the
globe, does not receive a third or even fourth rate
stream ; the St Louis, the most considerable, not having
a course of more than 150 miles. But whatever deficiency
there may be in point of magnitude, it is compensated
by the vast number which pour in their copious floods
from the surrounding heights. The dense covering of
wood, and the long- continuance of frost, must also iii

BRITISH AMERICA.

this region jjreatly diminish the quantity drawn off by
evaporation.*

The surplus waters of Lake Su])erior enter near its
south-eastern extremity into St Mary's Channel, by
which they are transmitted into Dike Huron, nearly
forty miles distant. About midwav are St Mary's Falls,
scarcely entitled to this appellation, being merely a con-
tinued cataract, in which the current forces its way
through br(jken rocks with tremendous noise, and amid
clouds of foam. These rapids cannot be ascended ; but
canoes, though with great danger, sometimes shoot down-
wards. The more prudent avoid them by a portage of
two miles.

The Huron, into which this channel expands, is the
second in succession as well as in magnitude of this great
chain. Its outline is very irregular, but may, ui a gene-
ral view, be said to have tiiree sides, two ^acing the north
and east, and belonging to Canada ; while the third looks
to the south-west, and forms jjart of the United States.
Its extreme length, from the entry to the outlet, is about
240 miles ; its breadth is not less than 220 ; and the cir-
cumference is supposed to be nearly 1000. Its surface
is only thirty-two feet lower than that of Superior ; and
it is e([ually distinguished by its extraordinary depth, esti-
mated at J)00 or 1000 feet, and by the brilliant transpa-
rency of its waters. A range of islands runs parallel
to its northern shore, and, Avith the peninsula of Cabot,
separates almost comjjletely the upper part from the
main body, so that it was considered by the earliest
discoverers as a distinct basui. Among these islands
the chief is the Great Manitoulin, seventy-five miles
long, viewed by the Indians with superstitious awe as
the chosen abode of their Great Si)irit. At the outlet
of the St Mary the two islets of St Josei)h and Drum-
mond are fortified as frontier-stations, the former by
Britain and the latter by the United States. The coast is

• Boiichette, vol. i. pp. 127, 128. Darby's View of the United
States (IBmo, Philadelphia, 1828), p. 200.

GENERAL VIEW OP

H Wi

p^enerally nigged, broken into heights of from 30 to 100
feet, formed of clay, rolled stones, precipitous rocks, and
woody steeps. Towards the north the bold ridge of the
Cloche Mountains exliibits several lofty summits ; but
the eastern teiritory is wholly dissimilar, and forms one
of the finest portions of the great plain of Upper Canada.
This lake receives the Maitland, Severn, Moon, and
French rivers, — broad streams, though not of long course,
— but its chief supply is from the St M.iry. Near its north-
western point a narrow strait connects it with the lake
of Michigan, entirely included within the boundary
of the United States. It is equally deep and clear with
Huron, and, though nearly on a level with that lake, is
not completely so, as a constant current sets from the
former into the latter.

The Huron pours out the surplus of its waters at its
southern extremity, thus carryuig in that direction the
great chain of communication. A channel called the
River St Clair, after a course of about thirty miles, ex-
pands into the comparatively small lake of the same
name. Thence issues the Detroit, a spacious stream cele-
brated for the beauty and fertility of the adjacent
country. Both it and the lake, however, are so shallow,
as not to admit vessels which draw more than seven or
eight feet of water.*

After running twenty-nine miles, the Detroit opens
into the grand expanse of Lake Erie, about 265 miles
long, and at its centre sixty-three broad, the circumfer-
ence being estimated at somewhat less than 658. The
surface is calculated to be 565 feet above the level of
the ocean ; making it thirty feet lower than Huron, and
sixty-two than Superior. The depth seldom amounts
to 270 feet ; and the difficulties of the navigator are in-
creased by the want of harboui*s and anchorage, as well
as by the projecting promontories, which rer it f a fre-
quent change of course necessary. The direction of the
great water-communication, wliich, from the head of

* Boucliette, vol. i. pp. 133, IL'4. Darby, p. 203-206.

BRITISH AMERICA.

Lake Huron, has been nearly due south, chancres here
to the north-east, till it opens into the Gulf of St Law-
renee. The coasts, almost e([ually divided between the
British and Americans, are fji:enerally very fertile. Liikc
Erie has acquired a peculiar importjince, from having be-
come tlie main centre of inland navi<^ation. The two c^reat
canals reachin<j^ from it to the Hudson on one side, and the
Ohio on the other, render it a medium of communication
between the Athmtic, the Mississippi, and the Gulf of
Mexico. The Welland canal and river, joining it to the
Ontario, form a cliannel l)y wliich it is expected that a
great part even of the produce of the United States will
be henceforth transmitted.*

The outlet of Dike Erie, at its north-eastern point,
is the Niagara Channel, whicli, after pursuing its course
thirty-three miles and a half, opens into Lake Ont^irio.
In its progress it forms those stupendous falls which
have no equal in the world, and will be afterwards
described ; but as they interrupt the navigation, a canal
has ))een formed on a nenrly parallel line, to unite the
two lakes for commercial i)urposes. The waters, in
j)assing to Ontario, are calculated to fall 334 feet ; this
lake being so much lower than Erie, and consequently
only 231 feet above the level of the Atlantic.

Ontario, the smallest of the great lakes, extends almost
due east, with some inclination northwards ; it is 17^
miles long, 59^ broad, and about 4G7 in circumference.
The depth of water varies from lo to 300 feet ; and in the
middh', a line of 300 fathoms has been let down without
reaching the bottom. The banks are generally level,
thougli a ridge of moderate height rises at some distance
from its western and north-western shores. They are for
tile most part covered with wood, though now variegated
with partial and increasing cultivation. Toronto and
Kingston on the Britisli, and Siickett's Harbour on the
American side, are excellent stations, in which fleets have

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. llU-lliJ. Darbv, p. 20(>-20H. Gourlay,
Statistical Account of Upi^r Canada (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1822),
vol. ii. p. .oa.

> '.}

GENERAL VIEW OP

])oen constructed, inclu(lin|Tf ships of the largest size.
There are seveml small islands at the eastern extremity,
of wiiieh the priiicipiil is named Grand Isle. The lonir and
whidin;,' hay of (^uinte, to tiie west of Kuij,'ston, encloses
a very beautiful and fertile peninsula.*

From the eastern extremity of Liike Ontario issues
the stream which heai"s now, for the first time, tlie name
of St Lawrence, though it has also been called Ir«)(|Uois
and Catanujui. Its channel is here so spacious that it
is calle<l the Lake of the Thousand Ishuids. The vast
number implied in this name was considered a vague
exaggeration, till the commissioners employed hi fixing
the boundarv with the United States actuallv counted
them, and found that they amounted to 1()!)2. They
are of every imaginable size, slui})e, and a}»pearance ;
some barely visible, others covering fifteen acres ; but
in g' 1. -ral their broken outline presents the most pic-
turesque combinations of wood and rock. The navigator
in steering through them sees an ever-changing scene,
which reminded an elegant writer of the Happy Islands
in the Vision of Mirza. Sometimes he is enclosed in
a narrow channel ; then he discovers before him twelve
openings, like so many noble rivers ; and soon after a
spacious lake seems to surround him on every side.t

At the end of tliis reach the St Lawrence is obstructed
by an island in the centre, producing what is termed the
Lony Suiilt. The stream, rushing through a narrow
passage on each side, hurries on the bark with danger-
ous velocity ; and the two currents, meeting at the lower
end, dash against each other, forming what is called the
Big Piti'/i. The river then, exi)anding to the breadth
of more than five miles, is named the Lake of St Francis.
At its termination begins a succession of very formidable
rapids, named the Coteau du Lac, the Cedars, the Split
Rock, and the Cascades, which, continuing about nine

* Bouchette, vol.i.p, 151. M'Gregor, British America (2 vols
8vo, Kdinbunrh, 1832), vol. ii. p. 533-5;{;).

t Howison s Sketches ol' Upper Canada (8vo, second edition, Edin-
burgh, 1822), p. 4t». Bouchette, vol. i, p. Ibi).

nniTISII AMERICA.

miles, complctrly interrupt the naviifation for vessels of
even moderate (limensions. The liardy Canadian l>oat-
men indec<l eontrive, with poles ten fi-et in lenijth, to
force throutrh certiiin liat-l)ottomed harks of from six to
twenty tons. Huge rafts of timher are also seen di'seend-
ing the current ; hut i)as8engers h}' steam leave the
vessel at one end of the declivity and re-emhark at the
other. Great operations, however, arc now in ])rotrres.s
to overcome these ohstacles, and to secure a safe navi-
i;ation to the inland seas.

Below these ra])ids the river spreads out into Lake
St Louis, near which there is a l)eautiful fall hearing-
the siune name. This impedhnent to navigation has heen
recentlv overcome hv a canal called La Chine. The St
Lawrence now receives an important accession hy the
influx of the great stream of the Ottawa from the north-
west, after a course of ahout 460 miles,* through an ex-
tensive j)lahi, generally very fertile, and covered with
miii,Miiflcent forests. These rivers at their junction form
several large islands, on the principal of which is huilt
the citv of Montreal. t

Below that ])lace the St Lawrence presents a magni-
ficent exj)anse, navigable for vessels of 600 tons, thus
udving to the town just named all the advantages of a sea-
l)ort. Al)out forty -five miles farther down, indeed, where
it widens into the Lake of St Peter, it becomes somewhat
shallow, and allows only a narrow passage to large ships.
Again, ahout ninety miles nearer the ocean, the rocks
forming the Richelieu rapids so contract the channel as to
render it unsafe unless at particular periods of the tide.
At Quebec, it narrows to 1314 yards ; yet the navigation
is completely unobstructed, wlil]'^ there is fomied near

• Bouchette, vol. i. p 187. According to Mr M'Gregor, Brit.
Araer. vol. ii. p. fr2o, this river "is said to have its source near the
Rocky Mountains, and to traverse in its windings a distance of 2o{)0
miles." He adds, that it certainly Hows ten or twelve hundred
miles hetbre joining the St Lawrence. We have no hesitation,
however, in preferring the sober statement of Bouchette to these
i'Xtravagant estimates.

t Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 150, 1C2-211.

in.

.;' «

,! I

GENERAL VIEW OP

the city a onpacioiis harltour. A./^-.c twtr<ty-onc miles
lower, its wjit('i*s, bof^iiiniiig- to !niiip:l(' with tl?f)se of the
sea, ac(|uiie a s^iline taste, whieh inereases till, at Ka-
mouraska, seventy-five miles nearer its mouth, they
heeome eonipletcly siilt. Yet eustom, with somewhat
doubtful |)ro])riety, eonsidersthe river as continued down
to the island of Anticosti, and hounded hy Cape Rosier
on the sontheni, and Min^'an Settlement on the northern
shore.*

In considerino^ the St Lawrence as one of the grand
hydrographic features of the glolie, different views have
been taken. Some authors consider it {is originatinjj; in
Lake Ontario, and view the interior cliannels as onlv
the means of uniting one lake with another. '\ et Avhen
it is considered that there is a continued cuiientfrom
the most remote tributary of Lake Superior to the Gulf
of St Lfiwrenee, we may seem justified in reganling it
as an entire river, extending upwards of 2000 miles,
and forming one of the most importfuit water-commu-
nications on the face of the earth.

In this river-system a striking and peculiar class of
objects is cxhil)ited on a grander se tie than in any other
region ; wg mean the waterfals. These are not, indeed,
like such as descend from alpine precipices, distinguish-
ed by height or by the picturesque forms of the rocky
cliffs amid which they are precipitated ; but while the
latter are usually mere streamlets, tlie others are mighty
rivers, swelled to their full magnitude, and pouring the
entire volume of their waters into the abysses beneath.

Among these cataracts of Northern America there is
one which stands without a rival, — Niagara. Here an
immense river, after receiving the surplus waters of four
extensive lakes, projects them downward in a united
mass. In general, when such large streams are obsti'ucted
by rocky barriers, they force tlieir way through them
in a number of narrow channels, with noise and impe-
tuosity, but without any considerable descent. There

* Boucliette, vol. i. p. 1G4-1(]'J.

UUITISII AMKRICA.

is scnrcoly another instance wliere a sea-liko ilood, having'
brought its whole wei/,'ht of waters to the hrink of a
lofty precipice, throws tliem down in one unhroken
sheet. The fall of the Rhine at Schaffiiausen alone,
thouirh without eitlier its height or volume of water,
bears some resemblance to that of Niau:ara, which is
acknowledged to be not only the ^avatest of cataracts,
but, accordini,' to the general opinion of travellers, the
sublimest object on earth. The ocean and the giifantic
steeps of the Andes or the Ilimmaleh may include
scenery of more varied magnificence, but j)i'obably ex-
hibit no sin^'^le s])ectacle so striking and so wonderful.

Without attemj)tin!,' to convey to the reader's mind
any image of this stupendous scene, which pi'rhaps no
human jun can ever accomi)lish, we will sini]>ly state
the elements in which its grandeur aj)pe;irs to consist.
Several objects that comjjose the chief beauty of other
celebrated waterfals are altogether wanting. There are
no cliffs reaching to an extraordinary height, crowned
with trees, or broken into picturesque and varied fonns ;
for, though one of the banks is wooded, the forest-scenery
on the whole is not imposing. The accomjtaiiiments, in
short, rank here as nothing. There is merely the display,
on a scale elsewhere unrivalled, of the j)henomena ap-
propriate to this class of objects. There is the spectacle
of a falling sea, the eye filled almost to its utnnjst reach
i)y the rushing of mighty waters. There is the awful
])lunge into the abyss beneath, and the reverberation
thence in endless lines of foam, and in numberless whirl-
])Ools and eddies. There are clouds of spray that fill the
wdiole atmosphere, amid which the most brilliant rain-
bows, in rapid succession, glitter and disai)})ear. Above
all, there is the stupendous sound, of the peculiar cha-
racter of which all writers, with their utmost efforts,
seem to have vainly attemj)tcd to convey an idea. Bou-
chette describes it as "grand, commanding, and majestic,
filling the vault of heaven when heard m its fulness," —
as " a deep round roar, an alternation of muffled and
open sounds," to which there is nothing exactly corre-

, t

:^!!

GENERAL VIEW OP

i 1

'', I

Hpondinff. lie mentions the r('[)iirt niatle from a littK*
distance hy u ^reat naval Itattle like that of the Nile ;
l)Ut this few can have exi)erienceil. Captain Hall's simi-
litude to the ceaseless, rumhlin^^, <U'ej), monotonous sound
of a va.st mill, thou^'h not very poetical, is generally
considered as approaching' nearest to reality. Tlie diffu-
sion of the noise is impaired hy the rocky heij^hts that
enclose the fall, and perha])s even l)y the volume of
spray whii-h it throws uj* around itself. It variis also
according to the state of the atmos[)here and the direc-
tion of the wind ; hut under favourahle circumstances it
reaches to Toronto, across Lake Ontario, distant forty-six
miles. Some have thout^ht that the ahsonce of the ac-
companiments ahove alluded to im|)airs its effect ; while
others, perha])s with reason, conceive that these would
only distract the attention from the one f^reat ohjict ;
and that this is more deejdy felt when there is nothint,'
seen hut the catiiract itself, " no sound but its eternal
roar."

The Niagara Channel, as already mentioned, extends
from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, and the falls are si-
tuated twenty miles from the fornu'r and thirteen from
tile latter. Being occasioned only hy a geneial and not
very great descent in the level of the land, there is
nothing in the country around to indicate the vicinity of
such a striking phenomenon. From the Erie boundary,
in particular, the ai)proacli is along a smooth though
somewhat elevated plain ; through which the river,
about a mile in breadth, flows trancpiilly, bordered
by fertile and beautiful banks, and enclosuig a large
island. The deep awful sound, however, is soon heard,
and becomes gradually louder. Yet nothing appears
till about a mile above the fall, when the water begins
to ripple, and a little below is broken into a series of
daslung and foaming rapids, which form a grand spec-
tacle. The stream then becomes more tranquil, though
rolling with prodigious rapidity, till it reaches the brink
of the great precipice.

The fall itself is divided, by the intervention of Goat

BRITISH AMERICA.

[slivnd, into two \jn('(|uul portions. Tlir ono callcil tlu* Bri-
tish, or I lorso Shoe, lurordiiii,' to tlu- most cart'tul fstiiimtc
is 2100 tW't liroiul, and 14!) feet !) inches liii,di. The othor
or Anirrican ^all is only 1140 fVrt hroad, and cvtii
in ]»ro|(ortion o this inferior (him-nsion pours a nmeli
snialhr hody of water. It lia.s indeed some pietures<|ue
heautv, heinj; lined I )y a wooded shore, and diversified
hy a nuinher (d' small islands covered with stunted eedar.
Its heit(ht is ahout H>4 feet. The iiritish one, however,
heins; that in which the phenomenon is presented on
the j^'reatest scale, sinijde and without accompaniment,
is proj)erly M*' fall. The most ajiproved point of view
is from the 'iahle Jtock, that reaches close to the
waters, and forms part of the very led^e over which
they descend. A darin? visiter may oven, by lyint* flat
on his face, stretch out his hand, and ]dunu:e it into the
des<'endint( surju^e ; and it is from this station that the
nearest view of the cataract is obtained, and all its
vastness is most distinctly perceived. An elevated spot
behind affords a more extensive bnt less imposinjj^ sur-
vi'V, which however cond)ines the surroundintj: scenery.
Nearly half a mile })elow, at a small chasm in the cliff,
a spiral staircase leads the traveller down towards the
water, and a narrow sli))pery path, amid fraj^ments of
rook, conducts him nj) to the foot of the fall, and even
a little above. To look from beneath on this innnensity
of rushing w.ators ])roduces a ])ecnliar sentiment of
mingled grandeur and terror. Some travellers even
venture into a singular hollow fonned beneath the
rocky ledge, where they may see in front the descend-
ing flood, and l)e wet only by its spray. Hennepin
{jsserts that four coaches might be driven abreast through
this awful chasm ; and several individuals have pene-
trated this recess to the distance of more than a hundred
and fifty feet.

Goat Island, as already observed, divides the two falls,
interposing between them its perpendicular facade, 984
feet in breadth. Its length, extending up the river, is
nearly half a mile. It was unapproached by human

I I

GENERAL VIEW OP

foot till Mr Porter, proprietor of extensive mills at
Manchester on the American side, contrived, hy sinking
strong caissons in the water, flowing perhaps eigliteen
miles an hour, to rear a wooden bridge 1 000 feet long, and
practicable for carriages. A road, now formed round the
island, commands very fine views both of the fall and
the rapids above. This spot is richly clothed with trees,
among which thr light foam is often seen Hying. It is
described as a little Elysium, amid the chaos of the sur-
rounding elements.

The waters projected down this awful steep continue
for some space in a state of violent agitation ; yet a ferry
has been established about half a mile below, across which
the passenger is wafted over the heaving current without
serious danger. The high level of the country extends
seven or eight rniles lower, to Queenston and Lewiston,
for which space the Niagara rolls through a rocky channel,
])etween high and steep banks, its breadth contracted to a
quarter of a mile. Somewhat more than half-way down,
high cliifs, encircling the current in a peculiar manner,
cause it to wheel round with an impetuous violence,
which would instantly destroy any object that should
come within its action. This is called the Whirlpool.
Below Queenston the ground sinks by a steep descent to
the level of the Ontario basin. The river then emerges,
and again rolls a smooth stream between level and
cultivated banks.*

This great fall has excited an additional interest from
the remarkable change supposed to have taken place
as to its position. It is believed that the impetuous
waters, wearing away the rock over which they descend,
are gradually removing the cataract higher nj) the river.
By this process it is said to have receded from a point
between Queenston and Lewiston, to which, as already
observed, the high level of the country continues, and to
have excavated the present deep and narrow channel

* Bouchctte, vol. i J). 138-146. Howison, p. 108-121. Darby,
p. 211-213. Stuart, Tliree Years in North America (2 vols 8vo,
2d edit. Edinburgh, 1833j, vol. ii. pp. 142, 143.

BRITISH AMERICA.

mills at
y^ sinking
eighteen
long, and
•ountl the
fall and
rith trees,
ig. It is
f the sur-

contimie
et a f errv
OSS which
it without
J extends
Lewiston,
jr channel,
'acted to a
ray down,
r manner,

violence,
at should
V^hirlpool.
lescent to

emerges,
level and

rest from
vcn place
mpetuous
J descend,
the river.

a point
IS already
es, and to

channel

I. Darby,
\ vols 8vo,

more than seven miles in length. Upon this point geo-
logists and travellers seem generally agreed, the only
difference being as to the rate at whicli t!i^ change pro-
ceeds. Mr Gourlay, long a resident, says the oldest
inhabitants think that the Great Fall has receded
" several paces.''^ Mr McGregor mentions an estimate
which fixes this recession at eighteen feet during the
thirty years previous to 1810 ; but he adds another more
recent, which raises it to 150 feet in fifty years. Lastly,
Captain Hall heard it reckoned, liy two persons long
resident on the spot, at ir)0 feet in forty years. This
measure, having been a<lopted by Mr Lyell in his recent
work on geology, may ])e considered as the cstablislied
belief on the subject.*

It is not Avithout particular diffidence that we oppose
a conclusion thus almost unanimously formed by the
most eminent writers. Yet we think we can state facts,
of which they were a])parcntly not aware, and which
seem completely to refute the supposition that any con-
siderable change has taken place, or is perceptibly in
progi'ess, as to the site of this extraordinary object.

We possess two early descriptions of these falls ;
one by Father Hennepm in 1070, very nearly 100 years
ago, illustrated by a plate ; the other by Charlevoix in
1721. Now, on comparing these delineations with the
best accounts given by recent travellers, it appeal's im-
possible to discover any sensible difference between
them. In answer to this it may indeed be asserted, that
the cataract, wearing away its rocky ledges in an equable
manner throughout, may have consid" "ibly changed its
place, yet retain still nearly the same dinicnsions and
iispect.t But tills supposition seems precluded by the

* Bouchette, vol. i. p. 14H. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 54f5. Hall's
Travels in America (3 vols 12mo, second edition, Edinburgh, 1839),
vol. i. p. l!»o. Lyell's Principles of Geology (4 vols 12mo, utli
edition, London, lH37), vol. i. p. 27{5.

•)• Hennepin, Nouvelle Decouverte d'lin trcs grand Pays dans
TAmerique (IHmo, Utrecht, 1(197), pp. 44.4f;, 443-452. Charlevoix,
Journal of a Voyage to North America (2 vols Hvo, London, 17*il ),
vol. i. p. 353-350. Hennepin, judging only by the eye, exaggerates

VOL. I. " B

.^^ ■

k /» i va - wflr. I

^:|"

t ■ f

GENERAL VIEW OP

existence in its centre of one great fixed object, — the im-
mense rampart of Goat Island, — wliich, while it divides the
two falls, is on a line with both, or, according to Bouchctte,
foi*ms along with them the chord of an irregular arc.
Now, Hennepin's description, and more particularly his
plate, represent tlie island as dividmg the falls, and
standing every way in the same relative position to them
that it now does. But if the cataracts had changed
their place in the manner supposed, they must have
receded behind the lower extremity of the island, which
would thus have been thrown forward, and appeared
in front of them in the middle of the stream. If we
assume Captam Hall's estimate, there must have been
a change, since Hennepin's date, of GOO feet or nearly
a furlong, which would have caused a most conspicuous
alteration in the relative position of these objects. Some
may urge that the lateral action of the falling watersmight
demolish this projecting front, and thus cause the island-
boundary to recede along with them. Such an hypothesis
seems quite out of the question as applicable to this huge
mass, nearly a quarter of a mile in breadth. Even sup-
posing it possible, a rock thus demolished from two
opposite sides must have been irregularly acted upon,
reduced to a broken and shattered state, and in some
degree to a pyramidal fonn. There appeal's no agency
which could cut it down like slices from a loaf, so as
to preserve always the same smooth perpendicular face
separating the two falls, which it had m 1G70, and
continues to have at the present moment. No observer
has noticed in this island any symptoms of progressive
demolition. Mr Howison so little suspects such a pro-
cess, that, following up the common idea, he contemplates
the period when it will be left " isolated in the midst of
the river as a colossal pillar.'* From what we have
stated, however, if any such change were taking place.

preatly the height, making it 600 feet, — which Charlevoix corrects.
Both agree as to the appearance and relative position of the different
objects.

BRITISH AMERICA.

it must by this time have afforded some manifest proof
of its operation.

It may be urged, that water acting with sucli stupen-
dous force must produce greater diangcs than we have
here supposed. We wouhl, however, refer to a fact
which seems too little noticed by geologists, yet which
any one who walks along the seashoi'e may at onc€'
verify. Rocks daily washed by tlie tide have their
surface hardened and polished to sucli a degree, as in a
great mejisure to protect them against the action of the
waves. Even the loosest sand, when within high-wat^r
mark, acquires a comparatively firm and smooth surfiice.
The ledge, too, over which the waters of the St Law-
rence rush, being beneath them, and not opposing
any resistance to their course, is little liable to be
disintegrated by their action. We are not aware of
such an effect being produced on any other cataract, nor
does Mr Lyell refer to any, although several foils are
known to have existed from the remotest antiquity. The
statements made by the neighbouring inhabitants are so
vague, and differ so very widely, that little importance
can be attached to them. The only changes which can be
considered well authenticated are the occasional breaking
dowTi of the rocks in the middle of the great fall. Of
this an example occurred on the 28th December
1828, when a huge fragment fell with a crash which
shook the glass vessels in the adjoining iim, and was
felt at the distance of two miles. It destroyed in a great
measure the angular or horse-shoe fonn, and, by ren-
dering the line of the fall more direct, heightened its
grandeur.* In 1818 there had been a similar dislocation
of the Table Rock, other sections of which still wear a
threatening aspect.t But this change was not produced,
as is commonly supposed, by the wearing away of the
rocky ledge itself ; it was by the undenniiiing of the bed
of soft shale on wliich it rests : and hence the reason

* Hall, vol. i. p. lyH. Mackenzie's Sketches of Canada (8vo, Lon-
don, 1833), p. 1U3.
■)- Bouchette, vol. i. p. 142.

fHi

4 v.

li 1':

;' I

\\\

GENERAL VIEW OP

why the hollow space already described has been formed
beneath it and behind the descending waters. As this
softer stratum, however, is acted upon merely by the
spray thrown back upon it, the effects appear to be
both limited and partial, and the consequent changes
to occur only at long intervals.

Having treated the subject with reference to the term
of human life and the common historical eras, we feel little
inclined to consider it in its bearing upon geological theo-
ries. It is only necessary to observe that, admitting
the deep chasm through which the river flows to Queens-
ton to have been excavated by its waters, it does not
follow that a similar process must still continue in opera-
tion. Upon every mineralogical hypothesis it is admit-
ted that the strata, which form the crust of the earth,
were at one time in a state very different from what they
are at present ; having a soft and yielding texture, pro-
duced either by the influence of fire or by recent depo-
sition from water. The action of so mighty a flood might
then very easily, and in a comparatively short period, ex-
cavate such a channel. But it is unphilosophical to apply
reasons, drawn from so remote an era, to a period when
the materials of the land have acquired that fixed and
consolidated form under which they appear in our days.

With respect to climate, this country exliibits, in
many particulars, a striking dissimilarity to Europe. In
the first place, the temperature is much lower under
the same latitude ; and this remark applies to the whole
of North America. Thus Quebec, in 46° 49' N., has almost
the same latitude with Nantes in 47° 13'. Yet the mean
annual temperature of the former is 41*74° ; of the lat-
ter 54*68°, — a difference of nearly 13°. Edinburgh and
Copenhagen, though more than 9° farther north than
Quebec, exceed it in mean annual heat, the one by 6°
the other by 4°.*

The next distinction is the great difference in the

* See Table by Professor Jameson, in Murray's Encyclopaedia of
Geography, p. 164.

BRITISH AMERICA.

temperature of winter and summer, — the cold of the
one and tlie heat of the other being much more intense
than in those European countries where the annual mean
is the same. While the medium temperature of winter
at Nantes is about 40*40°, at Quebec it is 14*18° ; but
that of summer is nearly identical, — at the first 68*54°,
at the second, G8*00°. Nay, the mean of the hottest
month, which at Nantes is 70*52°, at Quebec is 73*40°.
The summer of this last, when compared to that of Edin-
burgh, is almost tropical, exceeding it by ten degrees,
and in the hottest month by fourteen. Even in London
the heat rarely attains 83° ; whereas in Canada, during
July, it rises occasionally 20° higher."^ These great
heats, however, leave the average still much lower than
in European places under the same latitude.

We do not intend to enter here into any discussion of
the theories formed on this subject, none of which seeai
yet to be fully established. The influence of the winds,
which blow cliielly from the north-west, over a vast ex-
panse of frozen continent ; the position of the adjacent
ocean, filled with fields and islands of ice, detached from
the arctic shores ; the uncultivated state of the soil,
covered with vast forests and swamps ; these have been
the chief causes assigned for so remarkable a difference.

There prevails a general opinion that, since British
America has been partially cleared and cultivated, the
extremes both of summer heat and of whiter cold have
been sensibly mitigated. Others, however, mamtain
that the variations are casual and temporary, and that
the changes referred to have as yet taken place on too
small a scale to produce any marked effect.

The prevailing winds in Canada are, the north-east,
north-west, and south-west. The first, blowing from the
ocean, brings rain, snow, and tempest ; the second, from
a vast extent of frozen land, is dry and intensely cold ;
the last, from warmer regions, is mild and agreeable. In.
the height of summer, the air is often quite still, the
sky brightly clear, and the rays of the sun beat fiercely

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 337.

; ,

:1'

■;.*'

^f I

GENERAL VIEW OF

upon the earth. The nights at tliis season are beautifully
transparent.

Great and sudden transitions from heat to cold also
characterize this region. These are of course produced
by changes of wind, occasioning a rapid transition from
tlie one to the other of those extremes to which the
wliole continent is liahk^. The tropical countries being
equally warm in the New as in the Old World, the hot
and cold climates are iji the former nearer to each other,
and more apt to come into collision. These sudden changes
have the effect of rendering every kind of atmospheric
agitation, and more especially thunder and lightning,
peculiarly violent.

The order of the seasons also varies materially from
that which prevails in Europe. The absence of spring
is generally incident to climates where the winter is
very long and severe. The moderate heat of the ad-
vancing season appears absorl d in the process of con-
verting the snow and ice into a liquid state, and can
thus act only imperfectly upon the atmosphere. By the
time this change is accomplished, the sun's rays have
become powerful, and summer is established. Scarcely
is the ground cleared of snow^ when vegetation breaks
forth, not gradually, as with us, ])ut with almost preter-
natural rapidity. The months of June, July, and August
are intensely hot, and bring all the crops to a speedy
maturity. Autumn, which, according to some writers,
does not exist in America, is described by others as the
most agreeal)le of all the seasons. In September and
October the days are warm, but the mornings and even-
ings cool and agreeable ; and the foliage, assuming the
varied autumnal tints, presents an enchanting picture.
In November, when frost is about to set in, a grateful
interval usually occurs of what is termed the Indian
summer. A delightful wamith is then felt through the
air, while a tliin and beautiful haze covei*s the face of
nature.* No rational account appears to have been yet

* Bouchette, vol. i. p
123-135. Howison, p
Darby, p. 421-431.

ip. 339, 340-344. M'Gregor, vol. i. p.
243-245. Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 141-144.

BRITISH AMERICA.

given of this phenomenon ; for the Canadian theory, that
it is produced by the smoke of distant praii'ies fired b^--
the Indians, is unwoi-thy of refutation. We cannot help
sutrtresting, that all the waters, here so a])undant, are then
underj^oing the process of conversion from a fluid into a
solid fonn ; in the course of which they must necessarily
give out in large quantities the caloric which held them
in a state of fluidity. Heat thus developed will naturally
Ix? accompanied with thin mist, which is in fact usually
seen rising from the surface of a newly-frozen stream.

The winter of Lower Canada commences in the end of
November, and lasts five months, or till the close of April.
In the southern parts of the upper province it is nearly
two months shorter. This period, which, in our concep-
tions, appears so dreary, is to the Canadian a season
of cheerfulness and enjoyment. Warm clothing and du€
precaution secure him against any dangerous or even
painful effects from the extreme cold. As the country
is easily traversed in every direction by light carioles,
large parties assemble, and enliven the gloom of the
year by festivity and social intercoui*se.*

It might have been expected that the excessive rigour
of the climate, more especially its extremes and sudden
changes, would have been peculiarly trying to the human
constitution. Experience, on the contrary, has esta-
blished its decided salubrity. The countries, too, in
which the cold is most severe, and the contrasts greatest,
are found the healthiest. Hence Lower is more salubri-
ous than Upper Canada, and the latter than the United
States. It is true, at the same time, that diseases origi-
nating in cold, such as rheumatism and pulmonary con-
sumption, are the most common ; and it is remarkable
that overall America the teeth are subject to early decay.
The upper province suffi'i-s from intermittent fever,
though not so severely as the countries farther south ;
it is distressing and weakening, but seldom fatal. t

The action of the climate upon agricultural produc-

* Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 343, 344, 409. Howison, p. 243. Back-
woods of Canada (18rao, London, 1836), p. 206.
t Bouchette vol. i. p. 344. M'Gregor, vol. i. p. 136-139.

I •

ill

GENERAL VIEW OP

tions is more favourable in these countries than in others
which liave the same mean temperature. The intense
heat even of the short summer ripens corn and fruits
which wiQ not thrive in regions Avhere the same warmth
is more equally distributed throughout the year. Thus
Quebec agrees in mean annual temperature with Chris-
tiania ; yet wheat, scarcely ever attempted in Norway,
is the staple of Lower Canada. The u})per province
nearly coincides with the north of England; yet the
grape, the peach, and the melon come to as much per-
fection as in their native soil. Even rice is found growing
wild. In this respect British America seems not to fall
much short of European countries under the same lati-
tude. Its winter-cold at the same time enables it to
combine the products of the northern with those of the
southern temperate climates. By the side of the fruits
above mentioned flourish tlie strawberry, the cranberry,
and the raspberry ;* while the evergreen pines are co-
piously intermingled with the oak, the elm, and others
of ampler foliage. The woods are filled with the rich
fur-bearing animals that belong to an arctic climate.
The only difficulty is found with such agricultural pro-
ductions as, under milder skies, are improved by win-
tering in the soil. Autumn wheat, for example, has not
yet succeeded in Lower Canada ; and several of the more
delicate artificial grasses have failed. The farmer like-
wise suffers inconvenience from the short interval in
which all liis operations of sowing, reaping, and harvesting
must be completed, while he is left without occupation
during the long remainder of the year.

Before closing this general view of Canada, it may be
necessary to introduce some notice of the question which
has arisen between Britain and the United States, re-
specting their common boundaries. The vague terms
often used in treaties have given rise to disputes and
difficulties ; but it is seldom, as in the present instance,
that they apply to a territory of 10,000 square miles, or
6,400,000 acres. Though this tract is at present only

* Bouchette, toL L p. 336. Backwoods, pp. 143, 144.

BRITISH AMERICA.

an unbroken forest, yet, as it consists in j^eneral of fertile
land, the proceas of colonization, now rapidly approaching
it, will, at no very distant period, render it of great value.
Both nations maintain their claim in a very peremptory
maimer ; and Bouchette, with other respectable writers
on our side, repels with the utmost intlignation the idea
of yielding a single inch.* We respect the patriotic
zeal of these authors ; yet, when such feelings carry a
people to unreasonable demands, and prevent them from
listening to argument, it may lead to calamitous conse-
<jucnces. We shall therefore endeavour to approach the
subject impartially, and view it as if totally abstracted
from either British or American mterests.

The terms of the treaty on which the dispute hinges
are, that the boundary shall be drawn " along the high-
lands whichdivide those rivers that empty themselves into the
river St Lawrence from those which fall into the Atlantic
Ocean.'" These words v/ere penned in complete ignorance
respecting the country of which they were intended to
dispose. Instead of one highland tract, whose opposite
waters foil into the specified receptacles, there are two
ridges, considerably distant, and enclosing between them
the wide expanse of the disputed territory. Throughout
its centre, from west to east, flows the St John, receiving
nearly all the waters from the north side of the one range
and the south side of the other. The British, as their
boundary, claim the most southerly, the Americans the
most northerly of these two lines. Let us see how
these claims will agree with the terms of the treaty.

The British boundary clearly fulfils one condition ; all
the rivers on its southern side fall into the Atlantic.
But on the northern it entirely fails, for there they all flow
into the St John, and not one drop reaches the St Law-
rence. Here, then, we cannot but own a want of coin-
cidence with the literal terms of the convention. Bou-
chette does not deny this, and allows "that the letter
of the treaty of 1783 has described a boundary which the
physical and hydrographical divisions of the country to

• Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 18, 26. M'Gregor, vol. i. p. 140.

i I

GENERAL VIEW OF

be divided rendered it utterly impossilde snhstantially to
establi.sh." Ho contends, liovvever, that its ])rofes.sod de-
eign ofcontcnpliitinp " reeij)roc'al advant^iges and mutual
convenience," and of proceeding upon " ])rincij)les of
liberal c(iuity nnd rcciprwity," cl'>arly decides the jxiint
in favour of Britain. These, however, arc very vague
grounds on which to determine a matter of fact ; and,
besides, we do not very distinctly see their bearing in
our favour. No doubt it would be advantiigcous and
convenient for Britain to get the whole of this territory ;
but we cannot expect that the Americans will see the
reciprocal benefit of their losing the whole. They,
on the contrary, maintain that their boundary is strictly
and literally conformable to the tenns of the treaty.
The rivers on one side of it undoubtedly flow into the St
Lawrence, while on the other they reach the St John ;
which last falls into the Bay of Fun<ly, and that bay
communicates with the Atlantic* This, they pretend,
is equivalent to the original rivers falling directly into
tlie Atlantic Ocean. But such an interpretation appears
to us wholly inconsistent with the precision wdiich ever
ought to be observed in the terms of a positive treaty.
Tlie obvious meaning was that the rivers descending
from the ridge in question were such as fall into the
open Atlantic, and not merely connected with it in this
indirect manner. It cannot for a moment be doubted,
that the first was the meaning of the negotiators ; that
they had in view the Penobscot, the Kennebeck, and
other streams flowing from the north into the ocean.
We do not therefore think, that the Americans stand
on better ground than ourselves as to the literal terms
of the treaty. Nay, we are convinced that these terms
are wholly incapable of being executed, as they Avore
obviously framed by persons entirely ignorant of the
territory in question.

Ill order to adjust this diffbrence, it w^as agreed by the
two contracting powei*s, on the 12th January 1829, to

* Some of them fall into the Ristigouche, and thence into the
Bay of Chaleur, which is also connected with the Atlantic; the ar-
gument with regard to these is exactly the same.

BRITISH AMERICA.

refer it to the arbitration of the Kins? of Holland. Ac-
cordingly, on the 10th Jjuiuary 1831 his majesty <le-
livered his award, in which lie conclnded, that neither
of the j)roj»osed boundaries could be held as at all con-
formable to the terms of the treaty, and ])r(»posed there-
fore hi their stead the river St John, which, as already
stilted, flows through the middle of the disputed dis-
trict.* This decision was rejected by both })arties, who
rei)resented that the office intrusted to the friendly
monarch was to interpret the treaty in reference to the
original tenns, not to throw it aside and substitute an
entirely new boundary of his own contrivance, lie had
j)r()(luced, they said, not an interpretation, but a com-
prc^misc. This is no doubt true ; yet, agreeing with his
majesty, that the treaty cannot he intelligibly interpreted,
or possibly acted upon, and that the affair can be adjusted
only l)y mutual concession, we cannot help thinking that
the expedient proposed was deserving of a favourable
consideration. The St John divides the territory in
disi)ute i ito two not very unequal portions ; the posses-
sion of the northern bank would secure to Britain the
communication between New Brunswick and Canada,
and prevent the frontier of the United States from en-
croaching too close on the St Lawrence. A water bound-
ary, where it can be procured, is usually preferred as the
most precise and defensible ; and it is very probable that
in this case it would have been adopted by the nego-
tiators, had they not been wholly ignorant of its existence.
At all events, it is extremely desirable that some adjust-
ment should take place as speedily as possible, before the
increasing importance of the land shall render it a sub-
ject of serious dissension between two great nations.t

• His raajesty proposes that the line, after followini^ for a con-
siderable space upwards the course of the St John, shoultl take tiiat
of its small tributary the St Francis, and by it reach and follow the
American land-boundary. We do not perceive the motive or ad-
vantage of this deviation ; our reasoninjj proceeds upon the St John
beinj^ made the boundary throughout, tiU it strikes the American
frontier.

t Bouchette, vol. i. p. 18-22, 489-498. M'Gregor, vol. i. p. 140.

• ?■

THE NATIVE INDIANS INnABITINO

CHAPTER II.

The Native Indiana inhabiting Canada and its Borders.

Peculiar Condition of those Tribes— Their Physical Character-
Form — Colour— Hair and Beard— Btnlily Strength— Dress— Or-
naments— Paintinjr and Tattooiiiji^ of the Skin — JModes of Sub-
sistence — Hunting — Cultivation — Food — Houses — Canoes —
Spirit of independence — Internal Order— Marriages — Hearing
of Children— Intellectual Character — Oratory — Style of Compo-
sition — Religious Ideas — Importance attached to Dreams — The
I\Ianitou — Ideas of a Future State— Reverence for the Dead —
Ceremonies of Interment — Superstitious Modes of curing the
Sick — Indian Wars — Their Motives — Preparations — March —
Modes of attacking and surprising the Enemy — Return — Treat-
ment of Prisoners; Tortures; Adoption — Treaties — Indian
Amusements — Music — Dancing — Smoking — Games — Different
Tribes inhabiting Canada and its Borders.

Among the intellectual advantcagcs derived from the dis-
covery of America, perhaps the most important wtis
the opening of a new page in the history of man ; for he
was there presented under an aspect never before viewed
by the sages either of the ancient or modern world.
The rudest form under which they had observed the hu-
man being was that called barbarous ; and among the
Greeks and Romans the Scythians were received as
representing the man of nature. But though compara-
tively rude, that people had already made a considerable
progress in the arts. They had reached the pastoral
state, possessed numerous herds and flocks, and were
united in large bodies under hereditary chiefs. The mo-
dern Europeans, again, have records of a time when they

I' I

CANADA AND ITS DORDERS.

tliomsolvos wore little removed from a Himilar condition,
of which examples still exist in the outer borders of the
continent ; but they have never beheld nations con-
sisting oidy of Imndfuls of men, roaming through an
unboundcfl and continuous forest, having scarcely any
animals tamed for service or food, and su])jiorting them-
selves solely on the precarious product of the chase.
On the first intimation of the existence of such tribes,
they were in this part of the world sup])osed to be a
mere assemblage of meagre and shivering wretches,
whose constant exertions must be employed in at-
temjiting to escape the famine with which they were
perpetually threatened. The first discoverers, accord-
ingly, were sui'])rLsed to find among them warriors,
statesmen, antl orators ; a proud race, of dignified port,
tenible in war, mild in peace, maintaining order with-
out the restraint of law, and uniting by the closest ties
the members of the same community. Such, though
with some remarkable exceptions, was the picture ex-
hil)ited by the savages of the New World, particularly in
its northern regions ; and those nations who dwelt on
the rivers and lakes uf Canada presented it in the most
decided features, least modified by the restraints and
refinements of civUized life. The English and French,
who, during nearly three centuries, have been engaged
with them in the relations either of close alliance or of
deadly war, have learned to api)reciate all that is bright
as well as all that is dark and terrible in the character
of this extraordinary race. From this intercourse we
are furnished with ample means of esthnating a state of
society so peculiar, and so remote from that civilisation
to which Europe has attained.

In their physical character, the Americans are con-
sidered by Blumenbach as forming a particular variety
of the human species, differing, though not very widely,
from the jNIongolian. Believing, as we do, that the New
World was peopled fi-om the Old, and considering that
the Mongol race was situated nearest to the point where
Asia and America come almost into contact, we incUne

\ Til

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

I 'W

to ascribe these variations merely to a change of outward
circumstances. The face is broad and flat, with high
cheek-bones, more rounded and arched, however, than in
the allied type, without having the visage expanded to the
same breadth. The forehead is generally low, the eyes
deep, small, and black ; the nose rather diminutive but
prominent, with wide nostrils ; and the mouth large, with
somewhat thick lips. The stature, which varies remark-
ably throughout the continent, is, in the quarter of
which we treat, generally above the middle size. This
property, however, is confined to the men, the females
being usually below that standard, — a fact which may be
confidently ascribed to the oppressive drudgery they
are compelled to undergo. The limbs, in both sexes,
are well proportioned ; and few mstances of deformity
ever occur.*

The colour of the skin in the American is generally
described as red or copper-coloured ; or, according to Mr
Lawrence's more precise definition, it is " an obscure
orange or rusty iron colour, not unlike the bark of the
cinnanlon-tree." Although we believe that climate is
the chief cause of the diversities in human colour, yet it
is certain that all savages are dark-tinted. This pecu-
liarity may be accounted for by their constant exposure
to the inclemency of the seasons, to sun, air, and tem-
pests ; and the same cause in civilized countries pro-
duces a similar effect on sailors, as well as on those
who work constantly in the fields. In the Old World,
tlie intermediate tints between white and ])lack are gene-
rally varieties of brown and yellow. The red tint is
considered characteristic of the New World. We must
however observe, that the traveller Adair, who lived
upwards of thirty years among the Indians, positively
asserts that it is artificially produced ; that in the oil,

• Lawrence's Lectures on Physiology, Zooloey, and the Na-
tural History olMan (12mo, London, 18m), p. 3n5. Adair's His-
tory oFthe American Indians (4to, London, l/JS), pp. 5, 6. Weld's
Travels in North America and Canada (4to, London, 1799), p.
3754J77.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

jrrease, and other unctuous suhstances with which they
keep tlieir skin constantly smeared, there is dissolved
the juice of a root which gradually tinges it of this
colour. He states, that a white man, who spent some
years with the natives, and adorned himself in their mim-
ner, completely acquired it. Charlevoix seems also to
lean to the same opinion. Weld, though rather inclined
to dissent from it, admits that such a notion was adopted
by missionaries and others who had resided long in the
country. It is certain that the inhabitants glory in tliis
colour, and regard Europeans who have it not as non-
descript beings, not fully entitled to the name of men.
It may be noticed also, that this tint is by no means
so universal as is commonly supposed. Humboldt de-
clares that the idea of its general prevalence could
never have arisen in equinoctial America, or been sug-
gested by the view of the natives in that region ; yet
these provinces include by far the larger part of the
aboriginal population. The people of Nootka Sound
and other districts of the north-western coast are nearly as
white as Europeans ; which may be ascribed, we think,
to their ample clothing and spacious habitations. Thus
tlie red nations appear limited to the eastern tribes of
North America, among whom generally prevails the
custom of painting or smearing the skin with that
favourite colour. We are not prepared to express a
•lecided opinion on this subject ; but it obviously re-
quires a closer investigation than it has yet received.*

The hair is another particular in which the races of
mankind remarkably differ. The ruder classes are gene-
rally defective, either in the abundance or quality of
that graceful appendage ; and the hair of the Americans,
like that of their allied type the Mongols, is coarse,
l)lack, thin, but strong, and growing to a great length.

• Lawrence, p. 365, Humboldt's Personal Narrative of Tra-
vels to the Eauinoctial Regions of the New Continent (9 vols h\o,
London, 181H), vol. iii. p. 223. Adair, p. 3. Weld, p. 375. Char-
levoix's Journal of a Voyage to North America (2 vols 8vo, Lon-
don, 1761), vol. iL p. yU.

Iti

"'I

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THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

til

Like the latter, also, by a curious coincidence, most of
them remove it from every part of tlie head, with the
exception of a tuft on the crowTi, which tliey cherish
with much care. The circumstance, however, which has
excited the greatest attention, is the absence of beard,
apparently entire, among all the people of the New
World. The early travellers viewed it as a natural
deficiency ; whence Robertson and other eminent writ-
ers have even inferred the existence of something pecu-
liarly feeble in their whole frame. But the assertion,
with all the inferences founded upon it, so far as relates to
the North American tribes, has been completely refuted
by recent observation. The original growth has been
found nearly, if not wholly, as ample as that of Euro-
peans ; but the moment it appears, every trace is stu-
diously obliterated. This is effected by the aged fe-
males, originally with a species of clam-shell, but now
by means of spiral pieces of l)rass-wire supplied by the
traders. With these an old squaw will in a few minutes
reduce the chin to a state of complete smoothness ; and
slight ap])lications during the year clear away such strag-
gling hairs as may happen to sprout. It is only among
old men, who become careless of their appearance, that
the beard begins to be perceptible. A late English travel-
ler strongly recommends to his countrymen a practice
v;?^hich, though scarcely accordant with our ideas of manly
dignity, would, at the expense of a few minutes' pain,
save them much daily trouble. The Indians have pro-
bably adopted this usage as it removes an obstacle to the
fantastic painting of the face, which they value so highly.
A full beard, at all events, when it was first seen on their
French visiters, is said to have been viewed with peculiar
antipathy, and to have greatly enhanced the pleasure with
which they killed these foreigners.*

The comparative physical strength of savage and

• Weld, pp. 377, 378. Adair, p. 6. Relation de ce que s'est
passe de plus remarquable aux Missions des P.P. de la Compaffnie
de JesHSj en la Nouvelle France (32 tomes 8vo, Paris, 1685-1671)
an 1667, p. 104.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

civilized nations has been a subject of controversy.
A general impression has obtained that the former,
inured to simple and active habits, acquire a decided
superiority ; but experience appears to have proved that
tliis conclusion is ill founded. On the field of battle, when
a struggle takes place between man and man, the Ame-
rican is usually worsted. In sportive exercises, such as
wrestlijig, he is most frequently thrown, and in leaping
comes short of his antagonist. Even in walking or run-
ning, if for a short distance, he is left behind ; but in
these last movements he possesses a power of perseverance
and continued exertion to which there is scarcely any pa-
rallel. An individual has been known to travel nearly
eighty miles in a day, and arrive at his destination with-
out any symptoms of fatigue. These long journeys, also,
are frequently performed without any refreshment, and
ever ; viiig the shoulders loaded with heavy burdens,
thei' • 'ty of supporting which is truly wonderful.
For L ' ' cwelve miles, indeed, a strong European will
keep ahead of the Indian ; but then he begins to flag,
while the other, proceeding with unaltered pace, out-
strips liim considerably. Even powerful animals cannot
equal them in this respect. Many of their civilized ad-
versaries, when overcome in war, and fleeing before them
on swift horses, have, after a long chase, been overtaken
and scalped.*

Havmg thus given a view of the persons of the Ameri-
cans, we may proceed to consider the manner in which
they are clothed and ornamented. This last object
might have been expected to be a very secondary one,
among tribes whose means of subsistence are so scanty
and precarious ; but, so far is this from being the case,
that there is scarcely any pursuit which occupies so
much of their time and regard. They have availed them-
selves of European intercourse to procure each a small
mirror, in wliich, from time to tune, they view their

• Lawrence, p. 253. Weld, pp. 388, 389. Long's Voyages
and Travels of an Indian Interpreter and Trader (4to, Loudon,
1791), p. 36.

VOL. I, C

i S

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THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

f> .'

1 I

Native Indian Costumes.

personal decorations, taking care that every thing shall
be in the most perfect order. Embellishment, however,
is not much expended on actual clothing, which is sim-
ple, and chiefly arranged with a view to convenience.
Instead of shoes, they wear what are termed mocassins,
consisting of one strip of soft leather wrapt round the
foot, and fastened in front and behind. Europeans,
walking over hard roads, soon knock these to pieces ;
but the Indian, tripping over snow or grass, finds them
a light and agreeable chaussure. Upwards to the middle
of the thigh, a piece of leather or cloth, tightly fitted
to the limb, serves instead of pantaloons, stockings, and
boots ; it is sometimes sewed on so close as never to
be taken off. To a string or girdle round the waist are
fastened two aprons, one before and the other at the back,
each somewhat more than a foot square ; and these are

however.

veniencc.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

connected by a piece of cloth like a truss, often used also
as a capacious pocket. The use of breeches they have
always repelled with contempt, as cumbrous and effemi-
nate. As an article of female dress, they would con-
sider them less objectionable ; but that the limbs of a
warrior should be thus manacled, appears to them utterly
preposterous. They were particularly scandalized at
seeing an officer have them fastened over the shoulder
by braces, and never after gave him any name but Tied-
Breech.

The garments now enumerated form the whole of their
permanent dress. On occasions of ceremony, indeed, or
when exposed to cold, they put over it a short shirt fas-
tened at the neck and wrists, and above it a long loose
robe closed or held together in front. For this purpose
they now generally prefer an English blanket. All these
articles were originally fabricated from the skins of
wdd animals ; but at present, unless for the mocassins,
and sometimes the leggings, European stuffs are preferred.
Tlie dress of the female scarcely differs from that of the
male, except that the apron reaches down to the knees ;
and even this is said to have been adopted since their
acquaintance with civilized nations. The early French
writers relate an amusing anecdote to prove how little
dress was considered as making a distinction ])etween the
sexes. The Ursuline nuns, having educated a Huron girl,
presented her, on her marriage to one of her country-
men, with a complete and handsome suit of clothes in the
Parisian style. They were much surprised some days
after, to see the husband, who had ungenerously seized
the whole of his bride's attire and arrayed himself in it,
parading back and forward in front of the convent, and be-
traying every symptom of the most extravagant exulta-
tion. This was farther heightened, when he o])served the
ladies crowding to the window to see him, and a univer-
sal smile spread over their countenances.*

i" s

U 1

• Creuxius, Nova Francia (4to, Paris, 1664), pp. 03, 64' Adair^
p. 7. Weld, p. 380-383.

THE NATIVE INDIANS INIIABITINO

Thc8e vestmep.ts, as already observed, arc simple, and
adapted only for use. To gratify his passionate love of
ornament, the Indian seeks chiefly to load liis person
with certam glittering appendages. Before the arrival
of Europeans, shells and feathers took the lead ; but,
since that period, these commodities have been nearly
supplanted by beads, rings, bracelets, and similar toys,
wliich are inserted profusely into various parts of his ap-
l)arel, particularly the little apron in front. The chiefs
usually wear a breastplate ornamented with them ; and
among all chisses it is an object of the greatest ambition
to have the largest possible number suspended from the
ear. That organ therefore is not bored, but slit to such
an extent that a stick of wax may be passed through
the aperture, which is then loaded with all the baubles
that can be mustered ; and if the weight of these gra-
dually draw down the yielding flap till it rest on the
shoulder, and the ornaments themselves cover the breast,
the Indian has reached his utmost height of finery. This,
how^ever, is a precarious splendour ; the ear becomes
more and more unfit to support the burden, when at
length some accident, the branch of a tree, or even a
twitch by a waggish comrade, lays at his feet all his de-
^'orations, with the portion of flesh to which they were
attached. Weld saw very few who had preserved this
organ entire through life. The adjustment of the hair,
figain, is an object of especial study. As already ob-
served, the greater part is generally eradicated, leaving
only a tuft, varying in shape and place, according to taste
and national custom, but usually encircling the crown.
This lock is stuck fall of feathers, wings of birds, shells,
and every kind of fantastic ornament. The women wear
theirs long and flowing, and contrive to collect a consi-
derable number of ornaments for it, as well as for their
ears and dress.*

But it is upon his skin that the American warrior
chiefly lavishes his powers of embellishment. His taste

* Creuxius, p. fil^ Charlevoix, vol. ii. pp. 119,120. Weld, pp.
;i01-383. Adair, pp. 17'.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

»o —

Tattooed Indian.

in doing so is very diftcrent from ours. " While tlic
European," says Creuxius, " studies to keep his skin
clean, and free from every extraneous substance, the
Indian's aim is, that his, by the accumulation of oil,
gi-ease, and paint, may shine like that of a roasted pig."
Soot scraped from the bottoms of kettles, the juices of
herbs liaving a green, yellow, and, above all, a ver-
milion tint, rendered adhesive by combination with oil
and grease, are lavishly employed to adorn his person,
01", according to our idea, to render it hideous. Black and
red, alternating with each other m varied stripes, are
the favourite tints. Some blacken the face, leaving in
the middle a red circle, including the upper lip and tip
of the nose ; others have a red spot on each ear, or one
eye black and the other of a red colour. In war the
black tint is profusely laid on, the others being only

I' —^\

'11

V«l

. i'l

\l ^

i ;

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

employed to heighten its effect, and give to the coun-
tenance a terrific expression. M. de Tracy, when go-
vernor of Canada, was told hy his Indian allies, that,
with his good-humoured face, he would never inspire
the enemy with any degree of awe. They besought
him to place hunself under their brush, when they
would soon make him such, that his very aspect would
strike terror. The breast, arms, and legs are the seat
of more jKirmanent impressions, analogous to the tat-
tooing of the South Sea Islanders. The colours are
either elaborately rubbed in, or fixed by slight inci-
sions with needles and sharp-pointed bones. His guar-
dian spirit, and the animal that forms the symbol of his
tribe, are the first objects delineated. After this every
memorable exploit, and particularly the enemies whom
he has slain and scalped, are diligently graven on some
part of his figure ; so that the body of an aged warrior
contains the history of his life.*

The means of procuring subsistence must always form
an important branch of national economy. Writers
taking a superficial view of savage life, and seeing how
scanty the articles of food are, wliile the demand is ne-
cessarily urgent, have assumed that the efforts to attain
them must absorb his whole mind, and scarcely leave
room for any other thought. But, on the contrary, these
are to him very subordinate objects. To perform a
round of daily labour, even though ensuring the most
ample provision for his wants, would be equally contrary
to liis inclination and supposed dignity. He will not
deign to follow any pursuit which does not, at the simie
time, include enterprise, adventure, and excitement.
Hunting, which the higher classes in the civilized parts
of the world pursue for mere recreation, is almost the
only occupation considered of sufficient importance to
engage his attention. It is peculiarly endeared by its
resemblance to war, being carried on with the same
weapons, and nearly in the same manner. In his na-

" Creiixius, p. 62. Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 118. Weld, pp.
382, 383. Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1664, 16U5.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

tivc state, the arrow was the favourite and almost ex-
clusive instrument for assailing distimt ohjects ; but now
the gun has nearly su])er&ccled it. The great hunts are
rendered more animating, as well as more effectual, from
being carried on in largo jiarties, and even by whole
tribes. The men are prepared for these by fasting, dream-
ing, and other superstitious observances, similar to those
which we shall find employed in anticipation of war.
In such expeditions, too, contrivance and skill, as well
as boldness and entei-prise, are largely employed. Some-
times a circle is formed, when all the animals surrounded
by it are pressed closer and closer, till they are collected
in the centre, and fall under the accumulated weight of
weapons. On other occasions they are driven to the
margin of a lake or river, in which, if they attempt to
seek refuge, canoes are ready to intercept them. Else-
where a space is enclosed by stakes, only a narrow
oi)ening being left, which, by clamour and shouts, the
game are compelled to enter, and thereby secured. In
imtumn and spring, when the ice is newly formed and
slight, they are pushed upon it, and their legs breaking
through, they are easily caught. In winter, when the
snow begins to fall, traps are set, in which planks are so
arranged, that the animal, in snatching at the bait, is
crushed to death. Originally the deer, both for food and
clothing, was the most valuable object of chase ; but
since the trade with Europeans has given such a pro-
minent importance to furs, the beaver has in some de-
gree supplanted it. In attacking this animal, great care
is taken to prevent his escape into the water, on which
his habitation always borders ; and with this view va-
rious kinds of nets and springes are employed. On
some occasions the Indians place themselves upon the
dike which encloses his amphibious village. They then
make an opening in it, when the inmates, alarmed by
seeing the water flowing out, hasten to this barrier,
where they encounter their enemies, armed with all
the instruments of destruction. At other times, when
ice covers the surface of the pond, a hole is made, at which

S.I

THE NATIVE INDIANS INIIADITINO

I ■

the animal comes to respire ; he is then drawn out, ftnd
secured. The bear is a formidable enemy, which must
be assailed by the com])ined force of the hunters, who
are ranged in two rows, armed with bows or nmskcts.
One of them advances, and wounds him, and, on being
furiously pursued, he retreats between the files, fol-
lowed in the siune line by the animal, which is then
overwhelmed by their united onset. In killing these
quadrupeds, the natives seem to feel a sort of kindness
and sympathy for their victim. On vanquisliing a beaver
or a bear, tliey celebrate its praises in a song, recounting
those good qualities which it will never more be able to
display, yet consoling themselves with the useful pur-
poses to which its flesh and its skin will be applied.*

Of the animals usually tamed and rendered subservient
to useful purposes, the Americans have only the dog, that
faithful friend of man. Though his services in hunting
are valuable, he is treated with no tenderness ; but is
left to roam about the dwelling, very sparingly supplied
with food and shelter. A missionary who resided in a
Huron village represents his life as having been ren-
dered miserable by these animals. At night they laid
themselves on his person, for the benefit of the waraith ;
and whenever his scanty meal waj set down, their snouts
were always first in the dish. Dog's flesh is eaten, and
has even a peculiar sanctity attaclied to it. On all solemn
festivals it is the principal meat, the use of which on such
occasions seems to import some high and mysterious
meaning.

But besides the cheering avocations of the chase, other
means must be used to ensure the comfort and sub-
sistence of the Indian's family ; all of which, however,
are most ungenerously devolved upon the weaker sex.
Women, according to Creuxius, serve them as domestics,
as tailors, as peasants, and as oxen ; and Long does not

• Chateaubriand^s Travels in America and Italy (2 vols 8vo,
•London, 1828), vol. i. p. 269-279. Carver's Travels through the
Interior Parts of North America (8vo, London, 1778), p. 287-290.
Long, p. 96.

CANADA AMD ITS BORDEUS.

conceive that any other purposes of their cxist^^nco arc
ivco^^niscd, except those of bearing chlhlrtjn and per-
form inf? hard work. Tliey till the jjrround, carry wood
and water, huild huts, make wmoes, and fi«l» ; in wliieli
latter processes, however, and in reaping the harvest,
their lords deign to give occasional aid. So hal)ituat«<l
are they to such occupations, that when one of them
saw a party of English soldiers collecting wood, she ex-
claimed, that it was a shame to see men doing women's
work, and began herself to carry a load.*

Through the services of this enslaved portion of the
tribe, those savages are enabled to combine in a certiiin
degree the agricultural with the hunting state, without
any mixture of the pastoral, usually considered as inter-
mediate. Cultivation, however, is limited to small spots
in the immediate vicinity of the villages, and these being
usually at the distance of sixteen or seventeen miles from
each other, it scarcely makes any impression on the im-
mense expanse of forest. The women, in the beginning of
summer, after having burned the stubble of the preced-
ing crop, rudely stir the ground with a long crooked
piece of wood ; they then throw in the grain, which is
chiefly the coarse but productive species of maize pecu-
liar to the continent. The nations in the south have a
considerable variety of fruits ; whereas those of Cana<la
appear to have raised only turnsoles, water-melons, and
pompions. Tobacco used to be grown largely ; but that
imported by Europeans is now universally preferred, and
has become a regular object of trade. The grain, after
harvest (which is celebrated by a festival), is lodged in
large subterraneous stores lined with bark, where it
keeps extremely well. Previous to being placed in these,
it is sometimes thrashed, on other occasions merely the
ears are cut off, and thrown in. When first discovered by
settlers from Europe, the degrees of culture were found
to vary in different tribes. The Algonquins, who were
the ruling people previous to the arrival of the French,

Colden's History of the Five Nations (2 vols 12mo, London,

.ong, pp.

1755), vol. i. pp. 7, 14. Creuxius, p. 57.

137, 133.

1 '

^ 1

■1,

t' I

1' IJ

|i :

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHAllITINO

wholly (lcsj)iHO(l it, ami Itniiuled as {lUlician tlioir neipli-
Ixmrs, by whom it was iiractiMcd. In goiu'ral, tlu- iiorth-
vni clanH, and thoHo near tlu' month of the St Lawrcnco,
(U'pendcd ainiont Kolcdy on hunting' and fi.sliing; and
when tlu'st' failt'd tlit-y wert; rcdnced to dreadful extrt'-
miticH, bi'in^ often o})li^ed to de|)end on the miserable
retjonrce of that wpecieH of liehen ealled tripe de rocfui.

The maize, when thrjished, in oecaHionally toa-sted on
the coals, and .sometimes made into aeoarse kind of unhvi-
vened eake. lint the most favourite ])rej)aration is that
oalled .siKinntUjiy a speeies of j»ap formed after it has been
roasted, bruised, and separated from tlie husk. It is in-
sipid by itself; yet when thrown into the pot, alonp^ with
the produce of the chase, it enriclus the soup or stew,
one of the principal dishes at tiieir fetusis. They never cat
victuals raw, but rather overboiled ; nor have they yet
l)ecn ])r()ught to endure French raji^oiits, sidt, ]>ej>per, or
indeed any s])ecies of condiment. A chief, admitted to the
governor's table, seeing the general use of mustard, Wius
led by curiosity to take a spoonful and put it into his
mouth. On feeling its violent effects, he made incredible
efforts to conceal them, and escape the ridicule of the
company ; but severe sneezings, and the tears starting
from his eyes, soon betrayed bun, and raised a general
laugh. lie wjis then shown the manner in which it
sliould be used ; but nothing could ever induce hhn to
allow the " boiling yellow," as he termed it, to enter
hia lips.

The Indians are capable of extraordinary abstinence
from food, in which they can persevere for successive
days without comj)laint or a])parent suffering. They
even take a pride in long fasts, by which they usually
prepare themselves for any great undertaking. Yet
when once set down to a feast, their gluttony is described
as enormous, and the capacity of their stomachs almost
incredible. They will go from feast to feast, doing ho-
nour to each in succession. The chief giving the entertain-
ment does not partake, but with his own hands distributes
port;ions among the guests. On solemu occasions, it ia

CANADA AND ITS nORDKRS.

ft rule tlmt every tiling' shall be euten ; nor does this ohli-
j^ation seem to be felt us either burdensome or uiiplea-
sunt. In their uative titate, they were not ae«|uuinte({
with any H|KH.'ieH of intoxieatintr liquors ; their love of
anient spirits, attendril with so many ruinous effet't<s
havin<( been entirely eonse([ueut on their intercour»e
with Kuroj.cans.*

The habitations of the Indians reeeive mueh less of
their attt;ntion than the attire or at least embellishment
of thoir jK'rsons. Our eountrymen, by common consent,
jfive to them no bitter appellation than cabins. The Iwrk
of trees is their chief material both for houses aL.l l)oats ;
tlity peel it oil' with considerable skill, sometim-s strip-
pinjf a whole tree in one jjiece. This coating, sjircad not
unskilfully over a framework of poles, and fastentil to
them by strips of tou/jfh rind, forms their dwellin;^s. The
shapc^ tiecoixlhig to the owner's fancy, resembles a tub,
a cone, or a cart-shed, the mixture of which gives t>
the village a confused and cluiotic appearance. Ligl.t
and heat are admitted only by an apeilure at the top,
through which also the smoke escapes, after filling all
the upper part of the mansion. Little inconvenience is
felt Irom this by the natives, who, within doors, nevt r
think of any position except sitting or lying ; but to
Europeans, who must occasionally stand or walk, the
abode is thereby rendered almost intolerable ; and mat-
ters become much worse when rain or snow makes it ne-
cessary to close the roof. These structures a sometimes
upwards of a hundred feet long ; but they ... then the
residence of two or three separate families. Four of
tlicm occasionally compose a quadrangle each open on
the inside, and having a common fie in the centre.
Formerly the Iroquois had houses somewhat superior,
adorned even with some rude carving ; but these were
burnt down by the French in successive expeditions,
and have never been rebuilt in the same style. The

*CharIevoix,voI.ii. p. 121-125. Adair, p. 409-412. Creuxiiis.p.
66. Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1657, I65b, pp. 106, 10/.

L '

il'

vi
^ 1

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

Canadians in this respect seem to he surpassed by the
Choktaws, Chikasaws, and other tribes in the south,
and even by the Saukies in the west, whose mansions
Carver describes as constructed of well-hewn planks,
neatly jointed, and each capable of containmg several
families.

In their expeditions, whether for war or hunting,
which often lead them through desolate forests, several
hundred miles from home, the Indians have the art of
rearing, with great expedition, temporary abodes. On
arriving at their evening station, a few poles, meeting
at top in the form of a cone, are in half an hour covered
with bark, and having spread a few pine-branches
within by way of mattress, they sleep as soundly as on
beds of down. Like the Esquimaux, they also understand
how to convert snow into a material for building ; and
find it in the depth of winter the warmest and most
comfortable. A few twigs platted together secure the
roof. Our own countrymen, in their several campaigns,
have, in cases of necessity, used with advantage this
species of bivouac.

The furniture in these native huts is exceedingly sim-
ple. The chief articles are two or three pots or kettles
for boiling their food, with a few wooden plates and
spoons. The former, in the absence of metal, with which
the inhabitants were unacquainted, were made of coarse
earthenware that resisted the fire ; and sometimes of a
species of soft stone, which could be excavated with
tlieir rude hatchets. Nay, in some cases, their kitchen
utensils were of wood, and the water made to boil
by throwing in heated stones. Since their acquaintance
with Europeans, the superiority of iron vessels has been
found so decided, that they are now universally pre-
ferred. The great kettle or cauldron, employed only on
high festivals associated with religion, hunting, or war,
attracts even a kind of veneration ; and potent chiefs
have assumed its name as their title of honour.

Canoes, another fabric which the Indians construct
very rudely, are yet adapted with considerable skill to

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

their purpose. These arc iisucally framed of the ])ark of
a single tree, strengthened at the eentre with ribs of
tough wood. The ends are of bark only, but being
curved upwards, are always above water, and thus
remain perfectly tight. Our sailors can scarcely believe
such nut-shells safe even on the smoothest waters, and
see with surprise the natives i^ aiding them amid stormy
waves, where their very lightness and buoyancy pre-
serve them from sinking. They have another quality
of great advantage in the devious pursuits of the own-
ers ; being so extremely light, that they can be easily
conveyed on the shoulder from one river or branch of a
lake to anotlicr. One man, it is said, can carry on his
back a canoe in wliich twelve persons may navigate with
safety.*

Having taken this minute survey of the physical con-
dition of the Indians, we shall proceed to an examination
of their social condition. The fundamentiil principle of
their polity is the complete independence of every indivi-
dual, his right to do whatever he pleases, be it good or
bad, nay, even though criminal and destructive. When
any one announces an- intention which is disagreeable to
his neighbours, they dare not attempt to check him by
reproach or coercion ; these would only rivet his deter-
mination more strongly. Their only resource is to sooth
liim, like a spoiled child, by kind words, and especially
by gifts. If, notwithstanding, he proceeds to wound or
murder any one, the public look on without concern,
though revenge is eagerly sought by the kindred of the
injured person.

Not withstand mg this impunity, which, on our side of
the Atlantic, would be followed by the most dreadful
consequences, it is somewhat mortifying to the pride of
European civilisation to learn, that there reij^ns a degree
of traniiuillity greater than the strictest police can pre-
serve with us. The Indians are divided mto a number
of little nations or tribes, fiercely hostile to each other,

• Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 127-130. Weld, p. 'dnd.'MVh Creuxius,
K^ Carver, pp. 40, 231-233. Adair, p. 413-42U.

■■ u

t-}

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

but whose memhers are bound among themselves by the
strictest union. The honour and welfare of the clan sup-
ply their ruling principle, and are cherished with an ar-
dour not surpassed in the most brilliant eras of Greek and
Roman patriotism. This national attachment forms a so-
cial tie, linking the members to each other, and rendering
exceedingly rare, not only deeds of violence, but even
personal quarrels, and banishing entirely that coarse and
abusive language which is so prevalent among the vulgar
in more enlightened communities. This feeling, added
to the sentiment of dignity and self-command considered
suitable to the character of a warrior, renders their de-
portment exceedingly pleasing. They are completely
free from that false shame which is termed mauvaise
honte. When seated at tiible with Europeans of the
highest rank, they retain the most thorough self-posses-
sion ; and at the same time, by carefully observing the
proceedings of the other guests, they avoid all awkward-
ness in their manners. Their generosity, too, in relieving
each other's necessities scarcely knows any bounds, and
only stops short of an absolute community of goods.
No member of a tribe can be in the least danger of
starving, if the rest have wherewith to supply him.
Children rendered orphans ])y the casualties to whicli
savage life is subject, are immediately taken in charge
by the nearest relative, and supplied with every thing
needful, as abundantly as if they were his own. Nothing
gives them a more unfavourable opinion of the Frendi
and English, than to see one portion revelling in abund-
ance, while the other suffers the extremities of want ;
but when they are told that, for want of these accom-
modations, men are seized by their fellow-creatures
and immured in dungeons, such a degree of barbarism
appears to them almost incredible. Whole tribes,
when obliged by the vicissitudes of war to seek refuge
among their neighbours, are received with unbounded
hospitiility ; habitations and lands are assigned to them,
and they are treated by th( ir new friends in every
respect as a part of themselves. It may, however, be

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

observed, that as such an accession of numbers aup^ente
the military strength of the tribe, there may be a mix-
ture of policy in this cordial reception."^

In consequence of this spirit of o\>lcy and internal
union, the unbounded personal freedoi.^ which marks
their social condition seldom breaks out into such crimes
as would disturb the public peace. Its greatest evil, of
which we shall see repeated instances, is, tliat indivi-
duals actuated by revenge or a spirit of daring enter-
prise, think themselves justified in surprising and mur-
dering a hated adversary. From this cause every treaty
l)etween the tribes is rendered precarious ; though, as
each is aware of these lawless propensities, room is left
for mutual explanation, so that particular outrages may
not involve a general war. This circumstance leads us to
notice, that the favourable aspect presented by the inte-
rior of these communities can by no means warrant any
conclusion as to the superiority of savage life when com-
pared with that of civilised man. On tlie contrary, the
most perfect form of government devised by the human
being in the state of nature, has never been exempted
from those feelings of relentless enmity and continual
fear with which bordering nations regard each other.
These, as will appear in the sequel, often impel them to
the most direful crimes ; but at present we shall pro-
ceed with our survey of their domestic usages.

Some writers have denied that there exists among the
Indians any thing that can properly be termed a matri-
monial union. This, however, seems only a prejudice,
in consequence of there not being any regular cere-
mony, as with us. The man, it appears, after having
made an arrangement with the parent of his bride, takes
lier home, and they live in every respect as husband and
wife. The mode of courtship among several of the tribes
is singular. The wooer, attended often by several com-
rades, repaii-s at midnight to his fair one's apartment,

* Charlevoix, vol. ii. o. 30-32, 80, 87- Creuxiun, pp. 72, 73. Car-
ver, pp. 248, 412. Adair, pp. 378, 412. Missions en la Nouvelle
France, ans 1()57, lH5i', p. 128.

fk . i» '

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

5 I

(1^

and three times twitches her nose. If she be inclined to
listen to his suit, she rises ; otherwise he must depart.
Though this visit be so very unseasonable, it is said to
be rarely accompanied with any impropriety ; the mis-
sionaries, however, did not think it right to sanction such
freedoms in their converts. The preliminary step is,
in this manner, taken with the lady, but the decision still
rests with the father, to whom the suitor now applies.
Long has given no unplcasing specimen of the address :
** Father, I love your daughter — will you give her to me,
that the small roots of her heart may entangle with mine,
so that the strongest wind that blows may never separate
them 2" He ofters at the same time a handsome present,
the acceptance of which is considered as sealmg the
union. Considerable discrepancy prevails in the de-
scriptions, and apparently in tho practice, as applied to
different tribes ; yet, on the whole, great reserve and
propriety seem to mark this intercourse. The young
men of the Five Nations valued themselves highly for
their correct conduct towards the other sex. Of nume-
rous female captives who fell into their hands during
a long series of wars, though some were possessed of
great personal beauty, no one had to complain that
her honour was exposed to the slightest danger. The
girls themselves are not always quite so exemplary ;
but their failures are viewed with indulgence, and form
no obstacle to marriage. Once united by that tie, how-
ever, a strict fidelity is expected and commonly observed.
The husband, generally speaking, is not jealous, unless
when mtoxicated ; but when his suspicions are really
excited regarding the conduct of his partner, he is
very indignant, beats her, bites off her nose, and dis-
misses her in disgrace. There are occasional instances
of a divorce being inflicted without any assigned rea-
son ; but such arbitrary proceeding is by no means fre-
quent. As the wife performs the whole labour, and
furnishes a great part of the subsistence, she is usually
considered too valuable a possession to be rashly parted
with. In some cases these domestic dioidges become

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

even an object of dispute and competition. A mission-
ary mentions a woman, who, during the absence of her
husband, formed a new connexion. Her first partner
having returned, without being agitated by any delicate
sensibilities, demanded her back. The question was
referred to a chief, who could contrive no better scheme
than that of i)lacing her at a certain distance from both,
and decreeing that he who should first reach her should
have her ; " thus," says he, " the wife fell to him who
had the best legs." With regard to polygamy, the
usual liberty is claimed, and by the chiefs in the west
and the south it is indulged to a considerable extent ;
but among the tribes on the lakes the practice is rare
and limited. When it does occur, the man very com-
monly marries his wife's sister, and • even her whole
family, on the presumption, we may suppose, that the
household will be thereby rendered more hannonious.
The Indian is said never to betray the slightest symp-
tom of tenderness towards his wife or children. If he
meets them on his return from a distant expedition,
he proceeds without taking the slightest notice, and
seats himself in his cabin as if he had not been a day
absent. Yet his exertions for their welfare, and the
eagerness with which he avenges their wrongs, testify
that this apparent apathy springs only from pride and
a fancied sense of decorum. It is equally displayed with
regard to his own most urgent wants. Though he may
have been without food during several days, and enters
a iieiglibour's house, nothing can make him stoop to iisk
for a morsel.*

The rearing (for it cannot be called the education)
of the children is chiefly arranged so that it may cost
the parents the least possible trouble in addition to the
l.ibour of procuring their subsistence. The father is
either engrossed by war and hunting, or resigned to "total
indolence ; while the mother, oppressed by various toils.

