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This Item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est filme au taux de reduction indique ci-dessous. lOX UX 18X 7 12X 16X 20X 22X 36 X ■my 24 X 28X 32X I'll et le vue ion The copy film i here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: National Library of Canada The images app <. ^1 .^ ran WITH EXERCISES. PROP. MEIKLEJOHN, A / A "• ■?• 'B -'ge * eo.s ffibwrational ^eti,,. A NEW GRAMMAR OF THK ENGLISH TONGUE PAHT I., WITH EXERCISES. BY J. M. D. MEIKLEJOHN, M.A rHOFE.SSOK OK THK THEOKY IHHTOPv »x,. ' (Abo^-e authorized by Board of Education, Qucl,cc. , TO WHICH HAS BEEN ADDED AN APPENDIX ON COMPOSITION FOR U8E IN CANADIAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS. TORONTO ; W. J. GAGE & COMPANY, 1891. ■Pt III I Entered aceordlng to ,he a« of Parliament of Canada In th o™oe„f..e„,„,..erof.^e„,t„re,.,w.'^"^„:Vc:.:T:rr"'^ CONTENTS PART I, LANGUAGE ORTHOORAPHY IITYMOLOGV NOLN.S I'KOXOUNS ADJECTIVKS . VKRBS ADVKflBS PREPOSITION'S CONJUN'CTIONS INTERJECTION'S WORDS AXD THEIR FUNCTIoVS SYNTAX . NOUN • • NOMINATIVE CASE POSSESSIVE CASE OBJECTIVE CASE DATIVE CASE ADJECTIVE . PRONOUN VERB ADVERB PREPOSITION CONJUNCTION ANALYSIS SIMPLE SENTENCE FORMS OF SENTENCES PARTS OF THE SENTENCE NOMINATIVE OF ADDRE'^S CO^iPLEX SENTENCE CAUTIONS IN THE ANALYSm TUP UfAur,, -^-^ALYSIS ,^j. COMPLEX S CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES PARENTHETICAL SENTE.VCEr.' t-F COMPLEX SENTENCES PAGE 1 5 8 9 23 . 28 . 34 . 57 . 58 . 60 . 60 . 61 . 64 . 64 . 64 . 67 . 68 . 69 71 74 76 83 83 84 86 87 87 88 97 103 107 109 111 112 115 1 V a la to A W] leal I^TRODUCTIOJ^. 1. What a Language is \ r nected sounds wl.ich convey .f?"""'"'' '' " """"'«■• "f "on- f"f to o«.er pe.o„, e.I^ i , "t"' t ''?'-^^ ^°""^'-^- ™'- ■^ feel".g, and what he is O.inld, V 7 '"'' *" »I'=«k- »f "II Iun.-„„,,„ ,„„a i, spoken .^: '"" """"y I«'' "--^'t «" m„« intelligent, th. nlcl „f " I, ^T'' '"' "™1"'« «->' ".ore ""J'""« felt; and hence ,iei ,'"""«""»'" '«<>->. ".ore "f time, slowly „„a with ,;« t d ffi"; ™""'" ''""■ '" '-'- -'of Signs, by the aid o", w , f™'^ '"'"'' '" «'™«^-- » K'uage. and „„t '1,,^ ,i„^ rl "°'""^' "'"' »« the "■■tificial, and niore or less"; , "*'"" ""' " "'<"■" "^ ks^ '■.■.S....SO to the eye. H ^ 7 ' """'" "' "''"'^-■""^ «.e ->Upeeeh are of then." s Jffi ir'T T^''^^' '"»*-• »P0ksn. and not the wriHa„ T ''""" """ '' i^ the tl.at is the more in,port"t „/ nT''' """ '^ '"= '»"g"'W- «" »..d vi«o„r to the oter. " '""' "'"^ """ -^-1 I'-Ves 2. The Spoken and the Writt.n t '»n«uage had existed for I"uries fT^'^""'"^ °'"'''='' i'"'.ted. Before it was w" tte„ , " "™ ™««' °'- « »Poken langua-e 0„ " '. "' " ""'"^'^'i merely as j».-.e for rna;;-ee.:i:T:fo:"T:. :fr ^' - ^-^•- to ru„... Many iang,,„,es--s;c ; Vol . ^ ™"'"""«'' r^ 4 GRAMMAR OF THE EXatlSH LANGUAGE. called letters. The science of spoken sounds is called Pho- ' neties ; the science of Avritten signs is called Alphabetics. 3 The English Language.— The English language is the lanr (Jreat Britain and Ireland, the whole of North America, the whole of Australia, and parts of South America and A frica, 4 The Grammar of English.- -livery language grows. It chan-^es as a tree changes. Its fibre becomes harder as it grows older''; it loses old words and takes on new— as a tree loses old leaves, and clothes itself in new leaves at the coming of every new spring. Uut we are not at present going to trace the -rowth of the English Language; we are going, just now, to look at it as it /x. We shall, of course, be obliged to look back now and again, and to compave the past state of the language with its present state; but this will be necessary only when ^ve cannot otherwise understand the present forms of our tongue. A description or account of the nature, build, constitution, or make of a language is called its Grammar. 5 The Parts of Grammar.— Grannnar considers and exam- ines language from its smallest parts up to its most con^plex organisation. The smallest part of a written language is a let- ter; the next smallest is a word; and with words we make sentences. There is, then, a Grammar of Letters ; a Grammar • of Words ; and a Grammar of Sentences. The Grammar of Let- ters is called Orthography ; the Grammar of Words is called Etymology, and the Grannnar of Sentences is .-alleci Syntax. ^'HE GHA.MMAH OF LKTTEliS. 5 J'here is also a C (i) Orthography conies from fu-n r^ . THK GKAMMAK OF souvn^ .^-r, o"U.M).S AJ.JJ I,KTTPB« 6- '^l'« Grammar of Sounds ti "> »- la„s„„,„ : (i, i,,„ „X-^ «;« ■■"'« ';- I.«y he st„,,,,„j a) hv the -^ "".. ^0 .,to„,ea ,■„ the th;:;L:tt ,;.•' ^'•';) '"- ig. ik, ami ing. /^. _ GI:AxM.\1AR of the ENGLISH LANGUAGE. These consonants are called Gutturals. The above set of sounds are called Mutes, because the sound comes to a full stop. (i) Labial comes from Lat. labium, the lip. (ii) Dental comes from Lat. dens (dents) a tooth. Hence also dentist. (iii) Guttural comes from Lat. guttur, the throat (iv) Palatal comes from Lat. palatum, the palate. ,4 8. The Grammar of Consonants : (2) Spirants. Some con- sonants have a little breatli attached to them, do not stop the sound abruptly, but may be prolonged. These are called breathing letters or spirants. Thus, if we take an ib and breathe through it, we make it an iv— the b becomes a v. If we take an ip and breathe through it, it becomes an if— the p becomes an f. Hence v and f are called spirant labials. The following is a complete TABLE OF CONSONANT SOUNDS. MUTES. SPIRANTS. Flat (or Soft). g (in gig) J SlIAKP (or Hard). k ch (church) Nasal. Flat (or Soft). Sharp (or Hard). Trilled. GUTTUUM.S ng ... h ... Palatals . Palatal \ Sibilants/ . — y (yea) sh (sure.) ... t zh (azure) r Dental Sibilants ... Z (lirize) th (batlie) V& W S 1 Dentals . d n th (liatlO ... Labials b P m f &wh ... li (i) The above table goes from the throat to the lips— from the back to the front of the mouth. (ii) b and d ai-e pronounced with less effort than p and t. Hence b and d, etc., arc called soft or flat ; and p and t, etc., are called hard or sharp. THF ailAMM^u OF LETTERS. 7 ince also dentist. RANTS. HABH Hard). Trilled. h ... ... ... sh (sure) r S 1 th (bath) &wh ... from the back to 9. The Orammar of Lfl+fn,... t ., B'gns or symbols ..."IjT] f "' "" --^"onal Picture; abridged picture • di»I '" "™ """«'•■ -m of a„ the kttors C to writ ' '" " '^■"•""- ^ho ite Alphabet. Down to L fi ,r '*"'" " '■™8"'^'' « <=«lk- -P-ntodbyo„e„„a He„^, ^ , „„„,„ ,, ^^__^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^_^^_ __^_^ V'V '-^"6 letter or set of loff. , the same sound. '' ""'^^ ''i''''^'^^ only one and than one sound. ""nsJated to the .,,, I,v u,) more forty.thl"*^o^^3*-~j;';;;^^°k^^^ of J.;„,,,M, ,„„,„.„, -itSt — ^., 8 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ir; phabet is very deflcient. But it is also redundant. For it contains five superfiuous letters, c, q, u; w, and y. The WDrk of the letter c might be done by either k or by s ; that oi q by k ; X is equal to ks or gs ; w could be represented by oo ; and ail that y does could be done by i. It is in the vowel- sounds that the irregularities of our alphabet arc most discern- ible. Thirteen vowel-sounds are represented to the eye in more than one hundred different ways. (i) Thei-e are twelve ways of printing a short i, as in sit, Cyril, busy, women, etc. (ii) There are twelve ways of printing a slioit e, as in set, any, bwy, bread, etc. (iii) There are ten w.ays of printing a long e, as in mete, marine, meet, meat, key, etc, (iv) Thei-e are thirteen ways of printing a short w, as in bwd, love, berth, ro'-tgh, flood, etc. (v) There are eleven ways of printiog a long w, as in rude, move, blew, true, etc. THE GRAMMAR OF WORDS, or ETYMOLOGY. There are eight kinds of words in our language. These are (i) Names or Nouns, (ii) The words that stand for Nouns are called Pronouns, (iii) Next come the words-that-go-with- Nouns or Adjectives, (iv) Fourthly, come the words-that- are-said-of-Nouns or Verbs, (v) Fifthly, the words that go with Verbs or Adjectives or Adverbs are called Adverbs, (vi) The words that -join -Nouns are called Prepositions; (vii) those that-join-Verbs are called Conjunctions. Lastly (viii) come Interjections, which arc indeed mere sounds without any organic or vital connection with other words ; and they are hence sometimes called extra -^grammatical utterances. Nouns and Adjectives, Verbs and Adverbs, have distinct, indi- vidual, and substantive meanings. Pronouns have no mean- ings in themselves, but merely refer to nouns, just like a li^° in a book. Prepositions and Conjunctions once had independent JJ ! HE. iant. For it * y. The W3rk s ; that 01 q sented by oo ; in the vowel- most discern- e eye in more sit, Cyril, biisy, 1 set, ony, bwry, e, marine, meet, IS in bwd, love, itde, move, blew, MOLOGY, Q. These are For ^NTouns are hat-go-with- words-that- ords that go Iverbs. (vi) itions ; (vii) Lastly (viii) nids -without Js; and they utterances. Jistuict, indi- ,ve no mean- like a i^° independent I THE CLA«SlFiCAT10xN Ol-" iNOUNS. g nover represent a thought-^ mlv •, fi..i- "I"K.' *"" "'«y orof pleasu.. of sorrow^ „f Tj^l ■""' " '"""=" "' """' NOUNS, n™.' ''°"'' " " "™^' "^ "'•>• -"^ - ™«ls used a. a THE CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 2. Nouns are of two cla«!«!P« x*,.^ i two Classes— Proper and Coinmon. J*, Mar,. Z.„*„, «,„,„,„,„_ ^,„,„^,„„^ ^^^_^_ ^^ ^_ ^ _^__^^ Write ^■™™,^„„.„, ^.^cJi^;:;;:™,, SI- ™^ ';■-■ ™r ™ (n) Proper nouns, «s «,r/(, have no meaninrr tk to u.d.cate a special person „r place TheT,ad ,' "'' '""'"'^ """'^ meannig. The persons now ^11^7^ 7 ' ''"'^'«^'«'-. "riginally a "loubt had ancesorsw^^e H ol' T"''' ^''''''' ^^'-'^--^ - "niths, or who had largrheX ' " " "■'"' '''''' '^^' *'"« ^-'^ of (iii) A proper noun may be vsrd n^ n ..„. ployed not to mark an indivh hTs, i /"'"" """"' ^^■''«» '*'««">■ .« t„e ,„.„... „.„.„ .., «,„. ,„r „.;::i;;:« ,t^,«';r. '- (IV) «0 C„„ „1,„ ,,,j„J „, „ y_^ H ,, ., j: /T\ .^^ 10 GRAMMAR OF THE P^NCfLISH LANGUAGE. 4. A common noun is the name of a person, pla(!c, or thing, considered not merely as an individual, hut as one of a class. Horse, town, hoy, table, are common nouns. The word common comes from the I^t. communis, "shared by several' we find it also in community, commonalty, etc. and (i) A common noun is ho called because ib belongs in covimnn to all the persons, places, or things in the same class. (ii) The name rabbit marks off, or distinguishes, that animal from all other animals ; but it does not distinguish one rabbit from another— it is common to all animals of the class. Hence we may say : a com- mon noun distinguishes from without ; but it does not distinguish within its own bounds. (iii) Common nouns have a meaning; proper nouns have not. The latter may have a meaning ; but the meaning is generally not appro- priate. Thus persons called Whitehead and Longshanks -may be dark and short. Hence such names are merely signs, and not significant marks. 5. Comnion nouns are generally subdivided into — (i) Class-names. (ii) Collective nouns. (iii) Abstract nouns. (i) Under class-names are included r.ot only ordinary names, but also the names of materials — as tea, sugar, wheat, tvaier. The names of materials can be used in the plural when different kinds of the material are meant. Thus we say " fine teas," " coarse sugars," when we mean fine kinds of tea, etc. (ii) A collective noun is the name of a collection of persons or things, looked upon by the mind as one. Thus we say committee, parliament, ci'owd ; and think of these collections of persons as each one body. (iii) An abstract noun is the name of a quality, action, or state, considered in itself, and as abstracted from the thing or person in which it really exists. Thus, we see a number of lazy persons, and think of laziness as a (juality in itself, abstracted from the persons. (From Lat. abs, from ; tractus, drawn.) (a) The names of arts iinil simpmcps are' abstract nouns, because tliey are the names of i)i-ocesso8 of tliought, coiisiilered apart and abstracted from the persons who iiiactise them. Thus, mvsk; pninting, grammar, chemistry, astronomy, are abstract nouns. (iv) Abstract nouns arc («) derived from adjectives, as hardness, ihdnesH, sloth, from hard, dull, anil slow; or (6) from verbs, as - cjnies f.n.n +l,« t i. Wnd or „,t. W« have «,' 1 ''f': "'""'• ""*"■" ("■■■ J™--'). » '' in »"* i, „o org „i ":/"':::" « r""- """•"'• *■ (Ti- nned „ . .i„a of eutwo,, :,::: r;i„"':„eT,' ' " "" ""- '■■■ c/mw«e 7p *he neuter gender, as heacf, ^^^uU-al,neutraruy.) ' ''• •'^''^"^ ^^^^ ^^^e word we have '>eS^t^::::Lrzt''^^^^^ ^-«cate<,.a. s^d .. common, because they may be of elthrAe^ '^"'' ^"'^'' -:-«^. «re /s J ' ii.