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 1 
 
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 3 
 
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 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
wmff^mmf 
 
 440 
 
 ^♦♦♦> 
 
 «■, ,,1- i*^.»,j ; ?k t' 
 
 Cue llBBli^ 
 
 «iii»ora$]iii3i$ 
 
 2543768 
 
 E 
 
 LEVATORS 
 REPAIRED ANYWHERE 
 IN CANADA. 
 
 *j«' 
 
 Full Lines of , . 
 
 ELEVMOR SUPPLIES 
 
 and 
 
 SPECIAL ELEVATOR CABLES. 
 
 
 ^ ^••^\^,*^-*^'* 
 
TWfWfl 
 
 440 
 
 7 
 
 WHOLESALE 
 AND RETAIL 
 
 COAL 
 
 
 AND 
 
 WOOD 
 
 h 
 
 / 
 
 Try our 
 Reynoldsville 
 Steam Coal. 
 
 No Clinkers. 
 
 riost Steam. 
 
 Less Labor. 
 
 Our Pittston 
 
 (ONGER (OAL (a. 
 
 ■^ 
 
 TORONTO, ONT. 
 
 LIMITED, 
 
 i; '^ '^- 
 
.v,/» 
 
 n 
 
 ■"■"•**1, 
 
 >"1 
 
 
 IVrli 
 
 i: 
 
 I FciASom elevator Works, I 
 
 50, 52, 54, 56 DUKE STREET, 
 
 TORONTO, ONTARIO. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 ♦*d^- 
 
 MANUFACTURERS. OF 
 
 THE FENSOM STANDARD 
 
 t 
 
 •^««« 
 
 E 
 
 LEVATORS ♦ 
 
 REPAIRED ANYWHERE I 
 IN CANADA. X 
 
 Full Lines of 
 
 ELEVATOR SUPPLIES t 
 
 and •^i J 
 
 SPECIAL ELEVATOR CABLES. 
 
 
BOort 
 440 
 
 WHOLESALE 
 AND RETAIL 
 
 COAL 
 
 7 
 
 ' »-. 
 
 ^> 
 
 / 
 
 ^iL 
 
 Try our 
 Reynoldsville 
 Steam Coal. 
 
 No Clinkers. 
 
 riost Steam. 
 
 Less Labor. 
 
 AND 
 
 WOOD 
 
 ■f^'V 
 
 Our Pittston 
 Anthracite, 
 Equalled by 
 Few, 
 
 T * 
 
 Excelled by 
 None. 
 
 (ONGER (OAL (a. 
 
 TORONTO, OMT. 
 
 LIMITED, 
 
 H^' 
 
 ^;1 
 
12 GOLD MEDALS FOR 
 
 ROGERS' HIGH-CLASS 
 
 a 
 
 If 
 
 Cylinder 
 Engine 
 Dynamo 
 
 AND 
 
 First-Class Oils always supplied and 
 Satisfaction Guaranteed. 
 
 SALES AGENTS FOR THE STANDARD OIL CO.'S 
 
 "CAPITOL" CYLINDER. 
 "RENOWN" ENGINE 
 
 AND "ATLANTIC RED" OIL. 
 
 Headquarters for Spirits of Turpentine, Linseed Oil, Gaso- 
 line, Benzine, Lard Oil, Axle Grease, Cup Grease, Steam 
 Refined Seal, Fiolt Cuttingr and other Oils. 
 
 The only firm in Canada who manufacture the Genuine 
 
 <t 
 
 STAR BOILER COMPOUND" 
 
 Guaranteed to remove the hardest scale without damage 
 to the boiler or no charge for the Compound. 
 
 Send for Samples. Examine Qualities. Our Travellers 
 . will have pleasure in calling on you. 
 
 theQUEEN city oil CO., "^im'™. 
 
 TORONTO. 
 
 SAMUEL ROGERS, 
 
 PRESIDENT 
 
 „ 
 
 
Engineere' /llbanual 
 
 Compiled b^ 
 tbc 
 
 anabian Association 
 
 of 
 
 Ptationar^ j£n0ineev8t 
 ZToronto, IRo* h 
 
 dk 
 
 s 
 
 A 
 
 F 
 E 
 T 
 Y 
 
 V 
 
 INTELLIGENCE 
 
 RELIABILITY 
 
 A 
 
 TORONTO, CANADA. 
 
ENGINKERS MANIAL. 
 
 THE 
 
 NORTHEY 
 
 MANUFACTURING CO. 
 
 LIMITED. 
 
 Make all Classes of 
 
 W 
 
 X>UPLEX. 
 
 AND SINGLE- 
 
 STCAM^ 
 
 AND POWER^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ». 
 
 PUMPS; 
 
 4\ 
 
 
 Write for Catalogue. 
 
 KING STREET 
 SUeWAY. 
 
 TORONTO 
 
I 
 
 ^ 
 
 1- 
 
 • • • 
 
 n^ 
 
 rcfacc^.^ 
 
 N preparing this Manual no compunction has been 
 felt in quoting from well-known authors^ as the 
 principles of engineering leave little room for origin- 
 ality. This bookt however, is rather the orjtgrowth 
 of the educational feature of our meetings and re- 
 presents an accumulation of information discussed by our members. 
 Although great care has been taken to ensure accuracy, yet errors will 
 unavoidably occur, and if any should be found, we shall be glad to have 
 our attention called to them for the purpose of rectification. For a 
 book devoted to the interests of this branch of science and presiding 
 over a field distinctly its own, a preface seems superfluous. Still an 
 acknowledgment to the Committee in charge, who by their zealous 
 efforts have made it possible to publish our Manual, seems due from 
 the Association and we extend thanks to Messrs. James Milne, A. E. 
 Edkins, E. J. Philip, J. W. Marr, Albert Slute, A. M. Wickens, 
 Samuel Thompson and Wilson Phillips. We also bespeak for the 
 advertisers herein a careful consideration at the hands of the engineers 
 in Toronto and our branch associations throughout the Dominion. 
 
 We are, very truly yours, 
 
 C^iiaDlan H^sociatiou ot Stationary jQminccvet 
 
 Toronto, 1Ro. I, 
 
KNC.INKKUS MANIAI- 
 
 FOR 
 
 SHAFTING 
 
 Any Diameter and 
 Lensfth. 
 
 Han 
 
 rt'pt*C ^v'^l' I'laiii or 
 ^Wld Self OiliiiK liearlufiB 
 
 "Dodge" Patent Split 
 Friction Clutch Pulleys 
 
 P^rictioii Cut-off Couplings and 
 "Ortoii" Small Friction Clutch 
 
 "Dodge" Patent 
 
 System of 
 
 Rope Transmission. 
 
 Belting, Pillow Blocks, 
 Floor Stands, ami all 
 
 Power Trausuiission Appliances. 
 
 Belting:, **l}Mge Falley Co.'s 
 Special." 
 
 CONSULT 
 
 Dodge Wood 
 Split Pulley Co.^ 
 
 office: 
 74 York St.| Toronto, Ont. 
 
 "Dodge" WoodTSplit 
 Pulley. 
 
 I 
 
 i> 
 
 Compression Coupling. 
 
^ 
 
 utrobuctioiu.. 
 
 it 
 
 HE Canadian Association of Stationary Engineers is 
 a society formed for the purpose of mutual instruc- 
 tion^ improvememt and intercourse^ giving promin- 
 ence to such features of education as will better 
 enable us to thoroughly understand and perform the 
 duties of an engineer. Founded on these principles our success has 
 been substantial and continuous* 
 
 The parent association was founded in the City of Toronto in 
 November^ 1886^ and since that time our members have steadily in- 
 creased until we now have associations in all the principal cities and 
 towns^ where the number of engineers employed warrants it* T' . 
 engineers and firemen of Montreal had in J 385 formed an organization 
 for the same purpose* but soon after the starting of the C* A* S* E*^ 
 joined it and accepted a charter. "We are not a labor organization^ 
 neither can we be called a secret order* * we invite all and especially 
 engineers who ^re not members to meet vith us at our lectures and 
 readings^ and we also invite our employers to join us^ attend our 
 meetings and^ if they wish, take part in our discussions and debates* 
 Our Constitution and By-Laws are based on the following preamble, 
 which appears on page 7* 
 
 We only receive honest, industrious and sober men* Our motto 
 being Safety, Economy, Reliability and Intelligence. 
 
 Canadian Hssociatlon of Stationary jEn^ineers, 
 
 Toronto, IRo. h 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 ^be ZLemperance 
 General %itc 
 Heeurance Co'^ 
 
 mi> 
 
 id 
 
 THE 
 
 ^ 
 
 COMPANY 
 
 FOR 
 
 THE 
 
 BEST 
 
 RISKS 
 
 1DECAUSE it offers them more favorable rates> better classification 
 and better policies than other companies *?* ji ^ ^ ji ji 
 
 TllD Aofliol PYTlDTilOrOD of Life Companies which classify 
 llld JLUbUOii llApDilCJiUD their risks as abstainers and non- 
 abstainers has been au follows : 
 
 NAME OF CJMPANV. 
 
 The U. K. T. «fe G. P. 
 The Sceptre Life .... 
 A. T. G. M. ij. A. S... 
 
 SAVIN i.S IN MORTAT.ITV. 
 OENKBAL SECTION. TEMPERANCE SECTION. 
 
 3. p.c. 2). p.c. 
 
 15. " 43. " 
 
 10. " 41. " 
 
 A diffeveLtje of from 26 per cent, or nearly ten times "S much in 
 the T. & G. P. to 31 per cent which is only four times e 3 much 
 in the A. T. G. 
 
 A LL WELL-INFORMED MEN know that total abstainers on the 
 ■^^ average live much longer than non-abstainers, but all do not 
 know that total abstainers can get distinctly lowp" ates for life insur- 
 ance than non-abstainers by applying to The Temperance and General 
 Life Assurance Company, ^t^^^^^j^^^,^^ 
 
 The Best Company for the Best Risks, 
 Correspondence Solicited. Agents Wanted. 
 
 HON. G. W. ROSS, 
 
 PRESIDENT. 
 
 H. SUTHERLAND, 
 
 MANAGING DIRECTOR. 
 
 C 
 
 X 
 
 c 
 e 
 
 t 
 
 f 
 
 Head Office: GLOBE BUILDING, TORONTO. 
 
^x 
 
 e^ 
 
 /^' 
 
 \ 
 
 ♦* 
 I 
 
 3n 
 
 * * * 
 
 P 
 
 reamble.-/ 
 
 he 
 lot 
 
 Uf- 
 
 ral 
 
 
 HIS Association shall at no time be used 
 for the futherance of strikes, or in any- 
 way interfering^ between its members and 
 their employers in regfard to wages; re- 
 cogfnizingf the identity of interests between employer and 
 employee ; not countenancing; any project or enterprise 
 that will interfere with perfect harmony between them; 
 neither shall it be used for political or religfious purposes* 
 Its meetingfs shall be devoted to the business of the 
 Association and at all times preference shall be given 
 to the educating and helping work contemplated in the 
 formation of the order* 
 
 
 (8^ 
 
 >R. 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 The Canada Metal Co., 
 
 (REGISTERED,) 
 
 31 William Street, TORONTO. 
 
 BABBITT. 
 
 THREE GRADES. 
 
 SOLDER, 
 
 WIRE AND HALF AND HALF. 
 
 Write for CDCC 
 
 State what to be 
 used for. 
 
 Sample i i\i^i^* ^^(2^ 
 
 METALLIC" ANTI-FRICTION 
 
 <i 
 
 FLOWS LIKE WINE, FOR ALL HEAVY 
 WEARS LIKE STEEL. MACHINERY. 
 
 Try it I 
 
 -=^(§5^ 
 
 Telephone 1T29, 
 
 t 
 
 ■t 
 
 W. G. HARRIS 
 
 BUYS rCOPPER, BRASS, 
 SCRAPlLEAD AND IRON, 
 
 25-29 WILLIAM STREET, 
 
 Telephone 1729« 
 
 Toronto. 
 
■!■ ■■■ 
 
 ' «, 
 
 <i\. 
 
 ,1 
 
 ©fficcrs tToronto, IRo. I, 
 eanaMan Hssoclatton Stationary? finaincera 
 
 f 1897*1898. 
 
 Past President, - JNO. FOX. 
 
 Prudent, - G. C MOORING. 
 
 Recording Secretary, - JNO. W. MARR. 28 Grant St. 
 
 Financial Secretary, - J. G. BAIN. 
 
 Treasurer, - S. THOMPSON. 
 
 Conductor, - G.THOMPSON. 
 
 Doorkeeper^ 
 
 T. CADWELU 
 
 •Kepresentatives ^ccbnical Scbool 
 
 asoart) : 
 
 E. J. PHILIP, A. M. WICKENS. 
 
 J. HUGGETT, W.LEWIS, 
 W. G. BLACKGROVE. 
 
 Owners of steam and electrical plants desiring the services of competent 
 
 engineers will find it to their interest by correspondmg 
 
 with our Secretary, 
 
lO 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 SOLID COMFORT FOR ENGINEERS 
 
 LARGEST ENeiNES ON THIi GONTINENT OF AMERIOA 
 
 e 
 
 Using Spooner's Box Melal 
 
 OPPERINE 
 
 Solenitifio Tests Oisolosed Its Superiority above all otiier Metals. 
 
 MR. ALONZO W. SPOONER. 
 ^ PORT HOPE, ONT. MoNTBEAl/, Aug. 7th, 1897. 
 
 Deab Sib,— Your favor of the 30th in at. received and in reply • 
 would say we used 3,500 lbs. of vour Copperine in large engines, the 
 dimensions of which are as follows, viz. : High Pressure Cylinder, 
 36 X 60 inches ; Low Pressure Cylinder, 64 x 60 inches ; Diameter 
 of Wheel, 24 feet; Weight of Wheel, 100 tons; Weight of Shaft, 
 21 tons ; Weight of Pillow Blocks, 27 tons each ; Total Weight, 
 400 tons. Will develop 4009 h.p. with 175 lbs. steam pressure. 
 Thanking you, we are 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 LAURIE ENGINE CO.. 
 
 WALTER H. LAURIE. MANAacn. 
 
 CANADIAN MADE and STUMPS the WORLD. 
 
 I 
 
 R. A. KELLOND. 
 
 ESTABLISHED 1881. 
 
 KELLOND & CO, 
 
 Ip>atent6. 
 
 Solicitors ot (Iana^iat% 
 
 Bmcrican, 
 
 :®riti0b anD aforeign 
 
 Trade Marks and Industrial Designs Registered. 
 
 HEAD OFFICES, 12 MELINDA STREET, 
 
 TORONTO, CANADA. 
 
 4. - - -if. 
 
 Branches in all Foreign 
 Capitals. 
 
 ROBERT A. KELLOND, 
 
 COUNSELLOR Ai.VD 
 EXPERT IN PATENT CAUSES. 
 
v^ 
 
 ENGINEEES' MANUAL. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 Only such rules which are apt to be easily forgotten will be given 
 here, and it is understood that some training in Arithmetic and 
 Algebra has been previously obtained by the reader. 
 
 To Find the Greatest Common Measure (G. C. M.) or Highest 
 Common Factor — 
 
 Rule : Divide the greater by the less ; i. ud with the remainder 
 divide the divisor and so on unti' there is no remainder, and the last 
 divisor is the G. C. M. 
 
 Exaiiiple— Find the G. CM. of 689 and 1,573. Ans. 13. 
 
 To Find the Least Common Multiple of two or more numbers — 
 
 Rule : Divide the given numbers by any number that will divide 
 the greatest number without a remainder, and set the quotients with 
 the undivided numbers in a line beneath. Divide the second line as 
 before and so on until there are no two numbers that can be divided; 
 then the product of all the divisors and last quotients will give the 
 multiple required. 
 
 Example— Find the L.C.M. of 4, 18, 36, 72: 
 
 tV 
 
 4 
 
 4 18 36 72 
 
 9 
 
 I 18 9 18 
 
 2 
 
 I 2 I 2 
 
 I I I I 
 L.C.M. =4X9X 2 = 72. 
 Example — What is the L CM. of 20, 36, 48, 100. Ans. 3,600. 
 
 FRACTIONS. 
 
 To reduce a Fraction to its lowest terms — 
 
 Rule : Divide both numerator and denominator by the G.C.M. 
 
 Example |^|=e=^ • 
 
 To change an Improper Fraction to a Mixed Number — 
 
 Rule : Divide numerator by the denominator and the remainder 
 placed over the denominator is the fraction, viz., -V-=9f' 
 
 To change a Mixed Number to an Improper Fraction — 
 
 Rule : Multiply the whole number by the denominator of the 
 fraction and to the product add the numerator ; place the sum over 
 the denominator, viz., 6^ = ^-. 
 
 1 
 
12 
 
 p:ngineers manual. 
 
 Tie Canadian Rubber 
 
 ; Company, of Montreal, 
 
 MANUFACTURE FINEST 
 QUALITY 
 
 RUBBER BOOTS 
 
 AND 
 
 RUBBER SHOES. 
 
 Ali Kinds l^llKKpf TTflQP Made with our Patent Process 
 of IVUUUCl liUoC Seamless Tube. 
 
 Rubber Valves, Packings, Gaskets, etc., etc. 
 
 Superior DllKKpi* ftpltlUP^ The following Grades: 
 Quality IVUUUCl liClUil^^ Extra Star. Extra Heavy 
 
 Star. Fine Para, C. R. Co. Stitched. Forsyth 
 
 Patent Seamless. 
 
 «»•,■■- ^ . 
 
 HEAD OFFICE AND factories: 
 MONTREAL. 
 
 branches: 
 
 TORONTO AND WINNIPEG. 
 
 / 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 II 
 
 13 
 
 To Reduce a Compound to a Simple Fraction — 
 
 Rule : Multiply the numerators together for a new numerator, 
 and the denominators togelHer for a new denominator, and then 
 reduce to its lowest terms. 
 
 Example— f f^H i of ^ = tjVij = A* 
 
 To Divide Fractions — 
 
 Rule : Reduce to the form of simple fractions, invert divisor and 
 proceed as in multiplication. 
 
 Example — ^ of if 
 
 I of } 
 
 2 1 
 
 To Add Fractions — 
 
 Rule : Reduce all to a common denominator, then add the numer- 
 ators, and place the sum over the common denominator. 
 
 12 + 15+9 
 
 Add H;l + i^ = 
 
 30 
 
 
 n 
 
 To Subtract Fractions — 
 
 Rule : Reduce them to a common denominator, subtract the 
 numerators and place the difference over the common denominator. 
 
 16 - IS 
 
 .•1 
 
 40 
 
 To Add Decimals — 
 Rule : Set down the figures so that the decimal points are one 
 above the other, then proceed as in addition. 
 
 12.6798 
 .0346 
 
 132 
 .oo:;5 
 
 5-3tJ-t 
 
 1Q.4000 
 To Subtract Decimals — 
 
 Rule : Set down the figures so that the decimal points are above 
 one another, and then proceed as in simple subtraction. 
 
 12.7896 
 6.6794 
 
 6. 1102 
 To Multiply Decimals — 
 
 Rule : Proceed as in simple multiplication, then point oflF as 
 many decimal places as there are in the multiplier and multiplicand. 
 
 2.03 
 
 ■ -76 . 
 
 1218 
 1421 
 
 1.5428 
 
14 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 JAS. R. ANNETT, JOHN J. MAIN, 
 
 MANAGCR. 
 
 SUI 
 
 The 
 
 Canadian Heine 
 Safety Boiler Co., 
 
 Esplanade, Opposite Sherbourne 5treet, 
 
 TORONTO. 
 
 
 WATER TUBE STEAM BOILERS FOR ALL PRESSURES, 
 
 DUTIES AND FUELS. 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 »5 
 
 To Divide Decimals — 
 
 Rule : Divide as in whole numbers and point off in the quotient 
 as many decimal places as those in the dividend exceed those in the 
 divisor. Ciphers must be added to the dividend to make its decimal 
 places at least equal to those in the divisor, and as many more as it is 
 desired to have in the quotient. 
 
 Example, 33 -5" -055 = 
 
 33000 
 55 
 
 600, or .33 4- 55=. 006. 
 
 To Convert a Decimal into a Vulgar Fraction — ' 
 
 Rule : Put down the decimal as the numerator and place as the 
 denominator i with as many ciphers as there are decimal places in 
 the numerator. 
 
 '16-^^6 
 
 
 To Convert a Vulgar into a Decimal Fraction — 
 
 Rule : Divide the numerator by the denominator, adding as 
 many ciphers prefixed by a decimal point as are necessary to give the 
 number of dec'.mal places desired in the result. 
 
 ^= i.oo ^4 = .25. "* 
 
 To Reduce a Repeating Decimal to a Vulgar Fraction — 
 
 Rule : Subtract the decimal figures that do not repeat from the 
 whole decimal, including one set of repeating figures ; set down the 
 remainder as the numerator of the fraction, and as many nines as 
 there are repeating figures followed by as many ciphers as there are 
 non-repeating figures in the denominator. 
 
 Example, 
 
 .633 = 633 
 6 
 
 w» 
 
 •57 — fo — BC- 
 
 ' ' ALGEBRA. 
 
 Algebra is the science which teaches the use of symbols to denote 
 numbers and the operations to which the numbers may be subject. 
 
 Example — Add to a the sum of b and c 
 
 a + lb + c). Ans.a-'rb + c. '* 
 
 Subtract the number i from a. Ars. a~b. 
 
 (I.) When a bracket is preceded by the sign + remove the 
 bracket and leave the terms unaltered. 
 
 (II.) When a bracket is preceded by the sign - remove the 
 bracket and change the sign of each term in it. 
 
 Thus a + b+{c-d+e-/) = a + b + c-d-{-e -/ 
 and a + b- {c-d+e-/)=a + b-c+f:l-e+/. , :• : 
 
 (I.) In addition attach the lower line to the upper with the signs 
 of both lines unchanged. 
 
i6 
 
 engineers' manual. 
 
 (0 
 
 a. 
 
 o 
 
 z 
 
 o 
 
 z 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 -I 
 
 o 
 
 (L 
 
 bl 
 
 (JL) 
 
 QO 
 
ENGINEKRS' MANUALi 
 
 »7 
 
 (II.) In subtraction attach the lower to the upper line with the 
 signs of the lower line changed. 
 
 Example, (i) To a + b + y 
 
 add a-b- ^ 
 
 211 +2 
 
 (2) From a + b + y 
 a - b -6 
 
 2A+13 
 
 The methods of denoting brackets are various. Thus, besides 
 
 the marks ( V the marks f 1 or | [ are often used. Sometimes 
 
 the "vinculum" is drawn over the symbols which are to be connected. 
 
 thus: « -A + c is used to represent the same expression as a-(b + c), 
 In removing brackets from an expression, commence with the inner- 
 most and remove them one by one, and the outermost last of all. 
 
 Thus, a-[b+ic- {(i-e+/)\] 
 = a-[b+{c~{d~e-/)\] 
 = a-[b+{c~ d+e+f}] 
 = a-[b^ c- d + e + /\ 
 = a- b- c+ d-e-f 
 or 5x-{3x-'j)-{^-2x-{6x-3)} 
 = iO;»r. 
 
 Multiplication — When the factors multiplied have like signs, pre- 
 fix + and when unlike - to the product. 
 
 Multiply a ^b by a-b; and a-b by a 
 a+b a-b 
 
 a-b a-b 
 
 b 
 
 a^+ab 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 ab- b^ 
 
 a 
 
 - ab 
 -ab + b^ 
 
 2 -2ab + b^ 
 
 Involution. — This is the operation of multiplying a quantity by 
 itself any number of times. 
 
 a^ is called the second power of a, 
 fl» is ♦' ♦• third •' " a. 
 
 The signs of even powers of a negative quantity will be positive 
 and of the odd powers negative. 
 
 {-ay={-a){-a)=a^ 
 
 ( - a)3=( - «)( - fl)( - a)= - a^. 
 
 To raise a simple quantity to any power. Multiply the index of 
 the quantity by the number denoting the power to which it is to be 
 raised and prefix the proper sign. 
 
 Thus the square of a' is a* 
 *• cube of a^ is «* 
 " ♦* of -.tr^^^a is 
 
 -xy^a^. 
 
 J 
 
i8 
 
 KNGINKKRK MANl'AL. 
 
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 Railway 
 
 System. 
 
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 AND CHIOAQO and MILWAUKRR. 
 
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 Philadelphia, etc., via Grand Trunk new singrle arch, 
 double track steel bridiore over Niagara River; and 
 Boston, Portland and Atlantic Coast Cities via the 
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 No other line can bring within your reach so many 
 attractions. Call on the nearest agent of the Grand 
 Trunk Railway System for Folders and Tourist 
 Guides. 
 
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 Montreal. Toronto. 
 
 GENERAL OFFICES, MONTREAL, P.Q. 
 
 Asst. Gen. P. & T. Agt. Dist. Pass. Agent, Dist. Pass. Agent» 
 
 eal. 
 
rnc.ineerk' manual. 
 
 «9 
 
 or the squaro of the sum of two mimhers is equal li> th»' sum of their 
 squares ami twice their produet. 
 
 {a + A) '•' = rt •'' + 3rt '' h 4- 3«A^ + A" 
 
 (« + *)* = «*+ 4^i"A + 6<i''A'' + 4aA'' -f A* 
 
 which show that the indices of a decrt ise by unity in eaeli lernj and 
 that the indices of b increase by unity in each and the numerical 
 coefficient of the 2nd term is always the same as the imlex of the 
 power to which the binomial is raised. 
 
 . {a- b)'^=a''-2ab^ b^ 
 
 or the square of the difference of two numbers is equal to the sum of 
 their squares— twice their product. 
 
 (a - b){n + b) ---- «' - A", or the product of the smn and difference of 
 two numbers is equal to the difference of their squares. 
 
 Division.— When the dividend and the divisor have the same sig^n 
 the quotient is positive, and when they have different signs the quotient 
 is negative. ■ . ' 
 
 The following will show the process in easy examples : 
 Divide .v" -,)'" by .v'^ -^^ 
 
 X*j/^ -J/0 
 
 x'^j^* 
 
 x'^y* — v" 
 
 x'^j' 
 
 * -yO 
 
 Divide 
 
 .r" - 4rt^.v* +4a*.t'^ - rt" by .r- - > 
 x'^ - a'^ } .r« ~^a'Kx* +4a*;ir'- -a'- \.. 
 
 - 2tCi'^ X* -V i\a* x"^ - a'^ 
 
 - 3a2.r* + 3a*.r^ 
 
 •4 
 
 ^a'^x'^ +«* 
 
 a*x'^-a'' 
 
 Simple Equations — 
 
 An equation is a statement that two expressions are equal. A 
 simple equation is one which contains the Jirst power only of an un- 
 known quantity. 
 
 Any term of an equation may be transferred from one side to the 
 oiher if its sign is changed. , 
 
 Example, 5.r-8 = 3,r+2. 
 
 Transposing the terms we get 5^ -3.1: = 2 + 8. 
 
 Combining like terms, 2X= 10. 
 
 And dividing both sides by 2 we get x = ^. 
 
 In a company of 266 persons, composed of men, women, and 
 children, there are twice as many men as there are women, and twice 
 
20 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL 
 
 Office and Yard : 
 
 FRONT ST. NEAR BATHURST. 
 
 Telephone No. 13a. 
 
 Office and Yard : 
 PRINCeS5 STREET DOCKS. 
 Telephone No. 190. 
 
 ESTABLISHED 1866. 
 
 P. BURNS & GO 
 
 WHOLESALE AND RETAIL 
 DEALERS IN 
 
 CO A L™ 
 
 WOOD 
 
 ReynoldsvlUe Steam Coals 
 
 from the Eleanora and Soldier Run flines, 
 
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 HEAD OFFICE: 
 38 Kins Street East, Telephone 131. 
 
 BRANCH OFFICES: 
 572 Queen St. West, 304 Queen St. East, 
 
 Telephone 139. Telephone 134. 
 
 388^ Yongre St., 429 Spadlna Ave.. 
 
 Telephone 151. Telephone 2110. 
 
 274 Collesre St. Cor. Bleecker &, Wellesley Sts., 
 
 Telephone 4179. Telephone 4483. 
 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 21 
 
 as many women as children How many are there of each ? 
 
 Let .r = number of children ; _ • 
 
 2Ar = number of women ; 
 4Ar = number of men. 
 
 4;r + 2^ + :tr=266. 
 
 7:^=266. 
 
 ^=38 children ; 
 76 women ; 
 152 men. 
 
 Example — A vessel can be filled in 15 minutes by 3 pipes, one of 
 which lets in 10 g^allons more and the other 4 g-allons less than the 
 third each minute. The cistern holds 2400 gallons. How much comes 
 through each pipe in a minute ? 
 
 Ans.: ist pipe 51^ gallons per minute ; 
 2nd pipe 61^ gallons per minute ; 
 3rd pipe 47/^ gallons per minute. 
 
 When several unknown quantities are to be determined, there 
 must be as many independent equations as there are unknown quan- 
 tities. 
 
 Thus a + b = 6, from which we could not determine the definite 
 value of a and b. We must have a second equation independent of 
 the first, then find a pair of values of a and b which will satisfy both 
 equations. 
 
 If we give a - b==2 we can find the values 
 
 a + b=^6 
 
 a - b — 2 
 
 By addition 2a = 8 
 
 a = 4 
 
 And by subtraction we get a + 6=6 
 
 a-b=2 
 
 2b=\ 
 
 b=2 
 
 Example, 3.*^ + 7:>'— 67 
 5^ + 4^ = 58 
 
 Multiply first equation by 5 and the second by 5. 
 
 15-^ + 35.^ = 335 
 i$x-\- I2jj/=i74 
 
 Subtracting 23^'= 161 
 
 .r= 7 , ' 
 
 and since Sat + 4;?/= 58 
 
 and substituting the value of y from above we get : - 
 
 5^+28 = 58 
 
 .*:= 6 
 
 If there are three unknown quantities their values may be found 
 by three independent equations. For from two of the equations a third 
 which involves only two unknown symbols may be found, and from 
 the remaining equation, and one of the others, a fourth containing^ 
 only the same two unknown symbols may be found. 
 
 
22 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 The 
 
 Bennett & Wright Co., 
 
 Limited. 
 
 Engineers and 
 Contractors. 
 
 
 Steam and Hot Water, 
 Heating and Ventilaiing, 
 Fine Sanitary Plumbing, 
 Electric Light Wiring, etc., 
 Automatic Sprinklers for 
 Fire Protection, 
 Pneumatic Cash Systems, 
 Gas and Electric Fixtures. 
 
 
 «»»»>^1K<^<«««« 
 
 Queen and Dalhousie Sts., TORONTO. 
 
 % 
 
engineers' manual 
 
 23 
 
 ^ 
 
 Quadratic Equations. 
 
 A quadratic equation is one into which the square of an unknown 
 symbol enters with or without the first power of the symbol. 
 
 Thus x^ = g 
 
 and x^+^x = 2i^ 
 
 are quadratic equations. 
 • at' =9 is a pure quadratic equation. 
 
 ,r'^ + 5;«;= 24 is an adfected quadratic equation. 
 
 Every pure quadratic equation has two roots equal in magnitude 
 but with different signs. 
 
 Adfected Quadratic Equations are solved by adding certain terms 
 to both sides of the equation so a. to make the left hand a perfect 
 square. 
 
 Thus .r'*4-6.r = 72 
 
 By adding 9 to each side we get 
 
 x^+6x + g = 'j2 + g 
 
 Extracting square root we have ^+3 = ±9 
 
 x = 6 or- 12 
 
 Example — A ladder, whose foot rests in a given position, just 
 reaches a window on one side of a street, and when turned about its 
 foot just reaches a window on the other side. If the two positions 
 of the ladder be at right angles to each other and the heights of the 
 windows be 36 and 27 feet respectively, find the width of the street 
 and the length of the ladder. 
 
 Arithmetical Progression. 
 
 Arithmetical Progression is a series of numbers which increase 
 or decrease by a constant difference. 
 
 Thus, .2,4,6, 8, 10 - . "• A- 
 
 9» 7» 5» 3» '» are arithmetical progressions. 
 Let a = first term. ■■;;-./■ ;.-:^, ■";"-' V:,£,^'i:-:.,, 
 
 c?=: difference. \'^'- '■ :vi ;f . " >i-- 
 
 M = number of terms. ^^ .^J .=»: ^i^ 
 
 5 = sum of terms. 
 AT = last term. 
 
 To Find the Last Term — 
 
 Formula, x = a + {n- i)d 
 
 ■'-...- To Find the Sum — 
 
 ' '■ ■'** ■■ 
 Formula, s = -{a + x) 
 
 ■ -{2a + {n- i)d} 
 
 To Find the Number of Terms — 
 
 2S 
 
 Formula, n 
 
 X - a 
 
 a + x 
 
 M 
 
H 
 
 engineers' manual. 
 
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 Fetherstonhaugh & Co*, 
 
 patent ffiarriatere, Solicitore anb iByperta, 
 i£nQ\nccv6 anb ©raugbtemen, 
 (Bcneral patent ©fHce. 
 
 Head Office^ Canadian Bank of Commerce Buildings 
 
 King Street West^ 
 
 TORONTO, CANADA. 
 
 Offices in Montreal^ Ottawa and Washington, U.S. 
 
 VA&UUM 
 OIL CO. 
 
 Lubricating 
 
 ^OlLS. 
 
 OFFICES : 
 
 FRONT AND SCOTT STS., 
 
 TORONTO. 
 
 t 
 
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I 
 
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 ENGINEERS* MANUAL. 
 To Find the First Term— 
 
 25 
 
 2S 
 
 Formula, a=^x-{n-i)d=-— - x 
 
 Example— Find the last term of the series, also the sum, 
 7, lo, 13, to 20 terms. 
 
 Ans. 64, 710. 
 
 Geometrical Progression. 
 
 Geometrical Progression is a series of numbers which increase or 
 decrease by a constant factor. 
 
 -J, 6, 12, 24, 48 
 ,6^ 4, I, i, ^ are Geometrical Progressions. 
 
 The constant factor is usually called the Common Ratio. 
 
 Let a = first term. 
 
 y*= common ratio. 
 * « = number of terms. 
 5=sum of the « terms. 
 x= last term. 
 
 To Find the Last Term- 
 Formula, x-af^^ 
 
 To Find the Sum— 
 
 ' f- ' /-' 
 To Find the First Term— 
 
 ■u. 
 
 Formula, s- 
 
 X 
 
 Formula, 0'-—^;;^:^=fx-{f- \) s 
 
 f 
 To Find the Common Factor- 
 
 Formula, f — 
 
 s - a 
 s - X 
 
 nl 
 
 a 
 
 Example-Insert 3 Geometric means between i and 16. 
 From this we get 5 = 5, and the common factor, 
 
 /■ 
 
 n-l * . 
 
 = 2 
 
 a 
 
 Ans. I, 2, 4, 8, 16. 
 
 Example— Find the sum of i, 3, 9» ^^^ *®*""\s- , 
 
 '^ Ans. 3"4* 
 
 Evolution. 
 
 Evolution is the operation of finding any root of a given number. 
 In involution the base and the exponents are given and the power is 
 determined therefrom. In evolution the base is to be determmed, 
 
26 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 All Work done under my 
 personal s'jpervision. 
 
 Telephone 2867. 
 
 JOHN H. SHALES, 
 
 MILLWRIGHT 
 *No ELEVATOR 
 SPECIALIST, 
 
 G>nfe(!eration Life Buildingf^ 
 
 Toronto. 
 
 Elevator Supplies always on hand* 
 
 Agent for MILLER BROS. & TOMS 
 Electric Hydro-Steam and Hydraulic 
 
 ELEVATORS. 
 
 REPAIRS A 
 SPEQALTY. 
 
 G. T. Pendrith&Co., 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF • 
 
 STEAM TRAPS, PIPE CUTTING 
 
 MACHINES, 
 
 DOUGH MIXERS AND BRAKES, 
 
 BUFFING AND POLISHING LATHES, 
 
 SHAFTING, HANGERS AND 
 
 SPECIAL MACHINERY. 
 
 Also the "SUN ■• BICYCLE " to 81 ADELAIDE ST. WEST. 
 A strictly high grade wheel. ToRONTO 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 27 
 
 the power itself being given and also the exponent or index of its 
 degree. By prefixing the symbol y/ denotes the square root of the 
 
 » 6 
 
 given number ; y/ denotes the cube root ; y/ denotes the 5th root. 
 
 Fractional exponents are also used to denote the roots of the numbers 
 
 111 _ 3 s 
 
 as 81', 64 , 32*^, which is the same as y/^ ' , v'^"^* y/^^» 
 
 The 4th root is the square root of the square root. 
 The 6th root is the square root of the cube root. 
 The 9th root is the cube root of the cube root. 
 
 To extract the square root of 123456.789, commence at the deci- 
 mal point and mark off the given number into periods of two places 
 each in the two directions and add as many ciphers as may be neces- 
 
 • • • • • 
 
 sary, as 1 23456. 789000 
 
 Find the greatest number whose square is less than the first left 
 hand period, and place it as the first figure in the quotient. Subtract 
 its square from the left hand period and to the remainder bring down 
 the twd figures of the second period. Double the first figure of the 
 quotient for part of the next divisor ; ascertain how many times the 
 latter is contained in the dividend exclusive of the right hand figures, 
 and set the figure representing that number of times as the second 
 figure in the quotient, and annex to the right of the partial divisor 
 forming now the complete divisor. Multiply the divisor by the second 
 figure in the quotient, and subtract the product from the dividend. 
 To the remainder bring down the next period and proceed as before, 
 in each case doubling the figures in the root to obtain the trial divisor. 
 
 J 
 
 
 123456.789000 1^351.36418 
 
 
 9 
 
 ^ 
 
 334 
 
 
 325 
 
 701 
 
 956 
 
 
 701 
 
 7023 
 
 25578 
 
 
 21069 
 
 70266 
 
 450990 
 
 
 421596 
 
 702724 
 
 2939400 
 
 
 2810896 
 
 7027281 
 
 12850400 
 
 
 7027281 
 
 70272828 58231 1900 
 
 
 562182604 
 
 V 
 
 The square root of 123456.789 is 351.36418 which can readily be 
 proved by squaring this number. 
 
u 
 
 KNGINEERN MANIAL. 
 
 THE 
 
 JOHIItBELLEIIGIIIE&MIICHIIIEWORKSCO., 
 
 LIMITED. 
 
 The Abell Automatic Engine, 
 
 Medal Winner at Chicagfo, 1893. 
 
 Plain Portable Engines, Compound Portable Engines, Plain Traction Engines 
 
 Compound Traction Engines. 
 
 Boilers, Tanks. Saw Mills, Roller Mills. 
 
 Dynamos, Motors, Arc Lamps. 
 
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 ORATE BARS. 
 
 THE JOHN ABELL ENGINE & MACHINE WORKS CO., Limited. 
 
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 FOULDS & CO., 
 
 ^ 
 
 PATENT ATTORNEYS and 
 
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 »»»<€€«€ 
 
 Head Office : 
 
 Confederation Life Building, 
 
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 Branch: 
 MANCHESTER, ENG. 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 29 
 
 iS 
 
 D. 
 
 ^- 
 
 To extract the square root of a vulgar fraction extract the square 
 root of numerator and denominator v/H- J - }y ^i* convert the vulg^ar 
 into a decimal fraction and extract the root y/^ -^.4444 = .6666 or 3. 
 
 To extract the square root of large numbers it is easier done by 
 logarithms. , . , ^ > .^ '-' ■■'•■ 
 
 Example, ^107506 
 
 Log. of 107506=5.03143270 , 
 Divide by 2 = 2.51571635 
 
 '. Log. 2.51571635 = 327.88= square root. 
 
 Practical Geometry. 
 
 To divide a given triangle ABC into any number of equal parts 
 by lines parallel to A B : 
 
 Divide B C into the required number of parts ; upon B C describe 
 a semicircle, raise perpendiculars from the points of division, meeting 
 the semicircle, with C as centre; describe arcs from the points of 
 intersection of the perpendiculars and the semicircle cutting B C'ln i, 
 2, 3, 4, etc. Draw parallels 10 A B from i, 2, 3, 4. 
 
 To divide a triangle into any number of equal parts through the 
 apex : 
 
 Divide the base into the required number of parts and join the 
 points of division to the apex. I'he triangles thus formed have equal 
 bases and equal altitudes, therefore their areas are equal. 
 
 To bisect any irregular figure by a line drawn from one of its 
 corners : 
 
 Let A B CDbe the given figure, and A the given corner. Draw 
 the diagonals A C B D. Bisect B D in F^ and through the point Fy 
 draw F G cutting ^ C in G. Join A G and the figure is bisected. 
 
 To divide a square into any number of equal parts by lines drawn 
 through one of its corners : 
 
 Let AB C D\aQ the required square. Divide the side B C into 
 the required number of parts (say 5), marking the points i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
 and do the same with the side CD marking the points 6, 7, 8, 9, the 
 mark 5 will be at the corner C. Join 2, 4, 6^ 8^ to the corner A and 
 the figure will be divided as required. 
 
 Mensuration of Surfaces. 
 To Find the Area of a Triangle — 
 
 Case L When base and perpendicular are given. 
 
 Rule : Multiply the base by the perpendicular and divide by 2. 
 
 . _ base X perpendicular 
 
 G, 
 
 and by transposition we get 
 
 Base = 
 
 Perpendicular = 
 
 j-.-i. 5 
 
 2 Area 
 
 Perpendicular 
 2 Area 
 
 Base 
 
30 
 
 KNC.INEKRS* MANIAL. 
 
 The 
 
 James Morrison 
 Brass Mf g Co., 
 
 Llmittd, 
 
 89-97 Adelaide Street West, 
 TORONTO. 
 
 Manuffaoturers off and Dealers In 
 
 Every Description of Engineers^ 
 Steam Fitters^ Plumbers and 
 Gas Fitters' Brass Work. 
 Steam, Vacuum, Hydraulic and 
 Recording Sauges and Engineers' 
 Clocks. 
 
 Sole Manufacturers of tbe famous lines of 
 
 J. M. T. Globe, Angle, Gate and Check 
 
 Valves, 
 
 Which are acknowledjjed by Engineers on Locomotives, Marine, 
 Stationary and Portable Eng'ines, to be the best Valves manufactured 
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 as they have given satisfaction to every one who has used them. 
 
 A full line of Lubricators, Oil Cups, Grease Cups, Oiling- Devices 
 of the most approved kinds kept in stock or made to order. Hancock 
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ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 3> 
 
 Case II. When the three sides are jfiven. 
 
 Rtle: From half the sum of the three sides subtract each side 
 separately ; multiply the halt' sum and the three remainders together, 
 and extract the square root of the product. 
 
 Let A, B, C, represent the three sides of the triangle, and 
 
 A + B+C , ,^ . 
 half the sum =^ J 
 
 t ' 
 
 then the formula is 
 
 d 
 
 le, 
 ed 
 ily 
 
 Ve 
 
 es 
 ck 
 le, 
 k. 
 
 ir. 
 
 ^ S{S ~ A){S - B)iS - C) = Area. 
 
 Example — What is the area of a triangle whose sides are respec- 
 tively 9, ID, 12 feet? Ans. — 44.03 square feet. 
 
 Xo Find the Area of a Trapezoid — 
 
 Rule : Multiply half the sum of the two parallel sides by their 
 perpendicular distance. 
 
 A trapezoid is a quadrilateral figure with only one pair of 
 opposite sides parallel. 
 
 Example— A board 8" wide has its two parallel sides i'-6"and 
 2'-3"» what fraction of a square yard will it cover ? Ans.— g'V of a 
 square yard. . ,? ' " 
 
 To Find the Area of a Trapezium. : *, 
 
 Case I. When a diagonal and two perpendiculars are given. 
 
 Rule I. Find the area of each triangle and take the sum. 
 
 Rule II. Multiply half the diagonal by the sum of the per- 
 pendiculars. 
 
 A trapezium is a quadrilateral figure with unequal sides. 
 
 Case II. When the diagonal and the four sides are given. 
 
 Rule : Find the area of each triangle and take the sum. 
 