La Potheric, Bacqiieville de, Histoire de I'Amerique Septen-
~ ' , vol. ii pi

37(1, 410.

M-iu. i vFiiiciii, jjtii.i^ut;viiit; tie, ni

trionale (4 tomes 12mo. Paris 1674), vol. ii pp. 22.31. " Lonij, pp,
y;i.l36. Carver, pp. 230.241, 367-r

VOL. I.

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

[ i

' ■

Infant in a Frame.

cannot devote much time to the cares of nurture. Tlie
infant, therefore, heing fastened with pieces of skin to
a board spread with soft moss, is laid on the ground
or suspended to the branch of a tree, where it swings
as in a cradle, — an expedient which is so carefully
adopted as scarcely ever to be attended with accident.
As soon as the creatures are able to crawl on hands and
feet, they are allowed to move about every part of
the house and vicinity, like a cat or dog. Their fa-
vourite resort is the border of the river or lake to
which an Indian village is usually adjacent, and where
in summer they are seen all day long, sporting like
fishes. As reason dawns, they enjoy in the most ample
<legree that independence wliich is held the birthright
of their tribe ; for, whatever extravagances they may
indulge in, the parents never take any steps to restrain
or chastise them. The mother only ventures to give
her daughter some delicate reproach, or throws water
in her face, which is said to produce a powerful effect.
The youths, however, without any express instruction;;,
soon imbibe the spirit of their forefathers. Every thini;
they see, the tales which they hear, inspire them with
the ardent desire to become great hunters and warriors.
Their first study, their favourite sport, is to bend the
bow, to Avield the hatchet, and practise all those exercises

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

which are to be tlieir glory in after-life. As manhood
approaches, they spontaneously assume that serious cha-
racter, that studied and stately p^ravity, of which the
example has been set by their elders.*

The intellectual character of tlie American savage
presents some very striking peculiarities. Considering his
unfavourable condition, he of all other human beings
might seem doomed to make the nearest approach to the
brute ; while, in point of fact, without any aid from let-
ters or study, many of the higher faculties of his mind
are developed in a very remarkable degree. He displays
a decided superiority over the uninstructed laliourcr in
a civilized community, whose mental energies are be-
numbed amid tlie daily round of mechanical occupation.
The former spends a great part of his life in arduous
enterj)rises, where much contrivance is requisite ; and
wlience he must often extricate himself by presence of
mind and ingenuity. His senses, particularly those of
seeing and smelling, have acquired by practice an almost
preternatural acuteness. He can trace an animal or
a foe by indications which to a European eye would be
wholly imperceptible ; and in liis wanderings he gathers
a minute acquaintance with the geography of the coun-
tries which he traverses. He can even draw a rude out-
line of them by applying a mixture of charcoal and
grease to prepared skins, and on seeing a regular map
he soon understands its construction, and readily finds
out places. His facility in discovering the most direct
way to spots situated at the distance of hundreds of
miles, and known perhaps only by the report of his
i*ountrymen, is truly astonishing. It has been ascribed
by some to a mysterious and supernatural instinct, but
it appears to be achieved by merely observing the dif-
ferent aspect of the trees or shrubs when exposed to the
north or the south, as also the position of the sun,
which he can point out, although hidden by clouds.
Even where there is a beaten track, if at all circuitous,

• Chateaubriand, vol. i. pp. 129, 213. Weld, pp. 387, 388.

! li t

1 (

p) If ^

( i

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

he strikes directly through the woods, and reaches his
destination hy the straightest possible line."''

Other faculties of a higlier order arc developed by the
scenes amid which the life of savages is spent. They
are divided into a number of little communities, be-
tween which are actively carried on all the relations
of war, negotiation, treaty, and alliance. As mighty
revolutions, observes an eloquent writer, take place in
these kingdoms of wood and cities of bark, as in the
most powerful civilized states. To increase the in-
fluence, and extend the possessions of their own tribe, to
humble and if possible destroy those hostile to them, are
the constant aims of eveiy member of those little com-
monwealths. For these ends, not only deeds of daring
valour are achieved, but schemes are deeply laid, and
pursued with the most accurate calculation. There is
scarcely a refinement in European diplomacy to which
they are strangers. The French once made an attempt
to crush the confederacy of the Five Nations, by at-
tacking each in succession ; but as they were on their
march against the first tribe, they were met by the
deputies of the others, who offered their mediation,
intimating, that if it were rejected, they would make
common cause with the one threatened. That associa-
tion also showed that they completely understood how
to employ the hostility which prevailed between their
enemy and the English for promoting their own aggran-
dizement. Embassies, announced by the calumet of
peace, are constantly passing from one tribe to another.

The same political circumstances develop in an extra-
ordinary degi'ce the powers of oratory ; for nothing of
any importance is transacted without a speech. On every
emergency a council of the tribe is called, when tlie
aged and wise hold long deliberations for the public weal.
The best speakers are despatched to conduct their ne-
gotiations, the object of which is unfolded in studied
harangues. The functions of orator, among the Five

* Weld, p. 391-394. Long, p. 03. Carver, pp. 241, 242.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

()9

Nations, had even become a separate profession, lield in
equal or higlicr lionour than that of the warrior ; and
eaeh clan appointed the most clo([iient of their number
to speak for them in the pu})lie council. Nay, there
was a general orator for the whole confederacy, who
could say to the French governor, " Ononthio, lend
thine ear ; I am the mouth of all the country ; you hear
all the Iroquois in hearing my word." Decanesora,
their speaker at a later period, was greatly admired by
the English, and his bust was thought to resemble that
of Cicero. In their diplomatic discourses, each proposi-
tion is prefaced by the delivery of a belt of wampum, of
wiiich what follows is underetood to be the explanation,
and which is to be preserved as a record of the conference.
The orator does not express his proposals in words only,
but gives to every sentence its appropriate action. If
he threatens war, he wildly brandishes the tomahawk ;
if he solicits alliance, he twines his arms closely with
those of the chief whom he addresses ; and if he invites
friendly intercourse, he assumes all the attitudes of one
who is forming a road in the Indian manner, by cutting
down the trees, clearing them away, and carefully remov-
ing the leaves and branches. To a French writer, who
witnessed the delivery of a solemn embassy, it suggested
the idea of a company of actors perfonning on a stage.
So expressive are their gestures, that negotiations have
boen conducted and alliances concluded between petty
states and communities who understood nothing of one
another's language.'"*

The composition of the Indian orators is studied and
elaborate. The language of the Iroquois is even held
to be susceptible of an Attic elegance, which few can
attain so fully as to escape all criticism. It is figurative
in the highest degree, every notion being expressed by
images addressed to the senses. Thus, to throw up the
hatchet, or to put on the great cauldron, is to begin a
war ; to throw the hatchet to the sky, is to wage open

• Missions en la Noiivelle France, an 1644, p. })7-93. Carver, p.
2(50. Golden, voL i. p. 169, et seq. Adair, p. 79.

!'::>

.:fi

I ! I

1 #

^4 ■■'

,. u w

& -!1

' 1

': f •'

1 1

THE NATIVE INDIANS INnADITINO

juid terrible war ; to take off the cauldron, or to bury
tli(! hatchet, is to make peace ; to plant the tree of pcmre
on tile highest mountain of the earth, is to make a
^^eneral pacification. To throw a prisoner into the
cauldron is to devote him to torture and death ; to take
him out, is to pardon and n^ceive him as a member of
the community. Anibassadors coming to propose a full
and pfcneral treaty say, " We rend the clouds asunder,
and drive away all darkness from the heavens, that the
sun of peace may shine with brij^ditness over us all."
On another occasion, referring to their own violent
conduct, they said, " We are ^dad that Assarigoa will
bury in the i)it what is past ; let the earth be trodden
hard over it, or rather let a strong? stream run under
the pit to wash away the evil." They afterwards added,
" Wc now plant a tree, whose top will reach the sun,
and its branches spread far ai)road, and we shall shelter
ourselves under it, and live in peace." To send the
collar underground, is to carry on a secret negotiation ;
but when expressing a desire that there might be no
duplicity or concealment between them and the French,
they said, that " they wished to fix the sun in the top
of the heaven, immediately above that pole, that it might
beat directly down, and leave nothing in obscurity." In
pledging themselves to a firm and steady peace, they
declared that they would not only throw down the great
war-cauldron, and cause all the water to flow out, but
would break it in pieces. This disposition to represent
every thing by a sensible object extends to matters the
most important. One powerful people assumed the ap-
])elLition of Foxes, while another gloried in that of
Cats. Even when the entire nation bore a different ap-
pellation, separate fraternities distinguished themselves
{IS the tribe of the Bear, the Tortoise, and the Wolf. They
did not disdain a reference even to inanimate things.
The Black Cauldron was at one time the chief warrior
of the Five Nations , and Red Shoes was a person of
distinction, well known to Long the traveller. When
the chiefs concluded treaties with Europeans, their

CANAI>A AND ITS IJORDRnS.

signature consisted in ft pieture, often tolerably well
executed, of the bcust or object after w hich they ehos<*
to be named.*

Tl»e a})senee among these tribes of any written or even
jiictorial UKtde of recording events was supplied by the
menioriesof their «dd men, which were so retentive that
ii certain writer calls them living books. Their only
rnuembnmcer consisted in the wampum belts ; of which
one was aj)propriated to each division of a speoch or
treaty, and had seemingly a powerful effect in calling it
to recollection. On the close of the transjiction, thes<'
were deposited as public documents, to be drawn forth
on great occasions, when the orators, and even the old
women, could repeat verbatim the j)ass;ige to which each
referred. Europeans were thus enabled to collect in-
formation conceniing the revolutions of different trilx's,
for several ages precedhig their own arrival.f

The earliest visitei-s of the New World, on seeing
among the Indians neither priests, temjdes, idols, nor sa-
crifices, represented them as a ])eoi)le wholly destitutt^ of
religious opinions. Closer in([uiry, however, showed that
a belief in the spiritual world, li ^wever imperfect, had a
commanding influence over almost all theiractions. Their
creed includes even some lofty and i)ure conceptions. Un-
der the title of the Great Spirit, the Master of Life, the
maker of heaven and earth, they distinctly recognise a
supreme ruler of the universe, and an arbiter of their
destiny. A party of them, when informed by the mis-
sionaries of the existence of a being of infinite power,
who had created the heavens and the earth, with one
consent exclaimed, ^' Atahomn ! Atnhocan !'* — that be-
ing the name of their principal deity. According to
Long, the Indians among whom he resided ascribe
every event, propitious or unfortunate, to the favour or

" La Potherie, preface to tome iii. Colden, vol. i. pp. l."}, 4U,
175. Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans ltio5, 3b56, p. 21.
Weld, p. 395.

t Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1(559, 1660, p. 2(?. Weld,

pp. 3By, ayu.

J -.

THE NATIVE INDIANfl INHAniTrNO

nnger of the? Mfister of Life. They address him for
their daily Huhsistence ; they helieve him to convey to
them presence of mind in l)iittU' ; and amid tortures they
tliank iiim for inspirinu^ them with couraji^e. Yet thouj^h
this one eiijvatcul and just conception is deeply graven
on their minds, it is comhined with others which show
all the imperfection of unassisted reason in attempting
to think rii(htly on this great subject. It may even he
observed, that the term, rendered into our language
" great spirit," does not really convey the idea of an
immaterial nature. It imports with them merely some
being possessed of lofty and mysterious powers, and in
this sense is applied to men, and even to animals. The
])rute creation, which occuj>ies a prominent ])lace in all
their ideas, is often viewed by them as invested, to a
great extent, with supernatural powers, — (Ui extreme
al)surdity, which, however, they share with the civilized
creeds of Egypt and India.

When the mlMionaries, on their first arrival, at-
tempted to form an idea of the Indian mythology, it ap-
|)eared to them extremely complicated, more especially
l)ecau8e those who attempted to explain it had no fixed
opinions. Each man differed from his neighbour, and
at another time from hunself, and when the discre-
pancies were pointed out no attempt was made to re-
concile them. The southern triljcs, who had a more
settled faith, are described by Adair as intoxicated with
spiritual pride, and denouncing even their European
allies as " the accursed people." The native Canadian,
on the contrary, is said to have been so little tenacious,
that he would at any time renounce all his theological
errors for a pipe of tobacco, though, as soon as it was
smoked, he immediately relapsed. An idea was found
]>revalent respecting a certain mystical animal, called
Mesou or Messessagen, who, when the earth was buried
in water, had drawn it up and restored it. Others spoke
of a contest between the hare, the fox, the beaver, and
the seal, for the empire of the world. Among the prin-
ci^^al nations of Canada the hare is thought to have at-

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

tained a docided pre-eminence ; and hence theGrcfttSpirit
jind tho Great Hare are Honietimes used aH Hyn<»nyniou«
termn. What hIiouM have raised tiiis creature to such
distinction Heeni.s rather unaecountahh' ; unhs,s it were
that its extreme Hvviftness nii^dit appear .sometiiiiiijf super-
natural. Amonj,' the Ottawas aK>ne the heavenly hodit s
iK'Comc a!> ohjeet of veneration ; the sun a])i)er:rs to rank
us their sujjreme deity.*

To dive into the ahysh of futurity has always hecn a
favourite ohjeet of superstition. It has heen attempted
hy various means ; hut the Indian seeks it chiefly
througii his dreams, which always hear with him a
sacred character. Before enpiginj^ in any hij^h under-
taking', especially in hunting' or war, the dreams of the
})rin('ipal chiefs are carefully watched and studiously ex-
aniinid ; and accordini,'' to the interpretiition their con-
duct is^'ui<led. A whole nation has heen set in motion hy
tile sleeping' fancies of a suif,'le man. Sonu'times a person
inuiffines hi his sleep that he has heen presented with an
article of value hy another, who then cannot without
inii)ropriety leave the omen unfulfilled. When Sir
William Johnson, durint^ the American war, was nego-
tiathig an alliance with a friendly trihe, the chief con-
fidentially disclosed that during his slumhers he had
heen favoured with a vision of Sir William hestowing
upon him the rich laced coat which formed his full dress.
The fulhlment of this revelation was very inconvenient ;
yet on heing assured that it positively occurred, the
English commander found it advisahle to resign his uni-
form. Soon after, however, he unfolded to the Indian a
dream with which he had himself heen favoured, and in
which the former was seen presenting him with a large
tract of fertile hmd most commodiously situated. The
native ruler admitted that since the vision had heen
vouchsafed it must he realized, yet earnestly proposed
to cease this mutual dreaming, which he found had
turned much to his own disadvantage.t

• Adair, p. 32. La Potherie, tome ii. pp. 3-i{, 11, 12. Long,
p< 139. Creuxius, p. 84.
t Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 156-150. Creuxius, p. 84. Long, p. 89.

'•i

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THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

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The manitou is an object of peculiar veneration ; and
the fixing upon this guardian power is not only the most
important event in the history of a youth, but even con-
stitutes his initiation into active life. As a preliminary,
his face is painted black, and he undergoes a severe fast,
which is, if possible, prolonged for eight days. This is
preparatory to the dream in which he is to behold tlic
idol destined ever after to afford him aid and protection.
In tliis state of excited expectation, and while every noc-
turnal vision is carefully watched, there seldom fails to
occur to his mind something which, as it makes a deep
impression, is pronounced his manitou. Most commonly
it is a trifling and even fantastic article ; the head, beak,
or claw of a ])ird, the hoof of a cow, or even a piece of
wood. However, having undergone a thorough perspim -
tion in one of their vapour-baths, he is laid on his back,
and a picture of it is drawn upon his breast by needles of
fish-l)one dipt in vermilion. A good specimen of tlie
original being procured, it is carefully treasured up ; and
to it he applies in every emergency, hoping that it will
inspire his dreams and secure to him every kmd of good
fortune. When, however, notwithstanding every means
of propitiating its favour, misfortunes befall him, the
manitou is considered as having exposed itself to just
and serious reproach. He begins with remonstrances,
representing all that has been done for it, the disgrace
it incurs by not protecting its votary, and, finally, the
danger that, in case of repeated neglect, it may be dis-
carded for another. Nor is this considered merely as an
empty threat ; for if the manitou is judged incorrigible
it is thrown away ; and by means of a fresh course of
fasting, dreaming, sweating, and painting, another is
installed, from whom better success may be hoped.*

The absence of temples, worship, sacrifices, and all
the observances to which superstition prompts the un-
tutored mind, is a remarkable circumstance, and, as we
have already remarked, led the early visiters to believe
that the Indians were strangers to all religious ideas. Yet

* Charlevoix, vol. ii. pp. 145, 146. La Potherie, vol. ii. p. 11, &c.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

the missionaries found room to suspect, that some of
their great feasts, in wliich every thing presented must
he eaten, hore an idolatrous character, and were held in
honour of the Great Hare. The Ottawas, whose mytholo-
gical system seems to have heen the most complicated,
were wont to keep a regular festival to cclehrate the bene-
ficence of the sun ; on which occasion the luminary was
told that this service was in return for the good hunting
he had procured for his people, and as an encourage-
ment to persevere in his friendly cares. Tliey were also
observed to erect an idol in the middle of their town,
and sacrifice to it ; but such ceremonies were l)y no
means general. On first witnessing Christian worship,
the only idea suggested by it was tliat of their tisking some
temj)oral good, which was either granted or refused.*
Tlie missionaries mention two Hurons, who arrived from
the woods soon after the congregation had assembled.
Stimding without, they began to speculate what it was
the wliite men were asking, and then whether tliey were
getting it. As the service continued beyond expectation,
it was concluded they were not getting it ; and as the
devotional duties still proceeded, they admired the per-
severance with which this rejected suit was urged. At
length, when the vesper hymn began, one of the siivages
observed to the other : — " Listen to them now in despair,
crying with all their might."t

The grand doctrine of a life beyond the grave was,
among all the tril)es of America, most deeply cherished,
and most sincerely believed.;}; They had even formed
a distinct idea of the region whither they hoped to be
transported, and of the new and happier mode of exist-
ence, free from those wars, tortures, and cruelties, which
throw so dark a shade over their lot upon earth. Yet
their conceptions on this subject were by no means either
exalted or spiritualized. They expected simply a pro-

• Missions en la Nouvelle France, an 1635, p. 72.

+ La PtAherie, vol, ii. p. 12. Missions en la Nouvelle France,
an 16()7, p. 53-55 ; an 1(535, p. 72.

* Aniinorum imniortalitaleni persuasissimam qiiidam omnes lia-
bent. Cre-ixius, p. 87.

l! '

ii $

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

longation of tlieir present life and enjoyments, under
more favoura])le circumstances, and with the same objects
furnished in greater choice and abundance. In that
brighter hmd the sun ever shines unclouded, the forests
abound with deer, the lakes and rivers with tisli ; l)ene-
fits wliich are farther enhanced in their imagination by
a faithful wife and dutiful children. They do not reach
it, however, till after a journey of several months, and
encountering various obstacles, — a broad river, a chain
of lofty mountains, and tlie attack of a furious dog.
This favoured country lies far in the west, at the remotest
boundary of the earth, which is supposed to terminate in
a steep precipice, with the ocean rolling beneath. Some-
thnes in the too eager pursuit of game the spirits fall over,
and are converted into fishes. The local position of their
paradise appears connected with certain ol)Scure mtima-
tions received from their wandering neighbours of the
Mississippi, the Rocky Mountains, and the distant shores
of the Pacific. This system of belief labours under a
great defect, inasmuch as it scarcely connects felicity in
the future world with viiiuous conduct in the present.
The one is held to be simply a continuation of the other ;
and under this impression, the arms, ornaments,and every
thing that had contributed to the welfare of the deceased,
are interred along with him. This supposed assurance
of a future life, so conformable to theii gross habits and
conceptions, was fc and by the missionaries a serious ob-
stacle, when they attempted to allure them by the hope
of a destiny, purer and higher indeed, but less accordant
with their untutored conceptions. Upon being told that
in the promised world they would neither hunt, eat,
ilrink, nor n.arry a wife, niaii/ of them declared that,
far from endeavouring to reach such an abode, they would
consider tlieir arrival there as the greatest calamity.
IMention is made of a Huron girl whom one of the Chris-
tian ministers was endeavouring to instruct, and whose
first question was, what she would find to eat ] The an-
swer being " Nothing," she then asked what she would
see ; and being informed that she would see the Maker
of heaven and earth, she expressed herself much at a

'i'_

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

loss what she could heave to say to him. Many not
only rejectf d this destiny for themselves, but were in-
dignant at the efforts made to decoy their children after
death into so dreary and comfortless a region.*

Anotlier sentiment, c ngcnial with that now described,
is most deeply rooted in the mind of the Indians. This
is reverence for the dead, Avith which Chateaubriand,
though perhaps somewhat hastily, considers them more
deeply imbued than any other people.t During life
they are hy no means lavish in their expressions of ten-
denie&s ; but on the ap])roach of the hour of final sepa-
ration it is displayed with extraordinary force. When
any member of a family becomes seriously ill, all the
resources of magic and medicine are exliausted in order
to procure his recovery. When the fatal moment arrives,
all the kindred burst into loud lamentations, which con-
tinue till some person possessing the requisite authority
desires them to cease. These expressions of grief, how-
ever, are renewed for a consideraljle time, at sunrise and
sunset. After three days the funeral takes place, when all
the provisions which the family can procure are ex-
pended in a feast, to which the neigh])ours are generally
invited, and, although on all solemn occasions it is re-
([uired that every thing should be eaten, the relations
do not pailake. These last cut otiP their hair, cf»ver
their heads, paint their faces of a black colour, and con
tinue long to deny themselves every s])ecies of amuse-
ment.;}; The deceased is then interred with his arms and
ornaments, his face painted, and his person attired in the
richest robes which tiiey can furnish. It was the opi-
nion of one of the early missionaries, that the chief ol)-
ject of the Hurons in their trjtffic with the French w.k,
to procure materials for honouring their dead ; and as
ii proof of this, many of them have been seen shivering
liulf-naked in the cold, while tlieir hut contained rich
robes to be wrapped round them after their decease.

• Missions en la Nouvelle France an 1(;37, pp 121, 170; an
1635, p 41. Creu>iiis, p. «7. Charlevoix, vol. li pp, li;4, Ija.
+ Cura inf:rens iOortuoruni. Creuxius, p. Ul.
J Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 191.

•

I' I' if

[• i"

I I

^i;

THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

The body is placed in the tomb in an upright posture,
and skins arc carefully spread round it, so that no part
may touch the earth. Tlus, however, is by no means
the final ceremony, being followed by another far more
solemn and singular. Every eighth, tenth, or twelftli
year, according to the custom of the different nations, is
celel)rated the festival of the dead ; and till then the
souls are supposed to hover round their former tene-
ment, and not to depart for their final abode in the
west. On this occasion the people march in procession to
the places of interment^ open the tombs, and, on behold-
ing the mortal remains of their friends, continue some
time fixed in mournful silence. The w^omen then
break out into loud cries, and. the party begin to col-
lect the bones, removing every remnant of flesh. The
remains are then wrapped in fresh and valua])le robes,
and convoyed amid continued lamentation to the family-
cabin. A feast is then given, followed during several
days by dances, games, and prize-combats, to which
strangers often repair from a great distance. This
mode of celebration certainly accords very ill with the
sad occasion ; yet the Greek and Roman obsequies were
solemnized in o similar manner ; nay, in many parts of
Scotland, till very recently, they were accompanied by
festival, and often by revelry. The relics are then car-
ried to the council-house of the nation, where thev are
hung for exhibition along the walls, with fresh presents
destined to be interred cJong with them. Sometimes they
are even displayed from village to village. At lengtli,
being deposited in a pit previously dug in the earth, and
lined wdtli the richest furs, they are finally entombed.
Tears and lameiitations are again lavished ; and during
a few days food is brought to the place. The bones of
tlieir fathers are considered by the Indians the strongest
ties to their native soil ; and wlien calamity forces them
to quit it, these mouldering fragments are, if possible,
conveyed along with them.*

Under the head of religious rites we may include

• Chateaubriand, vol. i. p. 216. Creuxius, p. 91.
vol. ii. pp. 186, 187; 193-195.

Charlevoix,

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

medicine, which is almost entirely within the domain
of superstition. The great warmth of affection whicli,
amid their apparent apathy, tlie natives cherish for
each other, urges them, when their friends are seri-
ously ill, to seek with the utmost eagerness for a re-
medy. An order of men has thus arisen entirely dif-
ferent from the rest of tlie society, uniting the diameters
of priests, physicians, sorcerers, and sages. Nor are
they ({uite strangers to some l)ranches of the healing art.
In external hurts or wounds, the cause of which is ob-
vious, tliey apj)ly various simples of considerable power,
chiefly drawn from the vegetable world. Chateaubriand
enumerates the ginseng of the Cliinese, the sjissafras, the
tlu'ce-lcaved hedisaron, and a tall shrub called bellis ; with
decoctions from which they cure wounds and ulcers in a
surprising manner. With sharp-pointed bones they sca-
rify inflamed or rheumatic parts ; and shells of gourds,
fllled with combustible matters, serve instead of cuppipg-
g^asses. They learned the art of bleeding from the French,
I)ut employed it sometimes rashly and fatally, by opening
the vein in the forehead : they now understand it better,
but their favourite specific in all internal complaints
is the \apour-bath. To procure this, a small hut or
shed is framed of bark or branches of trees, covered with
skins, and made completely tight on every side, leaving
only a small hole, through which the patient is admitted.
By throv/ing red-hot stones into a pot of water, it is
jnade to boil, and thus emit a warm steam, which,
filling the hut, throws the patient into a most profuse
perspiration. When he is completely bathed in it, he
rushes out, even should it be in the depth of winter, and
throws himself into the nearest pond or i ?r ; and this
exercise, which we should be apt to think sufficient to
j)roduce death, is proved, by their example as well as
that of the Rns-iians, to br safe and Siib'tary. As a vevy
large proportion of their maladies arise from cold and
obstructed perspiration, this remedy is by no means
ill chosen. They attach to it, however, a supernatural
influence, calling it the so-i-erer's bath, and employ it

m
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THE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

not only in the cure of diseases, but in opening their
minds whenever they are to hokl a council on great
affairs, or to engage in any important undertaking.'"'

All cases of internal malady or of ol)scure origin are
ascribed without hesitation to the secret agency of ma*
iigiumt ]x>wxa*s or spirits. The physician, therefore, must
then invest himself with his mystic character, and direct
all his efforts against these invisible enemies. His pro-
ceedings are various, and prompted seemingly by a mix-
ture of delusion and imposture. On his first arrival, he
begins to sing and dance round the patient, invoking his
god with loud cries. Then, pretending to search out tlie
seat of the enchantment, he feels his body all over,
till cries seem to indicate the ])ewitched spot. He then
rushes upon it like a madman or an enraged dog, tears it
with his teeth, and often pretends to sliow a small bone
or other object which he has extracted, and in wliicli
the evil power had been lodged. His disciples next day
renew the process, and the whole family join in the
chorus, so that, setting aside the disease, a frame of iron
would appear necessiiry to withstand the remedies.
Another contrivance is, to surround the cabin with
men of stiaw and wooden masks of the most frightful
shapes, in hopes of scaring away the mysterious tor-
mentor. Sometimes a painted image is formed, which
the doctor pierces with an arrow, pretendmg that he has
tliereby vanijuished the evil spirit. On other occasions
he professes to discover a mysterious desire, which exists
in the patient unknown to himself, for some particular
object ; and this, however distant or difficult of attain-
ment, the poor ftimily strain all their efforts to procure.
It is alleged, that when the malady appears hopeless, ho
fixes upon something completely beyond reach, the
want of which is then represented as the c^iuse of death.
The deep faith reposed in these preposterous remedies
caused to the missioiiaries much ditficultv even with
their most intelligent converts. When a mother found

* Chateaubriand, vol. i. p. 247-249. Creuxius, pp. 58, ol).
Carver, pp. 3JH), 391. Lon^^, pp. 4t>, 100.

ng their
►n great

•igin are
of mil"
re, must
id direct
His pi'o-
V a mix-
rival, he
iking his
L out tile
ill over,
He then
, tears it
lall bone
in whicli
next dav
n in the
|e of iron
emedies.
in with
frightful
oiis tor-
, wliich
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lecasions
•li exists
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dess, he
|ich, the
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remedies
Ml with
hr found

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

58, 51).

•me of her children dangerously ill, her pagan neighbours
came round and assured her, that if she would allow it
to be blown upon, and danced and howled round m the
genuine Indian manner, there would be no doubt of a
speedy recovery. They exhorted her to take it into the
woods, where the black-robes, as they called the Chris-
tiiui priests, would not be able to tind her. The hitter
could not fully undeceive their disciples, because in that
less enlightened age they themselves were impressed
with the notion that the magicians communicated with
and derived aid from the Prince of Darkness. All they
could do, therefore, was to exhort them resolutely to
sjicrifice any benefit that might be derived from so un-
holy a source. This, however, was a hard duty ; and
they record with pride the example of a Huron wife,
who, though much attached to her husband, and appa-
rently convinced that he could be cured by this impious
process, chose rather to lose him. In other respects the
missionaries suffered from the superstitious creed of the
natives, who, even when unconverted, believed them to
possess supernatural powere, which, it was suspected,
they sometimes employed to introduce the epidemic
diseases with which the country was from time to time
afflicted. They exclaimed, it was not the demons that
made so many die, — it was prayer, images, and baptism ;
and when a severe pestilential disorder followed the
murder of a Frenchman Avho fell by their hands, they
imagined that the priests were thus avenging the death
of their countryman.*

We have still to describe the most prominent object
of the Indian's passions and pursuits, — his warfare. It
is that which presents him under the darkest aspect,
effacing almost all his fine qualities, and assimilating his
nature to that of fiends. WhUe the most cordial union

• Missions en laNonvelle France, an 1686, partiii. pp. 155, 217;
ans 1642, 1643, p. 49; an 1637, partiii. pp. 216, 217; lait ii.
p. 238, &c. La Potiierie, vol. ii. p. 36-40. Charlevoix, vol. ii.
p. 176-180.

VOL. I. E

THE NATIVE INDIANS INIIAHITINO

roigns between the members of each tribe, they liavo
iieigh])ours whom they regard witli the deepest enmity,
and for whose extermination tliey continually thirst.
1'he intense excitement which war affords, and the glory
which rewards its achievements, probably give the pri-
maiy impulse ; but after hostilities have begun, tlic
feeling which keeps them alive is revenge. Every In-
ilian who falls into the power of an enemy, and suffers
the dreadful fate to which the vanquished nre doomed,
nmst have his ghost appeased by a victim from that
hostile race. Thus every contest generates another and
a more deeply embittered one. Nor are they strangers
to those more refined motives which urge civilized na-
tions to take arms — the extension of their boundaries,
an ol)ject i)ursued with ardent zeal, and the ])ower of
their tribe, which last they seek to promote by incorpo-
rating in its ranks the defeated bands of their antago-
nists. Personal dislike and the love of distinction often
impel individuals to make hiroads into a hostile territory
even contrary to the general wish ; but wlien war is to
l)e waged by the whole nation, more enlarged views, con-
nected with its interest and aggrandizement, guide the
decision. To most savages, however, long-continued
]>eace becomes irksome and unpopular ; and the pru-
dence of the aged can with difficulty restram the fire uf
the young, who thirst for adventure.

As soon as the determination lias been formed, tlie
war-chief, to whom the voice of the nation assigns tlu'
supremacy, enters on a course of solemn preparation.
This consists not, however, in providing arms or supplies
for the campaign, for these are comprised in the personal
resources of each individual. He devotes himself to ob-
servances which are meant to propitiate or learn the
will of the Great Spirit, who, when considered as prc-
sidii ; over the destinies of war, is named Areskoui.
He begins by marching three times round his winter-
house, spreading the great bloody flag, variegated with
dee]) tints of black. As soon as the young warriors see
this signal of death, they crowd around, listening to the

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

oration by which he summons them to the field : " Com-
mdes," lie exclaims, " the Blood of our countrymen is yet
unavenged ; their hones lie uncovered ; their 8j)irits cry
to U8 from the tomh. Youths, arise ! anoint your hair,
j)aint your faces, let your songs resound through the
forest, and console the dead with the assurance that they
shall be avenged. Youths ! follow me, while I march
through the war-path to surjirise our enemies, to eat their
flesh, drink their blood, and tear them limb from limb !
We shall return triumphant, or should we fall, this
belt will record our valour." The wampum, that grand
symbol of Indian policy, is then thrown on the ground.
Maiv '' 'sire to lift it; but this privilege is reserved
foj some Jiief of high reputation, judged worthy to fill
the post of second in command. The leader now com-
mences his series of mystic observances. He is painted
all over black, and enters on a strict fast, never eat-
ing, nor even sitting down, till after sunset. From time
to time he drinks a decoction of consecrated herbs, with
the view of giving vivacity to his dreams, which are
carefully noted, and submitted to the deliberation of the
sages and old men. When a warlike spirit is in the
iist'cndant, it is undei-stood that either their tenor or
their interpretation betokens success. The powerful in-
fluence of the vapour-bath is also employed. After
these solemn preliminaries, a copious application of
warm water removes the deep black coating, and he
is painted afresh in bright and varied colours, among
which red predominates. A huge fire is kindled, whereon
is placed the great war-cauldron, into which every one
present throws something ; and if any allies, invited by
a belt of wampum and bloody hatchet to devour the flesh
and drink the blood of the enemy, have accepted the sum-
mons, they send some ingredients to be also cast in. The
chief then announces the enterprise by singing a war-
never sounded but on such occasions, and his

song,

example is followed by all the warriors, who join in the
military dance ; recounting their former exploits, and
dilating on those which they hope to achieve. They

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TUE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

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Indian Warrior.

now proceed to arm, suspending the bow and quiver, or
more frequently the musket, from the shoulder, the
hatchet or tomahawk from the hand, while the scalp-
ing-knife is stuck in the girdle. A portion of parched
corn or sagamity, prepared for the purpose, is received
from the women, who frequently bear it to a considerable
distance. But the most important operation is the col-
lection of the manitous or guardian spirits, to be placed
in a common box, wliich^^ like the Hebrew ark, is looked
to as a protecting power. The females during these pre-
parations have been busily negotiating for a supply of
captives on whom to wreak their vengeance and appease
the shades of their fallen kindred ; sometimes also witli
the more merciful view of supplying their place. Ten-
derer feelings arise as the moment approaches when the

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

a")

warriors must depart, perhaps to return no more, and it
may be to endure the same dreadful fate which they are
iinj)rccating on others. The h'ader, having ma<U' a nhort
harangue, eommenees the march, singing his war-song,
wliile the others follow at intervals sounding the war-
whoop. The women accompany them some distance,
and when they must separate, they exchange endeariug
names, and express the most ardent wishes for a tri-
umphant return ; while each ])arty receives and gives
some object which has been long worn by the other, as
a memorial of this tender parting.

As long as the warriors continue in their own country,
thoy straggle in small parties for the convenience of
hunting, still holding communication by shouts, in which
they imitate the cries of certain birds and beasts. When
arrived at the frontier, they all unite and hold another
great festival, followed by solemn dreaming, the tenor of
which is carefully examined. If found inausj)icious, room
is still left to return ; and those whose courage shrinks
are on such occasions supi)lied with an apology for re-
luiquishing the undertjiking ; but such an issue is rare.
On entering the hostile territory deep silence is en-
joined ; the chase is discontinued ; they crawl on all
fours ; step on the trunks of fallen trees, or through
swamps. Sometimes they fasten on their feet the hoof
of the buffalo or the paw of the bear, and run in an
irregular track like those animals. Equally earnest
and skilful are they in tracing through the woods the
haunts of the enemy. The slightest indications, such
as would wholly escape the notice of a European, enable
them to thread theii* course through the vast depths of
the western forests. They boast of being able to discern
the impression of steps even on the yielding grass, and of
knowing by inspection the nation or tribe by whom it
has been made. Various and ingenious artifices are em-
ployed to entrap their foe. From the recesses of the
wood, they send forth the cries of the animals which
are most eagerly sought by the rival hunters. Their
grand object, however, is to surprise a village, and if

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TEST TARGET (MT-3)

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23 WEST MAIN STREET

WEBSTER, N.Y. MS BO

(716) 872-4503

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THE NATIVE INDIANS INIIABITINO

possible the princij3al one belonginp: to the hnted trilx'.
Tliither all their steps tend, as they steal like silent ghosts
through the lonely forest. On approaching it, they cast
hasty glances from the tops of trees or of hillocks, and
then retreat into the thickest covert ; hut in total disre-
gard of the most disastrous experience, the obvious pre-
caution of placing nightly sentinels has never been
adopted. Even when aware of danger, they content
themselves with exploring the vichiity two or three
miles around, when, if nothing is discovered, they go to
sleep without dread. This supineness is much fostered
by a delusive confidence in the nianitous enclosed in
the holy ark. If during the day the assailants have
reached unperceived a covert spot in the neighbour-
hood of the devoted village, they expect the satisfaction
of finding its inhabitants buried in the deepest slumber
in the course of the ensuing night. They keep close
watch till immediately before daybreak, when silence
and security are usually the most complete. Then,
flat on their faces, and carefully suppressing the slightest
sound, they creep slowly towards the scene of action.
Having reached it undiscovered, the chief, by a shrill
cry, gives the signal, which is instantly followed by a
discharge of arrows or musketry ; after which they
rush in with the war-club and the tomahawk. The air
echoes with the sound of the death- whoop and of arms.
Tlie savage aspect of the combatants ; their faces painted
black and red, and soon streaming with blood ; their
frightful yells, make them appear like demons risen from
the world beneath. The victims, too late aroused, spring
from their fatal slumber, and foreseeing the dreadful
fate which awaits them if taken prisoners, make almost
superhuman struggles for deliverance. The contest rages
with all the fury of revenge and despair, but it is
usually short. The unhappy wretches, surprised and
bewildered, can seldom rally or resist ; they seek safety
by fleeing into the depth of forests or marshes, whither
they are hotly pursued. The main study of the victo-
rious party is to take the fugitives alive, in order to

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

subject them to the horri])lc punislinients which will
be presently described. Should thi.s be iinpractical»k',
the tomahawk or the hatchet despatches them on the
spot ; and the scalp is then carried off as a trophy.
Placing' a foot on the neck of his fallen eni'my, and
twisthii,' a hand in the hair, the warrior draws out a long
sliarp-j>ointed knife, specially formed for this operation ;
then cutting a circle round the crown of the head, by a
f«*w skilful scoo2)S he detaches the hair and skin, lodges
the whole in his bag, and rotunis in triumph.*

At the close of the expedition, the warriors repair
to their village, and, even in approaching, announce
its result by various signals well understood among
their families. According to the most approved custom,
the evil tidings are first communicated. A herald ad-
vances before the troop, and for every kinsman who has
fallen sounds the death-whoop, — a shrill lengthened note
ending in an elevated key. An interval is then allowed,
during which the l)urst of grief excited ])y these tidings
may be in some degree exhausted. Then rises tlu^
loud inspiring sound of the war-wdioop, which, by its
successive repetitions, expresses the number of captives
brought home as the fruits of victory. The barbarous
joy thus kindled banishes for the moment all trace of
lamentation. The women and children form two rows,
through which the prisoner is led, havmg his face painted,
and ci'owned with flowers as for a festival. Then begins
the darkest of all the scenes by which savage life is de-
fonned. A scries of studied and elaborate torture com-
mences, in which ingenuity is tasked to the utmost to
inflict the intensest agony that can be endured with-
out actually extinguishing life. The first caress, as the
French call it, is to tear the nails from the fingers ; the
flesh is then pierced to the bone, and fire in various fonns
applied to the extremities. Blows are also given to the

• Charlevoix, vol. i. pp. 317, 327, 330, 330, 339, 359-361. Adair,
p. 3}M)-3}{». Rotfers* Concise Account of North Ameiica ( London,
17«0), p.222.

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TnE NATIVE INDIANS INHABITING

last degree that nature can sustain ; and sometimes an
amusement is found in tossing, for a long time, the victim
like a ball from one to another. Other contrivances,
j)eculiar to infuriated savages, are sometimes resorted to.
One missionary, for example, being made to lie on his
back, had his stomach covered with sagamity, on which
hungry dogs were set to feed, which t-ore his flesh with
their teeth. The unhappy wretch is occasionally paraded
from village to village, kept for weeks in this stfite of
suffering, fed on the coarsest refuse, and allowed only
a neglected corner of the cabin to sleep in. At length a
grand council is held, to decide his fate ; or, in other
words, to detcnnine whether all the furies of vengeance
shall be let loose upon him, and his life be taken
away amid the most frightful tortures, or whether ho
shall be saluted as one of themselves, and treated as a
brother. The decision is influenced by various consider-
ations. If he be a youth, or new to the field, a lenient
course may probably be adopted ; but a veteran warrior
who has been the terror of the nation, and on whose
skin is painted a record of triumphs, has to dread a
sterner sentence. The women have much influence,
according as they either demand revenge for the loss of a
husband or brother, or solicit that the captive may sup-
ply the vacancy. The Iroquois, though the fiercest of
these barbarians, being the deepest politicians, were
always anxious to augment their numbers ; hence, though
they prolonged and heightened the preliminary torture,
they usually ended it by adoption. This was carried so
far that they are described as having at length become
less a single nation than an aggregate of all the surround-
ing tribes. The stranger being received into one of the
families as a husband, brother, or st)n, is treated with
the utmost tenderness ; and she, who perhaps immedi-
ately before exhausted her ingenuity in tormenting him,
now nurses the wounds she has made, and loads him with
caresses. He becomes completely one of the clan, and
goes with them to war, even agamst his former country-
men, and so far is the point of honour carried, that to

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

«9

return into their ranks would be branded as an act of
banenoss.*

Tliere are liowcver many occasions in which the more
inliunian resolution is taken, and a fearful display is then
made of the darkest passions that can agitate the human
breast. The captive is informed of his fate by Imng
invested with mocassins of black bear's skin, and having
placed over his head a flaming torch, — the sure indica-
tions of his doom. Before the fatal scene begins, how-
over, he is allowed a short interval to sing his death-
8ong, which he performs in a triumphant tone. He
proclaims the joy with which he goes to the land of
souls, where he will meet his brave ancestors, who
tauglit him the great lesson to fight and to suffer. He
recounts his warlike exploits, particularly those per-
formed against the kindred of his tormentors ; and if there
was any one of them whom he vanquished and caused to
expire amid tortures, he loudly proclaims it. He de-
clares his inextinguishable desire to eat their flesh, and
to drink their blood to the last drop. This scene is con-
sidered, even when compared to the field of battle, as the
Ijreat theatre of "ndian glory. When two prisoners were
about to be tortured by the French at Quebec, a
charitable hand privately supplied a weapon with which
one of them killed himself; but the other derided his
effominficy, and proudly prepared himself for his fiery
trial. In this direful work the women take the lead,
and seem transformed into raging furies. She, to glut
whose vengeance the doom has been specially pro-
nounced, invokes the spirit of her husband, her bro-
ther, or her son, who litis fallen in battle or died amid
torture, bidding him come now and be appeased. A feast
is prepared for him ; a warrior is to be thrown into the
great cauldron ; his blood will be poured out ; his flesh
torn from the bones ; let the injured spirit then cease to

* Clmrlevoix, vol. i. p. JJfiO-SJH. Missions en la Nonvelle France,

ans U',4'2, 1643, p. 257, &c. ; ans 1043, 1(>44, p. 162-168. Adair, p.
389. i- » » '1 'f

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THE NATIVE INDIANS INHAniTTNO

conij)lain. A game l)e^ins hctween the torturers nnd
the tortured, one to inflict the most intense sutferiufi;,
the other to bear it with proud insenHi))ility. Tlmt
there may he son.e appearance of oj)en contest, he is not
chained, hut merely tied to a post, and a certain range
allowed, within which, while the brand, the hatchet,
and every engine of torture are applied, he can do some-
what to repel his assiiilants, and even attack in his turn.
He strugfifles fiercely in the iniequal strife, and while
his frame is consuming in .igony, still defies his tor-
mentoi*s, and outbraves death itself. Some even deride
the feeble efforts of theirexecutioners,boastinghowmuch
more effectively they themselves had ap])lie(l torture to
individuals of their tribe. Yet there are instances, when
the murderers at last triumph ; the sufferer exclaims,
" Fire is strong, and too powerful ;" he even uttei'sloud
shrieks, which are responded to by exulting shouts of
savage laughter. Some few have been known, by almost
incredible efforts, to break loose, and by rapid flight ef-
fect their escape. The general result, however, is death,
after protracted suffering ; when the scalp, if still entire,
is taken off and deposited among the military trophies.*
It has been made a question whether the Indians can
be justly charged with cannibalism. It is certain that
all the terms by which they designate their inhuman
mode of j)utting a prisoner to death bear reference to
this horrid practice. The expressions are to throw hun
into the cauldron, to devour liim, to eat soup made of
his fiesh. It has hence been plausibly inferred that
this enormity really prevailed in early times, but was
changed, we can scarcely sny mitigated, into the present
system of torture. Yet, as every action is described by
them in terms highly figurative, those now quoted may
have been used as expressing most fully the complete
gratification of their revenge. Of this charge they can-
not now be either condemned or wholly acquitted. In

• Charlevoix, vol. i. p. 375. Adair, pp. 390, 391. Colden, vol. i.
pp. 144, 145.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

the excited fury of their passions, portions of the flesh aie
often seized, roasted, and eaten, and draughts taken of the
l)if)od. To eat an enemy's heart is considered a peculiar
enjoyment. Long mentions a gentU;man who came
upon a party who were husy hroiling a human heart, when
he with difficulty prevailed on them to desist. There
Is little hesitation amongst them, in periods of scarcity,
to relieve hunger with the flesli of their captives ; and
during one war, this fate is said to have hefallen many
French soldiers who fell into tlic hands of tlie Five Na-
tions. Colonel Schuyler told Colden, that having entered
the cahin of a chief who had some rich soup hefore him,
he was invited to jiartake. Being hungry and tired, he
readily agreed, till the ladle ])eing put into the great
cauldron, hrought up a human iiand, the sight of which
put an immediate end to his appetite and meal.*

Although war may he considered as the ordinary
state of those trihes, yet, after having for a considerable
time experienced its destructive effects, there usually
arises a desire for an interval of tranqnillity. To pro-
cure this, a regular form is observed. The nation which,
resolves to make the overture despatches several in-
dividuals, usually of some note, as ambassadors, with
at least one orator. They bear before them the ca-
lumet of peace, which renders their character sacred,
and secures them from violence. They carry also a
certain number of belts of wampum, with which are
respectively connected the several motives and terms of
the proposed treaty. The orator having obtained an
audience of the chiefs on the other side, expounds the
belts, dancing and singing in unison, and by actions
expressing the peaceful purpose of his mission. If the
opposite party be favourably inclined, they accept the
offered symbols, and next day present others of a si-
milar import. He then smokes in the calumet, and
the contract is sealed by burying a hatchet ; if there

* Charlevoix, vol. i. p. 31U. Adair, p. 199. Long, pp. 77, 78.
Coldeo, vol. i. p. 156.

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THE NATIVE INDIANS INIIABITINO

he any allies, one is deposited for each. This agi'cemrnt
is often aecompanied with professions, at the nionunt
perhaps sineere, of niaintaininf? the sun always in the
heavens, and never a^niin digging u]) the hatehct ; but
the turbulence of individuals, and the satiety of Ion;?
peace, to which the whole nation is subject, usually
rekindle hostilities at no distant ])eriod.*

Some notice may finally be expected of Indir.n
amusements ; the most favourite of which are smokinfr,
music, and dancinj*-. These, however, are viewed in a
much higher light than mere pastime ; being ranked
among the most serious occui)ations, and esteemed (|uit('
indispensable in the conduct of every important att'nir.
Without them a council cannot ])e held, a negotiation
carried on, peace or war proclaimed, nor any public or
private contract entered into ; for not one of these trans-
actions is accounted valid, till it has been smoked over
and sungand danced to. The calumet is the grand instru-
ment of their policy. No important affair can be taken
into consideration without the pipe in their mouths ;
and hence, to call an assembly of the chiefs is said to
be lighting the council-fire. This tube accompanies
and is the guardian of every embassy, and to smoke
together is the chief cement of national union.

Music and dancing accompanying each other arc
equally indispensable to every solemn celebration. Yet
the instruments and performance are alike simple and
rude ; for their song, though often continued for a long
period, consists merely in the perpetual iteration of a
few wild melancholy notes. The words are usually of
the minstrel's own composition, and record his exploits
in war or hunting, and sometimes the pra.-es of the
animals which he has killed in the chase. The song is
accompanied by perfoiTtiance on the drum, and on the
chichikoue, or pipe. The former is merely a hollowed
piece of wood, covered with skin ; the latter is fomied
of a thick cane, upwards of two feet in length, with eight

•Charlevoix, vol. i. p. 321.

CANADA AND ITS BORDERS.

or nine holes ; and a mouthpiece not unlike that of a
common whistle. Those who know how to stop th«^
holes and hring out a sound consider themselves per-
formers ; yet they cannot play upon it even those simple
airs which they execute with the voice, though they will
often continue for hours drawing out wild irregular
notes.

The dances of the Indians, even those at common fes-
tivals, are on an extensive scale ; rec^uiring to a complete
performance forty or fifty persons, who execute their
evolutions hy following each other round a great fire kin-
dled in the centre. Their movements, monotonous hut
violent, consist in stamping furiously on the ground,
and often hrandishing their arms in a manner compared
by an ahle writer to a baker converting Hour into dough.
They keep good time ; but the nmsic is so exceedingly
simple that this implies little merit. They conclude
with a loud shout or howl, which echoes frightfully
through the woods. The dances in celebration of parti-
cular events are of a more varied character, and often
form a very expressive pantomime. The war-dance is
the most favourite and frequent. In this extraordinary
perfoiTnance, a complete image is given of the terrible
reality ; the M^ar-whoop is sounded with the most frightful
yells ; the tomahawk is wildly brandished ; and the enemy
are surprised, seized,and scalped, or carried oft'fo torture.
The calumet-dance, which celebrates peace bei^vcen na-
tions, and the marriage-dance, which represents domestic
life, are much more pleasing. Some mention is made of
a mystic dance, carried on by the jugglera or doctors,
with strange superstitious ceremonies, and in which a
supernatural personage, termed by some the devil, rises
and performs ; but it does not seem to have been wit-
nessed by any European, and is said to be now in a great
measure disused.*

• Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 1645, 1046, pp. 20, 21.
Weld, p. 412-417. Creuxiiis, p. 67. Chateaubrian<l, vol. i. p. 205.
Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. /O. Carver, pp. 270, 2/1.

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THE NATIVE INDIANS INIIABITINO

There are, moreover, pnnieH to whieli the Iiidinns arc
fondly attaehed, whieh, tlioiigh they l)e only ranked
under the head of amusement, are yet condueted in the
name serious manner as their other trunsiietioUH. Their
preat ])ai'ties are said to he eolleeted hy supernatural
authority, eonimunieated hy the jugglers; and thev
arc preeeded, like their Avars and hunts, hy a course
of fasting, dreaming, and other means of proj)itiat-
ing fortune. The favourite game is that of the hone, in
which small pieces of that suhstance, resemhlingf dice,
and painted of different colours, are thrown in the air,
and according to the maimer in which they fall, the
game is decided. Only two ])erson8 can jday ; hut a
numerous i)arty, and sometimes whole villages, cmhracc
one side or the other, and look on with intense inte-
rest. At each throw, especially if it he decisive, tre-
mendous shouts are raised ; the players and s])ectators
equally resemhle jjcrsons ])ossessed ; the air rings with
invocations to the hones, and to the manitous. Their
eagerness sometimes leads to quarrelling and even
fighting, which on no other occasion ever disturh the
interior of these societies. To such a pitch arc they
occasionally worked up, that they stake successively
nil they possess, and even their personal liherty ; hut
this description must aj)ply only to the more southern
nations, as slavery was unknown among the Canadia)i
Indians.

A temporary interval of wild license, of emancipation
from all the restraints of dignity and dccoiiim, seems to
afford an enjoyment highly prized in all nide societies.
Corresponding with the saturnalia and hacchanals of an-
tiquity, the Americans have their festival of dreams,
which, during fifteen days, enlivens the inaction of tlif
coldest season. Laying aside all their usual order and
gravity, they run ahout, frightfully disguised, and
committing every imaginahlc extravagance. lie who
meets another demands an explanation of his visions,
and if not satisfied, imposes some fantastic penalty.
He throws upon him cold water, hot ashes, or filth ;

CANADA AND TT8 nORDERS.

ori

soinotiiiu'sruHliin^ iiitohi.s crtLin he l)rt'aks and (U-Htroys
the f'liniituro. Altlioiif^h every thin/; ajtjMars wild
and unjtrcnu'ditatt'd, it in allci^cd that «»i>i»ort unities
arc often tai\en to /j^ive vent to old and seeret resent-
ments. The i>eriod havin/j; chi})sed, a feji-st in fj^iven,
order i.s restored, and the damages done are cwet'ully
repaired.*

On tlie first settlement of Knropeans in Canada, that
territory wjis ehiefly divided hetween three great na-
tions, — the Algon(|uins, the llurons, and the Irocjuoisor
Five Nations. The first lield an extensive domain along
the northern l)ank of the St Lawrenee, ahout a hundred
leagues ahove Trois Rivieres. Shortly hefore, they liad
lieen the most powerful of all these trihes, and eonsi-
(lered even in some degree as masters over this j)art of
Anieriea. They are deserihed also as having the mildest
;is|)ect and most polished mannei's of any. They suh-
sisted entirely by hunting, and looked with proud dis-
dain on their neighbours, who consented to ])estow on the
soil even the smallest eultivation.t The llurons were a
lunncrous ])eo})lc, whose very extensive territory reached
from the Algon(iuin frontier to the borders of the great
lake bearinti' their name. Thev were also more industri-
nils, and derived an abundant subsistence from the fine
territory of Upper Canada. But they were at the same
time more effeminate and voluptuous, and had less of
the jjroud independence of sjivage life, having chiefs
hereditary in the female line, to whom they paid con-
siderable deference.

The Iro(|uois, destined to act the most conspicuous
part among all the native tribes, occui)ie(l a long range of
territory on the southern border of the St Lawrence, from
Liikc Champlain to the western extremity of Lake On-
tario. Tlu>y were thus beyond the limits of what is now
considered Canada ; yet, as all their transactions were

* Charlevoix, vol. ii. p. 13-15, 159 104, ^:c. Chateaubriand,
vol. i. p. 238-242. La Potlierie, vol. ii. pp. 120, 127.
t La Potherie, vol. i. p. 232-2tjy.

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THE NATIVE INDIANS INIlAniTINO

coinj)lotely connected with tin* . itcrcHta of that country,
we cannot at prewnt avoid considering thcni as k--
h)ngin^ to it.

I'liis i)eoi)lc were divided into five cantons, each of
which wjw coiLsidered an an indej)endent nation. They
were united, however, by tile closcHt alliance ; are never
found waging war with each other ; nor did they often
fail to combine their forces when attacked by neijiii-
bourin^ tribes.* The followin^j^ are the names given to
them by English and French authors : —

Knqlisii. French.

Mohawks. Agniers.

Oneidas. Onneyonths.

Onondagoes. Onontagues.

Cayugas. Anniegue.

Senckas. Tsonnontiiouans.

• La Potherie, vol. i. p. 232-289. Rogers, p. 237. Coldeii, pp. li, 4.

IIISTOIIY OP CANADA UNDKIl TIIK TRKNC I£. 97

liil i

CIIAPTKR III.

UiHtonj ofCnudda under the French,

Kui'liost Discovorios of tlu* Kn^li«h and French— Do lu Ilot'lio —
CImuviii and i*on\^vii\(' — 1J« Munis — (^huniplain, um|)l(>yud by
him, ascends the Si Lawrence — Founds Quebec — Deahn^s with

a I'arty of Natives— Joins a warliito Kxpedition — Victory

Torture —Transactions in France Fresh military Fncounter —
Fonmliition of Montreal — Various Transactions — Voyajj^e up the
Ottawa — Great KxjMidition against the Irii(|Uois — Unsuccessful —
Ditticulties in France — Ap|)ointment of De Caen — Peace ainonij;
the Indian Tribes — Duke de Ventadour Viceroy — Rupture of
llie Treaty — Quebec taken by the Fuj^lisb — Restored — Lar^'e
Supplies sent out — Death of Champlain — Great Power of tlie
Five Nations — Treaty with them — War renewed — Destruction
of the French Indian Allies — A Remnant Hee to Quebec — Iro(juois
Masters of Canada — Louis XIV. determines to reinforce thn
Colony — lixpedition under De Tracy— (iovernment of De Cour-
cellos— I' rontenac—De la Harre — His fruitless Kxpedition —
I )eiiouville— His violent I'roceedinjjs — Critical State of the Co-
lony — Second Government of Frontenac — Capture of Corlaer or
Schenectady — The English under Phi|)ps attack Quebec — Re-
pulsed—Negotiations with the Indians — Invasion of their Ter-
ritory — Death of Frontenac — De Callieres — Peace, and speed v

Keuewal of War — Attem[)ts by the Eny;lish to comiuer Canada

Treaty of Utrecht — Charlevoix's Account of the State of the Colo-
ny—Its Prosperity — Administration of Du Quesne.

The English took decidedly the most prominent part
in the discovery of North America. in 1497, John
Cabut, under a commission from Henry Vll., landed on
its shores, four years only after Columbus had reached
the West Indies, and nearly twelve months before that
celebrated navigator had touched at any part of the con-

VOL. I. F

j< V

h- m

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I t

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if-

HISTORY OF CANADA

tinent. In the following year, Sebastian, son to the
first discoverer, performed a most extensive exploratory
voyage along the greater part of the ejistern coast, to
lat. 56° or 58° N., and south as ftir as Florida. Tlie
same eminent seaman took part in another expedition
undertiiken in 1517, for the discovery of a north-west
passiige. The squadron apj)ears to have ])enet rated into
Hudson's Bay, hut through the jiusillanimity of Sir
Thomas Pert, the commander, returned without com-
pleting the ol)ject in view. 'J'hese interesting voyages,
however, have heen illustrated with such diligent and
acute research by Mr Tytler, that to our readers an-
other detailed narrative of them would be very super-
fluous.'^

Various circumstances combined to withdraw the suc-
cessoi*s of Henry from this brilliant career. They were
succeeded in it by France ; and it is singular that the
settlement of by far the greater part of what is now
British America was eftected by that power. When, too,
England had wrested these possessions from her rival,
she retained them after most of her own colonics had
established their independence ; for which reason we
lind it necessiiry to enter at considerable length into the
proceedings of those Gallic adventurers who laid the
foundations of civilisiition in the Canadian provinces.

In 1524, Francis I. commissioned Giovanni Verazzano,
a skilful Florentine navigator, who appears to have
sailed along the whole coast from Carolina to the northern
extremity of Nova Scotia. It was then appropriated
in the name of his Most Christian Majesty,under the mag-
nificent title of New France. His second expedition was
disastrous ; l)ut in 15J34, Jacques Cartier, a bold and able
mariner of St Malo, wjis sent out with a similar view.
This discoverer made two voyages, in the second of
which he jienetrated up the St Lawrence as high as tlie
position now occupied by Montreal, and brought homo

* Progress of Discover}' on the more Northern Coasts of Ame-
rica, from the h^arlicst Period to the Present Time (Edinburgh
Cabinet Library, No. IX.), pp. 19-2B, 39-4L

UNDER THE FRENCH.

with him Donimconna, a native king. He was employed
athird time in L540, tiiou^h in a snbordinate rank, under
the Sieiir de Roherval, an <)])uk^nt nol)h'nian of Pieardy,
who, liaving a«;reed to defray the exiiense of tlie expe-
dition, was created Lieutenant-ueneral and Viceroy. The
enterprise was Ijcgun with s])ii"it ; and a foi't named
ChaHesbourg was erected n(.'ar the site now occupied l)y
Quel)cc. The natives, however, sliowed a hostih^ s})irit ;
the two leaders (juarreUed ; and Roherval abandoned thi-;
undertaking. He renewed it in 1545), l)ut with an issui^
siimularlv unfortunate, neither he nor liis brother, wh(>
.UTompanied him, l)eing ever again heanl of. For the
details of these vovat?:es also we refer to the work abovt^
nunitioned, where they will be found narrated in a very
satisfactory manner.'"'

These failures, and still more ])erhaps the distracted
state of France during many years, occasioned by reli-
gious wars, withdrew the attention of the government
from schemes of transatlantic colonization. The mer-
chants, nowever, of the great commercial towns, parti-
cularly Diej)pe, Rouen, St IVlalo, and Rochelle, had
(ipened communications, and even established posts f\)r
the })rosecution of the fur-trade. That of Canada was
carried on chiefly at Tadoussac, near the mouth of tlu^
river Saguenay.

Tranquillity being restored by the union of jiarties
under the sway of Henry IV., tlie public attention was
again directed towards New France. The Marquis de
la Roche, a nobleman of lirittany, undertook to e((uip
an expedition on a large scale, and form a settlement on
that remote shore. The encouragements to sucli enter-
])riscs were alw^ays liberal ; and Henry in this res])ect
seems to have surpassed all otlier monarchs. Tlie
nianpiis was authorized not only to levy troops, make;
war, build forts and cities, and enact laws, but even to
create lords, counts, barons, and similar dignities. He;
accordingly e(iuipped sevenil vessels, with a considerable!

* Pages b'i-^1.

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HISTORY OF CANADA

nnmhor of settlers, whom, however, he was ohligecl to
draw partly from the prisons of Paris. He sailed under
the guidance of Chedotel, a Norman pilot ; but of the
voyage it is only narrated, that he landed and left forty
men on Sahlc Island, a small barren spot near the coast
of Nova Scotia. He then returned ; when being thwarted
in his designs at court, he fell sick, and died of chagrin.
The colonists were entirely forgotten, and soon expe-
rienced such hardships as caused even the criminals
among them to regr(?t their dungeons. Having witli a
few planks, obtained from a wrecked vessel, erected a
hut, tliey were obliged to subsist on the fish which they
caught, and to replace their worn-out garments with the
skins of sea-wolves. In this condition they were left
seven years, when the king, or according to Champlain
the parliament of Rouen, sent out Chedotel to see what
w'as become of them. He found only twelve survivoi-s,
who exhibited the most wretched and deplorable aspect,
On their return to France, they waited upon Henry,
who received them kindly, and made them a handsome
donation.'""

The king was still disposed to encourage colonization.
In 151)0, two eminent naval characters, Chauvin of
Rouen and Pontgrave of St Malo, undertook to settle
five hundred persons, and prevailed on his majesty to aid
them, by granting a monopoly of the fur- trade on the
St Lawrence. Chauvin, it is alleged, was disposed to
execute as little as possible of the agreement, his chief
object being to avail himself of the exclusive traffic.
However, being under the necessity of making some show,
he fitted out two vessels, and arrived at Tadoussac. This
situation being bleak and barren in the extreme, he wa>-
strongly advised to proceed farther up the river, to one
which was reported to be much more advantageous. Dis-
regarding this suggestion, he built a house tw^enty-foui'
feet long, eighteen broad, and eight high, surrounded it

■ Histoiro Generale des Voyages (19 vols 4to, Paris, IJ-l''-
177'>), tome xiv. p. 589-591. ChaniplHin, Voyages du Sicur de
{2 vols tJvo, Paris, 1B30), tome i. p. 41-13.

UNDER TUE FRENCH.

]01

with a ditch, and lodged there sixteen settlers for the
winter. They had, however, a very slender stock of
provisions, and on the settin/^ in of the cold, were reduced
to tlie last extremity, and finally obliged to throw^ them-
selves on the mercy of the natives. From that simple
people they experienced a great degree of kindness, but,
nevertheless, suffered such hardships, that many of them
perished before the arrival of vessels from France. Chau-
vin performed another voyage, which was as fruitless as
the first ; and in the course of a third he was taken ill
and died.*

Fresh adventurers were never wanting in this hazard-
ous enterprise. The next was the Conunandeur de
Chaste, governor of Dieppe, who, tliough already gray
with years, engaged in it, and prevailed upon some con-
siderable merchants to second him. He made a most
important acquisition in Samuel Champlain, the destined
founder of the French settlements in Canada, who had
just arrived from the East Indies. He and Pontgrave
were sent out to Tadoussac, with instructions to ascend
the St Lawrence, and examine the country on its uj)pei-
borders. They penetrated as far as the Sault St Louis, a
little above Montreal ; but finding it impossible to pjiss
that cataract, they w^ith some difficulty reached the l\eight
above it, where they made the best observations tliey
could on the river and country. Champlain, on his arrival
in France, was dismayed to find De Chaste dead, and
the whole undertaking deranged. He proceeded, how-
ever, to Paris, and showed to the king a chart and de-
scription of the region he had surveyed, with which his
majesty appeared highly pleased. t

Scarcely an interval elapsed, when the same enter-
prise was taken up by De Monts, a gentleman of opu-
lence and distinction, and a special favourite of Henry.
He obtained the highest privileges that had been granted
to any of his predecessors, and liaving prepared an expe-
dition on a more extensive scale than any former one,

* Champlain, tome i. p. 44-43. f Ibid^ tome i. p. 49-53,

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102

HISTORY OF CANADA

he put to sea ; but as he had accompanied Cliauvin to
Tadoussjic, and viewed tliat ])leak shore, he felt very
averse to enter tlie St Lawrence. It ap])cared io him
that the seacoast, bein^- in a more southern latitude,
was likely to enjoy a milder climate ; an idea plausible,
though erroneous. He «lirected his chief efforts, there-
fore, to the country now named Nova Scotia ; and though
liis oj)erations there were disastrous to his companions,
and ultimately to himself, they were the means of found-
ing the important colony of Acadia. Our narrative of
these adventurers, however, is reserved till we come to
treat of that province.*

Champlain, whose services he had secured, then remon-
strated with him on the error of ju-eferring an iron-bound
coast to the beautiful and fertile banks of the upper St
Lawrence. De Monts listened to the suggestion, and,
undeterred by previous losses, ajiplied to the king for a
i'ommission. He obtained it Avithout difficulty, asso-
ciated, as before, witli the grant <^f a monopoly of the
fur-trade on the river. He fitted out two vessels, but
not finding it convenient to command in person, placed
them under Cham])lain, who, accom})anied by Pont-
grave', was authorized to act as his lieutenant.t

The expedition sail('(l from Honfleur on the LStli
April 1608, and on the .'Id June reached Tadoussac. The
Saguenay, hitherto the chief scat of the traffic in furs,
Avas described as flowing from a considerably distant,
source in the north. Forty or fifty leagues up, its cur-
lent was broken by a succession of falls, beyond which
was a lake (St John) which it required three days to
cross. On the other side were wandering tribes, from
whom the skins were chiefiy procured, and who rc-
])orted, that in their roamings they came in view of
the Northern Sea. Champlain had sufficient informa-
tion to know that this could only be a large gulf ; thousjh
he had no knowledge of Hudson's Bay, which had not
yet been entered by the great navigator whose name it

* Champlain, tome i. p. 54-56.

+ Ibid. pp. 150, 151.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

103

bears. The small port of Tadoussac was tolerably safe ;
but the sliore consisted only of dreary rocks and sands,
scantily clothed with larch and j)ine. He could find no-
thing to catch cxce])t a few small ])irds, which visited the
spot only in summer. The natives who traded with the
French sailed in canoes of birch-hark, so liglit that a
man could easily carry them from one river or lake to
another.

The navigator continued to ascend the stream, though
the banks were still naked and \inpromising, till lie
i-cachcd the Isle of Orleans, which formed the com-
mencement of the most valuable part of the river, being-
adorned with fine woods and mwidows.'^

After passing this island, lie immediately sought a
commodious place of settlement, and soon fixed on a
hill richlv clothed with vines and walnut-trees, called
by the natives Quebeio or Quebec. Having begun to
clear and build, he formed an acquaintance with a number
of the natives busily employed in the fishery of eels.
They showed a considerable disposition to adopt Euro-
])ean culture and other improvements, the introduction
of which he was led to hope might issue in their con-
vcrsion.f

The Frenchman spent the winter here, and sowed
some grain, for which he found the soil well adapted.
The inhabitants, who, unlike those higher up the river,
did not practise agriculture in any degree, were often
reduced to the most dreadful extremes of famine.
Of this the settlers witnessed a })ainful example in Fe-
bruary 1609, when a party of the savages, seeing them
from the opposite bank, and hoping to obtain relief, re-
solved to cross, without regard to the floating ice. The
French considered the attempt quite desperate ; and, ac-
cordingly, in mid-channel, the canoes were dashed to
pieces, and the poor creatures leaped on a mass of ice,
whence they raised the most doleful cries. By peculiarly
good fortune, a larger piece struck that on which they

* Champlaiii, tome i. liv. iii. ch. 3, 4. -^ Ibid. liv. iv, ch. 5.

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104

HISTORY OF CANADA

stood, and caused it to drift ashore. They landed witli
joy, but in a state of such ravening hunger, that had the
<liscoverers made any attempt to satisfy it, their whole
stock would have been swallowed up. A limited al-
lowance was, however, granted, which they sought to
augment by very strange expedients. A dead pig
and dog had been laid out i\s a bait for foxes ; but
having been exposed two months, find the weather be-
coming milder, such a scent issued from them, that the
French could scarcely approach the spot. The new
comers, however, on discovering this store, exultuigly
carried it to their hut, and began to feast upon it.
Their hosts ran to warn them of the danger of such
food, but found them so busily engaged, each with a
piece in his hand, that remonstrance was vain, and be-
ing themselves ass<iiled with disgusting odours from the
half-cooked victuals, they were glad to retreat. An-
other dead dog had been placed on the top of a tree to
attract birds of prey. The natives were so extremely
weak, that they could not climb, but having by great
efforts cut down the tree, they possessed themselves of
this highly-flavoured morsel.*

As soon as the season admitted, Champlain resumed his
voyage up the river, the banks of which were covered
with no])le forests. Twenty-iive leagues above Quebec,
at a small island named St Eloi, he met a band, belong-
ing chiefly to the celebrated nation of the Algonquins,
commanded by two chiefs, Yroquet and Ochasteguin. It
now appears that a treaty had already been opened at the
winter station by a son of the foiiner, through whom
they had promised to assist the stranger in his attempt
to traverse the country of the Iroquois, on the condition
that he should aid them in a war against that fierce
people. The zeal of our adventurer blinded liim not only
to the danger, but to the guilt of this most unprovoked
;iggression on a nation who had never offended him. In
reply to a solemn appeal from the savage chiefs, he

* Champlain, tome i. liv. iii. ch. 6.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

105

assured them of his determination strictl}'- to fulfil this
questionahle engagement, and accepted of their proposal
to visit him previously at (Quebec* They accompanied
him thither, and, exulting in the prospect of approach-
ing triumph, spent five or six days in dancing and fes-
tivity, while Champlain procured a reinforcement from
Tadoussac. He set out with his new allies on the 28th
May ; and in a short time, having passed through Lake
St Pierre, he reached the mouth of the river which
takes its rise in the country of the Iroquois. Ho had
been apprized that fifteen leagues farther up there was a
considerable fall, but had been led to hope that his light
shallop might be conveyed beyond it. On reconnoitring
the spot, he found this to be quiti; impractical)le, as the
stream, from bank to bank, was dashing with violence
amid rocks and stones ; and his i)arty had not strength
to cut a road through the woods. Nothing, however,
could damp his ardour ; and in the failure of every
other resource, he determined to commit himself to the
canoes of the savages, and share their fate. As soon,
liowever, as this was announced to his men, they " bled
at the nose ;" and two only were found who did not
shrink from accompanying the Indians. t

By carrying their canoes, arms, and baggage, half a
league overland, the natives avoided the fall and re-
embarked. When night approached they landed, reared
Imts covered with birch-bark, and liaving cut down large
trees, formed round the spot a barricade of such strength,
that five hundred assailants could not have stormed it
without much difficulty. They sent some of their num-
ber to reconnoitre a few miles up and down the river, but
rejected the advice of their European ally to set a watch
during the night. High conj urations were no w performed
by the pilotois or priest, who was placed alone in a cabin,
while the multitude sat round in solemn silence. Violent
and mysterious movements shook the wigwam, which
the Frenchman clearly perceived to be produced by its

• Champlain, tome i. liv. iii. ch. 7. f Ibid, tome i. Hv. ill ch. 8.

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HISTORY OF CANADA

crafty inmate ; while, in answer to liis solemn call, the
demon ai)])eareil, and, in the form of a stone, foretold
the issue of the enterprise. Solemn sounds overawed
the spectators, though it was easy to discover that they
were all uttered hy the i)ilotois himself. The Frencli
chief was also every moining carefully examined regard-
ing his dreams, and great exultation was expressed when
they appeared to portend success. The only drilling em-
ployed to prei)are them for the approaching hattle was
confined to their taking a numher of canes, one for each
man, with two longer ones for the chiefs, and fixing
them in the ground according to the older in which the
troops were to advance. The Indians then practised the
various movements till they could arrange themselves
exactly in the same manner. 'J'he river was diversified
with numerous low islands, ahounding in woods, mea-
dows, and game, hut deserted in consequence of the deadly
wars which had for some time hcen raging. It o])encd
into an extensive lake, now named, from our traveller,
Champlain, and containing four large islands, also un-
inhabited. They had reached its southern extremity,
and even entered a smaller one (George) connected with
it, when, on the 29th June, at ten in the evening, they
beheld the Iroquois, who raised loud shouts of defiance,
and began hastily to ann and to fonn a barricade with
trunks of trees. The invaders sent two canoes to ask
if their adversaries would fight ; the answer was, there
was nothing they more desired, but the hour was unsuit-
able, adding, however, that they would be ready next
morning at daybreak. This delay was ap])roved ; but
the two parties, instead of qualifying themselves for the
combat by taking suitable rest, danced the whole night
without intermission, exchanging the most embittered
expressions of reproach and contempt. The Algonquiiis
being told that neither their courage nor arms were of
any value, and that to-morrow would witness their doom,
threw out in return mysterious hints, that their adver-
saries would then see something never before witnessed.
In the morning they landed, and the French chief saw

• :i

UNDER THE FRENCH.

107

the enemy come out of their harricado, two hundred
stronf^, firm and robust, headed by leaders with waving
plumes, and advancin^*^ with a bold and detennined
aspect which struck him with admiration. He and
his two countrymen stationed themselves at different
points, and the natives made way for him to go
about twenty paces in front. He then fired an ar-
qucbuss, loaded with fi)ur balls, by which two Indians
Avere killed, and one mortally wounded. His allies
raised shouts wliicli would have drowned the loudest
thunder, while the enemy were astounded at seeing
armour, proof against native weapons, pierced by this
unknown instrument of destruction. Yet they still
poured in clouds of arrows, till another shot fired from
a thicket excited such a degree of fear that they fled
precipitately, abandoning their fort, and seeking refuge
in the heart of the forest. A number were killed, and
ten or twelve taken j)risoners.""

The savages, having celebrated their victory with
(lance and festival, immediately began their return to
their own countiy. After travelling sixteen leagues,
they took one of the captives, and in a fonnal harangue
recounted to him all thecrucltiesofhiscountrymen, which
he must now expiate ; they then summoned him, if he
were a man of courage, to sing. He did so, though in a
somewhat lugubrious tone. Champlain then was per-
iiai»s the first European who beheld that horrid scene of
torture, which we spare our readers, though described
l»y him in the most minute detail. He did not, how-
ever, witness that stoical apathy so often displayed, for
the sufferer occasionally nttered loud shrieks, thougli
his fortitude was on the whole wonderful. The French-
man was asked why he did not join in this triumphant
vengeance ; and when he declared that the sight gave
him pain, and even showed a disposition to withdraw,
they allowed him to terminate the scene by a discharge
of his arquebiiss. The most shocking indignities were in-

• Champlain, tome i. liv. iii. ch. 9.