^.l f I— ' !J -- 12 GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ,if' :M1 'Wi I (v) We may sum up thus :— Gender. Misculine. I Feminine. Neuter. (yeither) Common. (Either) (vi) If we personify things, passions, powers, or natural forces, we may make them either masculine or feminine. Thus the Sun, Time, the Ocean, Anger, War, a river, are generally made masculine. On the other hand, the Moon, the Earth (" Mother Earth "), Virtue, a ship, Rdifjion, Pity, Peace, are generally spoken of as feminine. (vii) Sex is a distinction between animals ; gender a distinction be- tween nouns. In Old English, nouns ending in dovi, as freedom, were masculine ; nouns in ness, as gc 'dness, feminine ; and nouns in en, a.s rimiden, chicken, always neuter. But we have lost all these distinctions, and, in modern English, gender always follows sex. 9. There are three waj^s of marking gender : — (i) By the use of Suffixes, (ii) By Prefixes (or by Composition). (iii) By using distinct ■words for the names of the male and female. I. Gender marked by Suffixes. A. Purely English or Teutonic Suffixes. 10. There are now in our language only two purely English suffixes used to mark the feminine gender, and these are used in only two words. The two endings are en and ster, and the two words are vixen and spinster. (i) Vixen is the feminine of /ox; and spinster of spinner {spinder or spinther, which, later on, became spider). King Alfred, in his writings, speaks of " the spear-side and the spindle-side of a house "-—meaning the men and the women. (ii) Ster was used as a feminine suffix very largely in Old English. Thus, Webster was a woman-weaver ; haxter (or hagster), a female hakei' ; hoppester, a woman-dancer ; redester, a tooman-reader ; huckster, a female hawker (travelling merchant) ; and so on. (iii) In Ancient English (Anglo-Saxon) the masculine ending was a, and the feminine e, as in wiccn, wicce, witch. Hence we find the names of many Saxon kings ending in a, as Isa, Offa, Penda, etc. GENDER INDICATED BY SUFFIXES AND PREFIXES. 13 the male and , B. Latin and French Suffixes. the Frlnr^''^ ^"n""^" '"^^"°" ^^^^^ ^« ^^^^ ^««eived from the French is ess (Latin, issa). This is also the only feminin^ Tonll Tdd to r' '"'" T^ P"^^"^ ^^^-^^« only' suffix : 12. The following are nouns whose feminines end in ess :- Masculine. Actor Barou Caterer Count Duke Emperor Feminine. Actress, Baroness. Cateress. Countess. Duchess. Empress. Masculine. Host Lad Marquis Master Mayor Murderer Femiminb. Hostess. Lass ( = ladess). Marchioness. Mistress. Mayoress. Murderess. It will be noticed that, besides adding ess, some of the letters undergo change or are thrown out altoglthe; ine ran™.::!''' '''™"'"^ ''"^''- °' " '"-«" "'^^"^ -h as crown of Snain^ Biiu^n. j . ^ ""' ^^^ heiress to the who h.. made . J^ll)*«2irif°,'*.»-, " ""«'"• <«««"*« (« person direotioM of a „a™'' "'°'' '"""~' '* P««" "h" e>rrie8 out th. 11. GendEB .ND.CATED BY P«EP.XE8 (oR BY CoMPOSmON). genler'^! MlTefb '"'""" "l° """"""^ """l '"' ^--no ■^th'eori'/r^r.'"""' *» *° "-- n,en. .oned. In the oldest English, oarl and owen ,neen) Zl~tl7' '-'''''■' -''-"««°ns = eocS wero cwen- B V^t , i J- '1 h V\ 1 .1 M 14 GHAMMAI! OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 14. The following are the most important words of this kind : — Masculine. JIan -servant Man He -goat He-asB •Tack -ass Jackdaw Femimne. Alaid-servant. Woman ( = wife-man), She-goat. She-ass, Jenny-ass. ' Masculine. Bull-calf Cock -sparrow Wether-lamb Pea-cock Turkey-cock Feminine. Cov'-calf. Hen-sparrrow. Ewe-lamb. Pea- hen. Turkey -hen. (i) In the time of Shakespeare, he and she were used as nouns We find such phrases as "The proudent he," "The fairest she," "That not impossible .she." III. Gender iNDinATEo by Different AVords, 15. The use of different words for the masculine and the fem- inine does not really belong to grammatical gender. It may be well, however, to note some of the most important :~ Masculine. Husband King Lord Masculine. Bachelor Boy Brother Foal Drake Drone Earl Father Gander Hart Horse Feminine. Spinster. Girl. Sister. Filly. Duck. Bee. Countess. Mother. Goose. Roe. Mare. Monk Nephew Feminine. Wife. Queen. Lady. Nun. Niece. Ram (or Wether) Ewe. Sir Madam. _ Sloven Slut. Son Daughter Uncls Aunt Wizard Witch. (i) Bachelor (lit., a cow-boy), from Low Lat. baccahtrius ; from hacrn, Low Lat for vacca, a cow. Hence also vaccination. (ii) Girt, from Low German giir, a child, by the addition of the diminutive I. (iii) FiUy, the dim. of foal. (When a syllable is p.dded, the previous vowel IS often modified : as in cat, kitten; cod; chicken; cook, kitchen.) ; (iv) Drake, formerly endrake ; end = duck, and ra/le = king. The word therefore meaps kiny of the ducks. (The word rake appears i-. another form in the ric of bishopric = the ^-ic or, kingdom or domain of a bishop.) (v) Drone, from the droning sound it makes. . (vi) Earl, from A.S. corl, a warrior. Countess comes from the French word comtesse. GENDER. 15 s ; fi'oni hacca, Idition of the (Wi) ratl„t=/,«rf„., cognate „f/„,,/„„rf,/,^,/^rf„^^„,,,_^|^. (ix) Hart = the horned one. at Sst^^L^;ttrtseltf • '"^"'"' ^ '"'•^^- ^-- ^^- --^«^' ^vhich (xii) King, a contraction of A.S. cynlng, «,>« of the km or trihe. (xiii) Lord, a contraction of A.S. Wiiford- from hWf , i. * weard, a ward or keeper. ^' "" •"'*^' ^"'^ (xiv) Lady, a contraction of A.S. hla^fdlge, a loaf-kneade,-. (xv) The old A.S. words were ne/a, nece. (xvn) Sir, from Lat. senior, elder. = myTX'. '"^' '""^ '^'- •"• "^°*» <"■""«'' «■« F.enel, Ma «.m.) (>^ix) rai.ght»r= milker. Connected with rf«j ^ nelSnlS^'-^T °" '""* ^'"""^' '""''-'■ »-•■« -» ■» eon- 16. All feminme nouns are formed frem the masculine with ourexcepfons. brid,g,„om, widower, gander, and dr^ wh.ch come respectively fvom bride, widow, goose, and duck to be formed from ^vUluwc. ™^«"'»ne; and a new ma.sculme had •m the French Number. are": ^•"'^'V'' "\"'""'' "'' ""^^"^ °^ ^"^^^^^^"^ >vheth«r we aie .sprakmg of one thing or of more. - 18. The English language, like most modern langua<.os has two numbers : the singular and the plural. " ' ■ iil 16 GRAMMAK OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Mu BlNOUI.AR. Box Gas Witcli Hero Lady i} Singular .^otneH from tlie Lat si,iff^>fi, one by one j plural, from th« i„ti„ //' irrs, more (than one). (ii) Mr lia. les, the eminent Dorsetshire poet, who has written an excellent grammar, called ' Speech-craft,' calls them onely and somelif. 19. Tliere are tliree chief ways of forming the plural in luiglish : — (i) By adding ea or s to the singular, (ii) By adding en. (iii) By clianging the vowel-sound. 20. First Mode.— The plural is formed by adding es or s. llio ending es is a modern form of tlie old A.S. plural in m, as sfanas, stones. Tlie following are examples :— P'-i'RAi'. Singular. Plural. Boxes. Beef Beeves. <^^a«es. Loaf Loaves. Witches. Slielf Shelves. Heroes. Staff Staves. Ladies. Thief Thieves. (i) It will be seen that es in liei-oes does not add a syllable to the sing, (ii) Nouns ending in f change the sharp f into a flat V, as in beeves ^^ But we say roofs, cliffs, dtoarfs, chiefs, etc. _ (ni) An old singular of lady was ladie ; and this spelling is preserved in the plural But there has arisen a rule on this point in modern iinghsh, which may be thus stated :— ^^■r (a) Y, with a vowel before it, is not changed in the plural Thus we write keys, valleys, chinmeys, days, etc. (6) Y, with a consonant before it, is changed into le whev^ r> ;« added for the plural. Thus we write ladles, rubies, and also m^Uc quies. (iv) Beef is not now used as the word for a single ox. Shakespeare has the phrase beef-witted " = with no more sense than an ox. 21. SecoiK^ Mode.— Tlie plural is formed by adding en or ne. Thus w. ' ,ve oxen, children, brethren, and kine. (i) ChUdreT. I. .ouble i-aral. Tfie oldest plural was cUd-r-u, which became chUd- (^ .... .forgotten f,V ..t this was a proper plural, and en was added, i'.o :U/, . a also a do ,.ie plural. En was added to the old Northern plurai bretiiar— the oldest plural being brothr-u. f l,^!.if ""^'^ * '^""''^^ P^"'"^^ "^ *'°'^- The oldest plural was c^ and this still exists in Scotland in the form of kye. Then ne was' aaaed. etc. NUMUEl!. 17 y one ; plural, from 22. Third Mo^Ia,.s wluch look like plurals. These are aim., riohes. T, m\ i I! if i M W^ I I 18 GRAMMAK OF THE ENOLTSH LANGUAGE. (i) Alms is a compressed form of the A.S. aelmesae (which is from the Greek deemosuni). We find in Acts iii. 3, "an alms." The adjective , connected with it is? eleemosynary. (ii) Riches comes from the French rlchesse. (iii) Eaves is the modern form of the A.S. efese, a margin or edge. 26. There are in English several plural forms that are re- garded and treated as singulars. The following is a list :— Amends. Odds. Gallows. Pains. News. Shambles. (i) Smallpox = small pocks. Smallpox. Thanks. Tidings. 27. There are many nouns that, from the nature of the case, can be used only in the plural. These are the names of things (a) Tliat consist of two or more parts ; or {b) That are taken in the mass. {a) The following is a list of the first : — Bellows. Pincens. Shears, Drawers. Pliers. Snuffers. Lungs. Scissors. Spectacles. Tweezers. Tongs. Trousers. {b) The following is a list of the second -. — Annals. Archives. Ashes. Assets. Dregs. Embers. Entrails. Hustings. Lees. Measles. Molasses. Mumps. Oats. Staggers. Stocks. Victuals. It nmst be noticed that several nouns— some of them in the above class— change their meaning entirely when made plural. Thus— SiNIJULAR. Beef Copper Good Plural. Beeves. Coppers. Goods. Singular. Iron Pain Spectacle Plural. Irons. Pains. Spectacles. 28. The English language has adopted many foreign i)iurals. These, {n) when fully jiaturalised, make their plurals in the usual I'higlish way ; (/>) when not naturalised, or imperfectly, keep their own proper plurals. ('/) As exami)les of the first kind, we have— Bandits, cherubs, dogvias, Indexes, memorandums, focuses, formulas, termimtses, etc. (1) Latin ■ Datum margin or edge. H ' Formula Genus rms that are re- 1 ng is a list : — H (2) Greek Analysis Axis Smallpox. H Thanks. ■ (3) French Miasma Monsieur ridings. Hj (4) Italian Bandit Dilettante i. ,£ i.u_ ^H (8) Hebrew Cheiub CASE. (h) As examples of the second, we find— Ammalculum Animalcula, Data. Formula\ Genera. Analyses. Axes. Miasmata. Messieurs. Banditti. Dilettanti. Cherubiu). 19 Radix Series Species Stratuiii Ellipsis Parenthesis Phenomenon Madam Libretto Virtuoso Seraj)h Plural. Kadice«. Series. Species. Strata. Ellipses. Parentheses. Phenomena. Mesdames. Libretti. Virtuosi. Seraphim. (i) The Greek plurals rtcous^/Vt /.//■.^. ^i ' """ were originally adjectivr l^'^^rtartrTVf ^"' ^''''''^^' ^^'■•■ survives in the Irish Universities-.L^I oTi:;:;;;^!. ''"' ""^' '''' 29. Compounds attach the sign of the nhir-il fn fb i .- word, especially if that word be a noun 11 .' ^^^'""^ into three classes :- ' ^^'''' "''"^^ ^' ^^^^'^^^"^ (a) When the plural sign is added to the Noun a.- • , ■ hangers-on, lookers-on, etc. ' " ^"ns-in-law, (h) When the compound wm-H ;= +^«„4. i focuses, formulas, Case. 30. Case is the form given t„ a noun to sl.ow it, r,l,„- , other words in the sentence. 0,„- I,,,,,,,,-,, T, ! these forms; ,,„t we still nse th «od 1. T I'""" "* ^notion, eve,, when the fo™ hl'hlLT """™'° *° (i) The word case is from the Latin casus, and means a falling. The old g,-am- inanans regar.led the nominative as the npr,!,ht case, and all oMiers as fallh,„s from that. Hence the use of the words ftccline and declension. (Of course th.> n.>m)native cannot be a real case, becau.se It IB upright and not a falling ) ::M7^- 20 GKAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. I !l: M 1 Hill :i i 31. We now employ five cases; Nominative, Possessive, Dative, Objective, and Vocative. » . (i) In Nouns, only one of thes^e is inflected, or has a case-ending — the Possessive, (ii) In Pronouns, the Possessive, Dative, and Objective are inflected. But the inflexion for tlie Dative and the Objective is the same. ' Him and them are indeed true Datives : the old inflection for the Objective was hlne and M. 32. The following are the definitions of these cases : — (1) The Nominative Case is the case of the subject. (2) The Possessive Case indicates possession, or some sim- ilar relation. (3) The Dative Case is the case of the Indirect Object, and also the case governed by certain verbs. (4) The Objective Case is the case of the Direct Object. (5) The Vocative Case is the case of the person spoken to. It is often called the Nominative of Address. (i) Nominative comes from the Lat, noviindrc, to name. From the same root we have nominee. (ii) Dative comes from the Lat dativus, given to. (iii) Vocative comes from the Lat. vocativus, spoken to or addressed. 