 Example. — In a trapezium the diagonal is 80 yards, and the two 
 perpendiculars are 36 and 42 yards. What is the area? Ans. — 3120 
 square yards. 
 
 In a trapezium A B CD, the side A D'ls 18', D C 14', CBi^\ and 
 AB12'; the diagonal ^ C is 18'. Find the area? Ans.— 205.37 
 square feet. 
 
 To find the Area of a Parallelogram. 
 
 Rule: Multiply the length by the perpendicular breadth. 
 
 Formula, L.B—A. 
 
 The varieties of parallelograms are the 
 
 Square, having 4 sides equal and all angles right angles. 
 
 Rectangle, having opposite sides equal and all angles right angles. 
 
 Rhombus, having all 4 sides equal, opposite angles equal, but angles 
 not right angles. 
 
 Rhomboid, having opposite sides equal, opposite angles equal, but 
 angles not right angles. 
 
 Given the Area of a Square to find its Side. / 
 
3* 
 
 RNGINEKRS' MANUAL. 
 
 e 
 
 i i 
 
 ^ 1 
 
ENGINEERS MANLAL. 
 
 33 
 
 Rule : Extract the square root of the area. 
 Formula, 5- v/jiTea. 
 
 Example— Find in yards the side of a square whose surface is 
 1,5 acres. Ans. 85.2 yards. 
 
 Given the Area of a Rectangle, Rhombus, or Rhomboid, and the 
 length or the perpendicular breadth to find the other dimension. 
 
 Rule: Divide the area by the given dimension. 
 
 Formula, L — ■ .x . B~~r 
 
 To find ai^y Side of a Right Angled Triangle, the other two being 
 given. 
 
 Case I. When the hypotenuse is required. 
 
 Ri'LE : Square the base and s(|uare the perpendicular, take the 
 sum of these squares and extract the square root. 
 
 Formula, H= y/?~B'^ -f P^, 
 
 Example — The side of a square is 1200'. Find the diagonal. 
 Ans.— 1697 feet. 
 
 Case II. When the perpendicular or the base is required. 
 
 Rule : Square the hypotenuse and square the given leg, take the 
 difference of these squares and extract the square root. 
 
 The formula is deducible from the last, where 
 
 
 
 B- 
 B' 
 
 + />- 
 
 /> = 
 
 m 
 
 -B"" 
 
 B = y/ H'~P' 
 
 Examples — 
 
 A wall is 40' high and a ditch in front of it is 25' wide. What 
 length of ladder is required to reach from the top of the wall to 
 opposite side of ditch ? Ans.— 47. i feet. 
 
 At a distance of 15' a ladder 18' long is placed. How high will it 
 reach ? Ans. — 10' nearly. 
 
 To Find the Area of a Regular Polygon. 
 
 Rule I. : Multiply the length of a side by the perpendicular 
 distance to the centre ; multiply the product by the number of sides 
 and divide by 2, or half the perimeter multiplied by the perpendicular 
 let fall from the centre to one of the sides. 
 
 Rule II. : Square the side and multiply by the number opposite 
 the name of the polygon in the last column of the following table. 
 
 Formula, s"^ x tabular number=area. 
 
 A polygon is a plane figure having 3 or more sides. They are 
 termed regular or irregular, as the sides are equal or unequal. 
 
34 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 Engineers 
 
 who understand 
 
 That a daily difference in steam-producingr Quali- 
 ties of coal foots up largely in the profit and loss 
 account, look closely to their fuel and note that 
 
 Our Coal is an Actual Money Saver. 
 
 The best test is actual trial. This we asi<, satisfied 
 that there is not a better coal on the market. 
 
 THE STANOHRO FUEL GO. OP TORONTO 
 
 f 
 
 TELEPHONE 863 and 1836 
 
 LIMITED 
 
 The 
 
 A. R. Williams Machinery Co. 
 
 LIMITED, 
 
 MANUFACTURERS AND DEALERS IN 
 
 FULL OUTFITS FOR 
 
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 Fupnlture Factopies, Saiv Mills, Shlnffle Mills, 
 Lath Mills, Elevatops, Contpaotops, Thpesheps. 
 
 FULL LINES IN STOCK OF 
 
 BitflTines and Boileps, Ipon Tools, 
 W^oodwopkin^r Machinepy, Dynamos, Motops, 
 Special Machinepy, Mininer Machinepy, Shaftinfir, 
 Belting*, Band Saws, Vises, Anvils, Fopfires, 
 Bpass Goods, Supplies of evepy descpiption. 
 
 EITHER NEW OR SECOND HAND. 
 
 BRANCHES ! 
 
 346 AND 347 St. JAMCS St. MONTREAL. 
 193 COLBORNC St., Brantford. 
 London Tool Co., London. 
 
 HEAD OFriCE '. 
 
 TORONTO, 
 
 front ST. WC8T. OPR.tQUCEN ■ S HOTEL. 
 
}. 
 
 ENGINEERS MANl'AL. 
 
 TABLE OF REGULAR POLYGONS. 
 
 35 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Name 
 
 Perp>endicular 
 
 Radius of 
 
 Length of side 
 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 Radius of 
 
 Circumscrib- 
 
 Radius of Cir- 
 
 Area 
 
 Sides. 
 
 Polygon. 
 
 Inscribed 
 
 ing 
 
 cumscribed 
 
 Side= I. 
 
 
 
 Circle. 
 .28867 
 
 Circle 
 
 Circle-- 1. 
 
 
 3 
 
 Eq. Triangle 
 
 •57735 
 
 I 732 
 
 •43301 
 
 4 
 
 Squares 
 
 •5 
 
 .70710 
 
 I 4r4 
 
 I .0000 
 
 5 
 
 I'entagon 
 
 .68819 
 
 .85065 
 
 I 1756 
 
 1.72047 
 
 6 
 
 Hexagon 
 
 . 86602 
 
 I. 0000 
 
 I . cooo 
 
 2 . 59807 
 
 7 
 
 Heptagon 
 
 I .03826 
 
 I 15238 
 
 .8677 
 
 3 •63391 
 
 8 
 
 Octagon 
 
 1 .20710 
 
 I 30656 
 
 •7653 
 
 4 82842 
 
 9 
 
 Nonagon 
 
 1 37373 
 
 I. 46190 
 
 .684 
 
 6 18182 
 
 lO 
 
 Decagon 
 
 1.53884 
 
 I. 61 863 
 
 .618 
 
 7 69420 
 
 II 
 
 Undecagon 
 
 I 70284 
 
 1-77473 
 
 • 5634 
 
 0-36564 
 
 12 
 
 Duodecagon 
 
 I . 86602 
 
 . I-93I85 
 
 •5176 
 
 11.191615 
 
 Example — What is the area of an equilateral triangle whose 
 side is 30 inches ? Ans. — 389.709 square inches. 
 
 To Find the Perpendicular Heig^ht, from the centre to one of the 
 sides of the Polygon, or in other words, the radius of inscribed circle, 
 which is called the Apothen. 
 
 Rule : Multiply the side by the number opposite the name in 
 column in. in table. 
 
 Example — Find the radius of an inscribed circle in the case of a 
 hexagon, the side being 40. Ans. 34.6408. 
 
 To Find the Radius of the Circumscribing Circle. 
 
 Rule : Multiply the side by the number opposite in column IV. 
 in table. 
 
 Example - The side of an octagon is 8 inches. Find the diameter 
 of the circumscribing^ circle. Ans. — 20.90496 inches. 
 
 To Find the .Side of a Regular Polygon when the area is given. 
 
 Rule : Divide the area by the number in last column of tdble 
 and extract the square root. 
 
 Side = 
 
 -^ Area 
 
 tabular No. 
 
 CL. 
 
 Example — The side of a square is 3 feet, what is the side of a 
 hexagon of the same area. Ans. — 1.862 feet. 
 
 To Find the Area of Irregular Polygons. 
 
 Rule : Divide the polygon into triangles and then find the sum 
 of the areas of these triangles. 
 
 The Value of it. - 
 
 Let the radius of a circle be i, the side of the inscribed square is 
 therefore -J^ and that of the circumscribed will be equal to the dia- 
 meter 2, hence the surface of the inscribed square will be 2 and that 
 of th^ gircumscribed will be 4. 
 
 Let 5=surface of the inscribed polygon, 
 fasurface of the circumscribed polygon, 
 
 %mmm^ 
 
36 
 
 ENGINEERS MANIAL. 
 
 Tbe Goldie & McGolloch Co. 
 
 UNITED. 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 
 IMPROVED STEAM ENGINES AND 
 
 BOILERS. 
 
 ^ 
 
 A' 
 
 V...1 
 
 W^ 
 
 THE "IDEAL" HIGH SPEED ENGINE DIRECT-CONNECTED. 
 
 T?lAllt*it1<r Millc And the Erection of same in the Most Complete 
 r^lUUi 111^ lUlIldy style of Modern Improvement. 
 
 Wool Machinery, Wood- Working Machinery, 
 S?w Mill, Shingle and Stave Machinery, 
 Fire and Burglar-Proof Safes and Vault Doors. 
 
 SPECIAL ATTENTION called to the " Wheelook " Improved 
 Steam Engine, also the " Ideal " High Speed Engine, cut of 
 
 which appears above, as being Unequalled for Simplicity, Efficiency 
 and Economy in Working, and Especially Adapted for Electric Light- 
 ing, Street Bailways, Etc. 
 
 « ^ • ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 QALT, ONT. 
 
 n 
 a 
 
 s 
 d 
 S 
 
 P 
 
 f; 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 37 
 
 
 The area of an inscribed octagon whose circumscribing- circle has 
 
 radius i =.7653- x 4.8284271 (See table on page 35;, y/^ =^2.8284271, 
 
 16 
 and the area of a circumscribed octagon — .8285- x 4.828427 1 ^ ~r~/~ 
 
 = 3-3'37o75- 
 
 From these inscribed and circumscribed polygons we can easily 
 determine the polygons having twice the number of sides. 
 
 .5=2.8284271 ; ^ = 3-3137075, and the area of a polygon having 16 
 sides would he = 'vS\-s, -3.061474 for the inscribed polygon and 
 
 2 S X s 2x 2.828+ X 3.3137+ _ 
 
 "T+ 3.061474 " ^27828+7.061474^" 3- "825979 
 
 By these polygons of 16 sides the surfaces of polygons having 32 
 sides can be easily determined and the process continued until the 
 difference between the inscribed and the circumscribed is infinitesimal. 
 Since the circle lies between these polygons it will differ from either 
 polygon by less than the polygons differ from one another, and there- 
 fore if the figures which express the areas of the two polygons agree 
 they will be the true figures to express the area of the circle. 
 
 The following is the computation of these polygons carried on 
 till they agree, as far as the seventh place of decimals. 
 
 No. of Sides. 
 
 I 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 64 
 
 128 
 
 256 
 
 5»2 
 1024 
 
 2048 
 
 4096 
 
 8192 
 
 16384 
 
 32768 
 
 Inscribed Polyson. 
 2 . 0000000 
 2.8284271 
 3.0614674 
 3.1214451 
 3.1365485 
 
 3- 14033 »» 
 3.1412772 
 
 3 H15138 
 3. 14 I 5729 
 
 3-«4'5877 
 3-14^5914 
 3>4»592? 
 3- 14 '5925 
 
 Circumsci'ibed Polygon. 
 4 . 0000000 
 3-3137085 
 3 1825979 
 
 3- '517249 
 3 1441184 
 3.1422236 
 3.1417504 
 3.1416321 
 3.1416025 
 
 3 1415951 
 3- 1415933 
 3.1415928 
 
 3-1415927 
 3.1415926 
 
 r. 
 
 3. 141 5926 
 
 The approximate area of a circle, having^ a radius i, is therefore 
 
 equal to 3. 1416; i.e., area of circle=radius - x 7t=D- x — It will 
 
 4 
 be observed, in the above table, that the area of the inscribed 
 
 polygon gradually decreases as the number of sides increases, and 
 
 the opposite with the circumsci ibed polygon ; and it necessarily 
 
 follows that, if the number of sides were increased infinitely, the 
 
 two figures would ultimately agree. The above result is correct to 
 
 seven places in decimal. 
 
 For all practical purposes, it is generally taken as 3.1416; but, 
 for very fine calculation, 3- 141 59265359 may be taken, 
 
 To Find the Area of a Circle — 
 
 Rule I.: Square the diameter, and multiply by .7854. 
 
 Rule II.: Square the circumference, and multiply by .07958. 
 
38 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 HECHANICAL STOKER. 
 
 Within the past two years a new device in connection with furnace 
 firing- has been brought to the attention of Canadian manufacturers ; 
 this is the Improved Jones Under Feed Mechanical Stoker. 
 
 This stoker consists of a steam ram or cylinder, with hopper for 
 holding coal outside of furnace proper and a retort or fuel magazine 
 inside the furnace. Into this retort fuel is forced by means of the 
 ram. No grate bars, but dead plates are used, and all air supplied 
 for combustion is forced by means of a blower through tuyere blocks 
 placed on each side of the retort. The ash pit is used for an air 
 chamber. A small auxiliary ram is placed at lowest point in bottom 
 of retort at a point where the fire never reaches^ as all of air supply 
 comes in at grate line. By means of the rams coal is forced with 
 even distribution underneath the fire, each charge of fuel raising the 
 preceding- chnr^e upwards imtil it is forced into the fire. As the 
 green coal Viei .'' ^^tly underneath the burning mass of fuel above, it 
 becomes coked ^ he gases are liberated. Above this coking fuel 
 and below the bun ag mass the air is admitted through the tuyeres, 
 mixed with the gases given off. The mixture of gas and air passes 
 upwards through the burning coke and is consumed, thus giving the 
 benefit of all the combustible matter in the fuel. It may be said that 
 this stoker works on the principle of a Bunsen burner, which gives 
 one of the hottest, most economical flames known to science. 
 
 By the use of this stoker only gases and coke come in contact 
 with the fire, consequently no smoke, clean tubes, no ash. The re- 
 fuse from firing- passes off through the stack in the form of non-com- 
 bustible gases and the minerals, sand, etc., contained in coal falling 
 down the mound of burning fuel and upon the dead plates. The fire 
 in ordinary cases needs to be cleaned but once a day and does not 
 take five minutes a day for each furnace. At all other times the 
 doors should be kept closed. All that is required of the fireman is 
 simply to keep coal in the hoppers and handle the lever as the furnace 
 requires stoking. 
 
 This furnace will burn any kind of bituminous coal or lignite, 
 slack or screenings, and will fully utilize all heat-giving- elements 
 contained therein ; and that whether good coal or refuse slack or 
 screenings are used, this device when properly operated insures a sub- 
 stantially smokeless stack. Also the device will increase the capacity 
 and efficiency of boilers, thereby making it possible to do more work 
 with two stoker fired boilers than with three of the same size fired by 
 hand, and by its use the even non-fluctuating heat saves wear and tear 
 of the boilers, thereby adding to their durability. The use of this device 
 requires no change in boilers proper, the only change being in the 
 furnace. This is so small a chang^e that installation can be made 
 without experiencing trouble from loss of time. The work of the 
 stoker in the largest plants in the Dominion is its own recommendation. 
 For further information, address The Weeks-Eldred Co., of 
 Toronto, Limited, who are sole manufacturers for Canada. 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 i 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 tl 
 
engineers' manual. 
 
 3^ 
 
 To Find the Diameter when the Area is given — 
 
 Rule : Divide the area by .7854 and extract the square root ; 
 or, Multiply 1. 12838 by the square root of the area. 
 
 The areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their 
 diameters. , 
 
 To Find the Circumference when the Area is given — 
 Rule : Divide the area by .07958 and extract the square root ; 
 
 r^. c V Area 
 
 or, Circumierence = 
 
 .07958 
 
 To Find the Area of a Circular Ring — 
 
 Rule : Multiply the sum of the two diameters by their difference 
 and the result by .7854. 
 
 Formula, {D + d)(D—d) .7854; or, 
 {D^-d'') .7854, 
 
 when D represents the larger and d the smaller diameter. 
 
 Example— What is the area of a ring formed by circles having 
 their diameters 25' and 35' ? Ans. — 471.25 square feet. 
 
 . To Find the Area of an Ellipse — 
 
 Rule : Multiply the product of the two diameters by .7854. 
 
 Formula, {DXd) .7854. 
 
 Example —The two diameters of an ellipse are 30' and 25'. Find 
 the area. Ans. — 589.05 square feet. 
 
 To Find the Circumference of an Ellipse or Oval — 
 
 Rule : Multiply half the sum of the two diameters by 3.1416. 
 
 Formula, ("^Jl^) 3.1416 = (z> + tf) 1.5708. '^ 
 
 Relation of the circle to its Equal, Inscribed and Circumscribed 
 Square. 
 
 Diameter of circle x .88623 = side of equal square. 
 
 Circumference of circle X .28209 = side of equal square. 
 Circumference of circle x 1.1284 =- perimeter of equal square. 
 Diameter of circle x .7071 = side of inscribed square. 
 
 Circumference of circle x .22508 = side of inscribed square. 
 Area of circle x .9 -r- diameter = side of inscribed square. 
 
 area of circumscribed square. 
 
 area of inscribed square. 
 
 diam. of circumscribed circle. 
 
 circum. of circumscribed circle. 
 
 circum. of circumscribed circle. 
 
 circular inches. 
 
 To Find the Length of an Arc of a Circle — 
 
 Rule : From 8 times the chord of half the arc subtract the chord 
 of the whole arc and take one third of the remainder. 
 
 Example — The chord of the whole arc is 18' and that of half the 
 arc is 12'. What is the length of the arc? Ans. — 26 feet. 
 
 From the height and half the chord of the arc the chord of half 
 
 Area of circle 
 
 X 
 
 1.2732 
 
 Area of circle 
 
 X 
 
 .63662 
 
 Side ot square 
 
 X 
 
 1. 4142 
 
 Side of square 
 
 X 
 
 4.4428 
 
 Perimeter of square 
 
 X 
 
 .88623 
 
 Square inches 
 
 X 
 
 1.2732 
 
40 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 TORONTO WIRE AND IRON WORKS, 
 
 GEO. B. MEADOWS, 
 
 Proprietor, 
 128 King: Street West, TORONTO. 
 
 lOpposite the Rossin House.) 
 
 ■^■.■I 
 
 ■ ■ ■ ■ 
 
 t -. \ — « — 
 
 
 Manufacture 
 all Grades of 
 
 WIRE CLOTH 
 
 for Lrcomotlve, Mining:, 
 Foundry and 
 Machine purposes. 
 
 Artistic Iron and Brass Work, 
 Iron Railings and Wire Work of all kinds. 
 
 Electro Plating. 
 
 ESTIMATES CHEERFULLY GIVEN. Catalogue on Applloatlon. 
 
 
 
 Positive Grip 
 
 PIPE 
 
 WRENCH 
 
 Cast steel from end to end. Jaws are Oil Tempered 
 and can be re-sharpened with an ordinary file. 
 
 y&M 
 
 14" takes from ^" to i%" 
 24" takes from j^" to 2^" 
 
 AIKENHEAD HARDWARE CO., 
 
 6 ADELAIDE STREET EAST. 
 
 Pipe Tools in Great Variety. 
 
engineers' manual. 
 
 41 
 
 in. 
 
 ed 
 
 the arc is determined in the same manner as finding the base or per- 
 pendicular of a right angled triangle. 
 
 To Find the Radius of a Circle when the chord and height of an 
 Arc are given — 
 
 Rule: Squ^^re half the chord and divide by the height, then add 
 the height and divide by 2. 
 
 Example — With what radius is a circular arch of a bridge to be 
 traced whose span is 120' and rise 12.5'. Ans. — 150.25 feet. 
 
 To Find the Area of a sector of a Circle — 
 
 Rule I.: Multiply the length of the arc by the radius and divide 
 by 2. 
 
 Example — The chord is 24' and the height 6'. Find area of 
 Sector. Ans.— 208.32 square feet. 
 
 Rule II. : Area of circle multiplied by the number of degrees in 
 the arc divided by 360. 
 
 To Find the Area of a Segment of a Circle — 
 
 Rule : Find the area of the sector having the same arc with the 
 segment, find also the area of the triangle formed by the chord of the 
 segment and the two radii of the sector. If the segment be greater 
 than a semicircle, take the sum of these two areas ; if the segment be 
 less than a semicircle, take their difference. 
 
 AREAS OF SEGMENTS OF A CIRCLE. 
 
 The diameter of which is unity and supposed to be divided into 
 
 200 equal pails. 
 
 Height 
 
 Area. 
 
 .000471 
 
 Height. 
 
 Area. Hei 
 
 gilt. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Height 
 
 Area. 
 
 .005 
 
 .130 
 
 •059999 
 
 255 
 
 .157891 
 
 .380 
 
 .273861 
 
 .01 
 
 .001320 
 . 002438 
 
 •135 
 
 .063389 
 
 260 
 
 . 162263 
 
 •385 
 
 .278721 
 
 .015 
 
 .140 
 
 .066833 
 
 265 
 
 .166663 
 
 •390 
 
 .283593 
 
 .02 
 
 .003749 
 
 • 145 
 
 .070329 
 
 270 
 
 .171090 
 
 •395 
 
 .288476 
 
 .025 
 
 ,005231 
 
 .150 
 
 •073875 
 
 275 
 
 •175542 
 
 .400 
 
 .293370 
 
 .03 
 
 .006866 
 
 • 155 
 
 .077470 
 
 280 
 
 . 180020 
 
 .405 
 
 .298274 
 
 .03s 
 
 .008638 
 
 .160 
 
 .081112 
 
 285 
 
 .184522 
 
 .410 
 
 •303187 
 
 .04 
 
 .010538 
 
 .165 
 
 .084801 1 
 
 290 
 
 . 189048 
 
 •4>5 
 
 .308110 
 
 .045 
 
 .012555 
 
 .170 
 
 .088536 1 
 
 295 
 
 '^93597 
 
 .420 
 
 • 313042 
 
 •05 
 
 01 4681 
 
 •175 
 
 •092314 ii 
 
 300 
 
 .198168 
 
 .425 
 
 .317981 
 
 .055 
 
 016912 
 
 .180 
 
 .096135 \ 
 
 305 
 
 . 202762 
 
 •430 
 
 . 322928 
 
 .06 
 
 •019339 
 
 .185 
 
 .099997 
 
 3'o 
 
 .207376 
 
 .435 
 
 •327883 
 
 .065 
 
 021660 
 
 .190 
 
 .103910 
 
 315 
 
 .212011 
 
 .440 
 
 •332843 
 
 .07 
 
 '024168 
 
 .195 
 
 .107843 
 
 320 
 
 .216666 
 
 •445 
 
 .337810 
 
 .075 
 
 '026761 
 
 .200 
 
 .111824 
 
 325 
 
 .221341 
 
 •450 
 
 •342783 
 
 .c8 
 
 ■o'29435 
 
 .205 
 
 .115842 
 
 330 
 
 . 226034 
 
 •455 
 
 .347760 
 
 .085 
 
 '032186 
 
 .210 
 
 .119898 
 .123988 
 
 335 
 
 • 230745 
 
 .460 
 
 .35»742 
 
 .09 
 
 ■035012 
 
 .215 
 
 •340 
 
 •235473 
 
 •465 
 
 .337728 
 
 • 095 
 
 037909 
 
 .220 
 
 .128114 
 
 •345 
 
 .240219 
 
 •470 
 
 ..36a7<7 
 
 .10 
 
 •040875 
 
 .225 
 
 .132273 
 
 .350 
 
 . 244980 
 
 •475 
 
 .367710 
 
 .105 
 
 .043908 
 
 .230 
 
 . 136465 
 
 •355 
 
 •249758 
 
 .480 
 
 .372704 
 
 .110 
 
 .047006 
 
 •235 
 
 .140689 
 
 .360 
 
 •254551 
 
 .485 
 
 •377701 
 
 .115 
 
 .050165 
 
 1 .240 
 
 .144945 
 
 •365 
 
 •259358 
 
 .490 
 
 .382700 
 
 .120 
 
 .053385 
 
 j .245 
 
 .149231 
 
 •370 
 
 .264179 
 
 •495 
 
 .387699 
 
 .125 
 
 .056664 
 
 .250 
 
 •153S46 i 
 
 •375 
 
 .269014 
 
 .too 
 
 .392699 
 
 To Calculate the Area of a Segment by the above table — 
 
43 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 BOILER 
 
 PLATES, 
 
 TUBES, 
 
 RIVETS. 
 
 SHEET STEEL, 
 CORRUGATED GALVANIZED 
 
 IRON* 
 
 ENGINEERStbe MACHINISTS' 
 
 SUPPLIES. 
 
 I 
 
 TWIST DRILLS, EMERY WHEELS, 
 STOCKS and DIES, CHUCKS, 
 PIPE TONGS, PIPE CUTTERS, 
 VALVES, PIPE, Etc. 
 
 RICE LEWIS& SON 
 
 L'MITED, 
 
 COR. KING AND VrCTORIA STS., 
 
 T 
 
 ORONTO. 
 
 ^ 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 43 
 
 Rule : Divide the heif^ht by the diameter, find the quotient in the 
 i.;olumn of heights, then get the corresponding area, multiply same by 
 diameter of circle squared ; the product is the required area. 
 
 Example I. — ^Diameter of circle, 5'; height of segment, 1'. Find 
 the area of segment. 
 
 1 -^ 5 = . 2 Area i= . 1 r 1 824 
 .*, .11 1824 X 5'-*:= 2.7956 sq. ft. or 402.5664 sq. inches. 
 
 <9 
 
 *^ 
 
 Example II. — Find the steam space in a boiler 6' diameter, height 
 of water 4' - 3" from bottom, length j6'. 
 
 6'-4'3"=i'9"; i'9"-r6'=-^P'=.29i6 
 
 height .295=. 193597 
 height . 290= . 1 89048 
 
 difference .004549 
 
 1 .6 X .004549-7-5 = .00151572 which added to . 189048= . i90563=Area 
 of segment with a diameter of i. 
 
 . 190563 X 6** X i6'= 109. 764288 cub. ft. 
 
 The above shows how to calculate the area when the height of 
 segment -j- diameter does not come out an exact number correspond- 
 ing to those in table. 
 
 To further illustrate the above : The difference between the areas 
 of the segments of a circle i" in diameter .295 and .290 high respec- 
 tively is 004549, that is to say for 005 or tttVit drfference in height, 
 a difference of .004549 in area, and as our quotient in the above 
 
 example is not .005, but .0016 the exact difference is I of .004549 
 
 X I.6=.ooi5i6o6, which, when added to the area of .290 which is 
 . 189048= . 190563 as the correct area of circle were i" diameter. 
 
44 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 GEO. WHITE-FRASER, 
 
 MEM. CAN. SOC. CIV. ENG. 
 MEM. AM. INST. ELEC. ENG. 
 
 DOMINION topograph: surveyor. 
 
 Consulting 
 
 Electrical 
 Engineer. 
 
 Advice f^iven on Managfement and Alteration or Extension of Electric and 
 
 Steam Plants. 
 
 Tests of Engines, Motors or Dynamos, etc. 
 
 Specifications, Supervision or Plans for Central Stations, Isolated Plants, 
 
 Water Powers, etc., Electric Railways and Electrical 
 
 Transmission of Power. 
 
 Watef Works Pumping Plants, etc. 
 
 18 IMPERIAL LOAN BUILDING, 1 ORON I O, ON 1 . 
 
 The CHEAPEST and MOST a Pprfprtinil ^111 f 
 CONVEMEMT SINK is the rUlttUUll Olllli . 
 
 Buy 
 
 uy^your Plumbing nALCOLH & CO., 
 
 Steam Goods from 
 
 89 and 91 Church Street. 
 
 I* 
 
RNCINKKRS MANUAL. 
 
 45 
 
 i 
 
 Example III.— Circle 5' diameter, seg^ment i . 105' high. Find area 
 ^ 1 . 1054-5= .221 -quotient 
 
 I height .225=. 132273 
 
 , ,] height .220=. 1281 14 
 
 , \ difference = .004159 
 
 .004159-5-5— .000831, which, added to . 1281 14--. 128945, area for 
 I" diameter. 
 
 . 128945 X 5- =3. 223625 square feet, which is absohitely cor- 
 rect to the fourth figure in the decimals. 
 
 We shall prove Example i by calculating same in a different 
 manner. 
 
 A /)=chord^4' long, A C, C D, each 2.5' long. 
 
 Find Angle. 1 C D— 
 
 AC : AB :: Sin. 90 : f^\n. A C B 
 
 a 
 
 2 :: • : ^_^ 
 
 2-5 
 
 Sin. 
 
 .«=53^8'.-./l CD^ioG" 16'. 
 
 :S- 
 
 To Find the Area of a Sector when the Angle is given — 
 
 Rule : As 360° is to the degrees in the arc of the sector, so is 
 the area of the whole circle to the area of the sector ; or 
 Multiply the arc of tlu sector by half the radius. 
 
 First Method— 360 : 106° 16' :: 5'' X. 7854 : Area of sector= 
 5.7956 square feet. 
 
 From this has to be deducted the area of the triangle A C D to 
 get the area of segment A D E. 
 
 C£=2.5'; C B=C E-B £=2.^-1 = 1.$' 
 
 Area of triangle A C D=2 x 1.5=3 square feet 
 
 5.7956 — 3=2.7956= Area of sector A D E. 
 
46 
 
 engineers' mantai.. 
 
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 5 
 
KNOINKKRS MANl'AL. 
 
 47 
 
 Fiiul 
 
 \noth«*r Example Circle 5' diaineler, Negiueiil 1.105' in lu'ight, 
 
 area. 
 
 \ 1. 105-^5 = . 221 
 
 height, .225-.I3227.? 
 height, .220 -.1281 14 
 diflference — .004159 ' 
 
 .". .oop5q-r5 =.000831, which, when added to .128114, gives 
 .128945 = Area for segment .221 in height, i" diameter. 
 
 .'. . 128945X5''— 3.223625 square feet, which is correct to the 
 fourth place after decimal point. 
 
 To Find the Radius of a Circle when the Chord and Height of 
 the Arc are given — 
 
 RuLB : Square half the chord, and divide by the height ; then 
 
 add the height and divide by 2, 
 
 Example— Required the radius of a circle in which the chord is 
 24', and the height of the arc is 4'. Ans. 20 feet. 
 
 To Find the upright Surface of a Cone — 
 
 Rule: Multiply the perimeter of the base by the slant height 
 and divide by 2. 
 
 To Find the total Surfaci' of a Cone — 
 
 Rule : Multiply the pei imeter of the base by the slant height and 
 divide by 2, then add the area of the base. 
 
 Example I. — The radius of the base of a cone is 3' and the slant 
 height is 10'. Find the upright surface. Ans. — 94.248 square feet. 
 
 Example II. — The diameter of the base of a cone is 25' and the 
 perpendicular height 40'. Find the total surface. Ans. — 2136 sq.ft. 
 
 To Find the Surface of a Sphere — 
 
 Rule : Multiply the circumference by the diameter or square the 
 diameter and multiply by 3. 14 16. 
 
 Example — Find the surface of a sphere whose diameter is 12.5 
 yards. Ans. - 490I square yards. 
 
 To Find the Surface of a Cylinder — 
 
 Rule : Multiply the length by the circumference and add the area 
 of the ends. 
 
 Example -What is the total surface of a cylinder 6' diameter and 
 '3-5' high? Ans. — 34 5576 square yards. 
 
 To Find the Surface of a Frustum of a Cone or Pyramid — 
 
 Rule : To the sum of the areas of both ends add the product of 
 of the sum of the perimeters of the ends by one half the slant height. 
 
 To Find the upright surface, multiply the sum of the perimeters of 
 the ends by one-half the slant height. 
 
 Example — What is the upright surface of the frustum of a hex- 
 agonal pyramid, the length of the sides of the ends being 20' and 12' 
 and the slant height 10'. Ans. — 960 square feet. 
 
 Find the total surface of the frustum of a cone, the circumfer- 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 48 
 
 PREMIER BREWERY of CANADA. 
 
 Beyond Competition 
 are our English and 
 Bohemian 
 
 HOPPED ALES. 
 
 English and 
 Bohemian 
 
 ''GOLDLABEL** 
 in bottles only, 
 
 XXX PORTER. 
 PDLSENER, 
 IMPERIAL and 
 BOCK BEER. 
 
 Ti^« OXeefe Brewery Co., 
 
 of TORONTO, Umited. 
 
 COPPER WORK - 
 
 Brewers^ Distillers^ Confectioners^ 
 Varnish Makers^ Steamboats^ etc* 
 
 ENGINEERS' WORK OF ANY DESCRIPl ION. 
 
 The 
 
 Booth Copper Co., i 
 
 TORONTO, ONT. 
 
 of Toronto, 
 Limited, 
 
enginc:ers manual 
 
 49 
 
 r 
 
 ences of whose ends are 20' and 12' and the slant height 8'. Ans. — 
 171 .29 square feet. 
 
 To Find the Surface of a Wedge — 
 
 Rule : Take the sum of all the separate surfaces. 
 
 Similar Surfaces. 
 
 Circles and similar plain figures are to each other as the squares 
 of their diameters or of their similar sides. 
 
 For Example— As the area of one circle is to the square of its 
 diameter so is the area of another circle to the square of its diameter ; 
 and as the square of the diameter of a circle is to its area so is the 
 square of the diameter of another circle to its area. 
 
 Mensuration of Solids. 
 
 To Find the Solidity of a Sphere or Globe — 
 
 Rule : Cube the diameter and multiply by 5236. • 
 
 Note — .5236 is one-sixth of 3. 1416. 
 
 Example— Find the solidity of a sphere 2 J' in diameter. Ans. — 
 8 cubic feet, 313^ cubic inches. 
 
 To Find the Solidity of a Wedge — 
 
 Rule : Add the three parallel edges together, multiply the sum 
 by the perpendicular breadth of the base and by one-sixth of the 
 perpendicular height. 
 
 Example— The height of a wedge is i^', the edge is if, length 
 of base 2^', and the breadth 4 J". Find the contents in cubic inches. 
 Ans. — 892^ cubic inches. 
 
 To Find the Solidity of the Frustum of a Cone or Pyramid — 
 
 Rule : Multiply the sum of the areas of the two ends and the 
 mean proportional between these areas by the perpendicular height, 
 and divide by 3. 
 
 Example— What is the solidity of the frustum of a hexagonal 
 pyramid, the length of the sides of the ends being 20' and 12', and 
 the slant height 10'. Ans. — 4888. 
 
 To Find the Solidity of a Cube, a Parallelopipedon, a Prism or 
 a Cylinder— 
 
 Rule : Multiply the area of the base by the height. For a cube 
 the rule may be put thus : Cube the :.ides. 
 
 Example — A cistern is 15' long, 9' wide, and 2 J' deep. How 
 many gallons does it hold ? (A gallon =277. 274 cubic inches.) Ans. 
 — 2103^ gallons. 
 
 A boiler 4.5' diameter is 10.5' long. How many lbs. of water will 
 fill it? (A gallon =10 lbs.) Ans. - 10407.34 lbs. 
 
 To Find the Solidity of a Prismoid — 
 
 Rule : To the area of the top and bottom add* four times the 
 area of the middle section (or the product of the sums of the length 
 and breadths of the top and bottom), and multiply the sum by one- 
 sixth the height. 
 
 Note — The prismoid is a solid having parallel end areas, and 
 
so 
 
 I^STABLISHED 1886. 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 Telephone 2489. 
 
 Dominion Copper and Orass Works, : 
 
 Manufacturers DiSUUCrS', BrCWCrS*, confectioners' and 
 
 Marine 
 
 COPPER AND BRASS WORK, 
 
 Varnish Kettles, Dyers' Cylinders, Baths, Boilers, 
 Fire ExtingulsherSf Brass Railing, Metal Spinning, 
 Hose Couplings H" to T', Branch Pipes and Brass 
 Castings 
 
 COULTER & CAMPBELL, 
 
 155 AND 157 GEORGE STREET, 
 AND 2 TO 12 BRITAIN STREET, 
 
 Toronto. 
 
 w 
 
engineers' manual. 
 
 5J 
 
 may be composed of any combination of prisms, cylinders, wedj^^es, 
 pyramids or cones, or frustums of the same, whose bases and apices 
 lie in the end areas. 
 
 Example— What is the content of a trough 6' long, 3' wide at 
 the top, and 5' long and 2' wide at the bottom and 2' deep? Ans. — 
 27§ cubic feet. 
 
 Similar Solids {General Principle), 
 
 Similar solids are to each other as the cubes of their diameters, 
 sides, etc. For example — As the content of a globe is to the cube of 
 its diameter, so is the content on another globe to the cube of its 
 diameter ; and as the cube of the diameter of a globe is to its 
 content, so is the cube of the diameter of another globe to its content. 
 
 Cubic OR Solid Measure. 
 
 1728 cubic inches= I cubic foot. 
 
 27 '* feet=i cubic yard. 
 277.274 cubic inches=i gallon=io lbs. of water. 
 
 AREAS OF SMALL CIRCLES. 
 Advancing by 32nds. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Area. 
 .0621 
 
 Diam. 
 
 i 
 
 Area. 
 
 1 
 
 .2216 J 
 
 Diam 
 
 1 
 
 Area. 
 
 t 
 
 .00076 
 
 i\ 
 
 I 7 
 
 UTS 
 
 ' M 
 
 •4793 
 
 tV 
 
 .0030 
 
 tV 
 
 .0767 
 
 A 
 
 .2485 1 
 
 \l 
 
 •5185 
 
 /? 
 
 .0069 
 
 -Si 
 
 .0928 
 
 .u 
 
 .2768 
 
 n 
 
 •5591 
 
 i 
 
 .0122 
 
 % 
 
 . 1 104 
 
 a 
 
 .3068 
 
 1 I 
 
 .6013 
 
 li^ 
 
 .0192 
 
 M 
 
 .1296 
 
 l\ 
 
 •3382 
 
 i M 
 
 .6450 
 
 x\ 
 
 .0276 
 
 tV 
 
 •'503 
 
 \\ 
 
 .3712 1 
 
 H 
 
 .6903 
 
 h 
 
 .0376 
 
 ^A 
 
 .»7-'5 
 
 n 
 
 •4057 
 
 Ih 
 
 •7370 
 
 i 
 
 .0490 
 
 h 
 
 • 196 i 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 .4417 
 
 I 
 
 •7854 
 
 AREAS OF CIRCLES. 
 Advancing by 8. is. 
 
 AREAS. 
 
 a 
 
 .s 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 /8 
 
 % 
 
 H 
 
 K 
 
 y& 
 
 u 
 
 ^ 
 
 (5 
 
 
 
 .0 
 
 .0122 
 
 .0490 
 
 . 1104 
 
 .1963 
 
 .3068 
 
 .4417 
 
 .6013 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 •7854 
 
 .9940 
 
 . 1227 
 
 1.484 
 
 1.767 
 
 2.073 
 
 2.405 
 
 2.761 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 H16 
 
 3-546 
 
 3 976 
 
 4-430 
 
 4 908 
 
 5 41 1 
 
 5 939 
 
 6 491 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 7.068 
 
 7.669 
 
 8.295 
 
 8.946 
 
 9.621 
 
 10.32 
 
 11 .04 
 
 11.79 
 
 . 3 
 
 4 
 
 12.56 
 
 •3-36 
 
 14.18 
 
 '5-03 
 
 15.90 
 
 16.80 
 
 17.72 
 
 18 66 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 19.63 
 
 20 62 
 
 21 .64 
 
 22 69 
 
 23-75 
 
 24.85 
 
 25.96 
 
 27. 10 
 
 5 
 
S9 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 RoBB- Armstrong 
 Automatic Engines 
 
 CENTKB OR SIOM ORAMK. 
 
 SIZBS UP TO TOO H.R. 
 
 BOILER 
 
 THE MONARCH 
 ECONOMIC 
 
 /S PORTABLE. 
 
 HAS AN OUTER CASING AND REQUIRES NO BRICKWORK. 
 LEAVES OUR SHOP MOUNTED ON SKIDS READY FOR USE. 
 
 SAVES FUEL, 
 
 SOME TESTS SHOW A SAVING OF 30 PER CENT. OVER A 
 COMMON BRICK SET BOILER. WE GUARANTEE AT LEAST 
 ID PER CENT. 
 
 RoBB Engineering Qo., 
 
 LIMITED, 
 
 AMHERST, N.S. 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 !,i-;>' Areas of Circles.— Con/ifiued. 
 
 S3 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 >s 
 
 X 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 'a 
 
 H 
 
 s 
 
 ■5 
 
 6 
 
 28.27 
 
 29 46 
 
 30.67 
 
 3i-9« 
 
 33. '8 
 
 34-47 
 
 35 78 
 
 37-12 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 38-48 
 
 39 87 
 
 41.28 
 
 42.71 
 
 44.17 
 
 4566 
 
 47-17 
 
 48 70 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 50.26 
 
 51.84 
 
 53-45 
 
 55-08 
 
 56-74 
 
 5842 
 
 60.13 
 
 61.86 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 63.61 
 
 65 -39 
 
 67 20 
 
 69.02 
 
 70 88 
 
 72 75 
 
 74-66 
 
 7658 
 
 9 
 
 lO 
 
 78-54 
 
 80 51 
 
 82.51 
 
 84 54 
 
 86.59 
 
 88 66 
 
 90.76 
 
 92.88 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 95 03 
 
 97.20 
 
 99.40 
 
 loi 6 
 
 103.8 
 
 106 I 
 
 108.4 
 
 no. 7 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 113.0 
 
 115-4 
 
 117. 8 
 
 102 2 
 
 122.7 
 
 125 1 
 
 127 6 
 
 130-1 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 132.7 
 
 »35-2 
 
 1378 
 
 140 5 
 
 143- 1 
 
 145 8 
 
 148.4 
 
 151. 2 
 
 13 
 
 H 
 
 153 9 
 
 156.6 
 
 159-4 
 
 162 2 
 
 165.1 
 
 167 9 
 
 170.8 
 
 173 7 
 
 14 
 
 »5 
 
 176 7 
 
 179 6 
 
 182.6 
 
 185.6 
 
 188.6 
 
 191 7 
 
 194.8 
 
 197.9 
 
 15 
 
 i6 
 
 201 
 
 204.2 
 
 207.3 
 
 210 5 
 
 213.8 
 
 217.0 
 
 220.3 
 
 223.6 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 226.9 
 
 230 3 
 
 233-7 
 
 237-1 
 
 240 5 
 
 243 9 
 
 247.4 
 
 250.9 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 254 -4 
 
 258.0 
 
 261.5 
 
 265.1 
 
 268 8 
 
 272.4 
 
 276 I 
 
 279.8 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 283 5 
 
 287 2 
 
 291 .0 
 
 294.8 
 
 298.6 
 
 302.4 
 
 306.3 
 
 310.2 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 3H» 
 
 318. 1 
 
 322.0 
 
 326 
 
 330.0 
 
 334-1 
 
 338.1 
 
 342.2 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 346 -3 
 
 350-4 
 
 354 6 
 
 3588 
 
 363-0 
 
 367.2 
 
 371-5 
 
 375 8 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 380.1 
 
 3844 
 
 3888 
 
 393 2 
 
 397 6 
 
 402 . 
 