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108

HISTORY OF CANADA

flictcd on the lifeless body ; even the heart was phiclvcd
out and eut hi small pieces, whieh the other i)risoner8
were compelled to receive into their mouths, thoui»^h
they were not expected to swallow the h(>rrid morsel.
The Alf^onquins marched on with the remainini; Iro-
quois, who continued to sinp;, tliouj^h fully aware of
their approaching,^ fate. Another employment of the
victors wtis to ormunent the heads of the slain, to he dis-
played in triumph on theirarrival. With this view they
earnestly solicited from Cham])lain some copies of the
paternoster, whicl; sacred article, amid all his j)rofes-
sions of piety, he did not hesitate to bestow for this pro-
fane purpose. Thus ])rej)arcd, as the party approached
home, the heads were fastened on the ends of poles, and
exhibited to the women, who came swimming across the
river to meet their lords. The adventurer himself was
presented with one of these savage trophies, with a re-
quest that he would offer it to his sovereign, which, to
please them, he engaged to do.*

On the author's return from this expedition, which
seemed to hold out a great promise of ultimate success,
he was greeted with unfavourable tidings from France.
The merchants of that country, to his deep indignation,
though we think with very good reason, had raised loud
complaints of the injury which they as well as the na-
tion at large sustained by the fur-trade being confined
to a single individual. De Monts' commission was in
consequence revoked, and his lieutenant was obliged to
return home. He gave an account of his transactions,
first to his patron, and then to the king, who listened
to them with much satisfaction. All his attempts, how-
ever, to procure a renewal of the monopoly proved
abortive ; yet such was his zeal, that he determined
even without this aid to retain the settlement. To
lighten the expense, he made an agreement with some
traders at Rochelle, to give them the use of his build-
ing at Quebec as a depot for their goods, while they by

* Champlain, tome i. liv. iii. ch. 10.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

109

•\vfty of recompense en^a^ed to jisniHt liiin in his plans of
colonization. He was thus enabled in 1(510 to fit out
Ciianiplaiu with a considerable reinforcement and fresh
sui)plies.*

( )n his return to the St Lawrence, he received an ap-
plication from the Algon((uins to assist them in a new
war; and they promised to join him with 400 men at
the entrance of the Iroquois river. Undeterred by any
motive either of fear or j)rineiple, and seeminji^ly without
any hesitation, he accepted the proposal ; but on reach-
ing the spot affairs were found more urgent than had
been supj)osed. A canoe arrived with intelliu'enec that
a hundred of the enemy were so strongly intrenched in
the vicinity, that without the aid of the Misthigosches,
as the French were termed, it appeared im])osHible to
dislodge them. The savages, on this information, hur-
ried on board of their canoes, and j)revailed on their
Euroj)ean friend to quit his bark, and accompany them
with four of his countrymen. On landing, the natives
ran forward so swiftly that they were soon out of the
sight of their allies, who floundered after them through
woods and marshes, tormented by moscpiitoes, and much
at a loss for their way. They met, however, an Indian,
who came in all haste to inform them that his brethren,
ill acquainted with military tactics, had no sooner arrived,
than, without waiting for the French, they rushed to the
assault ; and that, having sustained a most severe repulse,
in which several of their chiefs were killed and a num-
ber wounded, all their hoj)c was now placed in their
auxiliaries. Having proceeded about half a mile, they
heard the bowlings of the hostile parties, who, as usual,
])oured on each other torrents of invective. On their
api)earance, these illustrious allies raised shouts loudei*
than thunder, while Champlain advanced to reconnoitre
the fort. He found it very strong, composed, according
to the usual fashion, of large trees fixed close together
in a circle. He himself was immediately wounded in the

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Champlain, tome i. pp. 152, 153.

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IIISTOUY OF CANADA

ear nmlnock l»y tm arrow pointed with stono, yot iiotN«
08 todiHiii)l(' liim from actiiiy. At tlu' discimri^c offiro-
anns the iro(|uoiH, who avvm to have hecn ii diflcnnt
party from those formerly eneountered, felt the wiiiio
jiMtonishmeiit and dismay. Covere<l hy their intreiieh-
inentH, however, tliey eontinued to pour forth elouds
of dart.s, and ('ham]dain, whose ammunition hej;an
to fail, ur^ed the sjvva^cs to exert themselves in fore-
hig a way into the harrieade. He made them fasten
ropes round the trunks of single trees, and apj)ly all
tlicir strength to dra^f them out, undertaking^ n»ean-
time to ])roteet them with his fire. Fortunately, at this
moment, a l)arty of French traders, iinconneeted with
our le.'ider, heinfi^ seized with martial ardour, came to
join him ; and he thought it fair " that they should
have their share in the <liversion." Under their cover,
the Algoncjuins j)ulled so stoutly, that a sutticient open-
ing wjis soon made, and thoujih the stumps still stood
six feet hi/^h, the allies leaped in, and the enemy were
completely routed, most of them hein^^ killed or drowmd,
and fifteen taken. Of the assailants three fell in the ac-
tion, and fifty were wounded. Instead of carryinjj^ off
the heads of the slain, they " flayed them," takinj^^ the
scalps as their trojdiy. Cham])lain asked and ohUiined
one of the captives, whom he saved from the dreadful
tortures which were iiiiiicted on most of the others, one
by one at different staj^es ; the rest heiuij; carefully re-
served for their wives and daughters, who took peculiar
delight in these scenes of savage vengeance, and were
even ingenious in devising new and ex(iuisite torments.
His prisoner, not heing very carefully guarded, made
his escape. The Frencliman, before taking leave of his
allies, prevailed on tliem to allow one of his people to
remain with them and learn their language, while he, at
their request, took a native youth with him to Euroj)e.*
In ion Champlain returned to America with his sii-
vage, and on the 28tli May arrived at the place of reu-

• Champlain, tcme i. liv. iii. ch. H, 12.

UNDER TIIR FRENCH,

111

(lozvous appointiMl for \nothcr warlike expedition. Not
fiii(iinj( tlie Indians, he employed his time in ehoosinjf
rt sjxit for a new settloment h'Sfh^r np the river than
t^uelu'c. After a oareful survey iio fixed upon j^round
ill tile vieinity of m. cniineiK e which he called Mont
Royiil ; and his choice han hceu amply justified hy the
prusprrity to which this place, under the luuiu of Mont-
real, lias sulHe(|uently risen, lie cleared a considerahlo
space, >iowe<l some? JJfr'iin* '"id enclosed it hy an earthen,
wall. A distre.ssiii<( accident soon afterwards occurred.
Siivi^Mion, the nativ(! who had acconij)aniod him to
France, with Louis, a European, and Outetoucos, an
Indian leader, set out on a huntinjjf excursion to an
island in the Chamhly. After excellent sport they were
returnin^j^, when Savi<j;iioii, who guided the canoe, j)ro-
posed to make a circuit to avoid a (laii<j;erous rapid. Tho
chief, however, insisted that it was ([uite safe, without
even li^diteiunjjf the hoat, and the other allowed himself to
1)0 pc^rsuaded ; hut as soon as they came within the action
of the whirlpool, the hark was tossed up and down in the
most violent manner. Louis was thrown into the water
and drowned. The chief endeavoured to swim to land,
Init gould not stem the eddies, and sunk. Savignon
alone, cling'ing to the canoe whether ahove or helow
water, at lenfj^th reached the shore. Champlain, on
eoiniu/,'^ to the spot, c(mld scarcely hclieve it possihle
that any person .should have attempted to pass this for7
luidalde ra})id.*

At length, on the 13th June, three weeks after
the time appointed, a party of his savage friends ap-
peared. They evinced much ])leasurc at meeting their
countryman, who gave the most favourahle report of
the treatment Avhich he had received in France ; and
after a liheral present of heaver skins, they unfolded the
cause of this long delay. The prisoner who escaped the
previous year had spread a report that the French, hav-
ing now resolved to espouse the cause of the Iroquois,

• Champlain, toiue i. liv. iii. ch. 13,

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HISTORY OF CANADA

were coming in great force to destroy altogether the
Algonquin nation. Cliamplain bitterly complained of
their having listened to such a rumour, which all his
actions belied. They protested that it had never gained
credence with them, but only with those of their tribe
who had no opportunity of knowing the foreigners.
However, having received solemn protestations of friend-
ship, they declared their determination of adhering to
their alliance, and aiding to the utmost of their power
his projects of })enetnitmg hito the interior. They gave
him very extensive information respecting the conti-
nent, their acquaintance with Avhich was found to reach
southward as far as the Gulf of Mexico. They agreed to
his proposal of retuniing with forty or fifty of his people
to prosecute discoveries, and even form settlements in
the country. The warlike designs, for some reason not
explained, appear to have been dropped for the present ;
but they requested that a French youth should accom-
pany them and make observations ujjon their territory
and tribe. The}^ asked their visiter to use his in-
fluence in order to dissuade one of their bravest war-
riors, who had been three times made prisoner by the
Iroquois and always escaped, to relinquish the purpose
he had now formed of setting out with only nine com-
panions to attack the enemy and avenge his formei-
wrongs. Attempts were made to divert him from so
i-ash a pur])ose ; but, exhibiting his fingers partly cut off
and his whole body covered with wounds, he declared
that it was impossible to live unless he obtained re-
venge.*

Cliamplain again returned to France with the view of
making arrangements for those more extensive opera-
tions which he contemplated and had recommended to
his Indian allies. The negotiation was attended with dif-
ficulty. Dc Monts, who had been appointed governor of
Saintonge, was no longer inclined" to take the lead, and
excused himself from going to court, on account of the

Cliamplain, tome i. liv. iii. cli. 14,

UNDER THE FRENCH.

113

urgency of his own iiffiiirs. He committed the whole to
his former agent, advising liini to seek one poweriul
protector, whose authority might overcome the opposi-
tion to his plans. Our adventurer was so fortunate as
almost immediately to gain the Count de Soissons, who
obtained the title of Lieutenant-general of New France,
unci who, by a formal agreement, delegated to him all
the functions of that high office. Tlie count died soon
after ; ])ut a still more influential friend was found in
the Prince of Conde, who succeeded to all the privileges
of the deceased, and made them over in a manner equally
ample. His commission, includhig a monopoly of the
track', excited loud complaints among the merchants ;
but our author endeavoured to remove the principal
objection by allowing as many of them to embark in
the traffic as chose to accompany him. There came ac-
cordingly three from Normandy, one from Rochelle, and
one from St Malo. These were allowed free trade, bur-
dened only with the condition of contributing six men
each to assist in his pi-ojects of discovery, and a twentieth
of their profits to defray the expenses of settlement.*

In til e beginning of March 1 01 3,t this expedition sailed
from Honfieur, and on 7th May arrived at Quebec.
Champlain however had an aim which diverted him from
his grand schemes of war and discovery in the west.
Among the objects of adventure in that age, a favourite
one was a north-w^est passage to China ; hence every
thing connected with the report of a sea beyond Canada
inspired tiie greatest hopes. There was a Frenchman
named Nicolas de Vignau, who had accompanied our tra-
veller in former expeditions, and spent a winter among
the savages. This person re])orted that the river of the
Algonquins (the Ottawa) issued from a lake which was
connected with the North Sea ; that he had visited its

* Champlain, tomo i. liv. iv. ch. 5.

t Champlain's dates are jumbled in the most confused manner;
init on comparing paj^e 312 with pat;es 240 and 24(j, it will be evi-
dent that the one bere given is correct, though the narrative of" his
voyage precedes the account of his departure.

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HISTORY OF CANADA

shores, and had there witnessed the wreck of an English
vessel. The crew, eighty in number, had reached the
land, where they had all been killed and scalped by the
inhabitants, except one boy, whom they would have been
happy to present to him, along with the trophies of
their victory. Wishmg to assure himself as to this
story, the navigator caused the man to sign his declara-
tion before two notaries, warning him, if it were false,
that he was putthig a rope round his own neck. Find-
ing the fellow persevere, and learning that some Eng-
lish vessels had really been wrecked in 1G12 on the coast
of Labrador, his doubts were removed, and he deter-
mined to devote a season to the prosecution of this grand
object.

With this view he did not stop at Quebec, but settinj*'
sail on the ]8tli May, arrived on the 21st at the fall of
St Louis. Here, with only two canoes, containing four
of his countrymen and one native, he began his voyage
up the river. The hardships and difficulties were vcrv
severe. He encountered a succession of cataracts anil
rapids, which it was necessary to avoid by carrying the
skiffs and stores overland. Sometimes, the woods being
too dense to admit of this, it became requisite to drag
them through the foaming current, not without danger
of being themselves ingulfed. If they had lost their
boats, they could neither have proceeded back nor for-
ward, unless by the mere accident of meeting with friend-
ly Indians. There was reason, besides, to dread an attack
from some wandering bands of Iroquois, who, if victo-
rious, would have doubtless treated the French as they
treated then* Algonquin captives. As the difficulties of
navigation increased, they were obliged to leave their
corn behind, and trust entirely to the produce of their
guns and nets, wliich afforded a precarious and some-
times very scanty supply. Nicolas, to our author's sur-
prise, was forward in recommending parts of the river
which the natives declared to be highly dangerous. At
length tlie party reached the al)ode of Tessouat, a friendly
chiet^ whose country was only eight days' sail from that

UNDER THE FRENCH.

115

of the Nebicerini (Nipissing^s), on whose bordei'sthe ship-
wreck was said to have occurred. The people received
our adventurer courteously, and agreed to his request of
admission to a solemn council. It was preceded l)y an
entertainment of boiled maize, with meat and fish ;
after which the young men went out, and the old took
their pipes and smoked for half an liour in silence.
Chaniplain behig then asked his ol)ject in soliciting the
interview, after many courteous professions requested
four canoes to escort him into the country of the Nipis-
sings, which he earnestly desired to visit. To this the
Indians demurred, stating that the route was very diffi-
cult, and that they were bad men and sorcerers, who had
caused the death of many of their tribe ; nevertheless,
upon his earnest entreaty, they at length consented.
After the meeting had broken up, however, the French
chief learned that there was a gi'eat indisposition to
fulfil the engagement, and that no one could be found
who was willing to accompany him. He therefore again
called them together ; reproached them with their me-
ditated breach of faith ; and in refutation of their asser-
tions of danger as arising from the people, referred to the
fact of Nicolas having spent some time among them with-
out any annoyance. Hereupon De Vignau was called
on to say if he had ever made such a journey ; and
when, after long hesitation, he answered in the affirma-
tive, they raised loud and fierce cries, declaring that he
was speaking folsely, having never passed beyond their
country, w^here he had gone to bed with them every
evening and risen every morning ; and that lie ought to
1)0 tortured to death for having so grossly deceived his
cliief. Chaniplain, seeing liis follower a good deal con-
fused, took him aside, and adjured him to state tlie truth.
The fellow, however, havhig recovered his confidence,
renewed his former averments, and gave the fullest
assurance, that if canoes could be procuretl they would
erelong reach the S])ot. The commander, unable to
l)elieve that au}^ individual could persevere in such
audacious falsehoods, went back to the sa^'agcs, re-

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HISTORY OF CANADA

ferred to the interior sea, the English shipwreck, tlie
eighty scalps, and the young boy in possession of the
natives. Hereupon they shouted louder than ever,
])roclaiming his deceit to he now quite pal])ahle. They
]»egan to put close interrogatories, to which he return-
ed only unsatisfiictory replies. Champlain, extremely
perplexed, called him again to a private interview,
and told him that every thing already past should bo
forgiven ; but that if, by persisting in false assertions,
he sliould induce the expedition to go a step farther,
he would most assuredly be hanged. The man then,
after remaining silent for some time, fell on his knees and
confessed that all he had said, and which had induced
his master to undertake so long and painful a journey,
Avas a complete untruth. The motives of this crime had
lieen the eclat derived from the supposed discovery, and
the being brought out to New France in a cons])icuous
situation. He had trusted that tlu; obstacles would be
such as, at some earlier point, to lead his superior to re-
nounce the attem])t ; and with this view, in passing the
falls he had urged him to prefer the most dangerous
channels. Cham})lain was obliged to inform the Indians
that they were right, and himself egregiously deceived.
They earnestly entreated him to place the liar in their
hands, who they would take effectual care should never
again deceive him. But, though much and justly en-
raged, he resolved honourably to redeem his pledge.
He had the vexation, however, to reflect, that not only
had he encountered in vain a long series of labours
and fatigues, but that the whole season had been spent
without any effort to promote other objects whicli
he had much at heart. He had now no alternative
but to commence his voyage down the Ottawa, and
on his way he was joined by a considerable nund)er of
savage allies, who rendezvoused at the fall of St Louis.
They agreed, though with difficulty, to allow tAvo young
Fi'enchmen to accompany them, with the view of ob-
taining a knowledge of the country. Champlain left
also De Vignau, as a punishment for his falsehood ; who

UNDER THE FRENCH.

117

promised to undertake further discoveries, and to reach,
if possible, the North Sea ; but none of the natives woukl
have any intercourse witli liini. Our author then sailed
to Tadoussac, and thence to St Malo, where he arrived
on the 2Gth August 1614.*

Affairs in France continued favourable to the colony.
The Prince of Conde being still powerful at court, no
difficulty was found in equipping an expedition from
Rouen and St Malo, tliough it gave some discontent to
the merchants of Rochelle, who were excluded on ac-
count of their not having come in time. They were
accompanied by four Fathers RecoUets, whose benevo-
k-nce led them to attempt the conversion of the Indians.t

Champlain, with this new company, arrived on the
25th May 1G15 at Tadoussac, whence he immediately
pushed up to Quebec, and thence to the pL.ce of ren-
dezvous at the fall of St Louis. He found his old allies
there full of projects of war against the Iroquois, whom
they proposed now to assail among the lakes to the west-
ward ; and they promised to muster ibr this attack no
fewer than 2500 fighting men. Tlie Frenchnuin, never
slow to embark in such enterprises, now laid down
a plan of operations, at which they expressed the
utmost siitisfaction. He accompanied them in a long
route, first up the Ottawa, then, partly carrying the
canoes overland j3artly launching them on small pieces
of water, till they came to Lake Nipissing, northward
from that of Huron. The country throudi which he
passed is described as in many places broken and rocky,
though not mountainous, and completely uncultivated ;
yet there was a profusion of berries and delicate small
fruits, which the natives preserved for winter use. The
Nipissings, about TOO or 800 in number, who inhabited
the shores of this lake, received the party well. After
remaining tw^o days, they made their way by land and
water to the coast of the great lake Attigouantan, which
appeared a complete fresh-\vater sea, oOO leagues in

* Champlain, tome i. liv. iv. cli. 1, 2, u. f Ibid, torae i. p. 313-31 7.

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HISTORY OF CANADA

length by 50 in l)rcadtli. It is evidently the northern
part of Lake Huron, a])]iarently separated into a distinct
body of water by the continuous chain of islands wliich
extend parallel to this shore."*'' After coasting it for al)oiit
forty-five leagues, they turned a point which forms
its extremity, and struck into the interior, with the
view of reaching- Cahiague, the appointed rendezvous
of their savage friends. Tliis country was found much
sujjerior to that hitherto passed, being well cultivated,
and abounding in Indian corn and fruits. At the place
just mentioned, a lai-ge body were found collected, wlio
gave them a joyful welcome, stating their expectation of
five hundred more, who also considered the Iroquois as
enemies. While their forces were mustering, several
days were spent in dancing and festivity, the usual pre-
lude to their bloody expeditions. They then set out and
passed several small lakes, one of which led to the great
one, which they now named Entouhonorons (Huron).
On the way they emploj^ed themselves in several hunt-
ing parties. Upon one occasion they made a large circle,
enclosing the whole of a promontory that stretched into
the lake ; after which, by loud cries and volleys of arrows,
they drove all the animals to the extreme point, Avhere
they WTre either taken or threw themselves into the
water. To meet this last case, a range of canoes were
drawn up, and the quadru])eds fell beneath the weapons
darted from either side. Having met a detachment re-
turning with a l)and of prisoners, our adventurer was
shocked to see them begin the horrid work of torment
upon a female, and reproached the leader with a cruelty
so unworthy of a genuine warrior. The Indian re])lied,
that it was no more than the enemy did to his country-
women ; but in courtesy to his ally he would desist, re-
taining, howTver, his full right to tor^nrc the men.

After quitthig the Huron Lake, they struck into the
interior, and came to a smaller expanse of water finely di-
versified by islands, which seems to be Lake George. On

* Chaniplain, tome i. liv. iv. ch. 6.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

119

its banks they descriod the Iroquois fort, wliicli, in cxpcc-
t;ition of this attack, liad been rendered peculiarly strong.
It was defended by four successive palisades of trees
twined tofi;ether, and with strong ])ara])ets at top ; and it
enclosed a pond whence streams were led to the different
(juarters, with the view of exthiguishing lire. They had
ii'lvUnced, and were skinnishing with success against
tlieir assailants ; but when the tirearnis l)egan to play,
and they heard the balls whizzing about their ears,
they hastily retreated within the rampart. Thence, how-
ever, they poured forth showers of arrows and stones,
which induced the allies, in spite of the exhortations
and reproaches of Champlain, to withdraw beyond their
reach. He now, however, endeavoured to train them
to the use of European machinery, teaching them to
construct with wood an elevated enclosure of planks,
called a cavalier, whicli should command the enemy's
entrenchment. The discharge from this platform was
meant to drive them from the parapet, and afford to the
assailants an opportunity of setting fire to the defences.
The savages showed the utmost activity in constructing
this work, which they finished in four hours, and 200 of
the strongest moved it forward close to the palisade. The
shot from it drove the Iroquois into the interior of their
stronghold, whence they still continued to return mis-
siles of various kinds. The Indians might now, with the
greatest ease, have set the fort in a blaze ; but Cham-
})lain soon found that he had to do with men who would
make war only as they were inclined and accustomed.
Instead of following his directions, they preferred to
pour out execrations upon the enemy, and shoot ar-
rows against the strong wooden defences. At length
they began to thrown pieces of burning timl)er, but care-
lessly, and with little effect. Their European ally
called out to them in what manner to proceed ; but the
field was filled with such clamour and confusion, that his
voice was lost amid the tumult. The Iroquois mean-
time drew water from their reservoir so copiously, that
streams flowed through every part of the fortress, and

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HISTORY OF CANADA

the slight fires were speedily quenched. Taking advan-
tage of the disorder in the adserse ranks, they made
arrows descend like hail, which pierced two chiefs and
a numher of their followers. Cluunplain himself wqh
twice wounded in the leg. His allies hereupon felt a
strong inclination to retire, and, as usual, they followed
their own views, without any regard to his exhortations.
They justified themselves hy alleging the absence of the
500 auxiliaries, promising, on their arrival, to renew the
assault. Although, therefore, for two days a strong wind
blew most favourably for another attempt, nothing could
induce them to advance. Several petty attacks were
made, but with so little success, that the French were
always obliged to come to the rescue ; M'hile the enemy
Ijitterly taunted the Algoncjuins as unable to cope witli
tlicm in a fair field, and obliged to seek the odious aid of
tl ':■ strange and unknown race.

As the reinforcement did not appear, the savages de-
termined to a])andon the enterjirise altogether, and re-
turn homeward. The retreat was conducted with a degree
of skill and judgment which had not appeared in any
of their oficnsive operations. They placed the wounded
and aged in the centre, while armed warriors guarded
the front, rear, and flanks. The Iroquois followed a
short way, but soon gave up the pursuit. If, however,
the safety of the disabled was well provided for, their
comfort was very little considered. Their bodies were
bent into a circular form, bound with cords, and thro^^u
into a basket, where they lay like infants in swaddling-
clothes, unable to stir hand or foot. Champlain feel-
ingly descri])es the agonies he endured while carried
twenty-five o'* thirty leagues in this position, on being
relieved from which he felt as if he had come out of a
dungeon.

He now claimed the i)romJse to convoy him home
after his campaign. I'irst, however, guides w'ere want-
ing, then a canoe ; and he soon found that they were
determined to detain him and his companions, witli a
view to their defence in case of attack, or to aid them in

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121

future expeditions. lie was very ill provided for win-
tering in so desolate a region ; but a ehief, Darontal,
gave him liis hovel, built in the best Indian style, and
ho found considerable aniiisenient in tlicir hunting ex-
cursions. On one occasion they constructed a wooden
enclosure, of a triangular form, eacli side nearly a mile
long, with a narrow opening at the point, into Avhieh,
by loud cries, and imitating the howling of wolves, they
contrived to drive all the deer in the vicinity. The
aperture being then shut, the animals became an easy
prey.*

On the 20th May of the following year Champlain
set out, and found himself in the end of June at the
Siiult St Louis. Having remained there a short time,
ho repaired to Tadoussac, whence he sailed, and arrived
at llonileur on the 10th September 161G.t

The interests of the colony were now in considerable
jeopardy. The Prince of Conde', in consequence of the
share taken by him in the disturbances during the
minority of Louis XIII., was not only in disgrace, but
under confinement. The Marshal de Themines, how-
ever, was prevailed upon to undertake the duties of the
situation, on condition of sharing its emoluments. Un-
fortunately he was soon involved in controversy with
tlie merchants, and after many and tedious transiictions,
during two years and a half, the Duke de Montmo-
rency was induced to treat with Conde for his office of
viceroy, and obtained it upon the payment of 11,000
crowns. Champlain considered this arrangement as every
way eligible, the duke being better (qualified for such
functions, and, from his situation of High Admiral, pos-
sessing the best means of toi warding the object. A body
of associated merchants had already, in January 1619,
agreed to send out a larger colony than any preceding
one, of eighty persons, including three friars, with the
necessary supply of furniture, arms, seed-corn, and do-
mestic animals. Their departure was, however, delayed

* Champlain, tomel. liv. iv. ch. 7. i* Ibid, tome i. p. 396-31)8.

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a whole ycarl)y tluMlisiuitosbt^Avcv a Poclu'llo and otlirr
coiiinu'rcial cities, jind iKtwcrii the J*i'()te&+aiitH and tlie
CatholifH. Att(.'nij)ts wi'io also made to di'^nadi' Cham-
plain from the high situation in which he had been
jdaccd ; hut hy virtue of commissions both from Mont-
morency and the king, he succeeded m crushing this op-
position.*

In May 1020 he set sail with his new equipment, and
after a very tedious voyai'e, anchored on the 7th Julv
near the port of Tadoussac. lie found that, during his
long absence, the settlements had been considerably ne-
glected, especially at Trois Rivieres, which he enlargid
and defended by a fort, placed on a mountain that com-
manded the passage of the river. After all tliat had been
done for the colony, there remained, when Avinter arrived,
not more than sixty inhabitants, including women, chil-
dren, and clergy, and ten of the number were employed
in establishing a religious seminary. t

The following year, as soon as the season permitted,
a vessel wns sent out with letters from Montmorency
and his secretary, announcing i change which greatly
surprised and by no means delighted our commander.
The association of merchants who had fitted out the last
expedition were deprived of all their i)rivileges by the
duke, who had intrusted the care of the colony to the
Sieurs De Caen, uncle and nei)liew, one a merchant and
the other a mariner, the latter of whom was to visit it
personally in the course of the sunnner. The local gover-
nor, who saw man}^ causes of coni])laint against the mer-
chants, had no ground on which he could olrject to this
arrangement ; yet he was thereby virtually divested of
his command, and subjected to the control of another,
armed with formidable powers.;}:

About the middle of July he received notice that
De Caen had arrived at Tadoussac, and was desirous of
an interview. After some delay, he set out, and met
him on the 3d August. He was received with the ut-

• Champlain, tome i. liv. iv. ch. 4. f Ibid, tome ii. liv. i. ch. 1.
± Ibid, tome ii. liv. i. ch. 2.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

123

most courtesy, but soon foiuul tlio new superintendent
disposed to act in a very violent and arbitrary manner,
lie claimed the right of seizin*,' all the vessels belonj,'ingf
to the associated merchants, which mij^dit have come out
for the purpose of traffic ; and he actually took that of
Du Pont, their favourite aj>:ent, jmd an intimate friend of
our author. Champlain remonstrated strongly against
these proceedings, but without any etfect, as he possessed
no power which could effectually check the violence of
this new dictator. De Caen, however, left a supjdy of pro-
visions, arms, and ammunition ; though this last is said
to have been both scanty and ill adapted to its object.
In consequence of these arrangements, a great part of the
l)opulation connected with the European traders took
their deptwture, while the agent of Montmorency had
brought only eighteen new settlers ; so that the colony,
instead of being augmented, was thereby reduced to
forty-eiglit.'"'

Notwithstanding these vexatious occurrences, as soon
as the governor had time to breathe, he turned his
ivttcntion to discovery and settlement in the interior,
lie formed an intimate connexion with a Huron who
had assumed the name of Mahigan Aticq (Wolf Stag),
to express the union of ferocity and mildness which
became the savage character. Through him intelli-
gence was received of a proposal made to terminate the
long and desolating war which had raged between his
nation and that of the Iroquois. Champlain, on former
occasions, when such an accommodation was mentioned,
earnestly represented to them its great advantages ; and
he now expressed the utmost anxiety to forward it.
Learning, therefore, that two individuals of the hostile
people had arrived at Trois Rivieres, he invited them to
Quebec, and met them at a village of friendly Indians in
that vicinity. On his arrival, Mahigan took his hand,
kissed and locked his own into it, causing the two
strangers to do the same to his companions. Thus,

• Champlain, tome ii. liv. i. ch. 4,

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niSTOIlY or CANADA

hand in Imnd they entered the chief cahin, wlierc a
ninnher of the natives were seated, aeeordin*^ to their
rcsj)ective ranks, and h-arned witli satisfaction tlie goc i
understanding^ that now prevailed. Tiiey tlien j)rocee(lcd
to the inij)ortant operation of dancinu:, wliicli was kept
uj) a Um^ time hy tlie allies and the three visiters ; then
each of them kissed his hand, and put theirs into that
of the governor. The ITnrons now danced in a hody,
men, women, and children, wlien harmony was considered
as com]detely estahlished. At this stage the Iroqnoiscx-
plained their ohject, which Champlain readily engaged
to promote. They represented this ])ropo.SHl for amity
as proceeding entirely from themselves, and that they
came not as authorized envoys ; though this, we sus-
pect, was rather to avoid prematurely connnitting the
nation. The Ilurons, however, treated them with
friendship, and, in concurrence with their French ally,
determined upon sending four of their numhcr to com-
plete, if p()ssil)le, the negotiation opened undiT such fa-
vouralde auspices.* On arriving at the hea(l([uarti'rs of
the Irotjuois, they met a very kind reception, and tlie
treaty was nearly concluded, when it was almost hrokeu
off hy an event strikingly characteristic of this fierce
independent race. Kven hefore they set out, a savage,
whom the French named Simon, declared his determi-
nation to accompany them, l)ut in a hostile character,
singly to wage war agauist this hated enemy ; and such,
in this rude tri])e, was the total want of any puhlic
authority, that they could use nothing heyond impotent
remonstrances to deter him. They had recourse to their
ally, who employed warm representations, and even
threats, to make the barharian desist. But though the
latter admitted it to be very wicked in him, he declared
that he was perfectly miserable, and could have no peace,
till he had cut off the head of an enemy. After this as-
surance all argument was vain, the community not having
any means of placing its members under the slightest

• Champlain, tome ii. liv. i. ch. Ij.

UNDER THE rilENCH.

125

ivstniiiit. He acoonipanit'd his countryincn, nn«l jsliarod
in tlioir i^ood reception ; hut uh they wero ivtuniinj^
lioine, he met o!ie of tiie detested trihe and gnitilicd his
vengeance by despatch infj; liini. Such a (hed, hy any
niend)er <'i' a civilized mission, nuist at once have ter-
minated i i nejL^otiation ; hut the deputies having' satisfied
tlie lro(|uois, who were no strangers to sucii sallies, that
it was c()nij)letely an individual act, hunented hy the
nation, they overlooked it, and sent six of their luimher
to conchido the treaty.*

In the mean time the progress of the colony was still
cheeked hy dissensions in the mother country. A union,
indeed, was formed hetween the old and new companies,
which enal)led them to proceed for sometime with greater
vigour. But though united, thiy were not of one mind ;
contentions were soon kindled, which made Montmo-
rency complain, that he had more trouble with this con-
cern than with his most important affairs ; so that he
was well i)lease(l, for a moderate consideration, to trans-
fer it to the Duke de Ventadour. The new viceroy, how-
ever, soon found himself involved in serious troubles. He
professed, in a manner peculiarly decided, that his main
object was to diffuse the Catholic religion throughout the
New World ; but it so happened that the Protestants
were the only French citizens who possessed the nau-
tical skill to conduct such an expedition, or were willing
to brave its dangers. In despite of the court, therefore,
they formed the majority of every crew ; and though the
most illiberal restrictions were laid upon their worship,
their numbers enabled them to treat these with little
ceremony. Even De Caen professed this faith ; and the
new viceroy had the affliction to learn that he had not
only allowed Protestant prayers to be publicly offered
up, but even desired the Romanists to attend them. He
was restless, therefore, till an arrangement could be
made, by which a captain of sound belief should be
appointed to command the vessels. He could not, how-

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* Clmmplain, tome iL p. 79-89.

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HISTORY OF CANADA

ever, escape the fatal necessity of employing a crew
most of whom were accounted heretical ; but in return,
he directed that the means of exercising their religion
should be confined within tlie narrowest possible limits.
In particular, he strictly enjoined that they should not
sing psalms in the St Lawrence ; but the mariners, wlio
had freely performed this act of worship in the open
sea, loudly exclaimed against such a capricious restric-
tion ; and though the express ordei's of the duke could
not be departed from, a compromise was made, allowing
them greater latitude in other parts of their ritual. Our
author unifonnly expresses a pious horror touching the
Reformers, and the utmost reluctance to grant them the
slightest favour ; l)ut oddly excuses himself by sjiying :
— " They were almost two-thirds Huguenots ; so of a
bad debt, one must take what payment he can get."*

Champlain was continued in all his powers by the
Duke de Ventadour, who kept him a considerable time
near his person, so that two years and a half had
elapsed before his return to Canada. He found the
colony in the same unsatisfactory state as after his for-
mer absence ; the fort, for completing which all the
materials and full instructions had been left, was ex-
actly in the same condition as when he departed.
The settlement at Quebec consisted still of no mure
than fifty-five persons, of whom twenty-four only Mere
fit for labour.f He learned, moreover, that the In-
dian affairs were by no means in a good state. The
Iroquois, being on their way to attack a tribe called
the Wolves, had killed a party who o])posed their ])ro-
gress, among whom were five of another nation. Tlie
latter forthwith si;nt messengers, bearing as gifts coUai's
of wampum, to the chiefs of the French allies, and en-
treating their aid in a war of revenge. It was easy tt>
kindle a hostile spirit among these fierce clans, nnd <i
strong party was soon formed in favour of warlike mea-
isures. The more prudent anxiously recommended a

* Clmmplain, tome ii. pp. U. !M, 103, 104, 133.
•j- Ibid, tome ii. pp. 13/, 138.

UNDER THE FRENCH* 127

pacific policy, and Maliigan Aticq hastened to Quebec,
to apprize Champlain of what was passing. Deeply re-
gretting these events, he reiterated all his arguments
for the preservation of the blessings enjoyed under the
present tranquil system. As it was not in his power to
go in person, he sent Boulle, his brother-in-law, and
afterwards one of his people, named Emery, to impress
these views upon the savage assembly. They were both
well received, and their advice approved by the great
body of the nation ; but the lawless system which stih
prevailed in the tribe made it impossible to prevent nine
or ten hot-headed youths from making an unauthorized
inroad into the Iroquois territory. This band having
reached Lake Champlain, surprised a canoe with three
individuals, two of whom they seized and brought home
in triumph. The preparations for the Avork of torture
were already going on, when Emery hastened to convey
the intelligence to Champlain, who immediately re-
paired to the spot. The sight of the captives, fine
young men, and of the tortures preparing for them,
quickened his ardour in the cause of peace and huma-
nity. He strongly urged that, instead of such barba-
rous treatment, they should be sent home unhurt,
with presents to compensate for this wanton attack.
After due deliberation, this advice was so far adopted
that one individual was sent back, with tw^o allies, one
of them a chief, and Magnan, a Frenchman. This ex-
pedition, sent with so laudable an intention, had the
most tragical issue. An Algonquin who w^islied to foment
war, contrived to rouse the jealousy of the Iroquois, by
persuading them that this micoion, though professing
friendship, was devised with the most treacherous intent.
Misled by these views, the latter prepared to take cool
and deliberate revenge. When the strangers arrived,
they found the tire kindled, the cauldron boiling, and
being courteously received, were invited to sit down. The
Iroquois then asked the chief if, after so long a journey,
he did not feel hungry. As he replied in the affirmative
they rushed upon liim, and began to cut slices from his

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HISTORY OF CANADA

arms, and throw them into the pot ; soon after, they
presented them to him half cooked. They then cut
pieces from other parts of his hody, and continued their
torture till he died in linj^erin^- agonies. The Frenchman
was tormented to death in the usual manner. Another
Indian, more fortunate, while attempting to escape, was
shot dead on the spot ; a fourth was made prisoner.
When news reached the allies of this dreadful tragedy,
the war-cry was immediately sounded, and the remain-
ing captive was put to death with every refinement of
cruelty.* Champlain himself, though deeply afflicted hy
the intelligence, saw no longer any possihility of avert-
ing hostilities ; he felt that, as a countryman had heen
deprived of life, the power of the nation would be held in
contempt if no resentment were shown at so dreadful
an outrage. Indeed he experienced no little trouhle,
even among the friendly tribes, who immediately sur-
rounded him. In several cases, Europeans were mur-
dered in an atrocious manner, and under circumstances
which rendered it impossible to accept as an explana-
tion the assurance that parties of Iroquois had pene-
trated to the spot. After overlooking these as much as
possible, a fresh instance having occurred, he demanded
that an individual, to whom strong suspicion attached,
should be put into his hands. He detained him fourteen
months ; but being unable to procure positive evidence,
and pressed by other circumstances now to be related, he
set him at liberty.

The dignity of the French required that vigorous
measures should have been taken to avenge so great a
wrong ; but their attention was soon called to other
quarters. Hostilities having broken out with England,
two of their subjects, David and Louis Kertk, Calvinist
refugees, entered the service of that country, where they
were known under the name of Kirk. They equij)-
ped a squadron, which sailed to the mouth of the St
Lawrence, captured several vessels, and mtercepted the

• Champlain, tome ii. pp. 14JI, 211-214.
6

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UNDER THE FRENCH.

129

communication between the mother-country and the
colony. The settlers, who had not yet sufficiently ex-
tended cultivation to supply themselves with provisions,
were thus reduced to the greatest distress. At length,
in July 1{)29, Sir David Kirk summoned Quebec. As,
in addition to famine, the ammunition was nearly ex-
hausted, the governor considered himself as having no
choice but to surrender. The invader, who still retained
many of the feelings of his birth, promised honourable
conditions, and every species of good treatment to his
countrymen. They were allowed to depart with their
arms, clothes, and baggage. The request of a ship to con-
vey them directly home could not be complied with ;
but they w^ere promised a commodious passage by way
of England. Champlain was desirous to take with him
two little native girls, whom he had carefully educated,
and although at first objected to, this was granted on a
fuller explanation. The place being surrendered. Kirk
ai d the English showed to the garrison every species of
courtesy ; though Baillif, a renegade Frenchman, to
whom he intrusted the keys of the magazine, seized a
great quantity of furs, besides various articles of church
property, and subjected his countrymen to all the ill
treatment in his power.

Champlain, who arrived at Dover on the 27th Oc-
tober, proceeded thence to London, for the purpose of
(jonferring with the French ambassador. The differences
between the two nations were now in a train of adjust-
ment ; but a large party in the Gallic cabinet set too
little value on the settlement to think its restoration
worth insisting upon. Champlain strongly deprecated
this view of the subject ; his counsels at length pre-
vailed at the court of Louis XIII. ; and when the
English found the matter seriously pressed, they con-
sented without much difficulty. The final treaty,
however, w\as not signed till the 29th March 1G82.

The indifference Avith which both countries viewed this
colony, though bearuig the pompous title of New France,
was not ill justified by its actual condition. A fort

VOL. I. H

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with some houses and baiTacks at Quebec ; a few huts
for fishing and trade at Tadoussae, Trois Rivieres, and
Montreal, fomied nearly all that answered to that im-
posing name.* But even prior to its late disaster,
arrangements had been made with a view to rescue
it from this depressed state. Under the direction of
Cardinal Ricl.jiieu, whose administration was marked
by a bold and enterprising character, an association
was fonned of a hundred distinguished individuals, who
undertook that, by the year 1643, they would raise the
population to GOOO. They engaged to maintain the emi-
grants for three years, bestowing upon them lands and
seed-corn. Thev were also to send a suitable number of
clergymen, subsisting them fur fifteen years, and at the
end of that period to assign them glebes sufficient for their
support, t Theu' operations were suspended by the
disastrous events just narrated ; but when the above
treaty restored Canada to the French, their rights were
fully confirmed, and they made no hesitation in rein-
vesting Champlain with his former jurisdiction. The
year 1633 had arrived, however, before an expedition
was ready to sail, which carried with it more property
than was supposed at the time to exist in the colony.
The governor found most of those whom he had left ;
but their prosperity must have been greatly checked by
the bigoted spirit which induced the court to prohibit
altogether the exercise of the reformed religion, by
whose professors chiefly the settlement had been sup-
ported. Some small compensation was afforded, l>y
the institution of religious establishments embracing
objects of general education and instruction. A son
of the Marquis de Gamache, wdiose fervour had impel-
led him to join the order of Jesuits, conceived the
ambition of founding a college at Quebec, and was ena-
bled by his friends to offer 6000 gold crowns for this
puipose. His proposal was readily accepted, and, though

* Heriot, History of Canada, Hvo, London, 1804 (translated
from Charlevoix, Histoire de la Nouvelle France), p. i\).
•\- Charlevoix in Heriot, pp. 37? 38.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

131

delayed by the misfortunes of the colony, was carried
into effect in 1635. Four years later, under the auspices
of the Duchess d'Aiguillon, a party of Ursuline nuns
were sent out, and a seminary established by them at
Quebec. But the religious foundation from which the
gi'eatest advantages were derived was that projected by
the Abbe Olivier, who had originated the order of St Sul-
pice, and proposed that a seminary, bearing its name
and composed of its members, should be formed in New
France. The king listened favourably to this sugges-
tion, and, with the view of realizing it, made a grant of
the whole island of Montreal. A party was formed, the
Sieur Maisonneuve was placed at its head, and invested
with the government. That important place, where hi-
therto there had been only a few detached huts, assumed
now the aspect of a regular settlement, and rose, by gra-
dual steps, until it attained a great degree of prosperity/"'
But, in the mean time, the rising colony was destined
to encounter severe disasters. Tlie death of Champlain,
early in 1636, was a severe blow. Though some parts of
his early policy were very questionable, his devotion to
the cause, his energy and high reputation, were generally
viewed as the chief bond by which the vdiole undertaking
had been held together. The company, after their first
great effort, soon relaxed, and allowed the settlement to
relapse into a languishing state. They had sent indeed a
considerable number of monks and nuns ; but of troops
and stores, which were more urgently wanted, the
supply was very scanty. The situation of M. de Mont-
magny, the new governor, was rendered more critical
by the state of the Indian nations. We have already
seen the renewal of the war with the Iroquois ; and
as the weakness of the French had rendered it im-
possible for them to afford any aid to their native
allies, that warlike confederacy had advanced by rapid
steps to a supremacy of power. They had completely
humbled the Algonquins, who formerly held the fore-

miu

Charlevoix in Heriot, p. 4U-55.

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HISTORY OP CANADA

most place in the savage world ; they closely pressed
tlie Hiirons, scarcely allowing- their canoes to pass up
and down the river ; and they now tlireatened in great
force the settlement of Trois Rivieres. In this exigency,
Montmagny's resources enahled him only to carry on
a defensive warfare, which he appears to have done
with vigour, erecting a fort at the mouth of the river
Sorel, hy which the Iroquois chieHy made their de-
scents. That fierce people, whether tired of so long a
contest or awed l)y the renewed power dis])layed hy the
French, hegan to make proposals for a solid peace ; and
though the governor had good reason to douht their since-
rity and dread some sinister ohject, his situation left no
choice but to receive them with apparent cordiality. He
tlierefore rejxiired to Trois Rivieres to meet their de-
puties, while the chiefs of the tribes in alliance with
him came also to the i- erview. The envoys of the
Five Nations then produced seventeen belts, which they
had arranoed alono- a cord fastened between two stakes.
Their orator came forward and addressed the governor-
general by the titic of Ononthio, which, in their language,
signifies Great Mountain ; and though it was in refer-
ence to his name of ivlontmagny, they continued ever after
to apply this term to the French viceroy. They often
added the respectful appellation of father. The speaker
declared the sincerity of their intentions, and their wish
" to forget their songs of war, and to resume the voice
of cheerfulness." He then proceeded to the exposition
of the belts, which occupied three hours, each explana-
tion being accompanied with appropriate gestures, which
alone would have been almost sufficient to unfold his
meaning. Thus, having occasion to refer to the diffi-
culties of canoe-navigation, he performed all the move-
ments necessary in guiding one through the rapids, and,
representing himself as striking against a rock, used
signs expressive of the pain caused by such an acci-
dent. These belts variously expressed the calming of the
spirit of "Nvar, the opening of the paths, the nnitual
visits to be paid, the feasts to be given, the restitution

UNDER TII^^. VRP.Xrn.

133

of the captives, and other frientlly proceccllngs. The
governor, in conformity to Indian cticiuette, delayed his
answer for two days, when, at anotlier «i;eneral nv. -ting,
lie bestowed as many presents as he had received belts,
and throngh an interpreter expressed the most pacific
sentiments. Piskaret, a great Algon(|uin chief, then
said, — " Behold a stone, which I place on the sepulchre
of those who were killed in the war, that no one may
attemj)t to remove their bones, and that every desire of
avenging their death may be laid aside." Three dis-
charges of cannon were considered as sealing the treaty.
It was for some time faithfully observed, and unwonted
tranquillity reigned throughout this savage region. The
Iroquois, the Algonquins, and Hurons forgot their deadly
feuds, and mingled in the chase as if they had been
one nation."'

M. de Montmagny, like his predecessor, appears to
have commanded the general respect of the native inha-
bitants. Unluckily, in consequence of an attempt by De
Poinci, who commanded in the West Indies, to render
himself independent, the court ado2)ted the jealous po-
licy of continuing no governor in power longer than
tliree years. This system was peculiarly ill suited to a
settlement like that of Canada, where intimate local
knowledge, and a peculiar mixture of firmness and ad-
dress, were necessary to deal with tumultuary tribes
whom they had not strength to subdue. Montmagny
was replaced by Ailleboust, said to have been a man of
probity, but scarcely possessing the energy required in
so difficult a situation. During his government the Iro-
quois formed the resolution of renewing the war in all
its fary. No ground is stated ; but the Europeans and
their allies in consequence of it became exposed to a
series of dreadful calamities.

The missionaries had not merely formed establish-
ments at Quebec and Montreal, but had also penetrated
into the territory of the savages. In this task they cer-

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134

HISTORY OF CANADA

tainly gave full proof of sincerity, renouncing all the
comforts of civilized life, and exposing themselves to
every species of hardship and danger. They have been
accused of unduly com])ining political with religious ob-
jects. They did certainly employ their influence for
the furtherance of French power ; since they induced a
number even of the Iro(|uois not only to quit the country
to which they were so strongly attached and settle within
the limits of the colony, but even to figlit agahist their
own relations. But, at the same time, they undoulitedly
reclaimed their votaries from many savage hal)its, and
trained them to some degree of order and industry. The
Ilurons were found the most docile and susceptible of
improvement, and their great numbers afforded a wide
field of exertion. Upv/ards of three thousand of them
are recorded to have been ])aptized at one time ; and
though it was easier to make converts than to retain
them, yet a considerable change is said to have appeared
in the aspect of this wild region, and very favourable
prospects to have been opened.* The main object was
to unite them in villages, of wdiich the chief was Sillery,
or St Joseph and St Mary, with several smaller de-
pendent ones.

In 1648 the Iroquois, as already stated, detennined
to renew the war; a resolution adopted by them, if
we may believe the annals of the colony, without
any ground, or even pretext. The settlement, how-
ever, was now destined to experience the terrible
effects of their rapid movements ; that they could
advance like foxes, and attack like lions ; and that
their arrival and triumphant return were usually an-
nounced at the same moment.t In the village of Sillery,
where four hundred families were settled in tlie most
profound peace, and the missionary was celebrating the
most solemn ordinances of religion, the cry was suddenly
raised, " We are murdered !" An indiscriminate mas-

• Missions en laNouvelle France, ans 1642, 1()43, p.
1647, p. 19 ; ans 1649, 16,')(), p. 92.
•|- Missions, ans 1069, 16(JU, p. IJ.

p. 32; an

UNDER THE FRENCH.

135

sacrc had begun, without distinction of sex or age. In
vain did women flee into the depth of the forest with
infants in their arms, whose feeble cries betrayed
themselves and their mothers. Finally, the assailants
fell upon the priest, and, after each successively had
struck a blow, threw him into the flames."^^

Notwithstandhig this dreadful example, the Iroquois
having disappeared for six months, the villages relapsed
into their former security. This tranquillity, however,
was again disturbed in 1649 by a party of the same
people, amounting to a thousand, who made an attack
upon the mission of St Ignace. Some resistance Avas
offered, and ten assailants fell ; but ultimately all the
hihabitants, except three, were killed or carried off. St
Louis was next attacked, and made a brave defence,
which, though it was finally stormed, enabled many of the
women and children to escape. The missionaries could
have saved themselves ; but, like others of their brethren,
attaching a high importance to the administration of the
sacrament to the dying, they sacrificed their lives to the
performance of this sacred rite. They were not killed on
tlie spot, but " reserved for greater crowns," having to
pass through a dreadful series of torture and mutila-
tion.t

Deep and universal dismay now spreadamongthe Huron
people. Their country, lately so peaceable and flour-
ishing, was become a land of horror and of blood, a sepul-
chre of the dead, and no hope appeared to the survivors.
The whole nation, with one consent, broke up and fled
for refuge in every du'ection. A few reluctantly off^ered
to unite with their conquerors, who, according to their
usual policy, readily accepted them.. The greater num-
ber sought an asylum among the nations of the Cat, the
Ottawa, and others still more remote. The missionaries
were greatly at a loss how to proceed with the remnant
of their converts, now nearly reduced to the single vil-

* Missions, ans 1648, 1(549, pp. 12, 13.

+ Missions en la Nouveile IVance, ans 1640, 1649, pp. 12j34-o9,
c. iv.

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HISTORY OF CANADA

lai^c of St Mary. The island of Manitoulin, in Lako
Huron, was proposed ; Lut tlioii;j^li they wanted tiie
means or courage to defend their country, they felt a
deep reluctance to remove to such a distance from it.
They ])referred the insular situation of St Jose])h, in
Lake Ontario, which, it was hoped, would secure tiiem
against this dreaded foe. They enjoyed for some tune
an unwonted tranquillity, hut were ohliged, hy the dif-
ficulty of suhsistence, to form stations on the opposite
coast, at the distance of six or eight leagues. It wjls
hoped, that on any alarm the inhahitants might thence
flee to the island for safety ; hut the Iroquois, on learn-
ing the existence of these jiosts, came upon them suc-
cessively, with such suddenness and fatal precision, that
it seemed as if a destroying angel had guided their ste])s.
One after the other was suri)rised and destroyed, till of
many hundreds only a single individual escaped.

The unliai)py remnant of the Huron nation, now re-
duced to 800, renounced every hope of remaining in their
native seats. One of their chiefs addressed the mission-
ary", representing the extremity to which they were re-
duced, heing ghosts rather than men, and hoping to pre-
serve their wretched existence only hy fleeing into the
depth of the forests, cr to some distant country. H' he
chose to remain where he was, he could only have trees
and rocks to instruct. This was the preface to a solicita-
tion that he should convey them to Quehec, and place
them under the immediate protection of the French set-
tlement. After serious consideration, this was deemed
the most eligible course, and arrangements were imme-
diately made for its execution. They were then led
through the wide regions lately peopled hy their coun-
tr\'men, to the number of ten or twelve thousand, but
wliicli now presented a scene of unbroken silence and
desolation. The eiombre aspect of the vast forest was
only inteiTupted by the traces of havock and slaughter
at every spot formerly inhabited, attesting the general
destruction of the Huron name. Overwhelmed with
distress, they reached Quebec, where they experienced

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UNDEIl THE FRENCn.

137

ft mortifying contrast to the reception whieli they would
have found among any neiglihouring- trihe of savages.
There they wouhl have liad every want supplied, and
been welcomed as countrymen and ecpials. Here they
were viewed only as ohjeets of charity ; and though in
tliis light consideral)le exertions were made, the reli-
gious houses iinding room for a hundred of the most
destitute, yei the remainder were in danger of perishing
from cold and hunger, till a station could he formed for
them, which, from their former chief settlement, was
named Sillery.*

As the Iro([Uois now lorded it completely over Ca-
nada, the French were virtually hlockaded in the three
forts of Quehec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal, from un-
der the very cannon of which they and their allies were
sometimes carried off ; and, almost every autumn, hands
of hostile invaders swept away the limited harvests raised
in the immediate vicinity of these places. Yet in 1053
till" fierce nation began, of their own accord, to make
over tures of peace ; and it was found with surprise that
the missionaries had powerfully contributed to this reso-
lution. They had been regarded at first with extreme
antipathy, being probably considered as enemies of
their race, seekmg to subvei-t the native deities and
customs. In the course of the late inroads, however, a
considerable number had been carried off, and after suf-
fering protracted torture and partial mutilation, had been
spared and adopted. Then their meek deportment, their
solemn ceremonies, and the fervour with which " they
raised to God hands without fingers," made a strong im-
pression on the savage breast. Hence, at different
times, deputies from the ruling horde said in their
figurative language that they came to wipe away the
blood which had reddened the mountains, the lakes,
and the rivers, to bring back the sun, which had
hid his face during the late dreadful scenes of war-
fare. They solicited, at the same time, " black-robes,'

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HISTORY OF CANADA

as tlicy termed the missionaries, to teach them the
Christian doctrine. This invitation to ^o into the midst
of ferocious enemies, into a land yet smoking witli
European llood, wouhl liave shaken the nerves of most
men. Yet individuals were found who, with a generous
self-devotion, did not shrink from the undertaking ; nor
does it aj)pear that the hn])lied jdedge of safety was vio-
lated even during war."' The Onondagoes, in lt'>.5(), went
so far as to solicit that a settlement connected with a
mission should he formed in their territory ; and Lauson,
then governor, having acceded to this proposal, sent the
Sieur Dupuys, with fifty of his countrymen, who huilt a
cliurch in the hosom of that savage region. Tliis cstahlish-
mcnt, however, was generally disapproved l)y the other
tribes ; and after it had subsisted two years, formi-
dable assemblages took 2)lace, which Dupuys could not
doubt were intended to attack him. He therefore con-
sidered himself fortunate in being able, while their at-
tention was attracted to a great feast given for that
purpose by a friendly Indian, to embark his troops, and
convey them to Montreal. t

The French felt themselves too weak to reject proposals
for peace, though often made with mortifying haughti-
ness. The Viscount d'Argenson, who went out in 1658,
considered it necessary to accept their terms, especially
as the utmost cruelties were otherwise threatened to the
captives. Yet even by these means his countrymen
scarcely obtained any degree of the expected repose. This
disappointment arose either from deliberate treachery,
or the impossibility of confining in one course the va-
rious unruly elements of which the confederacy con-
sisted. The most amicable professions hardly procured
a respite from hostility ; for while one party treated,
another attacked : " Peace, it is said, is proclaimed at
Montreal, while war rages at Trois Rivieres; we are
daily attacked and murdered by those who call them-

* Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans IGjj, 1050, p. 18-20;
ans 16(50, 1 661, |i.:i3-40.

T Charlevoix m Heriot, pp. 74, 81.86.

(11

UNDER THE FRENCH.

139

solves our fricndH." At len<;tli, in 100.% it was an-
iiouucod that a j^raiul (Icputatioii was comiii*,' from all
tile cantons, with the professed intention to unite the
whole earth, and to bury the hatchet ho deep, that it
mli^lit never a^niin he dujj; up ; and they hroui-ht with
them a hundred collars of wampum. Unhappily a i)arty
of Alj(()n(piins, stuni»; hy accumulated wrongs, deter-
mined to violate even the sticred character of such a
mission ; and having formed an amhuscade, they sur-
prised and killed the greater ])art of them. All i)rospcct3
of peace were thus blasted, and war raged with greater
fury than ever.*

The [ro(piois, during this period, continually extend-
ed their dominion. Having seen the powerful effect of
firearms, they procured them from the Dutch at Man-
hatti, and thus acquired an additional superiority over
the neighbouring tri'oes. Tliey attacked the Ottawas, on
account ot" the shelter affordecl to their fugitive enemies.
That ])eople did not make even an attempt at resistance,
but sought refuge amid marshes or in the islands on
Lake Huron, while others penetrated far south-west into
the valley of the IVIississippi, where they formed a junc-
tion with the Sioux. On the same ground the Iroquois
oommenced a desperate war with the nation of tlie
Eriez, — a name in their language signifying Cats. After
a somewhat hard struggle, they completely succeeded ;
seven hundred of them stormed the main fortress of
the enemy, though defended by 2000 men ; and the
survivors were either incorporated with the victors,
or lied into remoter regions. This once powerful nation
has left no memorial of its existence except the great
lake which bears its name. It is reckoned that the con-
querors held undisputed sway over a country five hun-
dred miles in circuit. The very sight of one of them
struck terror into the neighbouring tribes ; and on the
side of New England, the cry of " A Mohawk !" echoed

" Missions en la Nouvelle France, ans 16<I0, lft61, p. 12-26
ans mSj lt)i)4, p. IGO, &c. Heriot, pp. 87, 94, 95.

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HISTORY OF CANADA

from hill to hill, causing general consternation and
flight.*

Amid this series of disastrous events, the French go-
vernors, whether from weakness or pusillanimity, heheld
the destruction of their allies and the complete ascend-
ency of this hostile power, without any attempt to prevent
either. They did not even goto war, but thought it enough
to keep the colonists sliut up hi fortified posts, which
tlie enemy had not skill to besiege ; and nothing else pre-
vented them from speedily destroying these settlements,
theenvirons of which they daily insulted. They even made
a descent upon the Isle of Orleans, where they surprised
a party of ninety Hurons ; and having killed six, bound
the rest, and made them sing m front of Quebec, thus
openly defying the governor. M. Maisonneuve, appre-
hensive for Montreal, and unable otherwise to procure
aid, repaired to France, where, by earnest solicitation,
he obtained a reinforcement of a hundred men. The
Hurons, under European protection, in a moment of
despondency, had made an offer of uniting themselves to
tlie Iroquois, wdiich, as usual, was readily accepted ; but
the former soon repented. That proud nation then sent
tliirty deputies to remonstrate, not only with them, Init
with the governor-general, M. de Lauson. To him they
said, " Lift up thy arm, Ononthio, and allow thy chil-
dren, whom thou boldest pressed to thy bosom, to de-
part ; for if they are guilty of any imprudence, thou hast
reason to fear, lest in coming to chastise them, my
blows fall on thy head." They even demanded canoes
to convey these reluctant associates. Lauson, instead
of resenting this haughty address, caused them to be
informed, that if the Hurons were inclined to go, lie
would not oppose their departure ; that he had no
canoes, but they might construct as many as they
wanted. After this, considering that no option was
left them, except to which of the five nations they

i 'fH^>

• Heriot, p. 73-77. Missions, ans lfi5!>, Um, p. 33-35. tolden's
History of the Five Nations, vol. i. pp. 3, 4.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

141

should unite themselves, the greater part in consequence
left the island.*

Amid these external evils, the colony was farther
visited by a terrible convulsion of nature. A succession
of earthquakes, which commenced on the 5th February
1663, were felt for half a year with little intermission
throughout all Canada, recurring two or three times
every day, agitating both the earth and the waters,
and spreading universal alarm ; yet, as they did not
inflict any permanent injury, nor cause the loss of
a single life, the accounts given of them are probably
much exaggerated. t

Meantime the most urgent representations were made
to Louis XIV. that his government was totally neglect-
ing one of the finest countries in the world, and expos-
ing the French name to contempt, by allowmg it to be
trampled upon by a handful of savages. That prince,
who had recently assumed the reins of power, being eager-
ly bent upon every means of aggrandizement, was not
likely to overlook one so considerable. He was seconded
by his minister Colbert, who had specially devoted his
thoughts to the extension of commerce ; and it was there-
fore immediately resolved to take steps for raismg Canada
to lier due importance. Four hundred troops were ordered
thither ; and M. de Monts was appointed commissioner to
examine into and regulate the different branches of ad-
ministration. The governor had hitherto exercised in
person, and without control, all its functions ; but there
was now united with him a council of royal appoint-
ment, and an intendant, to whom were intrusted the
weighty concerns of justice, police, finance, and marme.

This new system did not at first work altogether
smoothly, nor did the independent materials of which it
was composed well harmonize. M. de Mesy, the gover-
nor, after having sent back to France two of the princi-
pal members of council, was himself recalled. The

• Heriot, pp. 7.^, 75, 7H-»2.

t Ibid. pp. yU-102. Missions, an 10G3, pp. 17, 18.

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142

HISTORY OF CANADA

court, however, persevered in its determination to raise
the new colony to a proper rank. The associates who
had so long neglected it, and were unwilling to involve
themselves in a large outlay with uncertain returns, re-
signed their privileges into the hands of the crown ; and
government, according to the unvarying system of that
age, placed it in the hands of the West India Company,
though it retained for some time the administration of
its affairs.*

In pursuance of these views, the Marquis de Tracy
was sent out in 1665 under the joint character of vice-
roy and lieutenant-general, and thus invested with un-
controlled power. Along with him, in addition to the
former detachment, was despatched the entire regiment
of Carignan-Salieres, for some time employed in Hun-
gary against the Turks, where it had acquired a high
reputation. A considerable number of settlers, including
artisans, with horses and cattle, formed an accession to
the colony exceeding the amount of its actual members.

The new viceroy lost no time in taking measures for
checking the insolence of the Iroquois, and establishing
a supremacy over these proud savages. He began by
erecting three foils on the river Richelieu, in a situa-
tion fitted to cover the French territory from their in-
cursions. Overawed by these movements, and by the
report of his large force, three of the cantons sent depu-
ties with ample professions of friendship, proposing an
exchange of all the prisoners taken on both sides since
the last treaty. The viceroy was pleased with their de-
portment, and agreed to the terms. The fierce Oneydas
and Mohawks, however, still kept aloof; and a party of
the latter even killed three ofiicers, one of whom, De
Chasy, was nephew to the viceroy. But as two corps
were advancing into their territory, an envoy from each
nation soon appeared at Quebec, professing to negotiate
for peace. They were well received, and invited to the
governor's table, when the conversation happening to

• Charlevoix in Heriot, pp. 97, 103-112.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

143

fall on De Chasy's death, the Mohawk, in a paroxysm
of savage pride, lifted his arm, saying, " With this
hand tliat young officer was slain." Tracy, in a trans-
port of rage, told him he should never live to kill
another Fren(;hman, and ordered him to be immediately
strangled ; while the other deputy was detained a pri-

soner.

This event put an end to all pacific overtures. De
Courcelles had already begun his march into the Mo-
hawk dominions ; but as it was the depth of winter, the
excessive cold, together with the wary conduct adopted
by the enemy, prevented liim from effecting much. On
his return he found the viceroy ready to take the field,
with an expedition on a greater scale, in which 600 of
the Carignan regiment were employed. He detained,
Avithout listening to them, two new ambassadors, and,
rr»t withstanding his advanced age, resolved to command
ii; -son. In spite of every precaution, the Indians had
'id notice of his approach, and, abandoning their
villages, they left liim to march through a desolate
country. He found, however, an abundance of grain
buried near their deserted abodes, which enabled him to
subsist his troops till he reached the extreme frontier,
where he found the Indians assembled on a spot whither
they had not expected him to penetrate. On discovering
the French they attempted no resistance, but fled with
precipitation into still more remote and less accessible
retreats ; and as the viceroy could not attempt to occupy
this extensive territory, he found it necessary to return,
without striking any decisive blow.

Though this expedition had not fully answered its
object, yet the awe which it inspired, added to the
protection of the forts, secured the colony in a great
degree from the inroad of these fierce marauders. It
enjoyed a long tnmquillity, and began even to assume
a flourishing and cultivated appearance. Most of the
regiment of Carignan, both officers and soldiers, settled

• Heriot, p. 113-116.

'Wm ' am

B.I :t ^Wtr ■ I r

144

HISTORY OF CANADA

! i. ::

' I •( ri!

in the country, where they received liberal grants
of land. As many of the foraier belonged to families
of rank, they rendered society more polished than was
usual in transatlantic communities, though they intro-
duced the feudal laws and usages at that time common
in Europe. Considerable inconvenience having arisen
from the scattered manner in whicli a greri part of the
lands had been bi-ought into cultivation, an attempt was
made to concentrate them ; but the amount of labour
and property already invested rendered this to a great
extent impracticable.*

M. de Courcellcs, who succeeded Tracy in 1C67, is
accused of some faults in the internal administration ;
but in his conduct towards the Indians, wliicli formed
the most important and difficult branch, he dis])layed a
ha2)py union of firmness and address. He even suc-
ceeded, though not without difiiculty and some indig-
nation on their part, in preventing his savage allies
from engaging in war against the Iroquois. He availed
liimself of this auspicious interval to extend the power
of France to the interior of Canada and the upper
]ydi'ts of the St Lawrence. Two Jesuits, Perrot and
Marquette, were emjdoyed to survey those districts.
The latter induced a large body of the Hurons to settle
at Michillimakinac, on an island in the river, between
the great lakes Huron and Michigan, a situation very
favourable for the fur-trade. Agreeably to the reports
transmitted to him, the governor fixed upon Cataraqui,
on Lake Ontario, near the present site of Kingston, as an
advantageous point hoih. for the protection of the trade
and for holding the Five Nations in awe. He visited
the spot, and having procured a meeting of the savage
chiefs, obtained their consent to the measure, carefully
concealing, of course, the most important object con-
templated in its erection.

Courcelles had requested his recall, and on his return
to Quebec in 1672 found his place supplied by Louis,

• Heriot, p. 120-125.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

145

■^'!

Count de Frontenac, who was destined to act a most im-
portant part in the history of Canada. He was able, en-
terprising, active, and ambitious, but proud, overbearing,
and subject to capricious jealousies and enmities. He
entered, however, cordially into the views of his prede-
cessor in regard to the fort at Cataraqui, which he
inmiediately caused to be established ; and it has often
from him been called Fort Frontenac. At the same
time he set on foot, or actively promoted, vast projects
for exploring the interior regions of America.*

Although this leader conducted the affairs of the
colony with spirit and energy, his domineering temper
could not brook the checks by which a jealous court
sought to limit his jurisdiction. It was enjoined that
all affairs of importance should be decided in a council
composed of himself, the bishop, and the intendant, each
with an equal vote. The prelate was supported by a
numerous body of clergy, many of whom were connected
with powerful families at home, and were accused of
wishing to obtam the supreme direction of affairs.
Their influence was laudably exerted in opposing the
sale of spirits to the savages, which produced most per-
nicious effects, but which the count considered as at once
extremely profitable, and a means of attaching them to
the French interest. The government, on carefully con-
sidering the opposite statements, decided according to the
opinion of the clergy, and strictly prohibited the traffic.
But the count had still more violent dissensions with the
intendant, M. Chesneau, who was not only a member of
the council, but authorized to act as its president ; and
being considered a man of a mild temper, the chief blanic
was thrown on the governor. As it was found impos-
sible for them to act toj^;e{:hcr, the court determined to
recall both ; and M. de la Barre, accordingly, in 1G82, was
sent out as the new viceroy.t

Canada was then in a critical situation, which ren-
dered it ill able to sustain the want of a vigorous

• Heriot, p. 123-140.
VOL. I.

I i

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t Ibid. pp. 146-149, 160, 161.

i I

146

HISTORY OF CANADA

i : !

administration. The fine territory on the Hudson, at
first occupied by the Dutch under the title of New
Belgium, was subsequently claimed, and, after several
contests, secured by the English, who named it New
York. Here, according to European ideas, they held
the Iroquois country as included within their domi-
nion ; and though this pretension could not be yet
declared, they endeavoured with success to court that
people, and alienate them from the French. Their
merchants, carrying on a free trade, while that of
their rivals was fettered by an exclusive company, dealt
with the tribes on more advantageous terms. The
Iroquois, therefore, found it their interest, not only to
carry all their furs to the English market, but to buy
up those of the savages in alliance with France. Heavy
complaints were made by that power ; but the Indians,
assured of British support, treated them with great in-
difference ; and that shrewd race soon discovered, in the
eager competition between these two European na-
tions, the means of rendering their own position more
secure and imposing. The military strength of the
colony, too, was greatly reduced ; the troops who had
gone out with De Tracy, having had lands assigned to
them, were become proprietors and cultivators rather
than soldiers ; and though they held their tenures on
the condition of military service, they could not be
called out without interrupting the agriculture of the
country, and endangering its subsistence.

M. de la Barre, however, determined upon war, and,
having obtained a reinforcement of 200 men, advanced
up the river. He was met at Montreal by deputies from
the cantons, who made strong professions of friendsliip ;
but these he considered vague and unworthy of credit,
and was confirmed in this opinion when soon after a
party of fourteen of his countrymen were attacked anil
plundered.* He endeavoured, however, to divide the
strength of these fierce tribes, by sending belts of peace

• Heriot, pp. 162.U;8, 174, 175.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

147

to three of tliem, and directing all his force against the
Senekas, whom he considered the most hostile, and also,
we suspect, because it was through their territory that
the English penetrated to the fur-trade on the lakes.
This hope was quite illusory in regard to the members
of so politic a confederation. In proceeding upwards,
he received notice that deputies from the other tribes
were coming to mediate a peace between him and their
neighbours ; that in case of refusal, they were deter-
mined to make common cause with them ; and, in the
event of this alternative, they had received ample as-
surances of support from New York. The difficulties of
the French commander were greatly increased by sick-
ness, which, in consequence of the bad quality of the pro-
visions, had broken out in his army. Yet when the
deputies met him on the northern shore of Lake Ontario,
he assumed a lofty tone. He complained of their inroads
into the country of the Illinois and other tribes in alliance
with France ; of their outrages against the traders of that
nation ; and particularly of their having conducted the
English to the lakes, and enabled tliem to supplant
the commerce of his countrymen. He concluded by
stating that unless reparation were made for these in-
juries, with a promise to abstain from them in future,
war and the devastation of their country must be the
immediate consequence. The deputies very coolly re-
plied, that Ononthio appeared to speak like one in a
dream ; and that if he would open his eyes, he would see
himself wholly destitute of the means to execute these
formidable threats. They defended their right to make
war upon any Indian nations by whom they conceived
themselves aggrieved ; adding that the French party
were attacked by them because they were conveying arms
to their enemies. As to the English, they had allowed
them to pass through their lands, on the same principle
that they had given permission to his people, and
would continue to do so. They were afraid lest the
great number of warriors here present, if they proceeded
to Cataraqui, should trample down the tree of peace

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148

HISTORY OF CANADA

there so happily planted. They were still willing to
dance the calumet-dance under the shadow of its branches,
and to leave the hatchet buried, unless the country
granted to them by the Great Spirit should be attacked.
The Onondago deputies guaranteed reparation for any
actual plunder inflicted on French traders, but added
that no more could be conceded, and that the army must
be immediately withdrawn. However humiliating these
terms were, after such lofty threats and preparations,
De lit, Barre had no choice but to comply.* The
English, on the other hand, reproached the Iroquois
for not having prosecuted the war, and in terms which
seemed to indicate a right to direct their movements.
They replied, however, in the same determined man-
ner : " Ononthio," siiid they, " is our father, and Cor-
laer (as they called the Governor of New York) our
brother ; but neither of them is our master. He who
created the world gave us the land which we occupy ;
we are free ; we respect both ; but neither has a right
to command us ; and no person ought to take offence
that we prevent the earth from being troubled." On
another occasion, they said, " Brother Corlaer, we tell
you, that we shall bind a covenant chain to our arm
and to his as thick as that post."+ We cannot forbear
remarking, that in this whole transaction the savages
appear to great advantage compared both with their
European allies and enemies.

De la Barre, on arriving at Quebec, received de-
spatches which placed him greatly at fault. A fresh rein-
forcement had been landed, and the letters from court
intimated the full expectation that he was carrying
on a triumphant war with the Five Nations. On
this supposition, the king made an absurd and cruel re-
quest, that he would send a number of Iroquois pri-
soners to man his galleys. We may then imagine the
dissatisfaction felt at home when the real issue of the
campaign was reported. The governor was immediately

* Heriot, p. 170-189. f Ibid. p. 179-180. Golden, vol. i. p. 6(5.

1 ^If

UNDER THE FRENCH.

]49

pronounced unfit for his situation, and was superseded
in 1685 by the Marquis de Denonville, distinguished as
a brave and active officer.

This commander on his arrival made some professions
of a wish to maintain peace ; though he must have under-
stood that a quite ojipositc course was really expected of
him. After giving what he professed to consider a fair trial,
he soon declared his conviction that the Iroquois could
never he conciliated, and that it was a matter of political
necessity either to extirpate or reduce them to entire
dependence. He proposed also to erect a strong fort at
Niagara, both to hold them in check and also to pre-
vent tlieir introducing the English to the fur-trade on
the lakes. He opened his campaign with a measure
the most iniquitous and unjustifiable that can well be
conceived. Having, under various pretexts, allured a
number of chiefs to meet him on the banks of Lake
Ontario, he suddenly put them in irons, and sent them
off to France, to fulfil the king's absurd scheme with
regard to the manning of his galleys. He had not
scrupled to employ two missionaries in this base stra-
tagem ; but the Indians believing them to be uncon-
scious instruments of the crime, generously spared them
both.* .

There could now be nothing on either side but war
to the utmost extremity. Denonville was fully pre-
pared for it, and had 800 French regulars, with 1800
Canadians and savages, ready to advance into the Senelca
country, with the resolution, it is said, of putting all to
the sword. On approachmg the first village, they were
suddenly attacked in front and rear by 800 of the enemy,
and it was most mortifying to the French to find them-
selves thrown into a good deal of confusion, and to see
the battle retrieved by their undisciplined allies. The
Iroquois, being repulsed, did not again make their ap-
pearance in the field. The conqueror marched for ten
days through vast woods, burning and destroying the

* Heriot, pp. 190-194, 208, 209.

if]

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150

HISTORY OF CANADA

grain and provisions, but not meeting a single enemy.
A doul)t respecting the fidelity of his allies, and, as we
suspect, the exhausted stjite of his general ecjuipment,
then mduced him to retire. He carried into execution,
however, his plan of erecting and garrisoning a fort at
Niagara.

Notwithstanding the semblance of success in this expe-
dition, it appeared, on the retreat of the invaders, tliat
the Iroquois were complete masters of the upper course
of the St Lawrence. They blockaded the two forts of Nia-
gara and Cataracpii, the former of which they reduced
and rased to the ground. They covered Lake Ontario
with their canoes. The native allies of the French, seebig
no prospect of assistance from them, began to waver ;
nor is it doubted that, if the savages had understood
tlie art of siege, they would have rooted the Europeans
entirely out of Canada. As it was, they determined on
tlie course, which, it must be owned, they had often
shown themselves very ready to embrace, of making
proposals of peace. Deputies arrived at Montreal, leav-
ing at two days' march behind a corps of 1200 of their
countrymen, ready for immediate action. They boasted
to the governor of their commanding position, and, insist-
ing u})on the restoration of the chiefs unjustly seized
and of all other captives, allowed him only four days to
accept the offer, otherwise the whole country would be
in flames. The deepest consternation prevailed at Mont-
real ; and Denonville saw himself under the necessity
of accepting these humiliating terms, and requesting
Imck from France the chiefs whom he had iniquitously
sent thither.*

This treaty was interrupted by an unexpected act of
treachery. The Hurons had entered into the war on the
full understanding that it should not terminate till the
Iroquois were destroyed or completely humbled. They
dreaded now that they might be left defenceless, and have
to sustain the attacks of that potent tribe ; an issue which

• Heriot, p. 212-219. Colden, p. 93. La Potherie, vol. ii. pp. 207,
208,

UNDER THE FRENCH.

151

thoir principal chief, the Rat, took a most savage means
of ttvcriing. Having learned t!iat a Innly of their de-
puties were to land at the cascades of St Lawrence on their
way to Montreal, he and a party of his countrymen lay
in ambush, and killed or ca])tured them as they succes-
sively disembarked. He then informed the prisoners
that this crime had been committed at the instigation
of the governor, who had even practised a decep-
tion to induce him to commit it, and pretending to be
shocked at the treachery into which he had been seduced,
he sent them home. It is easy to conceive the indigna-
tion of the cantons at this intelligence ; and though
Dcnonville disavowed, in the strongest terms, the alle-
gations of the Rat, the flame once kindled could not be
fully quenched. The Hurons were also encouraged by
the hope of gaining over the allies of the French, wlu>,
seeing that people no longer able to protect them, were
all disposed to make terms witli the party which now
appeared the strongest. The Iroquois made a sudden
descent on the island of Montreal, which they laid waste
with fire and sword, carrying off 200 prisoners, without
having experienced any resistance. The fort at Cata-
raqui, like that at Niagara, was blown up and aban-
doned.