33. The Nominative Case answers to tlie question Who ? or What? It lias always a verb that goes Avith it, and asserts something al)out it. 34. The Possessive Case has the ending 's in the singular ; 's in the plural, when the plural of the noun endvS in n ; and ' only when the plural ends in s. ^p" 'I'he i)ossessive case is kept chiefly for nouns that are the names of living beings. "W^o cannot say "the book's page " or " the box's lid," though in poetry we can say " the temple's roof," etc. There are many points that require to be specially jiotod about the possessive: — (i) Tho ajKv^^Toj.ho (fr, away, and ^JtraphP, a turning) .stands in the |il,u'e of a lost r, t,he possessive in O.E. havinj;; been in many cases es. In the last century the printers always put hop'd, walk'd, etc., for hotyil, walked, etc, The use of the apostrophe is quite modeni. CASE. ative, Fossessivej a/n a case-endlDg— the 21 ?se cases :- Indirect Object, >ken to or addressed. .«; .n. hence the" ™,LtV'rThe',;'ir ™ TT"""" """«" («) We cannot say tliat " the cirl's hn„l- " ,'.. /i -71.. wwe»«4«,.,..,,,^^»tL..-:tS;/,l. 35. irow shall we a<.count for the contrndictory forms Lord's ay, and loi tlie cunous possessive Witenagemot P celt n«"i r ^ ,;^ri:rron^^^^^^^ /'''° -"" ""«'»■ posseMive of which was wlMna ' = "■''° "'°"'' "■« 10 Whom? It lias no separate form for Wonna- ,n,l ;„ Pronouns, its fonn is the sa.e as that of the O^ect L E ^ It has a very clear and distinct function in moLn Englfs 11ns function is seen in sncli sentences as- (1) He lianded tlie lady a chair. (2) JNfake me a boat ! (3) Woo worth the day ! ( = Woe come to the day !) 4 Heaven send tlie Prince a better con.panion ! (5 Heaven send the companion a better Prince ! ^ p , , "®"™^ knock me at this r,,ito, Rap me here, knock me Avell, and knock me soundiy " (>'\ ^ ., ('^l^-'^kespeare, " Taming of tlie Shrew," 1. ii an {) Methonglit I heard a cry! ( = Meseems.) '^ (.8) Hand me tlie salt, if you i.lease. Some grarnmarians prefer to call thi« the Case of the Indirect am a; ; ^!«;-- -■" ^'-■^"■^-PPly to.., and .L t 3 I i L'Hli ,,! 22 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE II, 1^ (0 III the sixth seutencie, tlie me's are sometiine« called Ethical Datives, (ii) In the seventh sentence, mcthought h-=^mesccms, or it seems to me. There were in O.E. two veths-thincan, to seem ; and thencan, to think, (ill) In the eighth sentence the phrase if you please is = if it please you, and the you is a dative. If the you were a nominative, the phrase would mean if you are a pleasing person, or if you please me. 37. The ObiP^tive Case is always governed by an active- transitive verb or a preposition. It answers to the question Whom ? or What ? It is generally placed after the verb. Its form is different from that of the Nominative in pronouns ; but is the same in nouns. (i) The direct object is sometimes called the reflexive object when the nominative and the objective refer to the same person— as, " / hurt myself; " « Turn {thou) thee, O Lord ! " etc. (ii) When the direct object is akin with the verb in meaning it ia sometunes called the cognate object. The cognate object is found in such phrases as : To die the death; to run a race; to fight a fight, etc. (iii) A second direct object after such verbs as wia/fce, create, appoint think, suffer, etc., is often called the factitive object. For example :' The Queen made him & general; the Board appointed him mamager ; we thought him a good vuin, etc. Factitive conies from the Latin fact^re, to make. 38. The difference between the Nominative and the Vocative (mses is this : Tiie Nominative case must always have a verb with it ; the Vocative cannot have a verb. This is plain from the sentences : — (i) John did that, (ii) Don't do that, John .' 39. Two nouns that indicate the same person or thing are said to be in apposition ; and two nouns in apposition may be in any case, (i) But, though the two nouns are in the same case, only one of "=" ' ='iK':'C<'iOri vt iha ciise, Tims we say, "John the gardener's mother is dead." Now, both John and gardener are in the possessive case; and yet it is only gardener that take- the sign of the possessiva INGUAGE ' PRONOUNS. 23 metiinert called Ethical PRONOUNS. 1. A Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun We say, ''John went away yesterday; he looked (luite happy." In this case the pronoun he stands in the place of John. (i) The vvor.1 pronoun comes from the Latui pro, for ; and nomen, (ii) The above definition hardly applies to the pronoun /. If we say / mnte the / caimot have John Smith substituted for it. We cannot say John Smith ^rite. I, in fact, is the universal pronou^^ fcTtle person spealdng; and it cannot be said to stand in place of his mere navic. The same remark applies to some extent to thm and you. 2. The pronouns are among the ohh-st parts of speech, and have, therefore, been subject to many changes. In spite of these changes, they have kept many of their inflexions ; while our English adjective has parted with all, and our noun with most. 3. There arc four kinds of pronouns: Personal; Inter- rogative; Relative; and Indefinite. The following is u table, with examples of each : PRONOUNS. Personal I, Interrogative. Wlio ? Relative. Who. Indefinite. One. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 4. There are three Personal Pronouns : The Personal Pro- noun of the First Person; of 'he Second Person; and of the Third Person. 5. The First Personal Pronoun indicates the person speak- ing; the Second Personal Pronoun, the person spoken to- and the Third, th.> person spoken of. 6. The First Personal Pronoun has, of course, no distinc- tion of gender. It is made up of the following forms, whicli are fragments of ditt'iircnt words :— ^itm ,1 !'' 1 !'■ Mi 24 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LAxNGUAGE. Nominative Possessive Dative Objective SiNOnLAB. I Mine (or My) Me Me Plurau We. Our {or Ours).' Ua. Us. mult 4'tLuTy:u:''"'^^^ " "^'- '^ ^'"" ^^^^^^^^^ ^--'^' y- thinks" f"ift'' ^''"""1'" '"^'^ ""^"^^ ^"'^ P'-^-« -« "Me !eem .ni , f f ; ^'^^' -^^'^^''^ *'>« ^^^^^^ comes from ^Amm«, f.. . te^ '• " ; lu^nT '7' '" '''"'^' '■'"'^^ '' "^^'" "Give zne the I)iate , It you please, etc. 7 The Second Personal Pronoun has no distinction of gender. It has tlie following forms :— Nominative Dative Objective Vocative Singular. Thou Thine {or Thy) Thee Thee Thou Plural. You {or Ye). Your {or Yours). You. You. You {or Ye). (i) Ye was the old nominative plural; you was always dative or objective. Ye have not chosen me ; but I have chosen you." (ii) Thou vvas from the 14th to the 17th century, the pronoun of affection, of famiharity, of superiority, and of contempt. This is "til the usage m France of tu and toi. Hence the verb tutoyer. J^ "^i' J^^' °'''' ^°''' "'■' ""'"'^ ^^°»g ^^th nouns; Mine, Thine Mine and Th ne however, are used in Poetry and in the English Bible . ith nouns which begin witli a vowel or silent h. 8. The Third Personal Pronoun r.Miuires distinctions of gcndor, because it is necessary to indicate the sex of the person we are talking of; and it has them. Singular, Nom. Poss. Dat. Ohj. Masculink. Ho Fkminine. She Nkutkr. It HiH Her [or Hera) Its Him Her It Him Her It Plural. All Qenders. They. Their (or Theirs). Them. Tliem. y one / in all the world. address j'ourself, you no distinction of INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 25 (i) She is really the feminine of the old demonstrative se, sco, thaet and It has supplanted the old A.S. pronoun kco, which still exists iii Lancashire in the form of hoo. (ii) The old and proper dative of it is him. The old neuter of he was hit, the t being the inflection for the neuter. (iii) Him, the dative, came to be also used as the objective. The oldest objective was hlne. 9. The Personal Pronouns are often used as Heflexive Pronouns. Eeflexive Pronouns are (i) datives ; or (ii) objec- tives; or (iii) compounds of self with the personal pronoun, i'or example : — (i) Dative: "I press me none but good householders," said by Fal- stair, in "King Henry IV.," I. iv. 2, 16. " I made me no more ado," I. ii. 4, 223. "Let every soldier hew him down a bough. "—Macbeth, V. iv. 6. (ii) Objective: Shakespeare has sudi phra.se.s as / w/a;^^ mc , /disrobed me ; I have learned me. in modern English, chiefly in poetry, we have : lie sat him doivn; Get thee hence ! etc. (iii) Compounds : / bethought myself; He wronged himself; etc. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 10. The Interrogative Pronouns are those pronouns which we use in asking questions. They are who, which, what, and whether. (i) The word interrogative comes from the Latin intcrrogare, to ask. Hence also interrogation, interrogatory, etc. 11. Who is both masculine and feminine, and is used only of persons. Its neuter is what. (The t in what, as in that, is the old suffix, for the neuter gender. ) The possessive is whose ; the objective whom. The following are the forms :— Singular and Plurai.. Masculinu. Feminine. Nkuter. Nominative Who Who What. Possessive Whose Who.se [Whose.] What. Objective Whoui Whom \ iM1 i 26 CxRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.^ p.i^dTp"r:;ir' "' ""'^^^^ '"^ ^^ ' ^^-^^^^ ^"^^^^^^^^-^■ 12. Which-formerly /.t..7c--is a compound word, made up ot tlie wh in who. and Ic, which is a contraction of tlie E lie -like. It tlierefore really means, 0/ tohat sort? It now asks for one out of a number; as, - Here are several kinds of • iruits : which will you have 1 " 13. Whether is also a compound word, made up of who + ther ; and it means, Which of the two ? (i) The ther in whether k the same as tlie ther in neither, etc. • RELATIVE OR CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. unctions: i) it stands for a noun ; and (ii) it jLs two sen- junction For example, we say, - This is the man whose apples we bo,g,t This statement is made up of two sentenced! i This IS the man;" and (ii) ''We bought his apples." The relative pronoun whose joins together the two sentences, (i) Relative Pronouns might also be called conjunctive pronouns. tJlt^°A^' '" *^^,,^^°^« sentence, is called relative, because it relate, to the word ma.. Man is called its antecedent, or .^er-befoTe. The word antecedent conies from the Lat. ante, before ; and cedo, I go. 15. The Eelative Pronouns are that; who. which; what As and but are also employed as relatives, (i) Who, Which, and What are also combined with so and ever and of t Ti:t::t!2:^: :f t^cT. j:; r ^ r -^"^^ remiPf'tjj • f„\ t+ ^ , ^' f' ' ' ^^ differs from who in two respects . a) It cannot be used after a preposition. We cannot say Tins IS the man with that I went." (b) It is ..nnralb^ onXed t tor sale Here the sentence that I built is an adjective, limiting or de fining the noun house. Honce it has been called the deflnC relative. iiade up of who + ' in neither, etc. INDEFINITK PJtO.NOUKS. £7 .n«y be equivalent T- ' """°"°"' "» "'"''' ""<' ">at it («) Two Nominatives • •)« in "ri,;- • i , , « the ..me I L iZku:^v. ^"' " "" """" ■" ' '"^ "" = "Tl.i. Jn'tf.iitn::, tt:*; " r^-""™^ » "There,.., „„ like theUtin „« o," =,17. „ "f "■" = '"^ ^ ""■ <"* " lo, which; what. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. (ir tviino. i.„4^ • 1 iidine loi a definite person other; and some. °''^' ''°''^' ^^yj ea^^:s::rr:r:r T^^:- --• Hi«si.pi,the one example i„ the J3ible-2e h l^^5 Z'^'^'f 'T'' '"'^ "' «*'" «»'^ from my youth." One as a.rtctfi; . " *'"^^'^ "'' '" '^^^P ^^^^^^ It ia) can' be put in tCp^^rlrr'/r ^^y-""-^^- form. Tl,uawecaii.»v./M.>n , .' "' ™" t*''* a plural •nd ,6, .. I wa,:t sle%le» " ™" '" "''"' °°' '''^"' ""• »"" ^ ^ " P^noun, it i. ,,n,ZlTXr " ''"'■'" °'"'°- *'"" ""'» " « 1 1 i I i !■ 28 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (iv) Other is = an tlier. The tlier is the same as that iu either, whether; and it always indicates that one of two is taken into the mind. (v) Some is either singular or plural. It is singular in the phrase Some one ; in all other instances, it is a plural pronoun. ADJECTIVES. 