 406.4 
 
 410 9 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 415 4 
 
 420.0 
 
 424-5 
 
 429.1 
 
 433-7 
 
 438.3 
 
 443 
 
 447-6 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 452 -3 
 
 457 •» 
 
 461.8 
 
 466.6 
 
 471.4 
 
 476 2 
 
 481 .1 
 
 485 9 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 490.8 
 
 495 7 
 
 500.7 
 
 505 -7 
 
 510.7 
 
 515-7 
 
 520.7 
 
 525 8 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 530 9 
 
 536 
 
 541 -I 
 
 546 3 
 
 551-5 
 
 556-7 
 
 562.0 
 
 567.2 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 572 5 
 
 577-8 
 
 583-2 
 
 5885 
 
 593-9 
 
 599-3 
 
 604 8 
 
 610.2 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 615 7 
 
 621 .2 
 
 626.7 
 
 632 -3 
 
 637 9 
 
 643 -5 
 
 649.1 
 
 654.8 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 660 5 
 
 666.2 
 
 671.9 
 
 677.7 
 
 683 4 
 
 689.2 
 
 695 I 
 
 700 9 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 706.8 
 
 712.7 
 
 718.6 
 
 724.6 
 
 730.6 
 
 736.6 
 
 742.6 
 
 748.6 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 754-8 
 
 760.9 
 
 767 
 
 773-1 
 
 779-3 
 
 785-5 
 
 791.7 
 
 798.0 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 804.2 
 
 810.5 
 
 816.9 
 
 823 2 
 
 829.6 
 
 836.0 
 
 842.4 
 
 848 8 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 855 -3 
 
 861.8 
 
 868.3 
 
 874.8 
 
 881.4 
 
 888.0 
 
 894.6 
 
 901.3 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 907.9 
 
 914 6 
 
 921 3 
 
 928 I 
 
 934-8 
 
 941.6 
 
 948 4 
 
 955-3 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 962 I 
 
 969.0 
 
 975-9 
 
 982.8 
 
 989.8 
 
 996.8 
 
 1003 8 
 
 loio 8 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 1017.9 
 
 1025 
 
 1032. I 
 
 1039.2 
 
 1046.4 
 
 1053 -5 
 
 1060.7 
 
 1068.0 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 1075.2 
 
 1082.5 
 
 1089.8 
 
 1097. 1 
 
 1104.5 
 
 nil. 8. 
 
 1 119 2 
 
 1126.7 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 1 134. 1 
 
 1141 .6 
 
 1 149 I 
 
 1156 6 
 
 1 164.2 
 
 1171.7 
 
 "79-3 
 
 1186.9 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 1194.6 
 
 1202.3 
 
 1210.0 
 
 1217 7 
 
 1225 4 
 
 1233.2 
 
 1 241 .0 
 
 1248.8 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 1256.6 
 
 1264 5 
 
 1272.4 
 
 1280 3 
 
 1288 3 
 
 1296.2 
 
 1304 2 
 
 1312 2 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 1320.3 
 
 1328.3 
 
 1336 4 
 
 1344 5 
 
 •352. 7 
 
 1360.8 
 
 1369.0 
 
 1377.2 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 13854 
 
 1393 7 
 
 1402.0 
 
 1410.3 
 
 1418 6 
 
 1427.0 
 
 •435 4 
 
 1443.8 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 1452.2 
 
 1460.7 
 
 1469. I 
 
 1477.6 
 
 1486.2 
 
 1494 7 
 
 •503-3 
 
 1511 9 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 1520.5 
 
 1529.2 
 
 ^537-9 
 
 1546 6 
 
 1555-3 
 
 1564 
 
 1572.8 
 
 1581.6 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 1590.4 
 
 1599 3 
 
 i6o8.2 
 
 1617.0 
 
 1626.0 
 
 1634.9 
 
 1643.9 
 
 1652 9 
 
 45 
 
 46 
 
 1661 .9 
 
 167 I. 
 
 1680.0 
 
 1689. I 
 
 1698.2 
 
 1707.4 
 
 1716 5 
 
 1725-7 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 17349 
 
 1744.2 
 
 1753-5 
 
 1762.7 
 
 1772.1 
 
 1781.4 
 
 1790.8 
 
 1800. I 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 1809.6 
 
 1819.0 
 
 1828 5 
 
 '837 -9 
 
 1847 5 
 
 1857.0 
 
 1866 6 
 
 1876. I 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 1885.7 
 
 1895 4 
 
 1905 
 
 1914.7 
 
 1924 4 
 
 »934-2 
 
 1943 9 
 
 1953-7 
 
 49 
 
 SO 
 
 1963 5 
 
 1973 3 
 
 1983-2 
 
 1993- I 
 
 2003 
 
 2012.9 
 
 2022.8 
 
 2032.8 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 2042 8 
 
 2052.0 
 
 2062.9 
 
 2073 
 
 2083 I 
 
 2093.2 
 
 2103.4 
 
 2113-S 
 
 51 
 
54 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 MEYER BROS. 
 
 » 
 
 Manufacturers of 
 
 Laundry 
 Machinery 
 
 Cylinder Washers, 
 Steam Mangles, 
 Ex :* actors, 
 Shirt and Collar 
 Ironing 
 Machines, 
 Starching 
 Machines, etc. 
 
 87 CHURCH ST., 
 
 TORONTO. 
 
 
 ^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 Telephone 2368. 
 
 Geo. W. Grant 
 
 &Co., 
 
 GENERAL AGENTS, 
 
 43 WELLINGTON STREET EAST, 
 
 OILS, PACKINGS, 
 BOILER COMPOUND, 
 GENERAL ENGINEERS' SUPPLIES, 
 MACHINERY, ETC. 
 
 TORONTO. 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 Areas of Circles.-- 'Continued. 
 
 J 
 
 55 
 
 s 
 
 «s 
 
 s 
 
 522123.7 
 
 532206. 2 
 54! 2290. 2 
 
 55|2375-8 
 562463.0 
 
 57!255»-8 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 60 
 61 
 62 
 
 63 
 64 
 
 65 
 66 
 
 67 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 72 
 73 
 74 
 
 75 
 76 
 
 77 
 78 
 
 79 
 80 
 
 2642 
 
 2734 
 2827 
 
 2922. 
 
 3019 
 
 3"7 
 3217 
 
 3318 
 3421, 
 
 3525 
 3631 
 3739-3 
 
 3848 
 
 3959 
 4071 
 
 4185 
 4300 
 
 4417 . 
 
 4536 -5 
 4656 . 6 
 
 4778.4 
 
 4901.7 
 
 5026 . 6 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 5 
 5 
 9 
 9 
 
 I/. 
 
 2133 9 
 2216.6 
 
 2300.8 
 
 2386.6 
 
 2474 . o 
 
 2563.0 
 
 2653.5 
 2745.6 
 
 2839.2 
 
 2934 -5 
 
 3031-3 
 3129 6 
 
 3229.6 
 
 3434 2 
 3538.8 
 
 3645' 
 
 3752 -8 
 3862 . 2 
 
 3973-2 
 4085.7 
 4199.7 
 
 43154 
 4432.6 
 
 4551-4 
 4671.8 
 
 4793-7 
 4917.2 
 
 5042 3 
 
 2144.2 
 2227. I 
 
 2311-5 
 
 2397-5 
 2485.1 
 
 2574 2 
 2664.9 
 
 2757-2 
 2851 . I 
 2946.5 
 
 3043-5 
 
 3142 
 
 3242 
 
 3343 
 3447 
 3552 
 3658 
 3766 
 3876.0 
 
 3987-1 
 4099.8 
 
 4214. I 
 
 4330.0 
 
 4447.4 
 
 4566.4 
 
 4686.9 
 
 4809 . I 
 
 4932-8 
 
 5058-0 
 
 21545 
 
 2237 -5 
 2322.1 
 2408.3 
 2496 I 
 
 2585-5 
 2676 . 4 
 
 2768.8 
 
 2862.9 
 
 2958-5 
 3055.7 
 3»54-5 
 3254-8 
 
 3356.7 
 3460 . 2 
 
 3565 -2 
 
 3671 
 
 3780 
 
 3889 
 
 4001 . I 
 
 4II4.O 
 
 4228.5 
 
 4344-6 
 4462.2 
 
 4581-3 
 4702 . I 
 
 4824 . 4 
 
 4948.3 
 
 5073-8 
 
 H 
 
 2164 8 
 
 2175 
 
 I 
 
 2248 
 
 2258.5 
 
 2322. ^ 
 
 '343 5 
 
 2419.2 
 
 2430.2 
 
 2507.2 
 
 25«8 3 
 
 2596.7 
 
 2608.0 
 
 2687.8 
 
 2699.3 
 
 2780.5 
 
 2792 . 2 
 
 2874.8 
 
 2886.7 
 
 2970.6 
 
 2982 . 7 
 
 3068 . 
 
 3080.3 
 
 3166 9 
 
 3'79 4 
 
 3267.5 
 
 3280.1 
 
 3369.6 
 
 3382 4 
 
 3473.2 
 
 3486 3 
 
 3578-5 
 
 3591 
 
 7 
 
 3685.3 
 
 3698 
 
 8 
 
 3793-7 
 
 3807 
 
 3 
 
 3903.6 
 
 3917 
 
 5 
 
 4015.2 
 
 4029 
 
 2 
 
 4128.3 
 
 4142 
 
 5 
 
 4242.9 
 
 4257 
 
 4 
 
 4359.2 
 
 4373 
 
 8 
 
 4477-0 
 
 4491 
 
 8 
 
 4596.4 
 
 4611 
 
 4 
 
 47'7-3 
 
 4732 
 
 5 
 
 4839-8 
 
 4855 
 
 3 
 
 4963-9 
 
 4979 
 
 5 
 
 5089.6 
 
 5105 
 
 4 
 
 2185.4 
 
 2269. I 
 
 2354.3 
 2441. I 
 
 25^:9.4 
 
 2619.4 
 2710 
 
 2803 
 2898 
 
 2994.8 
 3092.6 
 
 3»9*.9 
 3292 8 
 
 3395-3 
 
 3499-4 
 3605.0 
 3712.2 
 382 I . o 
 
 3931-4 
 
 4043-3 
 4156.8 
 
 4271.8 
 
 4388.5 
 4506.7 
 4626 . 4 
 
 4747-8 
 4870.7 
 
 4995-2 
 5121 2 
 
 2195 
 2279 
 
 2365 
 2452 
 2540 
 2630 
 2722 
 2815 
 2910 
 3006 
 3 "04 
 3204 
 
 3305 
 3408 
 
 3512 
 I3618 
 
 I3725 
 
 3834 
 
 |3945 
 
 ;4057 
 4171 
 
 4286 
 
 4403 
 4521 
 4641 
 
 4763 
 4886 
 
 5010 
 5137 
 
 .8 
 .6 
 .0 
 .0 
 6 
 
 .7 
 
 .4 
 
 .7 
 
 .5 
 
 .9 
 
 -9 
 
 4 
 .6 
 
 3 
 
 -5 
 
 -4 
 
 .8 
 
 •7 
 
 -3 
 
 -4 
 . I 
 
 -3 
 
 .2 
 
 .6 
 
 -5 
 . I 
 
 .2 
 
 -9 
 . I 
 
 52 
 53 
 54 
 55 
 56 
 
 57 
 58 
 
 59 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 65 
 66 
 
 67 
 68 
 
 69 
 70 
 71 
 72 
 73 
 74 
 75 
 76 
 77 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES, 
 Advancing by 8ths. 
 
 Circumferences. 
 
 / 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 /s 
 
 X 
 
 }i 
 
 Vz 
 
 'A 
 
 H 
 
 % 
 
 ■5 
 
 
 
 .0 
 
 .3927 
 
 -7854 
 
 1.178 
 
 1-570 
 
 1.963 
 
 2-356 
 
 2-740 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 3-141 
 
 3-534 
 
 3-927 
 
 4-319 
 
 4.712 
 
 5-105 
 
 5-497 
 
 5-890 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 6.283 
 
 6.675 
 
 7.068 
 
 7.461 
 
 7-854 
 
 8.246 
 
 8-639 
 
 9.032 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 9.424 
 
 9.817 
 
 10.21 
 
 10.60 
 
 10.99 
 
 11.38 
 
 11.78 
 
 12.17 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 12.56 ,12.95 
 
 13-35 
 
 13 74 
 
 M-'3 
 
 14-52 
 
 14.92 
 
 »5-3i 
 
 4 
 
 5 15.70 I16.10 
 
 16.49 
 
 16.88 
 
 17.27 
 
 17.67 
 
 18.06 
 
 18.45 
 
 5 
 
5^ engineers' manual. 
 
 BEST QUALITY 
 
 GOAL '"WOOD 
 
 LOWEST PRICES 
 
 THE. 
 
 r^^ 
 
 COAL. 
 
 ^ HEAD OF nee. 
 
 OFFICES : 
 
 20 King: Street West. 4-09 Yonge Street. 
 
 793 Yonge Street. 573 Queen Street West. 
 
 1352 Queen Street West. 204 Wellesley Street. 
 306 Queen Street East. 415 Spadina Ave. 
 Esplanade Street, near Berkeley Street. 
 Esplanade foot of West Market Street. 
 Bathurst nearly opposite Front Street. 
 Pape Ave. and G.T. R. CrossLig. 
 
 THE 
 
 Elias Rogers Co, 
 
 LIMITED. 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 Circumferences.- Continued. 
 
 37 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 lO 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 •3 
 
 '4 
 
 15 
 16 
 
 17 
 18 
 
 19 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 26 
 
 27 
 28 
 
 29 
 30 
 31 
 32 
 33 
 34 
 35 
 36 
 
 37 
 38 
 
 39 
 40 
 
 41 
 42 
 43 
 44 
 
 45 
 46 
 
 47 
 48 
 
 49 
 50 
 51 
 
 18.84 
 21.99 
 
 25- '3 
 28.27 
 
 31 ^i 
 34-55 
 37-69 
 40.84 
 
 43-98 
 47.12 
 50.26 
 
 53 40 
 56-54 
 59 69 
 62.83 
 
 65 -97 
 69. II 
 
 72-25 
 
 75-39 
 78.54 
 81.68 
 
 84.82 
 87.96 
 91 . 10 
 94.24 
 
 97-4 
 
 100. 
 103 
 
 106.8 
 
 IIO.O 
 
 113. 1 
 
 116. 2 
 119.4 
 122.5 
 
 125.7 
 128.8 
 
 131-9 
 
 135. » 
 138.2 
 
 141. 4 
 144-5 
 
 mi 
 150.8 
 
 153.9 
 
 157-1 
 J 60. 2 
 
 % 
 
 19.24 
 22.38 
 
 25-52 
 28.66 
 
 31-80 
 
 34-95 
 38.09 
 
 4».23 
 
 44-37 
 
 47-5« 
 
 50-65 
 
 53-79 
 
 59-94 
 60.08 
 
 63.22 
 
 66.36 
 
 69.50 
 
 72.64 
 
 75-79 
 
 78 93 
 82.07 
 
 85.21 
 
 88.35 
 91.49 
 
 94.64 
 
 97.8 
 
 00.9 
 
 04.1 
 
 07.2 
 
 10.3 
 
 13-5 
 16.6 
 
 19.8 
 
 22.9 
 
 26. 1 
 
 29.2 
 
 35-5 
 38.6 
 
 41.8 
 
 44-9 
 48.0 
 
 51-2 
 
 54-3 
 
 57-5 
 60.6 
 
 % 
 
 H 
 
 19.63 
 
 io.oz 
 
 22.77 
 
 2j. 16 
 
 25-91 
 
 '"6.31 
 
 29.05 
 
 29-45 
 
 32.20 
 
 32.59 
 
 35-34 
 
 35-73 
 
 38.48 
 
 38.87 
 
 41 .62 
 
 42.01 
 
 44-76 
 
 45.16 
 
 47.90 
 
 48.30 
 
 51-05 
 
 5>-44 
 
 54- '9 
 
 5458 I 
 
 57-33 
 
 57 72 
 
 60.47 
 
 60.86 
 
 63.61 
 
 64.01 
 
 66.75 
 
 67-15 
 
 69.90 
 
 70.29 
 
 73 04 
 
 73.43 
 
 76.18 
 
 76.57 
 
 79-32 
 
 79.71 
 
 82.46 
 
 82.85 
 
 85-60 
 
 86.00 
 
 88.75 
 
 89.14 
 
 91.89 
 
 92.28 
 
 95-03 
 
 95-42 
 
 98.2 
 
 98.6 
 
 101. 3 
 
 101 .7 
 
 104.5 
 
 104.9 
 
 107.6 
 
 108.0 
 
 no. 7 
 
 1 II . I 
 
 113-9 
 
 H4-3 
 
 117.0 
 
 117.4 
 
 120.2 
 
 120.6 
 
 123-3 
 
 '23-7 
 
 j.26.4 
 
 126.8 
 
 129.6 
 
 130.0 
 
 132.7 
 
 ^33-^ 
 
 135.9 
 
 136.3 
 
 I139-0 
 
 139-4 
 
 1142.2 
 
 142.6 
 
 H5-3 
 
 •45-7 
 
 148.4 
 
 148.8 
 
 151.6 
 
 152.0 
 
 '54-7 
 
 •55- » 
 
 157-9 
 
 158.3 
 
 161 .0 
 
 161 .4 
 
 >< 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 % 
 
 .2 
 
 20.42 
 
 20.81 
 
 21 .20 
 
 2'. 59 
 
 6 
 
 23-56 
 
 23.95 
 
 24-34 
 
 24.74 
 
 7 
 
 2b. -JO 
 
 27-09 
 
 27-48 
 
 27.88 
 
 8 
 
 29.84 
 
 30.23 
 
 30-63 
 
 31.02 
 
 9 
 
 32.98 
 
 33-37 
 
 33-77 
 
 34- '6 
 
 10 
 
 36.12 
 
 36.52 
 
 36.91 
 
 37 30 
 
 II 
 
 39- 27 
 
 39.66 
 
 40.05 
 
 40.44 
 
 12 
 
 42.41 
 
 42.80 
 
 43.19 
 
 43-58 
 
 '3 
 
 45-55 
 
 45-94 
 
 46.33 
 
 46.73 
 
 '4 
 
 48.69 
 
 49.08 
 
 49.48 
 
 49.87 
 
 '5 
 
 5' 83 
 
 52.22 
 
 52.62 
 
 53.01 
 
 16 
 
 54-97 
 
 55-37 
 
 55-76 
 
 56 '5 
 
 •7 
 
 S8.ii 
 
 58.5' 
 
 58.90 
 
 59 29 
 
 18 
 
 61.26 
 
 61.65 
 
 62.04 
 
 62.43 
 
 '9 
 
 64.40 
 
 64.79 
 
 65.18 
 
 65 58 
 
 20 
 
 67 -54 
 
 67-93 
 
 68.32 
 
 68.72 
 
 21 
 
 70.68 
 
 71.07 
 
 7' -47 
 
 71.86 
 
 22 
 
 73-82 
 
 74-22 
 
 74.61 
 
 75.00 
 
 23 
 
 76.96 
 
 77-36 
 
 77-75 
 
 78.14 
 
 24 
 
 80. 10 
 
 80.50 
 
 80.89 
 
 81.28 
 
 25 
 
 83-25 
 
 83.64 
 
 84.03 
 
 84-43 
 
 26 
 
 86.39 
 
 86.78 
 
 87.17 
 
 87.57 
 
 27 
 
 8953 
 
 89.92 
 
 90.32 
 
 90.71 
 
 28 
 
 92.67 
 
 93.06 
 
 93 46 
 
 93 85 
 
 29 
 
 95-81 
 
 96.21 
 
 96.60 
 
 96.99 
 
 30 
 
 99.0 
 
 99.4 
 
 99-7 
 
 100. 1 
 
 31 
 
 02. 1 
 
 102.5 
 
 102.9 
 
 '03.3 
 
 32 
 
 05-2 
 
 10S.6 
 
 106.0 
 
 106.4 
 
 33 
 
 08.4 
 
 108.8 
 
 109.2 
 
 109.6 
 
 34 
 
 11.5 
 
 I u .9 
 
 112. 3 
 
 112. 7 
 
 35 
 
 14.7 
 
 115.1 
 
 "5-5 
 
 115.8 
 
 36 
 
 17.8 
 
 118.2 
 
 118.6 
 
 1 19.0 
 
 37 
 
 21 .0 
 
 121.3 
 
 121.7 
 
 122. 1 
 
 38 
 
 24. 1 
 
 124.5 
 
 124.9 
 
 125.3 
 
 39 
 
 27.2 
 
 127.6 
 
 128.0 
 
 128.4 
 
 40 
 
 30.4 
 
 130.8 
 
 131-2 
 
 131.6 
 
 41 
 
 33-5 
 
 '33-9 
 
 '34-3 
 
 '34-7 
 
 42 
 
 36.7 
 
 '37 I 
 
 137-4 
 
 '37-8 
 
 43 
 
 39-8 
 
 140.2 
 
 140.6 
 
 141 .0 
 
 44 
 
 42.9 
 
 '43-3 
 
 '43-7 
 
 144.1 
 
 45 
 
 46. 1 
 
 146.5 
 
 146.9 
 
 147 -3 
 
 46 
 
 49.2 
 
 149.6 
 
 150.0 
 
 150.4 
 
 47 
 
 524 
 
 152.8 
 
 '53.2 
 
 '53-5 
 
 48 
 
 55-5 
 
 '55-9 
 
 '56.3 
 
 156.7 
 
 49 
 
 58.7 
 
 159.0 
 
 '59. 4 
 
 •59.8 
 
 50 
 
 61.8 
 
 162.2 
 
 162.6 
 
 163.0 
 
 5' 
 
58 
 
 ENC.INKKRS MANIAL. 
 
 The 
 
 Wm. Sutton Compound Go. 
 
 of Toronto, Limited. 
 
 
 pm 
 
 WILLNOTINJURt] 
 , PACKING__ 
 
 Office : 
 206 Queen St. East. 
 
 Telephone 2239. 
 
 >< 
 
 SAFE, SURE AND RELIABLE. 
 
 The Trade Mark is Registered for the Protection 
 
 of our Customers. 
 
 >< 
 
 NEVER FAILS »'HEN HONESTLY TRIED. 
 
 »€ 
 
 Imitation is the Very Best Proof of Excellence. 
 
ENGINEERS MANl'AL. 
 C I RCUM V ERE NC KS. — Cou/ifl mut. 
 
 59 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 }i 
 
 H 
 
 •64 -5 
 
 164.9 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 '65.7 
 
 rs 
 
 i 
 
 .a 
 
 52 
 
 163.4 
 
 163.8 
 
 164. 1 
 
 165.3 
 
 166.1 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 166.5 
 
 166.9 
 
 •67.3 
 
 167.7 
 
 168.1 
 
 168.5 
 
 168.9 
 
 169.3 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 169.6 
 
 170.0 
 
 170.4 
 
 170.8 
 
 171.2 
 
 171.6 
 
 172.0 
 
 172.4 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 172.8 
 
 173.2 
 
 •73-6 
 
 174.0 
 
 174.4 
 
 174.8 
 
 «75.' 
 
 '7.^. 5 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
 >759 
 
 176.3 
 
 176.7 
 
 177.1 
 
 177-5 
 
 177.9 
 
 178.3 
 
 178.7 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 179. 1 
 
 •79. 5 
 
 179.9 
 
 180.2 
 
 180.6 
 
 181.0 
 
 181. 4 
 
 181. 8 
 
 57 
 
 58 
 
 182.2 
 
 182.6 
 
 183.0 
 
 183.4 
 
 i8j.8 
 
 184.2 
 
 184.6 
 
 18^.0 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 •85.4 
 
 •85.7 
 
 186.1 
 
 186.5 
 
 186.9 
 
 •87.3 
 
 '87.7 
 
 188. 1 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 188.5 
 
 188.9 
 
 '89.3 
 
 189.7 
 
 190. 1 
 
 190.5 
 
 1Q0.9 
 
 191 .2 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 191 .6 
 
 192.0 
 
 192.4 
 
 192.8 
 
 '93-2 
 
 193.6 
 
 194.0 
 
 •9-1.4 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 194.8 
 
 195.2 
 
 •95-6 
 
 196.0 
 
 196.4 
 
 196.7 
 
 '97 ■ • 
 
 •97.5 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 197.9 
 
 •98.3 
 
 198.7 
 
 199.1 
 
 199.5 
 
 199.9 
 
 200.3 
 
 200.7 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 201 . 1 
 
 20 1 . 5 
 
 201.8 
 
 202.2 
 
 202.6 
 
 203.0 
 
 203.4 
 
 203.8 
 
 64 
 
 65 
 
 204.2 
 
 204.6 
 
 205.0 
 
 205.4 
 
 205.8 
 
 206.2 
 
 206.6 
 
 207.0 
 
 65 
 
 66 
 
 207.3 
 
 207.7 
 
 208.1 
 
 208.5 
 
 208.9 
 
 209.3 
 
 209.7 
 
 210. 1 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 210.5 
 
 210.9 
 
 211.3 
 
 211.7 
 
 212.1 
 
 212.5 
 
 212.8 
 
 213.2 
 
 67 
 
 68 
 
 213.6 
 
 214.0 
 
 214.4 
 
 214.8 
 
 21S.2 
 
 215.6 
 
 216.0 
 
 216.4 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 216.8 
 
 217.2 
 
 217.0 
 
 217.9 
 
 218.3 
 
 218.7 
 
 219. 1 
 
 219.5 
 
 69 
 
 70 
 
 219.9 
 
 220.3 
 
 220.7 
 
 221 . 1 
 
 221,5 
 
 221 .9 
 
 222.3 
 
 222.7 
 
 70 
 
 7« 
 
 223.1 
 
 223.4 
 
 223.8 
 
 224.2 
 
 224.6 
 
 225.0 
 
 225.4 
 
 225.8 
 
 7« 
 
 72 
 
 226.2 
 
 226.6 
 
 227.0 
 
 227.4 
 
 227.8 
 
 228.2 
 
 228.6 
 
 228.9 
 
 72 
 
 73 
 
 229.3 
 
 229.7 
 
 230.1 
 
 230.5 
 
 230.9 
 
 231.3 
 
 231.7 
 
 232.1 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 
 232.5 
 
 232.9 
 
 233 -3 
 
 233-7 
 
 234.0 
 
 234 -4 
 
 234 .8 
 
 235 -2 
 
 74 
 
 75 
 
 2356 
 
 236.0 
 
 236.4 
 
 236.8 
 
 237.2 
 
 237.6 
 
 238.0 
 
 238.4 
 
 75 
 
 76 
 
 238.8 
 
 239.2 
 
 239-5 
 
 239-9 
 
 240.3 
 
 240.7 
 
 241 . 1 
 
 241.5 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 241.9 
 
 242.3 
 
 242.7 
 
 243. « 
 
 243.5 
 
 243-9 
 
 244-3 
 
 244.7 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 245.0 
 
 245-4 
 
 245-8 
 
 246.2 
 
 246.6 
 
 247.0 
 
 247-4 
 
 247.8 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 248.2 
 
 248.6 
 
 249.0 
 
 249.4 
 
 249.8 
 
 250.1 
 
 250.5 
 
 250.9 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 251-3 
 
 251-7 
 
 252.0 
 
 252-5 
 
 252.9 
 
 253.3 
 
 253 -7 
 
 254 . » 
 
 80 
 
 FOAMING IN BOILERS. 
 
 The causes are (i) dirty water, (2) trying- to evaporate more 
 water than the size and construction of the boiler is intended for, 
 (3) taking- steam too low down, (4) insufficient steam room, (5) imper- 
 fect construction of boiler, (6) too small a steam pipe, (7) and some- 
 times by carrying the water line too high. 
 
 Too little attention is paid to boilers with regard to their evapo- 
 rative power. Where the boiler is large enough for the water to 
 circulate, and there is enough surface to give off steam, foaming 
 never occurs. 
 
 As the particles of the steam have to escape to the surface of the 
 water in the boiler, unless that is in proportion to the amount of steam 
 to be gfenerated, it will be delivered with such violence that the water 
 will be mixed with it, and cause foaming. 
 
6o 
 
 ENCINKKRK MANl'AI. 
 
 / 
 
 Mica Boiler 
 Coverings. 
 
 All Steam Users should see the NEW MICA 
 BOILER and PIPE COVERING. It is Flexible, 
 Durable and a Magnificent Non-Conductor of 
 Heat* 
 
 Tested by Mechanical Experts of the Can- 
 adian Pacific Ry» Co., Grand Trunk Ry. Co., 
 Michigan Central Ry. Co . Boiler Inspection and 
 Insurance Co., and proved to be the BEST 
 OF ALL NON-CONDUCTORS. 
 
 Full Particulars, Reports of Trials, Prices, Testi- 
 monials, etc., from 
 
 Mica Boiler 
 Covering Co 
 
 I 
 
 LIMITED, 
 
 MONTREAL. 
 WINNIPEG. 
 
 9 JORDAN STREET, 
 
 TORONTO, ONT. 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 61 
 
 Of 
 
 ,n- 
 
 nd 
 ST 
 
 ;tx- 
 
 For violent ebullition, a plate hunjj over the hole when the steam 
 enters the dome from the boiler is a ^ood thin)^ and prevents a ruiih 
 of water by breakings it, when the throttle is opened suddenly. 
 
 In cases of very violent foaming it is imperative to check the 
 draft and cover Bres. 
 
 The steam pipe may be carried through the flange six inches into 
 the dome, which will prevent the water entering the pipes by follow 
 ing the sides of the dome as it does. 
 
 A case of priming was slopped by removing some of the lubes 
 under the smoke stack in the U, S. Steamer Galina, and substituting 
 bolts. 
 
 Clean water, plenty of surface, plenty of steam room, large steam 
 pipes,,boilers large enough to generate steam without forcing the fires, 
 are all that is required to prevent foaming. 
 
 PIPE COVERING. 
 
 With reference to the economy and cost of non-conducting 
 material, it may be said that the material which is in the greatest 
 degree non-conducting, incombustible and durable, will prove the 
 most economical, even though its first cost be greater than that of an 
 inferior article. Experiments with naked pipes show that 2' pipe 
 carrying steam at 60 lbs. pressure will condense 180 grammes per 
 foot per hour. Covered with the best non-conducting covering the 
 condensation will be 36 grammes per foot per hour, a saving of 14^ 
 grammes per foot per hour, which is equivalent to 3 lbs. of water per 
 day of 10 hours for each foot of pipe covered. The covering of 100' 
 of pipe will then save, in a year of 300 ten-hour days, the coal neces- 
 sary to convert 90,000 lbs. of water into steam. One pound of bitu-. 
 minous coal is capable of converting about 8.5 lbs. of water into 
 steam, so that the saving in coal due to 100 feet of covering would be 
 10,588 lbs. of coal, which at $4.00 per ton amounts to $21.16. The 
 real saving would probably be more than this. It may be stated in 
 round terms that 100' of covering causes each year a saving in fuel of 
 its own first cost. Inasmuch as the best non-conducting covering 
 pays for itself in one year, and will last indefinitely under ordinary 
 circumstances, its efficiency is beyond question. 
 
 From tests made by the Canadian Pacific Railway Company in 
 1896, of the comparative value of some of the best-known coverings, 
 it appeared that the amount of heat lost by radiation through the 
 different substances tested were as follows : 
 
 Bare Tank 
 
 Asbestos composition 
 
 Magnesia Blocks 
 
 Wood laggfing and airspace 
 
 Asbestos and Wood 
 
 Mica 
 
 IT. 
 
 Mean tem- 
 perature 
 during- 5th 
 hour. 
 
 133V6 
 
 1 8 I'M 
 181% 
 iSs 
 
 Difference 
 between 
 tank and at- 
 mosphere. 
 
 55^^ 
 
 85H 
 103M 
 
 103'M 
 107 
 
 Loss in 
 
 5th 
 
 hour. 
 
 II 
 
 9 
 7 
 7 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 I Loss in 5th 
 hour per de- 
 I gree of 
 difference of 
 .temperature 
 
 .198 
 
 .105 
 
 .0674 
 
 .0674 
 
 .056 
 
 .0428 
 
62 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 M 
 
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 3 
 
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 (A 
 
 4) 
 
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 B 
 
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 8 
 
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 tS 
 
 B 
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 be 'tS 
 
 B «9 
 
 V 
 
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 £ flfi 
 
 •- > 
 
 .MB. 
 
 :^ ^ ^ S 
 
 O "O 
 
 B O 
 
 
 Pt/) auaoirtj^cB 
 
 O « • 
 
 4) W « 
 
 '•^ — J! 
 
 B a 
 
 9 4 
 
 UJ 
 
 cn 
 
 OQ 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 63 
 
 The loss of heat by radiation from naked pipes is very consider- 
 able, and in case of long- pipes, becomes serious, not only on/iccount 
 of the waste of fuel, but because the condensed water interferes very 
 badly with the working of the engine. 
 
 The exposed surfaces of boilers should also be protected from 
 radiation by some efficient material. Many substances having- widely 
 different values as a protection from radiation have been used. Hair 
 felt is the most eflFective jacketing known, but it has the disadvantage 
 of soon rotting when exposed to heat. The following table shows 
 the relative amounts of heat radiated from felt jacketing of different 
 thicknesses, the radiating power of a rough cast iron surface being 
 taken as 100: 
 
 o"..3s of felt, heat radiated 3219 
 
 o".s " " " 22.4 
 
 1" " " '• II. 2 
 
 J".S " *' *' 5-7 
 
 3" " " " 4.5 
 
 a".5 " " " 3-5 
 
 2« ♦» »k " 2.6 
 
 These figures point to the fact that little is to be gained by increasing 
 the thickness of the felt over two (2) inches. The following table, by 
 Chas. E. Emery, Ph.D., gives the relative non-conductivity of various 
 materials : , , •. 
 
 MATERIAL. 
 
 VALUE.! 
 
 100 
 83.2 
 
 71-5 
 68 
 
 67.6 
 63 2 
 
 55-3 : 
 
 MATERIAL. 
 
 VALUE. 
 
 Hair Felt 
 
 i Loam 
 
 Slaked Lime.. 
 
 Gas House Carbon 
 
 55 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 36-3 
 
 34-5 
 
 27.7 
 
 13.6 
 
 Mineral Wool, No. 2 
 
 do. with Tar . 
 
 Sawdust 
 
 Mineral Wool, No. 1 
 
 , Asbestos 
 
 Coal Ashes 
 
 Coke, in lumps 
 
 Air space 2 inches deep 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 Pine Wood, across grain . . 
 
 ** Mineral Wool" is a good protection, and is incombustible. It 
 is a fibrous material made from slag. Ashes and loam should not be 
 used on account of their tendency to absorb moisture, and because 
 they hasten corrosion when leakage occurs. A cheap and effective 
 protection is obtained by plastering the surface with a layer, 2 inches 
 thick, of mortar composed of one third plaster of paris by volume and 
 two-thirds sawdust, over which a covering of hair felt or mineral 
 wool, an inch thick, is fastened with wire, the whole being enclosed 
 in roofing paper secured in the same way. A French method employs 
 a paste of flour mixed with sawdust until a moderately thick dough is 
 formed. Four or five layers are applied, each one-fourth inch thick. 
 Iron surfaces should be well cleaned from grease before application. 
 While copper should be washed with a hot solution of clay in water. 
 A coating of tar renders the mixture weather-proof. Besides these, 
 there are many patent coverings composed of mica, asbestos, mag- 
 nesia, etc., all of which have their merits. 
 
64 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 USE 
 
 LUXFER 
 PRISMS 
 
 :££i.. Daylight. 
 
 Engrineers know the advantage of havingrdayligrht to 
 
 work by In 
 
 BASEMENTS, 
 
 ENGINE ROOMSand 
 
 WORKSHOPS. 
 
 By using Luxfer Prisms daylight can be carried into 
 imperfectly lighted rooms of any descrlpti6n. 
 
 ESTIMATES GIVEN. 
 
 Luxfer Prism Company, united. 
 
 58 Yonge street, TORONTO. 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL 
 
 65 
 
 USEFUL INFORMATION. 
 
 The heig^ht of a coluinn of fresh water, equal to a pressure of i 
 lb. per square inch, is 2.31 feet. Acohimn of water i foot high exefts 
 a pressure of .433 lbs. per square inch. The capacity of a cylinder 
 in g-allons is equal to the length in inches multiplied by the area in 
 inches, divided by the cubical contents of one gallon in inches (see 
 following table). The velocit)' in feet per minute, necessary to dis- 
 charge a given volume of water in a given time, is found by multiply- 
 ing the number of cubic feet of water by 144 and dividing the product 
 by the area of the pipe in inches. Tho area of a required pipe, the 
 volume and velocity being given, is found by multiplying the number 
 of cubic feet of water by 144 and dividing the product by the velocity 
 in feet per minute. The area being found, the diameter is obtained 
 by the Table of Areas. Doubling the diameter of the pipe increases 
 its capacity four times. The friction of liquids in pipes increases as 
 the square of the velocity. The horse-power necessary to elevate 
 water to a given height is found by multiplying the weight of the 
 water elevated per minute, in pounds, by the height in feet and divid- 
 ing the product by 33,000. An allowance of 25 per cent, should be 
 made for friction, etc. 
 
 Weight and Capacity of Different Standard Gallons of 
 
 Water. 
 
 Imperial or English. 
 United States 
 
 Cubic 
 
 Inches in a 
 
 Gallon. 
 
 277.274 
 231 
 
 Weiiifht of 
 
 a Gallon 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 I 
 
 Gallons in j 
 a cubic I 
 foot. 
 
 10 
 8 
 
 00 
 33"! 
 
 6.232102 
 7.480519 
 
 Weight of a cu- 
 bic foot of water, 
 English stand- 
 ard, 62. 321 i)ound& 
 Avoii'dupois. 
 
 A cubic inch of water, evaporated under ordinary atmospheric 
 pressure will be converted into approximately i cubic foot of 
 steam, and it exerts a mechanical force equal to lifting 2,120 lbs. 
 i' high. 27,222 cubic feet of steam weigh i lb , 13 817 cubic feet of 
 air weigh i lb., the specific gravity of steam, at atmospheric 
 pressure being .441 that of air at 34° F., and .0006 that of water at 
 the same temperature. 
 
 The government method prescribed for cleaning brass, and in use 
 at all the United States arsenals, is said to be the best in the world; 
 The plan is to make a mixture of two parts nitric and one part sul- 
 phuric acid in a stone jar, having also a pail of fresh water and a box 
 of sawdust. The articles to be treated are first dipped into the acid, 
 then placed in the water, and finally rubbed with the sawdust. This 
 immediately changes them to a brilliant color. If the brass is greasy, 
 it is first dipped into a strong solution of potash or soda in warm 
 water, and then rinsed. This dissolves the grease and leaves the 
 acid free to act. 
 
 In backing out bolts, without protection for the thread/ strike thei 
 hardest blows possible with ^ heavy hammer. Light blows with a 
 light hammer only upset the bolt. 
 
66 
 
 engineers' manual. 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 BELTING. 
 
 67 
 
 Although thore is not nearly as much known in general about 
 the power of transmitting agencies as there should be. still it seems 
 that almost any other method or means is better understood than 
 belts. One of the chief difficulties in the way of a better knowledge 
 of the belting problem, is the relations that belts and pulleys bear to 
 each other. The general supposition, and one that leads to many 
 errors, is that the larger in diameter a pully is, the greater its holding 
 capacity — the belt will not slip so easily, is the belief. But it is merely 
 a belief, and has nothing to sustain it unless it be faith, and faith 
 without work is an uncertain factor. I would like here to impress 
 upon the minds of all interested the following immutable principles 
 or laws : 
 
 7. The adhesion of the belt to the pulley is the same, the arc or 
 number of degrees of contact, aggregate tension or weight being the 
 samCf without reference to width of belt or diameter of pulley. 
 
 2. A belt will slip just as readily on a pidley ^ in diameter as it 
 7vill on a pulley 2' in diameter, provided the conditions of the faces of 
 the pulleys^ the arc of contact, the tension and the number of feet the 
 belts travel per minute are the same in both cases. 
 
 J, A belt of a given ividth, and making 2,000 or any other given 
 number of feet per minute, will transmit as much power running on 
 ptdleys, ^ in diameter, provided the arc of contact, tension and con- 
 ditions of pulley faces all be the same in both cases. 
 
 It must be remembered, in reference to the first rule, that when 
 speaking of tension, that aggregate tension is never meant unless so 
 specified. A belt 6" wide, with the same tension, or as taut as a belt 
 I" wide, would have 6 times the aggregate tension of the i" belt. Or 
 it would take 6 times the force to slip the 6" belt as it would the 1". 
 I prefer to make the readers of this, practical students. I want them 
 to learn for themselves. Information obtained in that way is far more 
 valuable, and liable to last much longer. In order that the reader 
 may more fully understand whether or not a large pulley will hold 
 better than a small one ; let him provide a short, stout shaft, say 3 or 
 4' long and 2" in diameter. To this shaft firmly fasten a pulley, say 
 12" in diameter, or any other size small pulley that may be convenient. 
 The shaft must be then raised a few feet from ^*^e floor and firmly 
 fastened, either in vices or by some other means, so that it will not 
 turn. It would be better, of course, to have a smooth-faced iron 
 pulley, as such are most generally used. So far as the experiment is 
 concerned, it would make no difference what kind of a pulley was 
 used, provided all the pulleys experimented with be of the ^iame 
 kind, and have the same kind of face finish. When the shaft and 
 puHcys are fixed in place, procure a new leather belt and throw it 
 over the pulley. To one end of the belt attach a weight, equal say 
 to 40 lbs. — or heavier, if desired — for each inch in width of belt 
 used ; let the weight rest on the floor. To the other end of the belt 
 attach another weight, and keep adding to it until the belt slips and 
 raises the first weight from the floor. After the experimenter is 
 satisfied with playing with the 12" pulley, he can take it off the shaft 
 and put on a 24", a 36", or any other size he may wish, or, what is 
 
68 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 MiTHigh-Class Suitings, 
 Overcoats, etc.. 
 
 Are always in stock and ready for your inspection* 
 Perfect Fit^ Best of Material and Workmanship* 
 Lowest possible prices* 
 
 G* Hawley Walker, 
 
 J 26 and J 28 
 
 THE YONGE STREET 
 TAILOR. 
 
 SMOKE 
 
 Board of Trade 
 
 5C. Cigars and 
 
 Royal Crown 
 
 IOC. Cigars. 
 
 MANUFACTURED BY 
 
 Spilling Bros., 
 
 137 JARVIS STREET. 
 
engineers' manual. 
 