In this extremity, when the very existence of the
colony was threatened, it was judged indispensable to
place at its head an officer possesshig energy of cha-
racter, and address in dealing with the savages. These
qualities were united in the Count de Frontenac, who,
during his former administration, had made himsi If both
beloved and feared by all those nations ; and experi-
ence, it was hoped, would teach him to avoid the errors
which had led to his recall. The count took out with
him the captive chiefs whom his predecessor had so
unjustly seized ; and so fascinating were his manners,
that he completely gained their favour, — Oureouhare,
the principal one, remainmg ever after most strongly
attached to him.

Frontenac, on his arrival in 1689, endeavoured

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IIISTORV OF CANADA

to open a nop^otiation with the Iroquois, whom ho
cntcrtaiiipd Siin^^iiuc hopes of conciliating. By the
advice of Onreouhar^, he sent a deputy of that nation
whom he found at Montreal, with four of his ca[)tive
countrymen, to announce to the cantons liis return, and
Ills wish to resume amicahle relations. Tiie friendly
chief transmitted a messiige, reciuesting them to send an
omhassy to their ancient father, from whom they would
experience much tendcirness and esteem, and wliom he
would not (juit till the affair was »itisfactorily adjusted.

The council of the Iroquois, after some delihcratiou,
sent hack the same dej)uties with six belts, intimatin;^
their resolution. It was expressed in lofty and even
embittered terms. Choosing? to consider Ononthio as
always one and the same, they complained that his rods
of correction had been too sharp jmd cutting. The
roots of the tree of peace which he had planted at Fort
Frontenac had l)een withered by blood ; the ground Jiad
been polluted with treachery and falsehood. They de-
manded atonement for these injuries, and that Oureou-
hare, with his captive companions, should be sent back,
previous to the liberation of the French prisoners.
Ononthio would then be at liberty to plant again the
" tree of peace, but not on the same spot." Tiiis answer
was I'egarded by Frontenac as very unstitisfaetory ; y(^t
anxious to keep open the negotiation, he sent an
officer with eight belts from Ourcouhare, imjjorting
that they should detach themselves from the English
€ind Dutch, and unite in close alliance with France. Till
then that chief declined returning to his canton."'

Two circumstimces emboldened the Iroquois to assume
this high tone. In consequence of the revolution of
1688, when the cause of blames II. was embraced by the
French monarch, the two kingdoms were now at open
war ; and the Five Nations could depend upon the cor-r
dial co-operation both of the English and the Dutch. At
the same time, they were engaged in a treaty with the

• Heriot, p. 220-236.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

153

Ottftwaa and oth( r tribes, who, besides beinj? anxious
to have a hotter market for their furs, e()m[)lained that
tlie aliianee of tiie Freneh was only a bunk-n to them,
as they found it neeessary to protect tiiem instead of
enjoyin<( their protection. In tiiis crisis, the count feeling
a stroiijj: inducement to do somethinij^ to retrieve the repu-
tation of hiscountry, resolved to striiveth(!firstl)lo\v against
the ICnglish, on whose support the enemy so strongly
relied. An expe^iition was fitted out at Quebec in 1(500
against Corlaeror Schenectady, the frontier town of New
York, and from which the Indians gave name to the i*o-
venior. This party, composed of 1 10 V\ onch and a nuri-
bcr of savages, succeeded completely It 8ur])riHing tiie
r.lace. They found the gates open, and encounter. 'd re-
sistance only at one point, where it was soon overcome.
The fort and every house were pillaged and buifit, Th'
English accounts add, that all the horrors of Tnf'">,a
warfare were let loose on the defenceless inlviljjtanis ;
that sixty-three men, women, and chihlren -vi. ; mas-
sacred in cold blood, and a small remnant ciiried away
as prisoners. The victors, on their return, suffered
severely from want of food, being obliged to kil^ almost
all their horses. The Iroquois were not intimidated nor
estranged from the English by this catastrophe; , on the
contrary, they sent to the survivors a number of belts,
importing that they felt and would avenge the wrong, as if
done to themselves. Not a man in Canada should dare to
go out to cut a stick. " We are," said they, " of the race
of the bear, and a bear you kno^v .• ver yields while a
drop of his blood is left." One belt, importing eye-
water to make their sight sharp, delicately intimated
the necessity of greater prccation in future. Others
were to wipe away theii „ears, and assure them that
" the sun, which had been cloudy, and sent this disaster,
would shine again with his pleasant beams."*

Meantime, a smaller expedition from Trois Rivieres
succeeded in surprising and destroying an English village
' >f ■ ■ — '

• Heriot, p. 237-242. Colden, vol. i. p. 120-125.

,:-1

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'Uriff

M:'!

154

HISTORY OF CANADA

named Sementels. The count also sent M. de Louvigny,
with a large detachment, to strengthen the remote post
of Michillimakinac, which had been maintained with
great difficulty. This service was effected, and a party
of the enemy, who attempted to sui-prise them, were
completely defeated. Notwithstanding this success, the
Iroquois maintained the same active hostility ; but a
favourable influence was produced on the old allies of
the French, who seeing them resume their former
energy, determined to prefer their support to that of
new and suspicious friends. The Ottawas owned that
they had made some progress in a negotiation, but as
soon as they heard of the return of their ancient father,
had determined to break it oiF. The Hurons, who had
not taken such open steps, denied having ever entered
into any treaty.*

Meantime, a storm was ready to burst, which threat-
ened the very existence of French power in America.
The English determined to strike a blow, which might
at once deprive the enemy of all his possessions. Two
expeditions were prepared, one by sea from Boston,
against Quebec, the other by land from New York,
against Montreal. The first was commanded by Sir
William Phipps, a native of New England, of humble
birth, who had raised himself by his talents to a high
station. Having sailed with thirty-four vessels of dif-
ferent sizes, and a large body of troops, he proceeded
with such activity that he had captured all the posts in
Acadia and Newfoundland, with several on the St Law-
rence, and was within a few days' sail of Quebec, before
the alarm spread thither, Frontenac, who was at Mon-
treal, hastened down to strengthen the defences, which
at that time consisted in a great measure of rude in-
trenchmcnts of timber and earth. On the morning of
the 16th October 1690, the fleet appeared in view, and
an officer came with a summons, which was peremptorily
rejected. Sir William took no active measure till mid-

f • (I

• Heriot, pp. 243-248, 249, 250.

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UNDER THE FRENCH.

155

(lay on the 18th, — a remissness which was much blamed.
He then landed 1500 men on the banks of the river
St Charles. The French could muster only 300 irre-
gulars ; but these, posting themselves among rocks and
l)iishes, with which the marshy ground was covered,
kept up a constant fire, that caused great loss to their
enemy. Before night, however, they retreated into the
town, leaving the assiilants masters of the field. In the
evening, the large vessels anchored in front of the city, .
jind opened a brisk fire ; but being directed against the
upper part, it produced little effect. It was renewed
on the following day, and continued till noon, but was
equally fruitless, while the ships sustained considerable
damage. The squadron was then moved up the river,
beyond Cape Diamond. On the same day, the troops
continued to advance, though slowly, and harassed by
constant attacks. Phipps, whose only hope was now
fiom land-batteries, sent on shore six pieces of ordnance,
and next day endeavoured again to push forward with
his men. The militia, however, with increased numbers
and activity, harassed them, and at length, covered
by some palisades, kept up so brisk a fire as to arrest
their progress. The English commander at this stage
considering the enterprise hopeless, embarked his soldiers
on the 22d, submitting at the same time to the mortify-
ing necessity of leaving his cannon and ammunition.
Golden considers it certain, that had he at once made a
vigorous attack on the body of the place, he would have
easily carried it. The French, he says, returned fervent
thanks to Providence for having, by a special interposi-
tion, deprived their enemies of common sense.*

The expedition against Montreal did not take place at
the appointed time, owing to a want of concert between
the parties. Next year, however (1091 ), after some desul-
tory ravages by the Iroquois, news arrived that they, with
their English and native allies, were advancing along the
river Sorel. The command at Montreal was then held

* Heriot, p. 255-262. Golden, vol. i. pp. 137, 13a.

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HISTORY OF CANADA

by Be Callieres, a very able officer, who bad gained the
respect and attachment of his savage neighbours. It is
said, that on this and other high occasions, he danced
T^ath them the war-dance, brandishing the hatchet,
shouting and hallooing in their national manner. In
addition to his countrymen, he had assembled about 800
Indians at the Prairie de la Magdeleine, near the town.
Still the Iroquois, by their rapid movements and skill in
ambuscade, succeeded in surprising several of the ad-
vanced posts, and carrying off a considerable number of
prisoners. But when the force on both sides was fully
mustered, the assailants, though after a very hard con-
test, were obliged to retreat.

After these successes, the governor felt himself in a
very commanding position, and no longer entertained
any fear for the safety of the colony. Yet the Iroquois,
under a favourite chief named the Black Cauldron, con-
tinued to make sudden inroads in every direction, render-
ing seedtime and harvest alike precarious, and exposing
every one who stirred out of the forts to the hazard of
losing his life. It was their boast, that their enemies
should have no rest except in the grave. In this de-
sultory contest, the advantage was usually on their side ;
and though a French detachment penetrated into the
canton of the Mohawks, they were obliged to return
without gaining any decisive advantage.*

The Iroquois, however, in the beginning of 1694,
began to show a disposition towards peace. Two Onon-
dagoes came to Montreal, and asked De Callieres if
certain deputies, who were on their way, would be re-
ceive' 1. They were answered in the affirmative ; yet tAvo
months elapsed before they availed themselves of tliis
concession. In March there came only an apology from
the cliief, who was to have been at the head of the em-
bassy, and who threw the blame of the delay upon the
Knglish. A dark suspicion was now entertained, tliat
these missions were contrived with a most treacherous

* Heriot, p. 266-278. Golden, vol. i. p. 139-142.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

157

design, — to stab the governor and M. de Callieres in
public council, while a large body concealed in ambush
should take advantage of the confusion. Nothing ever
occurred that could seem to justify this horrid appre-
hension, so little consistent with iii^ cold and tardy man-
ner in which the proposals w^re made. The truth
appears to be, that two parties divided the councils of
the savages. One, supported by our countrymen, and
relying on their promises, eagerly urged the prosecu-
tion of the war. But the other, seconded by the " pray-
ing Indians," or the converts made by the missionaries,
represented that the nation was wasting itself in a fruit-
less warfare ; that the British made large promises, and
put them on bold enterprises, but did nothing to sup-
port them ; that, in short, they were lavish of American
blood, but sparing of their own. A vacillating policy
resulted from this conflict. However, in May, the chief
arrived with eight deputies, and was well received by the
governor, notwithstanding his want of confidence. This
was the season of sowing, during the continuance of which
a truce was extremely convenient. They expressed the
most friendly disposition, and even solicited the resto-
ration of the fort of Cataraqui, — a request which Fron-
tenac little expected, but was quite disposed to grant.
Oureouhare went with these deputies, and returned in
the company of others, bringing also thirteen French-
men, several of whom were persons of distinction, who
had been long held in captivity. They came, however,
only from two cantons, and though the first belt, relating
to the prisoners, was conceived in friendly terms, the ex-
position of the others was obscure and unsatisfactory ; and
all attempt to obtain a proper explanation proved fruitless.
It tvanspired, however, that the English interest was
powerfully exerted against peace ; and all that was at
present contemplated was " to suspend the hatchet."
The county though courteously, rejected ill the belts
except the first, declaring, that he wished to chastise
them only s a father does his children ; but that, unless

,1 y>

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158

HISTORY OF CANADA

more friendly sentiments were entertained, he could not
long withhold the intended blow.*

Affairs continued for some time in this uncertain
state, the enemy making repeated proposals, to which
little credit was attached ; while the governor, not
having yet sufficient force to open the campaign in an
imposing manner, against a people who could muster
3000 warriors, was not unwilling to have a pretext for
delay. Instead, however, of showing a more friendly
temper, the deputies began to assume a loftier tone,
demanding that he should send envoys to their villages,
and should cease at once all hostilities against them
and the English. It was also understood that various
attempts were made on their part to detach the allies,
not without some prospect of success. The count,
therefore, considered it indispensable to proceed to some
measure which might impress the savages with an ade-
quate idea of his power. The prevailing opinion was,
that he ought at once to march his whole force into the
heart of their territory ; but he preferred sending, in
the first instance, an expedition to re-establish the fort
of Cataraqui. This service was eflFected with prompti-
tude, and almost without opposition. It did not,
however, stop the tendency to defection among his
confederates, who loudly complained of the disadvan-
tageous terms on Avhich the French trnders dealt with
them, when compared with those obtained from the
British through tlie Five Nations. The lead was taken
by a Huron chief, named the Baron, who concluded a
treaty, not only comprehending his own adherents, but
even embracing the Ottawas ; all of whom promised to
desert the French, and unite with their mortal enemies.
Yet La Motte Cadillac, commander at Michillimakinac,
by impressing on them with great address a dread of his
sovereign's power, contrived to change the resolution oi
these fickle tribes. They were even guilty of a counter-
treachery, attacking a party of the Iroquois, who had

• Heriot, p. 282-288.

UNDER THF FRENCH.

159

joined them, and defeating them with great loss.* These
proceedings, however, were felt by the governor as
strongly calling for some vigorous steps to restore
the reputation of his arms ; and this could only be
effected by carrying war on a great scale into the ene-
my's country. As this resolution, however, was formed
iu the autumn its execution was delayed till the fol-
lowing summer, De Callieres being convhiced that the
anny could not, without much suffering, march amid frost
and snow into those desolate regions. He listened to a
plan for sending a detachment during the winter into the
canton of the Mohawks ; but it was soon understood
that, through the aid of the English, they had placed
themselves beyond the hazard of being overwhelmed by
any sudden attack. An attempt to surprise hunting-
parties, who crossed the St Lawrence in spring, was
attended with only partial success.

It was not till the month of June 1696 that operations
could be regularly commenced. At that period all the
forces which could be mustered, regulars, militia, and
Indians, were marched upon Cataraqui, and thence into
the canton of Onondago. Great difficult}^ was found in
conveying the army and baggage in batteaux along rapid
streams ; and on one occasion the greater part had nearly
been carried down an impetuous waterfal. On entering
a lake, they discovered, suspended to a tree, two bundles
of rashes, which intimated that 1434 warriors were wait-
ing to engage them. They therefore sailed across, and
formed themselves in regular order of battle. A fort,
was constructed to serve as a magazine and place of re-
treat, and the troops then cautiously began their march
into the heart of those savage regions. De Callieres com-
manded the left wing ; the Chevalier de Vaudreuil the
right ; while the count, then seventy-six years of age,
was carried in the centre in an elbow-chair. The host
of the Five Nations, however, did not appear ; and, on
reaching their principal fortress, it was found reduced to

; If

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• Heriot, pp. 2\}% 291-298, 305-308.
6

160

HISTORY OF CANADA

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iishes, while two Frenchmen, long- cletainecl there, had
heen recently massacred. This excited surprise, as the
fort had heen carefully constructed by the En^'^lish, in a
regular form, with a double palisade, and strengthened
by bastions and redoubts. It soon, however, became
evident that the cantons had detennined to adopt the
same policy as on former occasions, of allowing the
enemy to march unresisted through their territory, sa-
tisfied that they would never be able to form any per-
manent establishment. Several prisoners escaped ; but
the invaders could only overtake one Indian, nearly a
hundred years old, wbo was barbarously given up to the
allied savages to be tortured. It was a dreadful spec-
tacle to see more than four hundred men venting their
i-age on this venerable and infirm warrior, who endured
all they could inflict upon him with unshaken fortitude,
deriding his adversaries as slaves to a contemptible race
o-f foreigners.*

After the Onondago canton had been thus overrun,
the Oneidas sent deputies ; but Frontenac, under present
circumstances, would accept nothmg short of uncondi-
tional submission. Do Vaudreuil marched into their
territory, and laid it waste. It had been determined in
council to advance, and treat the Cayugas in a similar
manner ; but the count, influenced probably by the ex-
hausted state of his armament, resolved uj^on returning
to Montreal. This conduct is much censured by the
French writers, wlio consider that operations might
have been carried further with great advantage. English
authors, on the contrary, consider the whole expedition
as an act of heroic folly, by which nothing was effected,
except the destruction of some grain and wooden cabin?.
The Iroquois presently rallied, and harassed the invaders
severely in their retreat ; nor did they afterwards cease
their incursions into the settlement till they found the
frontier so strongly guarded, that they could not carry
off^ any important plunder, t

• Hcriot, p. 309-321. La Potherie, vol. ill. pp. 207, 208.
t Ibid. p. 322-327. Golden, vol. i. pp. 197, ^02.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

161

The governor, meanwhile, had a difficult negotiation
with his own court, who had been persuaded that the.
advanced posts maintained in the upper parts of the
colony were of very little advantage, while they chiefly
caused the desolating wars in which it had been mvolved.
The traffic thither, in fact, was carried on very irregu-
larly by an adventurous but desperate race, called the
coureurs du hois. It was, besides, a strict monopoly,
being only allowed under licenses granted to old offi-
cers or favourites, who sold them for about 600 crowns
each to the merchants. The purchasers fitted out tlie
coureurs with canoes and merchandise, reaping profits
so ample, that the value of 8000 crowns was procured for
French goods worth only a thousand. The savages, by
their intercourse with the English, learning the extent to
which they were cheated, made incessant complaints ;
and it was therefore proposed to allow them to bring
their own furs and dispose of them at Montreal, while
the colonists should devote all their attention to the
cultivation of the soil. But the governor and other mem-
bers of the administration argued that this step would
throw the Indian allies entirely into the hands of the
Five Nations and the British ; adding that, while the
fur-trade would be entirely lost, a general confede-
racy of the tribes against France might be also dreaded.
They were probably influenced by the fear of sacrificing
their own power and patronage ; and they contrived so
to modify the injunctions from court, that they pro-
duced little practical effect *

The Iroquois continued the war with vigour, but
both they and the English met with repeated disasters,
which made them wish for peace. The Black Cauldron
himself, in a hunting expedition, was surprised and
killed by a party of Algonquins. Negotiations were
opened through Oureouhare, whose sudden death again
retarded them ; but their success was secured by tidings
that peace had been concluded in Europe between France

VOL. I.

* Heriot, pp. 200, 201, 334-336.

1G2

HISTORY OF CANADA

and Britain. The colonists of the latter power, who first
received the intelligence, sent n deputation to Quebec,
to propose an exchange of prisoners, both as respected
themselves and their allies. The count, however, pre-
ferred to negotiate separately with the cantons, and he
soon had the satisfaction to discover that, notwithstanding
the alliance which had so long united them to the English,
a deep jealousy was now fe]t lest that people, when no
longer obliged to court their aid, should endeavour to
enforce certain claims of sovereignty. He studiously
cherished this impression, hoping to improve it into a
friendship with his own countrymen. But in the midst
of these transactions he died, on the 29th November 1698,
leaving a high reputation for the energetic measures b^
which, with little aid from the mother-country, he had
retrieved the affairs of the settlement, and raised it into
a powerful and flourishing state. He was disinterested,
but ambitious, haughty, and jealous of his authority ;
qualities which created him many enemies, and consi-
derably obstructed his designs.*

De Callieres, who had already distinguished himself by
important services, was appointed his successor, and ad-
ministered affairs in a manner which gave entire satisfac-
tion. With more steadiness and prudence than the count,
he possessed nearly equal vigour and address. Much time
and many difficulties, however, still intervened before all
matters could be finally adjusted with the Iroquois, and
between them and the allies ; but at length, in 1700, a
pacification was eff^ected, and the numerous prisoners on
both sides were allowed to return. On this occasion,
there was witnessed a surprising and somewhat morti-
fying occurrence ; for, while the natives eagerly sought
their homes, the greater part of the French captives
were found to have contracted such an attachment to
the wild freedom of the woods, that neither the com-
mands of the king, nor the tears and entreaties of their
friends, could induce them to quit the savage associates

with whom they had united.

* Heriot, p. 337^51

UNDER THE FRENCH.

163

After peace had been thus established with their
enemies, the French were involved in a contest with
their allies. Bour^mont, governor of Detroit, had endea-
voured to unite the Ottawas with the Miamis in an
expedition into the interior of the continent ; but ani-
mosities had been for some time fermenting between
these tribes, aggravated by some imprudent and violeit
actions on his part. At length the fonner, instigated by
a leading chief named " the Heavy," commenced an
attack upon the latter, whom they pursued under tlie
caimon of the fort. The guns being opened upon them,
a contest ensued, in which two Frenchmen, one of whom
was a priest, were killed. The assailants then retired,
and an old chief came to the governor to make the most
humble apologies for this outrage, describing it as a mo-
meaitary ebullition, for which they could not themselves
account. The European lei der promised pardon, pro-
vided the savage, who had instigated them to this vio-
lejice, were delivered up. To this step they showed the
most extreme reluctance, even pretending that it was
out of their power ; but as the condition was held indis-
pensable, they at length produced the offender, though
with the most earnest entreaties for his pardon. This
was granted, though rather imprudently ; for the Mia-
mis, who had considered themselves fully entitled to
his head, raised a violent commotion, which it required
some force to put down.*

Scarcely had peace been thus concluded among the
savage tribes, with some hope of duration, when it was
lii-oken by their civilized neighbours. The succession of
Philip of Anjou to the throne of Spain gave rise to a
long and eventful contest between France and England.
It was begun by Louis XIV. in the height of his power,
and with every prospect of giving law to all Europe ;
instead of which, the exploits of Marlborough and
Eugene, the fields of Blenheim and Ramillies, reduced
him to the lowest condition, and at one time even

•• »— ■ . — . —

• Heriot, pp. 34S 3G2, 374-377, 380-384.

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164

HISTORY OP CANADA

seemed to place his crown in peril. In these disastrous
circumstances, the mother-country was ohliged to leave
her colonies to their own resources ; while England, elated
with repeated triumphs, conceived the bold design of em-
bracing within her territory the whole north of America.
The situation of Canada was rendered still more critical
by the death of De Callieres, her able governor, which
took place in May 1703, though he was succeeded by the
Count de Vaudreuil, who proved himself by no means
destitute of the qualities requisite for his high office.

The English now called upon their allies of the Five
Nations to renew hostilities against their old enemies ;
but these tribes were exceedingly unwilling to inter-
rupt their repose. They alleged that, when they con-
cluded a treaty, they did so with an intention to keep
it ; while the Europeans seemed to enter into such en-
gagements solely with the view of immediately breaking
them. One chief, with the mde freedom of his nation,
intimated his suspicion that the nations were both dnmk.
They did little, therefore, of themselves, or by their own
impulse ; and when called upon to join an expedition,
came slowly and reluctantly forward.

De Vaudreuil, in contemplation of a formidable at-
tack, sought to dissipate it by an offensive movement.
He sent out a detachment 200 strong, which, after a
long march, succeeded in storming and destroying a
frontier village named Hewreuil ; though while returning
they fell into an ambuscade. Thirty of their number
were killed ; but, having beaten off their assailants, the
remainder reached Montreal in safety.*

In May 1709, an individual named Vetch, who had
become intimately acquainted with the navigation of
the St Law^rence, laid before the cabinet of Queen Anne
a plan for the conquest of Canada. It being approved, he
was sent to New York, then called Manhattan, with
authority and resources supposed sufficient for its ac-
complishment. De Vaudreuil soon learned that 2000

• Heriot, pp. 3t)3, 364, 388, 397.

UNDER TUE FRENCH.

165

English had issued from the place just mentioned, and
tliat the8u were to be joined by an equal number of sa-
vages. Having mustered his troops, he at first thoup^ht
of carrying war again into the enemy's country ; but
after the march had begun, his allies objected, and lie
adopted the more prudent course of merely protecting
his frontier. The Britisli, after forming a chain of
posts from New York, had occupied in great force Lakes
George and Champlain, and were erecting forts, with a
view to cover their descent upon Canada. The Iroquois
had joined them according to promise ; but it appears
tliat a general council of the cantons was held at Onon-
dago, wlien one of their chief orators remarked, tlxat
thuir independence was only maintained by the mutual
jealousy of the two European nations, each of whom,
if they could, would lord it completely over them, and
that it was therefore highly imprudent to permit tlwj
English to conquer New France. These views were
considered accordant with tlie policy which had always
governed the cantons, and were immediately acted upon,
though the manner in which this was accompli§hed
does not very exactly appear. Our countrymen, however,
in consequence of this want of co-operation, and of
a pestilential disorder which broke out among their own
troops, abandoned the 'uterprise, burning their canoes,
and reducing their forts to ashes.*

Canada now enjoyed an interval of repose, though it
was understood that the enemy were making active
preparations for a fresh expedition, and sparing no pains
to secure the co-operation of the Five Nations. All
means of conciliation were therefore studiously employed,
and were so far successful as to obtain friendly profes-
sions from the Senekas and the Onondagoes, but from
thorn alone. At this time, however, the French were
involved in a desperate struggle in the upper territory,

* A report has generally prevailed that the Iroauois caused this
malady by throwing the skins of wild beasts into tne stream out of
which the English drank ; but we cannot think this a very probable

story.

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16(5

niRTORY OF CANADA

with a nation hitherto unheard of, oallcd tlic Outaganus
or Foxes. This they ascrihe to the machinations of their
ohl antagonists, who yet do not ap|)ear to have taken
any share in the contest, liy the aid of a large hody of
Indian allies, these j)eo|)le were reduced to the necessity
of hunihly soliciting tenns of peace, lint the suhjcets of
Louis were jjcrsuaded hy their savage auxiliaries to ]>usli
matters to the last extremity ; and after a fresh and
dreadful struggle, this unfortunate trihe was nearly ex-
terminated. The victors, notwithstanding, had reason to
rci)ent of their harbarous conduct, as the remnant of tlu^
defeated nation carried on against them a ceaseless and
haiassing warfare, and rendered insecure their commu-
nication with the settlements on the Mississippi.*

The English in I7l0 prepared a new and gi*eatcr
annament. General Nicholson arrived at Boston with
a considerable squadron ; and fresh forces were ex-
pected, whi(di, with those already in the colony, were
to be emi)loyed in two joint expeditions, by sea
against Quebec and by land against Montreal. Not-
withstanding every possible preparation, these tidings
excited deep apprehension, which continued unabated
till a report arrived, and proved ultimately correct, that
tlie invading squadron had been wrecked at the Seven
Islands, near the mouth of the St Lawrence. Several
barks having sailed thither, found the remains of eight
vessels, which having sti*uck upon the rocks, had been
abandoned, after being stripped of their cannon and
stores, A number of dead bodies scattered along the
shore attested this calamitous event. The commander,
impatient to proceed, and disregarding the warning of
an experienced pilot, had involved his araiament in this
disaster. General Nicholson had already taken the field,
but learning the loss of the fleet, and foreseeing that
the whole force of the enemy would now be turned
against him, he fell back upon New York.t

Though Canada had thus been twice delivered, in-
telligence was received that fresh preparations were

Heriot, p. 3U7-41U.

t Ibid. p. 399-404.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

107

mukinp:, nnd there was reason to iear that, if left without
aid, she wouhl at len<;tii he overvvhehned hy superior
IbreeH. The governor, liowuver, was relieved hy the in-
telligence that, in eonse(|uenec of a complete change of
ministry, the Kiiglish cal)inet had detennined to se-
parate from its allies, and had o])ened a negotiation
at Utrecht. Instructions were sent to the colonial
councils to 8us])end hostilities, lioth the Europe^ui
powers heing favourahly inclined, the negotiations j)ro-
cecdcd smoothly, nnd on the JJOth March 171 '3 this
memorahle treaty was signed. France retained Canada,
though ohliged, hy the urgency of her circ\inistances,
to cede Acadia find Newfoundland. She made over
likewise all her claims to the sovereignty of the Five
Nations ; a very empty concession, hy which she gavo
that which she had never possessed, and England re-
ceived a nominal right which she could not enforce.*

After this treaty, Canada cnjoycnl a long period of
uninterrupted tranquillity. The ohservations of Charle-
voix, who visited the principal settlements during the
years 1720 and 1721, give a pretty good idea of their
condition at that ])eriod. Quehec wasestimated to conttiin
about 7000 inhahitants ; hoth the lower and upper town
were partially built, but none of the extensive suburbs
appear to have then existed. The view from the summit
of the rock appeared to him extremely striking, and
anticipating the change, since partly fuliilled, when the
surrounding shores and islands, then covered with al-
most unbroken forests, should display cultivated fields,
meadows, and villages, with numberless harks studding
the broad expanse of the St Lawrence, he expects it to
form a prospect which nothing could equal. The society,
composed in a great measure of military officers and
nol)lesse, was extremely agreeable ; and nowhere was the
French language spoken in greater purity. Under this
gay exterior, however, was concealed a very general po-
verty. The settlers, while they admitted that their En j-
lish neighbours knew better how to accumulate wealth,

~'^" • Heriot,i)p. 418, 419.

1' •

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188

HISTORY OF CANADA

were consoled by reflecting that they were quite ignorant
how to enjoy it. They themselves, on the contrary, under-
stood thoroughly the most elegant and agreeable modes of
sj)ending money, but were greatly at a loss where to ob-
tain it. The only employment suited to their taste was the
fur-trade, the roving and adventurous habits of which
were extremely attractive to them, and little fortunes were
tliereby occasionally made ; but they were in such haste
to expend these in pleasure and display, that the author
compares them to hillocks of sand in the deserts of Africa,
which rise and disappear almost at the same moment.
Many, who had made a handsome figure, were now lan-
guishing in distress. They began by retrenching the
luxury of their table, and, as long as possible, were richly
dressed. The patient and laborious process of agriculture
had drawn little attention, and the timber- trade was yet in
its infancy, though the author points out the great im-
poi'tance which it was capable of attaining. The absence
of gold and silver, almost the only objects then considered
jis giving lustre to a colony, had always caused New
France to be viewed as of very secondary importance.''
The coasts of the St Lawrence, for some extent be-
low Quebec, were already Jaid out in seigniories, and
tolerably cultivated. At Pointe aux Trembles, seven
leagues from the capital, many of the farmers were found
in easy circumstances, and richer than their landlords ;
the latter, having obtained grants which they had neither
capital nor industry to improve, were obliged to let
them at very small quit-rents. On reaching the mouth
of the Bc^ancour, he found a baron bearing the title of
that river, and holding the office of inspector of the
highways. He lived almost in a deseii, and derived his in-
come chiefly from traffic with the neighbouring Indians.
Thence Charlevoix crossed to Trois Rivieres, which he
found an agreeable place, amid a circuit of well-culti-
vated fields, but not containing more than 800 inhabit-
ants. The fur-trade, with a view to which it was founded,

* Charlevoix's Journal, voL i. pp. 104, 111-114, 121-125, 145,
263-265.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

169

had already been in a great measure transferred to
Montreal, and the iron-mmes had not yet begun to be
worked.

From Trois Rivieres he proceeded through the Lake
of St Peter, and, coasting along its southern shore,
made particular observations on the river and district
of St Francis. From its excellent soil, covered with
timber, it appeared to him well fitted for cultivation ;
but the farmers were few, and had made such small
progress, that, but for the opportunities of ti-ade, they
would have been extremely poor. A more cheerful
scene presented itself at the island and city of Montreal,
tlie beauties of which he describes in terms similar to
those of all subsequent visiters. He does not make any
estimate of the population ; but it must have been con^
siderable, as both the upper and lower towns were al-
ready built, and a suburb had been commenced. The place
was then enjoying a respite from the alarms and calamities
of war ; and the two neighbouring villages of Sault St
Louis and Montgomery, inhabited by friendly Indians,
served as barriers against their more savage countrymen.*

Above Montreal, the traveller appears to have found
nothing but detached stations foi defence and trade. He
made his way through the rapids to Lake Ontario, in In-
dian canoes formed of birch-bark. We find no mention
of any thing French till he comes to Fort Cataraqui or
Frontenac, at the entrance of the lake ; but in his short
description there is no appearance as if the neighbour-
hood contained either cultivation or settlement. He had
then a tedious voyage to perform along the southern shoie
in slender canoes, in which he was obliged to follow every
winding of the coast, and often to sail two hundred
leagues in order to shun a direct passage of twenty. He
was liable also to be detained for an indefinite period by
violent or adverse winds. At length he entered the river
of Niagara, and came to a cottage which had been dig-
nified to him with the name of fortress, and was occu-
pied by the Sieur de Joncaire. There were two or three

" Charlevoix, Journal, vol. i. pp. 172-17^, 190, 213-218.

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170

HISTORY OF CANADA

officers of rank, and, we presume, a few troops, but
apparently no trace of cultivation.'"'

After having surveyed the falls, he ascended tlie
channel of Niagara, and having entered upon Lake
Erie, proceeded along its northern shore. The voyage
appeared to him delightful, in a charming climate, on
waters clear as the purest fountain, and landing every
night on the most desirable spots. He found always
abundance of game, and a beautiful landscape, bounded
by the noblest forests in the world. He fancied hhnself,
like the ancient patriarchs, wandering through wide un-
appropriated tracts, where he could pitch his tent in the
most pleasant scenes. The oaks of Mamre and the foun-
tain of Jacob seemed realized to him in the wilderness.
Five days' sail along these beautiful shores brought him
to the channel of Detroit, at the other end of which,
near Lake St Clair, he found the fort bearing that name.
He inclined to the opinion of those who regarded this
as the most beautiful and fruitfiil part of all Canada.
A French settlement had ])een begun there fifteen years
before, but various untoward circumstances had reduced
it almost to nothing. He proceeded thence to Michilli-
makinac, near the adjoining extremities of the great
lakes Huron, Superior, and Michigan. Like the others,
it was a mere fort surrounded by an Indian village.
On the whole, it appears that, above Montreal, there v as
nothing at tiiis time which could be called a colony.t

The repose procured for Canada by the treaty of
Utrecht was followed by a long continuance of pros-
perity. Vaudreuil, till his death in 1725, administered
her affairs with judgment and activity ; and under him
cultivation was greatly extended. To remedy the want
of hands, he proposed sending out annually 150 con-
victs, of the class usually condemned to the galleys.

This governor was succeeded by the Chevalier de
Beauharnois, who continued in power twenty years.
This long period seems to have been diligently em-
ployed in promoting the interests of the colony, and was

•Charlevoix,Journal,vol.i. pp. 293-297, 312-316, 341.
t Ibid. vol. ii. p. 3-7.

UNDER THE FRENCH.

171

productive of a remarkable imj)rovement. The range of
cultivated farms was extended along the whole shore
from Quebec to Montreal, and even several of the tri-
butary streams. As the French Canadians studiously
sought a river-frontage, they were content with lots in-
cluding only a : mall portion of this, with extensive back-
ground. The proportion, in some degree fixed by sta-
tute, was an acre and a half in front, with an extent of
forty behind. In the course jf this period, too, the
settlement at Detroit, which Charlevoix had found in,
such a languishing state, was raised to some consequence.

The French, likewise, during this interval, appear to
have entirely overcome that rooted enmity so long
cherished by the great Indian tribes. Their pliant and
courteous manners, their frequent intermarriages, and
in some instances an actual adoption of the habits of
savage life, rendered them better fitted than the English
to secure the confidence of thia savage race. Instead of
having to dread them as allies of Britain, they could
usually, when occasion required, employ them as for-
midable, or, at least, harassing enemies to her. By their
aid, and by the erection in commanding positions of the
forts of Crown Point andTiconderago, they kept the rival
colonies in perpetual alarm. The struggles, however,
can'iad on during almost the first half of the eighteenth
century were chiefly confined to Nova Scotia, under
which head they will be narrated. Canada enjoyed a
happy exemption from those eventful vicissitudes which
fonn the materials of history.

An equally favourable change took place in respect
to the fur-trade, which had shown so great a preference
of the English market. A more libera! end equitable
system appears to liave been adopted ; and a large an-
nual fair, opened at Montreal under judicious refii^ula-
tions, became the general centre of this traffic. Even the
Indians in the back settlements of New York brought
their furs thither, rather tiian to the capital of that state.*

■ ■ ■ - - - - , , .

* M'Oregor's British America, vol. ii. p. 374. Burke's Account
of tlip European Settlements in America (2 vols 8vo, London,
1808), vol. ii. pp. 42, 43.

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1 72 HISTORY OF CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH.

M. de Beauhamois was followed in office by a rapid
succession of governors, each holding sway for an ex-
tremely short period incompatible with any steady system
of administration. The Count de la Galissoniere, though
a nobleman of great acquirements, ruled only a year,
being superseded in 1746 by M. de la Jonquiere, who took
an active part in the war for the reduction of Nova
Scotia. After a temporary occupation of power by the
Baron de Longueuil, the Marquis du Q,uesne, in 1752,
went out as governor-general. This officer appears to
have carried on more openly than ever the system of en-
ca-oaching upon the British colonies ; and the fort bear-
ing his name was erected within the confines of Virginia.
So great an alann indeed spread through our settle-
ments, that a general convention was held at Albany,
when a plan of common defence, projjosed by the
celebrated Dr Franklin, was approved, but, from dif-
ferent causes, never carried into effect. A census taken
of the colony in 1753, is said by Raynal to have shown
a population of 91,000 ; but, from the number afterwards
found by the English, this appears to be somewhat ex-
aggerated. Tlie finances were, however, involved in consi-
derable disorder. The expenditure, which in 1729 did not
exceed 400,000 francs, had risen in 1750 to 2,100,000
livres ; in 1758 it was 27,900,000 ; but this last, we may
observe, was a period of general war, of which North
America became one of the principal theatres. The
conduct of Bigot the intendant was loudly complained
04 and proved indeed to have been most fraudulent, his
defalcations amounting to i;^400,000 sterling. In 1755,
Bu Q,uesne v/as succeeded by De Vaudreuil Cavagnal.*

* M'Gre^or, vol. ii. p. 375-381. Raynal, Histoire Philosophlque
et Politique des Etablissements et du Commerce des Europeens
daiLs les deux Indes (4 vols 4to, Geneva, 17B0), vol. iv. pp. l2o, Vi],
Hawkins' Picture of Quebec (liJmo, Quebec 1834), pp. bI6, 317.

I i

HISTORY OF CANADA UNDER THE BRITISH. 173

CHAPTER IV.

History of Canada under the British*

War between Great Br'tain and France — Advantages gained bj'
the latter — Expedition against Canada under Wolfe — His first
Repulse — Lands a second Time — Victory — Death — Conquest of
Canada — State of the Population — Their good Treatment — Re-
fuse to join the Rebellion by the United Colonies — The latter
invade Canada — Siege of Quebec — Repulse and Death of IMont-
gomery — Americans driven out of Canada — A Constitution grant-
ed — Division into Upper and Lower — Rise of Internal Dissen-
sion — War with the United States — Advantages gained by Britain
on the western Frontier — On the Niagara, &.c The Ameri-
cans take York (Toronto) and Fort George — Obliged to retreat —
Their Successes in the West — Fruitless Attempt on Montreal-
Events on the Niagara Frontier — Large Reinforcements from
England — Failure of Sir George Prevost — Peace — Discontents
of the Assembly — Administration of the Duke of Richmond —
Earl of Dalhousie — Sir James Kempt — Lord Aylmer — Increased
Discontent — Commission of Inquiry — Earl of Gosford — Assem-
bly still refuse Supplies — Resolutions of the British Parliament —
Disturbances in Canada — Insurrection — Suppressed — Political
Movements in Upper Canada — Sir Francis Head Governor —
Rising and Defeat of Mackenzie — Aggressions frr m the United
States — Conduct of their Government — Mission of the Earl of
Durham — Recent Events.

We now approach the most memorahle period in the his-
tory of Canada, when its dominion "S finally transferred
from France to a rival po^ver. As the events of this
contest, however, though extremely memorable, form a
portion of general history, ard are familiar to many
readers, we shall here content ourselves with a rapid
summary of them.

The great war which broke out in 1755 opened in a
manner most unfavourable to the British anns. Gene-

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174

HISTORY OF CANADA

ral Braddock, who marched from New York against
Canada, havmg neglected the precautions necessary in
such a country, was completely surprised by a com-
bined force of French and Indians. He himself beinc:
killed, only part of the army was saved by the skill
and intrepidity of Colonel (afterwards General) Wash-
ington, who on that occasion distinguished himself for
the first time. His troops being afterwards joined to the
provincial force under Generals Shirley and Johnson,
rep^ilsed near Lake George an attack made by a large
body of the enemy under Baron Dieskau. Johnson
having acquitted himself with great ability, and received
several wounds, was rewarded with the honour of
knighthood, and was long much esteemed in Ameri-
can warfare.* But in the two following years the
enemy, headed by the gallant Marquis de Montcalm,
obtained a series of successes, terminating in the reduc-
tion of the important forts called Oswego and William
Henry. This last triumph was stained with the barbar-
ous murder, by the Indians, of fifteen hundred Englisli
prisoners ; which Montcalm, though it should seem un-
justly, was accused of sanctioning. These disasters,
joined to the fc'lure of Byng at Minorca, and other abor-
tive expeditions, deeply depressed the spirit of the nation,
and seemed to sink their reputation in arms lower thfiii
at any former period. Yet the courage of the British lion
was soon afterwards roused : the public voice called tu
the helm of affairs William Pitt, the greatest statesman
then living, and who was destined to raise her name to
a pitch of glory before unrivalled.

It was one of the main objects of Pitt's policy t<)
obtain possession of the French terri"<^ries in America,
and to form them, together with the British colonies,
into one vast range of dominion. He chose as his chief
instrument Wolfe, a young man without family or par-
liamentary interest, or even any established character as
a commander. He had served only in subordinate situa-

• Hawkins, pp. 3ir, 319. Bouchette, vol. i, p. 440.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

175

tions ; yet the minister, with intuitive sagacity, saw in
him the man hest fitted to lead British troops to victory.*
In the expedition against Louisburg, in 1758, the most
active though not the highest post wiis assigned to him,
and, through his exertions chiefly, that main bulwark
of It'rench America fell. After the great name thus
earzied, there could no longer be any ol)jection to in-
vesting him witli the chief command.

In 1759 preparations were made on a great scale for
the conquest of Canada ; comprising twenty sail of the
line, with smaller vessels and transports, havmg on
board 8000 veteran troops. These were placed under
the direction of Wolfe, who was allowed the choice of
all his officers. After a prosperous voyage tlie armament,
on tlie 26th June, arrived off the Isle of Orleans. Quebec
was defended by the Marquis de Montcalm, having under
his command 13,000 men, of whom indeedonly 2000 were
regular troops, the rest being Canadian militia, with a
few Indians. The attack having been long foreseen, full
time was given him to entrench and strengthen his posi-
tion. An attempt was first made to destroy the British
fleet by fire-ships ; but these were caught with grap-
pling irons, towed aside, and allowed to burn out without
doing any injury. Brigadier-general Monckton then oc-
cupied Point Levi, opposite to the capital, which was
thence bombarded with vigour ; but, though a number of
houses were destroyed, the defences remained almost,
iininjured. The place therefore could only be carried
by storming the entrenchments which the French had
thrown up in front of it. This bold measure Wolfe re-
solved to adopt, and on the 31st July he effected a land-
ing. The boats, however, had met with an accidental
delay ; the grenadiers, it is said, rushed forward with
too blind and impetuous a valour ; Montcalm, strongly
posted between Quebec and Montmorenci, poured in
upon them a destructive fire ; the Indian rifle told with
latal effect ; and the assailants were finally repulsed
with the loss of 182 killed and 650 wounded.

* Enticic's History of the late War,' vol. iv. p. 91.

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176

HISTORY OF CANADA

Wolfe felt this disappointment so deeply that his
delicate frame was thrown into a violent fever ; and in
a despatch to Mr Pitt he afterwards expressed the ap-
prehensions under which he laboured. The fleet, his
strongest arm, could not act against the wall of rock
on which Quebec is seated ; and with his weakened
force he had to storm fortified positions defended by
troops more numerous than his own. As soon, how-
ever, as his health pemiitted, he called a council of
war, desired the general officers to consult together ; and,
it is said, proposed to them a second attack on the French
lines, avoiding the errors which had led to the failure
of the first. They were decidedly of opinion that this
was inexpedient ; but on the suggestion, as is now
believed, of Brigadier-general Townsend the second
in command, they proposed to attempt a point on the
other side of Quebec, where the enemy were yet
unprepared, and whence they might gain the Heights
of Abraham which overlooked the city. Wolfe assent-
ed, and applied all his powers to the accomplishment
of this plan. Such active demonstrations were made
against Montcalm's original position, that he believed it
still the main object ; and though he observed detach-
ments moving up the river, merely sent De Bougainville
with 2000 men to Cape Rouge, a position too distant,
being nine miles above Quebec. On the night of the 12th
. September, in deep silence, the troops were embarked
and conveyed in two divisions to the place now named
Wolfe's Cove. The precipice here was so steep, that
even the general for a moment doubted the possibility
of scaling it ; but Eraser's Highlanders, grasping the
bushes which grew on its face, soon reached the
summit, and in a short time he had his whole army
'^^'awn up in regular order on the plains above. Mont-
calm, struck by this unexpected intelligence, at once
concluded that, unless the English could be driven
from this position, Quebec was lost ; and, hoping pro-
bably that only a detachment had yet reached it,
pushed forward at once to the attack. About 1500 light

UNDER THE BRITISH.

177

infantry and Indians arrived first, and he^an a desultoiy
fire from among the bushes ; but the British reserved
their shot for the main body, which was seen advancing
behind. They came forward in good order, and com-
menced a brisk attack ; yet no general fire was opened
in return till they were within forty yards, wlien it
could be followed up by the bayonet. The fii*st volley
was decisive ; Wolfe and Montcalm both fell almost
at tlie same moment ; the French instantly gave way
in every quarter ; and repeated charges, in which the
Highland broadsword was powerfully wielded, soon
,^ completed the victory. As soon as Wolfe received his
Hi nortal wound, he said, " Support me ! let not my brave
^ - Idiei-s see me drop." He was carried to some distance
in the rear, — and hearing the cry " They run !" he asked
'^^ Who run f* Being told " The enemy," he gave some
short directions, and then said : " Now, God be praised,
1 die happy !" We cannot forbear quoting the simple
and feeling observations of General Townsend respect-
ing his heroic friend, whose fate threw so affecting a
lustre on this memorable victory : " I am not ashamed
to own to you, that my heart does not exult in the
midst of this success. I have lost but a friend in Gene-
ral Wolfe ; our country has lost a sure support and a per-
petual honour. If the Avorld were sensible at how dear
a price we have purchased Quebec in his death, it would
damp the public joy. Our best consolation is, that
Providence seemed not t'^ promise that he should remain
long among us. He was himself sensible of the weakness
of his constitution, and determined to crowd into a few
years actions that would have adorned length of life."

The battle had scarcely closed when De Bougainville
appeared in the rear, but on seeing the fortune of the
day, immediately retreated. On the l7th a flag of truce
came out, and on the 18th a capitulation was concluded
on honourable terms to the French, who were not made
prisoners, but conveyed home to their native country.*

• Entick's History of the late War, vol. iv. p. 85-110. Haw-
kins' Picture of Quebec, pp. 331, 359, 373, 374.
VOL. I. L

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178

HISTORY OP CANADA

Canada was not yet conquered. General Amherst,
indeed, marching from New York with a large force,
had reduced the strong posts of Ticonderago and Crown
Point ; while General Prideaux, aided by Sir William
Johnson with a body of Indians, had taken Nia-
gara. But the winter arrested their farther advance ;
and General de Levi, who had assembled at Montreal
upward 1 of 10,000 men, conceived the design of recap-
turing Quebec in the spring, before it could obtain suc-
cours, either by sea or land. Being baffled in his projects
to carry it by a coup de mairiy he landed his anny on
the 27th April 1760, advanced to the heights of Abra-
ham, and prepared to carry on a regular siege. General
Murray had been left with a garrison of 6000 men ; but
a severe attack of scurvy had reduced to half that num-
ber those who were capable of bearing arms. This offi-
cer, dreading that the place was unfit to stand a siege,
and hoping much from the bravery of his troops, attacked
the enemy on the 28th April at Sillery ; but, being
overpowered by superior numbers, he was defeated with
great loss. If guilty here of any rashness, he atoned for
it by the activity with whicli he placed Quebec in a state
of defence, and held out the town till the 15th May, when
a fleet, under Admiral Swanton, arrived and raised the
siege. The French army then concentrated itself in
Montreal, where the Marquis de Vaudreuil made an at-
tempt to maintain his ground ; but being enclosed by the
forces under General Amherst, and by those from Que-
bec and Niagara, he found himself obliged, on the 8tli
September 1760, to sign a capitulation, by which that city
and the whole of Canada were transferred to Britisli
dominion. He obtained liberal stipulations for the good
treatment of the inhabitants, and particularly the free
exercise of the Catholic faith, and the preservation of
the property belonging to the religious communities. He
even demanded that the bishop should continue to be ap-
pointed by the French monarch, but this was of course
refused.* The possession of Canada, as well as of all
• Hawkins, p. 410-413. Enlick, vol. iv. pp. 473, 474.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

170

the adjoining countries, wiis confirmed to Britain by
the peace of Paris, signed on the 1 0th February ITOH,

The popuhition at the time oF the conquest was stated
by Governor Mun-ay to amount to ()l),275, consisting
mostly of cultivators, a frugal, industrious, and moral
race ; with a noblesse, also very poor, but much re-
spected among them. The Indians converted to Catho-
licism were estimated at 7400.* The inhabitants were
involved in great calamity by the refusal of the
French government to pay the bills drawn and the
paper currency issued by M. Bigot, the late intend-
rtiit, already mentioned as having been guilty of most
extensive peculation. The gross sum is stated by Raynal
at 80,000,000 of livres (£8,338,000 sterling) ; but, con-
sidering the small number and poverty of the people,
we cannot help suspecting it to be much exaggerated.
It is said that the claims were, on grounds of equity,
reduced to 38,000,000 ; though, according to McGregor,
no more was received in return for them than £2.50,000
in money, and i,125,000 in bonds, which never became
effective.t

The terms in favour of the French residents were
faithfully, and even liberally, fulfilled by our govern-
ment. All offices, however, were conferred on British
subjects, who then consisted only of military men, with
not quite 500 petty traders, many of whom were ill
fitted for so important a situation. They showed a ])igoted
spirit, and an offensive contempt of the old inhabiUmts,
including even tbeir class of nobles. General Murray,
notwithstanding, strenuously protected the latter, with-
out regard to repeated complaints made against him to
the ministry at home ; and by this impartial conduct
he gained their confidence in a degree which became
conspicuous on occasion of the great revolt of the
United Colonies. During that momentous period,
though pressmgly invited to assist the latter, the
Canadians never swerved from their allegiance. With

• M'Uregor, vol. ii. p. 382.

•j* Raynal, vol. v. p. 230. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 381.

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180

HISTORY OF CANADA

a view to conciliate them, the " Quebec Act," passed in
1774, changed the English civil law, which had been
at first introduced, for the ancient system called the cou-
tume de Paris. The French language was also directed
to be employed in the law-courts, and other changes
made with the view of gratifying that nation. These
concessions did not, however, give universal satisfaction,
especially as they were not attended with any grant of
a national representation.

The Americans, finding all their proposals rejected,
determined to view Canada as a hostile country. They
observed that the British, almost entirely occupied in
the attempt to put down the insurrection, had left this
country very slightly defended. In September 1775
two expeditions were fitted out, which were distin-
guished by tragical events, as well as by the brilliant
and romantic valour of their chiefs. While the main
body, under Montgomery, marched by Lake Champlain
upon Montreal, Aniold, with 1100 men, sailed up the
Kennebeck, and proceeded through the vast forest that
stretches between it and the St Lawrence, hoping to sur-
prise Quebec. The sufferings of the party were extreme,
being obliged to eat dogs' flesh and the leather of their
cartouch-boxes. Yet they aii'ived, on the 9th Novem-
ber, at Point Levi, without any alarm having reached
the capital ; but all the shipping had fortunately been
removed from that side. Arnold was thus unable to
cross, and in twenty-four hours the inhabitants were
apprized of the danger. On the 14th that active officer
contrived to pass the river and occupy the heights of
Abraham, though his force was too small for active
movements, till joined by Montgomery. This com-
mander sent forward a reconnoitring party under
Colonel Ethan Allen, who made a brave but rash at-
tempt on Montreal, in which he was taken with bis
party, and afterwards sent in irons to England. Mont-
gomery, however, having reduced the posts of St John
and Chambly and made prisoners of their garrisons,
which included a large proportion of the regular force

UNDER THE BRITISH.

181

in Canada, ^that city was quite unable to resist; and
General Carleton, the governor, with difficulty es-
caped in a boat with muffled paddles. The Ameri-
can leader then advanced upon Quebec, and took the
command of the united force. Carleton had under
arms only 1800 men, of whom not more than seventy
were regulars ; 230 of Fraser's Highlanders, who had
settled in the country, were re-embodied under Colonel
M'Lean ; the rest were British and Canadian militia,
seamen, and others. The summons to surrender, how-
ever, was at once rejected ; and Montgomery, after
pushing the siege during the month of December
without any prospect of success, determined to carry
the place by a night-assault. On the 31st, two stonn-
ing parties were formed, — one under himself and the
other under Arnold. They were to advance from op-
posite sides, and meet at the foot of Mountain Street,
then force Prescott Gate, and reach the upper town.
The first battery encountered by Montgomery was de-
fended chiefly by a party of Canadian militia, Avith
nine British seamen to work the guns. Having re-
ceived some previous notice, they were on the watch ;
and, about daybreak, saw amid the snow a body of
troops in full march from Wolfe's Cove. Orders were
given to make no movement ; and the enemy having
halted at the distance of fifty yards, sent forward an
officer to reconnoitre, who found every thing perfectly
still. On his return the Americans rushed forward in
double quick time to the attack. When they were
close to the spot. Captain Barnsfare, at the critical mo-
ment, gave the signal for a general discharge of guns
and musketry. It told with unexpected and fatal effect ;
for, among many others, Montgomery himself, the gal-
lant chief, fell, to rise no more. The troops, on wit-
nessing this disaster, made a precipitate retreat.*

• This event has been very variously related. Hinton (History
and Topography of the United States, 2 vols 4to, London, 1834,
vol. i 33«>) even represents it as a mero casual fire by which
Montgomery was killed ; but we have follovved Hawkins, whose
narrative appears to be the result of very careful research.

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182

HISTORY OF CANADA

Meantime Arnold, from the opposite side, pushed on
liis nttack with desperate rcsohition. In assaultinf>-
the first harrier, he received a severe wound in the leg,
which ohliged him to quit the field. But his party, led
on hy Captain Morgan, carried the post, and pushed
on to a second. Here, however, their efforts were vain ;
and General Carleton having sent a detachment upon
their rear, they were surrounded, and finally, to the
numher of 42G, ohliged to surrender. Neither of the
parties thus reached the main point of attack at Prescott
Gate, where the governor was stationed, with the deter-
mination to maintain it to the last extremity.

The British were not yet aware of all the results of
the contest. As soon as the retreat of the first party
was ascertained, they went out and collected, from
under the snow which had already covered them,
thirteen hodies. The surmise soon arose that one of
them was that of the commander ; yet some hours
elapsed hefore an officer of Arnold's division identi-
fied him, with the deepest expressions of admiration
and regret. Montgomery, a gentleman of good family
in the north of Ireland, had served under Wolfe, but
liaving aftt rwards formed a matrimonial connexion in
America, he had adopted with enthusiasm the cause
of the United States as that of liberty. His military
character, joined to his ])rivate virtues, inspired general
esteem, and has secured to him a place on the roll of
noble and gallant chiefs who fell beneath the walls of
Quebec.

Arnold succeeded to the command, and attempted
still to maintain his ground ; but the dispirited state of
liis men, still more than his actual loss, rendered him
unable to keep up more than an imperfect blockade, at
the distance of three miles. In April 177G, his place was
taken by General Wooster, who brought a reinforcement,
and made some fresh attempts, but without success.
Early in May several vessels arrived from England with
troops and supplies, on which the enemy raised the siege,
and fell back upon Montreal. Thence they were driven

UNDER THE BRITISH.

183

> ■ 't

t upon

to the

of tho

'rescott

deter-

but

from post to post, till, on 18th June, they finally eva-
cuated the province, on which they never made any
farther attempt.*

This long war terminated, in 1783, hy the indepen-
dence of all the colonies which had united against
Britain. The issue, unfavourable or at least mortify-
ing to the mother country, was attended with consider-
able advantages to Canada ; for a large body of loyalists,
expatriated on account of their political principles,
sought refuge in her territory. They received liberal
grants of land, and laid the foundation of that pros-
perity which has since so eminently distinguished the
upper province.

The country continued for some years in a state of pro-
gressive advancement, being only agitated by the desire,
sometimes strongly expressed, of obtaining a representa-
tive government. In 1790 Mr Pitt determined to grant
tliis boon on a basis as nearly as possible resembling
that of the British Constitution. As a preliminary, it
was resolved to divide Canada into two governments.
Upper and Lower : and it is somewhat remarkable
that this arrangement, so much deprecated by the
present loyalist party, originated with the minister,
who carried it through in the face of strong opposi-
tion from Fox and other Whig members. He con-
sidered that the attempt to unite two classes of
population, so different in origin, language, and man-
ners, would inevitably lead to disunion and dissension ;
while they argued, that this union would afford the
best means of hannonizing them into one social system.
Another question arose with regard to the constitution
of the legislative council. Mr Pitt proposed to form it
of an hereditary noblesse, to be created for the purpose,
and to include the more respectable among the French
seigneurs. Mr Fox recommended a representative
council, or, in default of this, one composed of members
chosen by the king for life. This last suggestion, though

• Hawkins* Picture of Quebec, pp. 424-434, 438. Hinton, vui. L
p. 344.

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not at first well received by the premier, was the plan
ultimately adopted.

Thefirst House of Assembly, consisting of fifty members,
was opened in 1 792 by Lieutenant-governor Clarke. Tlieir
jiroceedings were for some time of no great importance.
In 1797 Lord Dorchester, who had been governor since
1 786, was succeeded by General Prescott. Loud com-
plaints were soon afterwardsmade respecting the granting
of lands, the Board for that purpose having appropriated
large districts to themselves, and thereby obstructed the
general settlement of the country. In 1800 Sir Robert
S. Milnes was appointed lieutenant-governor. In 1803
a decision of the Chief Justice of Montreal declared
slavery inconsistent with the laws of the country, and
the few individuals in that condition received a grant of
freedom. In 1807, apprehensions being felt of war with
America, Sir James Craig, an officer of distinction, was
sent out to superintend the affairs of the colony.

About this time began those internal dissensions
which have since so generally agitated the colony.
The House of Assembly, though meeting regularly, do
not seem previously to have aimed at the exercise of
any high powers, or to have obstructed the governor in
tlie discretionary exercise of his authority. But at this
epoch they appear to have formed the design of render-
ing themselves independent, and even of controlling the
executive. With the former view they demanded that
tlie judges should be expelled from their body, as being
dependent upon and removable by government. To gain
the latter object, they offered to defray from the funds of
the colony the whole expense of the civil administration.
Although this was a boon, and unasked for, yet on ac-
count of its apprehended purpose it was repelled with
indignation, and the Assembly soon afterwards dissolved.
The novel exercise of a free press by a newspaper called
" the Canadian," in attacking the measures of govern-
ment, was severely checked ; the printer was sent to
prison, and all his materials destroyed. Six individuals
were also taken into custody, though never brought to

hi ' :f

UNDER THE BRITISH.

185

trial. These proceedings gave to this period the appella-
tion of the " Reign of Terror." *

In 1811 a new Assembly was called, which did notshow
itself more compliant. In the autumn of that year, how-
ever, Sir George Prevost, a more popular governor, as-
sumed the reins of administration ; and circumstances
soon after occurred which induced the Canadians to sus-
pend their complaints, and to make displays of loyalty
as ardent as if they had never been dissatisfied.

The war commenced by the United States against
Britain in 1812 produced a formidable crisis in the
history of Canada, especially of the upper province.
It is not proposed to enter into any discussion of
the grounds or merits of the hostile resolution adopted
by Congress. Doubtless, however, as Britain then stood,
with her whole disposable force engaged against Na-
poleon, they calculated with full confidence on obtain-
ing possession of the Canadas, and, indeed, of all Bri-
tish America. Dr Eustis, secretary at war, said in Con-
gress, " We can take the Canadas without soldiers : we
have only to send officers into the provinces ; and the
people, disaffected towards their own government, will
rally round our standard." Mr Clay added, " It is
absurd to suppose we shall not succeed in our enter-
prise against tiie enemy's provinces. We have tlie
Canadas as much under our command as Great Britain
has the ocean. — We must take the continent from
them. I wish never to see a peace till we do."t A simi-
lar impression prevailed in the colony itself, defended then
by only 4500 troops, of whom not more than 1450 were
in the upper province, though the most exposed, and pre-
senting the most extended frontier. Not a few were in-
clined on the first alarm to pack up and quit the coun-
try ; but Sir George Prevost, seconded by the majority

• Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 443, 445.
Roebuck on Existinfj;- iJiffiei

M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 391.
ieuitics in the Administration of the
Canadas (London, IHMi), p. fi.

t James' Military Occurrences of tlie late War (2 vols 8vo,
London, 181U), vol. i. p. 77.

186

HISTORY OP CANADA

;! ■?

of the inhabitants, adopted a more spirited resolution.
The militia were called out ; Que})ec was garrisoned hy
the citizens ; and the frontier placed in a state of de-
fence.*

The States, though they had plunged into hostilities so
eagerly and with such stinguine anticipations, were hy
no means in a forward state of pre])aration. Few of
the officers who had distinguished themselves in the
war of independence survived the lapse of nearly
thirty years.t General Hull, however, one of these
Teterans, was sent with a force of 2600 men to open
the campaign on the western frontier of Upper Canada.
On the 6th of July 1 812 he arrived at Detroit, and on the
12th crossed the river and took possession of Sandwich,
whence he issued a proclamation inviting the colonists
to join him, or at least to remain neutral. He an-
nounced that no quarter would be given to a white
man fighting by the side of an Indian, though this is
said never to have been acted upon. Having no cannon
mounted, he did not think it practicable to attack Fort
Maiden, which covered Aniherstburg, where Lieute-
nant-colonel St George with his small force was posted.
Hull, however, pushed forward detachments into the
country, which gained some advantages and induced
a few of the inhabitants to join them. But his prospects
were soon clouded. Captain Roberts, with a small de-
tachment, had early reduced the Fort of Michillimaki-
nac, which " opened upon him the northern hive of
Indians." Almost the whole of that race, indignant at
the encroachments of the Americans upon their territory,
eagerly espoused the British cause, and ])oured in from
every quarter to support it. Meantime General Brock,
having embarked all the troops that could be spared
from the Niagara frontier, arrived on the 12th August at
Amherstburg, where he mustered about 380 regulars,

• Montgomery Martin's History of the British Colonies (5
vols 8vo, London, 11534), vol. iii. p. UQ.

•j- Carey and Lea, Geoirraphy, &c. of America (8vo, London,
1823). p. 69.

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UNDER THE BRITISH.

187

400 militia, and GOO Indians. Hull, whose force, weak-
ened by sickness and by sendin;:? away two detachments,
is said not to have exceeded 800 ett'ective men, retreated
across the river, withdrawing the cannon prejiarcd for
the siege of Amherstburg, and shut himself up in
Detroit. General Brock instantly crossed, advanced
upon the fort, and prepared for an immediate assault ;
but a white flag then appeared from the walls, and a
capitulation was quickly signed, by which the whole
American force, including the detachments, were sur-
rendered prisoners of war. The Canadian citizens, who
had despondingly anticipated speedy conquest, were not
a little sui-prised to see in less than three months the
whole army destined for that object marched in as cap-
tives. Loud complaints were made by the Americans
against the conduct of Hull, who was afterwards tried
and condemned to be shot, though spared on account of
his age and former services.*

The Americans made great eflForts to obtain a more
fortunate result on the Niagara frontier. Though the
New England States, disapproving of the war, withheld
their militia, yet early in September more than 6000
men were brought to the banks of the river, with the
view of crossing it and penetrating into Canada. They
were encouraged by the exploit of two row-boats, 'yhich
captured the same number of British gun-brigs wiv ! 'valu-
able cargoes as they were passing Fort Erie. The tiOops
are represented as filled with enthusiastic confidence,
urging and almost compelling General Van Rensselaer,
their commander, to commence active operations. Ac-
cordingly, after one abortive attempt he succeeded, on
the morning of 13th October, in pushing across to Queen-
ston a detachment which, being well reinforced, gained
possession of the heights. General Brock having come
up, resolved to check their progress, but making his ad-
vance with too small a force he was repulsed and killed,

• James, vol. i. pp. 5H.58, H74 Jljfi, 72, 73. Martin, vol. iii. p.
180. Brackenridp^e's History of the late War (12rao, (jth edition,
Philadelphia, 1836), p. 32-41.

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HISTORY OP CANADA

closing his brilliant career by a glorious death. Van
Rensselaer, however, complains that when he returned
to the other side, the heroes, who tlie day before had
boasted so loudly, having now witnessed an actual en-
gagement, though a successful one, were seized with such
a panic that neither commands nor threats could induce
one of them to enter the boats. Meantime General
Sheaffe, having brought up the main force of the British
from Fort George, and being joined by a body of In-
dians, with a detachment from Chippeway, attacked
the enemy ; and, after a sharp contest of half an hour,
compelled the whole, amounting to above 1)00, to sur-
render at discretion.*

The Americans made yet another attempt to retrieve
this unfortunate campaign. General Smyth, who suc-
ceeded Van Rensselaer, had assembled on the 27th
November 4.500 men in the vicinity of Black Rock.
Early on the following morning, two detachments suc-
ceeded in crossing, and after a long and confused tight
in the dark, drove in with loss the British out])osts ; but
when day broke, and Lieutenant-colonel Bisshopp had
collected about 600 regulars and militia, they hastily re-
tired to the other side, leaving a party of thirty to fall
into the hands of the English. Another division began
to cross ; but some rounds of musketry and artillery in-
duced them to return. In the course of the day, after
a vain summons to surrender Fort Erie, nearly half the
force was embarked ; though in the afternoon the post-
ponement of the enterprise was announced. After several
days of uncertain councils, it was finally decided that the
expedition should be abandoned for the season. The
troops are said to have displayed the fiercest indignation,
threatening even the person of their commander, whom
they named General Van Bladder ; but whether their
courage would have been equally conspicuous in the
hour of trial their former conduct leaves some room to
question.t

* James, vol. i. pp. «1,376, 377, 382-384. Brackenridge, p. Go-G'j,
t Ibid. pp. 110-l:iO, 3lid, 309.

UNDER TiiR nniTisn.

ino

The severity of the season caused a suspension of
o])erationH scarcely interrtipted unU'ss by an attack on
()gdcnsl)ur^' hy Captain M'Donnell, who, crossing the
St Lawrence on the ice, drove out the garrison, and ob-
tained possession of elevci» pieces of cannon a!id a consi-
derable (|uantity of stores. The Americans meantime
were making extraordinary exertions to ojjen the new
campaign under better auspices. At Sackett's Harbour,
on the southern sliore of Ontario, a naval armament
was e<juipped, which gave them for some thne the con-
trol of that fine lake. A large force had ])een assem-
bled and placed under a new commander. General Dear-
born. The plan of this campiiign wjis limited to the con-
quest of Upper Canada, the achievement of which, as
that country was defended l)y only 2100 troops, was
considered beyond tlie reach of chance. On the 25th
April 1813, thegencrnl with Commodore Chauncey em-
barked about 2000 men, and sailed to York (Toronto),
the rising capital of the province. It was then very ill
prepared for resistance, scarcely at all fortified, and
defended by General Sheaffe with only about GOO men.
On the morning of the 27th they reached the place and
succeeded in landing, when, after a brave defence pro-
tracted till two o'clock, the English were obliged to
abandon the town. The invaders suffered chiefly by the
explosion of a mine, which killed or wounded about 260,
including among the former General Pike, a young
officer of distinguished merit, who had planned and con-
ducted the attack. After burning all the public build-
ings, they can'ied off the artillery and naval stores, and
by the 1st May evacuated the place.*

The next enterprise was still more important, being
directed against Fort George, near Newark, at the entrance
of the Niagara channel, considered the chief military posi-
tion in the country. Nearly the whole force was employ-
ed, a small part only being left to defend Sackett's Har-
bour. Brigadier-general Vincent, on the other hand, had

It^

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• James, pp. I3()-I4y, 397-400. Brackenridije, p. 102-106.

il^.

190

mSTORY OP CANADA

only a British (letju'hmont of about 1000 regulars and
3(K) inilititi ; and Ni-wark luwl been exposed to so severe
a fire from the Anioriean fort on the opposite side, that it
was no longer defensible. 'J'hc enemy, the re fore, eould be
resisted only by opjxming his landing, or by beating him
afterwards in the field. When Commodore Chauncey, on
the 27th May, disembarked 4000 men under Dearborn
and Lewis, both these operations were attempted ; but,
after a long and severe eontest, were rendered unavailing
by the superior numbei-s of the invaders. Vineent was
obliged, after calling in the garrisons of Chippeway and
Fort Eric, to retreat first to the Beaver Dams, and then
to Burlington Heights, near the western extremity of
Lake Ontario. The victors could not intercept his re-
treat, but they established for the first time a regular
lodgement in Canada.*

Meantime a respectable naval force having been or-
ganized at Kingston by Sir James Yeo, Sir George
Prevost, the governor, was prevailed upon to employ
it in the attack of Siickett's Harbour, defended only by
a small party, while the main body of the enemy was
employed against Fort George. He sailed on the 27th of
May, with about 750 men ; but on approaching, showed
considerable hesitation, and even gave orders for a return
to Kingston, till, encouraged by the success of the Indians
in capturing twelve boats with seventy dragoons, he suc-
ceeded in effecting a landing on the morning of the 29th.
Notwithstanding the difficulties of the ground, he drove
the enemy before him, till they took shelter in a log-bar-
rack and stockaded fort. Thence they kept up such a
destructive fire, that General Prevost, considering it im-
possible to force the position, and panic-struck, it is said,
by a false alarm raised by General Brown in his rear,
ordered a retreat. Much difference of opinion, how^ever,
prevailed among the officers. Major Drummond is re-
ported to have said : " A few minutes, sir, and I will
put you in possession of the place." He was ordered to

* James, vol. i. pp. 151-164, 407-412. Brackenridge, p. 108-112.

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UNDER TIIK nniTISII.

191

obey ; upon which diHconU^nt and a want of confi(K«nc«
in the conunan«UT-in-chict' htranu' gcneml, and liad a
most injurious effect on tiie suhs(M(ueiit (ipemtionH.*

Fortune, so fuvourahle to the Americans at the open-
ing of the campaign, did not continue so througliout.
Extraordinary exertions were ma(U' in the western sUites,
j)articuhirly Kentucivy. Two corps were formed, and
despatched under (ienerals Wincliester and Harrison to
march in different lines through Michigan ; then to
unite and co-operate in recovering Detroit, and invjvding
the adjoining districts, Wincliester, suspected of u desire
to achieve something before yielding the command to
his coadjutor, advanced with about KKK) men to French-
town, within twenty-six miles of Detroit. Colonel Proc-
tor, justly appreciating the imi)ortjmcc of attticking him
before tlie junction, hastily collected all the force within
his reach, amounting to about 500 whites and 450 In-
dians. With these, on the 22d January 1813, he succeeded
in bringing the enemy to action. 'IMiey made an obsti-
nate resistance, and being posted in houses and enclo-
sures, caused considerable loss to the assailants ; but
they were ultimately overpowered, and nearly all made
prisoners. The general himself was among the number,
having fallen into the hands of a Wyandot Indian, who
stripped off his uniform, adorned his own person with
it, and could not without great difficulty be inducf^d to
make restitution.t

General Hamson, on receiving intelligence of this
disaster, took up a position near the rapids of the
Miami to await reinforcements. Colonel Proctor felt
equally the importance of attiicking him before their
arrival. Having assemliled al)out 1000 regulars and
militia and 1200 Indians, he embarked them at Am-
herstburg on the 23d April, then sailed across Lake
Erie, and up the Miami. Many delays, however, occur-
red, by which the enemy was enabled so to strengthen
his position, that the attack made on the 1st May had

• James, vol. i. pp. Ifi.VlTB, 413-416.

t Ibid. pp. 184.189, 418-425. Brackenridge, pp. 88, 89.

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HISTORY OF CANADA

very little effect. The Americnns were then encour-
aged to assume the offensive, wliich they did with large
bodies of troops, partly landed from the river, partly
sallying from the fort. At first they gained possession
of the British batteries ; but they were then attack-
ed at different points with such decisive success, that
upwards of a thousand were killed or taken, and the rest
with difficulty found refHigc within the intrenchments.
These Proctor found himself still unable to storm ; but
he had so weakened the enemy's force as to remove all
immediate danger of invasion.*

Let us now return to the main theatre of operations
on the Niagara frontier, where we have seen the British
driven before the enemy to Burlington Heights. Dear-
born immediately sent forward Generals Chandler and
Winder, with 4000 men, to destroy if possible this
shattered remnant ; a success which would have been
followed by the conquest of all the western provinces.
On the 5th June they took post at Stoney Creek, to
prepare for operations on the following day. In this
critical situation, Lieutenant-colonel Harvey, having
carefully reconnoitred the enemy's position, suggested a
night-attack, to which General Vincent readily assented.
It was made with 700 chosen troops, and being favoured
by deep darkness, was completely successful ; the Ame-
ricans fled in every direction, and the two commanders,
with seven oflficei's and 116 men, were made prisoners.
The British at daylight withdrew their small force ;
and the Americans boast, that but for the iinaccount-
able capture of the two generals, the advantage was
all on their side. Their loss, indeed, had not been
great ; yet such was the panic inspired by the events
of this night, that before eleven next morning they had
abandoned their camp, and commenced a retreat to
Forty-mile Creek, eleven miles distant. Here they re-
ceived a reinforcement ; but being threatened by Sir
James Yeo, who had come with a squadron and a small

)« I

• James, vol. i. pp. 194-201, 426-428. Brackenridge, p. 96-98.

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UNDER THE BRITISH.

193

hody of troops to supjwrt General Vincent, they deter-
mined on retreating to Niagara. Nor did their disgrace
stop here. Intelligence being received that the English
had a small advanced post at Beaver-dam, Lieutenant-co-
lonel Boerstler, with about 700 men, was sent to attack
it. That officer, however, being unexpectedly assailed,
first by a party of Indians, and soon afterwards by a
small body of regulars, conceived himself to be sur-
rounded, and on being summoned by Lieutenant Fitz-
gibbon, surrendered his whole cori)s prisoners of war.
The Americans now held nothing on the right bank
of the river beyond Fort George. The Britisli even
made incursions on the o])posite sliore, in one of which
Colonel Bisshopp gained possession of Black Rock,
where he destroyed or carried off tlic firms and stores ;
but being unfortunately attacked while re-embarking
by a superior force, his party suffered some loss, and he
himself received thrce wounds, which proved mortal.*

Our coi itrymen at this time gained some advantages
on Lake Chnmplain, taking several vessels, and destroy-
ing the enemy's magazines at Plattsl)urg and Swanton.
Tliey were now, however, destined to experience some
severe reverses, and that too on the theatre of their
most brilliant triumphs.

The Americans made extraordinary exertions to re-
trieve their affairs on the western frontier ; volunteers
crowded from Kentucky, a territory of fierce and war-
like habits, — and by September they had succeeded in
augmenting General Harrison's army to upwards of 5000
men. They had formed another fortified station on San-
dusky river, which Major-general Proctor, without suc-
cess, attempted to reduce. A squadron of nine vessels,
mounting fifty-six guns, had been equipped by them on
Lake Erie, and it was with great difficulty th.'it one at
all able to contend with it could be fitted out by the
British, under Captain Barclay. An engagement took
place, which was maintained with the utmost obsti-

• James, vol. i. pp. 206-229, 431-442. Brackenridge, p. 114-119.
VOL. I. M

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nacy, and the American commodore's ship had even
struck lier flag ; but fortune afterwards turned, and
the conflict ended in the d<»fcat and entire surrender
of the English squadron.* This event reduced General
Proctor to extreme distress, depriving him of access
to supplies and reinforcements, while his stock of pro-
visions had become quite inadequate for his own troops
and the numerous Indians who had joined his standard.
On the arrival, therefore, in the end of September, of
Genei'al Harrison at Detroit, he did not attempt to
maintain his position at Amlierstburg, but retreated
up the liver Thames. The other pursued him closely
with 3500 troops, while Proctor Avas deserted by most of
his Indians, of whom he had now only about 500, with 800
whites. At the Moravian town, on the 5th of October,
he took up a strong position flanked by the river on
one side and a wood on the other, where he hoped to
render unavailing the superior numbers of the enemy.
Harrison, however, had with him a body of combatants
yet unknown in warfare, the Kentucky mounted rifle-
men, accustomed to ride through the woods, using their
weapon with almost preternatural skill. Their very
novelty, he justly hoped, would make a strong im-
pression. Following his instructions, they received the
Are of their opponents, then galloped forward, and in
a few minutes completely broke the British ranks,
spreading among them a general confusion. The severest
conflict was with the Indians, who lost their chief Te-
cumseh, one of the bravest of the brave, stamped a hero
by the hand of nature, and equally distinguished by policy
and eloquence. The main object of his life had been to
unite his followers in a grand confederacy against Ameri-
can encroachment. In enmity to them he had warmly
attached himself to the cause of the British, and aided
them in successive victories. He was shot through the
head by Colonel Johnson, a member of Congress. Ge-
neral Proctor retreated to Ancaster, where he could rally

• James, vol. L p. 263-274. Carey and Lea, p. 62,

UNDER THE BRITISH.