1. An Adjective is a word tliat goes with a noun to describe or point out tlie thing denoted by the noun — and hence to limit the application of the noun ; or, more simply, — Adjectives arc noun-marking words. (i) Adjectives do not assert explicitly, like verbs. They assert im- plicitly. Hence they are Implicit predicates. Thus, if I say, " I met three old men," I make three statements : (1) I met men ; (2) The men were old ; (3) The men were three in number. But these statements are not explicitly made. (ii) Adjectives enlarge the content, but limit the extent of the idea expressed by the noun. Thus when we say "white hors-s," we put a larger content into the idea of horse ; but, as there arv. ^ewer white horses than horses, we limit the extent of the notion. 2. An adjective cannot stand by itself. It must have with it a noun either expressed or understood. In the sentence "Tlie good are happy," persons is understood after good. 3. Adjectives are of four kinds. They are (i) Adjectives of Quality ; (ii) Adjectives of Quantity ; (iii) Adjectives of I Number ; (iv) Demonstrative Adjectives. Or we may say, — Adjectives are divided into ADJECTIVES Qualitative. Quantitative. Numbering. Demonstrative. These four answer, respectively, to the questions — (i) Of What sort? (ii) How much? (iii) How many? (iv) Which? 4. Qualitative Adjectives denote a quality of the subject or | thing named by the noun ; such as blue, ichitc ; hapjjy, sad ; big, Utile. (i) The word qualitative comes from the Lat. quaUs= at what sort. (ii) Most of ttiese adjectives admit of degrees of comparison. INGUAGE. ADJECTIVES. 29 u the ezt.ent of the idea deflmte number, and tl.oy can go oithor(i) with the singular .V 'is .:tt ''"*' "' "°""' " <"'> "'" •^""'- ■"'« '" - Mucli. Xo. Several. Some. Whole. ^^y- Certain. Few, All. Divers. Little. Both. Enough. M,,ny. ,^^71'"' "" ''"""•■ '^^ '""''• «'^^ ^---'- '-'^ '-i/«; several 6 Numbering or Numeral Adjectives oxprc.s tl.e number of the things or ponson.s indicated by tlie noun Th.vo ^*'^'^,"* (i) Numeral comes from Hip t af »..- comen«mero«.,«„^enc« Ind!, ; T.uT"'' ''' ""'"^•^'■- H«»^e also the m and the ',^'''^''^"^' ""^ n««.6.r(the b serves as a cushion between (ii) Cardinal comes from the Lat. cardo, a hinge, (iii) Ordinal comes from the Lat. ordo, order. 7. Demonstrative Adjectives are tliose M-hicli .vo . i . point out the thing expressed by the no n n1 b i r iiui spedKer or to somctliino- else 8. n:)emonstrative Adjectives are of three kinds- ^i) Artim northern form „f «„<• .n^ieto™ " ''T'"'""™" '»"" »' ane, the of a size," etc. ^ 'w, as m two of a trade j "" all "An two men ride on a horse,, one must ride behind " Mmkespeare (Much Ado about Nothing, III. v. 40). ^^ai 30 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. lii^ (ii) We must be careful to distinguisli the article a from the broken- down preposition a in the phrase "twice a week." This latter « is a fragment of on; and the phrase in O.E. was "tuwa on wucan." Simi- larly, the in " tlie book " is not the eame as the in " the more the merrier." The latter is the old ablative of thad ; and if = by that. (iii) Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives are so called be- cause they can be used either as adjectives with the no\ui, or as pronouns for the noun. They are divided into the following four classes : — (a) Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns- This, these; that, those; von, yonder. (b) Interrogative Adjective Pronouns— "Which ? what ? whether (of the two) ? (c) Distributive Adjective Pronouns— Each, every, either, neither. (d) Possessive Adjective Pronouns-My, thy, his, her, etc. (These words perform a double function. They are adjectives, because they go with a noun ; and pronouns, because they stand for the noun or name of the person^ sfjeaking or spoken of.) (iv) The Ordinal Numerals are : First, second, third, etc. 9. Some adjectives are used as nouns, and therefore take a plural form. Thus we have Roiiums, Chridiaii-^; .^■iipcnors, elderx, <»ie.^, ofJiei>; vuhles, etc. Some take the form of the possessive ease, as either\% neither'^. (i) The plural of one as an adjective is two, three, etc. ; of one as a noun, ones. Thus we can say, "'These are poor strawberries, bring me better onex." Other numeral adjectives may be used as nouns. Thus Wordsworth, in one of his shorter poems, has— "The sun has lor g been set ; The stars are out by twos and threes ; The little birds are piping yet Among the bu.she.s and trees." (ii) Our language is very whimsical in this matter. We can say Jioinam and Italians ; but we cannot say Frenches and Dutches. Milton has (Paradise Lost, iii. 438) Chincses. NUMERALS. 10. Cardinal Numerals are those which indicate numbers alone. Some of them are originally nouns, as dozen, hun- ]jn'd,' fhmisand, and mimou ; but these may also be used as adjectives. NUMEIJALS. 31 'w,. .0. .,„ no'ir ;cr l;:;:':,::;::;r:;'::,r- "'"- (u) Two, from A.S. twegen mas • twa fc, ti *• :.. , • , . s"" "I''.''. , iwa tern, ihe torm /..,„„_ a , t„ ™„i,,,^j^ THE INFLEXION OF ADJECTIVES, two are «« (t,.„ ,„„„, „f ,, . ^ ,,„^, ^^^^^,^, ^^^^ ^j^^_^^ _^^ il'- ..r™u„e,atio„ .eep <,„,e apart, and ,^v:\;:r£i':r»^^^^^^^^^^ cl"e t?rae:;t:?Li;;::,r,'r ;t,""" - '■■ -« »«■ --. ^t i i'. !l I!! 32 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. iiihii; II 1 1 ^'l ii I ! 13. Most adjectives are now inflected for purposes of com- parison only. ii -o • 14. There are' three Degrees of Comparison: the Posi- tive; the Comparative; and the Superlative. (i) The word degree comes from the French degri, which itself comes from the Latin gradus, a step. From the same root come grade, grad- ual, degrade, etc. l6. The Positive Degree is the simple form of the adjec- tive. ^ , J- i- 16 The Comparative Degree is that form of the adjective which shows that the quality it expresses has been raised one step or degree higher. Thus we say sharp, sharper; cold, colder; brave, braver. The comparative degree brings together only two ideas. ,Thus we may speak of « the taller of the two, but not " of the three." Comparative comes from the Lat. comparo, I bring together. 17 The Comparative degree is formed in two ways : either (i) by adding er to the positive ; or (ii) if the adjective has two syllables (the last ending in a consonant) or more, by placmg the adverb more before the adjective. Rules : I. A silent e is dropped ; as brave, braver. U. A y after a consonant is changed into i before er, etc. ; as happy, Jiappier. in. A final consonant after a sHort vowel is doubled ; as red, redder; cruel, crueller. IV In choosing between er and more, sound and custom seem to be the safest guides. Tims we should not say ..electer,hnt more select; not infinner, but more infirm. Carlyle has beauUfullest, etc.; but his ,s not an example to be followed. 18 The Superlative Degree is that form of the adjective .vhich shows that the (piality it expresses has been raised to the highest degree. The superlative degree requires that three I- 1.,> nnTnt.irc.l Tlius "He Is the tullost of the things, or more, be oomptiuu. xiiu^ two " would be incorrect. Superlative comes lYom the Lat. mperlatlvus, lifting up above. rm of the adjec- of the adjective been raised one ), sharper; cold, ;e brings together taller of the two," gether. two ways : either adjective has two • more, by placing ore er, etc. ; as happy, is doubled ; as red, d and custom seem to 'jctcr, but more select; ullest, etc, ; but his is n of the adjective 3 been raised to the equires that three is the tallest of the ADJECTIVES. ** syllables /'fhp loof j- • ^ ^ ""^ adjective has two 0)JIappie.t. ^n)Mo.t recent ;^,o.tUautifal. 20. Some adjectives, from the very natnrp nf fi -^ express, do not admit of comparison st T. '^''' '^""^ Pos- itive. Bad Evil 111 Far [Forth] Fore Good Hind Com- parative. worse worse woise farther further former better hinder Super. LATIVE. worst. worst. worst. farthest. furthest. foremost. best. hindmost. [Ratlie] ratlier Super- lative. latest. last. least. most. most. Highest (next), oldest, eldest (H^llr JlTlriT) '-The'"'' ""' '""- '- -'»-. evn. .».! the full comparative °, ««lL J ' T"" " " '""* °' "«' ™t ; century (ShatapLe, ''Z:S^?mT{'ST''r :''^ '» '"' "'" a comparative sense. '' " '^ * ^"Perlative form with (iv) Better comes from A s ;>/,/ j '";-' ^ -^« ^«H -d in the pts r.:;;.t r,!:ir '°""' •'" &c<«^ '^ ^y assimilation from Za«s< ; as best k from (vi) Less does not come from laesest. NIghest is contracted weak, (vii) the lit in liiilc; but from the A.S las. into next ; as hiffhest was into hext. Thus n\ rin! "I .1 ill ! ii ■ 'I ! I ! ;i i ! mm \ ^4 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. : mi) We say " the oldest man that ever lived, " and "the eldest of the fainily." Older and oldest refer to mere number ; elder and eldest to a family or corporate group. (ix) Rathe is still found h. poetry. Milton ha^ " the rathe primrose, that forsaken dies;" and Coleridge, " twin buds to^athe to bear^ h^^ winter's unkind air." The Irish pronunciation r«2/. -<* / as well as break, strike, fiu"2 "^ ''"''' "'""' ^"^•'^-' -^'^-''. etc., 4. An Intransitive Verb denotes -i ^t.f. f i- wind. doc. not ,,.3 ovo, but wili I™ '^l: ttL" a" "" -,^n, .. He sleeps ■■• ■' she „,.„. ; » .. tlC^: ^Z ^ " 5. There is, m general, notliinc- in tho InnV . a causative fo„n. Tliua we have J ^° ^""''''' Inthansitive. Bite • Deem ' Drink i Fall Lie Causative Bait. Doom (verb). Drench. Fell. Lay. Intransitive. Quotii Hise Sit Watcli 1 Wring ' Caii.sative. Bequeathe. Kaise. Set. Wake. Wrencf , J These are also used tiausitivoly The following exeeptional usages should he diligently noted I. Intransitive verhs in (i) («) He walked to London (a) The eagle flew. ay be used transitively. Thus- {!') He walked his horse. ('>) The boy flew his kite. #/ Ml jii *i! I liiiiiif i I ! i! 0^ 1 1' I '! i I I I \f 1 . K. 1 !■ 36 GRAMMAR OF THE KNGLISH LANGUAGE. (ii) When tho intransitive verb is compounded with 'a pre- position either (i) separable, or (ii) insepara>)k;. (i) (a) He laughed. {h) He laughed-at me. (ii) (a) He came. (b) He overcame the enemv. ■ (iii) («) He spoke. ('') He bespoke a pair of boots. Such verb.s are sometimes called " Prepositional Verb.s." ir. Transitive verbs may be used intransitively— (i) AVitli the pronoun itself understood (rt) He broke the dish. (a) She shut the door, (a) They moved the table. (6) The sea breaks on the rocks. (b) The door shut suddenly. {h) The table moved. (ii) When the verb describes a fact perceived by the senses :- (a) He cut the beef. (a) He sold tlie books, (a) She smells the rose. (6) The beef cuts tough. (b) The books sell well. (b) The rose smells sweet. The following is a tabular view of the KINDS OF VERBS. INTRANSITIVE. TRANSITIVE. I 1 Of State. (Sk'ip.) Of action. (Run.) Active. (Wound.) Passive. (Be wounded. ) THE INFLEXIONS OF VERBS. 6 Verbs are changed or modified for Voice, Mood, Tense. Number, and Person. These changes are expressed, partly by inflexion, and partly by the use of auxiliary verbs. (i) A vurb is an auxUlary verb (from Lat. auxUmm aid) when its ovvn full and real meaning drops out of sbjht, and it aula or helps the ve'b to which it is attached to express Us meaning. Thus we say He Irks hard that he rmy gain the prize ; " and here ma, has not xta old .neaniup of poxocr, or its present meaning of pm-misnon. But- (ii) If we say " He may go," here may is not used as an . ixiUary, but is a notional verb, with its full meaning; and the Bentence .«- " He has leave to go," nded with' a pre- THE VERB. 37 J by the senses :— RANSITIVE. Voice. (i) When a verb is used in the active voice the subject of the sentence standi for r.-i^iv, ^^' '*°" °f *'^« action. "He killed the mouse" (») When a verb is in the passive voice the subject of the sentence sta'nda for the Object of the action. " The mouse was killed " Or we may say that, in the passive voice oX""'"^^ subject denotes WZ (iii) There is in English a kind of middle voice T..,. He opened the door" (active)- "Th.T Thus we can say, "The door opened "(mi^^lle) In tZ """-' "^'"""^ " ^I''^^^'^; -ea^ily,. ..Ho„4tastlwJ:;:!^^^^:-S:™«wood 9. An Intransitive Verb as it r.o» t. Active. (a) They laughed at him. (a) The general spoke to him. Passive. W He was laughed-at by them. W He was spoken-to by the general. iq. xn changing a verb in tlie active voice into tb. . • we may make eitlier (i) the direct or A" A ., ^ '''^'' into the subject of thVpassive;! ^"^ "" ^""^^^^^ ^^^'-^ Active. 1. They offered her a chair. 2. They showed him the house. 3. r promised the boy a coiit. Passive. (i) A chair was offered her. (li) She was offered a chair. (») The house was shown him. (n) He was shown the house (>) A coat was prouiLsed U.e'bov. Ti.e o.,io,.t mor u '"'^ '""^ promised a coa't. iiie oiiject alter the paRNJve v(>rli iu , i t\ Mmsive verb cannot rightly (nk. an ojet JusT^ "'•''""* "' "'"* "'''>• f"'" "ctivo verb. anU i« ..ence son.eti.... ca.lf;! r^'^^"';;;- ^ J^ --• f™" the r?.. m ■um''i>fT^r'Mmm''Mifkm*timMl..Mjiu.jLj i mm t 38 GKAMMAU OF THE ENliLlSlI LANGUAGE. 