 69 
 
 better, he can have all on the same shaft at the same time. The belt 
 can then be thrown over the large pulley, and the experiment 
 repeated. It will then be found, if pulley faces are alike, that the 
 weight which clipped the belt on the small pulley will also slip it on 
 the large one. The method shows the adhesion of a belt with 180° 
 contact, but as the contact varies greatly in practice, it is well enough 
 to understand what may be accomplished with other arcs of contact. 
 But, after all, many are probably at a loss how to account for some 
 observations previously made. They have noticed that when a belt 
 at actual work slipped, an increase in the size (diameter) ofthe pulleys 
 always remedied the difficulty and prevented the slipping. A belt 
 has been known to refuse to do the work allotted to it, and continue 
 to slip over pulleys 2' in diameter, but from the moment the pulleys 
 were changed to 3' in diameter there was no further trouble. These 
 observed facts seem to be at variance with and to contradict the- 
 results of the experiments that have been made. All, however, may- 
 rest assured that it is only apparent, not real. The resistance to slip- 
 page is simply a unit of useful effect, or that which can be converted 
 into useful effect. The magnitude of the unit is in proportion to the 
 tension ofthe belt. The sum total of useful effect depends upon th& 
 number of times the unit is multiplied. A belt 6" -wide and having a 
 tension equal to 40 lbs. per inch in width, and travelling at the rate of 
 i' per minute, will raise a weight of 240 lbs. 1' high per minute. If the 
 speed of the belt be increased to 136.5' per minute, it will raise a 
 weight of 33,000 lbs. per minute, or be transmitting i-horse power. 
 The unit of power transmitted by a belt is rather more than its ten- 
 sion, but to take it at its measured tension is at all times safe, and 40 
 to 45 lbs. of a continuous working strain is as much, perhaps, as a 
 single belt should be subjected to. A little reflection will now con- 
 vince the reader that a belt transmits power in proportion to its lineal 
 speed, without reference to the diameter of the pulleys. Having 
 arrived at that conclusion, it is then easy to understand why it is 
 that a belt working over a 36" pulley will do its work easy, when it 
 refused to do it and slipped on 24" pulleys. If the belt travelled 800' 
 per minute on the 24" pulleys, on the 36" pulleys it would travel 1,200', 
 thus giving it one-half more transmitting power; if in the first instance 
 it was able to transmit but 8 horse power, in the second instance 
 it will transmit 12-horse power. All of which is due to the increase 
 in the speed of the belt and not to the increase in the size of 
 the pulleys; because, as has been shown, the co-efficient of friction 
 or resistance to slippage, is the same on all pulleys with the same arc 
 of belt contact. There is no occasion for elaborate and perplexing 
 formulas and intricate rules. They serve no useful purpose, but tend 
 only to mystify and puzzle the brain of all who are not familiar with 
 the higher branches of mathematics ; and it is the fewest number of 
 our every-day practical mechanics who are 30 familiar. In all, or 
 nearly all treatises on betting, the writer will tell you that at 600, 800 
 or 1000' per minute, as the case may be, a belt \" wide will transmit 
 1 -horse power; and yet when we come to apply their rules to prac- 
 tice, no such results can be obtained one time in ten. The rules are 
 just as liable to make the belt travel 400, 1000 or 1600 per minute per 
 horse power, as the number of feet they may give as indicating a 
 horse power. I have adopted, and all my calculations are based upon 
 
70 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 the assumption that a belt travelling 800' per r.iiiuito, and running 
 over pulleys both of which are the same diameters, will easily 
 transmit i -horse power for each inch in width of boll. A belt 
 under such circumstances would have 180" of contact on both pulleys 
 without the interposition of idlers or tighteners. The last pro- 
 position being accepted as true, and the basis correct, the whole 
 matter resolves itself into a very simple problem, so far as a 
 belt with 180° contact is concerned. It is simply this: If a belt 
 travelling 800' per minute transmit one-horse power at 1,600', it will 
 transmit two horse power, or, if 2,400', three horse power, and so on. 
 It is no trouble for anyone to understand that, if he understands 
 simple multiplication or division. It is not, however, always the case 
 that both pulleys are the same size ; and as soon as the relative sizes 
 of the pulleys change, the transmitting power of the belt changes, 
 and that is the reason why no general rule has ever or ever will be 
 made for ascertaining the transmitting capacity of belts under all 
 circumstances. When the pulleys differ in size, the larger of the two 
 is lost sight of — it no longer figures in the calculations — the small 
 pulley only must be considered. To get at it, the number of degrees 
 of belt contact on the small pulley must be ascertained as nearly as 
 possible, and used for a guide for getting at the transmitting power, 
 the next established basis below. Of course the experimenter can 
 make a rule for every degree of variation ; but it would require a 
 great many, and is not necessary. I use five divisions, as follows : 
 
 For 180° useful effect i . 00 
 
 •' i57r •' 92 
 
 13.';° '• 84 
 
 I12i° ♦' 76 
 
 " 90° *' 64 
 
 The experimenters may find that my figures are under-obtained 
 results, which is exactly what thv.y are intended to be, more 
 especially at the 00° basis. I wish to make ample allowance. To 
 ascertain the power a belt will transmit under the first-named con- 
 ditions, divide the speed of the belt in feet per minute by 800, mul- 
 tiply by its width in inches and by 100. For the second, divide by 
 800, multiply by width in inches and by . 92. Third place, divide by 800, 
 multiply by width in inches and by .84. Fourth place, divide by 800, 
 multiply by width in inches and by .76. Fifth place, divide by 800, 
 multiply by width in inches and by .64. As an example : What 
 would be the transmitting power of a 16" belt, travelling 2,500' per 
 minut ? by each of the above rules ? 
 
 1st. 250o-^8oo=^3.l25 X 16 and I 00 = 50 h. p. 
 
 2nd. 2500^800 = 3. 125 X 16 and .92=46 h. p. 
 
 3rd. 25oo-^8oo=3. 125 X 16 and .84 = 42 h. p. 
 
 4th. 2500-^800 = 3. 125 X 16 and .76 = 38 h. p. 
 
 5th. 2500 -^ 800=3. 125 X 16 and .64 = 32 h. p. 
 As I have said, if the degrees of contact come between the divisions 
 named above, in order to be on the safe side calculate from the first 
 rule below it, or make an approximate, as they like. If the above 
 lesson is studied well and strictly used, there can be no excuse for 
 any mechanic putting in a belt too small for the work it has to do, 
 provided he knows how much there is to do, which he ought, 
 somewhere near at least. 
 
 
 
engineers' manual. 
 STEAM. 
 
 71 
 
 i 
 
 Sensible and Latent Heat* Heat ^iven to a substance, and warm- 
 ing- it, is said to be sensible in the substance. Heat given to a sub- 
 stance and not warming it is said to become latent. — Sir Wm, 
 Thomson, 
 
 Latent Heat is the quantity of heat which must be communicated 
 to unit mass of a body in a given state, in order to convert it into 
 another state without changing its temperature. — Maxwell. 
 
 If I lb. of ice be placed where it will receive heat uniformly at the 
 rate of 18 units per minute it will melt gradually so that more and 
 more of it becomes water until at the end of 8 minutes it is all melted; 
 during this time the temperature of the ice and water will have re- 
 mained at 32^ This shows that 144 units of heat have been spent 
 without increasing the sensible heat ot the substance ; these 144 heat 
 units have become latent in the water and this is the amount that 
 must be taken from i lb. of water at 32° to change it to ice at 32°. 
 
 If the heat is still kept on the i lb. of water at 32°, it will in 10 
 minutes receive 10 x 18=180 units, which will raise its temperature to 
 212° when it will boil. It will continue to boil and become gradually 
 converted into steam until in 53.7 minutes the whole is so changed. 
 During this change its temperature will remain steadily at 212" and 
 therefore 53.7 x 18=966,6 units will have become latent in steam. 
 
 Latent Heat of Fusion* When a body passes from the solid to 
 the liquid state, its temperature remains nearly stationary, at a cer- 
 tain melting- point during- the operation of melting ; and in order to 
 make that operation go on, a quantity of heat must be transferred to 
 the substance melted. This quantity is called the latent heat of fusion. 
 In ice this is 144 units. 
 
 ^ Latent Heat of Evaporation* When a body passes from the solid 
 or liquid to the gaseous state, its temperature during the operation 
 remains stationary at a certain boiling point, depending on the pres- 
 sure of the vapor produced, and in order to make the evaporation go 
 on, aquantity of heat must be transferred to the substance evaporated, 
 This heat does not raise the temperature, but disappears in causing- 
 it to assume the gaseous state, and is called the latent heat of Evap- 
 oration. 
 
 Total Heat of Evaporation is the sum of the sensible and latent 
 heats of evaporation. To raise i lb. of water from freezing point 
 (32°F.) to the temperature of evaporation (32°F.) takes 180° sensible 
 heat units and the additional heat required to evaporate it is called 
 the latent heat ; to evaporate i lb. water at 212° into steam at the 
 same temperature takes q66.6 heat units. The total heat of evapor- 
 ation for water is therefore = 180 -h 966 6 = 1 146.6. 
 
 If steam is generated at a higher temperature than 2i2°F., the 
 sensible heat increases, and the latent heat decreases. 
 
 To find the latent heat of steam for any temperature, the follow- 
 ing formula will be found very nearly correct : \ * ^ ', 
 
 Latent heat = 966.6- .7(/- 212") 
 where / = the temperature of evaporation. 
 
72 
 
 BNGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 From this we Hee that since the temperature of the steam is 
 raised, the latent heat diminishes only .7 ofthe increase in the sensible 
 heat, it is therefore obvious that the total heat increases. For all tem- 
 peratures aDove 212° the latent heat is less than 966.6, and for all 
 temperatures below 212° the. latent heat is greater than 966.6. 
 
 Example— What is the latent heat of steam when the thermo- 
 meter registers 332°F. ? Ans.— 882°. 
 
 When the latent heat is found, at any temperature, the total heat 
 of evaporation is very easilv determined. 
 
 Total heat of steam = Sensible 4- Latent heat 
 
 = (/- 32°) +966.6- .7(/-2l2°) 
 = 1083 +.3/ 
 
 Example — Find the total heat of steam at 2i2°F. Ans. — 1 146.6. 
 
 Quantity of Water Required fOR Condensation. 
 
 Let H =■ total heat calculated from 32''F. 
 /j= temperature of steam 
 t^^ temperature of water 
 ^3=^ resulting temperature 
 X = lbs. of water at t^ 
 
 The loss of heat from the Steam = the gain of heat by the water. 
 The heat given up by i lb. of steam = //^- (/"g - 32) 
 The heat gained by X lbs. water= ^^(^3 - t^ 
 
 .'. iy-(t3-32)=^(^3-^2) 
 
 But /^= 1083 +.3ti 
 .-. io83+.3/;-(/3-32) = ^(/3-^a) , 
 
 I 
 
 X^ "^5+3^-^i 
 
 Example L — If i lb. of steam at 2i2°F. be mixed with X lbs. of 
 water at 6o°F. What is the value of X when the resulting tempera- 
 ture is ioo°F. ? Ans. — 26.96 lbs. 
 
 Example IL— Steam enters the condenser at a temperature of 
 i42°F. to be condensed into water at i20°F ; the circulating water 
 enters at 6o°F. and is discharged at loo"?., find how many lbs. of 
 circulating water will be required per lb. of steam. Ans,— 25.9 lbs. 
 
ENGINEKRS MANUAL. 
 
 73 
 
 TABLE I. 
 Properties of Saturated Steam from 32' to 212° 
 
 Temper- 
 atuie. 
 
 PRESSURE. 
 
 
 PRESSURE. 
 
 Inches of 
 
 LbH. per Sq. 
 Inch 
 
 uture. 
 
 T , c \ i-'^iii- per Sq. 
 Inches of 1 i,\,,u ^ 
 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Absolute. 
 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Absolute. 
 
 32 
 
 .181 
 
 .089 
 
 •25 
 
 3-933 
 
 1.932 
 
 35 
 
 .204 
 
 . 100 
 
 130 
 
 4509 
 
 2.215 
 
 40 
 
 .248 
 
 . 122 
 
 •35 
 
 5- '74 
 
 2.542 
 
 45 
 
 .209 
 
 ■'47 
 
 140 
 
 5.860 
 
 2.879 
 
 50 
 
 .362 
 
 ..78 
 
 '45 
 
 6.662 
 
 3 273 
 
 55 
 
 .426 
 
 .214 
 
 150 
 
 7.548 
 
 3.708 
 
 60 
 
 •5'7 
 
 •254 
 
 '55 
 
 8.535 
 
 4 '93 
 
 65 
 
 .619 
 
 •304 
 
 160 
 
 9.630 
 
 4-73' 
 
 70 
 
 •733 
 
 .360 
 
 '65 
 
 10.843 
 
 5 327 
 
 75 
 
 .869 
 
 •427 
 
 170 
 
 12.183 
 
 5.985 
 
 80 
 
 1 .024 
 
 503 
 
 175 
 
 '3-654 
 
 6.708 
 
 85 
 
 1 . 205 
 
 •592 
 
 180 
 
 15.291 
 
 7-5" 
 
 90 
 
 1 .410 
 
 •693 
 
 '8S 
 
 17.044 
 
 8.375 
 
 95 
 
 1.647 
 
 .809 
 
 190 
 
 19.001 
 
 9.335 
 
 ICG 
 
 1. 917 
 
 •942 
 
 '95 
 
 2 1 . 1 39 
 
 '0.385 
 
 105 
 
 2.229 
 
 »-095 
 
 200 
 
 23.461 
 
 11.526 
 
 no 
 
 2-579 
 
 1.267 
 
 205 
 
 25 -994 
 
 12.770 
 
 "5 
 
 2.976 
 
 1 .462 
 
 210 
 
 28.753 
 
 14. 126 
 
 120 
 
 3 430 
 
 1.685 
 
 212 
 
 29.922 
 
 14.700 
 
 A strip of looking-glass held behind a glass water gauge makes 
 it easier to see the water line. 
 
 In cutting rubber for gaskets wet the knife often with a strong 
 solution of potash. This makes the cutting easier. 
 
 In making rubber joints, chalk the rubber well before screwing 
 up the flanges. When this is done the joint will always come apart 
 easily. 
 
 To ascertain whether a plate is burned or crystallized, take a 
 thin, sharp chisel and cut a thin chip for an inch or two ; if the plate 
 is good the chip will curl up. 
 
 The calorific power of wood is about .4 that of the same weight 
 of good coal. The fuel value of different woods is praotically the 
 same, provided they are equally dry. 
 
 A good quick setting rust joint is formed of sal-ammoniac 
 powdered, i lb.; flour of sulphur, 2 lbs. ; iron borings, 80 lbs.; mix to 
 a paste with water. A slow setting rust joint is made up of sal- 
 ammoniac, 2 lbs.; sulphur, 1 lb.; iron borings, 200 lbs. This is best, 
 if the joint is not needed for use at once. 
 
f4 
 
 EN(;iNEKRS MANIAL. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Propertiks of Satiuatko Steam. 
 
 (F'rt)iii Poabocly's TabU's). 
 
 
 Press, in Ibn. 
 
 per 8q, in. 
 fto'vevacu'in 
 
 Teniperutiue 
 
 in (lejfret'S 
 
 Fuh. 
 
 Totul hent 
 
 units from 
 
 water at 3a". 
 
 JHeat of va- Wej^htof 
 
 1 
 
 Volumes 
 
 of one 
 
 pound in 
 
 cub. feet, 
 
 1 
 
 101.99 
 
 1113.1 
 
 i 
 
 ! '043 
 
 . 0029<) 
 
 334-5 
 
 
 2 
 
 126.27 
 
 1120.5 
 
 1026. I 
 
 .00576 
 
 173.6 
 
 
 3 
 
 141 .62 
 
 1125.I 
 
 '015.3 
 
 . 00844 
 
 118.5 
 
 
 4 
 
 '53 09 
 
 1 128.6 
 
 1007.2 
 
 .01 107 
 
 90.33 
 
 
 5 
 
 162.3.1 
 
 "3'.5 
 
 1 000 . 8 
 
 . 1 366 
 
 73 21 
 
 
 6 
 
 170.14 
 
 "33-8 
 
 995-2 
 
 .01622 
 
 61.65 
 
 
 7 
 
 176 90 
 
 "35-9 
 
 990.5 
 
 .01874 
 
 53.39 
 
 
 8 
 
 182.92 
 
 "37 7 
 
 986.2 
 
 .02125 
 
 47.06 
 
 
 9 
 
 188.33 
 
 "39-4 
 
 982.5 
 
 •02374 
 
 42. 12 
 
 
 lO 
 
 «93-25 
 
 1140.9 
 
 979.0 
 
 .02621 
 
 38. '5" 
 
 
 15 
 
 213-03 
 
 1 146.9 
 
 965.1 
 
 .03826 
 
 26. 14 
 
 
 20 
 
 227.95 
 
 "5' -5 
 
 954-6 
 
 •05023 
 
 19.91 
 
 
 25 
 
 240 . 04 
 
 "55' 
 
 946.0 
 
 .06199 
 
 ;6.i3 
 
 
 30 
 
 250.27 
 
 "58.3 
 
 938.9 
 
 .07360 
 
 '3-59 
 
 
 35 
 
 259 19 
 
 1161 .0 
 
 932.6 
 
 .08508 
 
 "•75 
 
 
 40 
 
 267.13 
 
 1163.4 
 
 927.0 
 
 .09644 
 
 10.37 
 
 
 45 
 
 274.29 
 
 1 165.6 
 
 922.0 
 
 .1077 
 
 9.285 
 
 
 50 
 
 280 8 s 
 
 1167.6 
 
 9'7-4 
 
 1188 
 
 8.418 
 
 
 55 
 
 286.89 
 
 1169.4 
 
 9'3 ' 
 
 1299 
 
 7.698 
 
 
 60 
 
 292.51 
 
 1171.2 
 
 909 3 
 
 1409 
 
 7.097 
 
 
 65 
 
 297.77 
 
 1172.7 
 
 905-5 
 
 •5'9 
 
 6.583 
 
 
 70 
 
 302.71 
 
 "74-3 
 
 902. 1 
 
 1628 
 
 6.143 
 
 
 75 
 
 307.38 
 
 "75-7 
 
 898.8 
 
 1736 
 
 5.760 
 
 
 80 
 
 311.80 
 
 1177.0 
 
 895.6 
 
 •843 
 
 5.426 
 
 
 85 
 
 316.02 
 
 1178.3 
 
 892 . 5 
 
 •95' 
 
 5.126 
 
 
 90 
 
 320.04 
 
 1179.6 
 
 889.6 
 
 2058 
 
 4.850 
 
 
 95 
 
 323-89 
 
 1180.7 
 
 886.7 
 
 2165 
 
 4.619 
 
 
 100 
 
 327-58 
 
 1 181 .9 
 
 884.0 
 
 2271 
 
 4 403 
 
 
 105 
 
 33' -13 
 
 1182.9 
 
 881.3 
 
 2378 
 
 4 205 
 
 
 no 
 
 334 56 
 
 1 1 84 . 
 
 878.8 
 
 2484 
 
 4.026 
 
 
 I '5 
 
 337-86 
 
 1185.0 
 
 876.3 
 
 2589 
 
 3.862 
 
 , 
 
 120 
 
 34 '05 
 
 1186.0 
 
 874.0 
 
 2695 
 
 3-7" 
 
 
 125 
 
 344- '3 
 
 1186.9 
 
 87'-7 
 
 2800 
 
 3-571 
 
 
 130 
 
 347- '2 
 
 1187.8 
 
 869.4 
 
 2904 
 
 3-444 
 
 
 . 140 
 
 352-85 
 
 1189.5 
 
 865.1 
 
 3^i3 
 
 3.212 
 
 
 »5o 
 
 358.26 
 
 1 191 .2 
 
 861.2 
 
 3321 
 
 3.011 
 
 
 160 
 
 363 40 
 
 1192.8 
 
 8574 
 
 3530 
 
 2.833 
 
 
 170 
 
 368.29 
 
 "94 3 
 
 853.8 . 
 
 3737 
 
 2.676 
 
 ■ 
 
 180 
 
 372-97 
 
 "95 7 
 
 850.3 
 
 3945 
 
 2-535 
 
 » ■ 
 
 190 
 
 377-44 
 
 1197.1 
 
 847.0 
 
 4 '53 
 
 2.408 
 
 i 
 
 200 
 
 38' -73 
 
 1198.4 
 
 8438 . 
 
 4359 
 
 2.294 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
\ 
 
 ENC.INKKRS' MANl'AL. 
 KXPANSION OF StKAM. 
 
 75 
 
 Wlu'ii satiiralod Ntcani expaiuls in a iu)n-(.*oiuliii'tin^ cylinder, 
 tind during; its expansion performs niei'lianieal work, its pressure 
 falls on nccouni ol' increast^ of volume and because of liquefaction. 
 Rankine's approximate rule for the relation betW4»cn pressure and 
 volume, expanding: under the above conditions is "77/^' pressure varies 
 nearly as the reciprocal of the tenth power of the ninth root of the space 
 occupied ;" that is, 
 
 J ^= pressure and v— volume ; 
 
 then, p.x-^^ or px 
 
 v'.r 
 
 or, ^7' V." "Constant. 
 
 This curve is very nearly an adiabatic curve, and falls considerably 
 below the hyperbolic or i.sothermal curve. 
 
 Although the above is useful in certain theoretical investigations, 
 it is of little practical use, because non-conducting and non-radiating 
 cylinders do not exist. 
 
 In steam engines fitted with good steam jackets, in which steam 
 enters in a moist condition, a considerable quantity of the heat passes 
 from the jacket to the steam in the cylinder. VV^hen this quantity of 
 heat is sufficient, not only to do the work performed by the steam, 
 but also to convert a portion of the wet steam into dry saturated 
 steam during the expansion, the relation between pressure and 
 volume is approximately expressed by Boyle's law, viz.: 
 
 pressure X volume ^constant. 
 
 
 and the curve is an hyperbola. The hyperbolic curve is usually 
 adopted for rough calculations in expansion. Hoyle's law may be 
 briefly stated as follows : The pressure of a portion of gas at a con- 
 stant temperature varies inversely as the space it occupies. 
 
 The following examples will show clearly the application of 
 Boyle's Law : 
 
 I. — Back pressure 4 lbs., steam pressure 30 lbs , clearance y. How 
 far must piston be from end of its stroke at compression to 
 compress the enclosed vapt)r in cylinder, so that the pressure 
 shall rise to that of the steam in the steam chest. 
 
 Steam in the clearance space has a volume of i'' at 30 lbs. 
 pressure. The back pressure has to increase from 4 lbs. to 
 30 lbs.; therefore, the volume has to decrease from 30 to 4, or 
 yV At compression the steam occupies 'Y of J"=3f". From 
 3'^" deduct the amount of clearance, l", and we get 3^" as the 
 distance the piston is from the end of stroke where 
 compression began. 
 
 II. — Steam pressure 45 lb. gauge, cut off at ^ lb. stroke. Find the 
 mean pressure. 
 
 Method — Draw a horizontal line A B io represent the length of 
 the stroke and also the line of volumes, divide this line into 6 equal 
 
76 
 
 engineers' manual. 
 
 Telephone 1853. 
 
 ^XVU^^ C. WILSO,^ „ 
 
 ® 
 
 imPORTERS 
 
 Pill ■ »^> i^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 OLS 
 
 i® 
 
 DEALERS 
 
 .e* 
 
 ^^^'^ lubricating Oils atv^ 
 
 FOR ALL KINDS OF MACHINERY. 
 
 Steamy 
 Locomotive 
 
 and 
 
 Hydraulic 
 
 Packiicgs 
 
 MAGNABESTOS PIPE COVERING 
 and ASBESTOS CEMENT. 
 
 Head Office : 24 Front St. East, T/\|-/\r|f rv Ant 
 Warehouse: 184 Front St. East, lUlUllLU, I/JIU 
 
 c 
 
 f 
 
 a 
 t 
 t 
 c 
 
 h 
 t 
 
 V 
 
 t 
 i 
 
 F 
 c 
 
 
 ^. 
 
 \\ 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 n 
 
 parts. From A erect a perpend'uular .1 Cio s«:ale representing linf 
 
 ► 
 
 175 n-s n 
 
 of pressures. In all steam calciilations the pressure must be taken 
 from zero or absolute, therefore 45 lbs. ^aug-e pressure is equal bo lbs. 
 absolute. The line A C w\\] represent 60 lbs., and as cut off iU>es not 
 take place until the pisti n has travelled }■ o( the stroke we will have 
 the same pressure all th way along^ from Cto D. At /) the valve is 
 closed and the rest of the work done in the cylinder is by expansion. 
 At the point /»^ which is § or ^ of the stroke, the volume of the steam 
 has increased to twice its orij^iiinl amount, therefore its pressure will 
 be ^ or 30 lbs. At ^ the volume is increased to 3 times the original 
 volume, therefore its pressure is only ?> or 20 lbs. At //volume is 4 
 times pressure = 15 lbs., and at y the pressure is 12 lbs., correspond- 
 ing- to 5 times the original volume ; and at the end of the stroke the 
 piston has moved over 6 times the distance yi /i, therefore pressure is 
 only ^ of the original = ^ of 60 lbs. = 10 lbs. 
 
 The mean pressure is obtained by taking the sum of the average 
 pressures between the points of division on the diagram, and the 
 dividers by the number of divisions, as follows : the average pressure 
 
 60 + 30 
 between A and E is 60 lbs., between E and F = — - — — 45, and so 
 
 on, and taking the sum of these and dividing by 6 we ^^i 28.66 lbs. 
 as the mean pressure. 
 
 Suppose this engine had ]■ of the cylinder vohmie of clearance. 
 (This is an excessive amount, but it is to show the effects of clearance 
 to a somewhat enlarged extent on the diagram*. 
 
 Proceed as before, and draw A B to represent the stroke of the 
 engine + ^ of the stroke, or A B =^ \ of the stroke of engine. Divide 
 A B into 7 parts. The first of these will represeut the amount of 
 clearance to the same scale as the stroke, and the distance A E will 
 
 \ 
 
 represent the amount of steam there is when piston has travelled ], of 
 its stroke or to the point when valve has just closed. When piston has 
 
 )i 
 
 I ■ 
 
78 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 travelled t(i Fthe volume has increased from 2 to 3, therefore pres- 
 sure has decreased from 60 to 40. The pressure at G is 30 lbs., be- 
 cause volume has doubled, and so 011, when we arrive at the end of 
 the stroke with a pressure of 17. i lbs. By taking^ the means of these 
 and adding- them, and then dividing by 7 we get an average pressure 
 of nearly 39 lbs. 
 
 Ratio of Expansion. 
 
 The ratio of expansion as usually understood is the ratio of the 
 cylinder volume to that of the volume of the cylinder at point of cut- 
 off, or the ratio of the length of the stroke to that part of the stroke 
 travelled by the piston up to the point of cut-off, or 
 
 _ . - „ cylinder volume 
 
 Ratjo ot lixpansion= — -—^ . — . 
 
 voluine to point of cut off 
 
 length of stroke 
 
 length of stroke to point of cut-ofF 
 
 If clearance is taken into account the true or actual ratio of ex- 
 pansion is much less than the ratio given above. 
 
 _, ' , • ,. • cylinder volume + clearance 
 
 The actual ratio of expansion = ^ — , — = 
 
 volume to cut-on -I- clearance 
 
 No. of volumes to which the initial volume is expanded. 
 
 Example — Stroke 4 feet ; clearance yV ; cut off at \ stroke. Find 
 ratio of expansion (r) without clearance, (2) with clearauce. Ans. — 
 
 4 . 3i- 
 
 Expansion of Steam. 
 
 Let L = length of stroke in inches. 
 
 / = distance travelled by the piston before steam is cut off, 
 
 in inches. 
 C = clearance in inches. 
 P = initial absolute pressure. 
 p — mean pressure during stroke, in lbs. 
 
 R — actual rates of expansion 
 
 H= hyp. log. of iP. 
 i_+H 
 R 
 To Find the Mean Pressure — 
 
 t^C 
 
 K = 
 
 I R 
 
 1 + 1/ 
 R 
 To Find the Initial Pressure — 
 
 To Find the hyp. log. of v*? — 
 
 (») 
 
 (2) 
 
 (3) 
 
 f 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 79 
 
 es- 
 
 be- 
 
 of 
 
 ese 
 
 lure 
 
 the 
 
 ;ut- 
 
 oke 
 
 ex- 
 
 nd 
 s. — 
 
 off, 
 
 To Find the Ratio of Expansion — 
 
 ^=Ml±^) (4) 
 
 P 
 
 The values of A*, /^and A' can be readily found in the following 
 table when the point of cut-off is known : 
 
 Cut-off. 
 
 Ratio of 
 Expan.sion 
 
 log. A'. 
 
 K or 
 liyp. log. 
 
 R 
 
 A 
 
 lO 
 
 2.302 
 
 •3302 
 
 A 
 
 9-5 
 
 2.251 
 
 •34''2 
 
 h 
 
 9 
 
 2.197 
 
 3552 
 
 h 
 
 8.5 
 
 2. 140 
 
 3694 
 
 k 
 
 8 
 
 2.079 
 
 3849 
 
 A 
 
 7-5 
 
 2.015 
 
 4020 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 1.946 
 
 4208 
 
 tV 
 
 6-5 
 
 1.872 
 
 44 '8 
 
 h 
 
 6 
 
 ••791 
 
 4653 
 
 ■ft 
 
 5-5 
 
 ' • 705 
 
 49' 7 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 1 .609 
 
 52«9 
 
 2 
 
 4-5 
 
 '•504 
 
 5564 
 
 \ 
 
 4 
 
 1.386 
 
 5965 
 
 ■i 
 
 T 
 
 3-5 
 
 1 . 252 
 
 6438 
 
 \ 
 
 3 
 
 1 .098 
 
 6962 
 
 'I 
 
 2-5 
 
 .916 
 
 7666 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 •693 
 
 8465 
 
 I 
 
 1-5 
 
 •405 
 
 9370 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 .000 I 
 
 0000 
 
 Note — From the results obtained by the above rules, the back 
 pressure has to be deducted. 
 
 The following examples will show the method of working- the 
 various formulae : 
 
 Example I. — Initial prossure 120 lbs. absolute. Cut-off J stroke. 
 Back pressure 21 .58 lbs. Frid mean effective pressure. M. E. /*. = 
 mean forward pressure, — m ^an backward pressure. By Formula 
 (1) we get 
 
 M. E. P. = 120 
 
 I 
 
 
 120 
 
 ■_±ll386l 
 
 -21 . i;8=>o lb 
 
 s. 
 
 Example II. —The AI. E. P., as measured on a diagram, is 56 lbs. 
 The scale of the diagram is 4',7, and the back pressure line is ^ of an 
 inch above the atmospheric line. If cut-off takes place at ith stroke, 
 find the '\v\\i\i\.\ gauge pressure. By Fornnila (2), 
 
 p^P ^S^±h of 40+ ,5^^^ „^^ absolute 
 k 5219 
 
 or 131 lbs. guage. 
 
8o 
 
 ENGINEKRS' MAWfiW.. 
 
 F^xample III. — Find th*' hyp. log. when ^<ial ffSifftmmt mi 20 lbs. 
 absolute ; cut-off at { strokts ; mean forward p/«*sure //< 5*? lbs. By 
 Formula (3), 
 
 H-*~^ — I =:r ' — ^L_ _!!: — I = I , -186 
 P 120 -* 
 
 To Find ' he Mean Pressure by the above table — 
 
 Rule : F id the value of A' corresponding to the cut-off or ratio 
 of expansion. Multiply this by the initial absolute steam pressure, 
 and from the n »duct subtract the back pressure. 
 
 Example- he pressure as indicated by gauge is 100 lbs. Cut- 
 off takes plact a ;'; stroke. The engine is exhausting al 5 lbs. above 
 the atmospher . Find the M. E. P. 
 
 100 lbs. ga ^y'■ -115 lbs. absolute: 5 lbs. gauge = 20 lbs. absolute. 
 In table, the vaiue (>f K agreeinjif to cut-oflf at ^ stroke is .6962 .'. 
 .6962 X 1 15 — 20=60 lb*. 
 
 Graphic Metho^> of Finding thk Mean Pressure. 
 
 From the centre A at fh» distance A C describe the arc C E D. 
 
 From A measure off A /i as dlti*.*an< e equal to \ o{ A C. Join B D. 
 
 This line B D represents t^h« sff*^^ of the engine and D represents 
 
 the beginning of the strokt'. Fr<s»*w /} loeasur** off the distances as 
 
 indicated by the ordinates J, ,4, ',. <Ktc-,, *^orr<*spondi ng to i, ^, i, etc., 
 
 of the stroke. For instance : ///'»» e<io«il to \, of the -troke, or 
 
 D F 
 
 7^-^= \. Make B C hy con^iifmmm « /'• Th a the ratio of the 
 
 mean pressure to that of the initiaf ab-x/Jute pressure is e<jual to the 
 length of the ordinate cprrespond-injjjr 'o *he noint of out-off divided by 
 the length B C. 
 
 Example— The ordinate A/^ we find is i^, then if -^2= the ratio 
 of the mean to the initial nSf^. pf<*^4^sure. If initial pressure was 100 
 lbs. then i|-r-2 x 100=69 "^^' 'fl*^^" ^r^ssure. 
 
 The following table gives the approximate length of the ordinates 
 
engineers' MANl \L. 8i 
 
 in 32nds of an inch, together with the exact length in decimals : 
 
 Cut- 
 
 R^tio of 
 
 Approx. length 
 
 Exact lencfth 
 
 Ratio of ordin- 
 
 off. 
 
 Expansion. 
 8 
 
 of ordinate. 
 
 of ordinate 
 
 ate to H C. 
 
 * 
 
 M 
 
 •77 
 
 .385 
 
 h 
 
 6 
 
 M 
 
 .9306 
 
 •4653 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 It 
 
 1.044 
 
 ■522 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 SI 
 
 I . 1930 
 
 ■ 5965 
 
 * 
 
 3 
 
 M 
 
 '■3924 , 
 
 .6962 
 
 1^ 
 
 2-5 
 
 lAi 
 
 I 5332 
 
 .7666 
 
 h 
 
 2 
 
 ':4i 
 
 1.6930 
 
 .8465 
 
 ^ 
 
 1-7 
 
 ini^ 
 
 1 . 7820 
 
 .89. 
 
 ^S 
 
 1-5 
 
 iH;| 
 
 1.8740 
 
 •937 
 
 
 i-33 
 
 
 1 .9200 
 
 .960 
 
 The Rule for finding the mean pressure by the above method is : 
 
 Divide the ordiririte corresponding to the ratio of expansion by 
 the length .5 6* and multiply by the initial pressure. 
 
 Example The stroke of an engine is 24" and steam is cut off 
 when piston has travelled 6". Find the mean pressure if the initial 
 pressure is 115 Ihs. absolute. 
 
 24 
 Ratio of expansion^ -^-=4. table we get the length of 
 
 ihn ordinate to be i . 1930, and this divided by 2 gives us .5965. This 
 multiplied b>' c 15 gives u** the mean pressure = 68.6 lbs. 
 
 CARE OF STEAM BOILERS. 
 
 The management of Steam Boilers in all establishments is a 
 subject of great importam e, and one which di>t'M not, in many cases, 
 receive the care and attention necessary in order to obtain the most 
 econcn.ical results. When a steam user has decided to purchase a 
 boiler, he should take steps to di«lerauni« exactly what size and style 
 will best suit his requirements. 
 
 If his engineer has the necessary .ibllity, he shmild be requested 
 to make an evaporative test v^t' the plant, ami also to indicate 
 the engine in order to determine the exact amount of water required 
 to be evaporated, and the numbe. of horse power exerted by the 
 enjfine. 
 
 Having this information, it is an easy matter to arrive at the 
 dimensions of the boiler required ; but it iniisl 1h» remembered that 
 it is always in the interest of economy to have a boiler larger than is 
 necessary for the actiuil requirements, as the grate surface can be 
 proportioned lo suit the case, fires can be run without any forcing, 
 and good coniliustion a-ul consi'i|netil economy of fuel secured, to say 
 nothing of the increased length ol I he life of boilers used under 
 these conditions. If the engineer has not (he abiliiv necessary to 
 determine these points, then some engineer of ability at»d good 
 
 
82 
 
 ENGINEERS MANTAL. 
 
 standing' should be entrusted with the getting up of specifications 
 both for the building of boiler and brickwork The boiler should be 
 inspected frequently during construction, and, when completed, it 
 should be thoroughly inspected anil tested to one and one-half times 
 the pressure it is desired to work, by hydrostatic pressure. 
 
 After the boiler has been set in position and the brickwork com- 
 pleted, it should be allowed to stand, if possible, for a week in order 
 to give the brickwork a chance to dry and set. After this, the boiler 
 may be filled to the proper level and a small fire kept burning under 
 it for a few days before being put to work, great care being used so 
 as not to heat upthe boiler and brickwork too quickly. 
 
 In starting up a new boiler, it is a good plan to put in a few lbs- 
 of sal. soda with the water, and then, after brickwork is well dried 
 and set, to let down fire and steam, run off the water and give the 
 boiler a good washing out. This treatment will be found to prevent 
 the foaming which so often happens when starting up a new boiler, 
 and is caused by the grease left in it by boilermakers. 
 
 From the time a boiler is started to work certain influences are 
 at work, which, if left to themselves, will materially shorten its term 
 of usefulness and safety ; and it is the duty of the engineer to use 
 every effort to check and counteract them. 
 
 The importance of the duties of the engineer and fireman are 
 not as fully understood by many of our steam users as they should 
 be, and too many owners are inclined to think that everything is all 
 right as long as the machinery keeps on the move. A good, intel- 
 ligent, painstaking and thinking engineer or fireman, compared 
 with the careless and indifferent man, will save his wages several 
 times over. It is a well-known fact to many firms who have given 
 the matter attention that a good fireman is almost invaluable, and 
 that the difference in the fuel bill between a really good fireman and 
 an indifferent man is astonishing at the end of a year. 
 
 The fireman should at all times, before starting his fire, see that 
 the water in boiler is at proper level. He should not be satisfied by 
 merely looking- at the water-glass, but should open the cock at bottom 
 of glass, and also try the gauge cocks. Many accidents have 
 occurred by neglecting this duty. 
 
 When sure that the water is all right, he should see that blow-off 
 cock is in order and closed, that the ashpit is clear of ashes, that the 
 tubes are clean, and tiiat the safety valve is raised off its seat, or 
 that some valve or cock is open to the atmosphere until steam ii-jues 
 from it. The grate bars should now be covered (with coal) from the 
 bridge wall toward the furr.ace door for about 3 feet, and should 
 then put in some light wood en the grate in front of the coal, and 
 with a little oily waste set fire to it. 
 
 When the fire has taken well hold of the wood a little coal may 
 be put on it. During this time the ashpit should be closed and the 
 furnace door left open a little in order that the flames may be com- 
 municated to the coal at the back of furnace. 
 
 As soon as a good fire is burning in the front of furnace, it may 
 be pushed back a little and the ashpit damper opened. The fire 
 should not be forced, but should be allowed to work up gradually, 
 
engineers' manual. 
 
 83 
 
 as the unequal strains some boilers are subjected to throujjh forcing 
 the fire when boiler is cold have caused leakajje, and made expen- 
 sive repairs necessary. In boilers of the Galloway, Lancashire and 
 Cornisli type, it is necessary tt) use ^reat care in firinj^ up from cold 
 water, owing to the temperature of the water in the lower part of 
 shell remaining low for a considerable length of time. The fires 
 should be maintained level and ol a uniform thickness, but the 
 thickness must be determined by the demand for steam, condition 
 of the chimney draft, and quality and nature of the fuel. 
 
 The firing is best done when the combustion in furnace is good, 
 and consequently but little dense smoke is given off. Dark spots in 
 the fire, abundance of smoke, unsteady steam pressure, unsteady 
 water line, dirty tubes, coal in ash heap, are all evidences of careless 
 firing, and should not be tolerated. Experience is the only thing that 
 will prove the best methods of handling the different kinds of fuel 
 under the different conditions to be met with in practice. 
 
 In the boiler room there should be a place for everything, and 
 everything should be kept in its place. 
 
 All the fittings, mournings, boiler front, etc., should be kept clean 
 and free from leaks. 
 
 The coal should be put on fire at regular intervals and lightly. 
 If the furnace is large, it may be advisable to coke the fire, i.e., to 
 fire the green coal in front of furnace and allow the smoke to pass 
 over a bed of incandescent, full at the back, and be consumed ; then 
 push it back and add more coal in front. 
 
 Sometimes side firing works very well ; i.e., to always have one 
 side of the fire incandescent when firing green coal on the opposite 
 side. But no hard and-fast rule can be set for every condition, and 
 much must be left to the judgment of the fireman in each individual 
 case. When firing or cleaning fires, where the chimney draft is very 
 strong, it is advisable to check the stack damper to prevent too great 
 a quantity of cold air entering the furnace and causing undue con- 
 traction of the plates. In boilers having large furnace, it is well 
 when cleaning fires to clean one side at a time. 
 
 The fires should be banked at night, as it is more economical 
 than to allow fires to burn out and re-light them in the morning, and 
 it also saves the life of boilers to a certain «'xtent, as, when fires are 
 banked, the boiler is not subjected to so many strains by expansion 
 and contraction. 
 
 The feed water should be kept constantly on, and the water-line 
 maintained at the proper level all the time. Every day the steam 
 pressure should be raised to the blowing-off point, so th.a*: the fire- 
 man may kno'v that the safety valve is in working order. If at any 
 time, from any cause, the gauge should show the pressure increasing 
 rapidly up to or past the limit, the feed should at once be put on, 
 draft checked, and in some cases it may be necessary to open the 
 furnace doors. Should the water in boiler at any time get danger- 
 ously low, then close dampers and open smoke-box doors immediately, 
 and cover fires with damp ashes, or, if there are none at hand, small 
 green coal may be used. Do not put on the feed, but allow the 
 boiler to cool down some. After this the feed may be put on, and 
 
84 
 
 ENGINKERS MANUAL. 
 
 the tiihos at back i'nd oxainintHl for fear lliey may have been caused 
 to leak from overheating. 
 
 If the waler-}jf;uige jjlass and try cocks are attached to a 
 cohimn, there sliould be a bU>w-off pipe from bottom of column of at 
 Jeast V' diameter, and this pipe should be carried to main blow-off 
 pipe or sewer, and should be blown off at least once every two hours. 
 
 In cases of foaming^ or piiming", if not caused by faulty construc- 
 tion of boiler, it can usually be prevented by putting on more feed 
 and opening blow-off, thus changing the water in the boiler. But if 
 the foaming is very violent, it may be necessary (in order to deter- 
 mine the water-level in boiler) to close, or partially close, the engine 
 throttle, open the furnace-door and increase the feed, and blow off 
 the boiler a little at intervals. A surface blow-off cock is a good 
 thing when a boiler foams, as by its use the scum and dirt can be 
 cleared off surface of water. 
 
 A boiler should be cleaned out at regular intervals, but the 
 length of time between such cleanings must be determined according 
 to the nature of the feed water. A boiler using feed water from the 
 Lake may be run for from six to eight weeks before cleaning, while 
 on the other hand using feed water from a small stream it may be 
 necessary in the spring of the year (when the water is very dirty) to 
 clean the boiler every week. 
 
 When about to clean and wash out the boiler, the brickwork 
 should be allowed to cool down as much as possible before the water 
 is run off; then the hand hole covers should be taken out, and all 
 mud and deposit removed by scraping out, then the hose should be 
 used with a good water pressure and boiler washed out thoroughly. 
 After this has been done the water should be all drained out of 
 bottom of boiler, and a light put into it through hand hole to make 
 sure that no scale or mud remains on the bottom. 
 
 The manhole should be taken out once every three months, when 
 the fireman should go inside, and, with proper cleaning tools, scrape 
 off all deposit and dislodge all accumulations of scale, which will 
 fall to the bottom of shell and can be removed through the hand 
 holes. After this has been done thoroughly, the boiler may be washed 
 out well through the manhole. All joints should then be made, 
 care being taken to make them perfectly tight, as, if allowed to leak 
 and run down the boiler, it will cause corrosion of plates, and in time 
 necessitate repairs. All soot and ashes should be removed from 
 under boiler previous to commencing to wash out. and tube ends and 
 bottom of boiler, seams, etc., should be carefully examined for leaks, 
 and if any are found they should be caulked and made tight without 
 delay, as, if left for any length of time, they will cause expensive 
 repairs and delays. If the boiler is subject to inspection, the bottom 
 of shell should be swept off, all dust and ashes removed from flues, 
 and every facility given the inspector to enable him to do his work 
 thoroughly. - 
 
 A man in charge of a steam boiler should have a due sense of 
 his responsibilities. He should be cool and collected in case of 
 emergency, sober and industrious .T.t all times, and should never put 
 off till to-morrow the things that ought to be done to-day. This 
 
KNCIINKKUS MANIAI. 
 
 85 
 
 article on Care of Steam Boilers is not wrilleii for (.xperit'iu'ed 
 engineers, but rather for the yoiinj;^ Hrcinan who is sei-kiii^^ informa- 
 tion, and who has a desire to advance in his chosen calling*, if it is 
 read by even a few of the latter anil j^roves in any way beneficial to 
 them, then one of the objects in publishing this book will have been 
 accomplished. 
 
 BOILER SETTINGS. 
 
 The brick work about ;i boiler should be thick \o prevent loss by 
 radiation — a 21" wall should be used if pi>ssible. All flues and surfaces 
 exposed to action of heat should be lined with the best Hre brick. 
 
 It is not a good plan to convey gasi's b;ick over top of boiler, 
 unless there is space enough for a man to enl<M- anti clear oft" soot. 
 
 The distance from grate bars to Unver portion of boiler shell 
 should not be less than 24' ; 26' and 28" are not too great, and in large 
 shells 30" can be employed. 
 
 The bridgewall should curve to conform with the boiler shell. Ten 
 (10) inches makes a good space between wall and shell. Back of 
 bridge wall the surface should be pavetl with hard brick, the surface 
 dipping down to a depth at the rear end oi' boiler oi about 18" to 24", 
 according to size of shell. The distance betwetn back lubes, shell 
 and back wall should be 18" for a 48' shell, and 24" for a 72" shell. 
 
 Boiler walls will crack, and no form of construction seems to 
 entirely prevent this. Walls with air spaces aie as liable as those 
 without, with the danger of leaking more air when they do crack. 
 