195

only 200 men, with whom he joined the Niagara army,
Harrison, also, having thus recovered Michigan, and
conquered the western districts, marched to reinforce his
countrymen in that quarter.*

The Americans now fonned a plan of operations
on a grander scale, directed against Montreal, the suc-
cess of which would have placed in their hands the
whole of Upper Canada. In this enterprise, two armies
were destined to co-operate ; one consisting of nearly
6000 under Major-general Hampton, from Lake Cham-
plain ; the other amounting to 8800 under Major-general
Wilkinson, from Grenadier Island, near Sackott's Har-
bour on Lake Ontario. As the city was defended by a
very small proportion of the regular soldiers, who were
chiefly employed in the upper province, Hampton hoped,
by pushing vigorously forward, to capture the place with
little difficulty. But having passed the frontier in the
end of October, he found on the banks of the river
Chateauguay the advanced corps of 800 British with
172 Indians, commanded by Lieutenant-colonels De
Salaberry and M'Donnell. These officers posted their
troops so judiciously amid woods, and so skilfully con-
cealed the smallness of their number, that the enemy,
though they made several brisk attacks, were always
repulsed ; and Hampton, believing hhnself opposed by a
large force, determined to retreat.

Meantime the larger expedition under General Wil-
kinson having crossed Lake Ontario, entered the river
St Lawrence. At Williamsburg, two considerable de-
tachments were landed in order at once to clear the banks
and to lighten the boats while descending the rapids.
On the 11th November, one of these, under Major-
general Boyd, encountered Lieutenant-colonel Morrison
with an inferior British force. A very obstinate con-
flict ensued, in which both parties claimed the vic-
tory. The English seem to have gained the chief
honour ; but their success w as not so decisive as to pre-

• James, vol. i. pp. 276-298, 461-458. Brackenridge, p. 146-156.

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HISTORY OF CANADA

vpnt the enemy from continuing to descend the river
towards Montreal. Near Corn^yall the commander re-
ceived despatclu's from General Hampton, intimating
that he declined the expected co-operation, and intended
to fall back upon Lake Champlain. Wilkinson then
conceived it necessary to give up for this season any
attempt upon Montreal, especially as he found the po-
])ulation altogether hostile to the States, and attached to
the British government. He therefore placed his army
in winter quarters near French-mills on the Salmon
river, where he formed a plan for attacking Prescott and
Kingston ; hut finding himself much straitened for pro-
visions, was induced to fall hack upon Plattsburg.*

Meantime the employment of the main army of the
Americans in this abortive expedition, enabled their op-
])onents to resume the offensive on the Niagara frontier.
On the first intelligence of the disasters sustained in the
west, General Vincent had been ordered to fall back upon
Kingston ; but he considered that circumstances now jus-
tified him in maintaining his position. The enemy's force
in this quarter was not only reduced, but was under
the command of Major-general M*Clure, an officer of
little spirit or enterprise. On the advance of a strong
detachment under Colonel Murray, he first fell back
ii])on Fort George, then abandoned that post, previous to
which he barbarously reduced the adjoming town of
Newark to ashes. Murray was not content with driving
him beyond the river : he crossed it, surprised and
stormed Fort Niagara, taking above 400 prisoners, with
a large quantity of arms and stores. The English after-
wards surprised and plundered the villages of Lewis-
ton, Black Rock, and Buffalo, where they retaliated
not very considerately the outrages of M'Clure at Fort
(jreorge.t

Operations were recommenced early in the spring of
1814. Lieutenant-colonel Williams, with 1500 British,

• James, pp. 301-333, 347-350, 467-475. Brackenridge, p.
L')n.l67.
t James, vol. ii. pp. 4, 8-22,396-403. Brackenridge, p. 169-171.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

197

> >

having taken post at La CoUe on the river Richelieu,
Wilkinson, who had upwards of 4000 men at Platts-
burg, determined to attack them. On tlie 30tli March
he completely invested a large mill, which the British
had converted into a fortress. All his attempts to
carry it were, however, fruitless. Major Handcock even
made two attacks on the artillery posted in a wood,
though without success. The American general finally
gave up the undertaking, and fell back upon Platts-
burg. In the beginning of May our countrymen gained
another advantage, carrying, though with some loss, the
fort of Oswego, where tliey captured a considerable
quantity of ammunition and stores.*

The main effort of the enemy during this campaign
was made on the Niagara frontier, where about 5000 men
were placed under Major-general Brown, an officer who
had distinguished himself on several occasions. On the 8d
July he crossed and summoned Fort Erie, which, with
its garrison of 170, immediately surrendered. He then
marched towards Chippeway, and beat at Street's Creek
the advanced-guard of Major-general Riall, which had
endeavoured to stop his progress. The English general
was then obliged to retreat to Fort George, and thence
in the direction of Burlington Heights. Brown here-
upon laid siege to the fort, but finding it stronger
than he expected, and being disappointed of assistance
from Sackett's Harbour, he fell back upon Chippeway.
General Riall, on his part, having received some rein-
forcements, advanced ; the armies came close to each
other, and on the 25th the republicans commenced the
attack. The battle of Lundy's Lane was fought long,
obstinately, and with various fortune, a great part of it
amid thick darkness, which caused several strange mis-
takes. The American general and his second in com-
mand were wounded, and Riall, on the other side, was
taken prisoner. By a singular accident, in the midst of
the conflict, Lieutenant-general Drummond arrived with

* James, vol. i. pp. 83-90, 421-427. Brackenridge, p. 190-193.

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HISTORY OF CANADA

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a reinforcement from York, which restored the battle.
Both sides claim a dearly bought victory ; but the real
issue seems clearly indicated by the retreat of the enemy
to Fort Erie. On the night of the 1 4th of August, Drum-
mond made an attack on the place in two divisions ;
l)ut his men, in both cases, were repulsed with very
severe loss.*

Meantime another part of Canada became the theatre
of important operations. After the successes of the
allied powers in Europe, the capture of Paris, and the
abdication of Napoleon, Britain was enabled to turn
her whole strength against the United States, over
whom a full triumph was then anticipated. A strong
detachment from the south of France arrived in Canada,
and enabled Sir George Prevost to place himself at the
liead of 11,000 men, with whom he undertook to carry
the war into the enemy's country. He proceeded to the
attack of PlattsT)urg on Lake Champlain, defended only
by 1500 troops, the rest having been sent to the upper
province. Macomb, the American commander, on being
pressed by this superior force, fell back on his main
position, which he strongly fortified. Sir George on
the 11th September arrived in front of it ; but a flotilla
under Captam Downie, destined to co-operate with him,
was attacked by the enemy, and under his very eye
completely defeated and captured. Conceiving, after
this disaster, that any success in storming the enemy's
position would be fruitless as to ulterior objects, and a
useless sacrifice of men, he immediately withdrew his
army. This course was not approved by all ; and the
general result, so contrary to expectation, gave rise to
much discontent and recrimination.t

The Americans were still strong in Upper Canada.
On the l7tli General Brown sallied from Fort Erie, and,
though driven back, caused a severe loss to the British,
who soon after raised the siege. Being pressed by a
large additional force under Izard, General Drummond

• James, vol. ii. pp. 143-147, 436-452. Brackenrid^, p. 219-23H.
t James, vol. ii. pp. 213-217, 4G2-468. Brackenridge, p. 266-271 .

\i t

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UNDER THE BRITISH.

199

us mam

retreated to the old position at Burlington Heights ;
but receiving a reinforcement, consisting of a detach-
ment of the troops newly arrived from Europe, he again
advanced. Izard, who did not dare to face him, evacuated
Fort Erie, and took up winter quarters on the opposite
side of the river. During this autumn the republicans
gained some advantages <m Lake Erie, but were re-
pulsed with considera])le loss in an attempt to recover
Fort Micliillimakinac."^*

The war meantime in other parts of America was
productive of important events. The British obtained
possession of Washington, where they destroyed the
public edifices and property ; but they were defeated
in their attacks upon Baltimore and New Orleans. Thus,
while one party felt itself engaged in an unequal contest,
the other had not reaped the expected advantages from
its superior means. Both became inclined for peace,
which was concluded at Glient on the 24th December
1814 upon tenns which, after this long and chequered
contest, brought back the two powers to exactly the
same position as when they had commenced.

Sir George Prevost was succeeded in April 1815 by
Sir George Gordon Drummond, under whom some dis-
contents began again to appear. These referred chiefly
to the conduct of the judges, whom the Assembly viewed
with such jealousy that they had impeached at one time
the heads of the court both at Quebec and Montreal. In
1816, Sir John Coape Sherbrooke went out as governor-
general ; and under his administration, at once vigorous
and conciliatory, harmony was little interrupted. In 1818,
he was instructed by Earl Bathurst to accept the offer
formerly made to pay the whole civil list out of the funds
of the province ; and he applied, not for a permanent
settlement, but merely for the sum necessary to meet the
current expenses. This was readily granted, and m order
to raise it new taxes were imposed, of which, however,
the Assembly reserved to themselves the appropriation.

* James, vol. ii. pp. 230-240, 470. Brackenridge, p. 2 il .

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HISTORY OP CANADA

Sir Jolm being obliged by severe illness to return
to England, was succeeded in 1818 ])y the Duke of
Richmond. This amiable nobleman, though pei*8onally
popular, introduced an innovation, which led to the
long and serious conflict between the Crown and the
Assembly. Instead of submitting, like his predeces-
sor, a detailed estimate of every object of expendi-
ture, he divided the whole into chapters, each compre-
hending a head or branch, the entire amoimt of which
was alone specified. The Assembly refused to sanction
such a change, and passed a vote according to the estimate
of the fonner governor, stating each payment in detail.
The legislative council, however, withheld their con-
curi'cnce from this resolution ; and the duke, express-
ing his disjjleasure with the lower house, had recourse
to the irregular measure of drawing upon the receiver-
general for the sum which he had demanded.

In September 1819, his Grace's life and government
were suddenly tenninated by an attack of hydrophobia.
After short intervals under the Hon. James Monk and
Sir Pcregi'ine Maitland, the Earl of Dalhousie, in 1820,
was removed from Nova Scotia to Canada. This noble-
man, possessing a high military reputation and an amiable
disposition, had been very popular in his fomier station ;
yet, sharing with his advisers, it is probable, those ex-
treme monarchical ideas which had hitherto prevailed
in the colonies, he was ill fitted to meet the new crisis
that had arisen. Having estimated £22,000 as the
amount necessary for the public service, in addition to
the revenues vested in the Crown, he solicited this sum
as a permanent grant. But the Assembly refused to pass
more than an annual bill of supply, in which they spe-
cified every item. The council again rejected their vote,
with the entire concurrence of the governor, who hesi-
tated not to draw upon the treasurer for even a larger
amount than had been asked from the Assembly.

Earl Bathurst, on receiving notice of these proceed-
ings, did not disapprove of Lord Dalhousie's conduct,
but strongly recommended economy. He directed also.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

201

that two estimates should he presented, one emhrncing
tlic government expenses, to he defrayed l)y funds of
which the Crown claimed the entire disposal ; the other
to 1)0 employed on popular ohjects, in regard to which
the memhers might he left une<mtrolled. At the same
time, it was enjoined that hoth of these should he given
in full detail. This aiTangement was well received, the
required sum was voted, and the session terminated amid
mutual courtesies.

In the year 1823, the popular cause was strengthened
by the insolvency of the receiver-general. Sir John Cald-
well ; an inquiry into whose accounts had been vainly
demanded by the Assembly, and who proved to be in-
debted to the public nearly L.100,000. When, in the
following year, the governor presented his estimates, the
representatives assumed a high tone ; disputing the right
of the Crown to select the objects on which to employ
its revenue ; condemning the unlawful appropriation of
public money, and materially reducing the amount of
the sum demanded. These proceedings drew forth a
strong expression of displeasure from Lord Dalhousie.

In 1825, the government, during his lordship's tem-
porary absence, was administered by Sir Francis Burton.
This officer, anxious to conciliate the lower house, yielded
nearly all the points in dispute. He sanctioned a bill of
supply, in which no distinction was made between the
government and the popular expenditure ; an annual
grant being made, with considerable reductions, so that a
virtual control over the wdiole revenue was thereby con-
ceded to the members. Accordingly, they now openly
claimed the right to appropriate all that was raised
within the province, denying the privilege, hitherto ex-
ercised by government, of the uncontrolled disposal of
certain branches. These were the produce of duties on
imports, imposed by act of Parliament in 1774, and
yielding annually about L.84,000, with some of smaller
amount arising from the sale of land, timber, and other
casual sources. Earl Bathurst strongly disapproved of
the concessions made by Burton ; and Lord Dalhousie,

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202

niSTORY OP CANADA

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havinpf resumed office in 182fi, disallowed a bill in which
the uhove claim wuh incorjwruted.

Lord G<)<l('rich, who in 1B27 received the seals of the
Colonial Office, though he maintained the right of go-
vernment to diHj)ose of the disputed revenue, yet directed
that an offer should he made of resigning it to the Assem-
bly on their granting an annual civil list of L.36,000. On
the meeting of that body, however, M. Papineau was
elected speaker ; an appointment which, on account of his
violent oi)position to the measures of administration,
Lord Dalhousic refused to sanction. The consequence
was, that no session of either house was held in the
winter of 1827-1 H28.*

Discontent had now risen to an alarming height ; and
in the latter year, a petition was presented to the king,
signed by 87,000 inhabitants, complaining of the conduct
of successive governors, particularly of the Earl of Dal-
housie, and urging a compliance with the demands of the
Assembly. Mr Iluskisson, who had become colonial
minister, moved that this petition should be referred to
a committee of the House of Commons. One was accord-
ingly named, composed in a great degree of members
attached to liberal principles, who, after a very elaborate
investigation, gave in a report, in which they strongly
condemned the practice of appropriating large sums
taken from the public revenue without the sanction of
the representatives of the people. With regard to the
main portion of the disputed income, being that produced
by the duties of 1774, its disposal appeared, from the
report of his majesty's law officers, to be vested in the
Crown ; yet the committee judged, that the real interests
of the province would be best promoted by placing the
whole under the control of the Assembly. At the same
time they distinctly expressed their opinion that the
governor, the judges, and the executive council, should
be made independent of the annual votes of that body.

* Despatches from tlie Earl of Aberdeen to Earl Amherst (ordered
to be minted 22d March 1838), pp. 10, 11. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p.
395-398.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

203

They recommended that a more liheral character should
he conferred on the lejj^iHlative and executive councils ;
and that the puhlic lands should h(! assigned in a more
heneficial manner. Generally admitting that the griev-
mices complained of were more or less well founded, they
advised a thorou^dl and effectual redress.

This report aj^jKuirs to have given very decided satis-
faction in the c(dony, and the Assemhly ordered it to be
printed, and 400 copies distributed.* In a series of
resolutions pusvsed on the 1J)tli March lOHO, they seem to
limit tlieir demands to tiu* complete fulfilment of its
provisions.t Sir James Kempt, who was sent out in
1828, had l)een furnished with instructions to carry the re-
commendations of the committee into effect with as little
delay as possible, and generally to follow a conciliatory
system. He appears to have proceeded with zeal and
efficiency in the prescribed course. Three new mem-
bers were added to the legislative council, who are said
to have been agreeable to the popular party. The
judges, with the exception of the Chief Justice, whose
advice on legal questions was considered desirable, were
requested with some earnestness to resign their places in
that body. They declined compliance, but agreed to
take no share in its deliberations, and did not after-
wards attend its sittings. New members were also added
to the executive council, in which seats were even of-
fered to Neilson and Papineau, the leaders of the oppo-
sition. The act transferring to the Assembly the revenue
in dispute could not be obtained immediately, but it
was promised on the first meeting of Parliament. The
Assembly, however, in voting the supplies of 1829, had
proceeded on the supposition of having the whole at their
disposal, and cut off' several thousand pounds from the
governor's estimates ; but as the vote did not appear to
involve any absolute recognition of their claim, and as it
seemed inexpedient to dispute a point virtually given up,

• Minutes of the Evidence taken before the Select Committee
appointed in 1834 on the Affairs of Lower Canada.

<ii

t Ibid. p. a.

204

niSTORY OP CANADA

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Sir Jftmcs yielded his jwsent. This step, though not ap-
proved hy Sir (Jeorge Murray, was not, under the ])e(uliar
circumstances of the case, positively disidlowed. 'Jlie
goveiTior is said to have treated the ruling })arty in the
Assenihly with a courtesy ( ( manners to which they had
not heen accustomed; and on his departure in IBHO,
addresses were presented to him hy the most respcctaldc
inhahitiints of Q^uehec and Montreal, which were signed
by Paj)ineau and other popular leaders.*

Lord Aylmer immediately succeeded to the govern-
ment. His communications with the Assembly were
of the most friendly description ; and though circum-
stances conse([uent on the death of George IV. had
still j)rc vented the passing of the proposed act, it was
promised with all practicable speed. Lord Goderich,
who now presided hi the Colonial Office, directed that the
items, which had been again rejected in 1830,and amount-
ed now to i;7500, should not be longer pressed, but a
compensiition be re(juested for several hidividuals who
had been thereby deprived of their income. On the
24th December, his lordship sent tAvo despatches, inti-
mating his intention to bring in a bill which should em-
power his majesty to place the proceeds of the duties in
question at the dispostil of the Assembly. In retuni,
that body was expected to make a permanent provision
for the judges, as well as for the principal officers of go-
vernment. The demand was fixed, according to a very
moderate estimate, at i,*ll),100, which, by a grant of
£5000, made in 1795 for the support of the civil govern-
ment, would be reduced to £14,100. It was intimated,
however, that the casual and teiTitorial revenues, arising
from the sale of land, the cutting of timber, and other
sources, were still to be considered as belonging to the
king. They had amountedin the previous yeartOilll,231 ;
but were ^educed, by expenses of collection and other
deductions, to about £7500. This sum it was proposed

• Evidence before Committee of 1834, pp. 4, 5, 8, 87, 91-93.
Existing Diiliculties in the Government of the Canadas, by J. A.
Hoebuck, M. P. (London, 1830), p. 16.

UNDER Tin: imiTisii.

20ij

to nnploy diiofly in paying' f ho stipends of tlic olcr^y of
the Ivstublislu'cl Cluiivli, liitherto drawn, not vory ap-
propiiiitcly, out of the aniiy extnioidinarics. It was
urfiird, tliat these funds beloiig('<l If'^ally and constitu-
tionally to his majesty, whow einploynient of them upon
objects, not of mere patroiuip^t , hut closely eonuccted
witli tlie interests of the [)rovince, eouhl not he reason-
ably objected to.

Lord Ayhner was well aware that this last reserva-
tion would be deemed very unsatisfactory ; but he con-
sidered it most prudent to lay before the Assembly a
full and frank statement of the views of g'overnment.
That body, after inquirinjj: into the mode of collection
and amount of these revenues, passed a resolution, that
" under no circumstances, and upon no consideration
whatever, they would abandon or compromise their
claim to control over the whole i)ublic revenue." Parti-
cular objection was also intimated to the support of ex-
clusive reli;j^ious establishments ; doubtless more stron;2:ly
felt from the circumstance that the church to ha endowed
was different from that of the ruling party. They deter-
mined, therefore, for the present, not to grant any per-
manent sup])ly ; and on the tttli March 18J31, drew up,
on the motion of Mr Neilson, n pretty long list of griev-
ances, which was presented to the governor. He ex-
pressed in return an earnest wish to know if these com-
prised the whole of their complaints ; giving them to
understand that silence would be construed into an ad-
mission of their being so. They were accordingly silent ;
passed a bill of annual supply ; and showed on the wholo
u more favourable tone and temper.'"*

His lordship transmitted the list of complaints, with
an admission that many of them were well founded, at
the same time strongly eulogizing the loyal disposition
of the people of Canada. Lord Goderich, in a long reply,
dated July 7, 1831, declared, that there was scarcely a
poin which government were not ready to concede, and

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* Evidence before Comraittee of 1834, pp. 9-13, 19-25, 31-40.

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206

HISTORY OF CANADA

expressed his satisfaction at the prospect thus afforded
of a termination to this long and harassing contest. This
despatch was laid before the House, who, in a scries of
resolutions, declared their gratitude for tlie expressions
of his majesty's paternal regard, the proofs of a just and
liberal policy, and the feelings of kindness and good- will
manifested in it. The different points to which it re-
lated were referred to separate committees.*

Soon after, a despatch from the colonial secretary
made known that the act for transferring the funds in
dispute had passed the houses of Parliament and re-
ceived the royal assent. Whether from extreme libera-
lity or total inadvertence, it was so worded as to preclude
the imperial treasury from ever exercising any control
over them, leaving thus no roo-n for negotiation with
the Assembly. Lord Aylmer was instructed, however,
to demand, in return, a grant of permanent salaries to
the judges, who were also, according to the Assembly's
desire, to be made independent of the crown ; and a si-
milar provision was asked for the governor and a few of
the chief executive officers. This matter being referred
to the Assembly, they began, on the 2()tli January 1882,
with the first particular. On providing that the judges
should be independent of the crown, and, with the excep-
tion of the Chief Justice, should not sit in the executive
or legislative councils, it was determined that pemianent
salaries should be paid to them. But, at the same time,
a motion of Mr Neilson was carried by a large majority,
that these should be drawn in the first instance from the
casual and territorial revenues, which Lord Goderich
had expressly reserved to the Crown. Lord Aylmer
considered it therefore necessary to send home the bill,
yet with an advice to accept the terms, as the best
there was any likelihood of obtaining. It was rejected,
however, on two grounds ; — first, that it did not render the
judges really independent of the Assembly, but left an
annual vote still necessary. We cannot help suspecting

• Evidence, 1834, p. 37-47.

UNDER THE BRITISH. 20?

that there was here an unhappy misconception. The
terms of the bill are, " that the salaries .ImA be se-
cured to them in a fixed and permanent manner ;" and
" shall be taken and paid out of the proceeds of the
casual and territorial revenue, and the revenue now ap-
propriated by acts of the provincial Parliament, for
defraying the charges of the administration of justice,
and the support of the civil government, and out of any
other public revenue of the province which may be, or
come into the hands of the receiver-general." It would
appear that, according to the plain meaning of lan-
guage, these terms involved a full warrant for pay-
ment. Probably Lord Goderich had legal advice, and
some technical terms usual in British acts might be
wanting ; but a provincial legislature could scarcely be
expected to be fully aware of these niceties. The legisla-
tive body, the governor, and we doubt not also the As-
sembly, had considered this as a permanent settlement ;
the latter, had it been so acted on, probably would not,
and certainly could not reasonably have objected. The
other ground was the encroachment upon the casual and
territorial revenue, which, made in this indirect manner,
was considered peculiarly offensive, though Lord Goderich
had been fully apprized of their determination against
any agreement in which this article was not included.*
The next question which came before the Assembly
was, the demand of a pennanent provision for the go-
vernor and a certain number of the leading executive
officers. After a long debate, however, it was carried
by a large majority in the negative. This decision
placed the Assembly completely at issue with the Crown,
and has been represented as a breach of faith on their
part. They had not, it is true, come under any formal
engagement ; yet the report of the committee of 1828,
which decidedly connected this arrangement with the ces-
sion of the disputed revenues, had always been referred
to by them as embracing almost every thing desired ;

1 ■>!
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Evidence, 1834, p. 56-65.

208

HISTORY OF CANADA

and to this part of it they had never hmted any
objection. On the 6th December 1830, they had passed
resolutions, insisting indeed on the control of the entire
revenue, but expressing an intention, were this gained,
to grant the permanent provision now demanded. That
preliminary claim certainly embraced also tlie casual
and territorial branches still withheld ; yet these were
not of great amount ; and the present bill, like that
relating to the judges, might have been so framed as to
be inoperative without these funds being embraced by
it. No reason was assigned ; but the view of the As-
sembly is stated to have been, that the executive not
being dependent on them for a naval and military esta-
blishment, would, in case of such a permanent settle-
ment, have been entirely free from that control which
they sought to exercise over it. They passed, however,
a vote of annual supply, which Lord Goderich, though
much dissatisfied with the tenor of their proceedings,
thought it expedient to sanction.*

Next year (1883) the Assembly still granted only an
annual bill, in which, according to a requisition of Lord
Goderich, they stated the purposes to which each par-
ticular sum was to be applied. They added, without
its being asked or wished, the individuals to whom it was
to be paid ; and appended a number of conditions, chiefly
bearing, that such persons should not hold any other situa-
tion, and should not be members of the executive or
legislative councils. This was considered objectionable,
because public officers were thus suddenly deprived of
situations which they had long held, without any con-
sideration of their claims to compensation ; also because
those regulations ought not to have been tacked to a
money bill, but made the subject of a separate enactment.
On these grounds this bill was negatived by the legis-
lative council, and Lord Stanley, who had been placed at
the head of the Colonial Office, intimated, that had it
reached him, he could not have advised his majesty to

* Evidence, 1834, p. 58-63.

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UNDER THE BRITISH.

209

assent to it. In the same session, a measure was intro-
duced for securing independence and permanent pro-
vision to the judges, in a form calculated to obviate Lord
Goderich's chief objections ; but on the motion of M,
Papineau it was rejected, and the speeches of the leaders
of the Assembly are said to have implied, that it was no
longer considered advisable to exempt these functionaries
from their control.""*

The breach now continually widened. Lord Stanley,
considering the conduct of the Canadians as manifesting
a resolution to engross the whole power of the state,
directed the funds not yet made over by Parliament to
be employed in the partial pajonent of the civil officers ;
and he is said to have determined to bring in a bill
for repealing the act by which the concession had been
made. Meantime the Assembly had raised, and placed
in the front of their demands, a new article, which
almost entirely precluded all hope of accommodation,
namely, the abolition of the present legislative council,
and the substitution of one elected, like themselves, by
the body of the people. Such an arrangement was with-
out example in any British colony ; and the existing state
of political feeling in the mother country would have
rendered it scarcely possible for ministers to propose
it in Parliament. It had beenfirst started in March 1881,
when Lord Aylmer had just gone out with the an-
nounced intention of acting upon the report of 1828,
and redressing, if possible, every grievance hitherto com-
plained of. There seemed therefore room to suspect, that
the conciliatory disposition shown, instead of producing
final satisfaction, had only prompted to higher demands,
through the belief that by perseverance they would
finally obtain whatever they chose to ask. Yet, though
a resolution of the committee to that effect was approved
by the members, it was not expressly included in the list
of grievances then presented. But on the 20th March
1883, a petition to the king, signed by M. Papineau,

Evidence, 1834, p. 74-79.

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VOL. I.

210

HISTORY OF CANADA

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speaker of the House of Assembly, strenuously urged
this measure, and the calling of a body of delegates to
arrange the conditions. The leading ones proposed were, a
qualification in the electors of £10 in the country and of
£20 in towns, a certain income to qualify the councillor,
and the duration of his functions for six years. Lord
Stanley in reply said this was an object to which, deeming
it altogether inconsistent with the very existence of mo-
narchical institutions, he could never advise his majesty to
consent ; and he particularly objected to the proposed mode
of effecting it, by what he tenned "a national convention."
A counter address, however, by the legislative councO,
was censured as intemperate in its language, and ap-
pearing to ascribe generally to his majesty's subjects of
one origin views inconsistent with their allegiance. In
conclusion, he alluded to " the possibility that events
might unhappily force upon Parliament the exercise of
its supreme authority to compose the internal dissensions
of the colonies, and which might lead to a modification
of the charter of the Canadas."*

This despatch was submitted to the Assembly, and
its entii'e tenor, particularly the implied threat at the
close, excited the highest indignation in that body.
They declined this year (1834) to pass any bUl of
supply whatever, and employed the session in prepar-
ing another long list of grievances. They complained,
that while those formerly urged were still unredressed,
there had been added the partial payment of the civil
officers without tlieir consent. They made a peremptory
demand of the elective legislative council, without
which nothing would be accepted as satisfactory. Lord
Aylmer's conduct was reprobated as violent, unconstitu-
tional, and contemptuous, and his recall urgently de-
manded. The published correspondence assuredly does
not bear out this charge. His addresses to the As-
sembly are particularly courteous ; and he recommends
generally to the government at home concessions so ex-

* Evidence, IU34, pp. 78, 11)3-200. Roebuck, p. 17.

ions so ex-

UNDER THE BRITISH.

211

tensive, that Lord Godcrieh, himself considered liberal
towards the colonies, refused to accede to them. The
petition, however, was presented to Parliament, and a
committee appointed for its consideration.

Meantime Lord Stanley retired from power, and was
succeeded in the colonial department by Mr Spring
Rice. This gentleman renounced the design entertain-
ed by his predecessor of recalling the revenues yielded
to the Assembly, and gave intunation, it is said, that he
would follow a more conciliatory course. He only asked
a little time till he could make himself master of the sub-
ject ; and thus the popular leaders were induced to delay
taking any strong measures. They bitterly complained,
however, that the administration was carried on as b-^fore.
Lord Aylmer was continued in the government, and
though the Canadian funds were not entrenched upon,
a sum of £31,000 was advanced from the military chest
for payment of the civil servants, by which their re-
sponsibility to the Assembly was equally evaded. Before
Mr Rice had matured his plan, he was removed from
office by the accession of Sir Robert Peel to power.
He stated that he had it completed, and was ready
to submit it to the cabinet on the very day' when this
change occurred ; an assertion which Mr Roebuck treats
with evident scepticism, though seemingly without any
adequate ground.

Sir Robert, on assuming the reins of office, early di-
rected his attention to the disturbed state of Canada.
After some deliberation, he determined to send out a
commissioner, with power to examine on the spot, and
redress without delay, every real grievance which should
be proved to exist. Even the casual and territorial re-
venues were to be surrendered, on condition of the set-
tlement of a civil list for at least seven years. The
elective legislative council, however, and the entire
management of the public lands could not be conced-
ed.* Viscount Canterbury, the late speaker, was first

* Despatch from the Earl of Aberdeen to I'arl Amherst, p. 3-(}.

Hit

■i

I'':'

212

HISTORY OP CANADA

1 M

invited to fill this important appointment, and, on his
declining, it was conferi'ed on Earl Amherst. This ar-
rangement, however, was nullified by the vote which
led to the resignation of Sir Robert, and the return of
Lord Melbourne to power.

The restored ministry followed up, with certain modi-
fications, the plan of their predecessors. A commission
was sent out, for inquiry only and without the power of
decision, composed of the following individuals, — the Earl
of Gosford, Sir Charles Edward Grey, and Sir George
Gipps. The first, an Irish nobleman, professing prin-
ciples decidedly liberal, succeeded Lord Aylmer as go-
vernor. Lord Glcnelg, now the colonial secretary,
drew up for their guidance a series of instructions,
in which he considered the claim to the disposal of the
entire revenue somewhat exorbitant, and not warranted
by British example, yet was willing, for the sake of
peace, to consent to it, on certain conditions. These
were, an independent provision for the judges, and sala-
ries for the civil officers, fixed for a certain number of
years, ten being mentioned as particularly suitable.
With regard to the uncleared lands, the whole proceeds
arising from their sale were to be placed at the disposal
of the Assembly ; but government could not consent to
part with the management of them, or annul the con-
tract made with the Land Company, though they
would be ready to guard against all abuses, and even
to receive any suggestions on the subject. The exist-
ing pensions w^re also to be retained, but the future
power of granting them would be surrendered. In re-
gard to the critical question of the elective legislative
council, it was said, — " The king is most unwilling to
admit, as open to debate, the question, whether one of
the vital principles of the provincial govermnerii i-^.iall
undergo alteration." The right of petition, however,
was fully recognised, and his majesty would not " ab-
solutely close the avenue to inquiry," even where, " for
the present, he saw no reasonable ground of doubt."*

* Copy of the Instructions to the Earl of Gosford, &c. p. 5-13.

s, — the Earl

UNDER THE BRITISH.

213

The Earl of Gosford having arrived in Canada, lost no
time in calling a meeting of the legislature, who were
convoked on the 27th Octoher 1835 ; and in his opening
speeches, he professed the most conciliatory views, par-
ticularly towards the French or popular party. He
avowed the opinion, that " to be acceptable to the great
body of the people, is one of the most essential elements
of fitness for public station." He intimated his readiness
to place the whole revenue at the disposal of the Assem-
bly on the conditions formerly stated. All the other
grievances were to be carefully examined and redressed ;
and allusion was made to " still graver matters," respect-
ing which the commissioners " were not precluded from
entering into an inquiry."

The legislative council returned an answer which, in
all respects, w^as extremely moderate. They generally
concurred in the sentiments of the speech, deprecated the
idea that difference of origin should affect political rights,
which ought to be equal to all his majesty's subjects.
But the House of Assembly, while holding conciliatory
language, advanced much more lofty pretensions. The
change in the legislative council was repeatedly pressed,
as absolutely essential to the tranquillity and content-
ment of the province. The entire control of the public
revenue was referred to, not as a boon, but an incontest-
able and essential right ; and while they stated their
readiness to consider attentively any measure tending to
facilitate the exercise of this right, tiiey avoided all
mention of conditions to be performed in return. Not-
withstanding the high ground thus taken, the inter-
course between the popular leaders and the governor
was extremely friendly. He admitted them to his table
and his intimacy, and treated them on every occasion
with much kindness. They were understood to represent
the great body of the people, whom he had expressed his
desire to conciliate ; and he professed liberal views to
those who would understand that term in its widest
So decided was the impression produced, that

sense.

^■H

! !• I

I' <' I

i\m

the opposite party loaded him with the bitterest invec-

214

HISTORY OF CANADA

t f ■'

■

! li'

tivcs, and even threw out menaces of insurrection ; while
the leaders of the Assembly went so far as to intimate,
that they would relieve the immediate financial em-
barrassments ])y granting the three years' arrears, and a
half-year in advance. They attached to the grant some-
what hard conditions, which, however, were not rejected ;
and on the remark being made, that these would ensure
its rejection by the legislative council, an inthnation is
said to have ])een given, that it would be accepted di-
rectly by address, without being liable to the veto of
that body.*

This good understanding was suddenly interrupted.
The governor's language above cited, in regard to the elec-
tive council, had been very different from that of his in-
structions, not pledging him indeed to the measure, yet
such as, combined with his other conduct, conveyed to
l)oth part o the idea that it was determined upon. This
course is defended as the only one by vrhich the supplies
so urgently wanted could be obtained ; and it was hoped,
that by a continued conciliatory course, the Assembly
might, when the real intention of the cabinet could no
longer be concealed,be induced to wave their demand. Any
degree of duplicity in a government, however, must, when
discovered, lower its dignity, ii'ritate the deceived parties,
and, at the same time, give them an impression of their
strength, which had driven those in authority to such an
expedient. Unhappily all those effects followed, before
any of the expected fruits had been reaped. Sir Francis
Bond Head had at the same time been sent out to Upper
Canada, and being a very straightforward person, and
seemingly unapprized of Lord Gosford's intentions, had
made public u part of the insti*uctions, including that
momentous passage already quoted, relative to the le-
gislative council. It was such as, though not wholly
precluding discussion on the ouject, left to the popular

• Papers relating to Lower Canada (20th February 1837), p. 4-12.
Anti-Gallic Letters, by Camillus (Montreal, 1836), p. 35-4L Cor-
respndence on Canada Affairs (Brighton, 1836), p. 3-6, &c.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

215

leaders scarcely a hope of its attainment. Their rage
knew no bounds ; they comphiined not only of disap-
pomtinent in their favourite object, but of a deception
by which they had been nearly misled. It was now
determmed not to grant the three years' arrears, but
merely a supply for the current half-year, allowing
only that short period to comply with their demands.
This slender boon, too, was clogged with conditions
which, as had been foreseen, induced the upper house
to reject it, so that the session, in all respects very stormy,
passed over without any provision whatever being made
for the public service. The legislative council felt na-
turally indignant at the violent attempts meditated for
its overthrow, and instead of studymg to show these to
be unmerited, the members vented their resentment by
rejecting almost every bill sent up from the Assembly.
Among these was the vote contmumg the funds for
national education, which were thus enth'ely withdrawn.
All the political elements were disturbed, and in violent
collision with each other.*

The commissioners, in March 1836, viewing this state
of things, and seeing no prospect of obtaining money to
carry on the government, without immediately yielding
to every demand of the lower house, considered it indis-
pensable to obtain it without their consent. This, they
thought, would be best accomplished by Parliament
repealmgthe act passed on the motion of Lord Goderich,
by which funds to the amount of £38,000 had been
made over to the Assembly. This would indeed excite
bitter resentment ; but with the other reserved reve-
nues, it would at least enable the government to proceed
without any grants from that be ly. Lord Glenelg was
not forward to act on this recommendation. He wrote
to the Earl of Gosford, expressing a hope, on grounds
which do not very distinctly appear, that the violent
resolution complained of had been mduced by the partial

■ »>■ — ----- - - ■ - ■■ ■ ■ — — ■' ■ — ■—

• Roebuck, p. 39. The late Session of the Provincial Parlia-
ment (Montreal, 10^6), p. 13-211.

i*[

■'^l

L**<_A«-*t* ■«^'•r

216

HISTORY OF CANAD.

and imperfect knowledge of the Instnictions, and that a
communication of the whole might k^id to more favour-
able views. He expressed a wish, therefore, that the
provincial Parliament should he again called, and an
opportunity afforded for retracting, before recourse was
had to extreme measures. The meeting was accordingly
held on the 22d of September 1836 ; but the majority
soon presented an address to the governor, denying that,
according to the apprehension expressed in his speech,
they lal)oured under any kind of misconception ; they
saw nothing to make them change their views, or pre-
vent them from insisting on the same demands, parti-
cularly that of the elective council. They adverted in
an indignant manner to certain pretended authoi » ties,
as they termed the commission, and maintained that ihey
themselves were the legitimate and authorized organ of
all classes of inhabitants ; that they had used their power
in such a manner as ought to have secured confidence ;
and to them, not to a few strangers, ought to have been
committed the fate of the country. They declared it
their imperative duty to adhere to the - .^ntents of their
last address ; " and to them do we adhere." They
finally expressed a resolution not only to do nothing
more in regard to supply, but to adjourn their delibera-
tions altogether, unless government should commence
the great work of justice and reform, particularly in
regard to the second branch of the legislature.*

Matters had now reached an extremity which seemed
to render it no longer possible to delay an interposition.
The stoppage of the supplies, like the granting of them,
was no doubt a right inherent in a representative assem-
bly. Yet it is one, the exercise of which is attended
with such formidable evils, that the Commons of Eng-
land, during more than a century, had merely kept it
in the background as a last resort, and never brought
it into actual operation. The constitutional character

* Second Report of Canada Commissioners, p. 93-95, &c. Papers
relating to Lower Canada, p. 31-41.

UNDER THE BRITISH. 2J7

of the measure became still more questionable, when
employed, not to control the a])uses of the executive,
but to overthrow a separate and co-ordinate branch of
the legislature, derivin*^ its existen(to from the same
source with the Assembly itself. This was a miglity
change, amounting to a kind of revolution, and to bo
effected only with the utmost deliberation. The stop-
ping the whole machine of government, and not allow-
ing even an interval of time to effect it, was a measure
of extreme violence. Had the popular leaders listened
to the dictates of prudence and moderation, they might,
availing themselves of the conciliatory disj)osition shown
by the new governor, have obtained all their substantial
objects. They would have gained the chief control in
the executive, after which the legislative council, whom
they continually reproached with subserviency to the
latter branch, were not likely to persevere in unavailing
opposition.

Ministers now determined no longer to delay mea-
sures for counteracting the proceedings of the violent
party, and placing the executive government in a state
of regular action. Parliament having assembled, and
the reports of the commissioners being laid on the table,
Lord John Russell, on the 6th March 1037, moved a
series of resolutions on which acts were to be founded.
After a statement of the actual posture of affairs, it was
proposed that the sum of £142,000 should be taken out
of the provincial funds locked up by the Assembly, and
applied to the payment of the judges and other civil
officers, down to the 10th April. It was afterwards
agreed, not, as the commissionei*s had recommended, to
resume any part of the ceded monies, but by a strict
economy to carry on the government from that date with
the casual and territorial revenues, which circumstances
had now raised to about £28,000. The elective legislative
council, and the direct responsibility of the executive
one to the Assembly, were both declared inexpedient ;
though it was stated as desirable that considerable im-
provements should be made in the composition of both.

fci

218

HISTORY or CANADA

TI1C8C suggestions gave occiiHion to very wnrin (Icbates.
The Tories, w^hile they supported the j)ropoMals of go-
vernment, aecused them of an ini})rudent iiuhilgenee
and want of energy, whieh hud enibohlened the faetioua
l)arty to proceed to extremities. On the other hand,
a small but active section of the j)()j)uhir leadei*s jus-
tified all the claims and proceedings of the Canadian
Assembly, denounced the Resolutions as unconstitutional
and tyrannical, and predicted as their nsvilt civil war
and the loss of the colonics. The motion of Mr Leader,
however, in favour of an elective council, was negatived
by 318 to 6G, and the cabinet measures were carried by
overwhelming majorities ; but the death of William IV.
intervened before they could be embodied in acts of
Parliament. The necessity of a dissolution, and the
unwillingness to begin the government of a young and
popular queen by a scheme of coercion, induced ministers
to substitute the expedient of advancing the amount by
way of loan from the British revenue, in the pros-
pect of bemg ulthnately reimbursed from the provuicial
funds.

As an interval was to elapse between the passing of
the Resolutions and their beuig acted on, Lord Gosford
was instmcted to make a last trial of the Assembly, in
hopes that, seeing such a vast majority in Parliament
against them, they might be induced of themselves to
vote the money, and thus save the necessity of any un-
wonted interference. Already, however, several violent
demonstrations had taken place. Meetings were held in
the counties of Montreal and Richelieu, in which it was
affinned, that the votes of the commons had put an end
to all hopes of justice ; and that no further attempts
should be made to obtain redress from the Imperial
Parliament. They considered the government as now
only one of force, to be submitted to from necessity
during their present v/eakness ; and in order to re-
duce as far as possible its power, they declared that all
consumption of British manufactures and of articles pay-
ing taxes, ought to be discontinued ; and finally, that a

ill

)ii, uiul the

UNDER THE BRITISH.

211)

general convention bhould l)e held, to consider what
farther meusures were advisahlo.

Lord Gleneljr, in conae(|uenee of this state of things in
Canada, hml r»'Holved to send out two ad<Iitional regi-
ments ; hut .terwards, finding tins to he inconveni-
ent, he gave authority to ai)j)ly to Sir Cohn Canij>-
hell for sueli force as couM l)e si)ared from Nova Scotia
and New Brunswick. On the 0th May the governor
re])lie(l, that he had not the least expectation of any
thing serious, though in case of a dissolution he ad-
mitted that " there might ho some hroken heads." On
the 10th June, however, upon learning that a system
of organization was carrying on under the influence of
ra])ineau, he ai)j)lie(l to Sir Colin for a regiment, which
arrived early in Jnly. He had already issued a procUw-
mation, warning the peoi)le against all attempts to se-
duce them from their allegiance. Meetings, numerously
attended, were held in M(mtrcal and Q,uc])ec, condemn-
ing the violent conduct of the House of Assemhly, de-
claring attachment to British connexion, and deprecat-
ing any hreach of the puhlic peace.*

On the ]8tli August Lord Gosfprd again called the
provincial Parliament. The Resolutions were laid hefore
the Assembly, with the expression of a hope that its pro-
ceedings would supersede the necessity of their l)eing
acted on. The changes in the constitution of the councils
had heen unfortunately delayed by difficulties as to cer-
tain appointments ; but these improvements were solemn-
. ly promised. Warm debates ensued. Mr Andrew Stuart,
one of the members for Quebec, proposed a compliance
with the request of government, which was negatived by
63 to 13. An address was then moved by M. Taschereau,
a representative of the county of Beauce, expressing a
willingness to give a trial to the means proposed for
amendhig the legislative council, but declining any grant
till they were brought into operation. Another address.

111

iVi

" Copies, &c. of Correspondence relative to Lower Canada
(23(1 December 1837), pp. 8-13, ^0-33.

220

HISTORY OF CANADA

m' V.

breathing the most determined hostility'", was then moved^
and carried by 46 to 31. It denounced the step now
taken as an absolute destruction of the representative
government in the province, — a total refustil of all
the reforms and improvements demanded. If these Re-
solutions were carried into effect, the colony, it was said,
would no longer be attached to the mother country by
feelings of duty, of affection, and mutual interest, but
solely by physical force. In this conjuncture they
could see no motive for the slightest departure from
tlieu' intention to withhold the supplies ; and they
adhered in every respect to their resolutions of 30th
September 183C. Lord Gosford, in reply, gave utterance
to his deep regret at measures which he considered a
virtual annihilation of the constitution, and immediately
prorogued the Assembly.*

The popular leaders seem now to have formed the
resolution of having recourse to arms. They, as well as
their organs in this country, had often asserted,t and
seem at length to have believed, that only an effort was
required to sever the colonies from the mother country.
This was a most hasty and inconsiderate conclusion.
The example of the American colonies was referred to ;
but they were mu( h stronger than the Canadians are
now, while the power of Britain, on the other hand, was
considerably smaller. Yet it was only after a long and
calamitous contest of eight years, that they established
their independence ; and their success would have been
doubtful, had they not been aided by a most powerful
European confederacy. The aid of the United States
was indeed held forth ; but the latter had been so little
disposed to intermeddle on such occasions, that they re-
mained neutral during the long contest between Spain
and her colonies, although her situation gave them little
to dread from her resentment. It was therefore very
unlikely that they should now engage single-handed in
a contest with the whole power of Britain.

• Correspondence, &c. p. 'iJ(>-45. •]- Roebuck, pp. 33, 13, 50,

i I

^ ii

UNDER THE BRITISH.

221

The meetings in pursuance of these views were not
held on so great a scale, or in the same 2)ublic and osten-
tiUious manner as formerly. They were numerous, how-
ever, and breathed the most hostile spirit, renouncing
all hope of redress from the parent state, and pointing
directly to a separation. A central committee was form-
ed at Montreal, whose procecdmgs were in a great mea-
sure secret, and preparations were understood to be
making for a general convention. It was nearly vain
to attempt repressing the most violent demonstrations
against the government, since no petty jury could be found
to convict, and in two instances, when the evidence was
considered penectly conclusive, the bills were ignored by
the grand jury. The governor, however, learning that
numerous individuals holding her majesty's commission
had taken a share in those meetings, caused letters to
he written to them demanding an explanation. On
receiving none that was satisfactory, he dismissed eighteen
magistrates and thirty-five militia officers. Among the
latter was Papineau, whose answer was couched in the
most defying and contemptuous terms. He, it is ob-
served, had now gone such lengths, as made it impossible
for him to recede without losing all his influence ; he must
either be put down, or allowed to put down the govern-
ment. In the beginning of October, the new arrange-
ment of the two councils was carried into effect, at least
to a great extent ; but it excited little interest, and
w,as rejected by the violent leaders as wholly unsatisfac-
tory.'"^

The maleconteut party became ev ry day bolder. An
association was formed, under the title of " The Sons
of Liberty," who, without committing actual violence,
paraded the streets of Montreal in a hostile and threaten-
ing manner. They emitted a proclamation contaming the
most violent expressions. " The wicked designs," said
they, " of British authorities have severed all ties of
sympathy for an unfeeling mother country." — " A glori-

* Correspondence, pp. 47-50, 03, 72.

ii» v.-

*■

J J.

222

HISTORY OF CANADA

'^1

ous destiny awaits the young men of these colonies ;"
and this was explained to be " to disfranchise our beloved
country from all human authority, except that of the
bold democracy residing within its bosom." They alluded
to " the struggle for life and liberty in which we must
sooner or later be engaged, when the day of glory ar-
rives, that will see us emerge from a long dark bondage
to the splendour of light and freedom." At the same time,
in the county of Two Mountains, the people determined
not to obey the magistrates appointed in the room of
those displaced ; an organization was formed oi pacifica-
tor ji^sticeSf to compose differences without recourse to the
constituted authorities, and in whose decisions all true
patriots were required to acquiesce. Meanwhile, the
militia in that district were organized in a new form,
under officers of their own selection, including those
recently dismissed ; and an active training was carried
on. All loyal and neutral residents were by violent
measures compelled either to join tlie malecontents or
quit the territory, throughout which British authority
entirely ceased.*

No long time passed before this course of proceeding
was imitated in the more populous portion of the Mon-
treal territory lying southward of the St Lawrence. On
the 28d October, a meeting was held of the five counties
on the Richelieu and the Yamnska, when a petition was
presented from L'Acadie to be admitted as a sixth. The
petitioners used the most intemperate language, declaring
themselves prepared to sacrifice every thing most dear
to them in this world, to emancipate from a vile slavery
the land that gave them birth. They renounced alt
principles but those of the purest democracy, and desired
to place themselves under the guidance and behind the
buckler of L. J. Papineau. At the meeting of the sia;
counties, the numbers attending were variously esti-
mated from 1500 to 6000, of whom a proportion were
armed. Their resolutions, without absolutely announcing

* Correspondence, &c. p. G3-70.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

223

1011 were

rebellion, went to place every thing in preparation for it.
The recent appointments to the two councils were de-
clared wholly unsatisfoctory, wliile the introduction of
an armed force into the province was stigmatized as a
new and enormous grievance. The magistrates and
militia were to be organized after the model of those of
the Two Mountains, and the example of the Sons of
Liberty was also recommended, " that they might be
prepared to support each other with promptitude and
effect, should circumstances require them to protect and
defend their threatened liberties." A similar address
was drawn up on the following day, and circulated
through tlie province. The same course was followed,
of compelling by violence and threats the officers to
resign their situations or leave the country.*

Government could not remain passive while its autho-
rity was openly set at nought, and insurrection matured
under its very eye. Applications were made to Sir Colin
Campbell for two additional regiments, and likewise for
what force could be spared from the Upper Province.
The zealous offers of the loyal inhabitants to place
themselves in arms, which had been long declined from
motives of prudence, were now accepted, and volunteer
corps were zealously and rapidly organized. The Catho-
lic clergy took a decided part in the support of order
and peace, and an address was published by the Bishop
of Montreal, exhorting his flock agamst the violent and
illegal proceedings now in progress. This, among a
religious people, though it did not stop the career of
those who had so deeply committed themselves, had
probably a powerful effect in arresting the spread of the
disorder, and keeping it confined, as it still was, to Mon-
treal district.

The first blow was struck at the town now mentioned,
between the " Sons of Liberty" and a loyal association
formed in opposition to them. The former were complete-
ly worsted, and pursued through the streets ; none were

■i ?

1 ■. -!'■

i.l

* Correspondence, &.c. pp. HQ-lii), 95-100.

! :i

Pi! \

224

HISTORY OF CANADA

killed, but several severely hurt, particularly Brown
from New York, who had assumed the title of their
general. Papineau's house, which the victors attempted
to burn, was saved, but the office of the Vindicator
newspaper was destroyed. Exaggerated reports of this
affair being spread throughout the country, heightened
the general fermen; ; and it was announced from various
quarters that resistance was daily extending, and as-
suming a more organized form.

It was now obvious, that unless some decisive step
were taken, the malecontent cause must continually
gain new strength, and the connexion of the colonies
with the mother country become seriously endangered.
The course deemed most eflectual was immediately to
arrest the most active leaders. A warrant was accord-
ingly issued at Montreal against twenty-six, of whom
seven were members of Assembly, including Papineau
and Vigor. Nine were apprehended ; but the arch-
agitator himself had disappeared, and doubts were even
entertained if he were still in the province. This step
necessarily led to a crisis, especially as some of the war-
rants were against persons residing in the heart of the
disturbed territory. Two being in the vicinity of St
John, on the Richelieu, a party of eighteen volunteer
militia were despatched thither to apprehend them. An
oversight seems to have been committed in sending so
small a force, not regular, into the midst of a hostile
country. They succeeded, however, in capturing the
parties ; and an armed body of thirty who appeared
near Chambly made no attempt to intercept them. Near
Longueuil, however, they found a field on the right of
the road occupied by 300 well armed men, protected by
a high fence. From this assemblage a fire was imme-
diately opened upon the detachment, which, from its
position, could not be returned with effect. Several
were wounded, the rest retreated, and the two prisoners
were rescued by the insurgents.*

* Correspondence, pp.95, 102-110.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

225

The standard of insurrection having thus been openly
raised, it became necessary to act with the utmost
promptitude. Information was received that Papineau,
Brown, and Neilson, were at the villages of St Denis
and St Charles, on the Richelieu, which had been occu-
pied by the armed inhabitants ; and accordingly, Sir
John Colborne, the commander-in-chief, sent strong
detachments under Colonels Gore and Wetherall to
V attack these places. The former, on the 22d November,
having conveyed his force in a steamer to Sorel, pro-
ceeded up the river against St Denis ; but being obliged
to take a circuitous route, through tracks which, from
previous rain, were knee-deep, the troops arrived in a
very jaded state. Though the whole country was in arms,
no serious resistance was encountered till they reached
the village, the entrance to which was defended by a
large stone-house strongly fortified, from which, as well
as from others on each side, a heavy fire was opened.
A howitzer was brought up against it, whence round-shot
was fired with a view to batter it down, but without
effect. Captain Markham, with the advance, had gal-
lantly cleared the way and taken an adjoining house,
but was then severely wounded, and obliged to quit the
field. Finding that no impression could be made on the
main barrier, that his ammunition was nearly exhausted,
and that the troops were overpowered with fatigue. Gore
considered a retreat unavoidable. It was effected with-
out serious inconvenience, though it became necessary
to leave a cannon on the road, while his loss was six
killed, ten wounded, and six missing. No blame seems
to have been attached to the colonel, whose means,
especially in ammunition, were scarcely adequate ; but
this second advantage, gained by the rebel cause at the
opening of the contest, was a most unfortunate circum-
stance, and unless counteracted might have spread dis-
affection to an alarming extent.

Meantime, Colonel "Wetherall with his detachment
proceeded by way of Chambly to St Charles, a point
higher up the river. He was delayed in a similar manner

VOL. I.

226

HISTORY OP CANADA

i-'^

by the badness of the roads ; and on reacliing St Hilaire,
found it necessary to procure another company from
Chambly, and even to send a messenger to Montreal, we
presume for farther aid. Having reason, however, to con-
sider his communications with that place intercepted, he
determined, on the 26th, to advance to the attack. About
1500 insurgents, under the command of Brown, had
posted themselves in the village, and surrounded it with
a strong stockade. The English commander, on his
arrival, drew up his force at a short distance, in the hope
of producing some defection ; but none taking place,
and a heavy fire being opened upon him, he pushed
forward to the assault. In about an hour the intrench-
ment was caiTied, the fortified houses and palisades were
set on fire, the troops were masters of the town, and
the rebels fled in every direction. The carnage was
great, the entire loss of the male- ntents being about 300.
Charges have been made of severe and vindictive pro-
ceedings, which we should hope are exaggerated. An-
other body took up a position in his rear, with the view
of cutting oft' his return to Chambly ; but when he ap-
proached them on the 28th, they broke and dispersed at
the first onset.*

The affair of St Charles decided the fate of the con-
test. A general panic spread among the peasantry,
and they began to consider themselves betrayed by
leaders who did not show the courage expected of them
in the hour of trial. Colonel Gore, strongly reinforced,
again advanced upon St Denis, which he entered with-
out resistance on the 2d December, Neilson and Brown
having quitted it on the preceding evening. He then
marched upon St Hyacinthe, but found it also unde-
fended, and made a vain search for Papineau. The
chiefs, renouncing their hopes, were already seeking safety
in the territory of the United States. Brown reached it
with great difficulty, through many perils ; Neilson was

3.(>.

Papers relating to Lower Canada (16th January 1838), p.

UNDER THE BRITISH,

227

taken in a bam, conveyed to Montreal, and thrown
into prison. Papineau could not be traced ; nor is
there any record- of his having ever compromised his
personal safety in a contest which he had been the mam
instrument in exciting.

Attempts, however, were made to support the cause
from a quarter which, under certain circumstances,
might have proved very formidable. The United States
contained many individuals disposed to sympathize deep-
ly with the Canadians, and many restless spirits were
inclined to join them, allured by the promise of large
lots of confiscated land. Even in the present hopeless cir-
cumstances, 200 passed the frontier ; but before Sir John
Colborne could send a force against them, a party of the
volunteers of Missisqui county, under the command of
Captain Kemp, took arms and drove them back with
some loss. Thus the whole of the six counties, so lately
in open rebellion, were in a fortnight reduced to perfect
tranquillity.*

There remained still the districts of Two Mountains
and Terrebonne, north of Montreal, where insurrection
had been first organized, and still wore its most de-
termined aspect. Sir John Colborne had judiciously
postponed operations against this quarter till, the south
being completely tranquillized, he could direct thither
his whole force. On the 14th December, he marched
in person, with about 1300 regular and volunteer troops,
against the large village of St Eustache. The disasters
of their brethren elsewhere had spread a well-founded
alarm ; and the greater number of the men and their
leaders, including Girod the supposed commander-in-
chief, fled precipitately. About 400 of the most des-
perate, however, continued to occupy a church and
adjoining buildings, which had been carefully fortified ;
and here so obstinate a stand was made, that a British
detachment was at one point obliged to recede. But

• Papers (16th January 1838), pp. 18, 19; (2d February),
p. 3.

, :t

228

HISTORY OF CANADA

fire having reached the adjacent edifices, soon spread to
the church itself, the defenders of which were thereby
speedily dislodged ; while the troops, being protected by
the houses, did not lose more than one killed and nine
wounded.

Colonel Maitland now marched towards St Benoit,
the chief village of the Grand Brule district, which
had been the focus of insurrection ; but on his way he
met a deputation, tendering the most humble submis-
sion, and he entered the place without resistance. Un-
fortunately, the loyal inhabitants, who had been plunder-
ed and driven out of the country, could not be restrained
from acts of violence, and a considerable portion of the
houses were reduced to ashes. Maitland, after occupying
St Scholastique, returned to Montreal, leaving the dis-
trict in a state of perfect tranquillity. The people,
complaining that their chiefs, after instigating them to
revolt, had deserted them, seemed determined not to be
again seduced into such a course. Several of the leaders
were taken ; Girod himself, being surrounded so that
he could not escape, committed suicide.*

Upper Canada, meantime, had become the theatre of
important events. For a considerable time, especially
since the residence there of Mr Gourlay, a party had
existed supporting extreme political opinions. These,
it is true, were not imbittered by any feelings arising
from difference of race ; but many of the inhabitants had
migrated from the United States, to whose institutions
they were naturally partial. They gained over a number
of the British residents, influenced by the usual motives,
and who complained especially of the favouritism shown
in the granting of land. These grounds of discontent
were carefully investigated by the committee of 1828,
and instructions issued by Lord Goderich, which here, as
in the Lower Province, gave general satisfaction. The
discontented party, however, proceeded from one step to

• Papers (29th January 1838), p. 11-14; (2d February),
p. 4, &c.

UNDER THE BRITISH.

229

another, till Mackenzie, Buncombe, and other leaders,
scarcely made any secret of their desire to separate from
Britain and join tho American union. In 1834, this party,
for the first time, obtained, a majority in the Assem-
bly ; and though they had hitherto confined themselves
to complaints on particular subjects, they now com-
menced a general opposition to the royal government,
and at length, as in the other province, came into vio-
lent collision with the legislative council. They trans-
mitted to the king a long and elaborate list of grievances ;
complaining that the offices in the colony were too
numerous, too highly paid, and the holders removable at
the pleasure of the crown ; that support had been unduly
given to particular religious establishments ; and that
Lord Goderich's recommendations had by no means been
fully acted upon. They also urged with the same vehe-
mence as in the sister colony the demand for an elective
legislative council.*

This union of the two provinces pushing with equal
zeal the most extreme measures, brought affairs into a
somewhat hazardous position. When Lord Gosford
and the commissioners were sent to Lower Canada, the
ministry placed the upper province under Sir Francis
Head, a man of literary talent, and of peculiar firmness,
shrewdness, and energy of character. Having arrived
early in 1836, as already related, he took the straightfor-
ward course of at once publishing the extent and limits
of liis instructions ; at the same time assurmg the people
of his most zealous efforts to remove every practical
grievance. The Assembly, however, were by no means
satisfied ; and another ground of contest soon arose. Sir
Francis added to the executive three members, whose
appointment was highly satisfactory to the popular
party; but as several weeks elapsed without their
having been consulted on any subject, they stated in a
letter, that they considered themselves thus rendered
responsible for measures in which they were allowed

'i?.*

• Instructions to Lord Gosford and Sir Francis Head, p. 55-65.

" 0^ fP«|iiii . nvm

230

HISTORY OF CANADA

4i# 'I

no share, and therefore tendered their resignation. While
accepting it with regret, he maintained that he lay
under no obligation to consult them on every measure ;
but was at perfect liberty to judge of the occasions
on which the public interest might require their aid.
Tlie House of Assembly immediately took up the affair,
and having, agreeably to request, been furnished with
a copy of the correspondence, drew up a report, and
afterwards a long address to the king, strenuously con-
troverting the governor's doctrine, and in the course of
it, broadly charging him with " deviations from candour
and truth." Proceeding in the same hostile spirit, they
for the first time stopped the supplies ; in consequence
of which Sir Francis reserved all their money bills for
his majesty's decision, and rejected the application for
payment of their incidental expenses.*

All hopes of accommodation being thus closed, he
detei-mincd, on the 28th of May, to make an appeal to
the people by a new election. It was contested with ex-
traordinary ardour ; and a war of manifestoes, procla-
mations, and addresses, was forthwith waged between the
parties. Perhaps no ruler ever effected more by writing
than Sir Francis. The frank, energetic, and popular style
in which his addresses were penned, produced an extra-
ordinary effect ; and already the peaceable inhabitants had
begun to shrink from the extremes into which the po-
pular leaders were hurrying them. These several causes
jjroduced the important result, that in the new Assem-
bly a decided majority supported the constitutional side.
The demagogues complained to the ministry that this
effect had been produced by illegal means, by extraordi-
nary grants of land, and even by violence and bribery,
llie Assembly, however, after strict inquiry by a com-
mittee, declared these allegations to be utterly false, ex-
pressing, at the same time, the strongest attachment to
the mother-country and to the governor.

During this tranquil and satisfactory state of Upper

* Upper Canada Papers (30th June 1836), pp. 6, 48-50.

UNDER THE BUlTISn.

231

Canada, insurrection broke out in the lower province ;
and Sir Francia being requested to state what force lie
could spare, his answer was. All. He considered it not
only practicable, but desira])le, that every soldier should
be removed out of liis district, and a full display thus
made of its loyal and peaceful condition. He caused the
arms to be deposited in the city hall of Toronto, under
charge of the mayor ; declining even to place a guard
over them, to prevent sudden capture. In this state of
things Mackenzie determined to make an attempt upon
the capital. Having a number of small detjiched parties
throughout the province, who were ready to obey
his mandate, and had even been trained to the use of
weapons, he ordered them to assemble on tlie 4th Decem-
ber on the great road called Yonge Street, leading to
Lake Simcoe. Hurrying by cross paths through the
forest, they mustered at Montgomerie's Tavern, about
four miles from Toronto. Their numbers, at first esti-
mated at 3000, are not supposed to have exceeded 500.
With the view of effecting a surprise, they attacked
everyone going to the city ; among whom Colonel Moodie,
a distinguished officer, was wounded, and died in a few
hours. Alderman Powell, however, having shot one of
his assailants, escaped, roused the governor, and gave the
alarm ; upon which Sir Francis ran to the town hall, where
he found the chief justice with a musket on his shoulder,
surrounded by a band of brave men, who had hastily
assembled. The arms being unpacked and placed in their
hands, they posted themselves in a defensive attitude at
the windows of the building, and of others flanking it.
But Mackenzie, presuming that Powell would instantly
give notice, did not venture to advance ; a pusillanimous
resolution, assuredly, since he could never again expect
so favourable an opportunity. By morning, 300 loyalists
were mustered ; and in the course of the day, Mr Allan
M*Nab, speaker of the House of Assembly, arrived with
sixty from the Gore District, and others from differekt
quarters raised the number to 500. On the 6th, the force
was considered suficient for offensive operations ; but the

1 1,

f m

'■ >

232

IIISTOUY OP CANADA

governor, anxious to avoid the eflFusion of blood, sent
it message to the insurgents, inviting ihem to lay down
their amis. Mackenzie offered to coinj)ly, on condition
that a national convention should be called, allowing till
two o'clock for the answer ; but as no reply could be
given to this proposition, arrangements were immediately
made for an attack on the following day.

On the 7th December at noon the whole force marched
out. In this civic array, principal commands were held
by Colonel M'Nab, the present, and Mr Justice Maclean,
the late speaker of the Assembly, while the clerk of
the House officiated as adjuttmt-general. The rebels
had occupied an elevated position in front of the tavern,
where, being in some degree protected by houses, they
endeavoured to muke a stand ; but the militia, advancing
to the charge with the utmost enthusiasm, soon broke
the whole corps, which dispersed in every direction,
Mackenzie himself escaping with extreme precipitation.
They were pursued four miles ; two of the chiefs were
taken ; the tavern was burnt to the ground ; and the re-
volt was so completely quashed, that Sir Francis consider-
ed he might safely exercise the attribute of mercy, by dis-
missing the greater part of the misguided prisoners.*

The militia, meanthne, had been marching towards
Toronto m vast numbers ; 2600 from the Newcastle Dis-
trict, and in all upwards of 10,000. Immediate notice was
now issued, that they might return to their homes ; and
those of the eastern districts were authorized to give their
aid to Lower Canada. As it was understood, however,
that Duncombe had assembled a corps in the London
District, which had been a main seat of faction, Colonel
M'Nab was sent thither with a sufficient force. On its
approach, the chiefs disappeared, and about 300 of their
followers laid down their arms, expressing deep regret,
and even a readiness to serve in the royal army.

The insurrection had thus been entirely put down,
and Upper Canada was every where completely tranquil,

" Papers (Ibth Jan. 1838), pp. 21, 22; (29th Jan.), pp. 3, 5.

UNDER TIIK BRITISH.

233

when a sudden danger uroHi', which threi<tcned to become
very serious. Mackenzie fled to tli« town of IJurt'alo,
in which he held crowded meetings, and kindled a con-
siderable enthusiasm in his cause. Besides the prevalent
democratic feeling, commercial distress had thrown num-
bers out of employment, who were ready to engage in
any desj)erate enterprise. Some of a more opulent class
furnished resources ; while Van llansselaer, Sutherland,
and other individuals ae(iuainted with military service,
presented themselves as leaders of the armament. Thus a
small corps was quickly assembled, which took posses-
sion of Navy Island, situated in the Niagara channel,
between Grand Island and the British shore, which they
fortified with thirteen pieces of cannon. Hence Mac-
kenzie issued a proclamation in the assumed name of the
provisional government of Upper Canada. Volunteers
were invited from that country and from the States ; be-
ing assured that out of the ten millions of acres which vic-
tory would place at their disposal, each should receive 300
in full property. There was to be no more dependence on
Downing Street ; the Assembly, council, governor, and
officere, were all to be elected by the people. Trade
was to be freed from all restraints ; and in a 8tro,in of
rhodomontade, it was added, that the largest vessels
would be enabled to ascend to Lake Superior. Recruits
continued flocking to this post, till their numbers amount-
ed to about a thousand. Colonel M'Nab soon arrived
with double that number of militia; but he wanted
materials for crossing the channel and forcing the strong
position held by the rebels.*

All eyes were now turned to the government of the
United States, on which the question of peace or war
evidently depended. As soon as the first notice was
received, there was displayed the most sincere determi-
nation to maintain a strict neutrality. Van Buren, the
president, issued two successive proclamations, warn-
ing the people of the penalties to which they would be-

• Papers (2d February 1838), p. 12-14.

j,"(

!■ '■■'•lii

-M

i'M

234

HISTORY OF CANADA

come liable by engaging in hostilities with a friendly-
power ; and the debates in Congress displayed the most
complete unanimity against any measure which might
commit the American government in such a contest.
Clay, Davis, Benton, Calhoun, leaders of opposite parties,
united with one voice in this sentiment. The last of
these declared that, " of all calamities which could befall
the civilized world, a war with Great Britain would at
this moment be the most to be deplored." There was
scarcely time for a legislative enactment, but the presi-
dent appointed General Scott, a veteran officer of ener-
getic and decisive character, to take the command of the
disturbed frontier.

Meantime an event occurred, which, while it weak-
ened the insurgents, excited a strong fermentation
among their adherents. A small steamer, named the
Caroline, had been purchased, or at least was regularly
employed by them, between Fort Schlosser on the
American shore and Navy Island, conveying to the
latter troops and stores. Captain Drew was instructed
by Colonel M*Nab to intercept her return. He did not
succeed, but seeing her in the channel, moored to the
American shore, determined to attack her. He approach-
ed undiscovered to within twenty yards ; and being
then asked the countersign, promised to show it when
on deck. The Caroline immediately opened a fire ; but
the British boarded, and in two minutes were masters
of her. Those who resisted were killed or made prisoners;
while others, who appeared to be peaceable citizens, were
put on shore. The vessel itself, which the strength of the
current made it inconvenient to tow across, was set on
fire and abandoned, when the stream hurried it rapidly
to the brink of the great cataract, down which the flam-
ing mass was precipitated. The wild and picturesque
character of this scene acted strongly on the imagination ;
and the Americans resolutely, though, it would appear,
without reason, asserted that unoffending persons had
been involved in the massacre, and several even hurried
down the awful abyss.

I i

UNDER THE BRITISH.

235

The loss of the Caroline was soon followed by the
arrival of General Scott, who took vigorous and effective
measures to prevent any supplies or recruits from reach-
ing Navy Island. Meantime the force of the assailants
was continually augmented ; two companies of regulars,
with a train of artillery, had been sent from Lower
Canada, and a tremendous cannonade was commenced.
The insurgents seeing their position become every day
more desperate, determined to evacuate it, — an object
which they effected on the 14th January. Van Rans-
selaer and Mackenzie were arrested by the American
authorities, but admitted to bail.

Sutherland, with a party of the fugitives, hastened to
the extreme west, where, being reinforced by some
adventurers in that quarter, they attempted an esta-
blishment on Bois Blanc, an island in the Detroit channel.
A body of troops, however, was soon despatched against
theDi ; and a vessel, containing not only supplies, but
several chiefs dignified with high military titles, was
captured. Finding it impossible to maintain themselves
there, they sought an asylum on Sugar Island, which
belongs to the United States. General Scott, meanwhile,
was hastening to the place ; but Mason, the local com-
mander, addressed the refugees, and by mere dint of re-
monstrance prevailed upon them to disperse. Attempts
v/ere made at other points to form tumultuary assem-.
blages for invading Canada ; but, under the altered cir-
cumstances, these did not excite any serious alarm.

Meantime intelligence of the first insurrectionary
movements reached Britain, where it excited the strongest
sensation. A few of the popular leaders exulted in the
event itself, and in the anticipation of its triumphant
issue ; but the nation in general by no means shared
this sentiment. The Tories, though they accused govern-
ment of having, by want of energy, prepared this con-
vulsion, expressed their cordial concurrence in all the
means suggested for its suppression. As the house was
about to rise for the Christmas holidays, ministers pro-
posed that, instead of postponing their meeting, as usual,

' 'I

I'V'

236

HISTORY OF CANADA

p it

:M!'

till the beginning of February, they should fix it for
the 16th January, when, according to the course of
events, suitable resolutions might be adopted.

Parliament had no sooner reassembled than informa-
tion arrived, which left no room to doubt that the re-
bellion would be suppressed without having assumed
any formidable character. The aims of the government
were therefore directed towards reorganizing the execu-
tive on sucli a footing as, without suppressing Canadian
liberty, might secure future tranquillity. But it was
considered indispensable, for the present at least, to
suspend the constitution of the lower province. A council
was to be named by the queen, which, with the gover-
nor, might exercise the functions now performed by the
two legislative bodies ; but their powers were not to last
beyond the 1st November 1840, nor were any of their
enactments, unless continued by the pi oper authority, to
be valid beyond the 1st November 1842.

Sir John Colbome, then acting as provisional gover-
nor of Lower Canada, was instructed to carry these
measures into immediate execution. The ministry, how-
ever, had determined upon a farther step, with a view
to the ultimate settlement of the province. The Earl
of Durham was solicited and prevailed upon to under-
take its government as well as that of all British Ame-
rica, and also to turn his attention towards an im-
proved plan for its future management. His lordship'ij
high reputation as a statesman, and the liberality
of his views on political subjects, seemed to afford a
security that he would act with vigour, and at the same
time with a strict regard to national freedom. He was
empowered to form a species of representative council
composed of thirteen members from each province, but
to use them merely as advisers, and to call and dismiss
them at pleasure.*

On the 29th May 1838 his lordship arrived at Que-

• Correspondence relative to the affairs of British North Ame-
rica (ordered by the House of Commons to be printed 11th Feb.
1839), pp. 1, 7.

UNDER THE BRITISH. 237

bee, where he was received in the most cordial manner,
for all parties seemed to unite in expecting from him a
settlement of those dissensions which had so greatly dis-
tracted the country. In his subsequent progress to other
districts, and to Upper Canada as far as Niagara, he met
similar expressions of confidence and congratulation.
He was soon, however, called to decide upon a delicate
and difficult question, which Sir John Colborne had
thought it expedient to reserve for his determination.
Wolfred Neilson, Bouchette, Viger, and other individuals
of some distinction, were lying in the jail of Montreal
charged with high treason. Some strong punishment was
necessary to mark their crime, and deter from its repeti-
tion ; yet an impartial jury could not be expected for
their trial, which besides would have re-opened all those
party animosities which it was the object of his lordship
to apr:'^'e. Under this view he adopted the following
coursv. • '^9 prisoners, having been induced to make
a com .. -. of guilt, were sentenced to be deported to
Bermuda, and to be there kept in strict surveillance.
If they should ever return to Canada without leave
from the governor, they were to suffer the penalty of
death. The same was awarded to Papineau and others
implicated in the late rebellion, but who, after its disas-
trous issue, had fled the country.*

As soon as this ordinance was known in Britain, it
created an unusual excitement in the legislature. Lord
Brougham, in the House of Peers, made a motion, de-
claring it illegal as condemning to death without trial,
and to transportation to a colony which was not within
the jurisdiction of the governor-general ; but, under the
peculiar circumstances of the case, he proposed a grant of
indemnity. This vote, though strenuously opposed by Lord
Melbourne, was carried in the Upper House by a consider-
able majority. Ministers then having received from the
law-officers of the crown an unfavourable report, at least
as to the last particular, considered it impossible to make

• Correspondence, pp. 103, 104, 128, 129.

i;t

( s

Bit ' '^ (

I !

V \ \

238

HISTORY OF CANADA

any farther resistance. They annulled the ordinance ;
but at the same time conveyed to Lord Durham ex-
pressions of their regret, of their general approbation of
his measures, and of the unaltered confidence with which
they regarded his administration.*

His lordship, however, was not of a character to
brook this interposition. He had, it is true, passed the
limits of strict law ; but he maintained that these were
scarcely applicable in the critical and convulsed state of
the province ; that the sentence was lenient ; and on the
principle of volenti nulla fit injuria, the parties concerned
could not be wronged by a decision in which they had
cheerfully acquiesced. In short, there bemg no sub-
stantial injustice inflicted. Lord Durham thought he had
reason to complain that his scheme was not allowed a fair
trial. He had perhaps an equal ground of dissatisfaction
in reference to the hostile interference of the opposition
lords, and more especially because the ministers, liis em-
ployers, did not resist it to the utmost. Yet it would
certainly have been more magnanimous on his part had
he endeavoured, under every discouragement, to have
done his best to accomplish his undertaking. He yielded
too far to passion and pride when, even before receiving
the official accounts, he publicly announced his intention
of throwing up the administration. He did not even fol-
low the established course of requesting her majesty's
permission to resign, and waiting till he received it. In
announcing, too, the disallowance of the ordinance, he
commented on the decision w^ith a severity which was
considered irregular, and tending to compromise the royal
authority. On the 1st November his lordship set sail
from Quebec, and on the 26th arrived at Plymouth.+

Meantime a fresh storm of rebellion brooded over the
province. In the course of the summer, even amid appa-
rent quiet, the burning of a steam- vessel called the Sir
Robert Peel in the St Lawrence, and the acquittal of the
murderers of Chartrand in the face of the clearest evi-

* Correspondence, p. 55-60.
t Ibid. pp. 206-209, 243, 245.

e ordinance ;
Durham ex-
pprobation of
le with which

character to
le, passed the
it these were
ulsed state of
b ; and on the
ies concerned
ich they had
eing no sub-
ought he had
allowed a fair
lissatisfaction
he opposition
sters, liis em-
Yet it would
. his part had
lent, to have
He yielded
x>re receiving
his intention
not even fol-
ler majesty's
ceived it. In
)rdinance, he
y which was
aise the royal
iship set sail
lymouth.t
3ded over the
n amid appa-
3alled the Sir
c[uittal of the
clearest evi-

UNDER THE BRITISH.