11. The passive voice of a verb is fonuod l.y using a part of the verb to be and tlie past participle of the verb. Thus wo say — Active. I beat. Passive. I am beaten. Active. I have beaten. Passive. I have been beaten. (i) Some intransitive verbs form their perfect tenses by means of the verb to be and their past participle, as " I am come ;' ' He is gone^ But the meaninrj here is quite different. There is no mark of anything done to the subject of the verb. (ii) Shakespeare has the phrases: is run; is arrived; are marched forth ; is entered into ; is stolen away. Mood. 12 Tlie Mood of a verb - the manner in which the state- ment made by ^he verb is presented to the mind. Is a statement made direetly] Is a counuand given] Is a state- ment subjoined to another] All these are ditterent moods or modes. There are four moods : the Indicative ; the Impera- tive ; the Subjunctive ; and the Infinitive. (i) Indlcativa comes from the Lat. indicare, to point out. (ii) Imperative comes from the Lat. imperare, to command. Hence also emperor, empress, etc. (through French). (iii) Butojunctlve comes from Lat. suhjumj^re, to join on to. (iv) infinitive comes from Lat. infinUus, unlimited ; because the verb in this mood is not limited by person, number, etc. 13. Tne Indicative Mood makes a direct assertion, or puts a question in a direct manner. Thus we say : " John is ill ; " "Is John ill r' , ' 14 The Imperative Mood is the mood of command, request, or entreaty. Thus ^ye say : " Go ! " « Give me the book, please ; " " Do come back ! " (i) The Imperative Mood is the pure root of the verb without any inflexion. (ii) It has in reality only one person -the scoond. 15. The Subjunctive Mood is that form of the verb which is used in a sentence that is subjoined to a principal TIFK VEIJB. 39 rived; are inarched the verb without any Most „a.„ . ..,._',/:;: 1 fairj ''^,?'™'"^' s-y ^ (1) " O that I,„ .vero lierc ■ " ^'il ' y"^' ,^ '""' «•" tl>ou come to povcrtr " (i > " WI ' ^ , '" ™' ''"'I'' ''"" agooJman." *^ ^^''»'=™ he be, he cannot bo (i) In the arat sentence, tlie pe™„ fa „», ,,5^ Jn)J„ the second, the pe«„„ spoten to has « c„„e to poverty ; hut (no In the thh-d, we .,0 »., t„„„ „„„ ,„, ^,,,„_, „^, . 41 ' ^"""™ "*»" " -"""'^ 'Ving out of use b .o„e.n simple. ^ " " ""= ^'"^ 'tedf, pure and thf !niiTtrir„htL;':Atr thirf- "°^ - ---'-^ * -^ m», .WJ, „,•«, ,„«_ ja X;;' ' »»'«■» «Hhng m an. After »„,, Bimple infinitive, „,th„ut 'to ultra u!^e;,' *""' •"' ^"'' """■ «'« noi:L^^';"°,r;n'thri!5''r"'ru" "t'° « -■■"- ■■■■ «■• ..n,nan, ^Wgive..ivi„e,"'a„dl:, ..j;;-i;i:gr^ W "To e,. is enS ■: ^L" ™eu1r»tfl™V,*r "°"" ^ - "» '"«« case J'urpose. Thus we Z^' nJT r "'" *'"■"• ^ ""«-'» '. »» was „ »»™ J T,,is™Lrr'' "■" n°? '" "*"'•" *"■ "' » K- 1- become very con, J^rE^isV ^h^^' ' " «'™''* '"«'"«™. }ou , " ■■ A house to let. " ■■ To fa liin, , "' '«"■«'<' «™ wouM think he was worth milli„r" *° °" ''"■'""'S '""'' t""-, Jou J::i:-;s:^i:i^:;,j2J:M:Lr"''^ ('■; The gerundial infinitive i« attaelunl n'\ + adjective. T,.u. we havet::,^ i.!-,^ ^^ "" = ^^H^) to .. 1 Bread .0 cat ; water .0 rf,,-„, , , /,„,,, ,^ (^) y,.HnXt.r.,Ue; <^ to take offer.. ; ,^ ,, ^, it 40 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (iii) it piay be governed by a preposition. It has two functions : that of a noun, and that of a verb— tliat is, it ?'.s- itself a noun, and it has the governing power of a verb, (i) Reading is pleasant, (ii) I like reading, (iii) He got off by cross- ing the river. In this last sentence, crossing is a noun in relation to hy, and a verto in relation to river. Gerund comes from the Lat. gero, I carry on ; because it carrua on the power or function of the verb. (ii) The Gerund must be carefully distinguished from three other kinds of words : (a) from the verbal noun, which used to end in u,ng ; (6) from the present participle; and (c) from the infinitive with to. The following are examples :— (o) "Forty and six years was this tem- ple in building." Here luilding is a verbal noun. (6) "Dreaming as^he went along, ho fell into the brook." Here dreaming is an adjective agreeing with he, and is there, fore a participle, , (c) "To write Is quite easy, when one lias a good pen," Here to write is a pres- ent infinitive, and is the nominative to is. (It must not be forgotten that the oldest intinitive had no to, and that it still exists in this pure form in such lines as " Better dwell in the midst of alarms, than reign ifl this horrible place." (a) "He was punished for robbing the orchard." Here robbing is a gerund, be- cause it is a noun and also governs a noun. (6) " He was tired of dreaming such dreams." Here dreaming is a gerund, because it is a noun and governs a noun. (c) " He comes here to write his letters." Here to write is the gerundial infinitive ; it is in the dative case; and the O.E. form was to writanne. Here the to has a distinct meaning. This is the so- called "infinitive of purpose;" but it is a true ^'orund. In the seventeenth cen- tury, when the sense of the to was weak- ened, it took a /or,— " What went ye out 1 for to see?" m !l!,!i!!H (iii) The following three words in ing have each a special function :— (a) He is reading about the passing of Arthur (verbal noun), (6) And Arthur, passing thence (participle), rode to the wood, 'c) This is only good ior passing the time (gerund), 18. A Participle is a verbal adjective. There are two par- ticiples : the Present Active and the Perfect Passive, The former (i) has two functions : that of an adjective and that of a verb. The latter (ii) has only the function of an adjective. (i) " Hearing the noise, the porter ran to the gate." In this sentence, hearing is an adjective qualifying porter, and a verb governing noise. (ii) Defeated and discouraged, the enemy surrendered. ;^ 1. We must be very careful to distinguish between (a) the gerund in ing, and (6) the participle in ing. Thus running in a " running stream " THE VERB. 41 because it carries on is an adjective, and therefore a DartiVu,l» t ^i ..»ng," it . . „o„ , ,„, ehe„Lr;t,. '"^^^L" '"" " " And ever, aKiiin.st eating cares, Lap me in soft Ly.lian airs ' " been a'noun. and uJrlra"^^ t Tf^' ^'^^T.^^""'^ '-- >.^«^; the stick, a .. //t u;^:^ :^^^^^ and «,aZi;„^ are all gerunds ^' ^ ^'^"'"'^"''^ '^'^^^'J' f^U'-U, 2. The word participle conies from Taf ^« /• • - The participle partake!,/ the nature of he ve^^TR '"■''^'' "'• «ictpa«c,) '^'^® ^®'^'^' (Hence also par- Tense. TENSES. Present. I write. Future. I shall write. Fast. I wrote. AM Tl,o „. j^ i shall write. French .„Mi,..^^, th:ite::r:::i':rri *' '"""'^- 20. The tenses of an Enj-lish verb give not o,Jv tl.e tim. f an aet,o„ or event, but also the .tate or condition ',,r't .1 on, then of an aetion as expressed by a verb or the a.t.n of the ton. „, a verb, ^y be of V^JtZ. B Zy (i) Complete or Perfect, as Written (ii) Incomplete or Imperfect, as Writing (lii) Indefinite, as ^^^^^ ''* m ~jiyrxC 'i ^vrA<^yf^ '^4Mtlfd^ !i I'll 1. ! 42 GKAMMAU OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. AVe now have therefore — TENSES. Past. I Perfect. Iiulef. Impe.rf. Had Wrote. Was written. writiiij;. Present. Perfect. Indef Imperf Have Write. Am written. writing Future. Perfect. Indef Hiperf. Sliall Hliall Shall be ]iav(^ write, writing. written. (i) The only tense in our language that i. formed Ijy inflexion is the past indefinite. All the others are formed by the aid of auxiliaries. («) Tlie imperfect tenses are formed by be -»- the imperfect participle. {b) The perfect tenses are formed by have + the perfect par- ticiple. (ii) Besides had written, have ivritten, and will have written, we can say had been writing, have been writimj, and will have been writing. These are sometimes called Past Perfect (or Pluperfec*) Continuous, Perfect Continuous, and Future Perfect Continuous. (iii) " I do write," " I did write," are called Emphatic fonuB. Number. 21. Verbs are modified for Number. There are in verbs two numbers : (i) the Singular and (ii) the PluraL (i) We .say, " He writes " (with the ending s). (ii) We say, " They write " (with no inflectional ending at all). Person. 22. Verbs are niodiiied for Person— that is, the form of the verb is dmnged to suit (i) the first person, (ii) the second person, or (iii) the third person. (i)" I write." (ii) " Thou writest." (iii) " He writes." Conjugation. 23. Conjugation is the name given to the sum-total of all the iiiHexions and combinations of the parts of a verb. The word conjugate comes from the Lat. conjugare, to bind together. THE VERB. 43 J + the perfect par- ihatic forms. 24 There are two conjugations in English-the Strong and the Weak. Hen.e we have : (i) verbs of the Strong Con- jugation. and (ii) verhs of the Weak Conjugation, which are more usually called Strong Verbs and Weak Verba Jheso verbs are distinguished from each other by their way ot forming their past tenses. 25. The past tense of any verb .leternunes to which of these classes it belongs ; and that by a twofold test-one positive and one negative. 26. (i) The positive test for the past of a Strong Verb IS that It changes the vowel of the present, (ii) The nega- tive test IS that it never adds anything to the present to make Its past tense. (i) Thus we say write, wrote, and change the vowel. (ii) But in wrote there is lothir ,- added to write. 27. (i) The positive test for the past tense of a Weak Verb IS that d or t is added to the present, (ii) The negative test is that the root-vowei of the present is generally not changed. J'J '[''^'■«^'*^« «ome exceptions to this latter statement. Thus teU told : buy. bought ; sell, sold, are weak verbs. The change in the vo."i Bene" ''™^ " *'" """ "^^"^^ ^^ *^« ^^-g^ -^t-"S verb!. weak v!rt "" r" *° ^T^' '°*^''^^ *° ^^'' P°«*"^« t««t '" «^« «*«e of yet Zt t r" '*'°°^ '' "i-regular- may seem to be the wea^ T' *""^^*',r^' •"'"^'^*J «^3^. Bald, we l-nave natio7i, 7iational ; vain, vanit;/. JtlJ^ r* """ ^f''^' P^'^'^P^" "^ ^*'''^°S verbs had the suffix en and the prefix ge. The suffix has now disappeared from p.«nv stron^ ^rT i"-'/''^' /'■""' ""• ^"* ^^' ^'»'=^' ^" Chaucer's"time haS been refined mto a y as in ycuen, yronncn), is retained still in that ud ak '"' ^'^'^'- ^^^^"'''' "'' °^ '^ "^ ^tavy-pointing is a 44 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ?> ililri i)t! [il! li! i ■ I I! ■ ;l I ■ !ill ii I liJ!!l( 11 !:: 28. The following is an ALPHABETICAL LIST OF STRONG VERBS. (All strong verbs except those which h&\e a, prejix are monosyllabic.) The forms in italics are weak. Pres. Past. Pass. Part. Prcs. Past. Pass. Part Abide abode abode. Fly flew flown. Arise arose arisen. Forbear forbore forborne. Awake awoke awoke Forget forgot forgotten. {awaked (awaked). Forsake forsook forsaken. Bear bore born. Freeze froze frozen. (bring forth) Get got got, gotten Bear bore borne. Give gave given. (carry) Go went gone. Beat beat beaten. Grind ground ground. Begin began begun. Grow grew grown. Behold beheld ; beheld (be- Hang hung hung. t holden). {hanged) hanged. Bid bade, bid bidden, bid. Hold held held. Bind bound bound. Know knew known. Bite bit bitten, bit. Lie lay lain. Blow blew blown. Ride rode ridden. Break broke broken. Ring rang rung. Burst burst burst. Rise rose risen. Chide chid chidden, Run ran run. chid. See saw seen. Choose chose chosen. Seethe sod{seethcd) sodden. Cleave clove cloven. Shake shook shaken. (split) Climb Shine shone shone. clomb (climhed). Shoot shot shot. Cling clung clung. Shrink shrank shrunk. Come came come. Sing s.ing sung. Crow crew crown {croived). S' . sank sunk, sunken. Dig dug dug. Sit sat sat. Do did done. Slay slew slain. Draw drew drawn. Slide slid slid. Drink drank drunk. Sling smng slung. drunken. Slink slunk slunk. Drive drove driven. Smite smote smitten. Eat ate eaten. Speak spoke spoken. NFall fell fallen. Spin ■pun spun. Fight fought ff)Ught. Spring ■sprung sprung. Find found found. Stand stood stood. Fling flung flung. Stave stove staved. THE VERB. ERBS. e monosyllabic.) Pass. Part. flown. re forborne. fc forgotten. )k forsaken. frozen. got, gotten. given. gone. ad ground. grown. ■ hung, ingcd 1 hanged. held. i known. lain. ridden. rung. risen. run. seen. teethed) sodden. k sliiiken. le shone. shot. nk shrunk. r sung. L sunk. sunken. sat. r slain. slid. >g slung. ik slunk. te smitten. ke spoken. ii spun. ling sprung. 