 The best method to hold boiler walls together is with " brick- 
 staves" or '* brick-bars." The best form is r.iilwav iri>n with ends 
 mashed down under a hammer to allow for drilling for tie rod. Most 
 builders do not supply '* brick-staves" unless speciall}' ordered. 
 
 The cheapest form of fire front is the so-called " half-arch," 
 which does not cover any more of the front of the fiirnance than is 
 absolutely decent. On small boilers it is en»ployi'il as a suppoit. 
 For a good job a "full flush front" should bj used, with damper 
 plate and damper. 
 
 Boilers, now-a-days, are not set in batteries, all to work together 
 as a unit. They are, and should be, set so that each boiler is inde- 
 pendent of the others in the battery. In this way, any one can be 
 shut down for cleaning and repairs. This arrangement does avv;iy 
 with the old-fashioni'd steam ai\d mud-ilrunis, which connected the 
 boilers of the battery together. Do not buy either a mud-drum or 
 steam drum— they are a source of trouble, danger and expense. 
 
 EVAPORATIVE TESTS. 
 
 It is important to owners of steam plants that they should some- 
 times take steps to detertiiine whether the efticiency oi' the plant is 
 up to the standard; or, in other words, to determine whether or not 
 the I'uel which is being consumed under the boil?rs is evaporating as 
 much water as is possible. The heat value of coal varies considerabl\ , 
 and it is very seldom "that this fact is- taken notice of by engineers in 
 making evaporative tests. There are three different methods of 
 
86 
 
 KNCWNKKUS' MANl'AL. 
 
 determining;" the caloric value ot fuels, vi/.: by chemical analysis, by 
 use of the caloi inieler, and by I lie actual measurement of water eva- 
 porated per pound of fuel coiisumtnl in tlu* furnaci*. The first process 
 is of course impossible for an enj^ineer to accomplish, and would 
 require the services of an analytical chemist, and even then the result 
 would be t)nly approximate. The second niethod is probably niore 
 satisfactory, and its operation is as follows : A Mimple of the fuel to 
 be tested, mixed with chlorate of potassium, is placed in a copper 
 vessi'j with an open mouth, and this is submcrj^ed mouth downwards 
 in watir of a known quantity. Combustion then takes place and the 
 he.'it value of the coal is determined from the rise in temperature of 
 the water. If the second method be used to determine the value of a 
 fuel, and in order to secure fairly accurate results, it is necessary to 
 test a large mnnber of samples taken from different parts of a pile, so 
 as to ensure average results. In most t>f the evaporative tests made 
 no thought is given to the heat value of the fuel, yet the qualities of 
 coal vary just as much as other articles of commerce. 
 
 The third .iiid most practical method of determining the value of 
 coal is to test it (or evaporative duty under a clean , well designed and 
 well set boiler, for it matters but little wiiat may be the value of a 
 fuel according to the analysis, or the calorimeter test, when we can 
 only obtain certain results from it when consumed in the furnace of a 
 steam boiler, and it is by this test that we must determine the value 
 of our fuel and the efficiency of our steam boilers and engines. 
 
 To rightly determine the heat value of any fuel (for comparative 
 purposes and to do justice to the fuel) it is necessary that all condi- 
 tions as regards style of boiler, setting, draft, ratio of grate to heat- 
 ing surface and skill in handling the fuel shall be the same, therefore 
 it would be inost unjust to condemn a fuel because in a test at Messrs. 
 A. & Co. only 6h lbs. of water were evaporated per lb. of coal, be- 
 cause a test might be made at Messrs. B. & Co. using the same fuel 
 and result in showing an evaporation of S.^v to 9 lbs. of water per lb. 
 of coal. 
 
 It may be misleading to judge of the value of a fuel on the 
 strength of a test made at So and So's establishment, and equally so 
 to condemn a boiler on the report of an evaporative test, as it is ab- 
 solutely necessary to know all the conditions under which the test 
 was made before reaching any conclusion as to the value of the fuel 
 or the eflficiency of the boiler. 
 
 It is interesting- to notice the different grades of combustion 
 attained in our industrial establishments, as indicated by the output 
 of smoke from the chimnejs. In some places we see vast volumes 
 of black smoke rolling away, and in others just a light smoke is 
 noticeable, and it only for a few moments after charging the furnace 
 with green coal. In many instances, where a large quantity of 
 smoke is sent off from the chimney, it could be veiy much reduced 
 by careful stoking" and some knowledge of the laws of combustion. 
 
 Whenever large quantities of smoke issue from the chimney, we 
 know there is a waste of fuel through poor combustion ; conse- 
 quently, the evaporative duty of the coal will be less than it should 
 be, according as the combustion is good, bad or indifferent. 
 
KNdlNKKRS .MANIAI.. 
 
 87 
 
 We kiu>\v wo fan iu*vt'r iilili/i' all llic Iumi ^fiu-iaUHl by ri>Mi- 
 hustioii by traiisliTriiig- it ti) \hc vvalfr in tlu? lH)ili'r, iov ilu* roastni 
 that the ji^ascs fVoin fiirnaci! t;miu)t bo reduiotl li»\vi*r (iian the 
 U'inperaluro o\ stoani and waior within llu» btMlt'r, ami, in aiKliiii)n 
 U) this, a certain amount of heat is mu'isHary uvor and above the 
 tenipeiature of tiu- .I'lnosphere to inihiee draft in the chimney so as 
 to induce the necessary amount of air ft>r combustion to enter the 
 furn.ice throug-h the burninjf fuel 
 
 It is possible, by pri>per proportionini; of i;rate surface to healin^^ 
 surface, and chimney area to jj^rate nri>a, and si/e of boiler to wi>rk 
 iet|uired of it, io reduce the temperature of chimney ji^.'ises to the 
 minimum ; and, if all conditions are favorable, they should not be 
 Dver 400 F. 
 
 In making- an evaporative test, it is necessary that the duration 
 of test should not be less than for ten hours, and to be of any value 
 should be made very carefully, and will usually require the services 
 i>f from two to three extra men to assist the lej^ular attendants, and 
 iiiese men should have some knowledji^e of the duties they have to 
 perform. It will be necessary to have three accurate platform 
 scales, one for weighing the coal and two for weiiihinj^f the water. 
 l''or the water two g'ood tight barrels or tanks are required, one on 
 each scale, and arrangements should be made for filling and weighing 
 them alternately. Sometimes the water is tlrawn from tanks, the 
 dimensions of which have been previously taken and the weight of 
 water they hold computed, so that .„'\ that is necessary during the 
 U'st is to keep a tally on the number of times each tiink is filled, 
 liien the total weight of water can be computed at end t>f the test. 
 
 The readings of a water meter on fi'ed pipe have also been taken 
 for the water ; but as they are not likely to be (juite correct, it is 
 preferable to use two tanks, each on a separate platform scale, and 
 take the actual weight of each as it is filled alternately. 
 
 A reliable thermoirjcter should be placed in a tee in feed pipe, 
 near where it enters the boiler, and another in the uptake to chimney, 
 and one also in the pipe conveying the feed water into the tanks on 
 scales. 
 
 When commencing the test, say at 7 a.m., steam should be up to 
 the usual pressure^ the ashpit and furnace all cleaned out, and a light 
 tire of wood laid on grate ; the tubes all cleaned, and the height of 
 water in gauge glass markeil by tying a piece of string round it at 
 the point where water reaches up to. The attendants should be on 
 liand, each having sheets of paper properly ruled off for recording 
 I lie readings of the various gauges, thermometers, etc. This should 
 be done every fifteen minutes. 
 
 Several boxes of coal should be weighed out previous to com- 
 mencing the test, so that the fireman may have a little ahead, and if 
 any is left when test is over it can be weighed and deducted Irom the 
 total. 
 
 The utmost care should be taken in weighing the coal and water, 
 in taking the readings, of the different gauges and thermometers, if 
 a correct test is wanted, and to obtain this none of the attendants 
 should have more to do than can be done easilv. 
 
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 w^ \r 1^. 
 
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 IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
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 1.1 
 
 1.25 
 
 Li|2^ ■12.5 
 
 III 
 
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 Sciences 
 Corporation 
 
 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEB3TBR,N.Y. U5M 
 
 (716)«73-4S03 
 
 
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 V 
 
88 ENC.INRERS* MANUAL. 
 
 If the plant shuts down at noontime the drafts may be closed, 
 fires carefully banUed and some person left tt> look after them, who 
 must not allow pressure to exceed the averaj^e or safety valves to 
 blow off, if possible; but it is much preferable, if it can be arranged, 
 to continue the operation of the plant till the end of the test. 
 
 When the time comes to close the test, the water feed should 
 have been so adjusted that the water in gauge glass is just up to the 
 string which was tied on glass at starting, and any water remaining 
 in weigh tank should be weighed and deducted from the last entry. 
 
 Any coal remaining should also be weighed and deducted from 
 the last entry of weighing. 
 
 The fire in furnace should be hauled out and weighed, and its 
 weight deducted from the total weight of coal consumed. 
 
 The ashes should also be weighed, and note taken of their 
 weight. 
 
 The net weights of both water and coal should then be carefully 
 added up, and entered in following manner i — 
 
 Test of Boiler at Messrs 
 
 Day of , i8 
 
 Dimensions. 
 
 No. of flues and diameter. 
 Size of fire grate. 
 Heating surface. 
 Diameter ot chimney. 
 Height of chimney. 
 
 Duration of test hours. 
 
 Kind ot fuel used. 
 
 Boiler pressure by gauge . . . lbs. 
 Temperature of feed water entering boiler . . . .°F. 
 Temperature of feed water entering pump .... °F. 
 
 Total quantity of fuel burned lbs. 
 
 Percentage of moisture in fuel ......%. 
 
 Equivalent dry fuel lbs. 
 
 Total weight of ashes lbs. 
 
 Equivalent combustible lbs. 
 
 Total water evaporated lbs. 
 
 • Water evaporated per hour lbs. 
 
 Water evaported per lb. dry fuel lbs. 
 
 Water evaporated (per lb. dry fuel) from and at 
 
 2i2°F lbs. 
 
 Water evaporated per lb. of combustible from and at 
 
 2I2°F lbs. 
 
 Horse power developed H.P. 
 
 To find the % of moisture in fuel, take a fair sample of it and 
 weigh it, then let it dry for 24 hours and weigh it again when dry, 
 then the difference between the wet and dry weights multiplied by 100 
 and divided by the wet weight of the sample will give the percentage 
 of moisture. 
 
 To find the water evaporated per hour, divide the total quantity 
 of water evaporated by the duration of test in hours. 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 89 
 
 
 lantity 
 
 To find the water evaporated per lb. of dry fuel, divide li>lal 
 quantity of water evaporated by the total tjuantity t)f dry fuel buiniil. 
 
 To find the equivalent combustible, subtract the weight of ashes 
 and clinker from the total weight of fuel burned. 
 
 To find the equivalent dry fuel, multiply the total quantity of fuel 
 burned by the % of moisture and divide by 100, then subtract the 
 quotient from the total quantity of fuel burned. 
 
 To find the quantity of water evaporated from and at 2i2^F. 
 (this is the usual standard), multiply the total heat or heat units in 
 I lb. of steam at average pressure maintained during test (less the 
 total heat of i lb. of feed water before entering the pump), by the 
 quantity of water evaporated per lb. of fuel and divide the product 
 by 966, which is the total heat units contained in 1 lb. of steam at 
 2i2°F. This is called the equivalent evaporation, and is used to 
 reduce tests to a common standard for comparison. It is expressed 
 
 thus: W'= ^~ofiA"~ equivalent evaporation. 
 
 W = lbs. of water evaporated per lb. of coal. 
 /° = temperature of feed as supplied (calculated from zero). 
 1/ = total heat of steam in B, T,H, U, at average pressure of test. 
 W^= The equivalent evaporation from and at 2x2" F. 
 
 To find the H. P. developed, subtract the total heat units of 1 lb. 
 of feed water before entering the pump or injector, as the case may 
 be, from the total heat units in i lb. of steam at average pressure of 
 test, and multiply the product by the quantity of water evaporated 
 per hour, and divide by 1 103.4 (which is the heat units necessary to 
 raise i lb. of water from ioo°F. and evaporate it into steam at 70 lbs.) 
 and this quotient divided by 30 will give the HP., as decided at the 
 Centennial Exhibition, 
 
 The following is an example of finding the equivalent evaporation 
 from and at 2i2°F. : 
 
 Water evaporated per lb. of fuel — 8 lbs. 
 Average temperature of feed water = 4o'^F. 
 
 Average pressure by gauge = 60 lbs. 
 Total heat of i lb. of steam at 60 lbs. = 1 175.71 heat units. 
 Total heat of i lb. of feed water at 4o''F. =8 heat units. 
 
 Then "^^' —.- = 9-73 lbs. from and at 2i2^F. 
 
 966 
 
 In making these tests great care must be taken in the details, for 
 if any guess work is allowed the test becomes worthless. 
 
 THE INJECTOR. 
 
 Injectors are chiefly used for locomotives, these being seldom 
 fitted with feed pumps in modern practice. Injectors will draw water 
 from 2' to 12' feet, according to size, but the water supply must be 
 continuous and must not be hotter than 135° F. for low pressures, 
 and 105° F. for the highest pressures. If these temperatures are 
 exceeded, so much water is required to condense the steam that the 
 
90 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 I 
 
 velocity of the steam is too much reduced in driving forward the 
 l.irjjfe vohime of water. 
 
 Steam is admitted to the injector through a conical nozzle, and 
 its admission is regulated by a spindle, the lower end of which fits 
 accurately into the nozzle. The water with which the boiler is to be 
 fed enters the injector on the opposite side from the steam anal 
 through a branch a little below the steam pipe branch. 
 
 By admitting steam and water by their respective branches, the 
 steam is able to drive the water into the boiler against a pressure 
 which is equal to, or it may be greater than its own. This may seem 
 paradoxical, hut, nevertheless, it is the case, and the explanation is 
 as follows: The velocity of an issuing jet of steam is many times 
 greater than that of a jet of water issuing under the same pressure, 
 and if steam, while issuing from the boiler, be condensed to water, 
 but not reduced in velocity to that of the water issuing under the 
 same pressure, it is then capable of overcoming the pressure of the 
 water in its own boiler. This is exactly what takes place in the 
 Gilford's injector: The steam enters the injector, and passing down 
 the conical nozzle is condensed on coming into in contact with the 
 feed water, without losing its velocity, further than that due to the 
 friction of the passages. The vacuum formed in the injector by the 
 condensation of the steam, causes more water to rush into the injector 
 and this feed water is carried on by the force of the condensed steam 
 jet into the boiler. 
 
 HEATING OF FEEDWATER. 
 
 A due regard for economy in the production and saving of power 
 requires that that contained in the heat of exhaust steam be applied 
 to some useful purpose, and as a rule is best utilized in raising the 
 temperature of the feedwater to the highest point of which it is 
 economically capable. To effect this the heater is used ; and when 
 in addition to this duty it is possible, by its use, to eliminate most of 
 the impurities contained in the water, its great value to an economical 
 steam plant will be acknowledged and appreciated. 
 
 That the feedwater heater is a most important feature in a steam 
 plant can be very easily proved by the following : Boiler pressure, 
 60 lbs. gauge. Feedwater, 40° before and 200° after it goes through 
 heater. What is the percentage gained by using the heater ? 
 
 Temperature of steam at 60 lbs. pressure = 307 
 
 Latent heat units in steam at 60 lbs. . . = 899 
 
 Total heat units = 1206 
 
 The total heat supplied per lb. of steam is =1206 -40, if there were 
 no feedwater heater = 1 166 heat units ; but feedwater heater increases 
 
 the temperature from 40 to 200 or 160 gain m heat .'. -pz — = 
 
 13.71%. 
 
 By increasing the temperature of the feed from 40 to 200 there 
 is a gain of 13.71%. ^ ' 
 
 To Find the Percentage Gain by Keating Feedwater — 
 Rule : Divide 100 times the difference between the final and 
 
ENGINKKRS MANUAL. 
 
 9» 
 
 initiHl feed temperatures by the total heat units in the steam minus 
 tlie initial temperature of the feed. 
 
 _ , /-Final temp, of feed — Initial temp, of feed^ 
 
 Formula, loo -^ ^ , , — .-~7 r~~~, — .-. — ■ 
 
 I. lotal heat units in steiiin — Imtial temp, ot tee».l > 
 
 Example— Initial temperature of feedwater, 45' ; final tempera 
 ture, 210 ; steam pressure, 100 lbs. tjauge. Find % gain. Ans. — 14.1",, 
 
 The following table shows the per cent, saving by 1 eating the 
 feedwater at 6olb:i.: 
 
 Initial 
 
 temp. 
 
 of water 
 
 35 
 40 
 
 45 
 50 
 
 55 
 60 
 
 65 
 70 
 
 75 
 80 
 
 85 
 90 
 
 95 
 100 
 
 no 
 
 120 
 
 130 
 
 140 
 
 156 
 160 
 170 
 180 
 200 
 
 Final teniperatiire of feedwater. 
 
 120 
 
 7-25 
 6.85 
 
 6-45 
 6.05 
 
 5 64 
 
 5 23 
 4.82 
 4.40 
 
 3 98 
 
 3 55 
 3.12 
 
 2.68 
 
 2. 24 
 
 1.80 
 
 .90 
 
 .00 
 
 140 
 
 8.96 
 
 8-57 
 8. .7 
 
 7-7' 
 
 •^•37 
 6.97 
 
 6.56 
 
 6.15 
 5 74 
 5 32 
 4.90 
 
 4-47 
 4.04 
 
 3.61 
 
 2-73 
 1.84 
 
 .92 
 
 .00 
 
 160 
 
 I go 
 
 10.66 
 
 12.09 
 
 •.;,28 
 
 12.00 
 
 ^^ . 90 
 
 11.61 
 
 9 50 
 
 1 1 . 23 
 
 9.06 
 
 10.85 
 
 8.72 
 
 10.46 
 
 8.32 
 
 1 . 07 
 
 7.91 
 
 9.68 
 
 7 50 
 
 9.28 
 
 7.01 
 
 8.87 
 
 6.63 
 
 8.46 
 
 6.26 
 
 8.06 
 
 584 
 
 7t>5 
 
 542 
 
 7 23 
 
 4-55 
 
 6.38 
 
 367 
 
 5-52 
 
 2.77 
 
 4.64 
 
 1.87 
 
 3-75 
 
 •94 
 
 2.83 
 
 .00 
 
 1.91 
 
 
 .q6 
 
 
 .00 
 
 200 
 
 250 
 
 300 
 
 14.09 
 
 '8-34 
 
 22.60 
 
 13 7' 
 
 17.99 
 
 22.27 
 
 •3-34 
 
 17.64 
 
 21.94 
 
 1 3 . 00 
 
 17.28 
 
 21.61 
 
 13.60 
 
 16.93 
 
 21.27 
 
 12.20 
 
 16.58 
 
 20.92 
 
 11.82 
 
 16. 20 
 
 20.58 
 
 "•43 
 
 15 83 
 
 20.23 
 
 1 1 .04 
 
 15.46 
 
 19.88 
 
 10.65 
 
 15.08 
 
 19-52 
 
 10.25 
 
 14.70 
 
 19.17 
 
 985 
 
 H 32 
 
 18.81 
 
 9.44 
 
 1394 
 
 18.44 
 
 903 
 
 13 55 
 
 18.07 
 
 8.20 
 
 12.76 
 
 17.28 
 
 736 
 
 i>-95 
 
 16.49 
 
 6.99 
 
 II. 14 
 
 15 24 
 
 5.62 
 
 10.31 
 
 14.99 
 
 4.72 
 
 9.46 
 
 14.18 
 
 3.82 
 
 8.59 
 
 13-37 
 
 2.89 
 
 7.71 
 
 12.54 
 
 1 .96 
 
 6.81 
 
 1 1 .70 
 
 .00 
 
 485 
 
 9-93 
 
 Example- The initial temperature of the feedwater is 85° F., and 
 the final temperature 180". Find the per cent, gained if gauge pres- 
 sure is 60 lbs. Ans. — 8.46%. 
 
 ^ PUMPS. 
 
 To Find the Capacity of a Pump, per Stroke, in Gallons — 
 
 Rule : Multiply the area of the cylinder ly the length of the 
 stroke and divide by 277.27. 
 
 Area of cylinder x length of stroke 
 
 Formula, 
 
 and 
 
 277.27 
 Z)2 X . 7854 xL D-xL 
 277.27 ~ 352.8 
 
 » 
 
9a 
 
 ENGINRKKS MANl'AL. 
 
 To Find the Capacity of a Pump, per Stroke, in Lbs. — 
 
 Ri LK : Multiply the area of the cylinder by the length of stroke 
 and divide by 27.727, 
 
 Formula, = 
 
 Area of cylinder x length of stroke 
 
 27.727 
 D- X L 
 
 To Find the Capacity of a Pump in Gallons, per Minute — 
 RuLK : Multiply (i) by number of strokes per minute. 
 
 Z)-Zx No. of strokes 
 
 Formula, = 5 
 
 352-8 
 
 To Find the Capacity of a Pump in Lbs. per Minute — 
 RuLK : Multiply (2) by nuniber of strokes per minute. 
 D^L X No. of strokes 
 
 (2) 
 
 (3) 
 
 Formula, 
 
 (4) 
 
 35 28 
 (3) multiplied by 10. 
 
 To Find the Horsepower required to raise water a given 
 height — 
 
 Rile : Multiply the volume in cubic feet per minute, by pres- 
 sure per squat e foot and divide by 33000, or weight of water in lbs. 
 X height of lift divided by 33000. 
 
 Formula, 
 
 _ Vols, in cub. ft. per minute x press, per sq. ft. 
 
 33000 
 
 _ Weight of water in lbs. x height of lift 
 ~^ 33000 
 
 Certain allowance should be made for friction, etc., varying from 
 15 to 25%. 
 
 Example — What power is required to raise 600 cubic feet of water 
 per minute, lifting it 20' and then forcing it to 140' in height. 
 
 Total height of water to be raised =140 + 20=160' 
 
 Total weight of water to be raised =600 x 62 .4=37440 lbs. 
 
 160 x 37440 
 
 ;; =181.5 H.P., and allowmg 25% for friction gives 
 
 us 227 H.P. 
 
 The height of a column of water is equal to pressure per square 
 inch -T- .433 = pressure per square inch x 2.309. 
 
 Example — What power is required to raise 1000 gallons of water 
 per minute, lifting it 20' and fo' cing it against a pressure of 60 lbs. per 
 square inch. Allow 25% for friction. Ans.— 60H.P. 
 
TT 
 
 '*-M 
 
 -* - > »- • t ^ 
 
 >■ - . - If ' .-*-.. 
 
 f^i?>-W» •■ )■ 1^-^»1 %^a K-»-V^ ««£ J^ )u(^ 
 
ENCilNKERS MANl'AL. 
 
 To Set the Valves of a WouTiiiNi'.TON Diplex Pump. 
 
 9.1 
 
 The steam valve of this pump has no oulside lap, consoijiu'iitlv, 
 while in its central position, it just ci>vers the ste.im ports leadin^f to 
 opposite enJs of the cylinder. To set the piston in the middle of its 
 stroke, open the drip cocks and move the piston by prying on the 
 crosshead (not on the lever), until it comes into contact with the 
 cylinder head ; make a mark on the piston rod at the face of the 
 steam end of the stuffing- box follower ; move the piston back to con- 
 tact stroke at opposite end. Make second mark on piston rod half- 
 way between first mark and the follower. Then if the piston is again 
 moved back until second mark coincides v/ith face ol' same follower, 
 it will be exactly at the middle of its stroke. Bear in mind that one 
 piston moves valves on opposite side, {a) When the ste;im valve is 
 moved by a single valve rod nut, as is the case with pumps having 
 less than lo-inch stroke. Place one piston in the middle of its stroke; 
 disconnect link from head of valve rod on opposite side ; then set the 
 valve in its * central position ' ; place valve nut evenly between jaws 
 on back of valve ; screw valve rod in or out until eye on valve rod 
 head comes in line with eye of valve rod link ; then reconnect. Re- 
 peat the operation on opposite side and the valves will be properly 
 set. {b) When the valve rod has more than one lock nut, as is the 
 case with pumps having lo inch stroke and over. Place one piston 
 in the middle of its stroke and opposite side valve in * central position'; 
 adjust lock nuts, allowing about f\ inch 'lost motion' on each side of 
 jaw. Do not disconnect the valve motion. Repeat operation on 
 opposite side. By Most motion' is meant the distance a valve rod 
 travels before moving the valve ; or, if the steam chest cover is off, 
 the amount of ' lost motion ' is shown by the distance the valve can 
 be moved back and forth before coming in contact with the valve rod 
 nut. To divide the * lost motion ' equally move valve each way until 
 it strikes the nut or nuts, and see if port openings are equal. It is 
 advisable that both pistons be placed at the middle of their strokes 
 before touching either slide valve. When the stroke of a pump is too 
 long, that is, when piston strikes the heads, the * lost motion ' should 
 be reduced ; contrariwise, when the stroke is too short, increased 
 * lost motion ' will tend to lengthen it. 
 
 STRENGTH OF 50LID ROUND SHAFTING. 
 
 The resistance to tension in solid round shafts is directly propor- 
 tional to the cubes of their diameters, when made of the same material 
 and quality. This is evident from the fact that the shaft must offer a 
 moment of resistance or shearing moment equal to the tivi sting moment 
 
 It 
 at the instant of rupture. The area to be sheared is = — d- when d 
 
 4. 
 = diam. of the shaft. The mean arm or leverage at which this re- 
 sistance acts is equal to half the radius oi the shaft for at the centre 
 the leverage is = O and at the circumference it is equal to the radius 
 
 of the shaft. The mean arm is therefore = — = . 
 
 24 
 
 Let S = shearing resistance per square inch of cross section of 
 the material, P — force applied at the end of the lever or circumfer- 
 
94 
 
 KN(iINHKRS MANIAL. 
 
 ence of the pulK'v ; A' "Iht' radius of vvhet'l, a pulley, or length of 
 arm. 
 
 /'. A' .V ( area of sliafi x - ) 
 
 ^4 4 / 16 
 
 r/» 
 
 ;r 
 
 5" ^/' is the total sheaiiiii; niomem, when 5* is a constant quan- 
 16 
 
 tity for any given mateiial, and it and 16 are also constants. 
 
 .'. Px ^ vaiies as r/''. 
 
 At the instant of rupture the strength of the shaft just balances or 
 is equal to the twistinjif moment J\ A\ 
 
 :. The strength of the shaft varies as r/''. 
 
 P3xample — A good wrought iron shaft 1" diameter has been found 
 to withstand a tongue {P. R) of 800 foot pounds. What force acting 
 at the circumference of a pulley 20" tliam.eter will break a shaft of the 
 same material 2" diameter ? 
 
 Let 7^1 ^P, X A', -^800 ft. pds. 
 
 T.,^P..xK\. P.,x '°' 
 
 12 
 
 .-. P,R, : P..R.,:: d] : d\ 
 
 a s 
 
 From which we get P^R^ x D., — /*2^2 ^ -^i 
 
 Or 7',=:^'-'^' ^^--7680 lbs. 
 R» X /); 
 
 POWER TRANSMITTED BY SHAFTING. 
 
 The amount of power that a shaft will transmit safely is directly 
 proportional to the speed at whi<:h it is driven ; thus, a shaft that will 
 transmit 6 H.P. at 50 revolutions per minute will transmit 12 H.P. 
 equally safe at 100 revolutions, and so on. The amount of work per- 
 formed is obtained by multiplying the force exerted by the space 
 through which it is exerted, and therefore if the space varies the 
 power transmitted or work done must vary to the same extent. 
 
 Example — If a 3" shaft transmits 20 H.P. safely at 100 revolutions 
 per minute, what H.P. may be transmitted by a 4" shaft running at 
 80 revolutions per minute? - - 
 
 Formula, z>^^, x /^^ = />;;.?,/>, 
 
 when Z),.Z)._j represents the diameters of ist and 2nd shafts respec- 
 tively, RiRo represents the revolutions per minute of ist and 2nd 
 shafts respectively ; P1P2 represents the H.P. transmitted by ist and 
 2nd shafts respectively. 
 
 From which we get P., = P-^±?^ = 37.926 H.P. ' ,. •«• 
 
 D\R, 
 
 Example— Find the H.P. that can be transmitted by a good 
 
 '* 
 
njfth of 
 
 it quan- 
 
 iiiccH or 
 
 >ti Cound 
 i acting- 
 ft of the 
 
 directly 
 hat will 
 12 H. P. 
 )rk per- 
 e space 
 ries the 
 t. 
 
 slutions 
 n'mg at 
 
 respec- 
 
 ind 2nd 
 
 ist and 
 
 1 
 
 ENGINEERS MANIAL. 
 
 95 
 
 wrought iron shaft 4" diainefor, when driven by a wheel 3' diameter 
 running at 100 revohilions per minute. The shaft is not to be strained 
 above ,'„ of its uUimale strength, /.<•., factor of safety is 10. The 
 maximum or rupturing twisting moment that a i" shaft will withstand 
 is 800 ft. pds. Ans.— 97.48 11. P. 
 
 The following table shows the power that steel shafting- will 
 transmit : 
 
 
 
 
 Diameter of shafts In Inches, 
 
 
 Revs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 per 
 
 li 
 
 2 
 
 2h 
 
 3 
 
 3i 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 0m 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 min'te 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Horse power they will transmit. 
 
 50 
 
 3-3 
 
 8.0 
 
 156 
 
 27 
 
 43 
 
 64 
 
 '25 
 
 216 
 
 yr?> 
 
 S^2 
 
 729 
 
 1000 
 
 60 
 
 4.0 
 
 9.6 
 
 18.8 
 
 3^ 
 
 5' 
 
 77 
 
 '50 
 
 259 
 
 412 
 
 614 
 
 875 
 
 1200 
 
 70 
 
 4-7 
 
 11.2 
 
 21 .9 
 
 38 
 
 60 
 
 89 
 
 '75 
 
 302 
 
 480 
 
 7'7 
 
 1021 
 
 1400 
 
 80 
 
 5-4 
 
 12 8 
 
 25.0 
 
 43 
 
 69 
 
 10.^ 
 
 200 
 
 346 
 
 549 
 
 819 
 
 1166 
 
 1600 
 
 90 
 
 6.0 
 
 14.4 
 
 28.1 
 
 49 
 
 77 
 
 "5 
 
 225 
 
 389 
 
 6,7 
 
 922 
 
 1312 
 
 1800 
 
 100 
 
 6.7 
 
 16.0 
 
 31.2 
 
 54 
 
 86 128 
 
 250 
 
 432 
 
 686 
 
 F024 
 
 '458 
 
 2000 
 
 no 
 
 7-4 
 
 176 
 
 .34 4 
 
 50 
 
 94 '4' 
 
 275 
 
 475 
 
 755 
 
 1 126 
 
 [604 
 
 2200 
 
 120 
 
 8.1 
 
 19.2 
 
 37-5 
 
 6s 
 
 '03 '54 
 
 300 
 
 5'8 
 
 8^3 
 
 1229 
 
 '750 
 
 2400 
 
 130 
 
 8.7 
 
 20.8 
 
 4«i . 6 
 
 70 
 
 1 1 1 166 
 
 325 
 
 562 
 
 892 
 
 ^3>2,^ 
 
 •895 
 
 2600 
 
 140 
 
 9-4 
 
 22.4 
 
 43.8 
 
 76 
 
 120 179 
 
 350 
 
 605 
 
 960 
 
 '434 
 
 2041 
 
 2800 
 
 150 
 
 ID. I 
 
 24.0 
 
 46.9 
 
 81 
 
 129 192 
 
 375 
 
 648 
 
 1020 
 
 '536 
 
 2187 
 
 3000 
 
 160 
 
 10.8 
 
 25.6 
 
 50.0 
 
 86 
 
 '37 205 
 
 400 
 
 691 
 
 1097 
 
 .638 
 
 2333 
 
 3200 
 
 170 
 
 II-5 
 
 27.2 
 
 53 I 
 
 92 146 218 
 
 425 
 
 734 
 
 1166 
 
 '74' 
 
 2479 
 
 3400 
 
 180 
 
 12.2 
 
 28 8 
 
 56.3 
 
 97 '54 230 
 
 450 
 
 778 
 
 '235 
 
 '843 
 
 2624 
 
 3600 
 
 190 
 
 12.8 
 
 30-4 
 
 59-4 
 
 103 
 
 't)3 243 
 
 475 
 
 821 
 
 '303 
 
 '945 
 
 2770 
 
 3800 
 
 200 
 
 •3-5 
 
 32.0 
 
 62.5 
 
 108 
 
 172 
 
 256 
 
 500 
 
 864 
 
 '372 
 
 2048 
 
 2916 
 
 4000 
 
 225 
 
 '5-2 
 
 366 
 
 70.3 
 
 122 
 
 193 
 
 288 
 
 563 
 
 972 
 
 '543 
 
 2304 
 
 3280 
 
 4500 
 
 250 
 
 16.9 
 
 40.0 
 
 78 I 
 
 '35 
 
 214 
 
 320 
 
 625 
 
 1080 
 
 '7 '5 
 
 2560 
 
 3645 
 
 5000 
 
 275 
 
 18 6 
 
 44.0 
 
 859 
 
 '49 
 
 236 
 
 352 
 
 688 
 
 1 188 
 
 1886 
 
 2816 
 
 4009 
 
 5500 
 
 300 
 
 20 3 
 
 48.0 
 
 937 
 
 162 
 
 257 
 
 384 
 
 750 
 
 1296 
 
 2058 
 
 3072 
 
 4374 
 
 6000 
 
 325 
 
 21.952.0 
 
 loi .6 
 
 176 
 
 279 
 
 4.6 
 
 8'3 
 
 1404 
 
 2229 
 
 3328 
 
 4739 
 
 6500 
 
 350 
 
 23.656.0 
 
 109 4 
 
 189 
 
 300 
 
 448 
 
 875 
 
 1512 
 
 2401 
 
 3584 
 
 5'03 
 
 7000 
 
 400 
 
 27.064.0 
 
 125.0 
 
 216 
 
 343 5' 2 
 
 1000 
 
 1728 
 
 2744 
 
 4096 
 
 5832 
 
 8000 
 
 450 
 
 30.472.0 
 
 140.6 
 
 243 
 
 386 
 
 576 
 
 1125 
 
 '944 
 
 3087 
 
 4608 
 
 6562 
 
 9000 
 
 500 
 
 33-7j8o.o 
 
 156 2 
 
 270 
 
 429 
 
 640 
 
 1250 
 
 2160 
 
 3430 
 
 5120 
 
 7290 
 
 1 0000 
 
 good 
 
 Take 70% of the above powers for wrought-iron shafts. 
 
 SIZE OF PULLEYS. 
 
 Let D = driving- pulley 
 d = driven pulley 
 
 /? = No. of revs, per minute of driver 
 r = No. of revs, per minute of driven 
 
 To Find the Size of the Driving Pulley — 
 
96 
 
 ENGINRKRS MANUAL. 
 
 Ki i.K : Multiply tlu> ili;itiu>ti>r of tlic driven by the iiiiinber of its 
 revolutions, ami tliviiU' l)y tlu' ri'volutions ottlu* tlriver. 
 
 Forimila, D^ ., 
 
 To Find tho No. of Revolutions of Driver — 
 
 Rri.K : Multiply the dianieler of the driven by the number of its 
 
 revolutions, ami liivide by the diameter of the driver. 
 
 d.r 
 Form"I:i, R — .^ 
 
 To Find the Size of the Driven Pulley — 
 
 Rii.K : Multiply the diameter of the driver by its revolutions, and 
 divide by the revolutions of the driven. 
 
 I'ormula, a= 
 
 r 
 To Find the Revolutions of the Driven Pulley. 
 
 Ri'LE : Multiply the diameter of the driver by its revolutions, and 
 divide by the diameter of the driven pulley. 
 
 D.R 
 
 Formula, 
 
 r = 
 
 To Find the Value of a Train of Gears or Pulleys- - 
 
 Multiply the radii, diameters, or number of teeth of all the drivers, 
 and divide by the product of all the radii, diameters, or number of 
 teeth of the followers. 
 
 Note — The value of a train is the ratio of the number of revolu- 
 tions of the last wheel in a train to the number of revolutions of the 
 first wheel in the same train. 
 
 Example — Find the value of the following train : The drivers are 
 A C E, having respectively 40, 60, 80 teeth ; the followers are B D F, 
 having 100, i?o, 160 teeth. If F makes 40 revolutions per minute, 
 how many revolutions does A make ? 4.8, 192. 
 
 SCREW CUTTING. 
 
 Let / = Threads per inch to be cut 
 
 T— *' *' " on leading screw 
 
 d^d., ~ Number of teeth in drivers 
 /i/]= '* " " "followers. 
 The number of threads per inch are inversely proportional to the 
 distance between any two consecutive threads. 
 
 ^ fi'^fi pitch of leading screw 
 T ~ d^xd^ "pitch of screw to be cut. 
 
 If the train of wheels is a simple one, we have 
 if 
 
 T ~ 
 t = 
 
 d 
 d 
 
 from which we get 
 
 or the number of threads per inch to be 
 
 cut is equal to threads per inch on leading screw multiplied by the 
 
RNGINEERS MANl'AL. 
 
 97 
 
 number of teeth in follower divided by the number of teeth in the 
 driver. 
 
 , t.d 
 By transposition we get f - -y. or 
 
 To Find the Number of Teeth in the Follower — 
 
 Rule : Divide the product of the number of threads to be cut per 
 inch and the number ot teeth In the driver by the number of threads 
 per inch on the leading screw. 
 
 Example I. — Calculate the number of teeth to be put on leading 
 screw in order to cut 12 threads per incli, when the pitch of the lead- 
 ing screw is %" and the driver on lathe spindle has 40 teeth. Ans. — 
 120 teeth. 
 
 Example II. — Screw to be cut to h ve 40 threads per inch. Lead- 
 ing screw \" pitch, and using a driver d^ of 20 teeth, determine the 
 rest of the gears. 
 
 / fx^fi 40 4 >< 10 80 X 100 
 T 
 
 40 4x10 
 d^y. d^~ 4 ~ 1x4 
 
 /i X /, 80+100 
 
 20 X 40 
 
 rf, X f/g 20X40 
 
 The wheels required are therefore /, =80 teeth, f^ = 100, d,^ =40 
 teeth. 
 
 Example I. — Leading screv/ \" pitch. Screw to be cut §" pitch. 
 What wheels would you use? Ans. — 50 driving a 20, or in that ratio. 
 
 Example II.— The set of change wheels belonging to a lathe con- 
 sists of the following : — 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 
 no and 120 teeth. If the pitch of the leading screw is \" devise suit- 
 able trains to cut the following screws and make a table of your 
 results : -4, 4J, 5, 5^, 6, 6^, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14 and 16 threads per inch. 
 
 THE PENDULin. 
 
 The time of a single small oscellation i: the same time as that of 
 a body falling through half the length of the pendulum multiplied by 
 
 ic. But the space traversed by a body = 
 tng bodies. 
 
 t'g 
 
 See formula for fall- 
 
 or 
 
 2S 
 
 r- = — 
 
 y/ 
 
 2S 
 
 But the length of the pendulum = 2s. 
 
 •/I . 
 ••• '=T 
 
 Therefore, the time T of a single small vibration = Jt 
 
 y/J 
 8 
 
 or 
 
q8 
 
 engineers' manlal. 
 
 the time is proportional to the square root of the lenjrth of the pendu- 
 lum while ^z- remains eonstatif. 
 
 To Determine the Force of Gravity — 
 From the Formula T -= n we get 
 
 A*" = j7> ^"tl if T is taken as i second 
 
 then g -.■= 9.87/ when / is the length of the pendulum 
 in feet. 
 
 If a pendulum 39.15" long oscillates once in a second, find the 
 value ot^; t.e. the atxeleration due to gravity. 
 
 _ q.87 X3g. ic 
 
 = Z-^C JX__A^ 32.2 feet. 
 
 12 
 
 I 
 
 Let / 
 
 h 
 r 
 
 Th'. Pendulum Governor. 
 time of one revolution 
 centrifugal force 
 
 height of the cone 
 radius 
 
 M 
 
 Suppose the governor for the time being to be as shown by the 
 
engineers' manl?al. 
 diafc'ram, then by the principle of moments we have 
 
 n 
 
 . h ~-^ Wr 
 
 The velocity 
 
 7.' 
 
 2Tlr 
 
 or /i 
 
 
 r 
 
 V 
 
 .-~ ov t ~ 
 
 V • 
 
 " f~ ""T' ^"^ multiply both sides of the equation by 271 
 
 v/e get 2;r 
 
 \/ A 
 
 ^ 
 
 27r/' 
 
 V 
 
 = time of one revolution, which shows that 
 the time of one revolution varies directly as the square of the height 
 
 The equation as gi;/en for the pendulum is T -- tt'^ L^ and for 
 
 V /i 
 
 ^ 
 
 the pendulum governor / ^ 27r^i, which shows that the time of one 
 pendulum. ""^ '^^ &«^^'-"«'' ^^ equal to one double swing of the 
 
 in . ^^^3'^ I--What length of pendulum, in inches, will oscillate once 
 m a second m London. 
 
 /=;r^i 
 
 39- 15 
 
 Example Il.-What is the height of the cone of a governor that 
 urill make 30 revolutions per minute ? s vciuor inai 
 
 ^k 
 
 27t 
 
 g 
 
 /..= 
 
 ^TC'h 
 
 
 39- 15" 
 
 which is the same as the pendulum that beats seconds. 
 
 eive^mimhl'^f^ Height of a Revolving Pendulum which makes a 
 given number of revolutions per second- 
 Formula, J^ ^ ^1-f Revolutions per sec >nd squared 
 
 =__l_j?:78V_ 
 
 Revs, per second ^ 
 
 o^^J''^"'^'^,"^^^^ '^ ^^^ ^^'^^^ '" inches of the cone of a pendulum 
 governor makmg 120 revolutions per minute ? Ans.-2.445''. 
 
lOO 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY. 
 
 Let /:^time in seconds 
 
 ^=measure of acceleration 
 f^space traversed 
 
 2<=initial velocity at beginning of interval of time 
 7;r=final ** "end " 
 
 V- w=change of velocity in t units 
 
 ' = rate of change of velocity =^ 
 
 <i 
 
 If «< 
 
 v=u -\-gt 
 ' Average v = 
 
 2 
 
 Space=saverage velocity x No. of seconds 
 
 \, 2 J 
 
 If M- o or body starts from rest, the 
 Space = ^ 
 
 (I) 
 
 (2) 
 
 (3) 
 
 In equation (i) 7) — u-\-gt 
 
 V-- u 
 
 :. t-^ andifwesubstitutethis valueof ^ inequa- 
 
 g 
 
 tion (2) we get 5 = from which we get 
 
 V-=U-^-2gS (4) 
 
 and \f u^o then 7'^=2gs 
 
 ^ =>/2gs is) 
 
 When a body is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity 
 u, to find the space and velocity v at the end of time if ; ^ in this 
 Cuse, is opposite to the motion of the body : 
 
 /. V = u -gt (6) 
 
 s — ut 
 
 (7) 
 
 To find the time, ^, to reach a given height, *, when thrown with 
 a velocity, «, and also the velocity, v, at a given height : 
 
 From equation (7), we get 
 
 t^ ^i± ^U^ -2gt ^g^ 
 
 g 
 
 Both values of / are positive. The lesser gives the time required by 
 the body to reach the given point, and the greater the time required 
 by it to come to rest and fall back to this point. 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 lOT 
 
 Substitute in equation (4) -g for^, and we can find the velocity 
 at a given height : 
 
 V" - ^ U"^ - 2gS 
 V — y/v - 2gS 
 
 when J = height. 
 
 Examples — Body thrown vertically downward with a velocity of 
 50' per second. Find the velocity at the end of 15 seconds and when 
 it has fallen 600'. Ans. — 530' ; 247'. 
 
 A body is thrown upward with a velocity of 160' per second. 
 Find the velocity at the end of 3 seconds, and also when it has risen 
 400'. Ans.— 64" ; o'. 
 