239

dence, showed that the spirit of disaffection was still deep-
ly cherished. By the beginning of winter arrangements
had been made for a general rising of the hahitans, sup-
ported by a numerous body of American citizens who,
under the title oi sympathizers, had vehemently espoused
their cause. Arms and ammunition had been clandes-
tinely introduced ; and a species of association, bound by
secret oaths and signs, had been formed along the whole
frontier. Lord Durham imputes this movement to the pro-
ceedings at home, which had shaken the confidence ia
his authority, and raised the hopes of the disaffected ;
but Sir John Colborne considers that those preparations
had been actively pursued ever since the preceding
June. The government of the United States, though they
had no adequate power to prevent the part taken by
their subjects, showed a good disposition by giving the
first intimation of what was going on to Mr Fox, the
British ambassador at Washington. The tidings were
soon confirmed from other quarters ; and Sir John Col-
borne lost no time in putting the province in a state of
defence, and procuring an additional force from Nova
Scotia.*

On the night of the 3d November, a concerted rising
took place in all the southern counties of Montreal
District ; but owing to some failure of arrangement,
the stations along the Richelieu were not found supplied
with arms according to appointment, so that most of
the inhabitants there dispersed and returned to their
homes. The chief seat of insurrection was now farther
west, between that river and the St Lawrence. There
three arch-rebels, Dr Robert Nelson, Cote, and Gagnon,
had collected about 4000 men, and established their head-
quarters at Napier ville. Their first object was to open
a communication with their friends in the States, for
which purpose 400 men were detached to the frontier.
There a body of British volunteers, as brave as loyal, had
stationed themselves, by whom the rebels were attacked

* Correspondence, pp. 106, 125, 174-180, 222, 246.

■.I .

240

HISTORY OF CANADA

!!!

ri .'

and obliged to retreat with great loss. To retrieve this
disaster, Dr Nelson, with upwards of 900 men, marched
against the loyalists. The latter, only 200 strong, took
post in Odelltown chapel, on which the enemy com-
menced a brisk attack, but, after two hours and a half,
were obliged to retreat, with the loss of one hundred
killed and wounded. The defenders had an officer and
five men killed, and nine wounded.*

Meantime Major-general Sir James M*Donnell, under
orders from the governor, with seven regiments of the line,
crossed the St Lawrence, and marched upon Napierville.
The rebels, discouraged by former losses, after a vain
attempt to unite their forces, dispersed in every direction
without firing a shot. They still retained a post at
Beauharnois ; but Colonel Carmichael, with a detach-
ment of regulars and 1000 Glengarry militia, drove them
out, though with the loss of two men killed and the
same number wounded . Mr Ellice and a party of friends,
who had been made prisoners by them at the outset,
were allowed to return to Montreal. On the 11th, a week
only after the first movement, McDonnell could announce
that the insurrection was completely at an end, without
the rebels having been able to open any communication
with their supporters beyond the frontier.t

We must now turn to Upper Canada, where, even be-
fore the former outbreak. Sir Francis Head had resigned.
The immediate cause was the disapprobation expressed by
Lord Glenelg for his removing Judge Ridout on account
of his democratical principles, and his refusinf^ to obey an
order to raise to the bench Mr Bidwell, late speaker
of the Assembly, and an opposition leader. He at
the same time, in no measured terms, condemned
the system of conciliation hitherto pursued in the Colo-
nial Office, whose members he even branded as republi-
cans ; insisting that a stern uncompromising maintenance
of the monarchical principle, and the exclusion from

* Correspondence, pp. 248, 261, 262.
t Ibid. p. 260-263.
2

UNDER THE BRITISH.

*241

office of all opposed to it, was the only basis on which
Canada could be governed. Ministers unwillingly ac-
cepted his resignation ; while the loyal inhabitants, among
whom he had rendered himself highly popular, expressed
on the occasion deep regret and disgust. Colonel Sir
George Artliur, who had previously held a similar situa-
tion in Van Diemen's Land, was named his successor.*

The new governor soon found himself involved in
difficult circumstances ; for early in June, bands to the
number of 1000 or 1200 Americans crossed the Niagara
channel, and endeavoured to excite the people to insur-
rection. They attacked a party of fourteen lancers
posted in an inn, and, by setting it on fire, obliged them
to surrender. But no sooner did they learn that Sir
George had arrived at Niagara, and that the country was
rising against them, than they hastily recrossed the fron-
tier, leaving about forty prisoners, among whom were
Morrow and Waite, the first and second in command. In
the end of June, a smaller party passed the St Clair, and
invaded the Western District ; but finding themselves
unsupported, and the militia advancing, they returned
a few falling into the hands of the pursuers.

The summer now passed in com})arative f(uietnes8
though the great movement at the beginning of Novem-
ber continued to be deeply felt along the u])per frontier.
Almost simultaneously with the rising in Montreal Dis-
trict, a body of about 400 sailed from the vicinity of
Sackett's Harbour and landed at Prescott. On the ISth,
Colonel Young with what force he could muster, and
aided by Cajitain Sandom with an armed steamer,
compelled a large proportion of them to disperse, while
the rest took refuge in a windmill and an adjacent
house built of stone, whence they could not be dislodged.
Eighteen British were here killed and wounded. In the
course of the day. Colonel Dundas arrived with four
companies from Kingston, but considered the buildings,
the walls of which were three or four feet thick, too
strong to be reduced without cannon. A few guns and

• Narrative by Sir Francis B. Head, Bart. (8vo, London, 1839,
2d edition), p. 218-344.

VOL. I. *0

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242"' HISTORY OP Canada under the British.

some additional troops being brought up, an attack was
commenced on the 16th, when the party within the stone
building, after some stand, sought to escape among the
brushwood, but were all captured ; upon which those
in the mill displayed a white flag, and surrendered at
discretion. The whole number of prisoners was 159,
The militia, suspected of some lukewarmness, showed
the utmost zeal, and mustered to the extent of 5000.

The Niagara frontier was found by the enemy so
well guarded that no attempt was made there. But
early in the morning of the 4th December, about 350,
organized at Detroit, landed near Sandwich, set fire to a
steamer and to the barracks, and killed several individuals
in cold blood. Being as cowardly as cruel, when attacked
by a party of militia, they fled either to the woods or to
the American shore, leaving 26 killed and 25 prisoners.

The captives on the former occasion had been treated
with extraordinary lenity ; but this forbearance not
having produced its due effect, and being loudly com-
plained of by the inhabitants, it was judged necessary to
exercise greater rigour on the present occasion. A consi-
derable number of the ringleaders were put to death, and
the rest condemned to severe or ignominious punishments.

During the rest of the winter and succeeding summer,
the Canadas remained in tolerable tranquillity. A deep
interest was excited by the proposal of a union of the two
provinces, strongly recommended by Lord Durham, and
a proposition to that effect was announced by the British
minister in the session of 1839. The House of Assem-
bly in the upper province declared themselves favour-
able to it under certain conditions ; but objections were
raised by the legislative council, which, with other
obstacles, induced the government to postpone the mea-
sure till a future session. A bill was passed to continue
and somewhat augment the extraordinary powers under
which Sir John Colborne administered the alfairs of
Lower Canada ; and in the autumn of the same year,
Mr Poulett Thompson, formerly President of the Board
of Trade, was nominated to the important office of Go-
vernor-general.

3RITISH.

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

241

CHAPTER V.

Topography of Lower Canada,

Boundaries— Surface — Divisions— District of Quebec— City of that
Name— Situation ; Edifices; Upper and Lower Town; Vici-
nity—Fall of Montmorenci— Isle of Orleans— Tadoussac and
the Saguenay — Lower Coast — Shores above Quebec — Trois
Rivieres, Town and District — Montreal District— City— Ca-
tholic Cathedral— Other Edifices — Rural Districts— Settlements
on the Ottawa— Country South of the St Lawrence — Settlements

on the Richelieu — Southern Part of Trois Rivieres District

Eastern Townships — American Land Company's Territory-
Southern Part of Quebec — Townships — Lower Shores of the St
Lawrence — Gaspe — General Summary.

It has not been usual, in the volumes of the Edinburgh
Cabinet Library, to enter into minute topographical
details of the various countries described. A general
survey is all that is required in most instances ; but
in regard to British America, and particularly to Ca-
nada, a different course appears to be expedient. These
provinces are chiefly inhabited by a British popula-
tion, and a continued stream of immigration has been, and
still is, directed towards them. The adventurer who is
to remove his abode to the new world, and choose there
a situation for life, is deeply interested in knowing the
advantages and disadvantages of each particular district.
The numerous individuals, too, in this country, who
have now friends settled in that remote region, cannot
but feel curious as to the locality in which the objects
of their affection are established. We propose therefore
to give in this chapter a somewhat minute description
VOL. I. p

?^ ,w

242

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

of Lower Canada, and, in the next, a similar account of
the Upper Province.

The former has for its eastern and northern bound-
aries the Gulf of St Lawrence, Labrador, and the high
ridge which separat(!S the tril)utarios of the St Lawrence
from the rivers falling into Hudson's Bay. The north-
en' limit terminates about 80° west longitude, where a
line drawn due south to Lake Temiscaming, on the Ot-
tawa, separates the two Canadian provinces. The river
just named forms the western boundary, till it approaches
Montreal, whence a line, drawn from it due south, passes
through Lake St Francis, and extends for some space
southward of the St Lawrence. The southern frontier
is parallel to the whole course of that great river, at a
distance of from fifteen to a hundred and thirty miles,
and is formed on the south by Chaleur Bay, New Bruns-
wick, and the States of Maine, New Hampshire, Ver-
mont, and New York. The precise limits, however, still
remain dependent on the important territorial question
now agitated between Great Britain and the United
States.

This extensive province lies between 45° and 62°
north latitude, and between 57° 50' and 80° 6' of west
longitude, making thus about 950 miles in length, and
490 in breadth. The entire area is estimated by the
best authorities at 205,863 square miles, of which not less
than 3200 are supposed to consist of lakes and rivers.*

The noi*thern part of this region consists throughout
of a bold, rugged, and rocky territory, watered by
almost innumerable streams and torrents, and diversi-
fied by many chains of small lakes. The soil is generally
unproductive, and no settlements have been attempted
in any part of it ; yet recent surveys have discovered
various detached spots embosomed among the hills,
or on the banks of the rivers, that appear susceptible
of high cultivation. This description of country comes
4iown and borders upon the St Lawrence, along its

• Bo«cliette,voi.i. pp. 173, 182.

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

243

lower course, as high as Cape Tounncnt, only thirty miles
below Quebee. It thou recedes, aiul leuves, between
itaelf and the courses of the St Lawrence and Ottawa,
an extensive and generally fruitful plaui, varying from
fifteen to forty miles in breadth. Detached eminences
and branches from the northern mountains serve only
to variegate the surface, and give to it a more picturesque
appearance.* On the south of the St Lawrence there is
a similar plam, not quite so spacious, but somewhat
more fertile and beautiful. The high lands cover
only a small portion of its surface, except in the
most eastern district of Gaspe, which presents through-
out a rugged surface, sunilar to that of the opposite
shore, though including a much larger proportion of
good soil.t

Lower Canada is divided into three principal districts,
Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal, and two small ones,
Gaspe and St Francis. This last, liowever, is so dimi-
nutive, and its townships so enclosed by those of Mon-
treal and Trois Rivieres, that its subdivisions have been
included within their counties. Quebec is divided into
thirteen counties, — Beauce, Bellechasse, Dorchester, Ka-
mouraska, L'Islet, Lotbiniere, Megantic, Montmorenci,
Orleans, Portneuf, Quebec, Rimouski, and Saguenay.
These are subdivided into seventy-nine seigniories,
twelve fiefs, and thirty-eight townships. Montreal
comprehends nineteen counties, — Acadie, Beauharnois,
Berthier,Cliambly, Lachenaye, La Prairie, L'Assomption,
Missisqui, Montreal, Ottawa, Richelieu, Rouville, St
Hyacinthe, Sheiford, Stanstead (this county includes
five townships of St Francis), Terrebonne, Two Moun-
tains, Vaudreuil, and Vercheres, These are subdivided into
sixty-three seigniories, eight fiefs, and forty-five town-

,'( "

• Lieutenant-colonel Bouchette considers this plain as terminat-
ing'^ or, aecordinfj to his order, commencing with the Grenville Hills
on tiie Ott'iwa ; but as the upper banks of that river are still more
level than those of the St Lawrence, that cluster seemingly can only
be considered a branch from the great northern range.

t Bouchette, voL I pp. 185, 281-290, 298-304, 324.

244

TOPOORAPIIY OP LOWER CANADA.

•: : i

tias. I

ships, besides fourteen others newly formed beyond the
limits of the counties. Trois Rivi^:res includes six
counties, — Champlain, Drummond, NicoUt, St Maurice,
Sherbrooke, and Yamaska ; subdivided into twenty-five
seigniories, nine fiefs, and fifty-three townships. Dnmi-
mond is partly, and Sherbrooke almost wholly, composed
of townships belonging to St Francis. Gaspe contains
only two counties, — Bonaventure and Gaspe, comprising
one seigniory, six fiefs, and ten townships. It may be
observed, that large portions of the three principal dis-
tricts, and, indeed, the most valuable part of Trois
Rivieres, are situated on the soutli side of the river.*

The subdivisions above stated, founded upon the
feudal system, according to which the French settlers
were established, is important to them as connected
with various judicial and political arrangements, but
have little interest for British readers, or even residents.
We shall therefore, after the example of Colonel Bou-
chette, pay more regard to the natural divisions, at Icjiat
to the extent of considering under separate heads the
territories, as situated respectively on the northern and
on the southern bank of the St Lawrence. We pur-
pose, not, however, like him, wholly to disregard pro-
vincial marches, but will consider successively the
districts of Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal, begin-
ning with those on the northern side of the great river
boundary.

The district of Quebec occupies the whole coast
watered by the gulf and river of St Lawrence, from
the eastern limit of the colony to the mouth of the
river St Anne, about thirty miles below Trois Rivieres,
and thence in a direct line to the northern boundary.
The greater part of this extensive section belongs to the
uncultivated portion of the country, and presents a
chaos of mountains, lakes, and torrents, tenanted only
by wild beasts and a few wandering Indians. At Cape
Tourment, however, it begins to give place to a tract

• Bouchettc, vol. i. p. 175-181.

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

245

of a much more pleuHing character ; and tliough still
traversed by rugged eminences, it conUiins much fertile
land, wliich is described as being at once romantic and
beautiful. On the northern side of the St Lawrence it
is divided into the counties of Quebec, Montmorenci,
Orleans, and Port Neuf, and comprised, in 1B31, a popu-
lation of 56,015.

In the midst of this fine landscape stands Quebec, the
capital of Britisli America. It is seated on a promon-
tory stretching out into the river, which, by nieans of it
and Point Levi on the opposite side, is narrowed to about
three quarters of a mile, though iuunedin^idy Iielow it
spreads out into a wide basin. Cape Diamoiid, the mo »t
elevated point of the city, is reckoned by an ouiinc it
traveller 1000 feet high ; a proof of thcfalla<.iousnai ire
of such estimates, since the more accurate observation of
Bouchette fixes it at 34^5. Above a hundred feet lower is
an elevated plain, on which are built the castle ai :. r'le
whole of what is termed the upper town. Th* nee a
perpendicular steep of above 200 feet descends to the
banks of the St Lawrence ; and in the narrow interval
between this precipice and the river is the lower town,
the crowded seat of business and shipping.

The scenery of Quebec and the surrounding country
is described by all travellers as rivalling in picturesque
b(^uty the most favoured parts of the earth. The
navigator who ascends the St Lawrence, after he has
passed the Isle of Orleans and enterec! fbe broad basin
already mentioned, where he first coi^cs in sight of
this capital, is struck with intense admiration. He
sees its citadel crowning a lofty cliff, its castle and
batteries overhanging a ran'^r of formidable steeps,
the river crowded with numerous vessels of every
form and size, from tlie huge timber-raft to the bark
canoe. The fall of Montmorenci appears dashing its white
foam almost to the clouds ; and on each side is a long
range of fertile and beautiful shore. On ascending
Cape Diamond a still grander and more extensive pano-
rama bursts upon his view, combming all the boldness

I s

I I

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I '

r ^¥

246

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

I i

'«

of rude with the richness of cultivated nature. Up and
down the magnificent stream of the St Lawrence is a
reach of more than forty miles, on which sails almost
innumerable are in ceaseless movement. Below is the
]3€autiful Isle of Orleans ; while the opposite coast is
diversified by a great variety of natural and cultivated
scenery. To the north appears the river St Charles
winding amid fertile valleys and hills, with villages
hanging on their sides ; while the prospect is closed by
a bold screen of mountains. Mr Weld prefers the views
from the upper town, where, though fewer objects are
seen, they appear more distinct and brilliant. This
traveller, after visiting a great part of Europe and
America, gives to them a preference over every thing
that he had observed on either continent. Mr McGregor
considers them similar, but much superior to those from
the castles of Edinburgh and Stirling.

Quebec, from its situation and the care with which
it has been fortified, is a very strong town, and con-
sidered the chief bulwark of British America. On the
summit of the lofty headland just described, stands the
citadel. Tlie rock consists of gray granite mixed with
quartz crystals, and a species of dark coloured slate.
About forty acres are here covered with works, carried
to the edge of the precipice, and connected by massive
walls and batteries with the other defences of the place.
The main body of the fortress, however, consists of the
upper town, whose fortifications enclose a circuit of about
two miles and three quarters. The face of the hill towards
the river is so extremely precipitous, that it requires
only a common wall to protect it, though the gate lead-
ing from the lower town is defended by heavy cannon,
and the steep approach by Mountain Street is enfiladed
and flanked by many guns of large calibre. As the
declivity towards the interior and the plains of Abraham
does not present the same abrupt face, but descends by
successive ridges, it has been strengthened by a series of
regular works, including ditch, covered way, and glacis,
with some exterior defences to obstruct the approach of

re. Up and
awrence is a

sails almost
Below is the
)site coast is
id cultivated

St Charles
rith villages

is closed by
rs the views
r objects are
liant. This
Europe and
every thing
yir McGregor
;o those from

with which
vn, and con-
ica. On the
d, stands the
! mixed with
loured slate,
orks, carried
1 by massive
of the place,
nsists of the
'cuit of about
? hill towards
t it requires
lie gate lead-
savy cannon,
; is enfiladed
>re. As the
of Abraham
descends by
)y a series of
^, and glacis,
approach of

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

247

an enemy. It seems probable, therefore, that the place
would hold out against any attack, till the approach of
the rigorous winter should compel the assailants to raise
the siege.

The upper town, which these fortifications enclose,
forms the chief part of Quebec, and the residence of all
the principal inhabitants not engaged in trade. It is a
tolerably handsome old-locking town ; the houses being
mostly of stone, partly roofed with tin. The streets are
well paved, and in some instances macadamized, but they
are much too narrow, as the broadest does not exceed
thirty-two feet. St Louis Street, the almost exclusive
residence of the fashionable circle, has been lately
adorned with several elegant mansions. The public
buildings are commodious and substantial, without
much pretension to architectural ornament. The castle
of St Louis, a large plain baronial-looking edifice,
forms the dwelling of the governor. It comprises
a space of four acres, once fortified ; but the great
extension of the works has rendered its walls su-
perfluous, and they are allowed to go to decay.
The apartments are large and commodious, and tlie
veranda commands a magnificent vista up the river. Ad-
joining is a spacious structure, once occupied by go-
vernment offices, now chiefly employed for public en-
tertainments. The enclosure contains two excellent
and well-cultivated gardens.

Of religious edifices the chief is the Roman Catholic
cathedral, being 216 feet long by 180 in breadth, and
capable of containing a congregation of 4000. The in-
terior has a lofty and solemn aspect, but the outside is
heavy and not in very good taste. There are several
other Catholic churches. The English cathedral, though
smaller, being only 136 feet long by 75 broad, and in a
simple style, is considered extremely neat. The Scotch
church is much inferior. The monastic establish-
ments are spacious. The Hotel-Dieu, founded in 1637
by the Duchess d'Aiguillon, mcludes a convent, church,
and courtyard, besides cemetery and gardens. The range

248

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

of buildings is extensive, but without any ornament ;
and its chief use is as an hospital, in which respect it
affords the greatest benefit to the colony. A prioress and
thirty- two nuns are continually employed in ministering
to the sick, with a great degree of attention and skUl :
hence government have been induced to make occa-
sional grants in addition to the considerable revenues
attached to the establishment. The Ursuline convent
is a neat building in the heart of the city, surrounded
by fine gardens. It was founded in 1639 by Madame de
la Peltrie, chiefly for the purposes of education. The
inmates, forty-six in number, observe a somewhat rigid
seclusion, but they instruct, in reading, writing, and
needlework, a certain number of girls, comprehending
even Protebtynts. They are very assiduous in embroi-
dery and other ornamental works, especially for eccle-
siastical vestments ; and the fruits of their industry are
often sold at high prices, which are thrown into the com-
mon stock. The spacious monastery of the Jesuits, 224
feet by 200, surrounded by noble gardens, was forfeited
on the suppression of that order, and at the conquest was
regarded as crown property. It was then converted
into a place of exercise for the troops, and to the regret
of many its fine trees were cut down ; but the legisla-
ture of the province have lately petitioned for its being
restored to its original purpose of education. The large
edifice called the Seminary, with an extensive domain
attached to it, was founded in 1663 by M. de Petre, with
a view to the instruction of the Catholic clergy. It is now
open to all students of that persuasion, who are initiat-
ed in the dift'o^-ent branches of knowledge upon paying
the trifling sum of 5s. annually to defray incidental ex-
penses. Pupils, indeed, may be boarded as well as taught
for £12, 10s. a-year.

The buildings employed for public purposes are ample
and commodious, though mostly reared for different ob-
jects. The bishop's palace formed an extremely elegant
residence, with a chapel and many conveniences ; but, in
return for an annuity, it was relinquished, and now ac-

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

249

commodates the two branches of the legislature. About
the year 1803 a very handsome house was erected by a
joint-stock company in the best situation the town afford-
ed, with the view of being employed as a hotel. This
plan, however, being abandoned, it was sold to the chief-
justice, and is now leased at £500 » -year by govern-
ment, who give it up to the use of their chief civil de-
partments. It contains also the Museum of the Literary
and Historical Society founded in 1824, and which in
1829 was united to that for the promotion of arts and
sciences. The collection is said to be valuable in regard
to mineralogy and botany. There is a library also,
though only in its infancy. The Artillery Barracks form
a long range of building, somewhat roughly constructed,
but substantial and convenient. The Armoury con-
tains equipments for 20,000 men, and, being extremely
well arranged, excites the admiration of strangers.

The market is ^eld in an open space 250 feet long,
with a breadth in some places of about 165. A large
building with stalls has been reared in the centre, though
the chief business is still transacted on the open ground.
It is held every day, but Saturday is the busiest. The
crowds of carters with their wives and families, bringing
in the productions of the surrounding country, their
brawlings and vociferations in bad French and broken
English, form a scene of noise and confusion, amid which
appear a few Indian squaws, and the gentlemen of the
city and garrison going round to make purchases. Every
kind of provision is abundant and cheap except fish,
which is less plentiful than might be expected from the
situation. Among public places may also be mentioned
the Grand Parade in front of the castle, surrounded by
the most distinguished edifices ; and also the Esplanade,
a large level space along the interior wall, which is the
chief theatre for military exercises.

The lower town is a narrow crowded range oi build-
ings, extending along the base of the precipice. The
spot on which it stands is entirely the creation of human
industry ; for originally the waves at liigh water beat the

I rj'

1^ |.i

ii.l

i \

ill

ffl I

250

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

very foot of tlie rock. Wharfs, however, have been found-
ed and carried out into the river, though nowhere farther
than 240 yards ; and on these streets have been erected.
So limited, indeed, is the space that the quarter beyond
Cape Diamond communicates with the rest only by a path
cut in many places through the solid rock. This part
of Quebec is compared to the most irregular and con-
fused districts of Edinburgh. It is connected with the
upper town by what is called Mountain Street, which
formerly was not passable for carriages without extreme
difficulty, but has of late been much improved. The
Break-neck Stairs, as they are denominated, are more
commodious for foot passengers. Besides extensive
wharfs, the lower town contains the Quebec Bank,
which, in addition to apartments for its appropriate
purpose, has others for a fire assurance company and a
subscription library, the most extensive and valuable in
Canada. The government warehouses are also spacious,
and Uie custom-house having been found inconvenient,
the foundation-stone of a new one was laid in 1831.
Amid wharfs lately formed on the flat beach of the St
Charles, has been erected the exchange building, an ele-
gant structure, containing a spacious reading-room and
several others devoted to commercial purposes. Projects
are in contemplation for erecting a pier, which would
also serve as a bridge across the estuary ; an improve-
ment which, while it would aftbrd ample space for the
extension of the lower town, would enable the largest
vessels and rafts to lie in security, instead of resorting,
as at present, to coves in the neighbourhood.

On the inland side of the fortress, stretching more
than a mile into the interior, are the large suburbs of
St Roch and St John. They are built regularly, but
chiefly of wood, and with accommodations suited only
to the lower ranks ; though of late, indeed, they have
been adorned with many stone houses of a superior class.
There is also a smaller suburb named St Louis.

Quebec maintains a constant communication with
Point Levi on the opposite shore, whence it derives a

h i

)A.

e been found-
here farther
been erected,
larter beyond
•nlyhyapath
This part
lar and con-
!ted with the
Itreet, which
liout extreme
roved. The
ed, are more
es extensive
Quebec Bank,
appropriate
mpany and a
d valuable in
also spacious,
inconvenient,
laid in 1831.
ich of the St
ilding, an ele-
ing-room and
)ses. Projects
which would
an improve-
space for the
le the largest
of resorting,
d.

itching more
e suburbs of
3gularly, but
suited only
d, they have
Liperior class.
)uis.

ication with
it derives a

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

251

great part of its provisions. A steam ferry-boat plies
every half-hour, making the trip in about ten or fif-
teen minutes. The navigation also being very properly
left free, the river is constantly covered with numerous
canoes generally hollowed out from the trunks of trees.
The boatmen brave the most tempestuous weather, and
though often driven several leagues out of their course,
are scarcely ever wrecked. Even in winter, when they
must encounter blocks of ice with which the channel is
encumbered, they contrive with ropes and iron-pointed
poles to raise their vessels upon tlie surface of the masses,
and drag them along till they find open water on which
to launch it. When this channel is frozen entirely over,
the communication becomes still more easy. A line is
marked with beacons placed by the Grand Voyer, over
which hay, firewood, with other bulky articles, are trans-
ported abundantly and at reduced prices. This advan-
tage occurs only occasionally ; but every year the chan-
nel between the Isle of Orleans and the northern coast is
frozen over, when the produce of that fertile spot, re-
served for the occasion, finds a ready conveyance. For-
merly milk and vegetables were brought in a frozen
state from distant quarters ; but now these commodities
are procured in abundance from the neighbourhood.

The society of Quebec is more gay and polished than
is usual in colonial cities, where tlie pursuit of wealth
forms too often the sole object of the inhabitants. Here,
besides merchants, there are a number of British civil
and military officers, and a body of French noblesse,
living on their domains. These different classes do not,
it is said, always thoroughly amalgamate. The French,
though often superior in manners and habits, are in
some degree disdained by the ruling people, which they
do not well brook. Among the English themselves,
the chief test of rank is an introduction at the castle,
without wliich strangers will find themselves placed
below those whom they would liave been classed above
in the mother country. The liotels are good, and,
after the fashion of the United States, the inmates com-

11 ^ I,

252

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

monly dine at a table d'hote, which often affords to the
visiter the opportunity of meeting with interesting
characters. He can, hov/ever, if he wishes, have private
apartments.*

The cultivated country northward of Quebec does
not extend far, being closely hemmed in by the range
of mountains, and settlement being obstructed through
the very imperfect titles by which alone the land can be
conveyed. Immediately westward, in front of the forti-
fications, are the Plains of Abraham, memorable as the
scene whereon Quebec was gained by the gallant Wolfe,
and whence only it can be successfully assailed. The
summit, indeed, is 830 feet high, which does all but
command that loftiest pinnacle on which Fort Diamond
stands. As some security against this danger, four
martello towers have been so placed as to range over
the whole plain. Immediately to the north a road
leads along the heights to the village of St Foix, and to
the beautifully secluded dingle of Sillery, about four
leagues in length and one in breadth, formerly the seat
of a missionary settlement, which we shall have occasion
again to mention. In the same direction from the suburb
of StRoch is the Huron village of Lorette, near the banks
of the river St Charles, which, in this neighbourhood,
forms a beautiful cascade. Onward still, twelve miles
from Quebec, is the lake of the same name, about four
miles long and one broad. It is divided into two parts by
projecting ledges, and the upper one especially is finely
diversified by rocks, woods, bays, hills, and lofty moun-
tains in the distance.

Crossing the St Charles, and going eastward through
the agreeable village of Beauport, we reach the Falls of
Montmorenci, one of the most picturesque objects in all
America. They do not indeed pour down that im-
mense flood of water which renders Niagara so won-
derful ; but the height is greater, being 240 feet, and

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 241-276. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 474-485.
Weld, p. 201-202.

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TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

253

the stream descends the whole of this vast steep in one
white sheet of foam. It is received into a vast hasin,
whence arise clouds of vapour that display the most
brilliant tints of the rainbow. M. Bouchette imagines
that even Switzerland, though it contains much loftier
falls, has none which descend in so unbroken a mass.
He overlooks, we think, the Staubbach, whose stream,
however, is less copious than that of Montmorenci.
In winter, when the falling waters congeal into icicles,
these accumulate above each other, till they on some
occasions swell to an amazing magnitude, and present
a most curious spectacle. About fifty years ago General
Haldimand, then governor of Canada, built a house close
to the fall, and commanding a most advantageous view
of it. This was afterwards occupied by the Duke of
Kent, and is now the residence of Mr Paterson, who
has erected upon the river an extensive range of saw-
mills.*

Beyond Montmorenci, the country, though somewhat
rugged, continues to be cultivated and even traversed
by commodious roads. Here occur the villages of
Chateau Richer and St Anne. Immediately after, it
is necessary to cross the precipitous mountain forming
Cape Tourment, about 1890 feet high, and the com-
mencement of a long series of similar heights, called
" the Capes," which render this part of the St Lawrence
grand but desolate. The road over them is extremely
steep, and till lately by no means commodious ; but
measures have now been taken to improve it. In St
l-'aul's Bay, beneath the shelter of a circuit of hills, a
considerable settiement has been formed ; while in the
neighbouring one of La Petite Riviere, the exposure
is so excellent, that fruit is produced of quality equal
to that of Montreal or Niagara. The road then leads over
bleak heights, through the village of Eboulemens to
Mai Bay, where the land communication and all regular

* Bouchette, vol. i. p. 265-280. M'Gregor, vol. ii. pp. 492, 493.
Weld, p. 205.

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254

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

I K '

' J

Jrft s

intercourse are found to terminate. A Scottish officer
received this seigniory for his services in the American
war, and has so much improved it, that it now contains
about 400 inhabitants.

Before proceeding farther, we must notice the island
of Orleans, about five miles below Quebec, already
mentioned in connexion with the fine expanse of the
river. It is not less than twenty miles long and four
or five broad, dividing the stream into two nearly equal
channels. Some parts are considerably elevated, and
crowned with forests; but the larger proportion is
under ver;^ high cultivation. Below are two smaller
islands, called Goose and Crane, with rich pastures and
numerous inhabitants.*

The coast below Mai Bay becomes altogether wild and
desolate, whUe a facing of sandhills towards the water
renders its aspect still more dreary. This continues to
the mouth of the river Saguenay, one of the boldest
features in this remarkable country. It has been traced
upwards only to Lake St John, about 140 miles from
its mouth. That expanse, estimated at 100 miles in
circumference, was found by M. Bouchette receiving
large rivers from various quarters ; but as to their sources
and relative magnitude nothing certain is yet known.
In the districts adjoining to this lake, while there is much
mountainous and barren land, considerable tracts, com-
prising in all about 340,000 acres, were considered
quite fit for cultivation. About midway down, the
Saguenay is joined from the south by the Chicou-
timi, on the banks of which extends a tract called
the Peninsula, believed to contain nearly 400,000 acres
of fine arable soil. At some distance below, sixty miles
from the mouth, the Bay des Has presents a magnifi-
cent harbour, capable of receiving the largest ships, and
surrounded by vast tracts of fertile territory. The Sa-
guenay is navigable for vessels of great bulk two leagues

• Bouchette, vol. L pp. 166, 280, 281. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p.
470-472.

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

255

Iregor, vol. ii. p.

above Chicoutimi. About five miles farther down, the
level character of its banks ceases, and, to the point
where it falls into the St Lawrence, they are bold,
steep, and rocky, shooting up sometimes into precipi-
tous cliffs 2000 feet high, thinly clad with fir, birch,
and other trees of a northern climate. The breadth,
unless when it spreads into small lakes, seldom ex-
ceeds half a mile ; but the depth is very extraordinary,
varying from 600 to 900 feet. Upon joining the great
river now mentioned, here eighteen miles broad, it
changes for some space the direction of the stream ; and
presents the remarkable circumstance, that while the
St Lawrence at this place is only 240 feet deep, the
Saguenay, above the junction, approaches to a thousand.
A ledge of rocks, through which there is a profound
though rather narrow channel, checks, in some degree,
the discharge of its copious waters.

The whole of this tract, as well above as below Ta-
doussac, is occupied by a body called the ling's Posts'
Company, who early obtained a lease of it from the
French government, under the title of " the Domaine,"
with the exclusive right of tradmg, hunting, and fishing,
both along the coast and in the interior. This privilege,
which they still preserve, must have materially contri-
buted to keep these tracts in their unimproved state ;
for the Company maintain only a few small stations,
scattered over the desert, with the view of collecting
furs. The principal is Tadoussac, for some time the
capital of the French settlements, but now reduced to
a paltry village. The harbour is spacious, and secure
from almost every wind, though the entrance to vessels
descending the St Lawrence is somewhat intricate. The
Company have also stations at Chicoutimi, and at the
mouth of one of the rivers falling into the St John. It
is remarkable that on both these remote spots there are
remains of settlements early formed by the Jesuits.

Below the Saguenay there is still a coast pertaining
to Canada 665 miles in length, but of a very unin-
viting description. The land gradually loses its lofty

li"

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256

TOPOOllAPIIY OF LOWER CANADA.

character, and at Portneuf, forty miles farther down, it
presents only eminences of moderate elevation. Beyond
the immediate border it is a deep swamp covered
with moss ; while the interior, according to the report
of the Indians and Esquimaux, by whom alone it is
traversed, is composed of rocky cliffs, and low hills scat-
tered over barren plains, diversified with thick forests of
stunted pines, and chequered with small lakes. There
seems reason to suspect, that the hopes once entertained
of finding here tracts of cultivable land, will never be
fulfilled ; but ideas arc still cherished that the district
may contain valuable minerals. Portneuf itself consists
only of three or four houses, a chapel, and several stores ;
yet, after passing such vast ranges of dreary coast, the
eye is agreeably relieved by the view of this picturesque
and solitary little settlement. It is succeeded at long
intervals by the posts of Les Isles, Jeremie, the Seven
Islands, and Mingan. On Mount Pelee, called also
Pointe des Monts, a lighthouse has been recently erected.
Here, in mid-channel, is the large island of Anticosti,
125 miles long and 30 in its greatest breadth. The
soil has been found unfavourable, and all attempts to
colonize it have been relinquished. It attracts attention
chiefly by the dangers which its shores present to the
mariner ; and, in 1809, an effort was made to obviate
them, by forming two government stations, where the
means of supply and relief might be deposited. The
agents, however, have in many instances been careless ;
and the coast, accordingly, has been the scene of most
calamitous shipwrecks. It is now in contemplation to
erect a lighthouse at each end ; an improvement certainly
much to be desired.*

Returning to Quebec, and surveying the part of the
province above that capital, we discover an entirely
different scene. The bold range of the northern moun-
tains gradually disappears, and the country, first diversi-

* Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 168, 169, 283-294. McGregor, vol. ii.
p. 467-470.

'Gregor, vol. ii.

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA*

257

fied by varied eminences, afterwards sinks into a level
plain. The road, which formerly passed close to the
river, is now not unfrequently carried througii the in-
terior, with the view of being rendered at once more
direct and level ; but though kept in good repair, it is in
a great measure superseded by the extreme facilities
for steam navigation. This territory is traversed by
considerable rivers, fed by the mountains and lakes of
the upper country, and flowing with a full and rapid
current. These are chiefly the Portneuf, the Jacques
Caitier, and the St Anne, of which the last is the
largest, and at its mouth the boundary of the province
begins. Considerable rafts of timber are floated down
these streams to the diffbrent saw-mills. The Jacques
Cartier rolls a com])lete torrent ; and its wild rocky
scenery, and rude bridges, present quite a Norwegian
aspect. Generally, however, the region has a smiling
appearance, comprising the concessions, or fiefs and
seigniories held by the French Canadians, under regu-
lar though not very full cultivation ; a considerable
space being usually left in the rear, for the mere
purpose of supplying timber and fuel. Closely follow-
ing each other, they form almost one continued vil-
lage, with neat churches at short distances ; a pleasing
though not varied scene, '^here are no places which
can claim the appellation of towns. New Liverpool,
several miles above Quebec, has some wharfs and
mooring stages, at which a few vessels usually unload.
St Anne, situated near the extremity of the province,
is the chief station on the road to Trois Rivieres, and
has two or three good inns.*

The district of Trois Rivieres, extending from the
mouth of the St Anne to the upper part of Lake St
Peter, is less important and populous than the two others ;
yet it embraces a great extent of fertile land, though
chiefly on the southern side of the St Lawrence. The
nortliern part, wliich in 1831 contained a population of

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 237-239. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 495.
VOL. I. ti

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258

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

23,900, is divided into the counties of Cham plain and St
Maurice. The i)rincipal town, lu-ariiig the appellation of
the district, lies at the mouth of the St Maurice, a larpe
trihutary stream, which, heinu; divided ])y islands uit<»
three hranches at first supi)()scd to be distinet, has given
this name to the place. It was founded hi 1 618, in contem-
plation of its becoming the main emporium of the fur-
trade ; but since that trailic has been extended into the
more remote regions of America, Montreal was found a
much more convenient station, jmd has absorbed it almost
entirely. The town now chiefly depends upon the li-
mited quantity collected in the wild country towards the
north, and has derived also no small benefit from the
excellent iron })roduce(l at the forges on the St Maurice.
These, however, with some exports of grain and timber,
have not been sufficient to elevate it above the rank of
u large village, which, in 1825, contained 2450 inhabi-
tants, and was supposed, in 1831, to have increased to
about 4000. It has a good whaifage, admitting ships of
large burden close to it, though the ground in the im-
mediate vicinity is poor and sandy. The principal edifice
is the Ursuline convent, founded in 1677, and contiiin-
ing a superior and twenty-four nuns. It was burned
down in 1 800, but has since been rebuilt.

The rural districts of Trois Rivieres, so far as they lie
northward of the St Lawrence, fonn a continuation of
the same kind of territory, already described as stretch-
ing from Quebec, and in general flatter, and capable
of more uniform cultivation. To the westward, espe-
cially in ascending the river, it presents a succession of
flourishing settlements, and gay villages, occurring every
eight or nine miles. These extend particularly along tlu;
Lake of St Peter, — a wide expansion of the St Lawrence,
about twenty-five miles long and from five to ten broad,
but its depth in many places does not exceed twelve feet.
Hence the intricate channel, through which alone large
vessels canbe navigated, must be marked by poles or other
l)eacons. The shores are extremely flat ; but numerous
verdant islands enliven the western extremity, which

'ri'i

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TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

25U

> i

also mark the boundary of the province. Near tlic
eastern frontier, the Batiscan, with a village of tl»e
same name at itH nioiitli, falls into the great river.*

The <listri(;t of Montreal, if not the most extensive in
Lower Canada, is at least that which contains the great-
est proportion of valuable land. Commencing at the
western boundary of Trois Rivieres, it extends along
the St Lawrence, but in that direction terminates where
Up])er Canada begins, not far abovi; the capital. It
shoots, however, a long ])ranch up the Ottawa, em-
bracing all the northern bank of that river, till it is
bounded, along with the lower province, by Lake Temis-
caming. This district, on the north of the St Lawrence,
comprehends the counties of Moutreal, Berthier, La-
chenaye, L'Assomption, Terrebonne, Two Mountains,
Vaudreuil,andOttawa,contamingapopulationofl47,(>49.
Another portion, nearly equally valuable, lies on the
south bide, and will be afterwards described.

Montreal, the chief town in this district, though not
ranking as u capital, is e<pial to (iue])ec in magnitude,
and superior in commercial importance. Its greatness
is likely to increase from its favourable situation, and
the growing prosperity of Upper Canada, of which, as
being the highest point of the St Lawrence to which
vessels of the first class can ascend, it must always con-
tinue the emporium.

The site of this town does not present those bold and
grand features which distinguish the Canadian metro-
polis, though its beauty can scarcely be surpassed. The
river, in this finest part of its couise, divides itself into two
channels, enclosing an island thirty-two miles long and
ten and a half broad, which forms one of the most
favoured spots on earth. The soil, every where luxu-
riant, is cultivated like one great garden, to supply the

* Bouchette, :o\. i. p. 20!K Evans, Treatise on the Theory and
Practice of Agriculture in Canada (Su))plement, 1830), p. 62. Re-
ports of Canada Commissioners (February 1837))" Appendix to
General, p. 3.

^■•■ii ^:

260

TOPOGRAPHY OP LO'VN'^R CANADA.

i u

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Jl,!i;$tii i

inhabitants with vegetables and fruits. These last
are of the finest quality, and the apples especially are
said to display that superiority which so remarkably
distinguishes them in the New World. Although the
island possesses in general that level surface which fits
it for a thorough cultivation, yet about a mile and a
half north-east rises a hill 550 feet high, commanding
a noble view over the fertile country, which is watered
by the several branches and tributaries of the St Law-
rence. Its face is covered with agreeable villas, and its
wooded heights form a frequent resort to pleasure parties
from the city ; but the intention now understood to be
entertained of erecting fortifications on its summit, will,
if put into execution, banish in a great measure its rural
cJiaracter.

The city, built on the southern border of this fine
island, is not crowded like Quebec into a limited space,
which can alone be covered with streets and habi-
tations. It has a wide level surface to extend over ;
so that even the older streets are of tolerable breadth,
and several of them occupy its entire length. The prin-
cipal one, Rue Notre Dame, considerably exceeds half a
mile in extent, and contains many of the chief public
buildings. There is an upper and a lower town, though
the difference of elevation is very slight ; but the former
is much the more handsome of the two. The seven
suburbs are not, as in the older capital, detached and
extraneous, but on the same level, and immediately
adjacent. Their streets, contmued in the direction of
tliose in the body of the place, are regular, and display
many handsome houses. The vicinity is adorned with
beautiful villas.

Of the public edifices, the new Catholic cathedral,
completed in 182J), is undoubtedly the most splendid,
and is, in fact, superior to any other in British America.
Its stylo is a species of Gothic ; it is 255 feet inches
in length, and 134 feet 6 inches in breadth. The flanks
rise sixty-one feet above the terrace ; and there are six
towers, of which the three belonging to the main front

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

261

are 220 feet high. It is faced with excellent stone,
and roofed with tin. The princii)al window is sixty-
four feet in height, and thirty-two broad. On the roof
has been formed a promenade seventy-six feet by twenty,
elevated 120 feet, and commanding a most delightful
view. The interior contains 1244 pews, equal to the
accommodation of at least 10,000 persons. There are five
public and three private entrances to the first floor, and
four to the galleries, so disposed that this vast congregation
can easily assemble and disperse in a few minutes. The
building comprises seven chapels, all visible from the
front entrance, and nine spacious aisles. The high altar
bears a resemblance to that of St Peter's at Rome, the
pulpit to that of the cathedral at Strasburg. The large
window is painted, but not in a good style ; it is intended
tliat it shall be filled hereafter with stained glass. The
other Catholic edifices belong mostly to the order of St
Sulpice, by whose members, as formerly mentioned,
Montreal was chiefly founded, and who hold the supe-
riority of the whole island upon which it stands. Tlieir
seminary, which is a large and commodious building a«I-
joining the cathedral, occupies three sides of a square 132
feetlongby 90deep,and is surrounded by spacious gardens.
To extend its benefits, the Order have lately, at an ex-
pense of 4)10,000, erected a handsome additional building,
210 feet by 45. In these establishments, the numerous
students, attending all the branches of learning and
philosophy, are taught at very moderate chai'ges. There
are two large nunneries ; — the priiicipal one, called
the Congregation of Notre Dame, contains a superior
and sixty sisters, who receive boarders at a low rate,
and send teachers to different parts of the district. The
Swurs ^m (Grey Sisters) consist of a superior and twenty-
four nuns, who admit into their spacious apartments
the infirm poor, and are said to treat them with
great humanity. The Hotel Dieu is a large conventual
structure, occupied by a superior and thirty-six nuns,
and is also appropriated to the reception of the sick and
indigent. Its utility is Imiited by the sniallness of its

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262

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

funds, notwithstanding occasional grants from the legis-
lature. The monastery of the RecoUets, which occupied
extensive grounds at the end of Notre Dame Street, is
now demolished, though its church is still used for public
worship.

The English establishments, both for rcdigion and
education, are also very respectable. The Episcopal
church in the street just named, is a very handsome
specimen of modern architecture, and is surmounted
by a lofty spire. The Scotch church is plam, but at-
tended by a highly respectable congregation. In 1814,
a most important donation was made by a w^ealthy in-
dividual, — the Hon. James M'Gill, — to found a college
for the principal branches of education. The endow-
ments consist of a valuable estate at the Movmtain, with
^10,000 in money. It has not, however, yet come into
operation, in consequence of a lawsuit, which did not
terminate till 1835, when the available funds in the
hands of the institution amounted to £'22,000. It
is to be conducted on the most liberal system, — indi-
viduals of every religious persuasion being admitted as
students, and even as teachers. There is a Natural His-
tory Society and a Mechanics' Institution, whose labours
have been meritorious. The private establishments for
education are also respectable. The limited means of the
Hotel Dieu are amply compensated by the more ample
income of the Montreal General Hospital, which was
built in 1821-2 by voluntary subscription, at an expense
of nearly £6000. It is said to be one of the best regu-
lated institutions of the kind in America.*

The hai'bour of Montreal does not seem to have re-
ceived all the attention which its importance merits.
It is somewhat confined, and has no wharfage, though,
cloee to the bank in front of the town, is a depth of
fifteen feet, sufficient for the largest vessels which as-
cend to this point. Its chief disadvantage consists in

EvaDs,

Douchette, vol. i. p. 21-J-232. M'Grcgor, vol. ii. p. 507-511.
as, pp. 63, 23. Reports of Commissioners, I. Appendix, p. 36.

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

263

two shoals, and in the rapid of St Mary's, ahoiit a mile
below, which vessels often find it difficult to stem. Im-
portant improvements are now contemplated, and a grant
for the purpose has even been voted by the legislature.
The communication with the opposite sides of the river
is carried on by means of ten ferries, on several of Avhich
ply a number of steam-vessels. A wooden bridge was
once constructed from Repentigny on the northern
shore, but in the spring after its completion it was carried
down by the masses of ice. It is still thouglit that one
of larger span might be constructed, free from that danger.
In considering the rural districts of Montreal, so far as
they extend northward of the St Lawrence, we shall begin
with the tract reaching down to the province of Trois
Rivieres. It presents an aspect similar to that of the
whole coast from Quebec, but still more level, and also
more fertile and populous. It forms one uninterrupted
succession of flourisliing settlements, with villages, on a
larger scale than in the lower districts. Berthier, with
850 inhabitants, on a branch of the St Lawrence called
the North Channel, is a great thorouglifare, being mid-
way between Trois Rivieres and Montreal, and supplying
a variety of goods to the neighbouring seigniories. St
Eustache, en the channel called Jesus or St Jean, which
seems to be a joint branch of the St Lawrence and Otta-
wa, commands the route to the territories on the latter
river, and, before the recent insurrection, had a consider-
able ti'aific, and a population of fully a thousand. The
Isle Jesus, separated from the mainland by this channel,
extends parallel to that of Montreal for the space of
twenty-one miles, and is six at its greatest breadth. It
is throughout level, fertile, and highly cultivated ; th^.
original forest being almost entirely extirpated, except
for ornament and fuel. In this quarter, on the small lake
of the Two Mountains, are a couple of villages belonging
to the Algonquins and Iroquois, containhig together about
two hundred houses.*

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* Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 209-211, 2^2, 233.

264

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

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hi.

The portion of Montreal district on the St Lawreiice
extends to Pointe au Baudet, fifty-five miles above
the capital, where it meets the boundary of Upper
Canada. This tract, between the St Lawrence and the
Ottawa, forms the county of Vaudreuil ; it is level,
diversified only by a few gentle hills, and is also very
fruitful. Vaudreuil and Rigaud are only villages ; the
chief importance being attached to the places which lie
on the river. La Chine is about eight miles above
Montreal, where the navigation is interrupted by the
fall of St Louis, to obviate Avhich, the fine canal bearing
its name has been erected, at an expense of £137,000.
This village, which originally received its appellation
from the chimerical idea that it would afibrd a route to
China, still forms an important point in the navigation
both of the St Lawrence and the Ottawa, near whose
junction it is situated. About twelve miles farther up,
at the village of Pointe des Cascades, commences a series
of formidable cataracts, which, with little interruption,
extend about nine miles. There is nowhere any high
fall ; but the stream, filled with hidden rocks and covered
with breakers, dashes like the waves of a tempestuous
ocean. Yet the rafts, the Durham boats, and batteaux
constructed for the purpose, can, under skilful guidance,
l)e safely piloted through these dangerous rapids. The
crews, however, are often obliged to unload the most
bulky part of their cargo, and have it conveyed by land.
Steam navigation, which ceases at one end of this obstruc-
tioii, is resumed at the other : and the village of the Cedars,
situated opposite to the rapids of the same name, is the
chief depot for the lund-passage. It commands a mag-
nificent view of the foaming billows, and of the barks
which steer through them their perilous course.*

The Ottawa province, extending about 350 miles along
the northern bank of that great river, forms as it were
a very extensive wing, detached from the district and
from Lower Canada, while the upper province extends

* Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 234, 235.

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

265

opposite to it along the southern bank. Thus the bound-
ary between these two territories, which at first runs due
north, as soon as it strikes the Ottawa, stretches first
north-west, and then almost due west. This extensive
tract is as yet by no means occupied or improved in pro-
portion to its natural capabilities. The numerous ob-
stacles to the navigation, though now in part removed,
liave doubtless greatly retarded its settlement.

The upper part of the river beyond the falls and Portage
des Allumettes, is used by the fur-traders, who have
a post also on Lake Temiscaming, more than 350 miles
above the junction of the Ottawa with the St Lawrence ;
but this tract has never been surveyed, nor even accu-
rately described. Up to the portage, it is regularly fre-
quented by the lumberers, who find valuable supplies of
pine and oak, which they contrive to float down in rafts
tlirough all obstructions. At the Allumettes the stream
separates into two channels, enclosing an island fift'^n
miles long, and forming three small lakes called tlie
Allumettes, the Mud, and the Musk Rat. On the latter
is one solitary farm, said to be in a prosperous condition.
Eight miles below the junction of these channels is Fort
Coulange, where the Hudson's Bay Company have a
post, near which is one well-cultivated settlement. Four
or five miles down, another division of the stream forms
an island about twenty miles long ; but the two channels
are much impeded by falls and rapids. The northern,
which is the more practicable, has four portages within a
few miles of the point of junction ; and there is another
five miles below it. The falls are not above eight or ten
feet high ; but they are much broken by m sses of rock,
and have a very wild appearance.

For ten miles downwards, the stream is beavitifully
diversified by wooded islands, through which it rushes
with various degrees of v^iolence. The banks, great part
of the way, consist of white marble, somewhat soft and
coarse ; but farther mland, it is believed, a superior de-
scription would be found. At the end of this tract, Bis-
set's cliantier, a solitary L^g-house, with a few cleared

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266

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

acres, relieves the eye after the monotony of these vast
solitudes ; it affords also a welcome asylum to the fur and
timber traders. Soon after, the view opens upon the
magnificent expanse of the Lake des Chats, about fifteen
miles long, studded with richly wooded islets. On the
south are one or two scattered mansions, and particu-
larly Kinnell Lodge, the residence of the Highland chief-
tain M'Nab. The northern side appears uninhabited ; yet
at a little distance from the beach is the settlement of
Clarendon, ^brmed in 1829, and in 1881 containing 257
inhabitants. The township of Bristol, in 1828, presented
only a few poor hovels, and thirty-one settlers, which
number had, in 1831, increased :o ninety-six, and in
1836 to not less than 445. At length the lake suddenly
coiitracts, and the rapids of the Chats for three miles
dasli in violent eddies, amid a labyrinth of islands. They
terminate in the Falls des Chats, fifteen or sixteen in
number, extending in a curved line across the river, and
divided by wooded islands ; but only from sixteen to
twenty feet high. The northern coast, having a rocky
and uneven surface, forms the township of Onslow,
which in 1836 had 150 settlers.

About six miles below this point commences Lake
Chaudiere, an expanse eighteen miles long, and, like the
former, terminating in rapids, succeeded by falls. These
last, called the Great and Little Chaudiere (Kettle),
are on a larger scale, 60 feet high, and 212 broad. The
descending torrent, striking on a great circular rock, is
thrown up in clouds of spray, which conceal the bottom of
the fall, and often rise in revolving columns high above its
summit. A great portion of the water being uriaccount-
ed for, is believed to escape by subterraneous ciiannels.
Immediately below, where the stream still rolls in rapid
eddies, a bridge has been thrown across. The difficulties
of the undertaking were overcome by dividing the struc-
ture into four parts consisting of different materials. The
broadest span is stretched by means of a hempen fabric,
composed of three-inch cables, forming an inverted seg-
ment of a circle, the lowest point of which is only seven

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

267

feet above the torrent. But at no time can it be passed
without a feeling of peril.

The township of Onslow is followed by that of Eardley,
extending along Lake Chaudiere, and having much excel-
lent land, which is very hnperfectly occupied by 200 per-
sons. Below is Hull, the most flourishing of all the upper
settlements on the Ottawa. Its front towards the river
is level, or gently undulating, but it rises behind into
hills, some 900 feet high, yet finely wooded, or affoixl-
ing good pasturage. It is watered by the large river
Gatincau,and contains valuable mmesof iron and quarries
of marble. This township was surveyed by Philemon
Wright, an American loyalist, who in 1806 obtained
a grant of 12,000 acres of it for himself and his asso-
ciates. Having, by his pecuniary advances, secured the
exclusive property of the greater portion, as well as of
lai'ge tracts in neighbouring townships, he has become a
most extensive landowaier. By great exertions he Ims
rendered it extremely flourishing, and has led the way in
all the measures now takuig for the improvement of this
fine district. The town of Wright, situated immediately
opposite to the great Rideau Canal, must rapidly grow
in importance. Its population is already considerable,
and it contains a neat church and comfortable hotel.
The Chaudiere Falls, and the bridge, immediately ad-
join it.

Fronb. this point to Grenville, sixty miles distant, the
Ottawa aifords an iinmterrupted navigation for steam
vessels. The township of Hull is succeeded by those of
Templeton, Buckingham, and Lochal^er. Large tracts
were here granted to diflbrent proprietors, who unfortu-
nately have not taken due pains to increase their value ;
and the space for new settlers has been further narrowed
by the crown and clergy reserves. Steps, however,
are talking to induce the owners either to improve or
renounce their possessions, and to arrange the reserves on
such a principle, that they may not interrupt the conti-
nuity of settlement. The population of all three, which
in 1828 little exceeded 300, has since been greatly aug-

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TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

merited. Buckingham, in 1831, contained 570 ; Lochahcr,
286 ; Templeton, in 1 886, supposed 890. La Petite Nation,
a seigniory early formed, but as yet only partially
settled, acquired a considerable accession of Irish emi-
grants, through the exertions of Mr Papineau, the
seignior, who erected extensive saw-mills on its eastern
border. It has now 826 settlers.

The township of Grenville, which next follows, may
be considered as commencing the densely -peopled portion
of Lower Canada. This is not owing to its fertility, which
is much impeded by the interruption of hilly ground, con-
nected with the lofty range which traverses the interior.
A branch from these gives rise to the rugged cataract
named the Long Sault, which can be passed only by the
most skilfulvoyageurs ; and obstructions continue to occur
as far as Point Fortune, where the river, opening into the
Lake of the Two Mountains, becomes united with the St
Lawrence. To remedy this evil, a line canal, called the
Grenville, which will be more fully described after-
wards, has been formed. Numerous individuals em-
ployed on this work have settled and taken farms in
the township, which by these means had acquired, in
1886, a population estimated at 1450. Below is Chatham,
which, through exertions commenced in 1806 by Colonel
Robertson, Dr Fraser, and others, has become one of the
most flourishing settlements. Though traversed by some
naked hills, it has extensive level tracts ; and the pub-
lic road is every where bordered by thriving farms and
handsome dwelling-houses built of brick. The popula-
tion in 1881 was 2604. Chatham Gore, a rising town-
ship, has already 478, all Irish Protestants, Here the
Ottawa country terminates, Chatham being bounded by
Axgenteuil, the first of that range of old French settle-
ments whicii extend along the river as far as Quebec*

It now only remains to describe the part of Canada

* Bouchette, vol. i. p. 107-200. Picken on the Canadas (Lon-
don, Hin2), p. «^'405. Commisfiiouers' Reports, Appendix to
General, pp. U^ 10.

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

269

southward of the St Lawrence. Though politically cou-
nected wi'h the northern portion, it is so completely
separated by the l)road expanse of the river, and bears
so distinct a character, that we follow M. Bouchette's
example in treating it separately. Though less exten-
sive, and containing no large towns, it is in many districts
equally fertile and well cultivated, and the cities are
dependent on it for a large proportion of their supphes.
The most valuable part of this tract is that attached
to the district of Montreal, consisting of the counties of
La Prairie, Beauhamois, L'Acadie, Richelieu, Shefford,
b. instead, Rouville, Missisqui, Chambly, Vercheres, and
St Hya,*.:' the, contiiining, in 1881, a population of
14:Q,'dV'/. ' L consists cliieHy of a very extended plain,
almost completely flat, except that some detached hills,
shooting up to a considerable height, diversify the
surface. Of these. Mounts Rouville, Chambly, John-
son, and Bouchcrville, are the most remarkable. The
Richelieu, the chief river, called also Sorel or Cham-
bly, flows out of Lake Champlain, and is navigable
more than half way up for steam-vessels not drawing
more than four feet water. It cannot be compared with
the St Lawrence in grandeur ; but in picturesque beauty
few tracts can surpass this lovely plain, covered with
fruitful fields, luxuriant meadows, smiling villages, and
variegated by towering peaks. The summit of Ro u ville,
1100 feet high, aflbrds one of the finest views in the
province. The soil throughout is jj'enerally of such exu-
berant fertility, that it bears the appellation of tlie
granary of Lower Canada.

The population of this territory, though consider-
able, is chiefly dispersed lu small villages and farms.
The only places of any consequence are those whose
situation is fitted for trade. Such is Sorel, called now
William- Henry, from his late majesty, placed at tlie
junction of the Richelieu with the St Lawrence. It
has only wooden houses, but they are regularly built, and
two churches, with about 1500 inhabitants. La Prairie,
on the bank of the river opposite to Montreal, is a place

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270

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

of superior iinj)ortaiico, heing the channel hy which thjit
city communicates witli tlie United States. It h also
handsomer, having houses of two stories, and roofed witli
tin. Chambly, St Jolm, and Blairiindi«', being placed
on this line of road, liavc risen to conse((aence ; and
St Charles and St Denis, on the Richelieu, arc villages of
some magnitude.

The portion ( fthis southern district which ])elongs to
Trois Rivieres contains the counties of Sher])rooke, Ya-
ma.ska, Nicolet,and Drummond, and comprised, in 1831,
a population of 82,070. Proceeding eastward, it becomes
more elevated ; yet the portion which has been cleared
amply rewards the toil of tlie cultivator. It is watered
by fine rivers. The St Francis, from a lake of the same
name, flows due north, and, after traversing many fruitful
districts, falls into Lake St Peter. Though broken by
cataracts and rapids, it is navigated by canoes with occa-
sional portnges. The Nicolet is passable some distance
up for batteaux, then only partially for small boats.
Falling into the St Lawrence, a short distance above Trois
Rivieres, it supplies the means of a great intercourse
with that place. The Be^vmcour is a longer and very
fine river,, but its channel is exposed to similar inter-
ruptions. It has falls, said to be nearly equal in beauty
to those most admired in Lower Canada. Thousfh this
district is almost entirely rural, there are villages near
the mouths of the rivers ; none, however, of much eon-
sequence. At Nicolet is a college, lately rebuilt on en
enlarged scale.* St Hyacinthe, on the Yamaska, is a
considerable hamlet.

The whole tract along the St Lawrence and the
Richelieu, extending inward from the bank eight or ten
miles, has, as already noticed, been granted in seigniories,
formed into concessions, and cultivated to a considerable
extent, though many tracts in the rear still remain
covered by the original forests. But a large territory

* Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 2!)l).a0(j, a.'iO.
ports, Appendix to General, pp. 1, 2.

Commissioners' Ke

k^rence and the

TOPOGRAPUY OP LOWER CANADA.

271

(mmissioners'' Re-

in the interior, reaching to the American frontier, and
situated along the smaller rivera, had totally escaped
the attention of these original colonists ; though, not-
withstimding occasional swamps, it forms perliaps tlic
finest portion of Lower Canada. Instead of the ilat plain
Avhicli Ijorders the great rivers, it presents an undulat-
ing surface, finely wooded and diversified hy numerous
streamlets, whicli render it particularly well adapted to
])asturag<'. That branch of industry is hero carried on
more successfully than in any other part of the province ;
and its breeds of cattle redeem in some measure tlie
reproach of inferiority, which rests generally on tlie
country. There is also abundance of ground fitted for
wheat ; but being sown in spring, it is not equal to that of
Upper Canada. Oats and Indian corn are good ; and the
potato ss are at once excellent and very plentiful. Cattle,
however, not grain, has liitherto formed the staple pro-
duce, and almost the only material of exportation. The
rivers, obstructed by falls and rapids, afford excellent
situations for mills, but are of no use in the carriage of
goods ; and the roads, by which produce must be con-
veyed to the somewhat distant markets of Montreal and
Quebec, have hitherto been extremely bad, though
great exertions are now making for their improve-
ment. The climate is somewhat milder than in the
vicinity of Montreal, while it has the advantage of being
healthy, and altogether free from the ague which afflicts
various parts of the upper province. This salubrity was
farther proved by its hapjjy exemption from the cholera,
which committed such ravages on the banks of the St
Lawrence.

As soon as the British government obtained possession
of Canada, they turned their attention to this valuable
district, and gradually laid it out in ranges of townships,
which amount now to ninety-eight, with ten more pro-
jected. In this quarter were located some military colo-
nies, of which that formed at Drummondville by Colonel
Herriot at the end of the last war was the most con-
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followed the example ; but the greater number o{ set-
tlers were from the United States who passed into Stan-
stead, and other distriets on the southern frontier. These
they rendered very flourishing, and introduced a better
system of management than generally prevails in Ca-
nada. Finally, when the great tide of immigration
began to flow into that country, the southern townships,
though for some time almost unnoticed, became an ob-
ject of inquiry ; and they were found to possess advan-
tages which might fairly enable them to come into com-
petition with the upper province. Since 1883 settlers
have resorted thither in considerable numbers ; and the
British American Land Company have purchased from
government a block of 596,000 acres, called the St Francis
Territory, which, with other acquisitions, raise their
property to 1 ,21 9,000 acres. For this they paid £192,847
sterling, of which £GO,000 is returned to them to be
spent in improvements upon the country. They have
erected a harbour at Port St Francis on Lake St Peter,
above the place where shallows begin and obstruct the
passage. They are also engaged in improving the road
thence to Sherbrooke, and from that town to their more
distant territory, and bavc their lands now open for the
occupation of settlers.*

In the district of Montreal, county of Acadie, we
find Sherrington, with a great proportion of good land,
and a population of 3125. In Beauhamois county is
Godmanchester with 1413, Hemmingford with 980,
and Hinchinbrooke with 1214. These extend along the
southern border, westward from the Richelieu, and are
watered by its tributaries, as also by those of the St
Lawrence. A large part consists of high land with thin
soil, but covered with excellent timber, a great portion of
which has been lately cut down. There are fine meadows

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 307-311. Gould's Practical Advice to
Emigrants (London, 1834), p. (57-72. Biiclian's hemarkson Kmi-
gratirn (ltt3H), p. 24-30. ]\IS. Communications from the British
American Land C ompany.

TOPOGRAPUY OF LOWER CANADA.

273

along the rivers, with much good arahle land ; and the
townshij)s generally have heen greatly improved under a
judicious plan of government location. Dunham, Stand-
bridge, and Sutton, in the county of Missisqui, lie also on
the southern border ; but to the eastward of the Riche-
lieu and Lake Champlain there is a considerable variety
of soil, most of which is well fitted for grain, flax, anil
hemp. The first contains 2121 settlers, the second 18(K),
the third 825.

The counties of ShefFord and Stanstead, composing
the south-eastern part of Montreal district, have been
entirely laid out in townships, and ])ossess very impor-
tant settlements. Shefford, watered by the lower
branches of the Yamaska, is partly mountamous and
rocky, partly swampy ; but there is a fair proportion
of good and even fine soil. The township itself, though
in some parts rather steril, has in general exceedingly
rich land, with 1470 settlers, and contains a village named
Froste with 120 souls. Brome, rather rugged, is so well
settled as to have 1548 ; Farnham good, though partly
swampy, 1642 ; Stukeley, rather broken, only 485 ;
Granby, generally good, 'oOl ; Milton, 190 ; Ely, 131 ;
Roxton, 50. These three last are somewhat wet and
marshy.

Stanstead forms the south-easterly angle of Montreal
district, and is one of its most valuable portions. It is
well diversified with hill and dale, and has in its centre
the pleasing lake called Memphramagog. On its east-
em side are the townships of Stanstead, Baniston, and
Hatley. The two fiM are extremely fine and well
settled, having respectively a population of 4226 and
2221. It contains the villages of Stanstead and George-
ville, — the first of which is the largest as well as the neat-
est and best built place in all the townships. According
to the report of the British American Land Company,
there are upwards of two hundred houses, three churches,
and two prmting offices, at one of which a weekly news-
paper is published. The high road from Quebec passes
through it. Hatley is much more chequered, pos-

• 1.1

VOL. I.

274

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

sessing some very fine land, with a few hilly and poor
districts. The village of Charlestown has fifty houses and
two churches. Bolton and Polton, on the west side of
the lake, though somewhat rugged and uneven, arc well
watered and have several tracts of good land. Popula-
tion of Hatley, 1600, Bolton, 1170, Polton, 1006. To
the eastward of Stanstead are Barnston and Barford,
both favourably described, so that, notwithstanding their
remoteness from water, the first has 2221 settlers, though
the second, as yet, has only 84.

We now proceed to the county of Sherbrooke, embrac-
ing the greater part of the district of St Francis, imme-
diately south of Trois Rivieres, to which it is often con-
sidered as attached. Being quite beyond the range of
the seigniories, it has been divided into 29 townships,
which include much valuable land. It presents in ge-
neral a broken and varied surface, sometimes rising into
mountains clothed with fine timber, is well watered,
yet not so encumbered with swamps as the more w^estern
districts. The only part hitherto settled is that adjoin-
ing to Stanstead in Montreal ; but the British Ameri-
can Land Company expect soon to difiFuse culture over
the whole. Orford, indeed, the first on this side, is so
mountainous as to be almost unfit for improvement, and
contains only 320 inhal)itants. But the next. Ascot,
with 1000, Compton, to the south, with 2020, and Eaton,
to the east, with 1500, are in general very fine, with
an imdulating surface, and commodiously watered by
streams well adapted for mills. The first contains Sher-
brooke, the county town, where the commerce of the
neighbouring settlements cliiefly centres. It contains
about 350 inhabitants, with three places of worship and
a woollen manufactory ; and the Land Company have
lately made it the centre of their operations. They
have undertaken a new road to Port St Francis, where-
by the distance will be reduced to seventy miles, and
have likewise established a stage conveyance between
the two places, by which the journey is perfonned In
one day. They have also improved the roads to Quebec

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3 well watered,
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ance between
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TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

275

and Montreal, from each of wliich it is about 100 miles
distant. In Eaton and Compton are rising villages
bearing the same names. South from Eaton, Clifton and
Newport, though hilly, contain much good land ; yet
in 1831 their united population was only 188.

The north-western part of the county includes Mel-
bourne, with 1280 settlers, and Shipton, on the Ni-
colet, with 1900. These two are considered the finest
of all the St Francis townships, and their population
is rapidly increasing. Shipton contains Richmond, a
village of some consequence, and another is rapidly ris-
ing in Melbourne. Windsor and Stoke are represented
as possessing almost equal advantages ; yet they have
drawn little attention, the former counting only 220
settlers, the latter scarcely any. Brompton, west from
these, though uneven and rocky, has some good tracts,
which have drawn 850 inhabitants ; while Dudswell,
east of Windsor, which has also a variegated surface, can
])oast of three hundred and forty-two.

The whole south-eastern part of this large county,
containing the townships of Garthby, Strafford, Whit-
ton, Adstock, Marston, Chcsham, Emberton, Hampden,
and Bury, with certain portions of Weedon, Ling wick,
Ditton, Auckland, and Hereford, composes the great block
purchased by the Land Company. It had not been pre-
viously surveyed, and vv^as occupied only by detached
individuals, who had availed themselves of its neglected
situation to squat upon it. Its surface is very varied.
The central part, according to a recent report, appears too
mountainous to invite settlement ; but from this height
it slopes down m various directions to the St Francis,
to its tributary the Salmon, and to Lake Megantic.
These lower declivities are riclily wooded and well fit-
ted for a mixed system of corn and pasture farming.
The Siilmon river, which traverses in a northerly direc-
tion nearly the whole district, has beautiful and fertile
banks, one part of which, about ten miles long, from its
luxuriant verdure is called " the Meadows." This
river, as well as numerous little streams which flow

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270

TOPOGRAniY OP LOWER CANADA.

into it, is rnpid and broken hy falls, unfit for navigation,
but very convenient for mills. Here the Company have
determined to begin their settlement ; and about half a
mile from the prineii)al fall they have founded a village
named Victoria. During the sunnncr of 1880 sevend
hundred labourers were emjdoycd by them in forming a
road ])et\veen it and Shcrbrooke.

In the district of Three Rivers, the county of Dnun-
mond has been laid out into nineteen townshij)s. These
liave the advantage of being neaivr to a shipping j)oi1
on the St Lawrence ; yet, in point of soil, they do not
seem equal to those farther south, a great portion
of it being rendered uni)roductive by swamps. They
have accordingly obtained a much smaller number of
settlers, and those chiefly on the lower course of the St
Fi-ancis. On the western bank are Durham, with 1000,
Wickham, 450, and Grantham, with 860. The first and
last are described as generally good, containing tracts (>t
fine natural grass ; but the other is only partially fer-
tile, owing to the encroachment of marshes. In Grant-
ham is the village of Dnimmondville, which ranks as
the capital of this new county. Adjoining this township
are Acton and Upton, small and rather wet, yet the
latter has obtained 400 settlei's. On the eastern bank are
Kingsey, Sim})Son, and Wendover, which have gene-
rally good land in the front, with morasses in the rear.
Kingsey has above 1100 settlers, but Simpson only (10,
and Wendover 80. The more eastern townships,
though situated on the fine streams of the Be^ancour
and Nicolet, and not without ntitural advantages, are
scarcely at all occupied. On the latter river are Artha-
basca, of mixed quality ; Chester, good, with twelve set-
tlers ; Horton, small, and only one settler ; Warwick,
poor and steril ; Wolfstown, a mixture of bad and mo-
derately good land, with twelve colonists. On the Be^an-
cour are Aston, a picturesque tract, with generally good
land, though yet only a few settlers ; Bulstrode, south-
east of this river, low, but not without good land, has
230 settlers ; and Stanfold, which is very swampy. Be-

TOPOGRAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

277

sides tlicsc arc Tingwick, ])etwccn Chester and Kingsoy,
and Wotton, west of Wolfstown, mostly belonging to
the Land Company. Ham, east of Tingwiek, has a pro-
portion of land tit for cultivation.

Besides these counties entirely laid out ia townships,
that of Nicolet in the rear of its seigniories, contains those
of Blandford and Maddington, with a soil generally good,
well watered, hut as yet scarcely at all occupied.*

The tracts on this side of the river belonging to the dis-
trict of Quebec embrace a great extent of coast ; but the
settlements do not extend far into the interior. The pos-
session of a portion, too, amounting to 0,400,000 acres, is
still under discussion with the United States. This divi-
sion consists of the counties of Beauce, Bellechasse, Dor-
chester, Kamouraska, L' Islet, Lotbiniere, Megantic, and
Rimouski, which contain a population of 87,700. The
as})ect of the territory, as compared with the western,
is decidedly bold and hilly, though not mountainous, as
on the opposite shore. The land generally stretches in
irregular ridges, which, at from ten to twenty miles
inland, swell into a broad table land, that slopes down
to the river St John. Between these ridges, however,
intervene valleys, and even extensive plains, many of
which, from the encouragement afforded by the markets
of the capital, have been brought into very tokvable cul-
tivation. The territory is watered ])y numeiur j rivers,
full and rapid, though, from being closely hemmed iii
by high land on the south, they have not so long a
oourse as those farther west. The principal are the
Chaudiere, Du Sud, St Anne, Ouelle, Green River,
Rimouski, Great Mitis, and Matane. In ascending the St
Lawrence, the views along the valleys marked out by
these streams and the heights by which they are bound-
ed, are singularly grand and picturesque.

The tract watered by the Chaudiere, the largest of
these rivers, and comprising the county of Beauce, is

• Bouchette, as above. Picken, pp. 63-68, 82-94. Commissioners'
Reports, Appendix to General, p. lU-13. British American Land
Company Reports and Private Communications.

■» *.l

278

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWKR CANADA.

hilly and broken, the soil lip^ht, and in some plncos
Htony, yet on the whole fertile ; and the vieinity of the
capitjd has led to its eareful cultivation. It derives very
great advantages also from the Kenneheck road lead-
ing from Quehec to Boston, and completed in 18.30, by
■which its agricultunil produce is conveyed to a good
market, and large 8U])plie8 of live stock transported.
The fall on the Chaudicrc fonns one of the most pic-
turesque objects in America. If it does not equal the
grandeur of Niagara and Montniorenci, it possesses fea-
tures more interesting than either. The river is here
narrowed to the breadth of between .300 and 400 feet, and
the height does not exceed 1.30. It descends, too, not in
one continuous sheet, but is broken by projecting rocks
into three channels, which however unite before reach-
ing the basin below. Nothing, therefore, is on the same
great scale as in its two rivals ; yet it surpasses both in
the magnificent forests by which it is overhung, whose
dark foliage, varied and contrasted by the white foam of
the cataracts, produces the most striking effects. Thes(^
are heightened by the deej) and hollow sound of the
waters, and the clouds of spray, which, when illumined
by the sun, exhibit the most brilliant variety of prismatic
colours. A succession of rapids for some space upwards
displays a continuation of the same bold and beautiful
scenery.

Although the whole front of this territory towards
the St Lawrence is laid out in seigniories, yet some
tracts in the remoter parts of Beauce and Bellechasse,
with the whole of Megantic, have been divided into
towTiships, for the reception of British settlers. The
surface, though in general high, becoming even moun-
tainous when it reaches the upland country which sepa-
rates the basin of the St Lawrence from that of the St
John, contains, nevertheless, many valuable districts.
On the western side of the Chaudiere, in Megantic, are
Inverness, with 950 settlers ; Ireland, 500 ; Leeds, 740 ;
Broughton, 75. These are described as possessing much
good and some very superior land, interrupted, however,

TOPOGRAPnV OP LOWER CANADA,

279

ti i

by a considcruble extent of hill and swamp. The otlier
townships on this side, scarcely at all settled, are
Somerset and Nelson, low land, but tolerably good ;
Halifax, good, with 160 settlers ; Thetford, Tring with
thiily-eight, Winslow, mixture of good and bad ; Dor-
set, extensive and rocky, but with fine rises of rich
soil, particularly fitted for hemp and fiax ; and Gay-
hurst, of which little is yet known. Eastward of the
Chaudiere, in Beauce, is Frampton, the most flourishing
of all. Its surface is varied ; and the uplands are l)est
fitted for culture, the valleys being somewhat wet ; yet
these last yield excellent pasture, and the butter pro-
duced from them enjoys a high reputation at Quebec.
It has sixty houses and 263 inhabitants. The adjoining
ones of Cranboume and Buckland, though inferior, pos-
sess considerable advantages, but hitherto have attracted
few settlers. Ware and Watford still remain unsurveyed.
Risborough, Spalding, Marlow, Ditchfield, and Clinton,
are far south, and little known.*

For a considerable space below the Chaudiere, the
shores of the St Lawrence continue fine and well culti-
vated. The river Du Sud, in particular, about thirty-
five miles from Quebec, traverses a plain so level and
fruitful, as almost to dispute with the Richelieu the fame
of being the granary of Lower Canada. The scenery also
is soft and beautiful in the extreme, especially at the
village of St Thomas, near its mouth. The soil too
continues good, though on the river St Anne it is singu-
larly broken by insulated granite cliffs, rearing their
steep sides to a considerable height. These, however,
overlook a fine country, and render it more picturesque.
The village of St Anne, agreeably stationed on an emi-
nence, has recently had a college foimded, the building
for which is handsome, and placed in a healthy situa-
tion ; aflFording a great accommodation to this populous
part of Lower Canada. Lower down, at River Quelle,

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 299-314. Picken, p. 53-60. Corambsioners'
Report, Appendix to General, p. 13.

il^

280

TOPOnilAPIIY OF LOWER C NADA.

t" !

there is a considerable porjioisc fishery. In the rear of
this district is tlio township of Ixworth ; which, so fur
us it has been surveyed, is found to contain excellent
land. About ninety tniles below (.^uebtH', Kunioumsku,
the most fretjuented watering-place in Canada, has risen
top^reut importance. Visitci*8 are attracted by the sidu-
brity of the air and the fine scenery, — much height-
ened by islands in front, which are also the seat of u
considerable herring-fishery.