3d stood. »e staved. Pres. Steal Stick Sting Stink Stride Strike String Strive Swear Swim Swing Take Tear Past. stole stuck,' stung stank strode struck strung strove swore swam swung took tore Pass. Part. stolen. stuck. stung. stunk. stridden. struck. strung. striven. sworn. swum. swung. taken. torn. Prea. Thrive Throw Tread Wake Wear Weave Win Wind Wring Write Past. throve (thrived) threw trod woke (waked) wore wove won wound wrung wrote 45 Pats. Part. thriven (thrived). thrown, trodden, trod. (waked). worn. woven. won. wound. wrung. written. clo I In o J\ ' T ''""" '' ^^^™ *'- "^^-« verbs close v and to make a classification of them for his own use The following are a few suggestions towards this task :- /.!! l^^'l^ ^ **^ 0. e, o; hke throw, threw, thrown - Verbs w th 1, a, u ; like begin, began, begun (V) Verbs wzth i, ou, ou; like find, found, frMuid (VI Verbs with ea, o, o ; like break, bm, Jfe^n (vu Verbs with i, a, 1 ; like give, gave, given. ' (X V^rl " , fn" °?°' " • '''' ''''''' •^»^-'^. shaken, (ix) Verbs with I (lone) o 1 ('shnrf> • /;/. j • , f^\ -fT 1. •,, ^ o'» "'* ^ """"'. "At' drive, drove driven Chi:*/* """ " °' '°-°-°' '"■' '--. '-. w;;r;ho„e. 29. Weak Verbs are of two kin.k • /,-\ t " , and (ii) Regular Weak. The t tlar We T .J as tfiii f«i^ . -u ^ eguiar Weak are such verbs veros as attend, attended; obey, obeyed. .»«-y Terb received into our U,«J,etZLl^u '7'-™"«> »' « verb, PW i„ the Regahr Weak oonjuSon ''°*"'^'' '"" •■=" D I ■ai ■ SMSM GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. iii) The ed or d is a shortened form of did. love did. Thus, I loved is = I 30. Irregular Weak verbs are themselvea divided into two classes : (i) those which keep their ed, d, or t in the past tense ; (ii) those which have lost the d or t. Thus we find (i) sleep, slept ; teach, taught. Among (ii) we find feed, fed, which was once fed-de ; set, set, which was once set-te. It is of the greatest importance to attend to the following changes : — (i) A sharp consonant follows a sharp, and a flat a flat. Thus p in sleep is sharp, and therefore we cannot say sleeped. We must take the sharp form of d, which is t, and say slept. So also felt, burnt, dreamt, etc. (ii) Some verbs shorten their vowel. Thus we have hear, heard ; flee, fled ; sleep, slept, etc. (iii) Some verbs have, different vowels in the present and past : as tell, told ; touy, bought ; teach, taught ; work, wrought. But it is not the past tense, it is the present that has changed. Thus the o in told represents the a in tale, etc. (iv) Some have dropped an internal letter. Thus made is =maked; paid = payed; had=haved. (v) Some verbs change the d of the present into a t in the past. Thus we have build, built ; send, sent. (vi) A large class have the three parts— present, past, and passive participle— exactly alike. Such are rid, set, etc. The following is an ALPHABETICAl u LIST OF IRREGULAR WEAK VERBS. Class I, Pres. Past. Pass. Part. Pres. Past. Pass. Part, Bereave bereft bereft. Dwell dwelt dwelt. Beseech be.'if)ught besought. Feel felt felt. Bring brought brought. Flee fled fled. Burn burnt burnt. Grave graved graven. Buy bought bought. Have had had. Catch caught caught. Hew hewed hewn. Cleave cleft oleft. Hide hid hidden. (split) Keep kept kept. Creep crept crept. Kneel knelt knelt. Deal dealt dealt. Lay laid laid. Dream dreamt dreamt. Lean leant leant. E. I loved is = 2 led into two in the past .'hus we find nd feed, fed, jet-te. ihe following [at. Thus p in must take the burnt, dreamt, ar, heard; flee, t and past: as . But it is not 1U8 the in told ade is=maked; the past. Thus j«t, and passive THE VERB. K VERBS. Pass. Part. dwelt. felt. Bed. graven. had. hewn. hidden. kept. knelt. laid. leant. Pres. Learn Leap Leave Lose Make Mean Pay Pen Rap (to transport) Rive Rot Say Saw Seek Sell Shave 47 Past. learnt leapt left lost made meant paid pent (penned) rapt rapt. Pass Part. learnt. leapt. left. lost. made. meant. paid. pent. Pres. rived rotted said sawed sought sold shaved riven. rotten.^ said. sawn. sought. sold. shaven. Past. sheared shod showed slept sowed spelt spilt strewed swept swelled taught told thought tied wept wrought worked Pass. Part. shorn. shod. shown. slept. sown. spelt. spilt, strewn. swept. swollen. taught. told. thought. tight. » W'ept. wrought.* worked. ' Gotten, tight, and wrought passive participles ; cp. wrought are now used as adjectives, and not as iron, a tight knot, rotten wood. Pres. Bend Bleed Blend Breed Build Cast Clothe Cost Cut Peed Gild Gird Hear Hit Hurt Knit Lead Lend Let Light Past. bent bled blent bred built cast clad Class Pass. Part. bent. bled. blent. bred. built. cast. clad (clothed) (clothed). cost cut fed Kilt (gilded) gii-t iieard hit hurt knit led lent let cost. cut. fed. gilt (gilded). gii-fc. heard. hit. hurt. knit. led. « lent, let. lit (lighted) lit (lighted). Wet Past. Pass. Part met met. put put. read read. rent rent. rid rid. sent sent. set set. shed shed. shred shred. shut shut. slit slit. sped sped. spent spent. spit spit. split spHt. spread spread. sweat sWeat. thrust thrust. wended wended. or went wet wet liWU !(■:' I ■,! 1,1 I H 1' I- ir I GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 31. Before we can learn the full conjugation of a verb, Ve shall have had. -. Uiou wUt have had. <» v,,,, „,;ii i l j 3. He will have Imd. o ii VT ^'^■ 3. Tiiey will have had. mi: ■j'll Ijiiii-i 1 1 ^! lili; GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Subjunctive Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. Singular. ' ^^«'-«^- 1. I have. 1- We have. 2. Thou have. 2. You have 3. He have. 3. They have. Present Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. . 1. I have had. L We have had. . 2. Thou have had. 2. You have had. 3. He have had. 3. They have had. Past Indefinite Tense. Same in form as in the Indicative ; but with no inBexion iu the second person. Past Perfect Tense. Same in form as in the Indicative ; but with no inflexion in the second person. Past Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1. I had. 2. Thou had. 3. He had. Plural. 1. We had. 2. You had. 3. They had. Past Perfect (Pluperfect) Tense. Siw/ular. Plural. 1. I had had. 1- We had had. 2. Thou had had. 2. You had had. 3. He had had. 3- They had had. Imperative Wwt — Singular : Have ! Plural : Have ! I NKiNiTivE Mood. — Present Indefinite : (To) have. Perfect : (To) have had. Participles.— Imperfect : Having. Past (or Passive) : Had. Compound Perfect {Active) : Having had. 35. The following are the parts of the verb Be :— Indicative Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1. I a-m. 2. Thou art, 3. He is. PluraJ. 1. We are. 2. You are. 3. They are. THE VERB. 51 inflexion in the inflexion in the Present Perfect Tense. , ^f^^f^^- Plural. 2 tCX T. '• ^^« ''--^ been. 2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been. 3. He has been. 3. They have been. Past Indefinite Tense. Singular. p^^,.^^ 1. 1 was. 1 iir o rpK . ^- "« were. 2. Thou wast or wert. 2. You were. 0. Me was. o m o. Ihey were. Past Perfect (Pluperfect) Tense. Singular. p^^^^ 1. I had been 1. We had been. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. He had been. 3. They had been. ' i shall have been, etc. 2. 3. Subjunctive Mood. Present Indefinite Tense. , ^^"^»^'-- Plural. ^^- 1. We bp 2. Thou be. ; V .• q „„ , 2. You be. ^' ^^^^- 3. They be. 1. 2. 3. Present Perfect Tense. /f^'^'f'-- Plural l}r\^^''\ 1. We have been. Thou have been. 2. lou have been. He Imve been. 3. They have been. Siiigular. 1. I were. 2. Thou wert. 3. He were. Past Indefinite Tente. Plural, 1. We were. 2. You were. 3. They were. * Past Perfect (Pluperfect) Tense. Singular. pi^^,^ 1. I had been. 2. Thou had been. 3. He had been, 1. Wo had been. 2. You had been. 3. Thoy had beea I If' .JiijiiLii!' GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Past Indefinite (Compound Form). Singular. Plural. 1. We should be. 2. You sliould he. 3. They Hhould be. 1. I should be, 2. Thou should be. 3. He should be. Future Perfect (Compound Form). Singular, Plural. 1. I should have been. 2. Thbu should have been 3. He should have been. 1. We should have been. 2. You should have been. 3. They should have been. Impebativb MooD.^ — Singtdar : Be! Plural: Be! iNFiNixrvK Mood.— Present Indefinite : (To) be. Present Perfect : (To) have been. Pabticiples.— Present : Being. Past : Been. Compound : Having been. We find the short simple form Be ! in Coleridge's line— " Be, rather than be called, a child of God ! " (i) It is plain from the above that the verb Be is made up of fragments of three different verbs. As when, in a battle, several companies of a regiment have been severely cut up, and the fragments of those that came out safely are afterwards formed into one company, so has it been with the verb be. Hence the verb ought to be printed thus : — Am was been. (ii) Am is a different verb from was and been. The m in am is the Bame as the m in me, and marks the first person. The t in art is the same as the th in thou, and marks the second i>erson. Compare wilt and shal-t. Is has lost the suffix th. The Germans retain this, and say ist. Are is not the O.E. plural, which was sind or sindon. The word are was introduced by the Danes. [The Danish word to this day is er, which we have learned to pronounce ar, as we do the er in clerk and Derby. ] (iii) Was is the past tense of the old verb wesan, to be. In some of the dialects of England it appears as ^var — the German form. (iv) Be is a verb without present or past tense. (v) {a) Be is a notional or principal verb when it means to exist, as " God is." (6) It is also a principal verb when it is used as a joine? or copula, as in the sentence, " John is a teacher," where the is enables us to connect John and teacher in the mind. In such instances it is called a Copulative Verb or Copula. THE VERB. 5S 36. The Auxiliary Verbs have different functions. (i) The verb Be is a Voice (and sometimes a Tense) Aux and to form the imperfect tenses. ' (ii) May, should, and let are Mood Au3ciHfl.Y.ioa ^r (iii) Have, Shall, and Will, are Tense Auxiliaries With Present. I can : thou canst, etc. Past. I could ; thou couldst, etc. Present. I may ; thou mayest, etc. Past. I migi^t ; thou mightest, etc. The O.E. word for may was maeean tk«, - • x-,, gh of the past tensa Thl^ ^tf { ! ? '" '*'" preserved in the vanished from both ^ "^ '"""^ ^"'^^''''^^ ^^ « -^ Hh ha« , t ,v^J Jvi) Must is the past tense of an old verb mot«., to be tenSM. ' ' *• '°™ " tl» »m» to both It expressea the ides of nixatUy ■aiBBi ^; i ; i. . ^ ■ ■1:1' I, i li-p 54 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 37. The following is the full conjugation of a verb : — ACTIVE VOICE. Indicative Mood. Present Imperfect Tense. I am striking. Present Perfect Continuous. I have been striking. I. Present Indefinite Tense I strike. Present Perfect Tense. I have struck. II. Past Indefinite Tense. I struck. Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) Tense. I had struck. III. Future Indefinite Tense. I shall strike. Future Perfect Tense. I shall have struck. Past Imper^'ect Tense. I was striking. Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) Continuous. I had been striking. Future Imperfect Tense. I shall be striking. Future Perfect Continuous. I shall have been striking. Subjunctive Mood. I. Present Indefinite Tense. (If) I, thou, he strike. Present Perfect Tense. (If) I, thou, he have struck. II. Past Indefinite Tense. (If) I, thou, he struck. Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) Tense. (If) I, thou, he had struck. III. Future Indefinite Tense. (If) I, thou, lie .should strike. Future Perfect Tense. (If) I, thou, he should have struck. Present Imperfect Tense. (If) I, thou, he be striking. Present Perfect Continuous. (If) I, thou, he have been striking. ^ast Imperfect Tense. (If) I, tliou, he were striking. Past Perfect (or Pluperfect) Continuous. (If) I, thou, he had been striking. Future Imperfect Tense. (If) I, thou, he should be striking. Future Perfect Continuous. (If) I, thou, he should have been striking. (The Future Subjunctive, when not preceded by a Conjunction, is some- times called the Conditional Mood, " I should strike him if he were to hurt the child.") THE VERB. Imperative Mood. „. . ^- Present Tense. Singular. 2. Strike (thou) ! P/. , „ „ ^ "^ • PhiraJ,. 2. Strike (ye) 2. Thou Shalt strike. II. Past Tense. (None.) III. Future Tense. 2. You shall strike. Infinitive Mood. 1. Present Indefinite, 2. Present Imperfect, 3. Present Perfect, 4. Present Perfect Continuous «. Future Indefinite. Participles. 1. Indefinite and Imperfect, 2. Present Perfect, . , ' .' 3. Perfect Continuous, ] 4. Future, . . (To) strike. (To) be striking. (To) have struck. (To) have been striking. (To) be about to strike. 1. Striking. Gerunds. Striking. Having struck. Having been striking. Going or about to strike. 