 A body falls from rest for 4 seconds. Find the distance fallen, 
 and also the distance fallen in the 4th second. Ans. — 144' ; 112'. 
 
 Body projected vertically upward at an initial velocity of 160' per 
 second. Find distance traversed in 5 seconds, and also the distance 
 traversed in the 5th second. Ans. — 400' ; 16'. 
 
 How to Proceed to Set Up a StatiotiMry Engine. 
 
 Having come to a decision as to the proper position to place the 
 engine, drop a plumb line from several points on the line shaft to 
 the floor, strike a line on the floor under shaft to correspond with the 
 plumb lines and locate where the centre line of engine is to be — 
 being sure that it is at right angels to the line already on the floor ; 
 the best method to adopt to get the two lines at right angels to each 
 other, is fully illustrated by the 47th problem of Euclid, "The sum of 
 the squares of two sides of a right angle triangle is equal to the square 
 on the hypotenuse" : 
 
 The square of A added to the square ot B is equal to the square of 
 
 C, as illustrated by Fig. i ; to apply this, 
 measure off on the 'ine under line shaft 12' 
 from the point where the centre line of 
 engine crosses t and from the same point 
 measure off" 16' on the centre line of engine, 
 the 16' point is to be moved sideways until 
 it is exactly 20' from the 12' point on centre 
 line under line shaft, then stretch a line from 
 the point where the lines cross each other, 
 directly over the 16' point, the two lines will then be exactly at 
 right angles to each other ; if there is not room to use the distances 
 12', 16' and 20', use 6', 8' and 10', but it is best to use the first, as with 
 this any slight deviation would only be one-half as much as it would 
 be with the last. To get the position of outer bearing and have it 
 square with centre line of engine, proceed as before ; or, measure 
 from the centre line under line shaft at two different points to get the 
 crank shaft of engine parallel with this line. The excavation for 
 foundation and pier of outer bearing can now be made — it should be 
 2' or 3' wider and longer than the intended foundation. When the 
 excavation is finished, the templet for the anchor bolts may be set ; 
 care should be taken that the centre line on templet is directly under 
 the line representing centre line of engine. If the bolts are to be 
 
I02 
 
 engineers' manual. 
 
 built in, they can be liung in templet, but the best practice is to have 
 hand-holes in bottom of foundation, in which case drop plumb lines 
 through holes in templet and lay off the hand-holes 12' wide, and 
 when the foundation is built up 12" from bottom, lay oak plank 3" or 
 4" thick, of sufficient length to reach over the two hand-holes; when this 
 is in position, again drop the plumb line and bore holes in the plank 
 V larger than the anchor bolts ; the holes in foundation from oak 
 plank to top of rubble stone or brick work can be left by using a taper 
 stick or piece of pipe or square wooden box ; the size of holes will 
 depend on the size of bolts required, but should be 1" or even more 
 larger than the bolts. Should the taper sticks be used, care should 
 be taken to turn them occasionally to prevent the cement adhering to 
 them ; in any case, the foundation should be bui't with Portland 
 cement and good clean sharp sand : if bricks are used, they should 
 be dipped in water before being laid. The depth and weight of 
 foundation will depend on the size and weight of engine ; if the bot- 
 tom on which the foundation is to be built is very soft, there should be 
 18" or 24" of concrete (broken stone and cement), put in on which the 
 foundation should rest ; the base of foundation should be wider and 
 longer than the top, that is, with a batter on the side of walls about 
 i^" to the foot in height. When the top stones are laid, care should 
 be taken that they are perfectly level on top and the cement used 
 under these stones slightly stronger than the other part of founda- 
 tion. As soon as they are placed in position, the engine can be placed 
 and lined up ; to do which, in most cases it is best to remove the 
 piston and pass a line through cylinder, taking great care that the 
 line is in the centre of cylinder at back end and the centre of stuffing 
 box at front end also passes over the centre of crank pin ; by turning 
 the crank shaft and adjusting outer bearing so that the centre of 
 crank pin is directly over the line at both back and forward centres, 
 the shaft will be at right angles with centre line of engine. The ad- 
 justment of engine and outer bearing, to get them level, should be 
 done with iron wedges and when in proper position and the fly-wheel 
 on shaft, sulphur may be run under engine frame cylinder and 
 stand for outer bearmg, the anchor bolts tightened, piston put in 
 cylinder and connections made. There are several more details that 
 might be nicntioned, but they would not apply to every case, but as 
 they occur, the engineer in charge of erecting should be prepared to 
 meet them. 
 
 To Set Up a Wheelock Engine. 
 
 After the engine is placed on foundation, level the frame length- 
 wise by placing a level on lower guide and level it the other way by 
 dropping a plumb line over the four high points left on the frame in 
 front of guides for this purpose, placeone thickness of paper between 
 the line and the two points on upper guide, this will enable the man 
 doing the job to see how close the line is to the high point on lower 
 guide, and when right the engine will be level both ways. Place the 
 level in the main bearing, the levelling should be done with wedges 
 under cylinder and crank end of frame. The stand and outer bearing 
 can now be placed and the crank shaft put in position ; the stand 
 adjusted with wedges until shaft is level. To line up the engine, make 
 line fast to centre of crosshead pin and pass it forward half length of 
 
 I 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 103 
 
 ng-th- 
 y by 
 Biie in 
 ween 
 man 
 ower 
 e the 
 dges 
 ring 
 
 crank pin from face of crank, turn shaft to back and forward centre 
 to see that it is at right angles witii centre hne of cylinder ; fly-wheel 
 can then be placed in position on shaft, keyed up and allowed to stand 
 a few hours while making steam connections, then try the shaft and 
 frame again, to see that they are level and that the foundation has not 
 settled, and if all right run sulphur under cylindei", crank end of frame 
 and stand for outer bearing, tighten the foundation bolts, put on con- 
 nection rod, finish steam and exhaust connections then engine is ready 
 to start. Should the valves need adjusting, look on the face of arms 
 on cut-off valves for small marks for this purpose. 
 
 When the valves are at rest a fine 
 plumb line shcjuld drop directly over the 
 points A and B, Fig. 2 ; should this not 
 be right, it can be made so by loosening 
 the set screw which holds the stud on 
 which the dash pot rests, the end of this 
 stud is eccentric, so by turning it the 
 dash pot can be lowered or raised as 
 the case may require ; when right, be 
 sure to tighten set screw. In order to 
 get the lead point, place the crank on 
 the forward or back centre |as the case 
 may be, being- careful that it is correct 
 and the hook holding the valve in posi- 
 tion, a fine plumb line shoi'.ld fall directly 
 over the points C and D, Fig. 2. If 
 after indicating the engine the diagrams 
 show that the load is not equally divided 
 between both ends of cylinder, the rod between the two trips should 
 be lengthened or shortened as the case might require. In starting 
 the engine for regular work, it would be well to allow an extra quan- 
 tity of cylinder oil to pass through lubricator for at least a week after, 
 by this means the piston and inside of cylinder will become polished 
 and be less liable to cut. 
 
 
 RIVETTED JOINTS. 
 
 P 
 
 — s — 
 
 ll. 
 
 • I 
 
 Let P~ pitch of Rivets in ins. 
 
 rf=diam. 
 
 /= thickness of Plate" 
 
 Zs = Tensile strength of 
 Plate per sq. in. 
 
 & = Shearing strength of 
 Plate per sq. in. 
 
 « = No. of rows of Rivets . 
 
104 
 
 engineers' manual. 
 
 
 The strength of the plate between rivet centres \s = Px tx Ts. If 
 at the ends of the line, /*, two holes are drilled d" in diameter, the plpte 
 is diminished by two halves of one diameter or one diameter, i.e., 
 P—d=s, which represents the available section, and the strength 
 becomes {P—d) /x 7>, obviously less than Px tx Ts. 
 
 The ratio of the strength of the plate, after the holes are drilled, 
 
 to that of the original plate will be represented by ^ ~ ' — — — "^ and 
 
 the percentage of the strength of the plate will be ' . From 
 
 this follows the 
 
 Rule for finding the percentage of strength of plate after the 
 holes are drilled : Divide loo times the difference between the pitch 
 and the diameter of the rivet by the pitch. 
 
 Example — Pitch of rivets, 2J" ; diam. of rivet=2". Ans. — 70%. 
 
 The shearing strength of a rivet = Area of rivet x Shearing 
 strength ; and if there are, n, rows of rivets, then 
 
 Area of rivet xSsx » = Shearing strength of n rivets. 
 
 But P./. 75 = original strength of plate. 
 
 Area of rivet xSsx n 
 
 = Ratio of strength of rivets to that 
 
 of original plate. 
 
 or 
 
 P.t.Ts 
 Area of rivet xSsxnx 100 
 
 PJxTs 
 And if we assume TV =55, then 
 Area of rivet x w x 100 
 
 ~ % strength of seam. 
 
 P.t 
 
 = % strength of seam to that of 
 original plate. 
 
 Example — Thickness of plate, f " ; rivets, i|"diam. ; pitch, 3I". 
 If seam is double rivetted, find the percentage of strength of rivets 
 to that of original plate. Ans.— 71%. 
 
 The most economical form of a joint is one in which the plate and 
 rivet strengths are just equal, and the best way to arrive at this is to 
 equate the formula for the rivet section to that of the plate section, 
 thus : 
 
 Area of Rivet x No. of Rows of Rivets _ P-d 
 
 P-t P~ 
 
 or {P- d) Pt = Area of rivets xnxP. • 
 
 from which we get (P- d) i = Area of Rivets x» , 
 
 Area x n 
 
 or 
 
 P = 
 
 + d 
 
 (I) 
 
 To Find the Pitch of Rivets if all the other data is given — 
 
 Multiply the area of the rivet by the number of rows of rivets, 
 then divide by the thickness of the plate and add the diameter of the 
 rivet to the quotient. 
 
From 
 
 ENGINEKRS' MANUAL. 
 
 If thickness of plate is required, then 
 
 __ ^^^^ of Rivet X n 
 i_ ^^^ _____ 
 
 To Find the Area of the Rivet— 
 
 ^ 
 
 IDS 
 
 area 
 
 n 
 
 or if area of rivets is given to find the number of rows 
 
 {P-d)t 
 
 n = 
 
 area 
 
 (-0 
 
 (.^) 
 
 (4) 
 
 As it is more practical to take the diameter instead of the area of 
 the rivets the formulaj would have to be changed, as follows : 
 
 d- X .7854 X n 
 
 d- X . 7854 X n 
 
 Formula (i) becoming P = '^^'i-^ _ ^ ^^ 
 
 (2) 
 (3) 
 (4) 
 
 t ---. 
 
 P-d 
 
 (5) 
 (6) 
 
 ./ = Vi^Z^ 
 
 n — 
 
 V7854X;. ^7) 
 
 _{P-J)f ^(/^-r/)/ x 1.273 
 fl^-x.78^4 " d^ 
 
 (8) 
 
 Examples— Find the pitch of the rivets so as to secure an eqi-n! 
 percentage of strength in rivets and plate of a double rivetted seam 
 plate f , nvets-i I" diameter. Ans. — 3.775" 
 
 Pitch 3.775", plate f". seam double rivetted. Find area a-id 
 diameter ot rivet. 
 
 (P-d) t 
 Take formula {3) when area = -^ we get .994 sq. inches, 
 
 and from (7) we get 
 
 Diameter of rivet=^ \SF_^±)1 =^ / (3775- ' ' ^5)^ 
 
 '^.78 
 
 '54 X « 
 
 = ^/_3-975 
 
 7854 X 2 ^31416 
 
 =v/i 2652 = 1 . 125" or ij" 
 To prove that this joint is correct, all that is necessary is to find 
 the percentage of strength of the plates after the holes are drilled to 
 that of the original plate, and also the shearing strength of the rivets 
 to that of the original plate ; or, 
 
 P-d 
 
 =70% in the above example ; 
 
 or -Q' X • 7854 >< » - Area of rivet x n_ ^, 
 
 P.t TTt ^°^ \ 
 
 Professor Unwin gives the diameter of the rivet as being = 
 i.2y/t, and which is considered a very good proportion ; and from 
 this we can easily calculate the pitch and diameter of the rivet, if the 
 thickness of the plate is known. 
 
 Example— Plate, |" thick. Find Pand d in a single rivetted lap 
 joint. '^ 
 
io6 
 
 KNGINEKRS MANUAL. 
 
 The diameter of the rivet is found to be i .044", and by formula 
 (i) we get the pitch to be 2.445". 
 
 The percentage of strength of rivets in a single rivetted lap joint 
 compared with that of the original plate = 
 
 Area of rivet y nx 100 .Q94X 100 ^ 
 
 _ 54/0 
 
 Px I 2 . 445 X ^ 
 
 and the strength of the plate after holes are drilled to that of the 
 
 P-d 
 original plate is __ =54% 
 
 The strength of a single rivetted lap joint is only 54% of 
 the original plate. 
 
 Example in Double Rivetted Joint — Plate, ?" thick. Find pitch 
 and diameter of rivets ; also, percentage of strength of joint to that 
 of the original plate. 
 
 The diam. of the rivets is the same as in the single rivets, 
 
 viz. = 1.2^^= I J" nearly; and P will be found to be 3.795"» in 
 practice 3J". 
 
 If the joint is properly designed, the strength of the rivet section 
 will be equal to that of the plate section, and In this instance it will 
 be found that the strength of the rivet section is .7 of the original 
 plate. From this, we find that the strength of a double rivetted 
 lap joint is 70% of the original plate. 
 
 > Tripple Rivetted Lap Joint — 
 
 Example — Plate f thick. Find pitch, diameter of rivet, and also 
 percentage of strength of joint. The diameter is the same as in the 
 ijingle and double rivetted joints, viz., 1.044", ^^^ ^y formula (i) we 
 get P=^.o". By calculating the strength of the joint as above indi- 
 cated we get it to be close on to 80%. Therefore the strength of a 
 triple rivetted lap joint is 80% of the original plate. 
 
 The following is a summary of the above : 
 
 The strength of plate between rivet centres ~P. A T^. 
 
 The percentage of strength of plate after holes are drilled = ^^ ~ 
 
 The shearing strength of a rivet is = Area of rivet x 5*5. The per- 
 centage of strength of rivet section of n Rows to that of original plate 
 
 is = . 
 
 Area of rivet xSsx nx 100 Area of rivet xnx 100 
 
 P. t. Ts. P. t 
 
 if shearing and tensile strength are equal. 
 
 The pitch is = 
 
 Area of rivet x n 
 
 ^d. 
 
 Single rivetted lap joint is . 54 of the solid plate. 
 Double «' " " is .70 '« " «* 
 
 Triple 
 
 i( 
 
 
 
 is .80 '• 
 
 (( 
 
/ 
 
 ENGINKERS MANl'AL. 
 
 107 
 
 STRENGTH OF BOILER SHELLS. 
 
 The queslion of the form of hoilor was unimportant while wry 
 low pressures v/ere used, but as soon as the hij^hiT pressures from 
 40 lbs. per square inch and upwards were adopted it beeame neces- 
 sary to devote aonsiderable attention to the form of shell that would 
 best withstand internal pressure. 
 
 The sphere is the stronjj;est form for any boiler, but t>\vinji: to 
 many reasons for not adoptinjf this in practice the cylindrical boiler 
 is universally used as beings the nearest approach to the sphere. 
 
 The force tending to rupture a boiler is = the pressure per square 
 inch X by the diameter in inches, and is arrived at in the following 
 manner : 
 
 Let P — bursting pressure per .^quare inch 
 / = thickness of plate in inches 
 D — diameter in inches 
 75 = tensile strength of the material. 
 
 In the diagram take the 
 small surface A B which lies 
 at the Xngle © with the line 
 CD. 
 
 By the resolution of forces 
 the bursting pressure P on 
 surface A B can be resolved 
 into two components, viz.: 
 Pv and Ph, which are the 
 vertical and horizontal com- 
 ponents. 
 
 Pv ^ P, cos © 
 
 The vertical pressure on 
 A B—A B. P. cos ©, and cos 
 Q. AB = ah. 
 
 From this we see that the 
 vertical pressure on the surface A B — P. ah, and as the sum of all 
 the vertical components of P will be = P x diameter. 
 
 If the boiler has a length / we have a pressure tending to cause 
 rupture = P. D. L. and we have resisting this pressure 2t. I. Ts. and 
 therefore at the point of rupture the resistance of the material = 
 pressure tending to cause rupture. 
 
 From this we get P, D. I. = 2/. /. Ts - 
 
 P D=2t.Ts 
 
 (0 
 
 P- 
 
 t = 
 
 D 
 P.D 
 
 Ts 
 
 We see from this that the pressure P required to cause longitud- 
 inal rupture is equal to twice the thickness of the plate multiplied by 
 the tensile strength of the material divided by the diameter of the 
 boiler in inches. The boiler may also be ruptured transversely due to 
 the pressure on the ends. In this case the force tendine to 
 
 'g 
 
io8 
 
 rupture 
 
 ENtllNKKRS MANIAL. 
 
 / 
 
 prossuri' X area of boiler (cruss seetioii) i.e., PxD-.'jS^^ 
 
 ari'a /'.vat the poiiU of rupture, 
 
 aiiil the re.sistanei> olllie plate 
 
 4 
 P- 
 
 (2) 
 
 4/. 7V 
 
 D 
 
 From (i) and (2) we see that the pressure causing rupture longi- 
 tudinally is one-halt' that causing ruptuif transversely, or 
 
 P ~ I) 
 
 4/. Ts 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 D 
 
 and for this reason the longitudinal seams are always made stronger 
 than the circumferential seams. 
 
 In boilers having internal flues the pressure required to rupture a 
 boiler transversely is greater than twice that for the longitudinal rup- 
 ture for the area exposed to pressure is less than the whole cross sec- 
 tion of the boiler by the area of the flues. 
 
 Example — A boiler 28' long, 7' diameter, has two 30" internal 
 flues run ling the whole length of the boiler, the thickness of the plate 
 is .5 ". The longitudinal seams are double rivetted and the transverse 
 seams single rivetted. Find the bursting pressure along the longi- 
 tudinal and transverse sections. Tensile strength of plate 50.000 lbs. 
 square inch. Ans. — 417 lbs. 1534 lbs. 
 
 STAYS. 
 
 To Find the Strain on Each Stay — 
 
 Rile : Find area of surface supported, and multiply it by 
 pressure carried, and divide it by the number of stays, and the 
 quotient will be the strain on each stay. 
 
 To Find the Proper Diameter of Stay — 
 
 Rile : Strain on one stay divided by 5000 (which is the strain 
 allowed per sq. in. of stay), then divide by .7854, and extract the 
 square root, will give the diameter required. 
 
 To Find the Proper Pitch of Stays — 
 
 Rile : Strain on one stay, divided by steam pressure to be 
 carried, and extract the square root, will give the proper pitch ot 
 slays. 
 
 To Find the Total Amount of Stays in Square Inches Necessary — 
 
 Rule : Area of sheet to be stayed, multiplied by pressure to be 
 carried, divided by 5000. 
 
 Knowing pitch of stays and steam pressure, to Find Strain on One 
 Stay — .-■.■''■- 
 
 Rule : Pitch squared and multiplied by pressure = strain on one 
 stay. 
 
 To Calculate the Area of a Diagonal Stay — 
 
 Rule : First find the area of a direct stay sufficient to support 
 
 I 
 
/ 
 
 / 
 
 ENGINEERS MANIAL. 
 
 m 
 
 the surface to be stayeil, tluMi tin* aroa of direct stay, nuiltiplioil by 
 the loii^^th i)f diag-oiial slay, and divide the product by the length of 
 a line drawn at rijjht anji:les Iroin the surface to be stayed to the 
 point where diagonal stay is secured. Thus— 
 
 j; > vv> nf ,)„ ■,'<< -/ny X /T _^ /lrea,orji^.fOn4tt^taif. 
 
 WATER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES. 
 
 The cotnponent parts of water by weight and by measure are — 
 
 Oxygen . 
 Hydrogen 
 
 By Weight, liv Measure. 
 88.9 , 
 
 11 .1 2 
 
 One cubic inch of water at its maximum density, ^q.i^F., weighs 
 252.6937 grains, and one cubic foot weighs 62.425 lbs.; it is 828.5 
 times heavier than atmospheric air. 
 
 The four notable temperatures are i. Freezing point, 32" F. ; 2. 
 Maximum density, 39.i^F.; 3. Standard of specific gravity, 62''F.; 
 4. Boiling point at sea level, 212"^ F". 
 
 Below 39. 1° it decreases in density very slowly at first, and very 
 rapidly as it nears the point of congelation . A cubuc foot of ice weighs 
 
 57.25 lbs. and expands .089- 
 
 of its bulk. 
 
 One cubic foot of water- 
 
 One gallon of water. 
 
 U.S. 
 
 1 1 .24 
 Imperial. 
 6.23 gallons. 
 
 1728 cubic inches. 7 J gallons. 
 62.4 lbs. 
 
 f 277.274 cubic ins. 231 cubic inches, 
 "(iclbs. 8*1 lbs. 
 
 It has the greatest solvent power of any of the liquids ; for 
 common salt this is constant for all temperatures. For other 
 matter, such as carbonate of lime, magnesium and the different 
 sulphates, its solvent power increases as the temperature increases. 
 It decreases in weight as the temperature increases — 
 
 At 32° F., weight per cubic foot 62.418 lbs. 
 
 ♦♦ 39.i°F., *' " 62.425 " 
 
 " 62° F., " •• 62.355 " 
 
 (( 
 
 212° F., 
 
 59.760 
 
 Water is practically incompressible, and its capacity for absorb- 
 ing heat is greater than any other liquid or solid. 
 
no 
 
 ENGINEERS MANl'AL. 
 
 Till' following table jj^ivos tlu* lu'at units per II). and the weight of 
 a eiihie fin>t «>f water at temperatures iVotn 32' to 212 F.; 
 
 Temp. 
 
 ' Ht'Ht 
 
 Wi'iK'lit 
 
 •p- - ~ 
 Temp. 
 
 Heiit 
 
 Weight 
 
 '1*1* in t). 
 
 Heat 
 
 WelRht 
 
 Kah. 
 
 unitH 
 
 )er 
 CI1 )ic ft. 
 
 l-ah. 
 
 1 
 
 units 
 
 iK-r 
 
 1 I 1 1 1 1 ' 
 
 UtlitH 
 
 ner 
 cubic ft. 
 
 per It). 
 
 per lb. 
 
 CUljic" ft. 
 
 I'uh. 
 
 ' per lbs. 
 
 3a« 
 
 O.CO 
 
 62.42 
 
 "14 
 
 8a, oa 
 
 61.83 
 
 »54 
 
 122.34 
 
 61.10 
 
 35 
 
 3 02 
 8.06 
 
 62 42 
 
 "5 
 
 83,0a 
 
 61 . 82 
 
 »55 
 
 123.34 
 
 61 08 
 
 40 
 
 62 42 
 
 116 
 
 84,03 
 
 61.80 
 
 156 
 
 124 JS 
 
 6 1 , 06 
 
 45 
 
 13.08 
 
 ' 62.42 
 
 "7 
 
 85,04 
 
 61.78 
 
 'S7 
 
 J-' 5 j6 
 
 61 ,04 
 
 50 
 
 t8 10 
 
 62 . 4 1 
 
 118 
 
 8(),o5 
 
 61,77 
 
 t5« 
 
 126.37 
 
 6 1 . ( )2 
 
 5a 
 
 20 II 
 
 62 40 
 
 119 
 
 R7.f)6 
 
 ''1.7s 
 
 «S9 
 
 127.38 
 
 61 ,00 
 
 54 
 
 32.11 
 
 62 . 40 
 
 120 
 
 88 06 
 
 61,74 
 
 I ho 
 
 128.38 
 
 60 q8 
 
 56 
 
 24 II 
 
 62 30 
 62.38 
 
 121 
 
 89,07 
 
 61,73 
 
 161 
 
 129 39 
 
 60,96 
 
 58 
 
 a6 ra 
 
 122 
 
 90 , ( 18 
 
 61 70 
 
 i6a 
 
 130.40 
 
 60 94 
 
 60 
 
 28 12 
 
 62.37 
 
 123 
 
 91.09 
 
 61.68 
 
 163 
 
 i.1'-3i 
 
 60.92 
 
 62 
 
 30. r 2 
 
 62.36 
 
 124 
 
 92. 10 
 
 61.67 
 
 164 
 
 132 42 
 
 60.90 
 60.87 
 
 64 
 
 32.12 
 
 62 • .35 
 
 125 
 
 93.10 
 
 61 65 
 
 '65 
 
 ^3i 32 
 
 66 
 
 :h 12 
 
 62.34 
 
 126 
 
 94 »' 
 
 6f 63 
 
 166 
 
 134.4? 
 
 60.85 
 
 68 
 
 36 12 
 
 6'^ .33 
 
 127 
 
 95 I.' 
 
 6i.6"i 
 
 .67 
 
 13.S 34 
 
 60.83 
 
 70 
 
 38 II 
 
 62.31 j 
 
 128 
 
 9^''.^ 
 
 61 60 
 
 168 
 
 •36. 35 
 
 60.81 
 
 72 
 
 40. It 
 
 62 . 30 ! 
 
 129 
 
 9714 
 
 61.58 
 
 169 
 
 137 46 
 
 60.79 
 
 74 
 
 42.11 
 
 62 . 28 1 
 
 130 
 
 98 14 
 
 61.56 1 
 
 170 
 
 138,46 
 
 60.77 
 
 76 
 
 44.11 
 
 62,27 i 
 
 J3' 
 
 99. '5 
 
 61.54 
 
 171 
 
 '39-47 
 
 60 75 
 
 78 
 
 46 10 
 
 62.25 \ 
 
 132 
 
 too. 16 
 
 ()I,52 
 
 17a 
 
 140,38 
 
 60.73 
 
 80 
 
 48.09 
 
 62 23 
 
 '33 
 
 loi .17 
 
 61 ,51 
 
 '73 
 
 141 49 
 
 60.70 
 
 82 
 
 50 08 
 
 62.21 ; 
 
 134 
 
 102. 18 
 
 61.49 
 
 174 
 
 142 50 
 
 60.68 
 
 84 
 
 52 07 
 
 62.19 
 
 135 
 
 103 18 
 
 61.47 
 
 175 
 
 143 50 
 
 60.66 
 
 86 
 
 54.06 
 
 62 17 
 
 , '36 
 
 104. ig 
 
 61.45 
 
 176 
 
 '44 51 
 
 60 64 
 
 88 
 
 56.05 
 
 62 15 
 
 . 137 
 
 105 20 
 
 61.43 1 
 
 177 
 
 145.6a 
 
 60.62 
 
 90 
 
 58.04 
 
 62 13 
 
 ! 138 
 
 106.21 
 
 61,41 
 
 178 
 
 146.53 
 
 60.59 
 
 q2 
 
 60 03 
 
 62 II 1 
 
 '39 
 
 107 22 
 
 61.39 
 
 179 
 
 147.54 
 
 60.57 
 
 Q4 
 
 62 02 
 
 62 09 
 
 140 
 
 108 , 22 
 
 61.37 
 
 180 
 
 148 54 
 
 60.55 
 
 96 
 
 64 ot 
 
 62 07 , 
 
 141 
 
 109 23 
 
 61. j6 
 
 181 
 
 149 55 
 
 60.53 
 
 98 
 
 66 01 
 
 62.05 , 
 
 142 
 
 110.24 
 
 6' ;u 
 
 i8a 
 
 150.56 
 
 60.50 
 
 loo 
 
 68.01 
 
 62 . 02 
 
 143 
 
 III 25 
 
 61.32 
 
 '83 
 
 '5'. 57 
 
 60.48 
 
 102 
 
 70.00 
 
 62 . 00 
 
 144 
 
 112 26 
 
 61 30 
 
 184 
 
 '52.58 
 
 60.46 
 
 104 
 
 72.00 
 
 61.97 
 
 145 
 
 113.26 
 
 61. a8 
 
 '85 
 
 '53 58 
 
 60.42 
 
 106 
 
 74 00 
 
 61 95 
 
 .46 
 
 114.27 
 
 61 .26 
 
 186 
 
 154 59 
 
 60.41 
 
 108 
 
 76 00 
 
 61.92 
 
 147 
 
 115.28 
 
 61 .24 
 
 187 
 
 155.60 
 
 60.39 
 
 1 10 
 
 78.00 
 
 61. 8q 
 
 148 
 
 116.29 
 
 61 .22 
 
 188 
 
 156.61 
 
 60.37 
 
 112 
 
 80.00 
 
 61.86 
 
 149 
 
 117.30 
 
 61 ,20 
 
 189 
 
 157.62 
 
 60.34 
 
 113 
 
 81.01 
 
 61.84 
 
 I, so 
 
 T I 8 . 30 
 
 61.18 
 
 190 
 
 158.62 
 
 60.3a 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 '5' 
 
 "9 .31 
 
 61.16 
 
 191 
 
 '59.63 
 
 60.29 
 
 
 
 
 15^ 
 
 120. 32 
 
 61 .14 
 
 192 
 
 160.63 
 
 60.27 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 153 
 
 121 -.33 
 
 61 . 12 
 
 ^93 
 194 
 
 '95 
 196 
 197 
 198 
 199 
 
 161.64 
 162.65 
 163.66 
 164.66 
 165.67 
 166.68 
 167.69 
 
 60.25 
 60.22 
 60.20 
 60. 17 
 60.15 
 60.12 
 60.10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 'v 
 
 200 
 201 
 202 
 203 
 204 
 205 
 206 
 207 
 208 
 209 
 210 
 
 2TI i 
 
 168.70 
 169.70 
 170.71 
 171.72 
 '72.7.3 
 '73-74 
 174.74 
 175.75 
 176.76 
 
 177.77 
 178.78 
 179-78 
 
 60.07 
 60.05 
 60. 02 
 60.00 
 59-97 
 59-95 
 59 92 
 59 89 
 59 87 
 5984 
 59.82 
 
 59-74 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 212 1 
 
 r 
 
 180.79 
 
 59.76 
 
en(jini:kks maniai,. 
 
 1 1 
 
 Mechanical Refrig^eration and Ice Makins;. 
 
 In i>rdei- to arrive' at a clt'ar iiiuli'rsl.nuliiijj;^ as to what pii>cesses 
 of nattMV art* applii'il in ri'lrij4;iMaliii^aiul ii'i'-makinyf tnaihitu's, atten- 
 tion is called to certain facts well-known by evi' sbmly. If, especially 
 on a warm and dry suniniei- t.l;iy, the lianil is nioisleneil with water 
 and then exposed lo a current of air, a decidetl sensation i>f cot)linj^ 
 will be nolici'd. The tiryer the air and slronj;^er the current, the 
 more will be the coolinic ellecl. The explanation of this phenomenon 
 is that by the rapid cin-ulation of air over the wet hand the water is 
 evaporated, anti that t'ov this evapoiation it neeils heat, whicli is to a 
 ^reat extent taken from the warm hand and therefore produces the 
 coolinjj^ effect upon the skin. Ifinsti'ad t>f water the hand is mois- 
 tened with alcohol the cooling- efVect will be still greater because 
 alcohol is so much more volatile than water, and if sulphuric ether is 
 used for this experiment the elVect will be still more marked. The 
 heat which is requiieil to transform a. liquid into a jjas is called the 
 " latent" heat. VV'hat becomes of the heat which is constantly sup- 
 plied to boiling water? The answer to this is that it is used tochanjje 
 the liquid conditiiMi of the water into that of jfas or v.ipor, and the 
 heat supplied in this manner not showing any increase on the ther- 
 mometer must be ci>ntained in the vapi>r. It appears ajjain if the 
 vapors are condensed into a liquid, and this proves that while the 
 water was in the vaporous state the heat contained in it to maintain 
 it in that condition has become "latent." 
 
 This physical law of nature is made use of in nearly all the 
 machines which have for their object the reduction of temperatures. 
 If the substances which we are in the habit of usin^ for this purpose 
 were to cost nothinjf, we could simply let the evaporated at^ents, such 
 as ammonia, carbonic acid, sulphuric ether, or dioxide of sulphur, 
 escape into the atmosphere. But since the subst.'inces Hi rather 
 costly, it becomes a matter of necessity for the purpose of ecoiiomical 
 refrigeration to maintain them in the apparatus which is used for the 
 purpose of cooling- or ice makinjjf, and all the cumbersome machinery 
 which is used for the production of cold has reiilly no other object than 
 to restore the refrijiferatinjf agent by alternately liquifying it and re- 
 evaporating it. During the process of evaporation it takes up the 
 latent heat from the surrounding bodies and thus cools them, and in 
 the process of condensation this heat is again given off to the cooling 
 water that is showered over the condensers and by it carried away 
 into the thermal ocean. To give an idea how much a pound of ice, 
 or its equivalent in cooling, would cost by using ammonia if it was not 
 retained in the apparatus ; it should be stated that the latent heat of 
 water being 142 and the latent heat of ammonia about 560, it would 
 take about one pound of liquid ammonia evaporated to produce the 
 cooling effect of the melting of about 4 pounds of ice (3.^ lbs. in reality 
 counting certain losses). The price of ammonia at 30 cents a pound 
 would make the equivalent of i lb. of ice cost "jl cents or $150 per ton, 
 and this simple calculation proves that it is absolutely necessary to 
 use the refrigerating agent over and over again, and to provide an 
 apparatus which, in the waste of this agent is as economical as pos- 
 sible, or, in other words, have an apparatus which is as nearly per- 
 fectly tight as possible. , 
 
112 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL 
 
 Of all the agents to-day used for purposes of cold production 
 ammonia has so far maintained its superiority. Under ordinary tem- 
 peratures ammonia is a gas, but it can be liquified by compression 
 and cooling. After liquifaction and being exposed in an open vessel 
 to the ordinary pressure of the air, it will boil, at a temperature of 
 of 27°F. below zero, which makes it eminently fit for the production 
 of low temperature. It is a non-inflammable substance of absolute 
 stability and will, '^contained in an apparatus built entirely of iron or 
 steel, retain its chemical composition for all time. Carbonic acid is 
 also, to a very limited extent, used for the production of cold, but it 
 has not all the excellent qualities which ammonia possesses, especially 
 on account of the enormous pressure necessary to liquify it. and on 
 account of the quality it possesses of not being liquifiable at all above 
 a temperature of about 90° F., while ammonia can be liquified at a 
 much higher temperature than this. Besides, where condenser 
 pressures in machines using ammonia generally range from 150 to 180 
 lbs. per square inch, the condenser pressures of the carbonic acid 
 machines lie between 800 and 900 lbs. per square inch ; and while the 
 evaporating pressure of the ammonia is generally in the neighbor- 
 hood of about 25 lbs. per square inch, that of carbonic acid machines 
 is as high as 200 to 250 lbs. per square inch, so that the piping 
 system — cocks, all joints and the compressor — have to be a great 
 deal stronger than is necessary with the use of ammonia. 
 
 There are two different systems for the handling of ammonia, 
 one is called the Compression System and the other the Absorption 
 System. The former uses the refrigerating agent in its purest state 
 and entirely free from all watery admixtures, and is, th^-refore, 
 anhydrous. The Absorption System uses the solution of ammonia in 
 water, and is denominated the Absorption System on account of the 
 final operation by which the evaporated ammonia is regained. In 
 the Absorption machine the ammonia is driven out of its solution in 
 water by being heated by means of a steam coil ; and the ammonia 
 thus driven off and carrying along with it a certain percentage of 
 water is condensed in an apparatus called the *' Condenser," which 
 is kept cool by water being supplied to the outside surface of the 
 pipes in which the ammonia is forced from the "Still." The liquid 
 ammonia, after being collected in a receiver or storage tank, is 
 passed through a cock into pipe coils, called the " Refrigerator, ' 
 in which a lower pressure than that of the condenser is maintained. 
 The latter is accomplished by passing the ammonia gas generated 
 in the refrigerator into another vessel, called the "Absorber." In 
 this vessel the gas is again brought into contact with the v/ater from 
 which it had been driven out before by heat, the water before it 
 enters the absorber being cooled down to as low a temperature as « 
 the cooling water of Nature will permit. The combination of the 
 ammonia gas and this water again liberates heat, and therefore the 
 absorber has to be kept cool by running water the same as the 
 condenser. The strong solution is now by a little feed pump pumped 
 back into the boiler, or still, and the cycle of operations is started 
 anew. 
 
 In the compression system the process is simpler. By the suck- 
 ing action of the compressor pump the ammonia gas is drawn away ^' 
 
engineers' manual. 
 
 "3 
 
 i as 
 the 
 the 
 the 
 ped 
 -ted 
 
 from the refrigerator coils, and is compressed on the return stroke of 
 the piston into the condenser — condenser and refrig^erator coils being 
 praotioally the same as those of the Absorption System. From the 
 condenser to liquified ammonia is likewise passed through a small 
 regulating or expansion cock into the refrigerator, and the cycle of 
 operations here commenced again. It thus appears that there is one 
 less operation during the process through which the ammonia 
 passes, and that is the absorption of the gas. 
 
 It is very easily understood now, as the evaporation of the 
 ammonia produces the cold in the refrigerator pipes, that these pipes 
 can be utilized in any manner desired for the cooU::g of other bodies. 
 They may be put up in a room in which tiie air is thus directly cooled, 
 or they may be put into a tank with salt brine, which is non-con- 
 gealable, except at a very low temperature, and by their cold sur- 
 faces cool the brine, which in return may be circulated through pipes 
 in a room, and thereby produce a lowering of temperature. The 
 former is called the *' Direct Expansion System," and the latter is 
 called the *• Brine Circulating System." 
 
 
 
 Properties of Ammonia. 
 
 
 Temp.deg. 
 
 Gauge press. 
 
 Heat of 
 
 Volume of vapor 
 
 Weight of a 
 
 cub. ft. of vapor 
 
 in lbs. 
 
 Fah. 
 
 Lbs. per sq. in. 
 
 vaporization. 
 
 per lb. cub. ft. 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 579 67 
 
 24.37 
 
 .0410 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 576.69 
 
 21 .29 
 
 .0467 . 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 573 69 
 
 18.66 
 
 •0535 
 
 25 
 
 1.47 
 
 570.68 
 
 16.41 
 
 .0609 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 •75 
 
 567 67 
 
 14.48 
 
 .0690 
 
 IS 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 564.64 
 
 12.81 
 
 •0779 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 07 
 
 561.61 
 
 11.36 
 
 .0878 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 87 
 
 558.56 
 
 10. 12 
 
 .0988 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 67 
 
 555 50 
 
 9.04 
 
 . 1109 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 47 
 
 552 -43 
 
 8.06 
 
 . 1 241 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 85 
 
 549-35 
 
 7.23 
 
 .1384 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 23 
 
 546.26 
 
 6.49 
 
 .1540 
 
 20 
 
 ■ 33 
 
 25 
 
 543-15 
 
 5-84 
 
 .1712 
 
 25 
 
 38 
 
 73 
 
 540-03 
 
 5.26 
 
 . 1901 
 
 30 
 
 44 
 
 71 
 
 536.92 
 
 4-75 
 
 .2105 
 
 35 
 
 51 
 
 23 
 
 533 78 
 
 4.31 
 
 .2320 
 
 40 
 
 58 
 
 30 
 
 530.63 
 
 3.91 
 
 .2583 
 
 45 
 
 65 
 
 96 
 
 527 47 
 
 3-56 
 
 .2809 
 
 50 
 
 74 
 
 25 
 
 524-30 
 
 3.25 
 
 .3109 
 
 55 
 
 82 
 
 93 
 
 521.12 
 
 2.96 
 
 •3379 
 
 60 
 
 92 
 
 90 
 
 517 93 
 
 2.70 
 
 •3704 
 
 ^5 
 
 103 
 
 33 
 
 5H-73 
 
 2.48 
 
 ■4034 
 
 70 
 
 114 
 
 51 
 
 5IJ.52 
 
 2 27 
 
 .4405 
 
 . 75 
 
 126.55 
 
 508.29 
 
 .2.08 
 
 .4808 
 
 80 
 
 139 
 
 41 
 
 504.66 
 
 ' »-9i 
 
 .5262 
 
 \'i 
 
 If ice is wanted, the cold brine which is produced by the refriger- 
 
114 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 ating colls may be used to have immersed in it galvanized iron cans 
 containing pure water; and if tiie brine is kept at a temperature of, 
 say, 14" or 15" below the freezing-point of water, it is evident that, 
 after more or less time, the water in the can will finally be frozen. 
 
 Afler it is entirely frozen, the can is lifted out and the ice melted 
 out by applying tepid water to the outside of the can. Thus a block 
 of ice is formed of the exact shape of the can. 
 
 HORSE-POWER. 
 
 The unit of power universally adopted by mechanical engineers 
 in this country is that which was proposed and used by Watt, viz., the 
 horse-po7ver. What is technically spoken of among engineers as a 
 horse-power is the rate of doing work corresponding to 33,000 foot 
 pounds per minute, and the power of engines is always calculated on 
 this basis. • 
 
 The horse-power exerted by an engine is := total mean pressure 
 on the piston in pounds multMplied by the distance in feet travelled by 
 the piston in one minute, divided by 33,000. 
 
 Let /^./'= Indicated horse-power 
 
 A^=Number of strokes per minute=Revolutions X 2 
 Z=Length of stroke in feet 
 
 ^4= Area of the cylinder in square inches^/)'* x .7854 
 /'=rMean effective pressure in pounds per square inch. 
 
 The mean pressure on the piston is -- P. A and the distance 
 travelled in one minute by the piston 
 
 .'. the horse-power of the engine = 
 Ard by transfer — 
 
 is = Z.iV 
 P. L 
 
 A . N 
 
 33000 
 
 (I) 
 
 To find the mean effective pressure when all other data are given : 
 
 H.P. 33000 (2) 
 
 Formula, P=. — —- — ^ ' 
 
 L.A.N 
 
 To find the length of stroke in feet : 
 
 I/.P. 23000. 
 Formula, L= ^ J^^ 
 
 To find the area of the cylinder : 
 
 1 J ^- P' 33000 
 
 rormula. A — — rr— = — r; — 
 
 P.L.N 
 To find the diameter of the cylinder : 
 
 Formula, 
 
 _y/ H.Px 3300. -^H. P X 42000 
 
 P.L.NX .7854"" P.L.N 
 To find the number of revolutions : 
 
 (3) 
 
 (4) 
 
 (5) 
 
 i:- 1 TVT r I .• iV_/^./'. 33000 
 
 l^ormula, IS o. of revolutions = _. ^ \. — 
 
 2 P.A.L 
 
 (6) 
 
 Examples — What is the horse-power of an engine running at 300 
 revolutions per minute 18" stroke, diameter of cylinder 10", and the 
 mean effective pressure 50 lbs.? Ans. — 21 .42 horse-power. 
 
 What is the mean effective pressure in an engine of 120 horse- 
 
engineers' manual. 
 
 "5 
 
 (I) 
 
 (3) 
 (4) 
 
 (5) 
 (6) 
 
 power, running at 150 revolutions per minute, 15" diameter of cylin- 
 der, and stroke 30 ', Ans. — 30 lbs. 
 
 The mean pressure as indicated by a diag^ram taken from an 
 engine running at 100 revolutions per minute is 45 lbs. per square inch, 
 the area of the cylinder is 100 square inches. Find the length of the 
 stroke if the engine is developing 87^ horse-power. Ans. — 3' 2-^. 
 
 What is the diameter of the cylinder of an engine which is run- 
 ning at 300 revolutions per minute, 20" stroke, mean pressure 50 lbs., 
 and indicates 225 horse-power. Ans. - 13.75 horse-power. 
 
 To Find the Horse-Power of a Compound, Triple, or Quadruple 
 Expansion Engine, calculate by the rule given above the horse-power 
 of each cylinder separately and then add the results. 
 
 Note : Treat each cylinder as if it were a separate engine. 
 
 Example — A compound engine having cylinder areas in the ratio 
 of I :4, is running at 120 revolutions per minute. The stroke is 36", 
 diameter of high pressure cylinder is 20", and the mean effective 
 pressure on the low pressure cylinder is 15 lbs. per square inch. What 
 is the horse-power of the engine? Ans. — 834.86 horse-power. 
 