Below Kamouruska, the country is diversified by
more abrupt eminences, while population and culturo
become more limited. After the viUage of St Andrew,
fK'curs the portage of Temiscouuta, leading to the lake
of that name on the main road to New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia. On the Riviere du Loup is an exten-
sive saw-mill ; but there, and in the succeeding dis-
tricts of Cacona, Isle Verte, and Trois Pistolles, coloni-
zation scarcely extends beyond the range in front of the
river. The Rimouski district is still more gloomy,
covered with dark hills, enclosing a narrow valley.
At Bic, especially, the mountains become bold and
precipitous ; yet the eye is still occasionally cheered by
smiling settlements. Four leagues lower, at Anse au Coq,
the road ceases, and the trackless desert is inten*upted
by single habitations only, on the banks of the rivers
Grand Mitis and Little Matane. On the first are large
saw-mills, and on the second a fishery for the supply of
the Quebec market ; but its success is said to be doubt-
ful. At Matane only about 600 acres are cleared,
and occupied by 300 families. The uninhabited coast,
extending thirty miles from Mitis to this place, is con-
sidered by Bouchette as highly propitious for settle-
ment ; and it certainly possesses many advantages in
point of situation. From Matane to the boundary of the
province, there are only a few scattered dwellings.

Behind the stations now described, adjoining Lalco
Temiscouata, Colonel Fraser, since 1823, has given im-
portance to the settlements of Kent and Strathern. The
landscape here is bold and romantic, and the rocka

TOPOORAPHY OP LOWER CANADA.

281

afford ft large supply of excellent limeHtone. The roiul
by tlu' porUige to New HriiiiHwick is very heiieticiul to
his estJil)lisliiiieiit ; and nioi-e soutijerly, at the junction
of the Mmhiwjiska and St John, unotlicr lias been fonned.
The whole upper line of the latter river, extending 182
miles in length, might, it is suppostMl, atford an excellent
JNLse ft)r a range of townships, hut it constitutes part of
the disputed territory, and is still entirely neglected.

The least improved j)ortion of this section of Lower
Canada is the district of Giuspe. It forms an extensive
peninsula, having on the north the river and on the east
tlie gulf of St Lawrence : on the south, the Bay of
Ciialeur, penetniting deeply into the land, separates it
from New Brunswick. Guspe, having thus a circuit of
al)<>ut 350 miles of coast, enjoys a favourable posi-
tion for fishery, which has hitherto been the chief em-
ployment of its inhabitants. The principal settlements
are on Chaleur Bay, particularly along a space of fifty
miles from Port Daniel to Maria. Tlie cold is not much
more rigorous than on the St Liiwrence, while it is frco
from those dreary fogs which encumber the neighbour-
ing coasts, but are here merely seen rolling in dense
volumes along the entrance of the bay. The fishery is
cliieHy of cod, carried on by open boats, with the aid of
a few larger vessels. It employs about 1800 indivi-
duals, of whom 5(K) come from Quebec during the eason.
The produce is about 50,000 quintals of dried and
10,000 green fish, and 27,000 gallons of cod oil. The
whale fishery employs five or six large schooners and
200 men ; it yields from 18,000 to 20,000 gallons of oil.
About 4000 barrels of herrings and 2000 of salmon are
also cured. Of late, the attention of the colonists has
been attracted to agriculture ; the soil having been
found of a friable clay, thickly coated with vegetable
mould, and yielding good crops of grain, flax, and hemp.
The whole line of coast lias been laid out, and even
double ranges begun, though the roads are yet very im-
perfect. Since 1815, the timber trade has become an
important resource. In each of the yeara 1825 and 1826

:|j

282

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

ill I

; I

sixty vessels were employed, exporting about 750,000
feet of pine. In 3881 the whole population was calcu-
lated at 13,812, including the settlements on the river
Ristigouche, and others from Cape Daniel to Gaspe
Bay on the eastern coast. The northern boundary,
stretching thence along the St Lawrence, presents still an
aspect of the most dreary desolation. Three small stations
have been formed, but are scarcely at all occupied, unless
during the fishing season. Yet there seems nothing in
the soil or climate to prevent settlement, which would
be of great use in affording protection against the ship-
wrecks which too often occur at this dangerous entrance
of the St Lawrence. For this purpose, £5000 has been
appropriated by the legislature.*

The following tabular view, as it respects the different
districts, will be found to comprise much interesting in-
formation. The St Francis territory, we believe, is com-
prehended under those of Montreal and Trois Rivieres.

Quebec.

Area in square miles

Population in 1831 ,

Possessors of real property ,

Families employed in agriculture.

Families employed in trade

Acres of improved land

Acres occupied, but unimproved.
Wheat.produce in minotsd Jbushel)

Oats, minots

Potatoes, do

Homed cattle

Horses

Sheep

Hogs

Grist mills

Montreal.

125,717
151,}W!5
17,215
12,467
764
."562,778^
l,68.'j,817
»11,887§
798,l.'«i
l,6<)5,a')3i
1(»4,794
26,213
152,382
74,515
94

49,76f)
29(»,(>.')()

31,747
28,229
1,240
1,231,3(M»3
2,529,859J
2,098,982i
l,911,(«il
4,221 .8()2i
229,747
76,057
310,523
174,447
235

Trois
Rivieres.

15,811

56,570

7,653

9,662

489

253,447i

629,902i

383,544i

42(;,760i

9lO,295i

48,752

13,739

71,458

39,766

Gaspe.

7,3Kf)

13,312

1,276

466

18,687

13(),214

10,342

5,520

529,465

6,411

(i77

8,f)Wl

6,40!)

The progress of Lower Canada, though not quite
equal to that of some modern colonies, has yet been
extremely rapid. It was, indeed, long depressed by the
weakness of the government and Indian warfare ; so
that, in 1676, it appears not to have contained above 8415
inhabitants. In 1700, however, the estimate was 15,000,
and in 1714 it had risen to 26,904. At the conquest in

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 315-330. M'Gregor, vol. ii. p. 462-451}.
Evans, Supplement, p. 63.

NADA.

about 750,000
ation was calcu-
mts on the river
)aniel to Gaspe
;hem boundary,
;, presents still an
roe small stations
occupied, unless
>eems nothing in
tit, which would
against the ship-
tigerous entrance
, £5000 has been

ects the different

h interesting in-

e believe, is com-

Trois Rivieres.

real.

,769

,(m

,747

,229
24(»

Trois
Rivieres.

15,811
56,570
7,«53
9,0"62
489
."^MIJ 253,447i
H5!)i ()29,!K)2i
9«2i383,544i
8(il ,42«,7(j()i
8(»2i 9lO,295i

747

057
523
447
235

48,752
13,73})
71,458
39,760
60

Gaspe.

7,38.')

13,312

1,27«

4«j

18,fi«7

13(),214

10,342

5,520

529,467)

6,411

677

8,9Wl

6,409

ough not quite
3, has yet been
lepressed by the
an warfare ; so
ined above 8415
late was 15,000,
the conquest in

rol. ii. p. 452.451).

TOPOGRAPHY OF LOWER CANADA.

283

1759 the number was believed to be 65,000. In 1784,
a census, ordered by General Haldimand, gave 113,000,
A similar one, taken in 1825 under the authority of the
House of Assembly, showed 423,630 ; another in 1831
611,917. There can be no doubt that this last, as
well as all the preceding enumerations, was extremely
defective. Mr Chapman, after a careful consideration
of all circumstances, considers liimself rather under
the truth, in fixing the real number at 582,000 ; and he
supposes that, by the combined effect of immigration and
natural increase, it must have now risen to fully 660,000.
Of the number returned by the census of 1831, it was
stated that 57,891 were possessed of real property. The
number of families employed in agriculture was 50,824,
wliile 7602 persons acted as farm servants, and not more
than 2503 families were engaged in commerce or trade.
The lands under cultivation amounted to 2,065,913 acres,
while '^,981,713 were occupied, but in an unimproved state.
There were, moreover, 4,335,494 acres still in the hands
of the government, besides vast tracts yet unsurveyed.
The inhabitants were possessed of 389,706 horned cattle,
1 16,686 horses, 543,343 sheep, and 295,137 hogs. They
had 395 grist, and 737 saw mills ; 90 for carding, 97 for
fulling, and 3 for paper ; 70 distilleries ; 489 manufac-
tories for pot and pearl ash, and 64 for other articles. In
1836 Mr Evans estimated the cultivated lands as having
increased to 2,486,000. An official report states the acres
of surveyed lands belonging to the crown at 999,976

To the clergy,

Total surveyed, ....

Unsurveyed, though formed into townships,

568,099

1,568,075
568,099

2,136,174

Besides those now described, there are vast tracts yet
undivided on the Saguenay, on the southern frontier, and
in the disputed territory.*

• Bouchette, vol. i. p. 347. Tables for Colonies, 1832, pp. 1, 2,
6, 7- Chapman's Statistics of the Population of the British

Colonies (Montreal, 1834), p. 6-12.

•1^

*•

284

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

II r

i !

r-- IT

CHAPTER VI.

Topography of Upper Canada,

Boundaries — Surface and Extent — Progress of Settlement and
Cultivation — Climate and Soil — Divisions — Eastern Division —
Eastern District — Johnstown — Bathurst ; Perth and Bytown—
Central Division— Midland District — Town of Kingston — New-
castle District ; Coburg and Port Hope ; Peterborough — Home
District — City of Toronto — Settlements on Lake Simcoe — West-
ern Section — Its early Settlement — Gore District — Canada
Company — Guelph — Gait — NiagaraDistrict — Town — Queenston
— Falls — London District ; Colonel Talbot ; Town of London —
Huron Tract; Goderich — Western District ; Amherstburg and
Sandwich — General Summary.

Upper Canada comprehends an extensive range of
territory, considered till lately a mere appendage to
the lower province, but now fast rivalling it in wealth
and population. Its eastern boundary, as deiined by
the proclamation of 1791, has been already stated to be
a line drawn from the St Lawrence, a little above Mon-
treal, due north to the Ottawa, and then along that
river to Lake Temiscaming. Thence it again stretches
due north to the mountainous border of tlie Hudson's
Bay territory, which forms the northern limit. On
the south it has the winding shores of Lakes Ontario,
Erie, Huron, and Superior, with the channels connect-
ing them, and generally ranked as portions of the great
stream of the St Lawrence. On the other side of this
water-boundary is the territory of the United States.
The western limit is much more vague, being by the
proclamation just mentioned merely stated to be that
of " the country commonly called or known by the

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

285

name of Camada." M. Bouchctte seems to adhere most
closely to established ideas, when he fixes it at the head
of the streams which fall into Lake Superior, and thus
extends it to about 117° west longitude.

This extensive province consists almost throughout
of one unifonn plain. In all the settled and surveyed
portion, at least, there is scarcely an eminence deserv-
ing the name even of a hill ; though it is traversed by
two ridges of considerable extent, which decidedly mark
tlie different levels of the country. The prmcipal one
passes through nearly its whole length from south-east
to north- west, separating the waters which fall into the St
Lawrence and the lakes from those which are tributary
to the Ottawa. The highest point is supposed to be
the greatest elevation of the Rideau Canal, about forty
miles north of Kingston. It is 290 feet above the
Ottawa at By town, but only 160 higher than the level
of Lake Ontario. Towards these opposite limits the
surface descends at the rate of only about four feet in
the mile, exhibiting to the eye no sensible departure
from a complete plain. The high ground, however, after
passing the limits of settlement, about eighteen miles
northward of Lake Balsam becomes connected with
a somewhat loftier range, which continues in nearly
the same direction beyond Lakes Huron and Superior,
till it joins the mountainous frontier of the Hudson's
Bay territory. The other ridge begins near the eastern
extremity of Ontario, to which it runs nearly parallel, and
proceeds in the same direction to a point about twenty-
four miles north-west from Toronto, where it separates
the tributaries of that lake from those of Huron. It
now turns to the south-east, and, running between On-
tario and Erie, crosses the Niagara, forming its stu-
j)endous falls, and terminating on the Genessee, in the
United States territory. Although no part of it can
aspire to the appellation of mountain, it has a more
sensible elevation than the former ridge, and even rises
into some bold heights.
The whole of this territory is estimated to contain

' ' 3

!,' I

<.is '

286

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

about 141,000 square miles, or nearly three times the
extent of England. The only portion, however, that is
yet surveyed, or at all settled, is that bounded by the
eastern coast of Lake Huron, and a line drawn thence
to the Ottawa. This is estimated by M. Bouchette to
contain about 33,000 square miles, or 21,000,000 acres.*

Upper Canada, down to the period when it was con-
quered by Britain, was in a very wild and unreclaimed
condition. With the exception of the small location
on the banks of the Detroit, it contained only detached
posts at great distances, formed for military defence and
the prosecution of the fur-trade. After the peace of
1703, when the possession of it was confirmed to this
country, a proclamation was issued, fixing allotments
of land to reduced officers and discharged soldiers. These
grants, however, appear to have been sought chiefly
in the vicinity of the capitals and cultivated districts,
and to have scarcely at all extended into the great
forest domain.

The real settlement of Upper Canada took place in
1783, at the close of the first American war. At that
time not only a large body of troops were disbanded, but
many inhabitants of the United States, who had adhered
to Britain during this unfortunate contest, sought refuge
within her colonies ; and as these last were generally in a
state of great destitution, the government felt disposed
to treat them liberally, and afford the utmost possible
compensation for their losses and suff^erings. With this
view, the whole land along the St Lawrence above the
French settlements, and also on Lake Ontario, to and
around the Bay of Quinte, for the space of 150 miles,
was formed into townships, originally entitled First,
Second, Third, but to which regular names were after-
wards attached. These settlers were termed the United
Empire Loyalists ; and not only received an ample supply
of land, but farming utensils, building materials, and sub-
sistence for two years. A farther engagement was made,

* Bouchette, vol. i. p. 64-7L

ADA.

hree times the
lowever, that is
ounded by the
drawn thence
Bouchette to
000,000 acres.*
len it was con-
id unreclaimed
small location
only detached
iry defence and
r the peace of
nfirmed to this
ing allotments
oldiers. These
sought chiefly
vated districts,
nto the great

took place in
war. At that
disbanded, but
tio had adhered
, sought refuge
i generally in a
it felt disposed
tmost possible
^s. With this
nee above the
ntario, to and
of 150 miles,
mtitled First,
es were after-
ed the United
ample supply
rials, and sub-
snt was made,

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. 287

that every member of their families, on attaining the age
of twenty-one, should have a fresh donation of 200 acres ;
a promise which has been strictly fulfilled. Military
grants were at the same time bestowed, at rates varying
from 5000 for a field officer, to 200 for a private soldier.
These new occupants, many of whom had been accus-
tomed to agricultural labour and even to the improve-
ment of forest land, soon produced a wonderful change,
and converted a great extent of wilderness into fruitful
fields. On the site of Fort Frontenac was founded
Kingston, which gradually rose into a place of import-
ance. At the same time, other emigrants, in consideration
of local habits and attachments, were settled upon the
Niagara channel, and upon that part of the Detroit not
previously occupied.

In 1701 Upper Canada had attained to such import-
ance, that when Mr Pitt determined to bestow a con-
stitution on the colony, he formed this part into a
separate government, giving to it the name of Upper,
and to the early settled districts that of Lower Canada.
The former was not supposed, after all, to contain at
that time above 10,000 inhabitants. General Simcoe,
however, in 1794, founded the town of York, which was
fixed on as the seat of government, and made the most
strenuous efforts to encourage colonists to settle in the
neighbourhood. They came in considerable numbers,
though chiefly from the United States. It was not till
1803 that, through the exertions of Colonel Talbot, emi-
gration from Britain was commenced on any large
scale. The result of these measures was, that in 1811
the country was found to contain about 9623 persons
paymg taxes. By a careful examination in regard to
the most populous township, Mr Gourlay estimated the
tax-payers at one-eighth of the entire population, which,
on this principle, must have amounted to about 77,000.
A vast additional impulse, however, was given at the close
of the last war, in consequence of the low rate of profit
and wages, and the difficulty of finding employment at
home. The attention, first of the labouring, then of

'ill *

288

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

\'-M

i:l

the middling class, and finally of the government, was
thus forcibly drawn to the relief which might be ob-
tained by removal to a new country, where the means
of subsistence were abundant. These motives have
attracted a continued succession of emigrants, both in-
dividually and in bodies, by whqm the population of
the province has been most rapidly augmented. In
1824 a series of returns, called for by Parliament,
showed the number to be 151,007. Jn 1828 a similar
census produced 185,526. At the end of 1882 the
amount had risen to 296,000, and in 1885 to 336,000.
It may be observed, too, that these returns are un-
derstood to be extremely defective, and the omissions
numerous ; probably, therefore, the actual population
of Upper Canada may not fall materially short of
400,000.

Improvement and wealth appear to have kept full pace
with the progress of population. We do not find any
statement of the number of acres under cultivation till
1828, when they were reported at 670,000. In 1835 they
liad increased to 1,308,300. The assessment lists of 1810
gave 9982 horses ; in 1832 they had increased to 30,822.
The number of homed cattle was in the first period,
24,436 ; in the second, 166,499 ; in the third, 192,005. In
1810 the assessment of a penny in the pound,on all fixed
property, yielded £4133, implying a value of £992,000,
which, in 1828, was reckoned at £1,969,000. In 1835
the assessment amounted to £20,207, and consequently
was levied upon a property estimated at £4,849,000.
This being Halifax currency, was equal only to
£4,364,000 sterling. The rating, however, as usual in
such cases, appears to be very low, cultivated land being
valued only at £1 per acre, probably a good deal less than
Jialf the real worth. A stone or brick house, with six
apartments, is rated only at £100. Farm stock is assessed
more nearly at its marketable price ; but the payment
is made exclusively upon lands, buildings, cattle, and car-
riages, and does not extend to furniture, clothes, produce,
trading goods, or specie. It sliould seem, therefore, that

:S1

' ■

fADA.

fovcniment, was
'h might be ol)-
here the means
L^ motives have
grants, ])oth in-
le population of
augmented. In
by Parliament,
ti 1828 a similar
nd of 1832 tlic
835 to 336,000.
returns are un-
id the omissions
;tual population
jrially short of

ve kept full pace
do not find any
r cultivation till
)0. In 1835 they
lent lists of 1810
i-eased to 3G,822.
the first period,
ird, 192,005. In
'undjon all fixed
ue of £902,000,
3,000. In 1835
id consequently
at £4,849,000.
3qual only to
ver, as usual in
ated land being
)d deal less than
liouse, with six
stock is assessed
it the j^ayment
cattle, and car-
lothes, produce,
therefore, that

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

289

the actual value of property cannot be much less than
double the rated amount. Should we suppose it
X'8,000,000 sterling, the average share to each in-
dividual will be £20, or for a family of five, £100 ;
iuid this will probably purchase the means of living to
double the amount which the same sum would procure
in Britain.

Upper Canada, as formerly observed, enjoys a climate
considerably milder than that of the lower province.
The great water-communication, along which it extends,
stretches upwards from Montreal, in a south-western
direction, till it reaches nearly the latitude of New
York. M. Bouchctte has given a comparative tabic,
from which it appears, that in the year 1820, the mean
annual heat was six and a half degrees higher than
in the other province. The extremes, also, are less
severe ; for while the mean of the four whiter months
is from thirteen to seventeen degrees higher, that of
July and August is a little lower. Nor do the seasons
follow each other so abruptly as at Quebec ; and hence
a certain interval occurs between winter and summer.
In return for these advantages, tlie weather is observed
to be more variable, and . there are only two months in
which sleighing or sledge- travelling over the hard snow
can be practised. Ague, too, more especially in the
newly-settled districts, though not fatal, is distressing
and debilitating. But the mildness of the climate affords
to the farmer the important advantage, that he can sow
wheat in autumn, which thus attains a quality superior
to that of the spring-sown grain, hitherto alone reared
in other parts of British America. The opportunity of
cultivating the finer fruits is a less momentous though
a very agreeable circumstance.

The soil of Upper Canada, at least within the present
range of settlement, bears a very superior character. Its
fertility, indeed, as will presently appear, is not so uni-
form as has sometimes been represented ; yet there is
probably no tract of equal extent in the temperate zone
with which it may not be advantageously compared,

VOL. I. s

290

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

! I

It is novvheiv moimtiiinouH, nor, with very few excep-
tions, is it rocky. ConHidemble tracts arc lij^-lit and
Hiuuly, ])ut few so nuicli so as to ])e absolutely barren.
The i)n)(lu(tivenes8 of the country appears to be chiefly
interru])ted by swamps, which cover a lary:c space, both
in the most eastern and most western districts.*

The circumstances alluded to in the beginning of the
preceding chapter, as giving a peculiar importance to
Canadian topography, api)ly in an especial degree to the
upper province, which has for some time been the
favourite resort of British emigrants, and its remotest lo-
calities have of late acquired a deej) political impoi-tance.
The materials, indeed, are not (piite so ample as could
be wished, for Messrs Bouchette and M'Gregor have
given only some general views on the subject. Rei)orts,
however, have been made respecting most of the town-
ships, by deputy surveyors and inspectors, to the justices
at quarter sessions, as well as to the provincial govern-
ment, with a view to the guidance of settlers. These have
been communicated by Mr Picken, in the work on the
Canadas, which he composed with the aid of documents
furnished by Mr Gait ; also in the volume entitled,
" The Canadas as they now are, by a late Resident."
Mr Gourlay, too, in 1817, procured a considerable num-
ber of similar returns, which still hold good, so far as
concerns the natural cfipabilities of the country. Sup-
plementary information has been gleaned from Shirrefl",
Ferguson, and other travellers, who have examined
different districts with a special view to emigration.
To Mr Martin we are indebted for the population of the
townships in 1883 ; and the statements brought down to
1835 are derived from the most respectable private
sources.

Upper Canada is divided into eleven districts, subdi-
vided into twenty-six counties, and six ridings, which
altogether comprise 277 townships. An official report ^

* Gourlay's ^statistical View of Upper Canada, vol. ii. pp. M4,
131», 170, 2 '2. Bouchette, vol. i. Y>p.7fLnn,W, 108-110,237.
Martin, pp. 297, 2'J«.

I : ^^^

iDiAii'i'ioiiii'f mB'nusi'i'^.

time been the
(1 its remotest lo-
tieal importance.
I ample as could

M'Gregor have
iibject. Reports,
ost of the town-
rs, to the justices
•ovincial go vern-
iers. These have
the work on the
aid of documents
'^olume entitled,
- late Resident."
•nsiderable num-
1 good, so far as
country. Sup-
xl from Shirrcff,
have examined
' to emigration,
lopulation of the
brought down to
oectable private

districts, sul)di-
s; ridings, whicli
n official report

a, vol. ii. pp. li-\4,
li\), 108-110,237.

Alllllilnl
AwiIhtmI N

I %

1» !

J 1

\ /'>ii.-iii

1>UII1.IHUKI1 l\\ 01.I\'I-:h %: ItUVll. KltlNlll'ltUll

9f ^

TOPOCnAl'IIY OP UPPER CANADA.

291

in innrj, rclatinp-, we presume, to tlie lands actually
occ'upitHl, p;ives tlie amount in all these «listriets at
6,7(U),0()0 acres, of whieli not more than l,.*3()H,0(M) were
under cultivation. In entering upon the description of
this province, we shall follow the example of M. Jiou-
chctte,in dividing it into three great i)ortions,the Eastern,
the Central, and the Western. We must nevertludess dis-
f¥.mt from him stjfar as to attach the Midland District to
the central part, where it a[)pears to us clearly placed ])y
nature. The eastern division will then contain the ter-
ritory hetween the St Lawrence and the Ottawa ; the
central will have its hase on Lake Ontario, and (!xtend
north towards the latter of these rivers, without, how-
ever, at all approaching it as to actual settlement. 'J'lie
western division composes an extensive peninsula, nearly
enclosed hy Ontario, Erie, St Clair, and Huron, and the
channels hy which these lakes are connected.

The eastern division, then, consists of four districts :
Eastern and Johnstown on the St Lawrence, Ottawa and
Biithurst on the Ottawa. It comprised, in 1835, a po-
pulation of 87,380, to whom belonged 227,010 cultivated
acres, 1,14J),85G uncultivated, 11,361 horses, and 45,041
honied cattle. It is well watered, not only by the two
great rivei*s, but by several important tributaries, of
which the largest fall into the Ottawa. The Petite
Nation, rising only about ftvc miles from the St Law-
rence, near Johnstown, traverses the territory in a Ihie
nearly due north-east. The Rideau, the Mississippi
(quite distinct from the great central river of that name),
iuid the Madawaska, rise in the Midland District, and
flow in an easterly direction till they reach the Ottawa.
The only important tributary to the St Lawrence is the
Gananoqui, which falls into it near Lansdown.

The soil of this part of Canada has been somewhat
variously reported, but appears on the whole not so uni-
formly good as in the more western districts. Consider-
able tracts are sandy, some are marshy, and others are
broken and rocky. There is not wanting, however, a
very fair proportion of fine land. The climate, being

i«

292

TOPOGRAniY OF UPPER CANADA.

ft ^11 1

more nortluTly tlmn on the upper course of the river, in
not HO mild, uiul the summers are sliorttT ; yet, even in
tiiese respects, it has the advantage of Lower Canada.
It lias also the In nefit of heinp^ near Montreal, when;
ai,nMcnltural commodities can he readily turned into
money ; and the produce of the dairy, with vegetahles,
fiuits, and other articles, which (dsewherc can he raised
only for home use, find a value in that market. There
i« an easy conveyance to it hy the rivers, thouj^h the
roads in the inland townshii)s are very defective. Its
])rojj;ress, however, has heen particularly retarded hy
larii^e and im])rovident u:rants to American loyalists,
dishanded otticers and soldiers, or favourites of the rul-
iu'j;' j)o\\»'rs. Many of these have altogether neglected
their lots, and few have turned them to account with
that active and improving spirit which has animated
the recent chisses of British emigrants. 'JMie military
settlers, it is said, generally showed themselves incapa-
hle of the persevering lahour neeessiiry to hring wild
land into a ])roductive state, and took the first ojipor-
tunity of selling their allotments. Hence its progress,
though great and rapid, has not e«|ualled that of the
western districts, towards which the tide of immigration
has heen chiefly directed.

The Eastern District, that nearest to Montreal,
extends along the St Lawrence ahout sixty miles, with a
hreadth of ahout thirty. It contained, in 1885, 7O,045|
acres cultivated,and .355,071 cl uncultivated, 1 .3,1 10 horned
cattle, and 5148 horses. The population, which in 1817
Mr Gourlay estimated at 12,700, had, in 182(), risen to
17,000, in 1832 to 23,74.3, and in 1835 to 2JJ,119. For
thirty miles up, the river is navigahle ; hut then com-
mence those formidahle rapids, which render it necessary
that the produce of all the districts situated along their
course should be conveyed a certain distance by land.
The main road into Upper Canada, called Dundas Street,
passes through it, and though very imperfect, like all
others in this country, is of considerable use. The soQ
appears to possess the variable degree of fertility general

(ADA.

«' of tho rivor, \n

r ; yet, oven in

liowcr Canada.

lontrcal, vvliert;

ily turned into

with vo^ctahlcs,

re can he raised

market. There

ers, thouf;li tho

y defective. Jts

rly retarded hy

erican loyalists,

I rites of the rul-

jfcther ne^dected

to account with

h has animated

. IMie military

cmselves incapa-

(•y to brin;;,'- wild

the first op[)or-

nce its progress,

tiled that of the

e of iiuniigration

?st to Montreal,
ity miles, with a
in 1885, 70,f)45f
?d, 1.3,1 19 horned
n, which in 1817
n 182(5, risen to
to2!i,119. For
but then com-
ndcr it necessary
lated along their
istance by land,
i Dundas Street,
[perfect, like all
e use. The soil
fertility general

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

203

in this tract, being chiefly deteriorated by extensive
HwanipH. Limestone, however, a^>oiinds, iilso good stone
for building, ami ^ rth fittid f(»r making bricks. 'I'ho
Canafla Company have purchased a considerable extent
of crown lan<ls in difterenf (ownships.

Fijustern District is divide<l into the counties of Gleu-
gary, Stonnont, and l)un<las.

Glengary comprises the townships of Lancaster and
Charh»tteid)urg, fronting the river, particularly that
broad |)art of it called Lake St l-'rancis ; those of iiOchiel
and Kenyon are in the rear. The soil is in general good,
excej)ting some portion of Locliiel which is low and stony,
juid of Lancaster which is light and sandy. Charlotten-
burg, which in 18M8 c«mtaine<l 4.57(5 settlers, is watered
by tlie river Aux liiiisins ; Lochiel, having 21.52, I>y the
LaGrasse ; and Lancaster, having 22.30, by the Delisle ;
all of them small streams, but useful for turning mills.
Kenyon has 1573 inhabiUmts. This district, as its name
imports, has been chiefly settled by Scottish Highlanders,
who, disj)laying their characteristic (jualities, have par-
tially redeemed the soil, and brought it into tolerable
cultivation. Yet skilful farmers remark, that they
have not drawn from it all the means of comfort which
it is fitted to afford ; and hence its settlements consist
only of diminutive log-houses, with a few acres cleared
round them, exhibiting altogether a slovenly and neglect-
ed aspect. There is no place which can make any pre-
tensions to the name of a town. The Canada Company
have lands to dispose of in Ltmcaster and Lochiel ; but
those of the best quality are already occupied.

Stonnont, the next county, consists of Cornwall and
Osnabruck in front, Roxburgh and Finch in the rear.
In 188.3, Cornwall and Roxburgh contained 4586 set-
tlers, Osnabruck 2313, Finch 413. The first has a good
soil, though in some places stony ; and being watered
by the river Aux Riisins, it has numerous mills. The
second enjoys a similar advantage ; but the land, which,
towards the interior is a strong clay, is in front light and
thin. Roxburgh has a black loam and argillaceous soil ;

' I

M ^ !

'■■■,' ! 1

H i

■ 1

1 1 ill

■

L'i i ft

t' Hm ''

vll ^1 <ii

!! ■

p: ,7

294

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

some part is stony, and a large portion swampy ; yet it is ill
watered, though small branches of the Raisins and Petite
Nation pass through it. Finch is described as a very fine
district, with the exception of a sandy tract in the rear ;
but falling into the hands of proprietors who did not know
its value, it has been much neglected. The Canada Com-
pany have here purchased a large lot, and also some of
the best land in Roxburgh. Cornwall, on the St Law-
rence, has some pretensions to the character of a town,
containing 1047 inhabitants, a church, courthouse, and
other buildings. The navigation upwards to Prescott
being greatly impeded, there is much land-travelling
between the two places, wliich affords support to both.

Dundas includes th'^ townships of Williamsburgh,
with 1586 settlers, and Matilda, with 1448, in front;
Mountain with 707, and Winchester with 181 , in the rear.
The soil of this last is very favourably spoken of, though
rather swampy. It is well watered by the Petite Na-
tion, which serves in summer for boat conveyance, and in
winter as a road. A small canal from it to the St Law-
rence would greatly benefit the country. Williams-
burgh has very good land,w^ell settled by American loyal-
ists, but the tract behind is little occupied. Matilda is
a productive district, and well managed. Mountain
is also represented as possessing an excellent soil, and,
notwithstanding the obstructions from improvident
grants, a thriving settlement has been formed on the
Petite Nation. The Company have purchased a con-
siderable lot in this as well as the neighbouring town-
ship of Winchester, and hope, by arrangements in their
block, to effect speedy improvement.*

Johnstown District extends from the boundary of
the one just described, westv:ard along the St Lawrence.
It is not quite so long as the eastern, but it stretches
more deeply into the interior, so that it may be regarded

* Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 56f). Bouoliettc, vol. i. pp. 109, 75, 76.
Picken, p. 118-124. Canadas as thev now are, p. M-55. Martin,
p. 220. JFerguson's Practical Notes (Edinburgh, 1833), pp. 85, 265.

; I

TOPOGRAPUY OF UPPER CATIADA.

295

as forming a square of about fifty miJcs in every direc-
tion. It has been divided into a trij)le range of town-
ships, the third or most inland of wliich is considerably
distant from the St Lawrence ; but this is amply com-
pensated by the Rideau Canal, v^hich traverses it from
east to west. The navigation of the great river along its
front is mostly unobstructed, which gives it a ready
communication with Kingston, though the more im-
portant intercourse with Montreal is rendered imperfect
by the rapids below ; but, to balance this loss, there is
now a free, though circuitous, navigation by the Rideau
and the Ottawa. The soil is as various as that of the
Eastern ; its fertility is chiefly interrupted by rocky tracts,
which extend along the banks of the river, and give a
very unfavourable impression to the navigator ; but in
the rear it generally improves. Johnstown, in 1835,
contained 82,813 acres of cultivated and 831,134 of un-
cultivated land, 16,338 horned cattle, and 3924 horses.
The population, estimated by Mr Gourlay, in 1817, at
9200, had risen, in 1826, to 15,354, and in 1835 to 28,504.
lis augmentation, especially during the latter period,
it thus appears, has been extremely rapid.

This district is divided into two counties, Grenville
and Leeds. The former contains eight townships ; Ed-
wardsburgh, with 1584 settlers, and Augusta, with 4091,
on the river ; South Gowcr, containing 646, Oxford, 1292,
and Wolford, 1121, in the second range ; North Gower,
having 245, Marlborough, 445, and Montague, 755, in tlie
third. Edwardsburgh possesses a good soil, and is well
settled ; but the navigation of the St Lawrence in that
quarter is encumbered by rapids. It contains Johnstown,
the nominal capital of the district, and a large village,
almost a complete counterpart to Cornwall. Augusta, the
next western township, is also favourably described. It
includes Prescott, now called Fort Wellington, advan-
tageously situated at the termination of the rapids, so
that it forms the limit of the upper steam navigation.
Travellers or goods proceeding down the river must dis-
embark, and proceed either in boats or by land. Hence

ititi

rii i

! t

i!;'^i

296

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

M. Bouchette, though it consisted, when he visited the
district, of only forty or fifty houses, anticipated a rapid
increase ; but of this Mr Ferguson, some years after, saw
no appearance, the place being for outstripped by Og-
densburg, on the opposite side of the river.

The townships of South Gower, Oxford, and Wolford,
which form the second line in this county, are described
in nearly the same favourable terms ; the soil good, and
the situation tolerable, as they have the Rideau navi-
gation on the one side, and on the other passable roads to
Prescott and Johnstown. North Gower, Marlborough,
and Montague, are represented, the two first as good, the
third inferior, but not bad. All three have the advan-
tage of being traversed by the canal, which opens a dis-
tant intercourse with Montreal, and a near one with the
most flourishing settlements on the Ottawa.

Leeds, the next county, contains in front the townships
of Elizabeth Town, with 4350 settlers ; Yonge, 2894 ;
Lansdown and Leeds, the two, 1867 : in the second line,
Kitley, 1071 ; Bastard, 1825 ; and South Crosby, 554 : in
the third, Elmsley, 1070 ; Burgess, 804 ; and North
Crosby, 185. The first is one of the best tracts in this quar-
ter. The land, towards the river, is broken and rocky ; and
some parts are sandy ; but the greater portion, especially
in the rear, is extremely good. In front is Brockville,
named from the gallant officer who fell in the battle of
Queenston. It seems the most thriving place between
Montreal and Kingston, and, as we are informed by Mr
Evans, contains 2000 inhabitants, a neat Pres1)yterian
church, and numerous houses two stories in height. The
main road to Albany and other parts of New York com-
mences on the opposite side of the river. Yonge, the
next township, is described as nearly similar, and possess-
ing the same advantages. Lansdown presents a different
aspect. The ground bordering on the river is stony
and ill cultivated ; but the rear, according to Mr Smart's
report, shows a very considerable improvement, and con-
tains some excellent farms. A large portion is covered
by the lakes of Gananoqui, which present varied and

fADA.

n he visited the
ticipated a rapid
years after, saw
itripped by Og-
*^er.

rd, and Wolford,
ty, are described
he soil good, and
le Rideau navi-
passable roads to
r, Marlborough,
first as good, the
lave the advan-
lich opens a dis-
ear one with the
wa.

nt the townships
; Yonge, 2894;
the second line,
L Crosby, 554 : in
i04 ; and North
"acts in this quar-
11 and rocky ; and
irtion, especially
it is Brockville,
in the battle of
'^ place between
informed by Mr
at Presl)yterian
in height. The
N'ew York corn-
er. Yonge, the
lar, and possess-
sents a different
river is stony
g to Mr Smart's
ement, and con-
•tion is covered
ent varied and

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

297

beautiful scenery. Leeds is still less favoured by nature,
l)eing throughout rugged and rocky, though including
scattered patches of good land, and in the rear some fine
fiinns. Limestone and ironstone abound in both these
townships, particularly in Leeds ; but the latter has not
yet been turned to any advantage.

In tlic second line of this county, Kitley is reported
by the commissioners as indifferent. Mr Smart gives a
much better account, admitting, at the same time, that
the soil is in some places shallow, and poorly watered.
Bastard is said to be excellent, and South Crosby, though
rocky, contains much good land. All the three enjoy more
or less the benefit of the Ridean Canal. In the third
line, Elmsley and Burgess are described as being indif-
ferent, but the former lias the benefit of the navigation.
North Crosby has a good soil, but is destitute of water-
conveyance.*

Ottawa District extends from the frontier of Lower
Canada, along the southern bank of that river ; for the
opposite one, as already noticed, belongs to the lower pro-
vince. The land-boundary is the Eastern District, with
which its dimensions, both as to length and breadth,
nearly coincide. The situation is extremely favourable,
whether along the river, which is here navigable for
steam- vessels, or along the Rideau Canal. The soil, how-
ever, is decidedly inferior, being either light and sandy or
covered with extensive swamps ; though this last descrip-
tion is said to suit the French habitans. The population
consists of a mixture from the United States, with
English, Scotch, and French Canadians, many of whom
have made considerable efforts to render their possessions
valuable ; but improvement is much obstructed by the
intervention of large tracts of land, granted long ago,
and still neglected. Mr Gourlay, in 1818, did not con-
ceive the population to exceed 1500 ; in 1826, it had
risen to 3009 ; in 1['32, to 6348, and in 1835, to 7044.

• Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 109, 76. Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 509-518.
Picken, pp. 144, 145. Canadas as they now are, p. 56-59. Martin,

p. iiLUt

I) !

rii.l

298

TOPOGRAPnY OF UPPER CANADA.

At this last period, the cultivated acres amounted to
16,854, and the uncultivated, to 110,288 ; it contained
3525 horned cattle, and 748 horses. The Canada Com-
pany have purchased considerable lots, and are making
exertions to unprove them. It is divided into two
counties, — Prescott and Russell.

Prescott has, on the frontline, four townships, Hawkcs-
hury East, with 833 settlers in 1833, and West with 1440 ;
tiie latter is sometimes called Longueuil ; Alfred has 112,
and Plantagcnet 613. In regard to the soil of the tAvo
Hawkesburys, reports which should be authentic differ
very widely ; that to the Quarter Sessions representing it
inbotli as rough, stony, and gravelly ; while Mr M'Dowell,
deputy-surveyor to the Canada Compan}'", describes both
as good, though the second is in some parts swampy.
They fonn, the last especially, the best-settled part of
the district, held by industrious and improving colonists.
Alfred is admitted on all hands to be poor, the roads
bad, and settlements thin ; but hopes are entertained
that natives of the lower province may turn the swampy
tracts to account. Plantagenet has some good land, and
its favourable situation, with the Petite Nation flowing
tlirough it into the Ottawa, has obtained for it many
more inhabitants. Caledonia, behind West Hawkesbury,
has also some rich spots, but is in other parts very
swampy, and yet has 311 settlers. Plantagenet-rear is
still worse situated, in both respects, though a road from
Cornwall passes through it.

Russell county contains, in front, Clarence, with 125
settlers ; Cumberland, 1161 ; and Gloucester, Go3 ; in
rwir, Osgoode, 198 ; Russell and Cambridge, 37. Tlbe
two first are tolerably good, though interspersed with
sandy and marshy tracts. The occupants, however, are
few, and nearly confined to the bank of the river. A
great part is monopolized by old proprietors, who either
neglect their lots, or have sold them to speculators, by
whom an enormous price is demanded. Gloucester not
only contains much good land, but is very happily
situated, havmg the Ottawa in front, and the Rideau

^ADA.

res amounted to
J8 ; it contained
fie Canada Com-
land are niakin<»-
Uided into two

Inships, Hawkcs-
^Vest with 1440;
|; Alfred has 112,'
soil of the two
authentic differ
IS rejiresenting it
leMrM'Dowell,
y, describes both
' jmrts swampy,
t-settled jmrt of
•oving colonists,
poor, the roads
are entertained
urn the swampy
e good land, and
Nation flowing
cd for it many
st Hawkesbury,
iher parts very
itagenet-rear is
igh a road from

ence, with 125
tester, 053 ; in
idge, 37. T1k3
erspersed with
3, however, are

the river. A
ors, who either
peculators, by
Gloucester not

very lia])pily
id the liideau

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

299

on its western frontier, besides several tributary creeks.
Fartlier improvement may still be expected, owing to
the completion of the canal connected with the latter
river, on which the principal settlements are already
situated. The Canada Company have some valuable
lots upon the river Rideau. Camlu'idgc is light, sandy,
and swampy, with some good land, but as yet wholly
unoccupied, and destitute of roads or other communi-
cations. Russell possesses scarcely any natural supe-
riority ; but it has been located by a party of Scottijsh
immigrants. Osgoode is an extensive township, with a
large jiroportion of rich soil, and the important ad-
vantage of the Rideau navigation on its front. Although,
tlierefore, it has been much neglected, there seems
every probability of its rising speedily into greater im-
portance.*

Bathurst, till 1816, had no existence as a district,
being only an uncultivated appendage to Johnstowii.
At that time a body of North British settlers formed a
range of townships in rear of the latter, to which they
gave the general name of Perth, and by their industry
and perseverance have rendered it very flourishing.
Behind it, another called Lanark w^as occupied by troops,
chiefly from Scottish regiments disbanded at the close
of the last war. Afterwards, when the great works of
the Rideau navigation were undertaken, the township
situated at their commencement on the Ottawa, attracted
a large population. The banks of the river, upwards
from this point, and those of the great lakes Chaudiere
and Chats, being particularly romantic and agreeable,
induced a number of highly respectable individuals, par-
ticularly the Highland cliieftain M'Nab, to settle on them.
This district, which in 1815 was a complete wilderness,
in 182G contained 11,364 inhabitants, which had risen in
1832 to 22,286, and in 1835 to 22,693. In this last year

* Bouchette, vol. i. p. 109. Gourla}^ vol. ii. p. f5I2. Tables
for Colonies, 1832, p. 9. Picken, p. 128-144. Canadas as they
now are, p. G4.

■ I

IK' H n

300

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

there were 57,197 acres cultivated, and S53,302 uncul-
tivated, 12,459 horned cattle, and 1541 horses. It in
divided into tw^o counties, — Lanark and Carleton.

Lanark consists of the two ranges formed chiefly hy
Caledonian settlers, in rear of Johnstown. The first line
comprises Beckwith, with 2217 settlers ; Drummond,
2472; Bathurst, 2019; and South Sherbrooke, 98.
These townships are represented as possessing much
good land, carefully cultivated by industrious colonists.
Perth, in the county of Drummond, and connected with
tlie Rideau by a small river called the Tay, has become
a village of some importance, with a population of about
400 comfortable houses, a church, and other accommo-
dations. The range behind, but still not reaching tlic
Ottawa, consists of Darling, Rams^iy, 1775 ; Lanark,
1845; Dalhousie, 1019, and North Sherbrooke, 262.
These are nowhere very minutely described ; but they
appear, in territory and culture, nearly to resemble tlve
first range. They have the advantage of being traversed
by the Mississippi, which connects them with the Grand
River.

The county of Carleton comprehends the settlements
situated on or near the Ottawa. The principal of these
is Nepean, with 2810 settlers, and includes the point
at which that great stream is connected with the
Rideau river and canal. The large body of men em-
ployed on that vast work, the market which they
afforded, and the numerous individuals who remained
after its completion, have caused it to be well settled and
inhabited. Bytown, at the junction of the canal, is
named from Colonel By, its able engineer. In 1831 it
contained nearly 150 houses, only of wood indeed, but
built regularly, and in many instances wit>. /nuch neat-
ness and taste. The scenery is singularly picturesque.
The view from the colonel's mansion includes the falls of
the Chaudiere,the opposite shores, partly wild and broken,
partly adorned by the flourishing settlements of Hull, and
the river itself diversified by numerous verdant islands.
A large hospital and three barracks are bailt of stone.

iJliaSWllLMi IDIicSl^li'Igli^lL'^.

353,362 iincul-
1 horses. It ia
Carleton.
rmed cliiefly })y

I. The first line
I's; DnimmoiK],
Sherbrooke, 08.
)ossessing- iiuich
trioiis colonists,
connected with
'ay, has become
Illation of about
)ther accomnio-
ot reaching tlic
1775 ; Lanark,
lerbrooke, 262.
ibed ; but they
to resemble ilie
being traversed
with the Grand

i i '

I'l'lll.lNIII.II ll> •II,IVI':H VIKIYI) KIIINIIIIKdII.

ii III

1 ■• h

J(f£'/1^

)

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

301

The resort, on account of the canal and the fine scenery
which adorns the Lakes Chaudierc and Chats, has in-
duced many respcctahle families to colonize this dis-
trict. Some distance above Bytown is Britannia, a
valuable property with extensive mills, finely situated
near the beautiful rapid Des Chenes. The causes now
mentioned have produced in the townships of March and
Tarbolton a continuous range of settlements along the
river, continuing respectively 426 and 9G. Fitzroy, 327,
Iluntly, 1031, and Pakenham, 408, strike obliquely into
the interior, and present much good land. From the
boundary of Tarbolton, an impervious wilderness ex-
tends along the rapids of the Chats and part of the lake
of that name ; but on its upper shore M'Nab has located
himself with a body of his clan, amounting to 818, on a
township bearing his name. By indefatigable exertions,
he has rendered his residence of Kinnell Lodge exceed-
ingly comfortable ; and the traveller in those wild regions
meets here a cordial welcome. Unluckily his example
has not operated with sufficient force on his followers,
whose habits do not thoroughly fit them for the patient
toil required to bring the wilderness under cultivation ;
however, improvement is going on, though slowly."'

The central portion, which we consider as consisting
of the Midland, New'castle, and Home districts, has its
base upon the noiihern shores of Lake Ontario, whence
it extends towards the Ottawa ; but long before reach-
ing that boundary, which from the direction of the
stream becomes more and more distant, every trace of
settlement disappears amidst one vast and pathless forest.
This forms by far the most extensive part of Upper
Canada, and from its abundance of fertile land is
extremely valuable. Till of late, however, it was
the least occupied, being nowhere cultivated, but in the
vicinity of the government stations. The eastern was
nearer to Lower Canada, while the western possessed

*i!!

il' •

* Boiicliette, vol. i. pp. 10!), HO-HS. Tables, 1832, p. 9. Canadas
as they now are, p. 64-67. Martin, p. 223.

I ' i\

302

TOPOGRAPnY OF rPPER CANADA.

great facilities for the fur-trade, with which view
chiefly this upper quarter was in early times resorted
to. Ihit the tide of immigration which has lately
flowed into Canada has directed itself, in u great degree,
towards this central district. It was found more fruitful
and much less occupied than the eastern, while it has
a nearer market for its agricultural produce than the
western. Its increase, accordingly, within the last
fifteen years, has been astonishing. The population in
1817 is estimated by Mr Gourlay at 27,753, in 1824 it
had risen to 50,000, in 1H32 to 115,504, and in Um
to 124,473. At the latter date its settlements ])ossesse(i
461,275 acres cultivated, 1,409,41)3 uncultivated, 17,l)nH
horses, and 08,034 horned cattle. It is watered by the
Moira, Trent, and other rivers of some magiiitude. This
last is connected with a chain of important lakes, at the
head of which is the large one named Simcoe. These
waters afford considerable accommodation to the colo-
nists ; though they flow from too short a distance to
afford an adequate conveyanco if cultivation were to
stretch much farther northward,*

The Midland District, which till lately was the
only one generally peopled, extends from the centre
of the Lake of the Thousand Islands to the western ex-
tremity of the Bay of Quinte ; a length of about eighty
miles. Towards the interior it is laid out in fine ranges
of townships, which reach nearly fifty miles from the
lake ; but the unoccupied portion, stretching to the Ot-
tawa, is much more extensive. The settled part in 1835
contained 187,338 cultivated and 858,214 uncultivatwl
acres. The population, which in 1817 was reckoned at
15,053, had risen in 1824 to 27,695, in 1832 to 42,294,
and in 1835 to 40,085 ; and at the latter period they
oould boast of 24,535 cattle, and 8550 horses. The land,
wuth certain exceptions, is good, and in some parts ex-
cellent, particularly along Lake Ontario and the Bay of

• Boiichette, vol. i. p.
Tables, 1832, p. 9.

108. Gourlay, vol. ii. pp. 4C4, 4(59, 407.

NADA.

ith wliich view
y times rcsortcci
kliicli lias lately
'u u ^n-eat (lei,'rcc,
iiiul more fruitful
111, while it has
•rodiice than tlu;
within the last
ic population in
7,753, in 1H24 it
■)()4, and in 1835
enients })()H.scs.sed
ultivated, ] 7,IJ3»
i AA-itered by the
lugnitude. Tliis
ant lakes, at thu
Simcofi. 'J'he,se
ion to the eolo-
'I't a distance to
tivation were to

lately was tlic
from the centre
the western ex-
L of about eighty
Lit in fine ranges
miles from the
filing to the Oi-
led part in 1835
14 uncultivate<l
vas reckoned at
1832 to 42,294,
er period they
ses. The land,
some parts ex-
and the Bay of

pp. 4C4, 4t)<J, 407.

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

303

Q,uinte ; but havinj^ now been lonj; under cultivation,
syinptoins of exhaustion arc ol)scrved, which the farmera
liave not yet learned to remedy by manure. 1'his dis-
trict is divided into four counties, — Frontenac, Lennox
and lla(ldin<^ton, Hastings, and Prince Edward.

Frontenac contains the townships of Pittsl)urgh and
Kingston, situated on the lake and river. The former
contains 1)87 settlers, some fine land, with a large {)ro-
poi'tion that is indifferent ; the second, with 3013 in-
habitants, is generally good, though in siome parts rocky.
The soil is mostly clay, covered originally with a thick
stratum of vegetable mould, now a good deal exhausted
by long cropping. Lime is every where plentiful, and
the sugar maple flourishes luxuriantly. These districts,
having long derived great advantages from the vicinity
of the capital, which affords an advantageous market,
were well improved while the rest of the province was
lying waste. Two adjacent islands, called Howe and
Grand Isle or Wolfe, form each a township with 611 in-
habitants. Loughborough with 1112 settlers, and Port-
land with 484, are immediately in the rear of Kingston,
but both are wet and somewhat unhealthy. Bedford
and Hinchinbrook, forming the third range, are described
by the surveyors as " not very good." On the fourth line,
Kennebec is reported to be positively bad ; Oso and
Olden remain undescribed. On the fifth range, com-
prisuig Barrie, Palmerston, and Clarendon, report is
equally silent : their remote situation indeed appears to
have prevented their settlement, and the presumption
seems to be against them. Their distance from the la^ie,
and the want of a navigable river, must long operate
unfavourably.

Kingston, in this county, was the original capital of
Upper Canada, and, even after the transference of the
seat of government to Toronto, continued the most
flourishing, till the agricultural colonies formed in the

west gave to the latter the pre-eminence.

It IS, as we

I! '

have already noticed, advantageously built on the site
of Fort Frontenac, at the junction of the St Lawrence

V I

.304

TOPOCJRAPIIY OP UPPER CANADA.

'\nn

p'"

with Liikc Ontario ; a ])08ition which has raised it to
considerable importiince as the main entrepot between
the h)vver and upper i)rovinee. Jiarks of from HO to
nearly 200 tons carry on an active intercourse with To-
ronto, Niagara, and otber jjlaees on the lake ; and maj^-
nificcnt steam-vessels convey passengers to and from those
places. To accommodate this trade, wharfs and a num-
ber of spacious warebouses have been provided ; the
harbour being easily accessible to vessels not requiring
more than three fathoms water. The streets art! regn-
larly arranged at right angles, but not paved ; the
houses arc chiefly built of stone, an<l are spacious and
convenient, though without much attention to elegance.
About half a mile distant is a low peninsula ending in
Point Frederic, which, with another parallel one ter-
minating in Point Henry, encloses Navy Bay, — the
depot for the maritime armament formed during the
late war. On its western side is a dock-yard with other
accommodations ; and in this inland station were built
some of the largest ships in the British navy. Point Fre-
deric is connected with the town by a wooden bridge GOO
yards long, at once solidly constructed and very orna-
mental. The town in 1833 contained 4196 inhabitiuits.
The county of Lennox and Haddington, contiguous
on the west to the one now described, possesses a more
favourable soil. Its front townships, — Ernest Town,
having 3703 settlers, Adolphus Town, 6GG, Fredericks-
bujgh, 2556, and Richmond, 1367, are all reported as ge-
nerally good, and deriving great advantages from their
situation along the exterior coast of the Bay of Q,uinte.
The last only has bad land in the rear ; a\ hich is com-
pensated by having the river Napanee flowing through
it. Camden, which, with its 1780 settlers, occupies the
whole of the second line, is also reported to be good, and
is well watered by the same stream. Sheffield, situated
beliind it, is decidedly inferior, and Kalador, in the fourth
range, still more so. The fifth consists of Anglesea, re-
specting which no report has yet been received. Amherst
Island, in Ontario, is one of the townships of this county.

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPRR CANADA.

30.1

The county of Ila.stinj^s extends also uhm^r tlie Bay
of Quinte, ami thence into the interior. Jt hus tlirec
front tovviisliips, — Tyendina^a or Moliavvk, with (592 8ct-
tlors, Thur ow, with 161 1, and Si(hiey, with 22l\7. The
first has a ])Oor soil, hut is watered hy the river Salmon.
The tu'o others are favourahly reported ; the second is
traversed hy the river iMoira, at the month of which is
the flourishinjLj villafj;e of Belleville ; and the third has tlic
larger stream of the Trent on its western hordcr. Tho
swond range consists of llungcrford, Huntingdon,
and Rawdon. The two first have an indifferent soil,
and few advantages of situation. The third possesses a
considerahlc extent of good hind in front, and is crossed
hy a tolerahle road leading to the iron works at Marmora,
and also hy hranchcs of the Trent. Behind these, we
find Elzevir, had ; Madoc, generally good ; Marmora;
not very good : this last at one time had iron works of
some importance, hut they are at present suspended.
Tudor, Grimsthorpc, and Lake in the extreme rear, have
not yet heen reported.

Tlie county of Prince Edward consists of the peninsula
onclosed between Lake Ontario and the long windings
of the Bay of Quinte. It contains the townships of
Ahicliashurgh, with 1722 settlers, Hillicr, with 1733,
Ilallowell, with 352.5, Sophiashurgh, with 2137, and
Marysburgh, with 1674. The report as to tliesc is gene-
rally favourable ; the lands are nearly all occupied ; and
the settlers derive great benefit from the vicinity of
water-carriage. In the latest returns to government, this
county is described as a separate district, containing
G8,900 cultivated acres, and 12,320 inhabitants.*

The Newcastle District commences where the Mid-
land ends, at the western extremity of the Bay of
Quinte, whence it extends about sixty miles along the
coast of Ontario, when, by an arbitrary line, it is sepa-
rated from the Home district. Its noi-them boundary,

• Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 496. Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 108, 76-78.

Tables, 1832, p. 9. I'icken, p. 146-149. Canadas as they now
are, p. 67-72.

VOL. I. T

>l ^- 1

•'i:t

i »

;<!'!

»i:iji

ItBf

i^i =i

:., !;

•;: i:i

1 H

306

TOPOGRAPUY OF UPPER CANADA.

like that of the Midland, is nominally formed hy the
Ottawa, in which direction it extends not less than 200
miles ; hut the actual settlements cover only a small
portion of this wide space. Notwithstanding an ex-
tensive sandy tract on Rice Lake, it contams a greater
proportion of good land than any of the districts yet
described ; and the lake, itself twenty-five miles long and
four or five broad, fonns a valuable water-communica-
tion. A portage, indeed, intervenes between Balsam
and Simcoe ; but this obstacle, as well as others, are
expected to be removed by canals, and by improving the
Trent, with which it is connected. Notwithstanding its
advantages, however, this district, as it neither contained
any principal town, nor lay in the line of the fur-trade,
was long almost wholly neglected. In 1817 it was esti-
mated to contain 5000 inhabitants, and even in 1824 it
had only 0292 ; but since that time it has been a favourite
resort for immigrants, so that in 1 882 it numbered 25,560,
and in 1885, 80,245 settlers. It then possessed 94,419
cultivated acres, 484,526 uncultivated, 15,367 horned
cattle, and 3889 horses. It is divided into townships,
that reach into the interior about the same distance as
those of the Midland ; but as the Ottawa boundary is
still more distant, the unoccupied tract is very extensive.
The counties are two, — Northumberland and Durham.
The first of these has, in front on the lake, four town-
ships, — Murray, 1788 settlers, Cramaghe, 1905, Hamil-
ton, 2871 , and Haldimand, 1857. These ai'e not the finest
in the district, though the first is described as gene-
rally good and well watered ; but owing to the streams
flowing through a level country, there is a want of mill
power. The three others, with some good, contain ;i
large proportion of bad land, which, in the second and
fourth, also predominates. In Hamilton they are about
equally divided ; and its situation on the shores of
Ontario is very advantageous. The port of Coburg is
the principal one in the district. In 1812 it consisted
of one house ; in 1827 it was believed to contain 350
inhabitants, with an Episcopal church and Methodist

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

307

meeting-house ; and since that time it has very much
increased. It commands the road to the country on and
beyond Rice Lake ; for the productions of which it is
tlie chief market. The vicinity exhibits a number of
farms, whose condition and management pleased even
the eye of Mr Shirreff.

In the second range, the townships of Seymour, Percy,
and Alnwick, contain as yet very few settlers. Tlie
greater number, 377, are in Percy, which has a good soil,
and is watered by the Trent. Alnwick, on the southern
bank of Rice Lake, is poor and sandy, which quality of
land, however, has been thought adapted to sheep-tlirm-
ing, a branch of uadustry little practised in Canada. Immi-
grants have been chiefly attracted to the north-western
side of the lake, formed into the townshi2)s of Monaghan
and Otanabee. These, divided by the river bearing the
latter name, are described as generally good, thougli in-
terspersed with steril and swampy tracts. This quar-
ter was nearly unoccupied till 1825, when Mr Robinson
conducted thither a large colony of Irish ; and it has
since been a favourite resort, particularly for half-pay
officers. In the north-eastern angle of Monaghan has been
founded the town of Peterborough, which now contains
about 1000 inhabitants. It is somewhat rudely built of
wood, covering a great extent of ground ; and, as we
have been informed, the stumps of trees in many places
are left standing in the streets. It has waters, however,
admirably fitted for mills, and several accordingly have
1)een erected. The settlers collect tlie productions of the
country behind, and transmit thtai to Coburg by the Rice
Lake, on which steam-vessels now regularly ply. There
are churches, both Roman Catholic and Episcopal ; a
school, partly supported by government ; and a com-
modious hotel. In consequence of the number of mili-
tary settlers, the society is supposed to he particularly
polislied and agreeable. Asphodel, eastward, in an oblique
line, from Otanabee, is a good township, with 265 in-
habitants, and watered both by Rice Lake and the Trent.
The fourth range, consisting of Emily Gore, Smith,

i>i: .

'»St

308

TCPOGRAPIIY OF UPPER CANADA.

' hi

% i

hi? ,'i

I ■■■

4' I

Douro, Dummer, and Belmont, has, in consequence of
its water communication by the Otauabee with Peter-
borough and Rice Lake, been better settled than is usual
with townships so much in the interior. Emily Gore, or
Ennismore, with 254 cultivators, has an excellent soil of
loam resting upon clay ; and in 1825 it received a nume-
rous body of Irish from Kerry. Smith, having 758 colo-
nists, ishappily situated between the Otanabeeand a chain
of small lakes, which form it into a peninsula, and be-
tween which there is an Indian portage. It was settled
first by a party of Cumberland miners, located there by
government about the year 1818, who were afterwards
joined by parties from the north of Ireland, and by a por-
tion of those who came from the south in 1825. Douro,
with 571 inhabitants, has a calcareous soil, well watered,
but in part swampy. It is also occupied by the emigrants
of 1825, and by disbanded militia. The Canada Company
have lands in this and the two preceding townships.
Dummer resembles the last in the nature of its soil,
though the rear is rocky, and no settlements have yet
been formed on it. This is also the case with Belmont,
which is of rather an indifferent quality. The fifth
range, consisting of Methuen, Burleigh, and Harvey,
labours under considerable disadvantages both as to bar-
renness and situation, and has not yet attracted the
notice of immigrants.

Durham county contains in front the townships,—
Clarke, with 919 settlers, Hope, with 2272, and Darling-
ton, with 1098. All three are described as of good soil,
and advantageously situated on Lake Ontario ; but the
improvement of the first and last is much obstructed,
owing to the great quantity of land held by absentees ;
whence, perhaps, arises that bad management of which
Mr Shirreff complains. The middle one exhibits a
more improved aspect, containing Port Hope, on the
Ontario, an agreeable and thriving place, with all the
usual appendages of a country town ; and it has, besides,
a stream with a fall, well fitted for mills. On the second
range, Cavan, with a soil generally fertile, derives great

ANADA.

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

309

advantages from its vicinity to Otanabee and Rice Lake.
It began to be settled in 1817, and there are now 2178
inhabitants, chiefly Protestants from the north of Ireland.
There is an Episcopal church, and six schools. The
farms are in good order, though the dwellings are only
log-houses. To the westward, on this line, are Manvei-s
and Cartwright, of much inferior quality, though the
latter is rather the best, but neither is yet occupied. On
the fourth line, Emily, adjoining to Emily Gore in Nor-
thumberland, and possessed of nearly the same advan-
tages, has attracted 1095 Irish, of whom those from the
nortii are in the front, those from the south in the rear.
A road has been opened to Peterborough, whither the
produce is expected to be mostly conveyed. Of the
Avestern townships on this range, Ops has a very fine
sail, unless in the north-eastern angle, where it is en-
cumbered by swamps ; but the want of roads and mills
b.as prevented its attracting more than 545 colonis.ts.
Mari])osa is described as being generally good land ;
though, from its remote situation, it is occupied only by
208 persons. In the fifth line, Eldon has now 406.
Verulam and Ferelon are as yet scarcely known, and
lie beyond the limits of settlement.*

The Home District extends from the boundary of
Newcastle, — westward to the river Credit, near the ter-
mination of liake Ontario, — northward to Lake Nipis-
siiig, which flows thence into the Georgian Bay ; but
that large branch of Lake Huron covers a great pro-
portion of this district, rendering it considerably smaller
than either of the two last described. In its extent of
settlement, however, it fully equals either ; for though
Lake Simcoe occupies a considerable surface, it afibrds
at the same tune facilities of intercourse, by means
of which culture is carried to a great distance in-
land. A road, called Yoiige Street, above thirty miles
long, connects Toronto, the capital, with this lake. It

* Gourlaj% vol. ii. p. 41")!). Bouchetle, vol. i. p. 108. Picken,
p. 150-166. Canadas as they now are, p. 72-70. Sliirreff, pp. 122^ 123.

310

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

was carefully improved by the North- west Fur Company,
and having of late been partly macadamized, is one of
the best in Canada. On the borders of Lake Ontario
the soil is poor and sandy, bearing only pines ; but along
the road now mentioned, and around Lake Simcoe, it is
exceedingly fertile, excellently fitted for wheat. Accord-
ingly it has attracted an ample share of the recent im-
migrations. In 1817 we find its population estimated nt
7700 ; in 1824 it reached 16,009 ; and in 1835 it hml
risen to no less than 47,543. In that year the cultivated
acres amounted to 179,51 ^> ^^^ ^^^^ uncultivated to
090,753. It contamed 28,732 horned cattle, and 0040
horses.

This district is divided into three counties, — York, East
and West Ridings, and Simcoe. The first comprises
the territory along Ontario, and thence to the southern
shore of Lake Simcoe, the East Riding including by
far the larger portion, with the capital. Its townships
are, — Whitby, population, 3212 ; Pickering, 1807 ; Scar-
l)orongh, 1897 ; York and Peninsula, 3544 ; Etobicoke,
1290 ; Markham, 4430 ; Vaughan, 2801 ; King, 1072 ;
Whitchurch, 2732 ; UxbridgeandReach,uncertain;Guil-
limbury East, 1389, and North, 407 ; Scott, uncertain ;
Georgina, 855 ; Brock, 1032. The West Riding con-
sists only of a narrow stripe on the western frontier,
composed of the townships, — Toronto, 4990 ; Toronto
Gore, 483 ; Chmguacousy, 2728 ; Caledon, 1233 ; and
Albion, 1050.

The county of Simcoe consists of the townships lying
north-west of the lake of that name, and extending
thence to the Severn, and towards the Huron. These
are, — West Guillimbury, population, 1293 ; Tecumsetlv,
1389 ; Adjala, 787 ; Mono, 1208 ; Amaranth, Luther,
Proton, Melancthon, Mulmur, Tossorontio, Essa, 107 ;
Innisfil, 400 ; Tliorah, 431 ; Mara, Rama, Oro, 881 ;
Vespra, 230 ; Sunnidale, Merlin, Ospry, Artemisia,
Euphrasia, Alta, Java, Flos, 90 ; Medonte, 448 ; Orillia,
Matchedash, Tiny, and Tay, 401 ; Zero. From some
•unexplained cause, the official reports, in which the

NADA.

-est Fur Company,
imized, is one of
of Lake Ontario
pines ; but along
iake Simcoc, it is
)r wheat. Accord-
of the recent im-
ation estimated at
d in 1835 it had
car the cultivated
3 uncultivated to
1 cattle, and C040

nties, — York, East
le first comprises
ce to the soutliern
ling including by
al. Its townships
ering, 1807 ; Scar-
8544 ; Etobicoke,
B61 ; King, 1G72 ;
h,uncertam;Guil-
Scott, uncertain ;
West Riding con-
western frontier,
0, 4990 ; Toronto
iledon, 1233 ; and

le townships lying
le, and extending
le Huron. These
1293 ; Tecumsctlv,
maranth, Luther,
ontio, Essa, 107 ;
Rama, Oro, 881 ;
3spry, Artemisia,
nte, 448 ; Orillia,
ero. From some
•ts, in which the

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

311

detailed notice of the townships in the preceding dis-
tricts were derived, are wanting v/ith regard to the
one now under consideration. Mr Gourlay also com-
])lains of not having received a single return from any
of its districts. We must therefore be content with
giving a general view of it from the best sources which
can l)e procured.

York, which has now assumed the Indian name of
Toronto, is the oittcial capital of Upper Canada, the
residence of the governor, the seat of the courts of justice,
and the place where the Parliament assembles. No town
in the province has made so rapid a progress. In 1798 M.
Bouchette saw the spot covered with dense and track-
less forests, on the border of which stood one solitary
wigwam. In 1794 the town was founded, and in a few
years attained a considerable magnitude. It remained
long inferior to Kingston, and in 1881 was supposed to
contain only 4000 inhabitants. The great improvement,
however, of the western districts, and the extensive
sales of land made there, both by government and the
Canada Company, have now rendered it every way the
more important place ; and by the last accounts its
population had risen to 9500. The streets are spacious,
and regularly disposed at right angles. Wood, the
original material, is in course of being rapidly super-
seded by brick ; and even stone begins to come into use.
The public buildings are such as might be expected at a
seat of government, and well suited to their object, but
none is mentioned as particularly striking. The new
college consists of five neat brick buildings, of which the
central one, appropriated to instruction, is about eighty
feet square, surmounted by an ornamental dome. The
residence of a number of civil and military olficers gives
to the society a considerable degree of polish and elegance.
The harbour is formed by a long narrow peninsula,
enclosing a circular basin about a mile and a half in
diameter, atFording spacious and secure accommodation
for shipping ; but it has the disadvantage of being very
defenceless, as was fatally experienced in 1813.

312

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

■n

P i-H

The soil, for a considerable space along the margin of
the lake, is avid and sandy, covered with pine-forests ;
and the township of Whitby, on the borders of New-
castle District, has very rich loam, with a deep vegetable
mould, and contains thriving farms. The population,
however, is chiefly collected along the road called Yonge
Street already described, on each side of which flourisli-
ing settlements arc formed to a considerable depth, and
covered with excellent crops. Newmarket, adjoining
Lake Simcoe, appears a considerable place, to which a
stage-coach runs regularly from Toronto ; and the sur-
rounding country, which is fertile, is laid out in well-cul-
tivated farms. About four miles distant is Hope, a
village of sixty or seventy houses, inhabited by a sect
professing pecruliar tenets, called the Children of Peace,
who hold their j>roporty almost in common, and are
under the entire direction of an individual named David
Willson. Near Newmr ;et is West Guillimbury, whence
a steam-vessel makes a weekly trip round the lake,
which implies a respectable degree of settlement. Se-
veral even of the inland townsliips to the north and west,
notwithstanding their remote situation, have made con-
siderable progress, as will appear by the amount of their
population already given.*

The Western Section of Upper Canada, though less
extensive than those just described, possesses such ad-
vantages of soil, climate, and situation, as renders it
fully equal to them in value and importance. It con-
sists of a long irregular peninsula, enclosed by successive
portions of the great lake and river chain of Canada.
This boundary, beginning with the western shore of Lake
Ontario, is continued by the Nijigara channel. Lake Erie,
the Detroit, Lake and River St Clair, and the southern
and jDart of the eastern shore of Lake Huron. It ter-
minates a little beyond Goderich, whence stretching
across to Lake Ontario, it is met by the Home District

* Gotirlaj', vol. ii. p. 464. Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 108, 86-90,
Picken, 1(UJ. Canadas as they now are, p. 79. ShirrefF, p. 106-117.

along the margin of
with ])iuc-forc'sts ;
le borders of New-
ith a deep vegetable
3. The poinilation,
) road called Yonge
J of which flourish-
idcrable de})th, and
miarket, adjoining
place, to which a
onto ; and the sur-
^id out in well-cul-
listant is Hope, a
tihabited by a sect
Children of Peace,
common, and are
dual named David
illimbury, whence
round the lake,
r settlement. Sc-
le north and west,
, have made con-
e amount of their

lada, though less
Dssesses such ad-
)n, as renders it

lence stretching
e Home District

i. pp. 108, 8f).yo,
shirreff, p. 106-117.

Upfooiic.-. to rJie TowiiHliipK in
WeiUworlh Coiiiitv itn<l Niag^arn OiNtrii-l

(t:iiii(il>or«>U{>-ii 11

I'olham Vi

Thorold 13

Staint'oiil 14

("ajiiboiMUP'h I.")

MoilltucL l(i

WHiiitle.-l 17

HiimlxM-Htuiif 18

CVowlaiid 19

Kaj-toii

Saltfl.M-t

■2

ririinslis-^

Cliiitoii

l.ixiUi

.'»

Ci-anUiHiii

Niaji-aia

filanlbitl

Kiubroak

•J

Claistnr

1()

WiUi>ug4ihy iO

Bert IP 21

A W-.ul,i

III

'' !

HrHMNlTKn nV (>I.IVKH1b>llftYl>,l'UUNRI'Hiill

f i

R' ■ B i(.

«nl, '

11 J'

3/^ 4

TOPOGRAPUY OP UPPER CANADA.

313

and the Indian territory. Its surface is singularly level,
scarcely containing any eminence that deserves to bo
called a hill, ex«;ept in the ridge already described as
running in a circuitous line from tlie neighbourhood of
Toronto to Niagara. Even its heights seldom exceed 100,
and never 350 feet. Besides that no part is very distant
from the grand line of water-communication, several fine
rivers traverse the interior. The most considerable is the
Thames, which, rising in the London District, and running
westward about 150 miles through a fine country, falls
into Lake St Clair. It is navigable for large vessels to
Chatham, fifteen miles u}), and for boats nearly to its
source. Parallel to it on tlic north, though with a
shorter course of not more than 100 miles, is Big Bear
Creek, which throws itself into one of the branches of
the river St Clair. Next to the Thames in magnitude
is the Ouse, rising in the Home District, and flowing in
an opposite direction south-east, till by a very serpentine
course it reaches Lake Erie. It is navigable for schooners
about twenty-five miles above its mouth, and consider-
ably higher for boats. The Welland or Chippe way, near-
ly parallel to it, runs into the Niagara after a coui-se of
only fifty miles ; but this river has become important on
account of the canal cut from it to Ontario on one side
and Erie on the other, which has obviated those obstruc-
tions by which the navigation of the Niagara channel
is rendered impracticable.

Tlie soil of this extensive tract is almost entirely
alluvial, consisting of a black or yellow loam, some-
times mixed with sand, and covered with a thick stratum
of vegetable mould. The forests are dense, but not as in
other quarters entirely uninterrupted ; opening rather, in
some places, into wide prairies or expanses of natural
meadow. The country has hy sanguine writers been
described as every where luxuriantly fertile ; and though
minute surveys have discovered light and sandy tracts
of considerable extent, there is perhaps scarcely a spot
on the globe which it may not rival. The climate of a
country situated between the 42d and 45th parallels.

ii .1

314

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

ouglit to he that of the south of France ; hut in eon-
8e(iuence of a peculiarity in the American continent,
this does not procure an exemption from several montlis
of frost «md snow. Still its winter is considerahly shorter,
and its summer longer than in any other part of Up})ei'
Canada.

Such advantages drew the attention of Eurojiean set-
tlers to this quarter earlier than from its distance mij^lit
have been expected, and portions of it were hroiij,flvt
into cultivation, when the rest of Upper Canada was a
wilderness. The French, when foiTning stations for tlie
fur-trade at its western extremity, were tempted hy the
fertile banks of the Detroit, ])etween Lakes Eric and St
Clair, and established a number of seigniories similar to
those on the St Lawrence in Lower Canada. At tlie
end of the great American contest, a number of disbanded
troops or banished loyalists, who, in the course of mili-
tary operations, had become acquainted with the Niagara
district, or to whose former residence and habits it was
congenial, accepted grants in it. In 1802, Colonel Tal-
bot having fonned the plan of a settlement on the most
central part of the northern coast of Lake Erie, obtained
from government a grant of 100,000 acres, on condition of
locating a settler upon every 200 ; which condition ho has
successfully fulfilled. From these causes the population
in 1817 had attained to the estimated number of 34,227,
which in 1824 had risen to 55,200, in 1832, to 101,00,5,
and in 1835, to 124,628. The number of cultivated
acres at this latter period was 620,022, of uncultivated,
1,760,820 ; there were of horned cattle 77,930, and of
hoi-ses, 18,430.*

This part of Canada is divided into four districts :
Gore, London, Niagara, and Western.

Gore District rests on the wx»stern shore of Lake
Ontario, whence it extends towards Lake Huron and
Lake Erie, but without reaching either. It is separated

• Bouchette, vol. i. pp. KM?, 92-96. Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 299,
367, 4UG, 455. Ficken, p. 177.

TOrOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

315

•ance ; but in con-

ito four districts

Durlay, vol. ii. p. 21)9,

hy a very irregular boundary from the Home District
and the Indian territory on the north, tlie London on
the west, and Lake Ontiirio and the Niagara District on
the east. Tlie reports as to its soil arc not very distinct
or harmonious ; but it certainly appeal's to contain a
large quantity of good land mixed with sandy tracts, and
occasional swamps. Limestone rocks al)ound ; but of
every other description of stone there is a great want.
The Canada Company, notwithstantHng, having mado
this the chief seat of their operations, and founded
in it their principal town of Guelph, have raised it into
importance. In 1817 it was estimated to have 8614
inhabitants, which mimbor rose in 1824 to 13,157, in
] 8.'}2, to 81 ,820, and in 1 885, to 40,1 5(>. It possessed then
220,428 cultivated acres, and 511,712 uncultivated ;
24,50G horned cattle, and 5287 hoi'ses. It is divided into
two counties, — Halton and Wentworth, — of which the
former, by much the largest, occupies all the northern
and most western portion ; the latter is only a narrow
sirijie on the border of Niagara District.