2. To strike. I. Present Indefinite Tense, I am struck. Present Perfect Tense. I have been struck. II. Past Indefinite Tense. I was struck. Past Perfect Tense. I had been struck. — _ -„.jrc iiiu„;2jiice Tense. I shall be struck. Future Perfect Tense. I shall have been struck. PASSIVE VOICE. Indicative Mood. Present Imperfect Tense. I am being struck. Present Continuous. I. am beingstruck. Past Imperfect Tense. I was being struck. Pftst Continuous. I was being struck. Future Imperfect Tense (None.) Future Contiuuoua (None.) 55 j»gggjmaimmga^gjgigjaggltm i Ui ^i(.ii iCljIil" 4' ' a ' !i'- 119 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ' Subjunctive Mood. I. Present ludefinite Tentie. (If) I, thou, he be struck. Present Perfect Tense. (W) I, thou, he have been stiuck. II. Past Indefinite Tenae. (If) J, thou, he were struck. Past Pen..<:t Tense. {\i\ I had been struck. Present Imperfect Tense. (None. ) Present Perfect Continuous. (None.) Fast Imperfect Tense. (If) I, ihou, he were being struck. Past Perfect Continuous. (None.) Future Imperfect Tense. (None. ) Future Perfect Continuous. III. Future Indefinite Tense. (If) I, thou, he should be struck. future Perfect Tense. (If) I, thou, he should have been (None.) ai^ck. (ThU tense, when used without a preceding conjunction, is sometimes called ttie Conditional Mood. " I should be struck were I to go there. ) Imperative Mood. I. Present Tense. SiV^vltvr. 2. Be struck! Plural 2. Be struck! II. Past Tense. / (None.) III. Future Tense. Singular. Q, Thou shalt be struck. Infinitive Mood. (To) be struck. (None. ) (To) have been struck. Plural. 2. You shall be struck. 1, IndeHuite, I, Imperfect,' I, Present Perfect, Participles. I, Indefinite, ^. Imperfect, 3. Present Perfect, |. Fttfcuie, . Struck. Being struck. Having been struck. doing or about to lie struck. Gerunds. (None.) ADVERBS. 57 ADVERBS. W H-*. W.,. He™ badly „o ^"^ > Mllliirr 'St i'l; ,1'H' 1' ^^'li ■wi ,i : -v^ll -■:il-||iif 4 !!1 iiii^ K: \i ' 1 58 GliAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 5. The following are examples of Irbeoulab Comparison in Adverbs. Positive. ni {or ' Ally) Well Much Little Nigh {or Near) Forth Far Late Comparative. \vor>i< better more less nearer further farther later latter rather. Superlative. WdVtft. best. most. least. next. furthest. farthest. last. latest. (Rathe) (i) Worse comes from A.S weors, bad. Shakespeare has worscr. (ii) Much is an adverb in the phrase much letter. (iii) Little is an adverb in the phrase little incliind. (iv) Next = nighest; and so we had also hext = highest. Near is really the comparative of nigh. (v) Farrer would be the proper comparative. Chaucer has farre, and this is still found in Yorkshire. The th in farther comes from a false analogy with forth, further, furthest. (vi) Late is an adverb in the phrase He arrived late. (vii) " Till rathe she rose, half-cheated in the thought."— Tennyson (' Lancelot and Elaine ' ). CONNECTIVES. 1, There is, in grammar; a class of words which may be called joining words or connectives. They are of two classes : (i) those which join nouns or pronouns to some other word ; and (ii) those which join sentences. The first class are called Prepositions ; the second Conjunctions. PREPOSITIONS. 2. A Preposition is a word which connects a noun or pro- noun with a verb, an adjective, or another noun or pronoun. (It thus shows the relation between things, or between a thing and an action, etc.) (i) He stood on the table. Here on joins a verb and a noun. CONNECTIVES. 59 has worscr. ighest. Near is ight." — Tennyson (.")The,n«..tth.d«r.„.,iti,„. He,.eatJ„™t,„,.^, -e -f saV/' Th?i:'^:\r^ ""' '' '''' ^"'' «^ ^'^^ -"*-- Thus were you talking to 7" ''^^ "^Je<^t've. We . an al-o say, " Whom 4. Prepositions are divided into two ci-v-os • ^ «i^ , and (ii) compound. " u- .us . (.^ simple; j"tu°"r* "' "■°""' ""■"''«"■■» ^ «'■ '*. /»'. »- <./. »/, .., -«. '«'(->»"V'SS., -Lir ^ °''~' "'-"• "•«"■'• ""■'"'. »•• *! lSr«;« » ""•"•""»■ to « .«'u. : .*-,., »,„.., „„,„,, „„.^ ,,. (iii) The preposition 6u< is to be carpfnll^r r *• • , junction 6«. « All were there but ht^^ 'hIT/^'' '"" *'^ ^•""- We waited an hour ; but he did nnf n .- ^ ^""^ '^ * preposition. But. the preposition, was in o E Z T , ^''' '"' '' ^ conjunction, and then loithout : but. the con^7/n!f •" ' '"^*''* '^^ ^^^ ""«*''^^ l/) verb, "Touch not the olti::^'^T:^'Zi:^^^ ^i^' Y T^ °^^ ^^'^ (iv) I>OWnw..«,.„,.„^,J„!;; "7 w:houtaglove." . . "J ^'^^^ -off the down or hiU. (v; Among vvas=or^^emon^, in the crowd (vn) Some participles are used «« ... ISST9 60 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. IJii Ul . r> i a-' * II.! III I , ,.,iit- (i) Thus we find the following words used either as Adverbs or as (1) Stand up ! (2) Come on ! (3) Be off ! (4) He walked quickly past Prepositions. (1) The boy ran up the hill. (2) The book lies on the table. (3) Get off the chair. (4) He walked past the church. (ii) Adverbs are sometimes used as nouns, as in the sentences, " I have met him before now." " He is dead since then." (iii) In the following we find adverbs used as adjectives : " thine often infirmities ; ' " the then king," etc. (iv) A phrase sometimes does duty as an adverb, as in " from beyond the sea ; " " from over the mountains," etc. CONJUNCTIONS. t>. A Conjunction is a word that joins sentences together. (i) The word and, besides joining sentences, possesses the additional power of joining nouns or other words. Thus we say, " John and Jane are a happy pair ; " " Two and three are five." 7. Conjunctions are of two kinds: (i) Co-ordinative ; and (ii) Subordinative. (i) Co-ordinative Conjunctions are those which connect co-ordinate sentences and clauses-that is. sentences neither of which is dependent on the other. The following is a list : And, both, but, either-or, mithcr — nor: (ii) Subordinative Conjunctions are those which connect subordinate sentences with the principal sentence to which they are subordmate. The type of a subordinative conjunction is that, which is really the de- monstrative pronoun. "I know that he has gone to London is= He has gone to London : I know that." n (iii) The following is a list of subordinative conjunctions : After, before; ere, tiU: while, since; lest; because, as; for; if; unless; thmgh; whether — or; than. INTERJECTIONS. 1. Interjections are words which have no meaning in them- selves, but which give sudden expression to an emotion of the mind. They art no real part of huiguage ; they do not enter into the build or organism of a sentence. They have no grammatical relation to any word in a sentence, and are there- a " from beyond ses together. WORDS KNOWN BY THEIR FUNCTIONS. gl fore not, strictly speaking, " parts of speech " Th, Ah ! Alas ! and so on • but the .Pnf ^' "^^ '^^' °^ "' just as complete-.. s^e^^CrZl' T' ^^"^' '' grammatical utterances. ^^^^ ^'^^ ^^*^a- (i) The word interjection comes from +»,« t ^ ■ .?aceave has the verbs " to glad " and " to n)ad." Very often he uses an adjective as a noun; an marking num.; and also the phrase "A very good man," wnere veni is an adverb modifying the adjective good. 4. Function.— It follows that, in the present state of our language, when we cannot know to what class a word belongs by Ita look, we must settle the matter by asking ourselves what ia its ftinotion. We need not inquire what a word is; but we must ask what it does. And just as a bar of iron may be used as a lever, or as a crowbar, or as a poker, or as a hammer, or as in." We can WORDS KNOWN BY THEIU FUNCTIONS. 63 ^r itrjet ™^ ^ "" -'''-''-' - » »""■ »■■ " -^^ bo!k ^^>"«»-W'-» « say, "Ho gave a *im„g for U,o verbUf ;:/7"'"™ ™"-^"""» "■" '•»>". ^"^-ithtlL a coZ'ctfo "7''' 'OS^U.-, and « hence ,z™ 't ; ol t; ::;v"';, "° "■■ """■'"^' ""■'* ■■^' "■■' " He ro e ea iv ■• « . ' ™""' """' '" "'» ^°"»™<=» Mveib ,„ the phrase "A hard slone » it is an adjective K,;2 .-n adverb in the phrase "Kght reverend ;» btdie^ t ^nZe .'r " "1 "T '«"' '"""■" *'^* '^ ■™*^- an adverbial conjnneti™: b:f hr thf .i^:^ '''"''^ ^"* "^^^ / " TJlou loaest Jiere, a better where to find," Shakespeare employs tliese words as nonn. 7V, • • . • ^-..ofaHn.,re,isanaa,:ri^ The "-, e n.erne,'' it is an adverb, .odifyin, .Lri: 'o;.. Indeed, some words s.-eni to exercise two functions -.t the same tune. Tlius Tennyson lias- functions ai " ^'''"^ *"'' «"'•« ^<""e« up the golden year,"- whero ./o. and .... „,ay either l>e adverbs modifying co.u. or adjectives mark nc' y/my • or bf)fl> 'n ■ • i . ' -Ives what the word dj Th-H, 'f"!" ^''" """' "* "'- e,- .i«K ()„i„eive3 two questions — (i) What other word does (ii) Wliat does it do to tlmt word it go wiUi ? and 1 rtrpi^ 64 li lr'"Ci SYNTAX. INTRODUCTORY. 1. The Avord Syntax is a Grc^ek word which means arrange- ment. Syntax, in g^^animar, is that part of it wliich treats of the relations of words to each other in a sentence. 2. Syntax is nsually divided into two parts, wliich are called Concord and Government. (i) Concord means agreement. The chief concords in grammar are those of the Verb with its Subject ; the Adjective with its Noun ; one Noun with ariother Noun ; the Pronoun with the Noun it t^tands for ; the Relative with 'ts Antecedent. (ii) Oovemment means the influence that one v.ord has upon anothei-. The chief kinds of Government are those of a Transitive Verb and a Not 1 ; a Preposition and a Noun. I. —SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 'III! » ilili. 1.— THE NOMINATIVE CASE. Rule I. — The Subject of a sentence is in tlie Nominative Case. Thus we say, I writs ; John writes : and botli / and John — the sub- jects in these two sentences — are in the nominative case. IvUlih! II.— When one noun is iisi'd U another, the two are always in the t'xitiam or (IcKcribe nouns ! same case .said to be in Apposition : and they SVNTAX OF THE NOUN. .65 3 Nominative Thu« we fi„,l i„ Shakespeare's Henry V., i. 2. 188 :_ " So work the honev-bees art of order to a peopled ti„g,,„„, .. Here bees i, the iiomiMtive to work • ^r..., ■ . bee. .„.,„e„.e ,, .,„ ,„ the norottWTl ,"'"''''''""'''" "'''' " He comes, the hera.1H r>f „ „ • , U14C ueraxa ot a noisy world." Thus we find such sentences as- ii) General WoLseley is an able soldier In th. /? '""'""^■^•^""'^^^-'^d 'beggar was his guest. ber :nr;:rrr rr la^ ;r ^ -- ^^ -« - pe- ; and was do is to connect them TheVr " ' ""^ '^^ '^'^* ^^e verbs is either word. AVhen is (or are) is .oLeTl "° '",?"'"'" ^''^*^^«'- ^I'on ^ If we can t,.e pre ious ki„a /I v' " '' ^'^ ^^P"^^" called verb-appoaitiin! "' "' °' '^^'P"'*""'" «o«n-appositioa, this might be EuLE IV.-The verbs become, be-called I. turn-out, prove, remain, seem llL t' ^f ■"^^«'^' "^e. 'oppositional cluaracter and tT ' '"'^ °''^'^^^' ^^« ^^ «" "« well as before tltn. ' -^---tive ease after them Thus we find :— (') Tom became an architect. (ii) Tlie boy is called John. (»i) He turned out a dull fellow. (iv) She moves a croddess ■ nn,i ov- i i n„ • ■ «""ae8s , and she looks a queen for. and the „„„„ .,ter .W^artlle'ltitrl ™'' "" "°-' •" .1 '^'^ '"•■''''<',— not syntuctically *« tm If : 1 C6 GRAM> h, .OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ili^r Hi 1 \ k connected with any other word in the. sentence, — are put in the Nominative Absolute. Thus we have : — , V (i) " She earns a scanty pittance, and at night Lies down secure, lier heart ami pocket light." -Cowi'GR. (ii) The Mrind shifting, we sailed slowly , (iii) " Next Anger rushed, his eyes on fire.' —Collins. (iv) Dinner over, we went upstairs. Tlie wovd abuohtius means freeii; and the absolutt! i,ase has been freei from, and 'is iwi. 'pendent of, the constrnction of the sentence. Remarks.—!. In Ov oldest Englisli (or Anglo-Saxon), the absolute case was the Dative , and thiss we tind even as late as Milton (1608-1674), Avho . :;%^ ' iiim destroyed, AUiclfia will follow." 2. Caution! In the s>'ntence, "Pompey, having been de feated, fled to .A frica," the phrase haviiuj been defeated is an a?iributive clause to Pompey, which is the noun to fled. But, in the sentence, '* Pompey liaving been defeated, his army broke up," Pompey — not being the noun to any verb — is in the nominative absolute. Hence, if a noun is the nominative to a verb, it cannot be in the nominative absolute. Eemarks on Exceptions. 1. The pronoun It is often used as a Preparatory Nomina- tive, or — as it may also be called — a Representative Subject. Thus we say, " It is very hard to clind) that hill," where it stands for the true nominative, to-climb-that-hill. 2. In the same way, the demonstrative adjective that is often used as a Representative Subject. "That (he has gone to Paris) is certain." What is certain 1 That. What is that The fact that he lias gone to Paris. 