 DUTY OF AN ENGINE. 
 
 The duty of an engine is the number of footpounds of work done 
 by the consumption of 100 lbs. coal. In 1891 a committee of the 
 A. S. M. E, recommended a new unit, viz.: footpounds of work per 
 million heat units furnished at the boiler. This is equal to the old 
 unit when the coal imparts 10,000 H.U. to the water in the boiler or 
 to the evaporation of 10.35 lbs. ^^om and at 212° per pound of coal. 
 
 Taking the old unit, the duty of a pumping engine that will do 
 100,000,000 footpounds for every 100 lbs. coal burned is said to be 100 
 million. 
 
 Example I. — An engine requires 3 lbs. coal per i H.P. hour. 
 What is the duty ? Ans. — 66 millions. 
 
 Example II. — The area of a pump plunger is 100 square inches, 
 double stroke 4', number of double strokes 9600, coal burned 800 lbs. 
 Gauge pressure on main pipe shows 50 lbs. and the height of this 
 gauge is 23. 1 ' above the water in the well. Find the duty. Ans. — 
 28,800,000. 
 
 BRAKE HORSE-POWER. 
 
 It is often advisable to know the actual power given out by an 
 engine independent ot the power absorbed in friction, etc., in driving 
 the engine itself. In order to do this it is necessary to either apply 
 an absorption or a transmission dynamometer to the flywheel, or to a 
 pulley keyed on the crank or first shaft. The power so obtained is 
 termed the brake horse-power (B. H. P.) One of the simplest and 
 most easily applied absorption dynamometers is that known as the 
 Prony Brake. 
 
 The formula for finding the H. P. is as follows : 
 
 27trnP 
 
 H. P. = = • 0001Q04 xrxnx P 
 
 33000 ^ ^ 
 
 when r -= radius of pulley or horizontal distance from centre of shaft 
 
 . to centre of weight. 
 
 n = number of revolutions per minute 
 
 • • P== pull or weight in pounds. 
 
Il6 
 
 ENGINETERS MANUAL. 
 
 It is important to observe that neither the diameter of the pulle 
 nor the pressure of the friction blocks enter into the formula. 
 Example— Cylinder 7" diameter, stroke 10", pressure 55 lbs. r = 2.5' 
 n — 624, P = 96. Ans. — H.P. = 28.52. 
 
 HORSE-POWER TRANSMITTED BY BELTS. 
 
 The ultimate strength of ordinary bark-tanned single leather 
 belting- varies from 3000 to 5000 lbs. per square inch of cross section. 
 For convenience sake the tenacity is stated generally in lbs. per inch of 
 width. For single belts the breaking stresses are from 750 to 1250 
 lbs. per inch of width. For double belts the breaking stresses are 
 from 1500 to 2500. Allowing for joints this'is reduced to about one- 
 third of the strength of the solid leather and allowing a factor of safety 
 of 5, we get a safe working stress of ^g of the breaking stresses of 
 the solid leather. ^ 
 
 For single belts the working tension would be from 50 to 80 lbs. 
 
 i( 
 
 double 
 
 (< 
 
 100 
 
 it 
 
 160 
 
 (i 
 
 In practice^ however, 50 lbs. for single and 80 lbs. for double belts 
 per inch of width are considered about the maximum. Under these 
 conditions leather belts will run for many years. 
 
 Horse-Power that Leather Belts will Transmit Per Inch 
 
 IN Width at Various Speeds. 
 
 
 
 
 By 
 
 A. G. Brown, M.E 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 Velocity 
 
 Best Oak Tanned Belts. 
 
 Velocity 
 of Belt 
 in feet 
 
 Best Oak Tanned Belts. 
 
 of Belt 
 in feet 
 
 Single. 
 
 Light 
 
 Heavy 
 
 Single. 
 
 Light 
 
 Heavy 
 
 per 
 
 Double. 
 
 Double. 
 
 per 
 
 Double. 
 
 Double. 
 
 minute. 
 
 
 
 
 minute. 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 •15 
 
 .21 
 
 .27 
 
 2100 
 
 3-i8 
 
 4-45 
 
 5-73 
 
 200 
 
 •30 
 
 
 42 
 
 •55 
 
 2200 
 
 33Z 
 
 4 
 
 •67 
 
 6.00 
 
 300 
 
 •45 
 
 
 64 
 
 .82 
 
 2300 
 
 3-49 
 
 4 
 
 .88 
 
 6.27 
 
 400 
 
 .61 
 
 
 «5 
 
 1 .09 
 
 2400 
 
 3-64 
 
 5 
 
 .09 
 
 6.55 
 
 500 
 
 .76 
 
 
 06 
 
 1.36 
 
 2500 
 
 3-79 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 6.82 
 
 600 
 
 •91 
 
 
 27 
 
 1 .64 
 
 2600 
 
 3-94 
 
 5 
 
 •52 
 
 7.09 
 
 700 
 
 1 .06 
 
 
 49 
 
 1. 91 
 
 2700 
 
 4.09 
 
 5 
 
 73 
 
 736 
 
 800 
 
 1 .21 
 
 
 70 
 
 2.18 
 
 2800 
 
 4.24 
 
 5 
 
 94 
 
 7.64 
 
 900 
 
 1.36 
 
 
 91 
 
 2-45 
 
 2900 
 
 4-39 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 7.91 
 
 1000 
 
 1-51 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2-73 
 
 3000 
 
 450 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 '8.18 
 
 1100 
 
 1.67 
 
 2 
 
 2>Z 
 
 3.00 
 
 3100 
 
 4.60 
 
 6 
 
 58 
 
 8-45 
 
 1200 
 
 1.82 
 
 2 
 
 55 
 
 3-27 
 
 3200 
 
 4.69 
 
 6 
 
 79 
 
 8.70 
 
 1300 
 
 1-97 
 
 2 
 
 76 
 
 3-55 
 
 3300 
 
 4-77 
 
 7 
 
 GO 
 
 8.86 
 
 1400 
 
 2. 12 
 
 2 
 
 97 
 
 3.82 
 
 3400 
 
 4.84 
 
 •7 
 
 21 
 
 8.96 
 
 1500 
 
 2.27 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 4.09 
 
 3500 
 
 4 90 
 
 7 
 
 31 
 
 9.06 
 
 1600 
 
 2.42 
 
 3 
 
 39 
 
 436 
 
 3600 
 
 495 
 
 7- 
 
 40 
 
 9. 16 
 
 1700 
 
 2.58 
 
 3 
 
 61 
 
 4.64 
 
 3700 
 
 499 
 
 7 
 
 48 
 
 9.24 
 
 1800 
 
 2-73 
 
 3 
 
 82 
 
 4.91 
 
 3800 
 
 5-03 
 
 7 
 
 54 
 
 9.29 
 
 1900 
 
 2.88 
 
 4 
 
 03 
 
 5.18 
 
 3900 
 
 5-05 
 
 7 
 
 60 
 
 9-34 
 
 2000 
 
 3 03 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 5-45 
 
 4000 
 
 5.08 
 
 7 
 
 64 
 
 9-37 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 117 
 
 = 2.5' 
 
 73 
 t>.oo 
 
 27 
 
 55 
 82 
 
 .24 
 
 29 
 34 
 37 
 
 Effect of Centrifugal Force on Belts. 
 
 When belts or ropes are run at hig^h speeds the tensions in the 
 two parts of the belts or ropes between the pulleys are jj reater than 
 that calculated from the horse-power transmitted. This increase of 
 tension is due to the centrifug-al force set up in those parts of the belt 
 which are in contact with the pulleys. ' 
 
 The centrifugcal force has the effect of diminishingf the normal 
 pressure between the belt and the pulley and therefore of diminishingr 
 the resistance to slipping. 
 
 ENERGY OF A ROTATING FLYWHEEL. 
 
 The energ-y possessed by a moving body is called kinetic energy, 
 and its amount for a falling body is obtained by finding the height 
 through which it must fall to acquire the velocity of its motion. If 
 this height be obtained, the work is equal to the height in feet x 
 weight in pounds, or, if w=: weight in lbs. and A = height in feet, the 
 work done = wA foot pounds. 
 
 In falling bodies, h = / ^=the acceleration due to gravity 32' 
 
 per second, and z;.=:velocity in feet per second. /. if h — — then 
 
 o 
 
 toh — __ -, which is equivalent to saying, if a body of w lbs. moves 
 
 with 
 work = 
 
 2^ 
 
 a velocity of v feet per second, the energy or accumulated 
 
 2g 
 
 Example — The rim of a flywheel weighs 2 tons, and the mean 
 velocity 30' per second. How many foot pounds of work are stored 
 up in it ? Ans. — 56250 foot pounds. 
 
 Rule : Multiply the weight in pounds by the velocity in feet per 
 second squared, and divide by 64. 
 
 Another example — Flywheel weighs 5 tons ; mean radius of 
 rotation 5' ; 100 revs, per minute. Owing to the load being sud- 
 denly diminished, the speed increases to 1 10 revs, per minute. 
 What reserve power is stored up in the flywheel to overcome any 
 sudden increase of the load ? Ans. — 89375 foot pounds. 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL STRESS IN FLYWHEELS. 
 
 There is no flywheel made that will not burst if it were only run 
 fast enough. The centrifugal or centre flying force in the arms is 
 directly proportional to the velocity squared, so that by doubling the 
 velocity the centrifugal force or stress is quadrupled. 
 
 To Find the Centrifugal Force — 
 
 Rule I. : Multiply the weight in pounds by the velocity in feet 
 per second squared, and divide by the radius nKultiplied by 32. 
 
 Formula, = centrifugal force. 
 

 ii8 
 
 ENGINKERS MANUAL. 
 
 Rule II.: Multiply the product of the weight and velocity squared 
 by .03125, and divide by the radius. 
 
 Formula, f — '- j .03125 *= centrifug-al force. 
 
 Rule III.: Multiply the product of the weight and radius by the 
 revolutions per minute squared, and then by .000342. 
 
 Formul^, = Wx r. revolutions per minute ^ x .000342 = 
 centrifugal force. 
 
 Example — A flywheel 12' mean diameter weighs 6 tons and runs 
 at 70 revolutions per minute. Find the centrifugal force. Ans. — 12 1000. 
 
 BURSTING STRESS IN FLYWHEELS. 
 
 With centrifugal force the pressure is acting radially in all direc- 
 tions and is analogous to the pressure in a boiler. If we wish to 
 determine the elTective force tearing apart the rim of the wheel or the 
 shell of a boiler we must find the resultant of this force acting in one 
 direction and upon one half of the rim. Take the last example under 
 the heading of Centrifugal Stress, where the centrilugal force = 
 
 — 1 2 1000; this stress is supported at two points in opposite 
 
 sides of the rim, and in order to break the wheel two pieces or both 
 sections must burst, therefore the stress on each side = 60500 lbs. 
 
 ^v^ '.■ ■ ■ ' . - -, ". - .. , ■:■.:•■■.,;- 
 
 = stress on each side trying to pull the two halves asunder. 
 
 The weight of a cubic inch of cast iron weighs fully a quarter of a 
 
 lb. or .26 lb. The number of cubic inches of iron in the rim will be 
 
 = 46000 , and the mean circumference of the rim is 144 x ;r = 452". 
 
 . 46000 
 
 • ■ = 102 square inches in the rim. If we now divide the stress 
 
 452 ^ 
 
 on each side by the area multiply by it we get the bursting stress per 
 square inch ; 
 
 60500 '■' 7-- • ■"■■-■ '■ ' 
 
 ... ,'. . ;_= 188 lbs. per sq. inch. . 
 
 102 y. 7C ^ ^ 
 
 From this, we get the following formula : 
 
 
 "^*^^^= Bursting stress per sq. inch. 
 
 This formula can be simplified as follows : . • 
 
 Let Z>= diameter of wheel in feet. r ^^ ^^: • : ^ 
 
 r = radius in feet f ; ; "v 
 
 w = No. of revs, per minute. --;;'•;- ^^^^ ^^^"-^- 
 
 7^ = velocity in feet per minute. i^., 
 
 Stress per sq. inch =(rXM)--x .0010655 
 
 " *' (approx.)=(r X /i)2 X .001 
 
 " «' =(Dxm)2 X .0002664 
 
 *' " =z;- X .00027 
 
 Example— A flywheel 12' diameter, weighing 12000 lbs., run^ at 
 
ENGINKERS MANUAL. 
 
 119 
 
 70 revs, per minute. Find the bursting stress per square inch. Sup- 
 pose wheel had six arms, find the maximum number of revohitions 
 the wheel could be run at without breakinjjf, neglecting in the cal- 
 culation the binding strength of the rim. Each arm has a breaking 
 stress of 1 20,000 lbs. Ans. — 168 revs. 
 
 BURSTING STRESS OF FLYWHEEL. 
 
 In practice 100' per second is about the maximum which cor- 
 responds to a stress of about 970 lbs. per square inch. Good cast 
 iron has a tensile strength of about 20000 ; therefore at this velocit)', 
 100' per second, there is a large factor of safety, but, as the centri- 
 fugal forces increase as v^, we find that cast iron will burst at 454' 
 per second, as follows : 
 
 Stress per square inch=(velocity in feet per minute)- x .00027 
 *' =( velocity in feet per second;'- x .0972 
 
 20000 ={v' per second)'- x .0972 
 
 i( 
 
 V^20000 
 
 .0972 
 
 =454 feet per second. 
 
 ZEUNER'S DIAQRAiVl. 
 
 Given the position of crank at point of cut-ofF, the amount of lead, 
 travel of valve, to determine the angular advance and amount of out- 
 side lap. 
 
 ■^S.;^- • 
 
 Draw two lines at right angles cutting each other at O, With 
 centre O and radius = half the travel of the valve describe the circle 
 AGCEBR, Draw OC= position of crank at cut-off. With A as 
 centre and radius = lead of the valve, describe part of a circle and 
 then draw CZ> touching this circle. Through O draw O G at right 
 angles to CD. Bisect CD G at the point G then draw GO R. On 
 
ItO 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 6) G^ describe circle OAf OF nnd on O ^describe the circle (> Pip ^i\^ 
 From centre O radius O // describe the circle H F M L. This dia- 
 j^rain is now completed and we can readily seethe distance the valve 
 has moved from its central position for any position of the crank, and 
 also the opening of the port to steam at that point. Suppose crank 
 to be at G O^ and havings moved in the direction as shown by the 
 arrow, the distance O G \^ the amount the valve has moved from its 
 central position and G// represents the opening- of port to steam at 
 that particular point. The shaded portion C/'/^JI/ of the diagram 
 shows the opening of the port to steam. By the diagram we see that 
 when crank is in position OZ^the valve is just beginning to opening 
 and when it reaches the dead centre A B the port is open an amount 
 = ^Z,=:lead of valve. When crank reaches OEy release, the valve 
 has passed its middle position and is distant from it on the other side 
 an amount OP— inside lap ; therefore at that point the exhaust 
 opens and continues to open. When the crank has reached B the 
 valve has moved from its centre a distance — OQ, and since OS = 
 the inside lap the port is open to exhaust an amount = QS. When 
 crank arrives at ^ the port is full open to exhaust and when it arrives 
 at O T'the valve is closed and compression begins. 
 
 Given the travel, the lap, and the angle of advance, lo find the 
 point of cut-off, the amount of lead, etc. 
 
 Draw the circle AGC E B R to represent the travel of the valve, 
 and the circle ///'yl/Z to represent the outside lap and draw the 
 angle G O C ^= angle of advance. Bisect O G and describe the valve 
 circle G AT O Fas before ; we now see that when the crank is in the 
 position O A the valve is open an amount equal to K L, therefore K L 
 is the lead of the valve. Through the point F where the lap circle 
 intersects the valve circle draw O C, then O C represents the position 
 of the crank at cut-oflf. 
 
 Given the travel, the lap and the lead, to find the angle of advance. 
 As usual draw the circle to represent the valve travel. Lay off O L 
 = the lap and K L ■= lead of the valve. From K erect KG perpen- 
 dicular \.o AB\ then the angle GO C'xs, the angle of advance. 
 
 Examples— Travel of valve 8f , outside lap 2 V, inside lap i", angle 
 of advance 35°. Find the points of admission, cut-ofF release, com- 
 pression and the amount of lead. 
 
 Travel of valve 5", outside or steam lap ^", angle of advance 22^°. 
 Find graphically the position of the crank at admission and cut-off. 
 
 VALVE SETTINQ (Slide Valve). 
 
 In setting the valves of an engine, it is of primary importance 
 that the points of opening of the valves be known and trammed at 
 convenient points on valve rod. To do this, the. necessary tools are 
 a piece of very thin tin, a piece of J" steel rod 7" long, sharp-pointed 
 and hardened at each end, one end being bent square ij". 
 
 To Tram the Valve. — Remove the steam chest cover and place 
 the tin in the head port, bringing the valve against it ; then from a 
 fixed centre point on end of steam chest (not the gland) tram a line 
 on valve rod, marking same with a fine centre punch, repeating the 
 
ENC.INEKRS MANl'AL. 
 
 121 
 
 >lace 
 
 >m a 
 
 line 
 
 the 
 
 operation on the other steam port. After satisfying- yourself that 
 steam chest and ports are clear, put on cover and connect eccentric 
 rod. Proceed to set valve by placing engine on one dead centre ; 
 then from fixed point on steam chest use tram to mark valve rod, 
 turn engine to other dead centre and again mark rod ; then compare 
 marks, and adjust by lengthening or shortening rod or turning 
 eccentric, as required. 
 
 TO PLACE AN ENGINE ON THE DEAD CENTRE. 
 
 To place an engine on its dead centre, bring the crosshead to 
 within about half an inch of the end of its travel. Take a pair of 
 dividers and from a point on the guides strike an arc of a circle on 
 the crosshead, and, with the engine in the same position, tram from 
 a point on the floor to the rim of the wheel ; then move the engine in 
 the direction it is to run until the crosshead has passed the end of its 
 travel and returned to a point where the dividers will coincide with 
 the mark already made on the crosshead. Make another tram mark 
 on the rim of the flywheel, and midway between these two marks make 
 a centre punch mark for a dead centre mark, bring the flywheel to a 
 point that the point of the tram will just enter the dead centre mark, 
 and the engine is on its exact centre at that end; repeat the operation 
 on the other end 
 
 In all cases, move the engine in the direction it is to run, and, if 
 moved past the dead centre mark, it must be backed up far enough 
 to take up the lost motion before reaching the mark again. 
 
 VALVE SETTING. 
 
 Corliss Engine. — Remove the back covers from valve cylinders; 
 the lines marked on valve and cylinder ends are lines of opening. 
 
 On the back hub of wrist plate will be found a centre line, a line 
 will also be found on the hub of stand which supports wrist plate — 
 when these two lines meet, the wrist plate will then be in its central 
 position. On either side of centre line of wrist plate stand will be found 
 another line, and when centre line of wrist plate coincides with either 
 of these lines, it will be in its extreme position. Place the wrist plate 
 in its central position and by the means of adjusting nuts make the 
 lengths of the valve connections such that each steam valve may have 
 the necessary lap ^ to i — depending- on size of engine, and that the 
 exhaust valves may be just opening or without lap. Then adjust 
 length of eccentric rod, that wrist plate may vibrate equally. Place 
 the crank on any dead centre and turn the eccentric on the shaft in 
 the direction engine is to run enough to show an opening or lead of 
 say ^ to T^ of an inch, then tighten the set screw in eccentric and 
 place crank on the other centre and note if lead is the same, if not, 
 adjust as required. 
 
 To adjust the disengaging gear, let the governor remain in its 
 lowest position, move wrist plate to extreme of travel and hold in this 
 position, adjusting cam rods as required. 
 
 To prove the correctness of the cut-oflF adjustment, raise the 
 governor to its working plane, blocking it there ; then with eccentric 
 connected to wrist plate turn, engine slowly in its running direction, 
 
122 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 and ineasure on the sliile the distance the crosshead has moved iVoni 
 its extreme position at either end, if cut-off is equalized the distance 
 should be the same. 
 
 In all cases it is desirable that an indicator be used to more ac- 
 curately adjust the settinjr of the valves so that the engine may be in 
 the best possible condition for economical work. 
 
 Broivn Engine. — This is a four- valve enjfine, the valves being" of 
 the gridiron type. The most important point is to know the laps 
 and openings of the several valves. The steam valves are generally 
 marked on the stirrup block, flush with the top of its guide, the 
 exhaust openings and laps beings marked on the end of exhaust rod. 
 
 There being so many points in this valve gear that can be 
 changed, the marks should in all cases be verified. This is usually 
 done by getting the point of opening through the peep holes in back 
 of steam and exh.iust chests, and adjust to original marks by 
 lengthening or shortening valve rods, as required. Having- marked 
 or verified the position of all valves, proceed to set by placing the 
 engine on the head end centre, see that g-ears are secured in position 
 to turn engine in desired direction. Engage clutch, then turn head 
 eccentric in the direction side shaft is to run until the lower mark on 
 stirrup block is above the guide, say -^ of an inch ; secure the 
 eccentric. Turn the engine back one-fifth of its stroke, and turn 
 exhaust cam ahead until the outside mark on exhaust rod coincides 
 with the tram or gauge, with the inner mark approaching same. 
 Secure the cam, place the engine on crank end centre, and repeat 
 the operation. Then block the governor in highest position, turn 
 hand wheel and see if the steam valves trip when the lowest mark on 
 stirrup block shows, say, ^V o^ *^" 'w\c\\ above guide, setting cut-off 
 shaft or levers until it does. Then place governor in lowest position, 
 turning hand wheel to see if valves will unhook. Finally, set 
 governor in working plane, turning engine to see if cut-off is 
 equalized. 
 
 THE SAFETY VALVE. 
 
 Rules for Area of Safety Valves. 
 
 Philadelphia Ordinances. — 'Every boiler when fired separately, 
 and every set or series of boilers when placed over one fire, shall 
 have attached thereto, without the interposition of any other valve, 
 two or more safety valves, the aggregate area of which shall have 
 such relations to the area of the grate and the pressure within the 
 boiler as is expressed in the following schedule : 
 
 Schedule. —Least aggregate area of safety valve (being the least 
 sectional area for the discharge of steam) to be placed upon all 
 stationary boilers with natural or chimney draft : Area of combined 
 
 safety valves = 22 . 5 grate surface in sq. feet 
 
 Press, in lbs. per sq. in. above atmosp. +8.62. 
 
 Rule of U. S. Supervision Inspectors of Steam Vessels : 
 
 Lever safety valves to be attached to marine boilers shall have 
 an area of not less than i sq. in. to 2 sq. ft, of grate surface in the 
 boiler, and the seats of all such safety valves shall have an angle of 
 inclination of 45" to the centre line of their axes. 
 
ENGINKKRS MANl'AU 
 
 123 
 
 Springs loaded safety valves shall he required ti> have an area of 
 not less than 1 sq. ineh to 3 sq. feet of grate surface of the boiler, 
 except as hereinafter otherwise provided for water tube or coil, and 
 sectional boilers ; and each sprinjf loaded valve shall be supplied 
 with a lever that will raise the valve from its seat a distance of not 
 less than that equal to one-eijfhth the diameter of the valve-opening-, 
 and the seats of all such safety valves shall have an angle of inclina- 
 tion to the centre line of their axes of 45'^. All spring loaded safety 
 valves for water tube or coil and sectional boilers required to carry 
 pressures exceeding 175 lbs. per square inch shall be required to 
 have an area of not less than one squrire inch to six square feet of 
 grate surface of the boiler. Nothing herein shall be construed so as 
 to prohibit the use of two safety valves on one vvati'r tube or coil and 
 sectional boiler, provided the combined are.'i of such valves is equal 
 to that required by rule for su^h valve. 
 
 The Canadian Steamboat Act p'-ovides that every safety valve 
 must have a lift equal to one-fourth its diameter at least. The open- 
 ings to and from the valve nnist each have an area not less than the 
 area of the valve, and the area of the safety valve must be equal to 
 one-half inch for every square foot of grate surface of the boiler. 
 
 The following are rules for the calculation of the weight, length 
 of lever, etc., for safety valves : 
 
 Let W 
 
 w^ = 
 L = 
 
 / = 
 
 A -^ 
 P = 
 
 weight of ball at end of lever m lbs. 
 " lever in lbs. 
 
 i( 
 
 <« «< valve and spindle in lbs. 
 distance from fulcum to centre of W\\\ mches 
 
 " valve 
 
 *' gravity of lever in inches 
 area of valve in square inches 
 pressure in lbs. per square inch. 
 
 it 
 << 
 
 i( 
 
 
 
 
 By the principle of moments we get 
 
 P. A xIr=lVxL + 7vx G+7Vi x/ 
 p W L + 7V G+'ii\ I 
 
 Al 
 
 (1) 
 
 By transposing the equation we get 
 
 „^_ P.Al -ivG-ii\l 
 
 ,/■:.„., 
 
 (2) 
 
 Or L- L_ 
 
 W 
 
 Examples — Find the weight to be placed at the end of a lever 
 20" long weighing 15 lbs., the area of the valve being 8 square inches. 
 Weight pf valve and spindle 6" acting at a distance of 2" from fulcum. 
 Steam pressure 60 lbs. Ans. — 39.9 lbs. 
 
IJ4 
 
 KNGINEKKS MANl AL. 
 
 If the weight of the lever and the weijjflit t)f tlie valve ami Npindle 
 are omitted from the calculation, the formula becomes 
 
 /»—-__ 
 
 A I 
 
 Or »'=1^'' 
 L 
 
 PA I 
 W 
 
 And/, 
 
 OF INTEREST TO ENGINEERS. 
 
 By organized and persistent eflfort engineers can advance their 
 interests. 
 
 How many there are who would derive incalculable benefits 
 could they be induced to practise what is implied by the above 
 heading, but who, by ignoring this, miss many great opportunities, 
 and wander or drag along in the same old rut. One may well be 
 surprised to find what progress can be made by the end of a year 
 by steadfast application for the space of one-lialf hour each day. 
 How much time is lost by aimlessly dreaming and living without any 
 solid beneficial subject for thought ! A great author has said, 
 •* Knowledge is power ;" therefore, if we lack knowledge, we cannot 
 properly embrace opportunities presenting themselves, then, by all 
 means, let us use organized and persistent effort to secure knowledge." 
 We cannot all expect to go to college ; and, bearing this in mind, we 
 must remember that the most college can do for us is to put us on 
 the road leading to knowledge ; so, those of us who have been 
 unable to get a college education should do the best we can to 
 advance ourselves by organized and persistent effort. Remember, 
 we cannot know it all, as it takes everybody to know everything, and 
 very little of anything is yet known. Steer clear of him who claims 
 to know it all, for, if you do not, association with such a man will 
 have a tendency to disgust you with your fellowmen, and more in 
 particular by the way in which he vn ill expose his own ignorance. 
 
 A few things that an engineer should do. — Give his work his 
 undivided attention. Give his employer the benefit of his experience. 
 Give his attention to the best publication, so that he will advance by 
 the experience of others. Give his influence and experience for the 
 benefit of his brother engineers, and do all in his power to advance 
 the standing of an engineer by being sober, industrious, and never 
 forgetting that it is his first duty to look after the best interests of 
 his employer. 
 
 What engineers should at all times desire. — Clean engine-room, 
 clean feed water, clean coal, clean fire, clean oil. Steady employ- 
 ment, steady steam pressure, steady feed and steady and regular 
 lubrication. Silent action of his engine, steam distribution perfect, 
 short watches. High economy, high steam pressure, high expansion 
 of steam, and last, but not least, high wages. . 
 
 

 KN(;iNKI-Rs' MANl AL. 
 
 '-^5 
 
 THE 
 
 Royal Electric Co., 
 
 MONTREAL. 
 
 TORONTO. 
 
 MAKERS OF 
 
 Electrical Machinery 
 
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 Incandescent Lightings 
 Arc Lighting, 
 Electric Railways, 
 Power Transmission, 
 Mining and Mill Work, 
 
 Canadian Manufacturers of the 
 
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 of Generators, Motors, Transformers. 
 
 Write us for Hans, Specifications and Estimates on 
 proposed Electric Plants, 
 
126 
 
 ENGINKERS MANUAL. 
 
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ENC.INRRRS MANUAL 
 
 127 
 
 "electric (IrN 
 
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 iMMMliytiiiiJiMi 
 
 H. W. PETRIE, 
 
 MACHINIST AND 
 GENERAL MACHINE 
 DEALER. 
 
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 Send for 
 
 Descriptive 
 
 Catalogrue. 
 
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 and Boilers of ail types bought, 
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 ENGINEERS AND OTHERS ALWAYS WELCOIVIE 
 
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 TORONTO, ONT. 
 
128 
 
 ,.t 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 T 
 
 Ohms Law* — The strength of a current varies directly as the 
 Electro-motive-force and inversely as the resistance or the intensity 
 of the current is equal the E.M.F. divided by the R. 
 
 ' y I .<-"' C = p \ R "=■ f\ \ E =■ C Rm 
 
 The unit of resistance is called the Ohm and is equal to lo" C G.S. 
 (centimeter, gram, seconds,) units. It is the resistance of a column 
 of pure mercury i square millimetres in section and 106.21 centimetres 
 long at 32°F. The unit of current is called the ampere, and is io~^ 
 C.G.S. units. It is that current which will deposit 4.025 grams of 
 silver per hour or decompose .0055944 grams of water per hour. 
 The unit of E.M.F. is called the volt and is equal to 10* C.G.S. units, 
 and is the E.M.F. necessary to send a current of i ampere through a 
 resistance of i Ohm. 
 
 Resistance* — The resistance of conductors of identical material 
 varies inversely as their section end directly as their length ; or, the 
 length of one wire multiplied by the diameter squared of the other is 
 equal to the square of its own diameter multiplied by the length of 
 the other. 
 
 Formula 
 
 or 
 
 2 a 
 
 R^ = l^dl 
 
 R. 
 
 Ld'- 
 
 (0 
 
 when R^ d^ l^ = resistance, diameter and length of one wire 
 
 R^ d» 1.2 = resistance, diameter and length of other wire. 
 From the above we get 
 
 dl 
 
 /i d^ 
 
 or 
 
 d. 
 
 V' R, I., d-' 
 
 1 i ^ 
 
 hdl 
 
 Example — Find the diameter of a copper wire 480' long that has 
 twice the resistance of another copper wire 120' long and measuring 
 .25 of an inch in diameter. Ans. -.35". 
 
 The total resistance of a wire varies directly with the specijiic 
 resistance of the substance of which the wire is made. 
 
 Let Sy and 5„=specific resistance of wires (1) and (2) 
 or K^ and^,,=conductances of the '* (i) and (2) 
 
 Then from ( 1 ) we get 
 
 R^ __ l^dl xSy _ /i fi^o A^'o ^ 
 
 Or 
 
 R,= 
 
 hd ^ xS^ l.^d\K^ 
 
 R^ /., d\ S., I R^ h d\ K\ 
 
 V; 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 :'!4 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 ESTABLISHED 1850. 
 
 129 
 
 THE 
 
 E.Harris Company, 
 
 OF TORONTO, LIMITED, 
 
 44 KING STREET EAST, 
 
 ENGINEERS' AND DRAUGHTSMEN'S 
 
 SUPPLIES. 
 
 Drawing Boards, T and Set Squares, 
 
 Scale Rules, Drawing Instruments, 
 
 Blue Print and other Drawing Papers, 
 
 Higgins Ink, Tracing Gloth, etc., etc. 
 
 
 TORONTO ELECTRIC MOTOR COMPANY, 
 
 Contractors for 
 Complete 
 
 ELECTRIC LIGHT and „ ,,t„^,„„o *nd 
 POWER EQUIPMENTS »>rect currents. 
 
 Armature Revnndingr and General 103, 105, lOf, 109 Adelaide St. W. 
 Repairing at Reasonable Prices tao MTfi 
 
 TELEPHONE 1854. TORONTO. 
 
I30 
 
 engineers' manual. 
 
 Example — The resistance of a mile of pure copper wire .134" 
 diam. is 3 . 03 Ohms. Calculate the resistance of half a mile of Gorman 
 silver wire .0335" diameter. The specific resistance of copper is 1642 
 and that of German silver 21 170. Ans. — 312. 52 Ohms. 
 
 Specific Resistance in CGS units at 0° C. 
 Silver annealed, 1521 CG'^ units. Iron annealed 9827 CG 5 units. 
 
 (t 
 
 hard drawn 1652 
 Copper annealed 1615 
 '* hard drawn 1642 
 Gold ♦• " 2154 
 Zinc 5690 
 
 Platinum anneal'd 9158 
 
 
 (( 
 
 Nickel 12600 
 
 Tin 13360 
 
 Lead '9847 
 
 German Silver 2 11 70 
 Platinoid 34000 
 
 
 
 Mercury 96146 
 
 The resistance of a wire .001" diameter and i' long- at 6o°F. 
 is 10.4 OhmSi and from this data can be readily calculated the resist- 
 ances of all other wires. 
 
 Example I. — What is the resistance of 1000' of wire .1" diameter, 
 knowing that i mil. ft. i ' -.Sn" diam. x 1' long) has 10.4 Ohms resist- 
 ance? 
 
 By transposing formuid (i) we get 
 
 J^, = 
 
 R^l^d» 10.4x1000x1' 
 
 or 
 
 /., d\ 
 
 I X 100- 
 
 = 1 . 04 Ohms. 
 
 Example II. — What length of wire .05" diameter would be required- 
 so that there would be a resistance of 9 Ohms ? Ans. — 2163. 
 
 RESISTANCE OF DERIVED CIRCUITS. 
 
 The joint resistance of several circuits in multiple is 
 
 Ill where ;*, r^ r^ -V — the resistance of each branch. 
 ^\ ^2 ^3 --:■■•-:* '■::^:--: 
 
 If there are only two wires in multiple the joint resistance is 
 
 ^x r^ 
 
 11 = 
 
 — + — ^i+^i 
 
 ^1 ^1 
 
 product of the resistances 
 sum of the resistances 
 
 Example — Three wires in derived circuit have a joint resistance 
 of 6 Ohms. What resistance must be inserted in multiple so that the 
 joint resistance will be reduced to 3 Ohms. 
 
 I 1=3 Ohms 
 
 X = d Ohms. 
 
 Example I.— What must be the k of the shunt used with a gal- 
 vanometre whose R is 4500, so that the /?of the shunted galvanometre 
 shall be 450 Ohms. Ans. — 500 Ohms. 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 I3> 
 
 Leitch & Turnbull, 
 
 Elevators 
 
 Electric, Hydraulic, 
 
 Steam and 
 
 Hand Power : : : : : 
 
 Of the latest desigfns for safety, durability, speed and artistic effect. 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 Canada Elevator VV^Ri^s, 
 HAMILTON. 
 
 OR 
 ADELAIDE STREET WEST, 
 
 TORONTO. 
 
 '-r-3^-i^*,..,iL'^...^i^.^ff^-:-::: ._^v._^ 
 
13a 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 DIVISION OF CURRENT. 
 
 The relative strength of current in the different branches of a 
 divided circuit is directly proportional to their conductivities, or in 
 the inverse proportion to the resistances. 
 
 Example I. — Three wires, 5, Sand 12 Ohms, are joined in multiple, 
 and a current of 49 amperes is sent through the circuit. How much 
 will flow through each wire ? 
 
 The joint conductivity of several wires, r 
 
 i> 
 
 ''2. '':i. 
 
 in multiple. 
 
 IS = 
 
 I I 
 
 r + — + 
 
 + 
 
 i + i+ i*5^ = tYo' From this, we see that the current divides, 
 as it were, into 49 parts, 
 
 24 of which flow through the wire of 5 Ohms resistance. 
 
 ID 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 8 
 12 
 
 
 
 Example II. — A current of 39 amperes is sent through a circuit 
 of 3 wires in multiple having 8, 12 and 16 Ohms respectively. What 
 current will flow through the 16 Ohm wire? Ans. — 9 amperes. 
 
 ELECTRICAL UNITS OF MEASUREMENT. 
 
 The centimetre = unit of length =. 3937". 
 
 The gram =unit of mass =15.432 grains. *• 
 
 I • 
 
 The second =unit o\ time =^zTr: part of a mean solar day. 
 
 The sq. cent. =unit of area =.15501 sq. inch. 
 The cub. cent. =unit of volume = .061027 cubic inch. 
 
 The unit of velocity \s the velocity of a body which moves through 
 unit distance in unit time, or the velocity of i centimetre per second. 
 
 Momentum is the quantity of motion in a body, and is measured 
 by mass x velocity. 
 
 Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. The unit of 
 acceleration is that acceleration which imparts unit changes of 
 velocity to a body in unit time, or an acceleration of / centimetre per 
 second — per second, ; 
 
 The acceleration due to gravity is considerably greater than 
 this = 32. 2 feet per second, or 981 centimetres .•. ^=981 centimetres. 
 
 Force is that which produces motion or change of motion in a 
 body. The unit of force is that force which, when acting for one 
 second on a mass of i gram, gives to it a velocity of i centimetre 
 per second It is called the dyne. 
 
 The force with which the earth attracts any mass is usually 
 called the weight of that mass, and the force with which a body 
 gravitates, i.e.^ its weight (in dynes) is found by multiplying its mass 
 (in grams) by the value oi g. 
 
 Work is the product of a force and the distance through which it 
 acts. The unit of work is the work done in overcoming unit force 
 through unit distance, /.^., in pushing a body through a distance of 
 I centimetre against a force of i dyne. It is called the Erg* 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 »33 
 
 Volcanic Patent 
 
 PERrCCT 
 
 IN OPERATION. 
 
 THOUSANDS IN 
 
 USE. 
 
 IkS 
 
 WILL OUTWEAR ANY 
 
 GRATE 
 
 IN THE MARKET. 
 
 Shaking Grate. 
 
 If You 
 Wish 
 
 To reduce your Coal Bills, 
 To increase your Steam Power, 
 To burn Hard or Soft Coal Screenings, 
 To have a better Draft, 
 
 use the Volcanic Grate. 
 
 MANUFACTURED BY 
 
 Tue Gurney Foundry Company, 
 
 Toronto, Ont. 
 
 LIMITED. 
 
 Send for Illustrated Catalo^ne. 
 
 Correspondence Solicited. 
 
134 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 The force willi which jjravity pulls a mass of i gram is 981 
 dynes ; therefore, to lift a mass of i gram through a distance of i 
 centimetre is = 981 ergs of work or ^^ ergs. 
 
 Power is the rate of workings The unit of power is called the 
 Watty and is equal to 10^ ergs per second. 
 
 THE HORSE-POWER. v 
 
 I foot = 30. 479 centimetres. 
 
 I lb. =453.59 grams. 
 
 .-. I ft. lb. =g (30 . 479 X 453 . 59) = 1 3562600 ergs = 1 . 35626 x i o'^ ergs 
 
 Onehorse-power=33oooft. pds. perminute=55oft. pds. per second 
 
 = 550 X 1 .35626 y 10" ergs. 
 But I Watt=\o^ ergs. 
 
 I /^./'.=55ox 1 .35626=745.941 Watts 
 =746 Walts very nearly. 
 
 ':*;•> 
 
 H.P.=^^=^ '^ = 
 
 C-R 
 746 
 
 746 746 746./? 
 
 The unit of Quantity is called the Coulomb= 10— ^ C 6^5" units. It 
 IS the quantity given by an ampere in a second. 
 
 I volt Coulomb or i Watt during every second) =10,000,000 ergs. 
 I volt ampere during every second, or Joule j = -737324 foot pds. 
 
 The Joule (Joule's mechanical equivalent) is therefore equal to 
 the work done or heat generated by a Watt in a second and is 
 
 = •737324 ft. pds. . . 
 
 .-. E. C'J^C'R t=^=E g^Joules 
 
 when i^=quantity in Coulomb. 
 Work in foot pds. = . 737324 EQ 
 
 Example — Kow much electricity will 330,000 foot pds. send 
 through a circuit with an E.M.F. of 60 volts ? . , 
 
 Work= . 737324 E Q 
 
 P=__330ooo__^^^ (.^^l^j^jjg 
 
 • 737324 X 60 
 Now Coulombs per second= Amperes 
 
 7460 X 60= Walts per second 
 • 7460 X 6o_ ^ p^ ^3o>ooo = 600 horse-power. 
 
 746 
 
 Summary of Formulae — 
 
 H.P. 
 
 550 
 
 _ a-R 
 
 746 
 E.C 
 
 
 746 
 
 _ ^' 
 746 iP 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 '35 
 
 send 
 
 Kay Electrical Manufacturing Co. 
 
 SBB JAMma STRBBT MORTH, HAMILTON, TBLBfHOMm MO. 988. 
 50 ADBL.AIDB STRBBT WBST, TORONTO, TBLBPHOMB NO. IS1*. 
 
 'A >-* 
 
 
 rtons 
 COAU. 
 
 Telephone. 6 6V^ 
 
 ENGINEERS and FIREMEN I 
 
 TRY ME AMD YOU CAN RECOMMEND ME. 
 
■36 engineers' manual. 
 
 Work in foot pounds= .737324 EQ 
 
 E 
 
 _ _ _ 746 H.P. Work in ft. pds. 
 
 737324 Q 
 
 ^^jff 746 H.P. 
 
 c ~ 
 
 FJ 
 
 O 
 
 746 H.P. 
 
 THE HEATINQ EFFECT OF THE CURRENT. 
 
 The unit of heat called the therm or French caloric is that quan- 
 tity of heat necessary to raise i gram of water 1° centigrade. 
 
 The British unit = i lb. deg. F. = 772 ft. pds. 
 
 = 1.403 H.P. 
 But I H.P. := 746 Watts. 
 .". 746 X 1.403 = 1047.03 Watts for i B.H.U. 
 but I Watt = 10' ergs. 
 
 .•. I lb. deg. F. = 1047.3x10'^ = 1.0473x10^*' ergs. 
 From this follows that i lb. deg. cent. = 1884.66 x 10' ergs. 
 
 • and as there are 453 . 59 grams per lb. 
 
 .•. '''^•^^^°^ = 4.15495x10^ ergs. 
 
 45359 
 or I g^-am. deg. centigrade = 4. 15495 ^ 10' ergs. 
 
 Let J = Joules mechanical equivalent. 
 
 = amount of mechanical work i caloric is capable of 
 
 • doing. 
 
 H = number of heat units. 
 JH = work done = C^ R.t. 
 
 when / = time in seconds. 
 
 If Q — the quantity of electricity passed 
 
 £ ~ E. M,F. or difference of electrical level, then, as in lifting a 
 weight, the work done against gravity is mass x height through 
 which it has been raised, so 
 
 QE=^ total work = W 
 JH=Qi::=W. 
 But since C = the quantity that passes each second and / the 
 number of seconds, then 
 
 Ct = total quantity passed =Q 
 
 J/I= gE=aE. 
 
 By Ohm's law C = -5 
 
 and substituting CR ior E we get 
 
 JH=C^Rt 
 
 H - ^^^ 
 J 
 
 "1 
 
'i 
 
 KNCiINKKKS MANUAL. 
 
 137 
 
 ESTABLISHED 1879. 
 
 TELEPHONE 637. 
 
 R. G. McLEAN, 
 
 JOB 
 BOOK 
 
 rPfilNTER, 
 
 32 AND 34 LOMBARD STREET, 
 
 ONLY FIRST-CLASS WORK. 
 ORDERS PROMPTLY AND PROPERLY 
 EXECUTED AT FAIR PRICES. 
 
 TORONTjO. 
 
 TH!8 BOOK IS A FAIH SAMPLE Or OUR CVEHVOAY WORK. 
 
13^ engineers' manual. 
 
 The value of y is given as follows : / 
 
 J - 4. 15495 X 10^ erg:s. for 1 >j^ram dejf. cent. 
 
 - 1884.66 X 10^ erjfs. for 1 lb. deg. cent. 
 
 - 1047.03 X 10^ erjfs. for i lb. deg. F. 
 
 Example— .\ current of 20 amperes flowing through 10 Ohms, /?, 
 heats 20 lbs. water from 60 to 65' F. Find length of time, C, was 
 flowing. 
 