The front townships of this district extending along
the lake are Trafalgar, population 2730 ; Nelson, 1809 ;
and Flaml)orough, 1398. The soil is generally clay,
with a mixture of sand, and, on the whole, without be-
ing luxuriant, appears to be generally good. Numerous
and rapid streams, many of which are well fitted for
mills, cross it and fall into the lake. Dundas Street
runs through it ; but though the main road of the pro-
vince, it is very rude, and the provision for passing the
numerous currents extremely imperfect. Yet the terri-
tory is fast filling up, and the farms are well cultivated ;
while the dwellings of the inhabitants display much
attention to neatness and comfort. Flaraborough con-
tains an extensive swamp called Coote's Paradise, from
the delight which a keen sportsman of that name found
in shooting the numerous wildfowl by wdiich it is fre-
quented. The town of Dundas lies at the west<^rn ex-
tremity of Burlington Bay and of Lake Ontario. The
situation must be very advantageous ; and the harbour,

I ll

316

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

' 1

rt:

J '■

Tir

which is yet only in its infancy, may, it is s^iid, ])o niado
fit to receive vessels drawing twenty feet of water. Tho
township of Beverley, thoni^h in a line with Flanihorough,
is inhmd, yet contains 1050 settlers.

The second ran^e of townshii)s hear tlic nncouth In-
dian names of Esquesing, with a popuiatiun of 170<);
Nasaf>;iweya, 484 ; and Pasl inch, the inhahitantsof wliicli
are not reported. The soil presents a lari>e proportion
of hlack simd, though mixed with some clay.

The third line has in its eastern rpiarter iM'uniosa, ])o-
pulation 421, and Erin, Oil. Both are covered to a
great extent with the prevailing' surface of hlack sand.
In population and ini})ortance they are nmch inferior to
those now to he noticed.

Guel])h, south-west of Erin, and separated from Lake
Ontario hy Paslinch and Flamhorough, has heen choiticn
hy the Canada Company for the site of their chief
town in the centre of a hlock of 40,000 acres. Uesi)ect-
ing the quality of this land, in which so many interests
are involved, and on which we should have wislied to
give our leaders the most precise information, we are
strangely cmharrassed hy conflicting statements. Ae-
cording to Mr Picken, the Company consider it as ex-
cellent ; and Bouchette, speaking of it in general terms,
says that " it enjoys most of the advantages of the
Huron tract in respect of climate and fertility." Ac-
cording to Mr Ferguson also, " its sitmition and soil are
healthy and good." Mr Shirretf, on the contrary, says,
*' from Gait to GMelph, and in the neighbourhootl of the
latter, the soil is light, composed of sand or gravel, hear-
ing inferior crops^ and, judging from the way- sides, cal-
culated to produce excellent pasturage." A gentlenuui
from Aberdeen, writing in October 1884, says, that " the
land here is both very poor and very dear." Between
such opposite statements, all from quarters respectable
tliough perhaps a little biassed, there seems no choice
but to strike somewhat of a medium. ]Mr Shirreff atl-
mit« that it is well watered, and that clearing was going
on to a considerable extent.

TOrOGIlAlMIY OF UlTKll CANADA.

317

The town of Guelph was founded in 1827 on the
SpiH'd, a branch of the Grand liivcr. Great exertions
were nuuie to raise it to importance ; and aceonUnj; to
M. Houchette, 'n UUJl^itj contained 100 hous<'.s, and 700
or 800 inhahitiints. Ife anticipates a raj>id augmenta-
tion, and exhibits a reguhir plan, according to vviiich its
future extension is to proceed. Mr Ferguson, how-
ever, who visited it soon after, was struck with its
inactive and even descdate aj)pearance ; and thinks it
doubtful whether it will be able to keep its ground,
and escape desertion. The cart appeared to him placed
before the horse, in making a town preei'de instead of
follow the rise of a cultivated neighl)ourhood. We do
not, indeed, see how it could be expected, that a largo
tomi should rise in the heart of the hn.s-h without the
connnand of any navigation, while on Burlington Bay
tliere are as yet only villages. Mr Shirreff, two years
after, describes it as having about fifty houses, only one of
which was of stone. The township in 1833 contained
10(18 individuals ; three places of worship were however
erecting for Christians of different denominations. There
is a good inn, and a large grist-mill.

South-west of Guelph is Waterloo, a township settled
about twenty years ago by a Dutch party, who have
greatly improved it. The soil is a good Siindy loam ; and
the farms, being completely cleared of stumps, in high
order, and bearing excellent crops, reminded Mr Fergu-
son of well-cultivated spots in Britain. They are from
200 to 300 acres in extent, and provided with excellent
offices. The settlers, 2320 in number, derived great
advantage from the employment afforded to them by
the Canada Company during the erection of Guelph.

Dumfries, adjohiing to Waterloo, though belonging
more strictly to the second line, has the advantage of a
rich loamy soil, and consists of 06,000 acres. This town-
sliip was, in 1815-16, purchased entire by Mr DicksoQ,
who has fonned a village, to which he has given the
name of Gait, and has erected in it extensive mills. He
grants liberal credit, and by making, in some cases,

<- L.

•^'i

'ii,

318

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

advances to settlers, has attracted a population of about
2936. A water communication has been opened through
the Grand River to the Welland Canal, and a great
saving is thus effected in the expense of conveying
grain. A few miles from Gait, on the way to Ontario, ia
Paris, so named from the adjoining quarries of gypsum.
This village, lately founded by an enterprising individual,
possesses advantages which promise to raise it to some
importance. Still farther, in the same direction, is Brandt-
ford, so called in honour of Brandt, the celebrated Mo-
hawk chief. It contains about 600 souls, and is expected
to increase, as it lies on the main road to the London and
"Western Districts ; and to facilitate the communication,
a bridge is now erected over the river. The country
round is fertile, and a considerable number of farms have
been purchased or rented from the Indians by European
settlers. Adjoining to Waterloo, in the south-west, is
Wilmot, where the Canada Company have a large block
of land, which they have connected by roads witli
Guelph and Goderich. It is very fertile, and paiily
watered by a stream well adapted for mills. The popu-
lation is 645.

A fourth line of townships consists of Garafraxa,Nichol,
and Woolwich, which last contains 439 inhabitants. The
first has not yet drawn much attention ; but Nichol,
comprising 29,000 acres, appears to be one of the finest
tracts in Canada. The soil consists of a deep, black,
sandy loam, of excellent quality, is generally level, and
well watered by numerous streams, including the Grand
River, which rises a little beyond its border. At one
place it forms picturesque falls, named EUora, well fitted
for mill-machinery, and below which it is navigable for
boats. This township has been chosen by Mr Ferguson
as the seat of his settlement, where he has purchased an
extensive property, a large part of which he cultivates
himself, and has disposed of the rest in lots to other emi-
grants. A considerable number of Scotch farmers, espe-
cially from Aberdeenshire, have been attracted to this
township. Small villages have sprung up at Fergus

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

319

and at the Falls of Ellora. Nichol, in 1833, had only
184 settlers ; but the number must now be greatly in-
creased.

Wentworth county comprises only five townships,
none of them very extensive ; but being either on or near
Burlington Bay, they possess great advantages in point
of situation. Barton, having a population of 1776, and
Saltfleet, 1769, are immediately on the bay ; Binbrook,
335, and Glanford, 653, are behind tliem ; Ancaster,
with 2267 inhabitants, stands to the west. The soil of
the two first is composed of a mixture of sand and
clay ; the former lies chiefly along the shore, the latter
on the heights, — a bold range of which forms the back-
ground of Barton, and commands a magnificent view
of Lake Ontario. This territory is represented as pecu-
liarly fitted for pasturage, though capable also, under
proper management, of yielding full corn crops. The
high road from Toronto to Queenston passes through
both these townships, and is tolerably good. Hamilton,
the county town of Barton, is regularly built, with a
very handsome court-house. As to the lands in the rear
of Binbrook and Glanford, few particulars are known ;
but Mr Shirreff, who passed through them on his way
to the Grand River, describes the soil all along as clay,
of good quality, and well settled. Ancaster, to the
west, is said to be a very fertile township, with conside-
rable tracts of cleared land, and having the road to
Brandtford and Gait passing through it. In its centre
is a straggling village of the same name, delightfully
situated.*

Niagara District, eastward of Gore, forms a penin-
sula enclosed by the bending course of the great water
communication. A part of the southern shore of Lalce
Ontario, the river channel bearing its name, and the
northern border of Lake Erie, form its boundaries, except

i'l

* Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 108, 118, ll!l. Gourlay, vol. ii. pp. 40f?,
382-3lJ!». Tables, 1832, p. <)-Il. Picken, p. 17S.'-181. Cana-
das as they now are, p. il4-88. Ferjruson, pp. 12H-1-2P, 279-282.
ShirrefF, p. 159^71. Counsel for Emigrants, p. 89-92.

I;;! Jrfjl

!' '•

Jli!

!?r:

320

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

on the western side, where an arbitrary line scpartates
it from Gore. The Grand River, in part of its course,
and the Welland, nearly its whole length, run through
this district ; and these important facilities for navigation
have been greatly improved by the canal connecting
Lakes Erie and Ontario. The soil consists mostly of
alluvial clay, mixed often with loam, and sometimes
with sand, and is in general very well fitted either for
grain or pasturage. From the mildness of its climate,
fruits come to higher perfection than in any other part
of Canada ; its apples and peaches are celebrated ; and
grapes are successfully cultivated. A considerable por-
tion, however, is rendered unproductive by swamps, the
draining of which does not yet enter into the sclitme of
Canadian husbandry ; while, amid the great supera-
bundance of water, that article, in a state fitted either
for drinking or for mill-power, is in many places defi-
cient. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, its happy situ-
ation led to its early settlement, chiefly by American
loyalists ; and even in 1817 it was estimated to contain
12,548 inhabitants. Since that period it has more than
doubled its population, which had risen in 1824 to
17,552 ; in 18JJ2 to 24,772 ; and in 1885 to 28,785.
At the latter period, there were 209,763 cultivated
acres, 249,212 uncultivated, 18,499 horned cattle, and
6721 horses. The district is divided into two counties,
— Lincoln and Haldimand ; and the former, which is
much the more important, into four ridings ; but the
townships will be more advantageously considered ac-
cording to their natural division into three lines ; the
first bordering on Lake Ontario, the second on Lake Erie,
and the third being the intermediate or inland one.

The Ontario townships are, Grimsby, population 1614 ;
Clinton, 1572; Louth, 1157; Grantham, 2454; and
Niagara, 31 23. This tract possesses all the advantages of
the territory, with few of its drawbacks. The soil is
generally clay or loam, is well cultivated, has fine farms
and rich orchards, is generally free from swamps, and
abounds in bt autiful scenery. Grimsby is a little town,

CANADA.

trary line separates
1 part of its course,
engtli, run through
'ilitics for navigation
le canal connecting
1 consists mostly of
am, and sometimes
reW fitted either for
Iness of its climate,
n in any other part
ire celebrated ; and
A considerable por-
tive by swamps, tlie
' into the schc me of

the great supera-
a state fitted either
1 many places dcfi-
icks, its happy situ-
liefly by American
stimated to contain
)d it has more than

risen in 1824 to
in 1885 to 28,785.
209,763 cultivated
horned cattle, and

into two counties,
! former, which is
r ridings ; but the
isly considered ac-

three lines ; the
cond on Lake Erie,
or inland one.

population 1614 ;
itham, 2454 ; and

1 the advantages of
)acks. The soil is
ited, has fine farms
rom swamps, and
by is a little town,

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

321

agreeably situated on the lake, with an eminence behind
it, whence a fine mill-stream issues.

The principal places of this township, however, belong
to Niagara. The town of that name, called also Fort-
George and Newark, is advantageously situated at the
point where the great river-channel opens into Lake
Ontario. By this means it has an extensive communica-
tion with Toronto and Kingston, and lies on the chief
Ime by which travellers penetrate into the western dis-
tricts. Being opposite to the territory of the United
States, it is exposed in time of war to hostile attack ; and
in 1813, as we have seen, it was barbarously reduced to
ashes. It was, however, speedily rebuilt, and now con-
tains upwards of 1500 inhabitants. The harbour is good,
and presents a gay scene from the constant arrival and
departure of sloops, barges, and steam-vessels. Two
weekly newspapers are published in it. Queenston, about

ven miles southward, on the border of the township,
'eeably situated at the foot of a bold line of hills
' ung its name, and memorable for the battle in which
General Brock fell. Being the county town, it has a
court-house and government-stores, with between 400
and 500 inhabitants. Surrounded by a fertile and highly-
cultivated country, it has, in its immediate vicinity,
the falls of Niagara. St David's is a small village, four
miles to the westward, on one of the roads from Toronto
to Lake Erie.

The middle and inland range consists of Stamford,
population 1493 ; Thorold, 2052 ; Pelham, 1106 ; Gains-
borough, 292, and Claistor, 829. All these have the ad-
vantage of being traversed by the Welland,orChippeway,
but in other respects they differ greatly. Stamibrd, the
most easterly, has a soil of sand, loam, or clay, the greater
part of which is well fitted for grain, pasture, and orchard,
and is in a high state of cultivation. It lies on the
Niagara, the great falls of which, already described, at-
tract durmg the season crowds of visiters. At the
mouth of the Chippeway is a village bearing the same
name, with about 200 inhabitants. Thorold, towards the

VOL. I.

'{:

■1^

322

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

west, has a soil of strong' clay, j^enerall y productive and
well cultivated ; with the advantage of being traversed
by the Welland river and canal. St Catherine's is a
rising place, situated on the highest ground between tho
lakes, and on the main road from Grimsby to Queenston.
Pelham, the next, is likewise a good township, though
a considerable portion is either broken and hilly, or light
and sandy ; it is, however, well watered and suppHcd
with mills. The two most western, Gainsborough and
Claistor, are extremely wet, and in some places marshy ;
and being also ill supplied wuth the means of convey-
ance, the settlement upon them has been very limited.
Two small townships, southward of this line, but not
reaching Lake Erie, are Willoughby, population 569, and
Crowland, 841. The former, though well situated on
the Niagara, has a cold soil of hard clay, and wants good
water. The second, on the Welland, has the same dis-
advantages, though not in an equal degree ; Lyon's
Creek affords a good situation for a mill.

The line of townships on Lake Erie consists of Bertie,
population2159 ;Humberstonc,1554 ; andWainfleet,842.
The first, with a soil of clay and black loam, being con-
tiguous to the Niagara and Lake Erie, and having good
roads, is well settled. At the junction of the lake and
river stands Fort Erie, on the opposite side of which are
Black Rock and Buffalo, the latter of which has become
very flourishing, from being placed at the termination of
the Great New York Canal. Humberstone is in part
similar, but has a large portion wet, swampy, and even
covered by two extensive marshes, called Cranberry and
Tamarack. The same description applies also to Wain-
lieet, which however has the advantage of being crossed
by the Welland Canal. The county of Haldimand
extends a great way north-west, along the lower course
of the Ouse or Grand River. It is included in the great
Indian reserve ; but this has not prevented part of it
from being leased or purchased by Europeans. The
larger portion is marshy, and neai'ly uninhabitable. It
forms two townships, — Moulton, of wliich the popuk-

'■■- '•*.,

I )

CANADA.

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

323

tion is 528 ; and Camborougli, the inhabitants of which
have not been reported.*

London District is very extensive, resting on the shore
of Lake Erie, and stretching thence northwards to the
Indian territory. On tlie east it has Gore and Niagara,
on the opposite side Lake Huron and Western District.
Besides the portion divided at an early period into
counties and districts, there has lately been added the
large block of 1,100,000 acres on Lake Huron, pur-
chased by the Canada Company. This last tract is of
exuberant and almost unequalled fertility, labouring
under no disadvantage, except the great distance either
by land or water, by which its productions must be con-
veyed to market. The old portion is decidedly inferior,
and a large tract in the south-east, called the Long Point
Country, presents a sandy surface, resembling hi some
places the desert of Arabia. It does not, however, deter
settlers, who, from its being very thinly timbered, find
no trouble in the clearing, and succeed in raising one or
two crops of tolerably good wlie^.., though, as it is then
quite exhausted, they must change their position.
The other parts are much better, being interspersed at
least with fertile tracts ; and since the formation of the
Welland, Rideau, and Erie Canals, the evils of its remote
situation are in a great measure obviated. From its inland
districts, roads now lead to Lake Erie, and some of them
even approach to Lake Ontario. The settlement of this
district was commenced in 1802, along the Erie shore, by
Colonel Talbot, who made extraordinary exertions to
form roads and invite emigrants ; yet in 1817 its popu-
lation was only estimated at 8900. But its progrtc'=^ in
this respect has since been rapid. In 1824 it had nearly
doubled, amounting to 17,539, which in 1832 had ad-
vanced to 38,225, and in 1835 to 41,241. There were then
144,270 cultivated acres, and 718,606 uncultivated ;
26,400 horned cattle, and 4963 horses. The province is

i '

* Bouchette, vol. i. p. 98-110. Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 417-455.
Picken, p. 184-187. Canadas as they now are, pp. 83-88, !»li,

fif'

324

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

' :,i

divided into three counties, — Norfolk, Oxford, and Mid-
dlesex, the two first of which compose the eastern por-
tion, and the third the western.

Norfolk contains, on the borders of the lake, the
townships of Rainham, Walpole, Woodhouse, Charlotte-
ville, Walsingham, and Houghton, with the peninsular
tracts of Turkey Point and Long- Point. In the rear it
lias Middleton, Windham, and Townsend ; and, in gene-
ral, presents the sandy and barren aspect already describ-
ed. This, however, is less conspicuous in the immediate
vicinity of the lake, where there is a good deal of argil-
laceous soil advantageously situated ; but in the interior
portions of the district, the defect becomes more appa-
rent. Dover, in the township of Woodhouse, and Cliar-
lotteville, near Turkey Point, with Vittoria, live miles
north of it, on the road to Ancaster, are the only places
in this county that can rank even as villages.

Oxford, northward of the county now described, con-
sists of the townships of Burford, Oakland, Norwich,
Dereham, Oxford, Blandford, Blenheim, Nissouri, and
Zorra. It is entirely inland, but watered by the upper
part of the Thames, here indeed scarcely navigable ;
it is traversed from east to west by Dundas Street,
the main road from Toronto, wdiich opens a communi-
cation wdtli Lake Ontario. The soil is described gene-
rally, in very favourable terms, as consisting of fertile
loam, intermixed with sand or clay. It has accordingly
attracted a considerable proportion of settlers, several
of whom, from Scotland, have made purchases in
Blenheim and Zorra, of which good accounts are trans-
mitted. Oxford, the county town, is situated on the
Thames, near the w^estern border.

Middlesex, the remaining county, divides itself na-
turally into two parts, the townships on Lake Erie, and
those on the Thames. The former are Bayham, Mala-
hide, Yarmouth, Southwold, Dunwich, and Aldborough.
This is the settlement formed by Colonel Talbot, who,
in addition to its natural advantage of bordering on the
lake, has, as already mentioned, formed a road, and

CANADA.

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

.325

rmed a road, and

established a numerous body of colonists. The soil is
loam and clay, and generally excellent ; an opinion
from which Mr Shirreff somewhat dissents, in regard
at least to the small portion that came under his view.
The occupiers are described as not rich, and labouring
under great difficulties, owing to their distance from
market ; but these will be much diminished by the
opening of the new canals. The colonel's residence is in
Dunwich, on an eminence above the lake, surrounded
by a garden and a considerable extent of cleared ground.
The best harbour is Port Stanley, at the mouth of Kettle
Creek, in Yarmouth district ; and a little way inland, is
St Thomas, wliich in three years has increased from
thirteen to fifty houses, and contains three good inns.

The interior part of this county, on the river Thames,
consists of the townships of London, Dorchester, Dela/-
ware, Westminster, Lobo, Caradoc, Ekfrid, and Mosa.
The surface is gently undulating, and the soil in general
favourably reported ; though Mr SliirrefF considers it
decidedly inferior to the Huron tract, and also to that
on the Lower Thames in Western District. That river,
in passing through it, is navigable only for boats,
and the productions conveyed to its mouth must after-
wards be transported through the Lakes St Clair and
Erie, which forms a very circuitous outlet. A consider-
able number of settlers have, however, been attracted
thither, consisting partly of slaves and people of colour
from the United States, to whom of late many emigrants
have been added. The township of London, which in 1817
contained only two families, includes now the county
town, which has even been contemplated as the future
capital of this part of Canada. In fact, it is rapidly
rising into importance, having a handsome court-house,
four large hotels, well-filled stores, and many houses in
progress. Delaware, farther down the river, is only a
village of seven or eight houses.

The Huron tract consists of an extensive territory on
the eastern shores of the lake of that name, and imme-
diately northward of the original part of London Dis-

i );

■»,i

m^ I

• II

326

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

trict. The surface is level, and the soil is admitted
on all hands to be of almost unrivalled fertility, l)cing
fine clay under a covering of hlack vegetable mould.
The tract has been surveyed and divided into the town-
ships of Colbornc, Hullett, M'Killop, Logan, Ellicc,
Nortli and South Easthope, Downie, Fullarton, llib-
l)ert, Tucker-Smith, Biddulph, Stephen, Usborue, lilan-
chard, Bosanquet, Williams, M*Gillivray, Stanley, Kay,
and Goderich. The last of these places, and the route
thither, form the only quarter in which any material
settlement has yet been effected.

The town of Goderich is situated on an eminence
above the lake, at the point where it receives a con-
siderable river named the Maitland. The Company have
planned it on a very extensive scale, as the future capi-
tal of the district, and a place of rising importance. Mr
ShirrefF, however, the latest visitant^ represents it as
still composed only of about forty mean wooden houses,
scattered irregularly over a considerable sjDace. The
harbour, which had been represented as fitted for vessels
of 200 tons, would admit none, he conceived, except
those of the smallest dimensions ; and the river, where
it enters the lake, could not, in the end of August, float
a canoe. The original settlers, who were very poor, and
of indifferent character, had all been removed except one,
and their place supplied by a better class of occupants.*

Western District, which concludes our description
of Upper Canada, forms a peninsula, a counterpart as it
were of that of Niagara, though on a larger scale. It is
similarly enclosed between Lake Erie, the Lake and
River St Clair, and the southern coast of Lake Huron.
Besides these extensive waters, it is traversed by the
lower course of the Thames, navigable for schooners
fifteen miles up, and by a smaller stream called
Big Bear Creek. The surface is level, and even low,
and the soil, to a great extent, of most luxuriant fcr-

* Gourlay, vol. ii. p. 357. Bouchette, vol. i. pp. 108, 117- Picken,
p. iy2-l})fi. Canadas as tliey now are, p. 94-99. Sliirreff, pp. 1/-!
181, 189.

CANADA.

> were very poor,

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA. 327

tility. This is particularly conspicuous on the upper
part of the two streams just mentioned ; for as they
approach their estuary in Liike St Clair, their banks
become what the Americans call prairie, or moist mea-
dow-land, destitute of trees, and covered with long ricli
grass, but scarcely fitted for grain. Cultivation might
here be greatly extended by draining, but it seems
doubtful whether the return would yet pay the ex-
pense. The fine soil and climate early attracted a party
of French habitans, who settled on the banks of the
Detroit ; and after the American war, a body of exiled
loyalists was located l)ehind them. This pre-occupation
of the most desirable spots, added to the inconvenience
of distance, has prevented it from attracting recent
immigrants, and from attaining a population propor-
tioned to its natural advantages. As the early settlers
are little imbued with the spirit of modern enterprise,
and content with a bare subsistence, the country wears,
on the whole, an unimproved appearance. It must
soon receive an impulse, however, from the new commu-
nication by canals and steam- vessels ; and the Canada
Company have undertaken the settlement of consider-
able districts. Indeed, the progress already made
is by no means inconsiderable. In 1817 Mr Gourlay
reckoned the population at 4158 ; in 1824 it had risen to
6952; in 1882 to 11,788; and in 1835 to 14,496. At the
last date it contained 39,561 cultivated, and 281,290 un-
cultivated acres ; 8525 horned cattle, and 2459 horses.
It is divided into two counties, — Kent and Essex. As
to the townships, we possess not the minute details
afforded by the official reports on the other districts ;
but Mr Shirreff 's careful survey will in a great measure
supply this want.

Kent contains fourteen townships, of which Orford,
Howard, Harwich, Raleigh, Tilbury East, and Romney,
are situated between Lake Erie and the Thames ; Dover,
East and West, Chatliam, Camden, and Zone lie to
the northward of that river, and along Bear Creek ;
Adelaide, Warwick, Brooke, Plymton, Inniskillen,
Moore, St Clair, Dawn, and Sombra, reach from the

fl2R

TOPOGRAPHY OF UPPER CANADA.

latter to Lake Huron. The soil on the Thames round
Chatham is a heavy loam, compounded of strong clny
and sand, and of the very finest quality. That on Boar
Creek is nearly as good ; and large tracts of the richest
land may still be purchased at a very moderate price.
The want of fall and the defective machinery in the mills,
still deteriorate the quality of the flour. To the north-
wards, is a large extent of crown lands, till lately unoccu-
pied. In 1832, when 36,000 emigrants amved in Upper
Canada, for whom employment could not be found,
Sir John Colborne laid out the townships of Adelaide
and Warwick, which were quickly colonized. To these
have since been added, Brooke, Inniskillen, Plymton,
and Moore. Chatham in a twelvemonth had increased
from five or six to nearly twenty houses ; and there is
every likelihood of its continuing to prosper, as steam-
vessels can ascend to it. On the lower part of the
Thames, as it approaches the lake, the ground becomes
exceedingly moist, and is also to a considerable extent
rather poor. Soutliward is a large prairie, still uncul-
tivated, but yielding rich pasturage on its margin ; and
the townships between the Thames and Lake Erie are
described as generally very fertile, having a soil similar
to that round Chatham. Point aux Pins, or Landguard,
in the township of Harwich, lies on a bay with good an-
chorage, and forms a centre where different roads meet.
The county of Essex, the most western part of the
district, is a peninsula, enclosed between Lake St Clair,
Detroit Channel, and Lake Erie. On the margin of
the latter it has the townships of Mersey, Gosfield,
Colchester, Maiden ; and on St Clair are West Tilbury,
Rochester, Maidstone, Sandwich. This last and Maiden
are bounded on the west bv the Detroit, on the banks of
which is the Huron reserve. The soil of the countv is
variable, but includes much rich land, consisting of black
loam on a clay bottom, fitted for the cultivation of hemp
and tobacco, the growth of which last has been greatly
extended. The original settlers, as already observed,
on the first line along Detroit and St Clair, were French
colonists ; behind them were American loj'alists ; and a

CANADA.

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

329

considerable number of negroes from the States have
more recently found refuge tlu;re. According to Mr
ShiiTeff, tlie townships of Tilbury and Mersey are coin-
])osed of alternate clay and sand, with a prei)onderance
of the lighter substance. Gosficld is distinguished from
all the rest by an undulating surface, and a gravelly soil,
not of the first quality. Here Messrs Calhoun and Field
have established a rude but extensive iron- work, from a
productive species of l)Og-ore. It is ex])ected to consume
annually the coke from 200 acres of forest, and in re-
turn for this substance they undertake to clear any
neighbouring proprietor's ground. Colchester and Mai-
den are for the most part sand alternating with thin
clay ; but the soil of the latter, in approaching Am-
herstburg, is of very fine quality. A mile beyond tliat
place, the Huron reserve stretches seven miles along
the Detroit, and the same distance inland. To the ex-
tent of four miles the banks are about twenty feet
high, of rich clay, and extremely beautiful. The
Indians do not now exceed ten or twelve families,
who profess Christianity, cultivate orchards, and rear
large herds of fine cattle. The British government have
purchased some part of this reserve, and it is said they
are desirous of possessing the whole. The more north-
ern portion, which sinks to the level of the river, is
swampy, and overgrown with aquatic plants. The soil
continues inferior till beyond Sandwich, when it again
becomes fertile ; and it is occupied by French settlers in
their usual style, in long narrow stripes, facing the
water, and completely cleared of wood. In the approach
to Lake St Clair, the ground is once more low and
swampy, but contains some tolerable soil intermixed
with prairie. M. Bouchette anticipates its speedy settle-
ment ; but this, according to Mr ShirrefF, has as yet
taken place only to a very inconsiderable extent.

Amherstburg, near the junction of the Detroit with
Lake Erie, is the principal town in this part of Canada ;
and its situation is allowed to be equal to any in the
world for picturesque beauty. This distinction is pro-
duced, not by the usual objects which constitute magni-

I r

I \'\

i'l

i i.i

' !

330

TOPOGRAPHY OP UPPER CANADA.

ficent scenery, hut by the wide expanse of clear and
pclhicid waters surrouiidiiifj: it, the rich hrilliancy of
tlie vegetation, and tlie protiisijn of fine orchards, of
which ahnost every inliahit»vnt has one. The town,
iKJCording to Houchette, contains a])()ut 200 dwcdlint^H,
and 1200 inhal)itants. It is said to be reguhirly hiiilt,
but the houses, with a few exceptions, are only of
wood, and not very Iiandsonie. The niilit^iry works
and dockyard were demolished in 1813, but have btiii
partly restored. Fort Maiden, about half a mile dis-
tant, is of very little conse([uence. The trade of Ani-
herstburg is not at present progressive ; but as vessels
of any magnitude can touch at its i)ier, it must, at no
distant period, derive benefit from the extension of sct-
th'ment and steam navigation. Sandwich, fourteen inilos
higher up the stream, contains 140 or 150 houses, and
eaajoys some importtmce as the county town. It consists
of an irregular street running along the beach, mostly
inhabited by French. The trade is more limited than
that of Amherstburg, and equally stationary. About a
mile and a half above, however, is the fcp'y where there
are fifteen or twenty houses, the numbei of which is
Increasing ; and on the opposite bank, belonging to tlie
United States, is the town of Detroit, which is consider-
ably larger than any on the British side of the river.*

The following is a summary of the statistics of this
interesting province, brought down to 1835 : —

Districts.

I'opula-
tion.

A»iipssment
Actes ciilti- Acres unculti- of Id. per Horses,
vated. 1 vateil. pound ou
1 proi>erty. i

Horned <iri^t >'nv
Cattle. Milln- Mi""'

i 1

Johnstown
Eastern. .
iQttawa . .
Batlmrst.
Midland..
Newcastle
Home... .

Gore

Niagara ..

London. .

Western..

Total..

29,119
28,.504
7,044
22,(593
4(5,(585
;iO,245
47,543
40,156
28,735
41,241
14,496

70.645J

82,813

16,.354i

57,197

1}{7,338

94,419

179,518

226,428

209,763

144,270

39,561

355,071^

331,134

110,2884

a53,362"

358,214

434,-526

(590,753

511,712

249,212

718,(506

281,2J»0

£ i

169{)-10 6148

1490*13 3924

443-10 748

810-14 1541

3113-14 85.5(>

1559-17 3.339

2465-12 6(»49

2407- 6 5287

2210-16 5721

3083-17, 4963

922- 1 2469

13,119

16,338
3,.525
12,4.59
24,5.35
15,.3(57
28,732
24,50(J
18,499
26,4'!0
8,i;25

19
30
(5
26
47
2(5
51
35

45
13

.3(5
4(5
1(5
2)j
111
7(5

l.'iO
113

!»;)
1())(

33(5, 4«)1

l,308..307i 4,394,169

20,207- 9 47,729

192,005

328

* Bouchette, p 105-108 Tables, 1832, p. 9-11. Gourlay, vol. ii.
299. Shirreff, p. 192-216.

I .

ANADA.

aiiae of cloar and
rich brilliancy of
fine orchards, of
one. Tho town,
lit 200 (hvcllintrs,
)(• r(<,ailurly l.uilt,
iony, are only of
le military works
•J, hut have hein
half a mile dis-
^riie trade of Ani-
ve ; but as vessels
ier, it must, at no
! extension of set-
ieh, fourteen miles
or 150 liouses, and
town. It consists
the beach, mostly
more limited than
tionary. About a
fcr^y where there
imbei of Avhicli is
, ])elon^ing to the
which is considcr-
de of the river.*
s statistics of this
1835 :—

AORICULTUIIE OF CANADA.

331

Horse a.

Horned firii-t '"'nw

Cattle. Mills. MiUk.

5148

13,119 19

3<;

3924 1(),33« 30

46"

748 3,525 ()•

1«

1541 12,459 2«

2«

8550 24,535 47

111

.-^39 15,3(57 2(J

7(;

ti(U9: 28,732 51

151)

5287

24,500 35 113

5721

18.499| 30 m 1

49()3

2(),4'.'() 45

11 »l

2459

8,i;^5 13

7,729

192,005 328

■11. Gourlay, vol. ii.

CHAPTKU Vir.

Agriculture of Canada.

Local Pooullaritiea — The (Miniate — The unhroken Forest — Mode
of Clearing— Ashes— Soil indicated by tho Timber — First Crops
— Wheat — Other Grains — Grasses, Fla ^ , Hemp, Tobacco — Live
Stock, Quality and Treatment — Horwculture—Florimlture —
Maple Siijrar — Ajrricultural Processes — Hunting a .d Siiootinjf
— Fishery.

In Canada, as in all other new countries, especially ■ • ucn
blessed with a fertile soil, agriculture is the m - ,t im-
portiuit l)rancli of human labour. Hero t^;-^ viidustry of
man, seconded by the powers of nature, oro( 'ices, with
much less of exertion and of costly iiiachincry, a far
higher amount of desirable and useful commodities, than
when, as in the department of the mechanical arts, he
works alone. Even the United States, thcnigh they have
made greater progress in wealth and population than
the British colonies, have in vain attempted, by the most
impolitic prohibitions, to ])ecome a manufacturing nation,
and to render themselves independent of foreign supply.
Though we do not, in this wo "k, undertake to instruct
the emigrant in the general p.- iples of agiiculture, we
may nevertheless confer a favour upon him, by pointing
out certain peculiarities coruected with the practice of it
in the Canadian province ..

The climate is one particular by which its operations
must be greatly modified. It differs, as formerly ob-
served, in having much longer and severer winters, and
on the other hand, much hotter summers, than are known
in Britain or France. The extraordinary warmth of the
latter season, notwithstanding its short duration, is suf-
ficient to ripen the most valuable grains, including even

■;: I

' 1

■

^Hi ';

■h.

-L

a32

AGKTCULTURE OF CANADA.

Indian corn and other species which cannot be brought
to maturity in England. On the other hand, the great
length of the winter involves the farmer in much in-
convenience. He is obliged to crowd into the space of
six, or at most seven months, all the operations which,
with us, can be continued almost without interruption
throughout the year. While he is condemned, during
one season, to unwelcome indolence, in the next his va-
rious labours follow each other with harassing rapidity.
He must employ a greater number of servants ; and it is
a serious disadvantage tliat the cattle employed on the
farm must be provided with good housing, and a large
stock of food during the long winter. These are difficult
arrangements for new settlers ; and if, as too often hap-
pens, they are not duly attended to, the animals either
perish, or are reduced to a very weak condition.

Another weighty obstacle to be encountered by the
colonist in this territory arises from the vast forest
with which almost the whole of it is covered. On taking
possession, he does not find a spot on which a crop of
any description can be raised, or where even a sheep
could feed. To level with the ground, and root out
myriads of trees that have stood for ages, seems a task
beyond human power ; and no instiniment or process
has yet been found efficacious, except the axe applied
successively to each. At first, attempts were made to
grub up the trees, and clear the surface at once. This
labour, however, was found very great, and utterly
useless, even breaking up the soil in an injurious
manner. The established plan, therefore, now is, after
removing the brushwood, to cut round the trunk, at a
few feet from the ground, till it shakes and falls with a
tremendous crash. "When this takes place, the axeman
must make his escape with the utmost agility, other-
wise he may sustain a serious accident ; and many settlers,
in their first operations, have met with such. When
tlie tree is thus brought to the ground, the branches
must be separated from it, and the trunk cut into logs of
ten or twelve feet in length ; and after the wood of two

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

333

or three acres has been reduced to this state, a day is
fixed for consuming it, when the whole being drawn by
oxen into huge piles, is soon reduced to ashes by the
application of fire. The neighbours, when called upon,
usually assist on this occasion, which is called " a logging
bee."

The visiter from England, wlio has been accustomed
to regard rows or rlunps of trees as both agreeable and
highly ornamental, sees with surprise how completely
they have been swept away from the inhabited spots in
Canada. The French on their grounds have not left one ;
and though the English immigrants find difficulty in
clearing as much as they could wish, all the land near their
liOases is completely denuded. The axe of the chopper
levels all before him. " Man appears to contend with
the trees of the forest as though they were his most
obnoxious enemies, for he spares neither the young sap-
ling in its greenness nor the ancient trunk in its lofty
pride ; he wages war against the forest with fire and
steel." Besides the settler's aversion to objects that so
much obstruct his operations, there are serious objections
to allowing them to remain singly or in rows. The
trees stand so thick together, tb.at neither their roots nor
branches have had room to spread. They accordingly
shoot up to a great height, with little hold in the earth,
and with scarcely any foliage, so that when left single
they are neither beautiful, nor able to withstand the vio-
lent gusts of wind to which the country is subject ; hence
their sudden fall might be attended with much injury.
As, however, a considerable quantity of timber must
be preserved for fuel and other purposes, attention might
be paid to dispose it in groves or little clumps in a
picturesque and agreeable manner. The trees which
should be preserved are maple for making sugar ; beech
and white ash for firewood ; oak, cedar, and hemlock
spruce for fences ; and other hard kinds for ashes, from
wliich soap may be made.*

— — __« — — ■— ■-'■ — ■ ■ ' -- ■ .1 ■ , ... . ■■■, „ ■- , .^v

• Evans' Emijrrant's Guide (12mo, Dublin, 1833), pp. 88, 92, U3.

I- ii

334

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

iri

A lighter mode of clearing, strongly recommended
by Mr Pickering, especially where the trees stand at
some distance from each other, is girdling. According
to this method, rings are cut round the trunk, completely
through the bark, so as to prevent the rising of the sap,
in consequence of which they gradually wither. In a
few years they begin to fall, and after six or seven can
be easily removed. Meantime the under bnishwood
may be cut or burnt, and crops raised between the trees.
A great deal of labour is thus saved at the beginning ;
yet the practice is not generally approved, at least where
the forest is at all dense. Light and air are thus in-
tercepted ; the falling trees are found to injure both
animals and fences, and the final clearing is rendered
more tedious.

Several writers recommend the manufacture of ashes
from the burnt wood as an important article of com-
merce. The hard species are the most productive. Beech
is reckoned the best, and hickory, elm, oak, and maple,
stand next in the scale of value. The ashes must be
kept under cover and dry till they can be sent to the
manufactory ; for the settler, amid his numerous avoca-
tions, could scarcely undertake to work them up him-
self. Mr Gould reckons that an acre should yield on
the average 10 cwt. worth from 12s. Gd. to 15s. the cwt.
Could this be depended upon, clearing, instead of being
a heavy burden, would be a most profitable occupation ;
but the estimate, which we suspect to have been from
the first too flattering, is admitted to be no longer ap-
plicable. It is now found that soda and other salts can
by chemical improvements be made to answer the pur-
pose^ )f wood-ashes in bleaching, glass-making, and other
processes ; and as these can be produced at a low rate,
the latter, in order to find a market, must accommodate
itself to the diminished value. Mr Magrath states the
price at from fourpence to sixpence the bushel, and was

Backwoods of Canada (IPmo. London, 183fi), pp. 192, 292. Ma-
g^rath's Letters, p. liiJ-lGO. Gouid's Practical Advice to Emigrants
(^ London, 1834), p. HL

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

335

er SIX or seven can

informed that the average produce ought to be about
sixtv bushels. This conclusion, he adds, was not con-
firmed by his own experience, but he imputes the failure
to his land being lightly timbered. As however, not-
withstanding the vast clearing which has recently taken
place in Upper Canada, thert has been no increase in
the exportation of this article, it would appear that the
asheries have not extended themselves to the new dis-
tricts. As a proof of this, we do not generally find
them considered as a resource for the new colonist, or
capable of being turned to any account but for making
soap, or being used as manure. It seems advisable for
the settler, however, to make inquiry into this subject ;
for such a manufacture, it is obvious, would raise the
value of well- wooded land.

Where a property, in course of being cleared, can com-
municate by water-carriage with any town or large vil-
lage, the timber fit for building, or even for fuel, acquires
a considerable value. Even in the bush, if there be a
saw-mill in the neighbourhood, logs are taken in ex-
cliange for planks, which are necessary for the construc-
tion of comfortable houses.*

Canadian writers generally consider that the quality
of the soil is made known by the trees which grow upon
it ; and the best indication is said to be afforded by the
species which go under the general appellation of hard-
wood, or those which siied their leaves during the
winter. We find enumerated, maple, basswood, elm,
])lack walnut, hickory, butternut, iron-wood, hemlock,
with a large species of nettle. A mixture of beech is
considered good ; but the land on which it is the sole
tree is generally light. Oak is the most uncertain,
being found on a good bottom, as well as on that of a sandy
description. On the other hand, soft wood, bearing
evergreen leaves, and consisting chiefly of fir and other
pine species, is said to give decided intimaaon of a very

* Pickering's Guide to Emigrants, p. 159. Magrath, pp. ICiJ,
1G4. Gould, p. t)2-t)4. Backwoods, p. 21)2. Sliirretf; p. 5/0.

" ill

!ii; I

i, i

336

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

light soil. The larch or tamarack, on wide flat plains,
indicates sand upon a substratum of marly clay, which,
when drained, is extremely good ; but this operation in
in general too laborious for the immigrant. The French
Canadians, we are informed, hold this species of land as
one of the best. Mr Evans considers a surface where all
these trees are mingled together as very valuable, and
likely to be fitted for every kind of produce. Yet these
inferences, which seem to be founded on just observa-
tion, are disputed by Mr Shirreif, who denies that any
indication whatever can be drawn from the qualities of
the timber. As, however, he stands completely alone, and
was not long resident in the country, we incline to think
he must be mistaken ; but, on a point so very momentons,
we concur with him in advising the purchaser to snper-
add a diligent examination with the spade, both of the
soil and subsoil.

After the trees, with the exception of the stumps,
have been cleared from the ground, no farther prepara-
tion is necessary for putting in a crop. The seed requires
only to be scattered on the surface, and a harrow drawn
over it ; and wheat is the grain most usually conniiitted
to such virgin soil. Very flattering reports have been
made as to the produce which may be expected in such
circumstances, and which has been estimated at forty or
fifty bushels, or even more. This however is now ge-
nerally admitted to be an exaggeration. Considering
that nearly one-fourtli of the land is still occupied by
stumps, that the growing corn does not enjoy the full
benefit of light and air, and is often liable to smut,
Mr Shu-reff^ conceives that it will not exceed eighteen
bushels an acre. The reports also of the soil continuing
to bear the most valuable crops for a series of years
without intermission, appear to be realized only under
very peculiar circumstances. According to Mr Talbot,
a good second crop, though not equal to the first, may he
obtained with the aid merely of the harrow ; but after
this, corn is not in general raised without the use of the
plough. As, however, the stumps cannot be removed

A.DA.

Oil wide flat plains,
marly clay, which,
lit this operation ia
^rant. The French
s species of land as
s a surface where all
very valuable, and
iroduce. Yet these
!d on just observa-
ho denies that any
'om the qualities of
mpletely alone, and
we incline to think
so very momentous,
purchaser to super-
spade, both of the

ion of the stumps^,
no farther prcpara-
The seed requires
nd a harrow drawn
, usually committed
reports have been
>e expected in such
;tim.ated at forty or
lowever is now ac-
tion. Considering
s still occupied by
not enjoy the full
en liable to smut,
)t exceed eighteen
the soil contmuing
■ a series of years
jalized only under
ing to Mr Talbot,
,0 the first, may be
harrow ; but after
lout the use of the
annot be removed

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

337

for seven or eight years, the prevailing practice in Upper
Canada, till that process has been accomplished, is to lay
the field down in grass ; and this plan is recommended
by good authorities. It may even be necessary for the
settler, who can command only his own personal labour,
and has stUl large portions to clear : but, in the case
of one who can afford to hire servants, it appears an un-
profitable system ; for it confines him to the rearing of
sheep and cattle, the least advantageous branch of Cana-
dian husbandry. Several writers, indeed, represent it
as impossible to carry on any other, while such obstruc-
tions remain ; but others, better and longer acquainted
with the country, assure us, that these oppose no very
serious obstacles to culture, the plough being able with
little difficulty to pass between them, as they are usu-
ally at least twenty feet distant from each other. This
plan has also the advantage, that by the loose state in
which it keeps the ground, the stumps may be rooted
out sooner than from the more compact surface of a
grass field. When their removal is efi^ected, the plough
can move, though not without some attention, over the
whole, and the ground is then considered in a state of
regular cultivation.*

The ground having been thus cleared of timber, the
question arises, what crops can be most advantageously
raised upon it. Soil and climate are the two particulars
which nature places in the hand of the agriculturist, and
according to which his operations must be modified. The
soil of the upper, and of all the settled part of the lower
province, may rank with the most favoured on the globe.
The absence of mountain and rock, on such a scale as to
interfere with cultivation, scarcelv exists elsewhere over
a similar extent of country. Light and sandy soils or
swamps almost alone interrupt the general fertility ; and
these, from the detailed local survey already taken, will
appear not to be very extensive, and perhaps in few

* Evans, pp. 73, 95. IMatrrath, pp. 88, 89. Backwoods, pp. 194,
195. Shirreff, p. 370. TalboVs Five Years' Residence in the Cana-
das (2 vols 8vo, London, 1824), vol. u. p. 200-202.

VOL. I. X

1 t.

338

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

cases wholly irreclaimable. It is calculated that there
is a greater proportion of wheat soil in the Canadas than
in England ; and that, if this valuable grain were culti-
vated in tlie latter country in the same defective manner
as m these provinces, it could not be of much value.

Climate, which forms the other important particular,
wears at first view a less favourable aspect. A region
which, for several months, and in some districts for more
than half the year, remains buried in frost and snow,
may well be supposed unfriendly to vegetation. As al-
ready observed, however, the strong steady heat of sum-
mer counteracts almost completely this chilling influence,
and matures with surprising rapidity the most valuable
plants. Mr Evans has had wheat in ear nine weeks
after it was sown. Even the violent alternations of frost
and thaw, of snow and rain, instead of injuring vegetation,
are found to pulverize and soften the soil, and thus render
it more fertile with less culture. The great steadiness
of the summer weather exempts plants from sundry
vicissitudes which they undergo in a more changeable
climate. From these causes, the annuals suited to a
temperate region grow in Canada to full perfection ; and
as these include the grains fitted for bread, the food most
essential to man, she has little cause to envy any other
country.

In regard to wheat, indeed, the chief of those vegeta-
bles, this observation must be somewhat restricted. Its
j)lants are so far biennial, that to acquire the very first
quality they must be sown during the preceding autumn.
Yet this course has not been found safe in Lower Canada,
where wheat must be treated as an annual, sown in spring,
and reaped before the end of the year. The defect iis
owing, not to the rigour of the winter, still less to the
depth of snow, which, on the contrary, is found to pT'o-
tect and cherish vegetable growth, but is ascrib(jd to
severe frosts, violent and chilling rains, occurring after
the snow has left the ground, and the plants have made
some progress. An opinion is entertained, that with good
management, hitherto much wanting, autumn wheat

IDA.

culated that there
1 the Canadas than
->, grain were cuUi-
c defective manner
of much value,
portaut particular,

aspect. A region
le districts for more
in frost and snow,
vegetation. As al-
steady heat of sum-
s chilling influence,
r the most valuable

in ear nine weeks
alternations of frost
injuring vegetation,
soil, and thus render
Che great steadiness
plants from sundry

a more changeable
mnuals suited to a
full perfection ; and
bread, the food most
e to envy any other

lief of those vcgeta-
wliat restricted. Its
quire the very first
e preceding autumn,
do in Lower Canada,
nual,sown in spring,
^ear. The defect is
ter, still less to the
ary, is found to p^f^-
, hut is ascrib(^d to
ains, occurring after
le plants have made
lined, that with good

ing, autumn wheat

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

339

might bo raised with success. The British American
Land Company have decidedly adopted this idea, and
some successful experiments have been made. Mr Evans,
however, is of opinion that from the above causes, unless
in some favoured situations, it must always be an un-
safe crop, and peculiarly liable to disease. He had once
autumn and spring wheats growing on the same field,
when although the first was completely ruined by rust
and mildew, the other proved excellent. He seems to
apprehend, therefore, that Lower Canada must be content
with her good spring growth. It is said, however, to
require a soil more minutely pulverized ; while the grain
produced contains a greater proportion of gluten, and is
thus harder and more difficult to grind. In Upper
Canada, autumn wheat is raised without difficulty.

Barley is well suited to the climate, and on well-
prepared soils the produce is found very little inferior to
that in England. The square or four-rowed species is
generally cultivated, as the most productive, and not
objected to by the brewer, though the two-rowed or long-
eared brings a higher price, and has been partially intro-
duced. Oats have not hitherto been prosperous in either
of the Canadas, as the intense heat of summer is apt to
dry the panicles, which then do not convey sufficient
nourishment to the ears. It is alleged, however, that by
eai-ly sowing and other precautions the evil might be
obviated. This grain in fact has been much neglected
and underrated. Rye, so much a favourite in the north
of Europe, is cultivated here, but only for the distilleries.
Maize or Indian corn, the only important farinaceous
plant peculiar to the new world, is the tallest, and yields
tlie largest bulk of all this description of plants. The
grain, though very productive, affi)rding from 30 to 70
bushels an acre, is too soft and deficient in gluten to make
good bread without a large admixture of wheat. It is
relished, however, in various forms of pudding or pot-
tage ; and for feeding cattle and poultry seems superior to
any other corn. Its range in America is very extensive,
since, being an annual, it is unaffected by the cold of

f )

340

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

winter. Yet a strong heat of considerable duration h
required, the absence of which in a great part of Canada
renders this crop very precarious. If cold or wet weather
occur soon after sowing, the seed is liable to rot ; while,
as the harvesting does not take place till the end of Sep-
tember, the crop suffers often from premature frosts.
Mr Evans considers it as unsafe beyond lat. 45° N., which
excludes most of Lower Canada ; while Mr Shirreff re-
stricts it within lat. 41^°, scarcely allowing it to go north
of Lake Ontario. At Peterborough it had failed for
several consecutive years. Where successful, it is con-
sidered excellently fitted for new lands, and also as a
preparation for wheat. It is planted in rows to admit
of horse-hoeing, and in Upper Canada pumpkins are
advantageously raised in the intervals.

Of leguminous plants, pease are perhaps the most
valuable, and are well suited to the climate of Canada,
where they form generally a secure crop. Wet weather
during harvest, which is peculiarly unfavourable to
them, seldom occurs there. The flesh of hogs is delicate
and of better flavour when fed upon pease than upon any
other grain ; and from their use the pork of these pro-
vinces is considered superior to that of the United States.
Tares are cultivated as an excellent food for horses and
cattle ; and their extension is recommended. Beans are
not grown ; but for tliis omission no sufficient reason
has been assigned.

Among roots, the potato takes the precedence, and
its value is too well known to require comment. Though
a native of America, it was for a long time not very
extensively cultivated, at least in Upper Canada ; but
its importance has now been appreciated by European
settlers. Besides its value for human use, this vegetable
affords in the same bulk more food for cattle, and is
more easily guarded against the cold of winter, than most
others, which generally require a root-house or cellar to
preserve them ; while potatoes may be kept in a pit five
feet deep, dug in dry earth. They should be planted by
the end of May, so as to attain some strength before the

DA.

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

341

arable duration is
eat part of Canada
)ld or wet weather
hie to rot ; while,
ill the end of Sep-
premature frosts.

lat. 46° N., which
lie Mr Shirreif re-
iving it to go north

it had failed for
ccessful, it is con-
nds, and also as a
[ in rows to admit
da pumpkins are

■

perhaps the most
limate of Canada,
3p. Wet weather
' unfavourable to
of hogs is delicate
ase than upon any
3ork of these pro-
the United States.
)od for horses and
nded. Beans are
sufficient reason

precedence, and
jmment. Though
ig time not very
per Canada ; but
ited by European
ise, this vegetable
for cattle, and is
winter, than most
house or cellar to

kept in a pit five
lid be planted by
rength before the

intense summer heats, and to be ripe before the setting
in of the autumnal frosts. Turnips, which require a
cool, moist, and temperate climate, have not been found
well suited to Canada. Carrots are beginning to be intro-
duced, and are strongly recommended as hardy, nutri-
tive, and not very liable to suffer from cold.

Grass, both natural and artificial, forms a most im-
portant article of farming produce. Canada has not
the fine natural pastures of Ireland, England, Holland,
and other countries enjoying a cool, moist, and equable
climate. The settlers, too, in general, as soon as they
have cleared away the wood, are eager to break up
the ground and raise a crop. It is alleged, however,
that this system has been carried too far, there being
many meadows, uplands, and other well-watered tracts,
which might very advantaa^eously be appropriated to
pasturage. Artificial grasses, now a most valuable
branch of British husbandry, are peculiarly important
in Canada, where so large a quantity of hay should be
stored for winter use. They are also most useful
in preparing the soil for grain crops, but have the disad-
vantage of requiring to stand the severe winter, so trying
to all except annual plants. Clover, which is supposed
to yield three times the produce of natural grass, grows
luxuriantly ; but in the second year its roots are often,
found to have been destroyed by frost. For this reason
it is necessary to have recourse to the species named
timothy, which is extremely hardy, and will set at defi-
ance even a Canadian winter. The course recommended
is to plant it in spring along with clover, which last may
be expected to yield a good crop the first year ; and if it
fails in the second, the other will supply its place.*

Among miscellaneous articles, flax is well fitted to
the climate, and a small quantity is grown upon almost
every farm for domestic use ; but it has not yet become

• Evans (William), Treatise on Agriculture (8vo, Montreal,
1835) pp. 33-94, 175, 222. J'albot, vol. i. p. 304. Pickering, p.
83-96. Gould, p. tij. Shirreff, p. 368. Backwoods, pp. 188, 189.

342

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

h I Ni

an ailiclc of exportation. It is dark coloured, and rather
liable to break. Mr Talbot imputes these faults to the
small quantity of seed, bein^ only two bushels per acre,
while double that amount is used in Ireland. Hemp
has been sown with advantage, particularly in the
heavy soil of the Western District ; but, though consi-
derable expectations have been formed, it has not as yet
any where risen to much importance. It seems achnit-
ted, that considerable loans from government are neces-
sary to provide the machinery indisjiensable to its suc-
cess ; and moreover that, without a protecting duty, the
farmer could not compete with the importations from
Russia. Tobacco is planted in the same district, and
has also been made the object of flattering hopes. In
quality it is inferior to that of the southern states of
the Union, — a circumstance which some ascribe to im-
perfect culture, but others think a warmer climate ne-
cessary for raising it in perfection. The produce, never-
theless, has of late years been considerably augmented.
The rearing of live stock, an important branch of rural
economy, is still in a backward state in Canada. The
length and severity of winter produce a necessity for dry
food and shelter during that season ; but the providing
of this, in the actual circumstances of the colonists, is
attended with difficulties, which they by no means make
sufficient exertions to overcome. The horses are small,
not standing above twelve hands high, and are at the same
time clumsy and thick shouldered. Yet they possess good
qualities, are active, fleet, and sure-footed, and in these
respects have been compared to the Scottish galloway,
though they are not equally fit for heavy and continued
labour. Proposals have been made to introduce improved
breeds, but this would probably avail little, till accom-
panied by a more careful management. The cows are
also about a third smaller than the English. They arc
still worse treated, having scarcely any shelter and very
little food during the winter, at the end of which they
are in a miserable state, and many perish. A complaint
called the hollow-horn, arising from the jiiices of that

/VDA.

olourcd, and rather
these faults to the
o bushels per acre,
u Ireland, liemp
articuhirly in the
hut, though consi-
3d, it has not as yet
;. It seems admit-
ernment are ncces-
pensahle to its suc-
rotecting duty, the
importations from
same district, and
ittering hopes. In
! southern states of
some ascribe to im-
►varmer climate ne-
riie produce, never-
erably augmented,
tant branch of rural
te in Canada. The
e a necessity for dry

but the providmg
of the colonists, is
f by no means make
he horses are small,
, and are at the same
et they possess good
footed, and in these

Scottish galloway,
leavy and continued
introduce improved
il little, till accom-
ent. The cows are
English. They are
ny shelter and very
end of which they
erish. A complaint

the juices of that

AGRICULTURE OP CANADA.

343

substance being congealed by the excessive cold, proves
generally fatal ; yet those wliich survive, on coming to
grass, quickly recover, and give abundance of milk. The
labouring oxen are for the most part procured from
the United States. The sheep are extremely small,
weighing, it is said, not more than fifty pounds, and their
fleece about two and a half. They suffer, not only
from the rigour of winter, but from the violence of the
heat in summer, and are also exposed to the ravages of
wild beasts. The wool, however, is ratlj^er fine, owing
perhaps to the cold, from which nature usually protects
animals by a richer covering. Some of the hilly tracts
in the Western District, where the climate is milder,
have been pointed out as well fitted for supporting an
improved breed of this animal. The hog alone does
something to compensate the general deficiency of the
animal creation, for though not large, its flesh is excel-
lent, and forms the staple dish at every Canadian table.
It finds nourishment amid the woods and jjastures,
always in summer, and often during winter ; though
some grain ought to be given in the latter season, as
well as when it is to be fattened. Since the great
depression in the price of wdieat, salted pork has been
considered the most profitable article ■which a farmer
can raise. It may be observed, that the Eastern Town-
ships, notwithstanding their severer climate, possess
decidedly superior breeds of cattle. This seems partly
owing to the variety of surface, and the numerous
streams with which this region is watered ; and partly, it
must be owned, to the character of the settlers, who
have come chiefly from the neighbouring territory of
the United States, and have introduced a more active
and efficient mode of managing this branch of hus-
bandry. The recent cattle shows at Sherbrooke, and
Other places in the same district, are said to have dis-
played specimens that would do honour to similar
exliibitions in England.

It may be proper here to forewarn the settler with re-
gard to an inconvenience that attends the keeping of live

; i

344

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

stock in the nidcr districts. As the fences are often sh'glit,
Jiostily put up, and meant to enchase a great extent of
ground, spirited animals find little difficulty in clear-
ing such harriers, and plunge into the woods, where
all traces of them dis^ippear. Without great care, the
farmer will find a good deal of his time lost in this ha-
rassing pursuit. Mention is made of a female cultivator,
who almost every week mounted her pony, and sallied
into the bush in search of stray cattle ; and sometimes
a day or two ela})sed hefore she and they returned.
The author oi the " Backwoods" notices a remarkable
case of two newly purchased oxen which were missing
for some time, and considered finally lost, when it was
found that they had made their way, across twenty
miles of trackless forest, to their former quarters. Mr
Ferguson mentions a Highland settler in Nichol, wluj
said to him, — " I went out one evening to fetch in tlic
cows, and it was two days before I could find my own
way back." Breachy cattle, or those inclined to such
excursions, often involve the i)roprietor in much
trouble, when they break into and injure the neigh-
bouring plantations, causing complaints and claims for
damages. The best remedy is said to be a daily
distribution of salt, which promotes their thriving, and
is so grateful to them that they seldom fail to repair to
tlie spot where it is usually given.*

Horticulture is an elegant art, for which the Cana-
dians have not yet found leisure. It has been observed,
that farmers are usually bad gardeners ; and in that new
country, where, during the season, so much work ur-
gently presses, they can scarcel}'^ find time for ornamen-
tal objects. The only garden which has attracted any
notice inUpperCanada is Colonel Talbot's ; and Mr Shir-
reff did not consider that, tried by an English standard,
it would rank high, though containing some fine and
well-managed trees. It appears, however, that when the

• Talbot, pp. 304-310, 176-178. Shirreff, p. 369. Backwoods, pp.
134,194,195. Magrath, p. 142, Ferguson's Second Journey, p. 27.

I DA.

es are often slight,
n grcrtt extent of
iificulty ill clear-
Jie woods, where
ut great care, the
ne lo8t in this lia-
femalc cultivator,
pony, and sallied
5 ; and sometimes
id they returned,
ices a remarkahle
hich were missing
lost, when it was
ay, across twenty
ner quarters. Mr
;r in Nichol, who
ing to fetch in tlic
!ould find my own
? inclined to such
prictor in much
injure the neigh-
its and claims for
id to be a daily
heir thriving, and
m fail to repair to

which the Cana-
las been observed,
; and in that new
much work ur-
time for ornamen-
has attracted any
)t's ; and Mr Shir-
English standard,
ng some fine and
\rer, that when the

369. Backwoods, pp.
iecond Journey, p. 27.

AGRICULTURE OP CANADA.

345

Canadians shall apply to this branch of husbandry, they
will find excellent materials. Fruits, in {)arti('ular, are
observed to thrive, and the extremes of temperature ex-
tend the choice to those of different climates. Tiie apple
raised in the vicinity of Montreal now rivals that of New
York. In the western districts, melons of large size and
exquisiti! fliavour, pomegranates, gourds, and cucumbers,
are produced abundantly at the expense of very little
labour. Strawberries of different species, raspberries,
gooseberries, currants, cherries, and even grapes, grow
wild, a!id are found on the road-side or in sheltered fields.
An author already quoted mentions two islands in an
adjoining lake, one of which was called Strawberry, the
other Raspberry. Cranberries are collected in large quan-
tities by the Indian women, and sold in baskets to tlie
settlers, who make use of them for pies and preserves.
Culinary vegetables seem also to thrive extremely
well ; and, notwithstanding the late season of sowing,
the summer heat brings them rapidly to maturity.
Among the best are said to be pe^iae, especially the
marrowfats ; and different species of lettuce, radishes,
carrots, parsnips, and other roots, grow to an astonishing
size. Vegetables are preserved through the winter in
cellars, or more successfully in houses built close, with
double log-walls, and the roof well secured. Cabbages,
according to Mr Talbot, cannot be advantageously grown,
on account of the ravages committed on them by insects.
The raising of garden-stuffs is found very profitable in
the neighbourhood of Montreal, where, for reasons not
fully explained, they are always exceedingly dear.*

Floriculture, a still more elegant but less necessary
pursuit, attracts no attention, though nature in tliia
department has been equally profuse in its materials.
Meadows and the banks of rivers and lakes present, in
many places, flower-beds rivalling the finest that art can

* Shirreff, pp. W-i, 140. Talbot, vol. ii. Statistical Sketches by a
BackwoDdsman (London, lilSJ), p. 77. Backwoods, pp. 14^, 144,

aui.ao2.

\ k

346

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

produce. The violet, the lily, the orchidea, and others
which adorn our meads and gardens, appear under many
elegant varieties, accompanied with several species never
seen in this country. It is to be regretted, however,
that, amid such a vast assemblage of flowers, there are
few that emit any fragrance. The violet itself delights
the eye only. It has even been said of Canada, in gene-
ral terms, that its flowers are without scent, and its birds
without song. But a lady, who viewed this subject with
the eye of an amateur, discovered several agreeable ex-
ceptions ; among which she mentions the wild rose, the
lily of the valley, as well as the water lily ; a peculiar
species called the milk- weed ; the purple monarda, which
is fragrance all over, and retains it even after months of
exposure to the wintry atmosphere. All the mints
are strongly scented ; and some of the trees, particularly
the swamp cedar and the balsam poplar, give a delight-
ful odour.

That singular species of maple which is filled with
a saccharine juice is not to be overlooked by the Ca-
nadian cultivator. Where his property contains any
trees of this description, a large group at least should be
preserved, for the purpose of supplying sugar. The best
season for obtaining it is about the beginning of April,
when the spring is far advanced, yet the cold still severe ;
and the most favourable day is one of bright sunshine,
following a frosty night. The tree continues to run fui
about a month. It is commonly opened by a simple
cut with an axe ; but a hole bored with an auger is
said to be still more efficacious. The liquor, which
immediately flows out, is conveyed by a hollow tube
or spout to long troughs, and sometimes into large
buckets or tubs, placed beneath. The sap taken
off^ during the day is boiled in the evening. The
first boiling converts the juice into molasses ; and then
a more careful one follows, by which it is made into
sugar. During this last process, the scum that rises
to the top must be carefully removed, otherwise
it will materially injure the flavour. The substance

DA.

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

347

chidea, and others
ppear under many
veral species never
gretted, however,
flowers, there are
iolet itself delights
f Canada, in gene-
scent, and its birds
d this subject with
^eral agreeable ex-
, the wild rose, the
3r lily ; a peculiar
)le monarda, which
en after months of
All the mints
! trees, particularly
liar, give a delight-

hich is filled with
looked by the Ca-
)erty contains any
3 at least should be
_ sugar. The best
)eginning of April,
he cold still severe ;
of bright sunshine,
ontinues to run for
pened by a simple

with an auger is
The liquor, which

by a hollow tube
Lietimes into large
The sap taken
he evening. The
molasses ; and then
ich it is made into
he scum that rises
emovcd, otherwise
ir. The substance

then consolidates into hard cakes, which, when broken,
resemble sugar-candy. Mr Evans recommends not to
boil it so hard, but to allow the moisture to pass off
by holes made in the barrel ; and another writer ad-
vises to purify it before boiling, by straining through
flannel, after the manner of a jelly-bag. It is nearly in
the state of West Indian muscovado, to which it is by
9orae thought little inferior, and by others even preferred.
For sweetmeats^ cakes, and sauces, it seems to answer
esxtremely well ; and the price is from 4d. to7^d. a-pound.
Mr Talbot reckons that 500 lbs. may be produced
with no other machinery than a metal boiler of thirty
gallons, costing £2,108. ; 150 troughs, at 16s. 8d. per 100 ; 8
reservoirs, 4s. each ; and 4 buckets, 2s. each. The trcuglis
may be made liy the farmer or his servants. The oper-
ation, indeed, would scarcely pay if labourers were to
be hned ; but, as the season for it occurs before any of the
common farm- work can be attempted, those already on
tlie land may be advantageously employed m producing
at least a quantity for domestic use. The refuse, or
sedimentary part of the sap, yields good vinegar.*

Agriculture, considered as a scientific process, is still
in d very low state throughout Canada. The French
habitans had set a very bad example in every thing
except uidustry ; and the British immigrants, often un-
educated, and wholly occupied in mere manual labour,
have not advanced much beyond them. No idea is enter-
tained of a rotation of crops, whereby the land maybe kept
constantly in good condition. The same species of grain
is raised year after year from the ground as long as the
produce will pay the expense of working it ; and when
this ceases, it is abandoned to weeds and thistles, till, by
long rest, it becomes fit for a fresh application. On the
subject of manure, a complete infatuation appears to pre-
vail. Instead of regarding it as the most valuable means of
fertilizing a farm, they view it as a nuisance which must
he got rid of ; the old settlers, accordingly, avail tlienik-

• Backwoods, pp. 238-253, 155-157.
Talbot, vol. i. pp. 2/7, 290-298.

Evans' Guide, p. 105-108.

■ I

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348

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA,

selves of the leisure of winter to cart theirs to the river,
whence it is carried down by the stream. The British,
for the most part, seek only to convey it from the vicinity
of the stable, or remove the stable itself, which, being
generally of light and portable materials, is sometimes
the easier task. Better notions, however, begin to be en-
tertained. A zeal for improvement pervades many of tlie
more intelligent inhabitants ; and their views have been
seconded by the legislature, who have, on certain con-
ditions, appropriated small sums to defray tlie expense
of agricultural societies in each district. The recent
influx from this country of emigrants, possessed of
intelligence and capital, can scarcely fail to enlighten
the general body, at least as to errors so gross as those
to which they are at present addicted.

After every improvement, however, it would appear
tliat the agriculture of Canada must be carried on in a
ruder manner, and by hastier and rougher processes than
are practised in Britain. Hence farmers from the United
Kingdom, being reluctant to conform to their looser
system, are apt to bestow a disproportionate labour and
capital on operations which will not repay them. It lias
even been asserted, that the emigrant thrives better wlio
goes out without any acquaintance with agriculture at
all. A knowledge, however, of its principles must un-
doubtedly be beneficial to the yoang settler ; though,
perhaps, the circumstance of being long accustomed to
a particular mode may be a bad preparation for farming
under circumstances so very different. The mode of
reaping by cutting the grain with a species of scythe,
so as to throw it into a kind of frame, called, from its
form, a cradle, must appear to an Englishman very
slovenly. But though this does not make such good
work as the sickle, it is much more expeditious, as an
expert cradler can clear from two to three acres in a day.
The grain, when cut, is not arranged in sheaves or
stooks, but, after drying on the ground, is carried direct
into the barn, — a method which is probably necessary
to preserve it fium the severity of the wmter-f rests.

ii it

y'v.

AGRICULTURE OP CANADA.

349

The thrashing-machine has not yet been introduced ; and
many of the old settlers, instead of the flail, employ
the rude mode of treading out the grain by oxen. It is
thus rendered so dirty, as to be unfit for any other pur-
pose than distilling ; but the emigrants from this coun-
try seldom adopt so rude and wasteful a process.'^

Hunting and fishing, though they do not yet form
regular branches of national industry, are nevertheless
deserving of notice, as connected w^ith natural produC/C.
Among the expectations which lure the British settler
to America, one of the most attractive appears to be
the almost unlimited scope for hunting in a country
of wild woodland — where no game-laws embarrass the
sportsman, and whence he may expect to derive an
agreeable addition to his supply of food. Yet it is a fact
that the colonists scarcely ever take a gun into their
hands. Dr Dunlop thinks it can only be accounted
for by tlie perversity of human nature and the exclu-
sive zest of what is forbidden, that Toronto, situated
in the heart of this great forest, is worse supplied with
game than any town in England. But, after all, the
woods do not seem so productive in this respect as might
at first view be supposed. Mr Shirreff, who has made it a
particular study to dispel all illusions respecting that part
of the world, represents this deficiency as miserable,
and declares he has seen more game in half an hour in
Scotland than in all his wanderings through Canada.
This appears an exaggerated statement, though Mr
Magrath observes, that the birds called game, as they do
not find food in the forest, multiply only as the land is
cleared ; hence the old cultivated districts on the Detroit
and Niagara afford the best shooting in Upper Canada. A
particular species of pheasant, considered sometimes as
a large partridge, is the most common ; but thougli the
flesh is delicate, the flavour is very often injured by
feeding on the buds of spruce. The quail, considered

* Pickerinv, pp. fir,, 80, 8!>, 98. Statistical Sketches, pp. 77,
104, 105. Ferguson's Practical Notes, p. 263. ShirreflP, pp. 341,
uo8-370.

'WC

if'i']

:; 6

'mi '

t I

r " II

350

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

,,j«iifliii'; .«(

by Dr Dimlop as a small partridge, is common in the
Home and other western districts. The woodcock and
snipe appear in great numbers in spring and autumn,
particularly the latter season. Wild ducks of various
kinds abound in marshes, and on the borders of lakes.
Geese and swans merely pass and repass between
warmer and colder climates, without making any so-
journ. The turkey, in the London and Western dis-
tricts, to which he is confined, is considered the most
important of the feathered game ; the colour is dark,
and his flesh nearly resembles that of our domestic spe-
cies. But no bird equals in number the Avild pigeons
wliich, at particular seasons, move in vast flocks, or
rather swarms, that darken the air like locusts. A body
of them once hovered three or four days over the capital,
when a continued war was carried on against them
by all who could muster fire-arms of any description.
The feathered tribes, in unfrequented places, fall easy
victims, owing to their having no fear of man. Sir George
Head has seen a whole covey drop one after another
without the survivors being in the least degree intimi-
dated.

Among quadrupeds, the beaver, the chief object of chase
to the early settlers, is now nearly extirpated from all the
range of settlement. At present the deer is the principal
game. The idea of Mr Shirrefl^ and other writers, that
they exist only in small numbers, is refuted by the
diligent researches of Mr Magrath, a Canadian Nimrod.
These animals, long hunted by the Indians, and thus
accustomed to dread human art and power, fly even at
a distant sound, and are never seen by a noisy pursuer.
After one day's total failure from this cause, he was
told that he must walk in the quietest manner, avoid-
ing, if possible, to touch even the bough of a tree ; and by
this means he soon obtained complete success. Such a
mode of pursuit, borrowed seemingly from the Indians,
has in view rather the result of the chase than its sportful
vicissitudes. A similar remark applies also to the prac-
tice of deer-stalking, or watching in concealment and

DA.

s common in the

'he woodcocV and

ing and autumn,

ducks of various

borders of lakes.

repass between
t making any so-
and Western dis-
nsidered the most
he colour is dark,
" our domestic spe-
r the wild pigeons
m vast flocks, or
:e locusts. A body
,ys over the capital,
' on against them
of any description,
ed places, fall easy
of man. Sir George

one after another
.east degree intimi-

chief object of chase
irpated from all the
deer is the principal
other writers, that
is refuted by the
Canadian Nimrod.
Indians, and thus
power, fly even at
by a noisy pursuer.
Ithis cause, he was
est manner, avoid-
h of a tree; and by
,e success. Such a
from the Indians,
ase than its sportful
lies also to the prac-
concealment and

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

351

silence the approach of the animal to one of the salt-licks
or springs, which are his favourite resort. Night-shoot-
iiio- is another process of the same kind, in which the
hunter passes the hours of darkness, concealing his light
till it is necessary to discover the retreat of the game.
At other times, these timid creatures are driven by bands
of men and dogs into a river or lake, where canoes wait
to receive them : similar hunts, on a small scale, are
carried on by whol^ tribes. It has been asserted that
the Canadian deer do not affbrd the rich tat so much
prized by the epicure ; but this is ascribed to their being
hunted chiefly during the winter, amid deep snow, when
they are of course in meagre condition.

The bear is the most ferocious of the wild animals,
yet cannot be considered as dangerous. He acts as if
under a treaty of neutrality with man, whom he never
attacks unless in self-defence. Yet as he scruples not to
possess liimself of a pig or other inmate of the iarm-yard,
the settler, with a view to prevention, recovery, or re-
venge, often becomes the assailant. He is animated also
by the desire of possessing the skin, not a little prized ;
the flesh, considered very delicate ; and the grease, which
I'orms so valuable a pommade. The person, however, who
wounds this tenant of the desert, without killing or dis-
abling him, is placed in a very perilous predicament ; and
should never make the attempt without having one
or two shots in reserve. The wolf is another de-
predator, extremely dangerous to the flocks, but who
bhuns tlie presence of man. He is not usually hunted
for amusement ; but, on account of his destructive
qualities, the legislature have set a price n his head,
which it is hoped will reduce or exterminate the race.*
Anothei pursuit, for which there exist ample ma-
terials, is yet scarcely in its infancy. The extensive
fislieries, which enrich the maritime provinces of British
America, have not hitherto created any interest in the

* Statistical Sketches, pp. 33, 39 ; 45-48. ShirreflF, p. 390.
Magrath, pp. U!!', 21^9 2'it». Head's Forest Scenes and Incidents
(Ovo, Loudon, 1829), p. 233.

'^{^'i {fj'(''' (

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352

AGRICULTURE OF CANADA.

interior. Yet its vast waters contain numerous species,
which must, as the country advances, become more and
more important. The salmon abounds in Ontario, and
is supposed by Dr Dunlop not to visit the ocean;
but Mr Magrath, observing that it never ascends above
Niagara, nor is found in any lake not communicating
with the sea, concludes that it does perfonn this voyage,
however long. The usual mode of taking them, learned
from the Indians, is by spearing from a canoe, particu-
larly in the night ; but there is always some risk of
this frail bark being upset. The most delicate creature
in those waters is that called white-fish, resembling the
herring, but superior. In some places it is caught by
the seine, and packed in barrels of 200 lbs., which sell at
from twenty-seven to thirty shillings. The herring
is also plentiful, but not very fine. Other common
kinds are the trout, mullet, pike, pickerel, bass — black
and white and rock — and masquinonge, a fish pecu-
liar to the country, and highly esteemed. But all of
them, it is maintained, must yield to the Mackinaw
trout, found only in Lakes Huron and Superior, which
weighs from twenty to forty, and even ninety pounds,
and has flesh or extreme delicacy. There can be no
doubt of the ultimate success of this important branch
of industry ; though the extent of capital required, and
the distance from markets, give little encouragement to
any immediate attempt on a great scale.*

1 1 ,1 . — —

• Statistical Sketches, p. 49. Pickering. Backwoods, pp. 159, 160.

s.;l

END OF VOLUME FIRST.

Printed by Oliver & Boyd,
Tweeddale Court, High Street, Edinbuijjh.

n numerous species,
!S, become more and
nds in Ontario, and
• visit the ocean;
lever ascends above
not communicating
jcrfoiin this voyage,
aking them, learned
tn a canoe, particu-
ways some risk of
»st delicate creature
ish, resembling the
ces it is caught by
>0 lbs., which sell at
ngs. The herring
;. Other common
jkerel, bass — black
onge, a fish pecu-
semed. But all of

to the Mackinaw-
id Superior, which
en ninety pounds,

There can be no
3 important branch
Lpital required, and
I encouragement to
le*

ckwoods, pp. 159, 160.

ST.

[inburgb.