 £^/ 
 
 ./ 
 
 H~ 20 lbs. (65-60)— 100 units (lbs. deg. F.) 
 
 y= 1047.03 X lo'^ 
 
 The formula so far is in absolute units, and to reduce same to prac- 
 tical units we have 
 
 H = 
 
 (Cx lo-^^ xi?x io"x/f CRt 
 
 //- 
 
 1047.03 X 10^ 
 
 20'* X I O X / 
 
 1047.03 
 
 1047 
 
 /= 26. 175 seconds. 
 In this example no allowance has been made for radiation. 
 
 Example — A current was sent through a wire of 12 Ohms re. . 
 iinoc, wholly immersed in 25.5 grams of water, contained in a glass 
 vessel. At the end of 4 mins. the rise in temperature was observed to 
 b ' 30'C. Calculate the strength of the current. Ans. — i .05 amperes. 
 
 COMPARISON OF HEAT. 
 
 Suppose it is required to compare the amount of heat produced 
 in wires of different resistances by currents of different strength for 
 different times. 
 
 Let the heat in one Wxre— H ^ = 0"^ Rt x. .24 
 
 ^1 
 
 2nd 
 
 = rlo = C Rntn X 
 
 a'9 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 C'Rt 
 
 H. 
 
 (^\R'iti 
 
 X 
 
 24 C'R^t, 
 
 That is to say, the heat produced in one wire, multiplied by product of 
 current squared, resistance and time in seconds of second wire, is 
 equal to the heat produced in the second wire multiplied by the 
 current squared multiplied by the product of the current squared, 
 resistance and time in seconds of the first wire. 
 
 Example — The resistance of one wjre is 5 Ohms, and that of 
 another is 4 Ohms. Find the ratio of the heat produced in the one 
 wire to that produced ni the other wire^(i) when joined in series ; (2) 
 w'lon I Vin >d in multiple when a current is sent through them. Ans. — 
 (I //, : 7/3 :: 5 :4; (2) /^, : //^2 :: 4 : 5. 
 
 1 
 
 ; 
 
RNGINKRRR' MANl'AL. 
 
 »39 
 
 I HEATINQ BY ELECTRICITY. 
 
 It is found that the heat produced in a i'oiuhu'tor is din^ctly 
 proportional— (i) to the square of the current; (2) to the resistance 
 of the conductor ; and (3) to the time the current is flowing or 
 expressed by the equation. 
 
 when y=Joule's mechanical equivalent. 
 /^=Numberof heat units. 
 
 As I H.P.=550 ft lbs. =746 Watts and one British heat unit is equal 
 
 772 
 to 772 ft. lbs., therefore 1 lb. deg-. F. is equal to ._- =1 .403H.P.or 
 
 1047.3 Watts. This will represent the value of y when dealing with 
 British heat units : 
 
 H^ 
 
 C^Rt C.Et E^f 
 
 1047 1047 1047^ 
 
 In the best of lighting and power plants it takes a coal con- 
 sumption ot 2^ lbs. per indicated horse-power per hour; and allowing 
 90% eflficiency in the engine, 93" in generator and 90% in the circuits, 
 we get, say, 75% combined * iliciency, or for every horse-power 
 generated at the engine we get J H.P. at the heater on the con- 
 sumer's premises, which is equivalent to 3.3 lbs. coal per E.H.P. 
 
 For 
 
 a coal consumption of 2\ lbs. we get 
 
 CRt 
 H = — J- = 1926 
 
 or 770 heat units per lb. coal. 
 
 In good hot water or steam heating systems an average of 9500 
 heat units are utilized per lb. coal. Therefore, the relative efficiencies 
 are as 770 : 9500 or i : 12.5 ; that is to say, to heat by electricity 
 would cost 12^ times more than by steam. As there are very few 
 plants, generating one i H.P. for 2^ lbs. coal, this ratio is much higher* 
 the majority of plants having a coal consumption of 6 lbs.; therefore, 
 assuming 4 lbs. as the average, we get the relative efficiency as 
 being i : 20. When very small quantities of heat are required and 
 one momentarily, the electric heater is preferable and more economi- 
 cal than anything else. 
 
 Size of Wire Necessary to Carry a Qiven Current. 
 
 Required the size of wire necessary to carry 30 amperes at dis- 
 tance of 1300', allowing a loss of 5% at 100 volts. 
 
 By Ohm's law we have C = — or R 
 
 ^ R 
 
 E 
 
 Applying this to finding the resistance of the wire we get R = /xj 
 = I Ohm the total resistance of the whole circuit or 2600'. }, Ohm for 
 2600' = ^ X ^^ = .064 Ohms per 1000'. 
 
140 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 By referrinjf to the table given below we find that to be 000 wire. 
 From the above we can deduce a formula, as follows : 
 
 Z X 1000 I 
 
 ^= Cx2D \ 
 
 where R = resistance per 1000' 
 
 L = loss in volts 
 
 C = total current 
 
 D — single distance. 
 Another Example — Find size of wire necessary to carry 20 am- 
 peres a distance of 5000', allowing a loss of 8%, Voltage 2000. 
 
 r> T§Tr of 2000 X 1000 
 
 20 X 10000 
 
 No. 9 wire according to table has .811 Ohms, therefore No. 8 
 would be used. 
 
 The above rule is good for any system and any voltage. 
 
 TABLE OF RESISTANCES 
 
 SIZES, WEIGHTS AND LENGTHS OF COPPER WIRE. 
 
 = .8 Ohm. 
 
 
 Size. 
 
 Weight ar 
 
 Id Length 
 
 Resistance. 
 
 Carrying 
 Capa- 
 
 Gauge 
 No. 
 
 Diam. 
 in Mils. 
 
 Dia. 2 or 
 
 Circular 
 
 Mils. 
 
 Pounds 
 
 per 
 1000 feet. 
 
 Feet per 
 Pound 
 
 Ohms 
 
 per 
 1000 feet. 
 
 Feet per 
 Ohm. 
 
 city, 2000 
 Ampei-es 
 persq.in. 
 
 0000 
 
 460 000 
 
 211600.0 
 
 639.60 
 
 1.564 
 
 .051 
 
 19929-7 
 
 430 
 
 000 
 
 4og 640 
 
 167804.9 
 
 507 22 
 
 1.971 
 
 • 063 
 
 15804.9 
 
 262 
 
 00 
 
 364 800 
 
 133079.0 
 
 402.25 
 
 2.486 
 
 .080 
 
 12534 2 
 
 208 
 
 
 
 324 950 
 
 105592.5 
 
 319-67 
 
 3-133 
 
 .101 
 
 9941-3 
 
 165 
 
 1 
 
 289 300 
 
 83694,5 
 
 252.98 
 
 3-952 
 
 .127 
 
 7882.8 
 
 130 
 
 2 
 
 257.630 
 
 66373 . 22 
 
 200 63 
 
 4.994 
 
 .160 
 
 6251 4 
 
 103 
 
 3 
 
 229.420 
 
 52633.53 
 
 159 09 
 
 6.285 
 
 .202 
 
 4957-3 
 
 81 
 
 4 
 
 204 310 
 
 41742 57 
 
 126 17 
 
 7-p25 
 
 • 254 
 
 3931-6 
 
 65 
 
 5 
 
 181.940 
 
 33102.16 
 
 TOO 05 
 
 9 995 
 
 .321 
 
 3117.8 
 
 52 
 
 6 
 
 162.020 
 
 26250 48 
 
 79-34 
 
 12 604 
 
 .404 
 
 2472.4 
 
 41 
 
 7 
 
 144.280 
 
 20816.72 
 
 62 92 
 
 15-893 
 
 • 509 
 
 1960.6 
 
 32 
 
 8 
 
 128.490 
 
 16509.68 
 
 49 90 
 
 20 040 
 
 ■ 643 
 
 15550 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 114.430 
 
 13094.22 
 
 39 58 
 
 25.265 
 
 .8n 
 
 1233 -3 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 101.390 
 
 10381.57 
 
 31 38 
 
 31.867 
 
 1.023 
 
 977 8 
 
 16 
 
 II 
 
 90 742 
 
 8234. II 
 
 24 89 
 
 40.176 
 
 1.289 
 
 775.5 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 80 808 
 
 6529 -93 
 
 19 74 
 
 50 659 
 
 1.626 
 
 615 02 
 
 10.2 
 
 13 
 
 71.961 
 
 5178.39 
 
 15-65 
 
 63 898 
 
 2.048 
 
 488 25 
 
 8.1 
 
 14 
 
 64 084 
 
 4106.75 
 
 12.41 
 
 80 . 580 
 
 2.585 
 
 3S6 80 
 
 6.4 
 
 15 
 
 57 068 
 
 3256.76 
 
 9 84 
 
 rot 626 
 
 3-177 
 
 306.74 
 
 51 
 
 16 
 
 50 820 
 
 2582.67 
 
 7.81 
 
 128 041 
 
 4.5S2 
 
 243 25 
 
 4.0 
 
 17 
 
 45 257 
 
 2048 19 
 
 6.19 
 
 161.551 
 
 5.183 
 
 Tq2 91 
 
 3-2 
 
 18 
 
 40 303 
 
 1624.33 
 
 3.786 
 
 203 666 
 
 6.536 
 
 152.99 
 
 2-5 
 
 19 
 
 35.390 
 
 1252.45 
 
 3.086 
 
 264. 136 
 
 8.477 
 
 117 96 
 
 1 .96 
 
 20 
 
 31 961 
 
 1021.51 
 
 2.448 
 
 324 045 
 
 10.394 
 
 96 21 
 
 1 60 
 
 21 
 
 28 462 
 
 810.09 
 
 1.942 
 
 403.497 
 
 13 . 106 
 
 76 30 
 
 1.28 
 
 22 
 
 25 347 
 
 642.47 
 
 I 539 
 
 514-933 
 
 16.525 
 
 60 51 
 
 T.08 
 
 23 
 
 22.571 
 
 509- 45 
 
 1. 221 
 
 649 773 
 
 20.842 
 
 47-98 
 
 .80 
 
 24 
 
 20.100 
 
 404.41 
 
 •9^2 
 
 819 001 
 
 26.284 
 
 08.05 
 
 .63 
 
 25 
 
 17.900 
 
 254.08 
 
 .768 
 
 1034.126 
 
 33-135 
 
 :-, .18 
 
 -50 
 
 26 
 
 15.940 
 
 201.49 
 
 .608 
 
 1302.083 
 
 41.789 
 
 23 93 
 
 .40 
 
 27 
 
 14- 195 
 
 159-79 
 
 .484 
 
 1644.737 
 
 52.687 
 
 18 98 
 
 -31 
 
 28 
 
 - 
 
 12.641 
 
 126.72 
 
 .384 
 
 20^6 .116 
 
 66.445 
 
 15 05 
 
 •25 
 
 29 
 
 11.257 
 
 100.50 
 
 .302 
 
 2604.16^ 
 
 83-752 
 
 Tr..)4 
 
 .20 
 
 30 
 
 10.025 
 
 79.71 
 
 .239 
 
 3311.258 
 
 105.641 
 
 y.466 
 
 .16 
 
 I' 
 
1 
 
 \ 
 .t 
 
 430 
 
 262 
 
 208 
 
 165 
 
 130 
 
 103 
 
 81 
 
 65 
 
 52 
 41 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 13 
 
 10.2 
 8.1 
 6.4 
 
 51 
 4.0 
 
 3-2 
 
 2-5 
 
 i.q6 
 
 I 60 
 
 1.28 
 
 T.08 
 
 .80 
 
 .63 
 
 .50 
 
 .40 
 
 •31 
 •25 
 .20 
 .16 
 
 engineers' manual. 
 THE CHEHICAL EFFECT. 
 
 141 
 
 If we were told that a certain quantity of water — say, 100 
 gallons — had passed throiij^h a pipe, this by itself does not give us 
 any idea of the force of the flow, or in an electrical sense the strength 
 of the current. It might have taken a week to trickle through, or it 
 might have passed in one minute ; and according as the time is short 
 or long, so is the force of the flow greater or less. 
 
 We must not only know the total quantity that has passed, but 
 the time taken in its passage must also be known, to get a definite 
 notion of the strength of the current. The current is the quantity of 
 electricity that passes any part of the circuit in unit time, i.e., one 
 second, and the unit of quantity is called the Coulomb ; the practical 
 unit of current is called the yl/w/>^/r, and coulomb per second=amperes. 
 
 The amount of chemical action at all points of the circuit are equal 
 to one another. This does not mean that the same current passing for 
 the same length of time through diff*erent solutions will decompose 
 equal weights of the metals contained in these solutions, but that the 
 weights of the metals so decomposed will be chemically equal, i.e., 
 the weight will be in direct proportion to the chemical equivalent. 
 
 The electro-chemical equivalent is the weight of a substance 
 
 decomposed by the passage of one coulomb. 
 
 Let J1/= total mass in grams decomposed. 
 
 ;j'=mass decomposed by i coulomb in grams=electro- 
 
 chemical equivalent. 
 
 /=time in seconds. 
 
 C=current in amperes. 
 
 M 
 Formula, C— — r 
 
 :. M^C.y.t. 
 
 From this, we c;in calculate the consumption of zinc in a battery 
 
 where the value of j>/=. 000337. The weight consumed per cell= 
 
 Cy^=6'^. 000337 grams per second, which is=Cxi.2i3 grams per 
 
 hour. If there are n cells the total weight of zinc consumed is= 
 
 ^Ct y wC/'. 000337 . , ^ . , 
 
 ^Tf — T r— : = ^j-j^ — ; TT T = weis:ht m grams per second. 
 
 No. m parallel No. m parallel & » r 
 
 The Chemical Effect 
 
 yV. C X 1 . 2 1 3 
 or Total weight consumed — v^ ;„ ry^r-^ \^~ — grams per hour. 
 
 No in paraile.. 
 N.Cx 1 .213 
 
 N.C X . 002674 
 
 Total weight consumed 
 
 in lbs. per hour. "~ No. in parallel x 453.6 ~" No. in parallel. 
 
 If all cells were in series, then the total weight consumed in lbs. 
 per hour = 
 
 W=n.Cx .00674, and suppose we have a current of 746 am- 
 peres at 1 volt which is = i horse-power, and substitute this value for 
 n C we get 
 
 W = 746 X .002674 = 2 lbs. zinc at i volt. 
 Therefore for a higher E.M.F. the consumption of zinc would be 
 inversely proportional to the E.M.F. or 
 
 H.P. per hour x 2 
 Weight of zinc in lbs. — k1a~F 
 
142 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 By means of the following- table the amounts deposited can be 
 calculated when the current strength together with the time are known. 
 
 TABLE OF ELECTRO-CHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS. 
 
 Elements. 
 
 Valencies. 
 
 * Atomic 
 Weight. 
 
 Chemical 
 Equivalent 
 
 Electro-Chem. 
 
 Equiv in Grams 
 
 per Coulomb. 
 
 Aluminium 
 
 Gold 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 I 
 
 273 
 iq6.6 
 
 108. 
 
 63- 
 118. 
 
 58.6 
 
 65- 
 I . 
 
 9.1 
 
 65 -5 
 108. 
 
 315 
 29 5 
 29.3 
 
 325 
 I . 
 
 . 00009449 
 . 0006780 
 . 00 III 80 
 
 Silver 
 
 CoDoer 
 
 .0003261 
 .0003054 
 .0003054 
 .0003364 
 .000010352 
 
 Tin 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Zinc 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 
 The atomic weight is the weight of the atom, the weight of an 
 ntom of hydrogen being taken as i. The atomic weight of copper is 
 63, i.e. 63 times heavier than hydrogen ; but in chemical combination 
 <»ne atom of copper replaces 2 of hydrogen, hence the weight equiva- 
 lent to I of hydrogen is 63 -i- 2 = 31 .5. Therefore the atomic weight 
 -~ valenc)' is = the chemical equivalent. 
 
 Example — A current of 2.5 amperes passes through a solution of 
 gold for 20 minutes. What will be the total deposit? 
 
 According to the table the electro-chemical equivalent is = 
 .0006780. 
 
 .'. M = Cyt = 2 . 5 X .0006780 X 20 X 60 
 = 2 . 034 grams. 
 
 Example — How long would it take to silverplate 6 spoons sup- 
 posing the current was i ,5 amperes and that each spoon would take 
 . 125 grams of silver to cover it. Ans. — 7 minutes nearly. 
 
 DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINERY. 
 
 A dynamo-electric machine is a machine for converting energy 
 in the form of mechanical power into energy in the form of electric 
 currents, or vice versa, by the operation of setting conductors, 
 usually in the form of coils of copper wire, to rotate in a magnetic 
 field. (See Sylvanus P. Thomson's " Dynamo-Electric Machinery.") 
 
 Faraday in 1831 made the discovery that, by moving conductors 
 in a magnetic field, electric currents are generated in them, and 
 the principle of magneto-electric induction is as follows : 
 
 When a conductor is moved in a field of magnetic force so as to 
 cut the lines of force, there is an E.M F. produced in the conductor 
 in a direction at right angles to the direction of motion, and at right 
 angles also to the direction of the lines of force, and to the right of 
 the lines of force, as viewed from the point from which the motion 
 originates. 
 
 The induced E M.F. is proportional to the number of lines of 
 force cut per second, and is therefore proportional to the intensity of 
 the " field" and to the length and velocity of the moving conductors. 
 
 « 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 H3 
 
 I 
 
 As the volt is equal to lO^'C.G.S. units, then the number of volts 
 generated by a rotating- armature is 
 
 E=Revs. per second x No. of conductors in series around arm- 
 ature = Total lines of force which pass through the armature 
 core, divided by lo'^. 
 QP ^.^.5X No. of cond. X Flux 
 
 100,000,000 
 
 By this we see that, to increase the E.M.F., we can do so by 
 increasing the speed, or increasing the number of conductors, or 
 increasing the lines of force, or all three of them could be increased. 
 
 The dynamo consists of two essential parts, viz., the field magnet 
 and the armature. In the majority of continuous current machines 
 the revolving part is the armature, and the field magnets are 
 stationary. 
 
 There are several methods of exciting the fields, viz., by per- 
 manent magnets or electro magnets, self-excited or otherwise. Hence, 
 the current of the generator may be itself utilized to excite the mag- 
 netism of the fields by being caused, wholly or partially, to flow 
 round the field windings. 
 
 In the shunt wound dynamo, the field magnet is wound with a 
 large number of turn^ of fine wire, and, being in shunt with the main 
 current, only part of the whole current generated in the armature. 
 The shunt machine is less liable to reverse its polarity than the series 
 dynamo, and may be controlled so as to give a uniform E.M.F. by 
 introducing a variable resistance into the shunt or field circuit. 
 
 When a shunt machine is supplying lamps in parallel, the turning 
 on of additional lights reduces the resistance of the circuit and in- 
 creases the current, but not in proportion, for when the resistance of 
 the main circuit is lowered a little less current flows around the field 
 windings and lessens the magnetism. 
 
 The series-wound dynai consists of but one circuit. The 
 majority of arc machines are series wound. The whole current from 
 the armature is carried througli the field 
 series with the. main circuit. 
 
 Any increase in the resistance of the 
 ens its power to supply current, because it diminishes the flux. When 
 lamps are in series (as in the ordinary arc lightinij), ihe >vitching on 
 of an additional lamp both adds to the resistam . of the circuit and 
 diminishes the power to supply current. It requ es tlie same expen- 
 diture of energy to magnetize an electro-magnei to the same degree 
 whether shunt or series wound. 
 
 We see from the above that in the shunt-wound (1\ namo by turn- 
 ing on more lamps the E.M.F. is reduced, and in a i ies machine the 
 switching on of additional lights, if in multiple, will increase the 
 E.M.F., and by properly proportioning the series winding and com- 
 bining the two windings we could get a steady E.M.F. This is 
 exactly what is done in the compound-wound machines. 
 
 ARHATURES. 
 
 If ii on is employed in armatures it must be laminated so as to 
 prevent Foucault current. Cores built up of varnished iron wire or 
 of thin discs of sheet iron separated by varnish or paper realize this 
 condition. 
 
 windings, which are in 
 'Hes- wound dytiamo less- 
 
144 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 All needless resistance should be avoided in the armature coils, 
 as hurtful to the efficiency of the machine. The wire therefore should 
 be as short and as thick as is consistent with obtaining the requisite 
 E.M.F. without requiring- an undue speed of driving. 
 
 Since it is impossible to reduce the resistance of the armature 
 coils to zero, it is impossible to prevent heat being- developed in those 
 coils while the machine is generating currents. 
 
 The insulation of the armature should be insured with particular 
 care, and especially at the ends in drum wound armatures, where 
 there are numerous crosses. 
 
 COMMUTATORS. 
 
 Approach being a finite process, the method of a coil approach- 
 ing and receding from a magnet pole must necessarily yield currents 
 alternating in direction. By using a suitable commutator, all the 
 currents, direct or inverse, produced during recession or approach, 
 can be turned into the same direction in the wire that goes to supply 
 currents to the external circuits ; and if the rotating coils are properly 
 grouped so that before the E.M.F. in one set has died down, 
 another set is coming into action, then it will be possible, by using an 
 appropriate commutator, to combine their separate currents into one 
 practically uniform current. — Sylvanus P. Thomson. 
 
 The commutator in direct current machines is the most trouble- 
 some part of the whole machine, and great attention should be paid 
 to it, to have the brushes bearing at the proper angle, and in a bi- 
 poler machine set diametrically opposite. • 
 
 THE NEUTRAL POINTS. 
 
 In consequence of the armature itself when traversed by the cur- 
 rents, acting as a magnet, the lines of force will not run straight 
 across from pole to pole, but will on the whole assume an angular 
 position, being twisted in the direction of rotation a considerable 
 number of degrees. Hence the diameter of commuiat'on, which is at 
 right angles to the resultant lines of force, will be moved forward. In 
 other words, the brushes will have a certain angular lead ; this lead 
 depending upon the relation between the intensity of the field and the 
 current in the armature. 
 
 Hence, in all dynamos, it is advisable to have an adjustment, 
 enabling the brushes to be rotated round the commutator or collector 
 to the position of the diameter of commutation for the time being. 
 If this is not done, there will be sparking at the brushes, and in part 
 of the coils at least the current will be wasting itself by running 
 against an opposing E.M.F. > 
 
 EFFICIENCY. 
 
 The efficiency of a dynamo-e.lectric machine is the ratio of the 
 useful electrical work d(»ne by the machine to the total mechanical 
 work applied in driving it. Every circumstance which contributes to 
 wasting the energy of the current reduces the efficiency of the 
 machine. 
 
 Electrical loss cannot be obviated entirely, because the very 
 
ENGINKERS' MANUAL. 
 
 MS 
 
 very 
 
 ii 
 
 best of conductors have some resistance. Mechanical friction of the 
 moving parts should be brought to a minimum. 
 
 _. u • 1 n; • r J Internal Elect. H. P. 
 
 The mechanical efficiency of a dynamo = .t r. • — ; — \ 
 
 •^ -^ H.P. in belt. 
 
 E. M.F. in armature x arm. current 
 
 when the Internal Electrical H.P. 
 
 Electrical efficiency of a dynamo = 
 
 746 
 External Electrical H.P. 
 
 -when the 
 
 External Electrical H.P.= 
 
 Total Electrical H.P. 
 E. M. F. atterminals x External current 
 
 746 
 
 and the total Electrical H.P. =poweractually converted in thearmature. 
 
 Thus, if it took, say, 3% of the total E.H.F. for the field winding 
 
 and other 3% was wasted in heating the conductors of the armature, 
 
 then the electrical efficiency will be 94% of the gross electric power. 
 
 _ .,«-.,. . External Electrical H.P. 
 Commercial efficiency of a dynamo = h^P • — h~17 
 
 In good machines this reaches higher than 90%, while the electrical 
 efficiency is as high as 97%. Horse-power in belt=gross indicated 
 horse-power of engine - engine friction. Deduct, roughly, 15% of 
 mean pressure for friction. 
 
 The following has been selected from the instructions issued some 
 years ngo by the Edison Electric Co., and may be taken as fully 
 covering the ground : 
 
 Location, Setting and Starting of Dynamos. 
 
 The dynamo should be located in a clean, dry place, and prefer- 
 ably in a room of low temperature. 
 
 The foundations should be of a substantial character, solid mason 
 work or stout framing, sufficient to obviate all vibration while the 
 machine is in operation. 
 
 The proper insulation of the dynamo from *' earth " is vital. To 
 secure this a stout frame of heavy timber is provided ; this is secured 
 to the foundation. The frame should be thoroughly treated with 
 some moisture repellant such as asphalt varnish. 
 
 Exercise great care in handling the armature. Use only rope 
 slings and wooden bars. 
 
 Handle as much as possible by the shaft. 
 
 Never, under any circumstances or in any manner, make use of 
 the commutator in handling the armature. 
 
 Do Mo^ allow the weight of the armature to rest on it for a moment. 
 
 Never lay an armature down unless you have a thick, soft pad 
 between it and the floor. 
 
 It is quite important that before a new dynamo is put at steady 
 work it should be run for a few hours first at slow speed, which may 
 be gradually increased to the maximum. During this trial run, care- 
 fully attend to the bearings. Make sure that everything is in perfect 
 condition previous to putting the dynamo at work on the circuit. 
 
146 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 ^Cleanliness about the Dynamo. 
 
 AH parts of the dynamo should be kept neat and clean. Dirt, 
 copper dust and oil should not under any circumstance be allowed to 
 gather on any part. 
 
 Never allow loose articles of any kind to be placed upon any por- 
 tion of the dynamo. 
 
 Adjustment of Brushes. 
 
 In order to maintain the commutator in proper condition and 
 reduce the wear to a minimum, it is vitally necessary that a proper 
 adjustment of the brushes be secured. They should work absolutely 
 free from sparks. Any sparking whatever indicates a bad condition 
 of the commutators or defective adjustment of the brushes. 
 
 The end of the brush should be carefully bevelled so a^ to con- 
 form accurately with the surface of the commutator. The brush 
 shoul :! bear lightly upon the commutator, and every part of the 
 bevelled end should rest upon it. The pressure should be just suffi- 
 cient to ensure good contact, and avoid all cutting and scratching. 
 
 One of the worst causes of sparking is lack of pressure of the 
 brush, caused by improper setting of the brush-holder stud or by 
 allowing a brush to wear too short. To maintain the proper angle, 
 the brush as it wears must be pushed forward in the holder from 
 time to time. 
 
 A dynamo in operation with sparking brushes is prima facie 
 evidence of carelessness or ignorance on the part of the attendant, 
 and such a condition of affairs should not be tolerated under any 
 circumstances. >■' 
 
 Causes of 5parking. 
 
 Brushes not set at neutral point. 
 
 Brushes not set at diametrically opposite points. 
 
 Brushes set so as not to get full bevel to the circumference of 
 commutator. 
 
 Brushes set with insufficient pressure. 
 
 Brushes spread apart and filled with oil and dirt. 
 
 Commutator bars loose, high or low. 
 
 Loose connection between armature coil and commutator bar. 
 
 Section short circuited either in commutator or armature coils. 
 
 Armature damp, with consequent short circuiting of coils. 
 
 Short circuit or cross on outside system. 
 
 Commutator dirty, oily, rough worn in ridges, or out of truth. 
 
 Dynamo overloaded. 
 
 Armature coils or commutator sections short circuited by accu- 
 mulation of copper dust. 
 
 N.B. — An examination of some dynamos would lead one to believe 
 the machine was constructed for the purpose of producing copper 
 dust. The accumulation of copper dust on a dynamo, and its gradual 
 penetration into the armature and field coils, is often the real cause 
 of serious accident and expensive repairs. This is one of the prin- 
 cipal features which denotes carelessness and inefficient manage- 
 ment, and an utter lack of appreciation of the importance of 
 cleanliness about dynamos and electrical apparatus. The remedy is 
 easy to apply ; the dynamos must be kept clean of oil and copper dust. 
 
ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 147 
 
 The following are some of the di::.orders which dynamos are 
 subject to : — 
 
 Burning Out an Armature Coil. — This may be occasioned by 
 overloading the armaturt*, causing the insulation of the coils to give 
 way, and is indicated by the armature suddenly beginning to smoke. 
 The coil is thus rendered useless. As a temporary make-shift, the 
 injured coil may be disconnected from the commutator, the ends insu- 
 lated with tape and the two adjacent bars to which the coil was con- 
 nected joined to each other by a wire not les*- han the armature wire. 
 The machine can be operated for a time in this way, but it should be 
 repaired at the first opportunity. 
 
 Ring of Fire Around the Commutator. — This is caused by small 
 particles of copper between the bars of the commutator, making a 
 local short circuit from bar to bar across the mica insulation. Clean 
 the commutator carefully and do not allow the brushes to cut and 
 scratch it. ;-•;. ^ ^ ■-.;_.: \./,,;'', ■■.'■,■•.;-":/ 
 
 Breaking Down of one Dynamo. — Ifonedynamoof asingle paircon- 
 nected in series on a 3-wire system breaks down, the result will be 
 merely to put out the lights on that side of the system. If, however, 
 otl er machines are in multiple with the disabled one, the current 
 through the armature will be reversed, and if not disabled electrically 
 will run as a motor. Cut the machine out at once. 
 
 Reversal of Polarity of Magnets. — Reversal of polarity of a dynamo 
 which is one of two or more connected in multiple is equivalent to a 
 di*ad short circuit and if it does not blow the fuses or circuit breaker, 
 or throw off the belt, will probably burn the armature out. 
 
 Reversal of polarity of one of a single pair of dynamos working 
 in series on a 3-wire system, will tend to send all the current 
 through the central wire, which will cause the lights to burn dim. 
 
 More trouble will be caused by switching in a reversed machine 
 with another that is not reversed. 
 
 Dynamos on the 3-wire system may be reversed under the follow- 
 ing conditions : 
 
 A reversal sometimes occurs when starting up, caused by the 
 influence of another dynamo in close proximity to it. 
 
 Reversal may be caused by the current of the second dynamo in 
 series while in operation, if the brushes of the first dynamo are raised 
 or its current broken in any way between the points to which the 
 field circuit is connected. 
 
 By lifting the brushes before throwing out the switch. 
 
 By burning out the safety catches on some other dynamos. 
 
 By crosses on the line. 
 
 By 200-volt motors. This is more apt to occur during a light load 
 when the motor is thrown on with a heavy load. 
 
 To correct the polarity, open the circuit switch, raise the brushes, 
 throw in dynamo switch on the side not reversed and leave it about a 
 minute. 
 
 Effects of Lightning:. 
 
 One of the safest places to be in during a thunder-storm is in an 
 electric light station. 
 
148 
 
 engineers' manual. 
 
 In underground systems no effects of lightning are felt, but 
 where there are long outdoor pole lines the same effects occur as on 
 telegraph and telephone lines, and certain precautions must be taken 
 to prevent injury to apparatus. 
 
 Lightning arrests should be in plain sight. Fuses on such 
 arresters must be promptly replaced, and ground wires and connec- 
 tions must be kept intact and in good condition. 
 
 Facts to be Remembered. 
 
 Be sure that the speed of the dynamo is right. • 
 
 Be sure that all belts are sufficiently tight. 
 
 Be sure that all connections are firm and make good contact. 
 
 Keep every part of the machine and dynamo room scrupulously 
 clean. 
 
 Keep all the insulations free from metal, dust and gritty sub- 
 stances. 
 
 Don't allow the circuit to become uninsulated in any way. 
 
 Keep all bearings of the machine well oiled. , 
 
 Keep the brushes properly set, and see that they do not cut or 
 scratch the commutator. 
 
 If brushes spark, locate the trouble and rectify it at oncel 
 
 Before throwing dynamos in circuit with others running in 
 parallel, be sure the pressure is the same as that of the circuity then 
 close the switch. 
 
 Be sure each dynamo in circuit is so regulated as to have its 
 full share of the load, and keep it so. 
 
 ELECTRIC MOTORS. 
 
 Any dynamo can be run as a motor, and the instructions given 
 above regarding dynamos are applicable to motors. 
 
 In the dynamo only one E M.F. exists, whereas in the motor 
 there must be two, viz., the E.M.F. of supply and the counter E.M.F. 
 
 E 
 
 In the dynamo the current flowing through the armature is= ^ 
 
 where R is the total resistance of the circuit. With the motor the 
 
 E.M.F. of supply -counter E.M.F. . 
 
 current flowmg is= p where .^1 is' 
 
 the res!3tance of the armature. 
 
 E 200 volts 
 
 5 kilowatt dynamo C=-n 25 amperes = g QKmg * 
 
 E.M.F. -coun. E.M.F. 200-180 
 5 '* motor C= „ =25 amperes = g — 
 
 From this, we see that the current and the E.M.F. is the same in 
 both cases, but the resistance of the motor circuit is one- tenth that 
 of the dynamo, the difference being made up by the counter E.M.F., 
 which has the same effect as resistance. The ratio of the E.M.F. of 
 supply to the counter E.M.F. is the electrical efficiency of the motor. 
 
INDEX TO ADVERTISEMENTS. 
 
 Abell Engine & Machine Works Co., The John, Limited - - .08 
 
 Aikenhead Hardware Co. 
 
 Bennett & Wrighf; Co., The, Limited " - " - S 
 
 Hoiler Inspection & Insurance Co. of Canada, The .... ., 
 
 BoothCopper Co. of Toronto, The, Limited, ^r 
 
 Burns & Co. f 
 
 Canadian Heine Safety Boiler Co. ° 
 
 Canadian Rubber Co., The ........ " J^ 
 
 Conjfer Coal Co., The, Limited Flv Letif A 
 
 Coulter & Campbell riy i.eat a 
 
 Dodge Wood Split Pulley Co. ^° 
 
 Eureka Mineral Wool & Asbestos Co. A 
 
 Fensom Elevator Works, The Front Inside Cover 
 
 Fethtirstonhaugh & Co. 
 
 Foulds&Co. J 
 
 Goldie & McCulloch Co., The, Limited ,6 
 
 Grand Trunk Railway System ;« 
 
 Grant & Co., Geo. W. .- . . ]. 
 
 Gurney Foundry Co., The i„ 
 
 Gutta Percha & Rubber Mfg. Co. of Toronto, Limited - - Back Cover 
 
 HarrisCo. of Toronto, The E., Limited ,,„ 
 
 Harris, W. G. "2 
 
 Hutson & Sons, W D. ° 
 
 Johnson Electric Co., W. A. ,2, 
 
 Kay Electrical Mfg. Co. ,,^ 
 
 Kellond & Co. - ^^ 
 
 Leitch & Turnbull j° 
 
 Luxfer Prism Co , Limited i. 
 
 McLean, R. G. .,; 
 
 Malcolm & Co. i^ 
 
 Meadows, Geo. B. Z^ 
 
 Meyer Bros. ^. 
 
 Mica Boiler Covering Co., Limited 60 
 
 Morrison Brass Mfg. Co., The James, Limited ,0 
 
 Murton Coal Co. of Hamilton, The, Limited ,"^e 
 
 Northey Mfg. Co., The, Limited ''2 
 
 O'Keefe Brewing Co. of Toronto, The, Limited .a 
 
 Pendrith & Co. - - . Jg 
 
 Petrie, H. W. 127 
 
 Poison Iron Works, The 16 
 
 Queen City Oil Co., The, Limited Fly Leaf B 
 
 Rice Lewis & Son, Limited .„ 
 
 Riches, C. H. 1J2 
 
 Robb Engineering Co., Limited L 
 
 Rogers Co., The Elias, Limited e6 
 
 Royal Electric Co., The 12- 
 
 Royal Oil Co. Izl 
 
 Sadler & Haworth 66 
 
 Shales, John H. .- 26 
 
 Standard Fuel Co. of Toronto, The, Limited 04 
 
 Spilling Bros. 68 
 
 Spooner, Alonzo W. 10 
 
 Sutton Compound Go., Wm., Limited 58 
 
 Temperance & General Life Assurance Co., The 6 
 
 Toronto Electric Motor Co. 120 
 
 Toronto Radiator Mfg. Co , The, Limited ij 
 
 Vacuum Oil Co. 2? 
 
 Walker, G. Hawley 68 
 
 Weeks-Eldred Co., The, Limited 38 
 
 Westman & Baker 46 
 
 White.Fraser, George 44 
 
 Williams Machinje Co., The A. R., Limited 04 
 
 Wilson & Co., William C. 76 
 
»5o 
 
 ENGINKFRS .MANl'AL. 
 
 ROYAL OIL COMPANY, 
 
 TORONTO AND MONTREAL. 
 
 HEADQUARTERS FOR 
 
 CYLINDER OILS, 
 ENGINE OILS, 
 LUBRICANTS. 
 
 High Class Oils a Specialty. 
 
 WISHINa THE BOYS WHO RUN THE 
 MAOHINES ALL PROSPERITY. 
 
 r 
 
 Royal Oil Company, 
 
 QEORQE ANDERSON, Haaager. 
 
. . INDEX . . 
 
 Paoe. 
 
 Acceleration Due to Gravity, loo 
 
 Algebra, n^ 
 
 Ammonia Table of Properties, 113 
 
 Areas of Circles, 51 
 
 •' •' Segfnjents of a Circle, 41 
 
 Arithmetic, 11 
 
 Arithmetical Progression, - 23 
 
 Armatures, 143 
 
 Belting-, 67 
 
 Belts, Horse power Transmitted by 116 
 
 Boilers, Care of 81 
 
 ** Foaming in j^ 
 
 " Settings 85 
 
 '* Shells, Strength of 107 
 
 Brake, Horse-power .--..... ncj 
 
 Chemical Effect, The 141 
 
 Circumference of Circles -------- 155 
 
 Commutators, - - - .•- _ . . . I^.^ 
 
 Covering for Boilers and Steam Pipes, 61 
 
 Current, Division of 132 
 
 " Heating of 136 
 
 Decimals, 13 
 
 Dynamo — Electric Machinery, ...... 1^2 
 
 Dynamos, Causes of Sparking, 146 
 
 " Location, Setting and Starting - - - - 145 
 
 Effects of Lightning and Facts to be Remembered, - - 147 
 
 Electric Motors, _-..._--- 148 
 
 Electrical Units of Measurement, 132 
 
 Electricity, 128 
 
 " Heating by - 139 
 
 Electro-Chemical Equivalents, Table of 142 
 
 Engine, Duty of an 115 
 
 '* How to Set up a Stationary .... - loi 
 
 ** To Place on the Dead Centre, - . - . 121 
 
 Evaporative Tests, _ _ - _ 85 
 
 Evolution, -- 25 
 
 Feedwater, Heating of 90 
 
 Flywheel, Energy and Bursting Stress, - - - . 117 
 
 Fractions, - -- - -- - - - - 11 
 
 Geometrical Progression, ------- 25 
 
 Geometry, Practical 29 
 
 Horse-power, Rules for Determining 1 14-134 
 
 Injector, The - - - 89 
 
 Mean Pressure, Graphic Method of Finding ... 80 
 
 Mechanical Refrigeration and Ice Making, - - . - 1 1 1 
 
 " Stoker, 38 
 
INDEX.-0>////«//fv/. 
 
 Paok. 
 
 Mensuration of SolidN, ........ ^g 
 
 ♦* *' Surfaces, 29 
 
 •• Of Interost to Kngineers," ---.-.. 124 
 
 PtMiduluni,, The 97 
 
 Polygons, Table of Regular --.-... 35 
 Pulleys — Rules for Calculating Size and Speed, - - - '95 
 
 Pumps, 91 
 
 Quadratic Equations, 23 
 
 Resistance, Derived Circuits of 130 
 
 Resistances, Table of 140 
 
 Ri vetted Joints, 103 
 
 Safety Valve, The 122 
 
 Screw Cutting, _ . - g6 
 
 Shafting, Strength of Solid Round 93 
 
 ** Power Transmitted by 94 
 
 Stays, 108 
 
 Steam, 71 
 
 '• Expansion of 75 
 
 *• Properties of Saturated 73 
 
 Useful Information, ........ 65 
 
 Valve Setting, 120 
 
 *• •* Duplex Pump, 93 
 
 Water at Different Temperatures, - 109 
 
 Wire — Size Necessary to Carry a Given Current, - - 139 
 
 Zeurner's Diagram, - -, - 119 
 
 Chas. H. Riches & Co., 
 
 SUCCESSORS TO 
 DONALD C. RIDOUT & CO., 
 
 Canada Life Building, 
 
 TORONTO, CANADA. 
 
 Solicitors of Patents, Counsellors and Experts in 
 
 Patent Causes, Specialists in Electrical 
 
 and Mechanical Matters. 
 
 PATENTS OBTAINED IN ALL COUNTRIES. 
 
 ^^Sf$m^^ 
 
 ' 'taa-jfejhi^i&glj. 
 
KNOINKKRS MANl'AL. 
 
 153 
 
 114 
 
 97 
 
 35 
 
 n 
 
 130 
 
 140 
 iQi 
 
 lit 
 
 93 
 
 lod 
 
 71 
 
 75 
 
 73 
 
 6S 
 120 
 
 93 
 109 
 
 139 
 119 
 
 W. D. HDTSON & SONS, 
 
 Office: 21 QUE£N ST. EAST. 
 
 COR. VICTORIA ST. 
 
 ....TORONTO, Ont. 
 
 TKLmpHonm 
 
 ..ROOFING 
 
 FLAT SURFACE SLATE, TILE AND 
 GRAVEL ROOFING. 
 
 Slate, Tile, Copper, Galvanized Iron, Tin 
 
 and Qravel. 
 
 Fine Lake Qravel supplied for 
 
 Walks and Drives. 
 
 ) 
 
 A FEW BUILDINGS THROUGHOUT ONTARIO 
 
 ROOFED BY US : 
 
 Freehold Loan Building:, 
 
 riethodist Tabernacle, 
 
 Pharmacy College, 
 
 Foresters' Temple, 
 
 Town Hall, 
 
 High School, 
 
 Church, 
 
 Church, 
 
 Post Office, 
 
 Post Office, 
 
 Post Office, 
 
 Toronto. 
 •« 
 
 Almonte. 
 
 Perth. 
 
 Prescott. 
 
 Qananoque. 
 
 Port Hope. 
 
 Peterborough. 
 
 Niagara. 
 
 Post Office, 
 
 Chatham. 
 
 Court House, Ogdensburg, N.V. 
 
 High School, 
 
 Brockville. 
 
 Baptist Church, 
 
 <( 
 
 Military College, 
 
 Kingston. 
 
 St. George's Cathedral, 
 
 (< 
 
 St. Mary's Cathedral, 
 
 <i 
 
 Parliament Library, 
 
 Ottawa. 
 
 Supreme Court, 
 
 <t 
 
 City Hall, 
 
 It 
 
 Toronto Paper Mfg. Co. 
 
 , Cornwall 
 
'Pr^^ 
 
 ^mi^^mmmm 
 
 wmmmmamm 
 
 154 
 
 ENGINEERS MANUAL. 
 
 ^ 
 
 f.; 
 
 (!■ 
 
 
 
 
 IN USE EVERYWHERE. 
 
 "Safford" 
 
 QUEEN OF 
 
 Radiators 
 
 ARE THE WORLD'S STANDARD FOR 
 
 HOT WATER 
 
 AND 
 
 STEAM HEATING. 
 
 i i _ ^ The Only Radiators in Canada made without 
 ^ Rods or Bolts, and Never Leak. 
 
 FULL PARTICULARS FROM THE 
 
 Toronto Radiator Manufg Co., Liuiiled, 
 
 TOR03sra?o, odstt. : 
 
 V 
 
 THE LARGEST RADIATOR MANUFACTURERS UNDER 
 :* THE BRITISH FLAG. 
 
X \ 
 
 
 ii 
 
 ->'*''^»«»», i 
 
 PYRAMID" Brand 
 
 BLIESTONL 
 
 High Pressure Packing 
 
 For Steam, Hot or Cold Water and Air. 
 Packs equaUy we IJ for alj. TThere is no 
 P actcing made t h at wi M^as t as Jon g or 
 witlistand as well the action of Steam 
 
 Heat. Write for prices 
 
 The Gutta Percha & Rubber Manfg. Co. 
 
 of Toronto, Limited, 
 SOLE MANUFACTURERS, 
 
 61-63 Front street West, TORONTO, CANADA, 
 
 V *v