3. Still more oddly, we fit-' both it and that used in Oti sentence as a kind of Joint ■- preaentative Subject. i'^fuie we have : (i) " It now and then happened that (he lo-i' "s temper) ;" and. in Shakespeare's "Othello" — i." — CoWi'ER, s been ireei from, SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. 67 ^ ^" It imist be observed that fi,o i force, and exercises thetLt .:o"r;l'S:tr'-''" '^ "«" «-'«^ »- It here joins the two sentenced "It i s ^^ ' •".:"""« ^^^^ ««'itence.s. away," etc. ™°^^ " '** "'"»* true," and "i have talten ong. _ Come thou (or ye) along ! 2.-THE POSSESSIVE CASE. the Possessive Case. "'" """"' ^'^ P"t in we can aay. " The Duke of P::ZtZ!r7rl:, ""'''' '''"^'^''^^ ' -'» «il'^ '^'^® objective case with of is - fi,o ' " place „: ray. becuu.e the word /r,«., ,,: JeeV^^';;;;';;;^ ""^^ '«^«e i« used 68 GRAMMAR 01? THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 1 ii m ; ^ -.1 1 ' i'i ■ ■■-' ■ \- ll 1 1 1 3.— THE OBJECTIVE CASE. 1. The Objective • Case is that case of a noun or pronoun that is " governed by " a transitive verb or by a preposition. a®" It is only the prouoim that has a special form for this case. The English noun formerly had it, but lost it between the years 1066 and 1300. 2. Tlie Objective Case is the case of the Direct Object; the Dative Case is the case of the Indirect Object — and something more. (i) The Direct Object answers to the question Whom ? or What ? (ii) The Indirect Object answers to the question To whom ? To what 7 or For whom ? For what ? 3. The object of an active-transitive verb must always be a Noun, or the Equivalent of a Noun. Rule VIII.— The Direct Object of an Active-Transitive Verb is put in the Objective Case. Thus we read: (i) We met the man (Noun), (ii) We met him (Pronoun), (iii) We saw the fighting (Verbal Noun), (iv) I like to work (Infinitive), (v) I heard that he had left (Noun sentence). Rule IX. — Verbs of teaching, asking, making, appoint- ing, etc., take two objects. Thus we say : (i) He teaches me grammar, (ii) He asked me a question, (iii) They made him manager, (iv) The Queen appointed him Treasurer. gw In the last two instances the objects are sometimes called factitive objects. Rule X.— Some Intransitive Verbs take an oljjective case after them, if the objective lias a similar or cognate meaning to that of the verb itself. Thus we find : (i) To die the death, (ii) To sleep a sleep, (iii) To go one's way. To wend one's way. (iv) To run a race, (v) Dreaming dreams no mortal ever dared to dream before. S^ Such objects are called cognate objects. Rule XL — The limitations of a Verb by words or phrases expressing space, time, measure, etc., are said to be in the or pronoun •Transitive Lg, appoint- ictitive objects. SYNTAX OF THE NOUN. gg Remarks on Exceptions. aceol : : •: :^ -^C- '"" "''^-"'- - — "'- Intransitive. (i) The soldier ran away. (») The man works very hard, (iii) We walked up tlie hill. Transitive. (i) The soldier ran his spear into the Arab. (ii) The master works his ,„en too hard. (iii) The groom walked the horse up the hill. Intransitive. n\ Tu U-, , Transitive. (U 1 he children laughed. (i\ Th^ .u:,^ , , (ii) The man spoke i- l^^ ''"''^^■"" ^^"S'^^d at the clown. (n) The man spoke of wild beasts Ihus we can say : (i) He was laughed-at fin W. i (in) Prosecution was hinted-at AnTIi?- • ' ^ ""''' "^"'^ «Poken-of. in the use of the Englishlanguagf ''" " '" ^"'^''"^^^^ convenience 4.-THE DATIVa CASE. 1. The Dative is the case oi^ the Indirect Object ThuB we say: He handed her a chair. She gave it me 2. The Dative is also th^ case of the Direct Object, with i t .; I 70 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Ml 1 N' such verbs as be, worth, seem, yii:arie. think { = 6cew); and with the adjectives like and ni'ti. Thus we have the phrases, medeems ; if you please ( = if it please you); methought ( = it seemfd to me); woe is me! and, she is like him ; he was near UB. " Woe worth the chase ! woe worth the day That cost thy life, my gallant grey ! " —" Lady of the Lake." " When in Salamanca's cave Him lirited his mngic wand to wave, Th(3 bells would ring in Notre-Dame." — " Lay of the Last Minstrel." 3. The Dati '•u is sometimes the case of possession or of benefit. As in, Woe is me ! Well i.- thee ! " Convey ine Salisbury into his tent." Rule XII. — Verbs of giving, promising, telling, showing, etc., take two objects ; aud the indirect object is })ut in the dative case. Thus we say : He gave her a fan. She promised me a book. Tell us a story. Show me the picture-book. Rule XIII. — "When such verbs arc turned in< the passive voice, either the Direct or the irndire-i Object nay be turned into the Subject of the Passive Verb. Thus we can say either — Direct Object used as Subject. (i) A fan was given her. (ii) A book was promised me. (iii) A story was told us. (iv) The picture-book was shown (iv) Iwascb. at! me. Indirect Object um^ as Subject. (i) She was given a " n,' (ii) I was premise, a book.^ (iii) We wei old a siory.' icture-book.^ !:f. 1 > I'; 1 1 1 1 iii I i i' 1 ■ ^ L. ^ This ' J.5 sometimes been called the Retained Object. The words fan, etc., are in the objecti^'e case, not because they are governed by the pa.ssivc virbs was given, etc., but because they still retain, in a latent form, the influence or government exercised upon them by the active verbs, give, promise, etc. SYNTAX OF THI5 ADJECTIVE. 71 Dook. Tell us Remarks on Exckptiosh. 1- The Dative of tJ)o Personal Pr. "^ the time of Shakespeare to ^I ''" "^ '"^'^"^"^ "«« terest to the statement ' '^"'^^ ^^^'^'""^«« and in- Thus we find i„ .ve.l of his p,.,, 3... sentences ^ ( He plucked me ope his doublet." (Ho-voir:;^-;-----^^ ''^ ""^'^^^ ^^- ««- the Absolute Case " ^'« "^H they both betook thezn several ways." — Milton. n.-SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE 1- In our )'dp„„j- 1 , _ ,. of the Norma. , a^d fo~ 1 ''"'' '."*™ ''^'"- ""^ -™.-..g tivu ,.g„ed with " .t „ r»f H™''™' afte,.-every ad.jeo" «™ as late as „au eTo 40 UnnT T'"' ""'' """^^ ■■"«' «>e plural „„„,,,„. T if,,? f'^J'='='"^^ '>■"' " f"™' '» Tales,' he writes- '''''''''"'' '» "'« ' Canterbury "And TO When an ".Ue*; I^ T '""'" °"*"'' "''«' ""'"^' " * 3. Most adjectives are infleoted for comparison. 72 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. i| ' H ■;'!! !,ii 4. Evt'i-y iidjectivo is cither an explicit or an implicit predi- cate. The following are examples : — Adjectives used a^ Explicit Predicates. 1. The way was long ; Ltie wind was cold. 2. The minstrel was infirm and old. 3. The duke is very rich. Adjectives used as Implicit Predicates. 1. We liad bef re us a long way and a cold wind. 2. The infirm old minstrel went wearily on. 3. The rich duke ia very niggardly. 5. When an adjective is used as an explicit predicate, it is said to be used predicatively ; wlicn it is used as an implicit predicate, it is said to be used attributively. Adjectives used predicatively. 1. The cherries are ripe. 2. The man we met was very old. Adjectives used attributively. 1. Let us pluck only tlie ripe cherries. 2. We met an old man. EuLE XIV. — An adjective may qualify a noun or pronoun predicatively, not only after the verb be, but after such in- transitive verbs as look, seem, feel, taste, etc. Thus we find : (i) She looked angry, (ii) He seemed weary, (iii) He felt better, (iv) It tasted sour, (v) He fell ill. EuLE XV. — ^Vfter verbs of making, thinking, considering, etc., an adjective may be used factitively as well as predica- tively. Thus we can say, (i) We made all the young ones happy, (ii) All present thought him odd. (iii) We considered him very clever. Factitive comes from the Latin /iicio, I make. EuLB XVI. — An adjective may, especially in poetry, be used as an abstract noun. Thus we speak of " the True, the Good, and the Beautiful ; " " the Sublinie and the ridiculous ; " Mis Browning has the phrase, " from the depths of God's divine ; " and Longfellow speaks of " A band Of stern in heart and strong in hand." SYNTAX OF THE ADJECTIVE. smeary, (iii) He oetry, be used 73 poel7' ''''''"''' ''''''''' ^^y ^^ "-J as an adverb in Tims we find in Dr Johnson the line - " Slow rises worth, by poverty depressed • » and in Scott— ' Trip it doft and meirily ; " and in Longfellow— " The green trees whispered low and mild • " and in Tennyson— " And Blow and aure comes np the golden year " llino .],. . M, „„; .„f, .1 2.;, 2 £u k,tr''"''r* ""'- "' '"""« »' wm,":™™"-^ "^'""'^'^ '^ " '"- "-y-"™, and a«.03 Thus, in Pope — " 5°"' ''^IW is the blameless vestal's lot, The world forgetting, l.y the world forgot - " lot of the vestal). ^ ^''^ ^'""'^^^^ ^"t »^eing = the «hall l.e respected by the L7d t e n t ^ '"'!• ^^'''^^•^^""g ""r^^elves. wo v^e, and governs ourllre'. ' ^"'*'"* P'"'*"='P'« ''^P^'''"'!/ agrees ;ith Rule XIX.— Tlie comparative choree is Pmnlnv i i two tlffn^s or twn «nfo * n • ^ employed Avlien e-e,w,e,:tr„T„r::t;;:;::r™'''™'^ *'■" ™--- (i) Than is a dialectic f„rm of then. "James is tiller ■ *». i . lp« 74 GKAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Rule XX. — The distributive adjectives each, everij, either^ neither, go with singular nouns only. Thus we say : (i) Each boy got an apple, (ii) Every noun is in its lilace. (iii) Either book will do. (iv) Neither woman went. Either and neither are dialectic forms of other and nother, which were afterwards compressed into or and nor. I 1 Remarks on Exceptions. 1. Tliero are some adjectives that cannot he used attribu- tively, hut only predicatively. Such are well, ill, ware, aware, afraid, glad, sorry, etc. (But we say "a glad heart," and — in a different sense — "a sorry nag.") (i) "We say " He was glad ; " but we cannot say " A glad man." Yet Wordsworth has — ' " Glad .siglit wlienever new and old Ave joined thro' some dear home-born tie." We also speak of " glad tidings." (ii) Wfc y^y "He was sorry ; " but if we say "He was a sorry man," we UKo the word in a quite difPirent sense. Tlie attributive meaning of the word is in this instance quite different from the predicative. 2. The phrase " the first two " means the first and second ill one series ; " the two first " means the first of each of two series. III.— SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. Rule XXI. — Pronouns, whether personal or relative, must agree in gender, number, and person with the noiuis for Avhich they stand, hut not (uecossarily) in case. ThuH we say: "I have lo.st my umbrella: it was standing in the corner." (i) Here it is neuter, sini'uliir, .lud third iier.son, because umbrella is neuter, singular, and third ])erRoi;. (ii) Umbrellii is in the objective case governed by have lost; but it is in the nominative, becausi; it i.s the Hi;bjrct to its own verb was standing. Rule XXII.— Pronouns, whether personal or relative, take tjieir case from the sentence in which they stand. SYNTAX OF THE PRONOUN. I nother, which id man." Yet 75 Thus v.e say : "The sailor Mom we met on the beach is ill." Here sailor 18 m the nominative, and whom, its pronoun, in the objective. oil? sTurci' " tJ! "^f *'.^''' I'f'^.^'i'* it i« governed by the verb met in it« I rJl^i^Stiis.s.si:::."^'^ '' ' ^^^^°'"^°"' - "^'•^ "— w^o- 1 Rule XXIII. —Who, whom, and whose are used only of rational beings ; which of irrational ; that may stand for nouns of any kind. " lu worlds whose course is equable and pure." Rule XXIV.— Tlic possessive pronouns mine, thine, ours, yours, and theirs can only he used predicatively ; or, if used as a subject, cannot have a noun with them. mill;"' T.^^'- '"^^"' '' '""'"•" "^'"^ •« 1^'fe'^'- «'^« y^"---^-" But mme and thine are use.l for my and thy before a .loun in poetry and impassioned prose : "Who knoweth the power of thine anger? " Rule XXV. -After such, same, so much, so great, etc., the relative employed is not who, but as. Thus Milton has — " Tears such as angels weep." (i) Sliake.^-^^- ^-^ -^y thereS: ^ Rule XXVIIL-Two or more singular nouns that are sub- jects. connected by and. require their verb to be in the plural. A^e say: 'lom and John are going." - There were a roe- deer and a goat in the field." T u,„e ^y "Justice, a. wolU. „,e,.cy. allow, it." We "fTi 1^ »»yjng, Justice allows it, as well as mercy [allows it]." TrS •;• ?, f^^' ''° ^^'^y''^' ^^'><^'' '"8 attendants waa therp " Transposition will show the force of this remark also : '< The Mayo wl there with his attendants." i'lejuayorwas Rule XXIX.-.Collective Wouna take a singular vs.I, „r a plural veH, as tho „«ti,m of unity or of plurality i. „,,„,.. >«.>rt m tl„, n„„.l of tho ,,,„akor, Th„, wo .ay : "Parii It was d^olved" -The com.nitloo are divided f„ opinbn," (0 When two or more nouns ropreKflnt. n»i« id« M .! • • Thus, in Milton's "Lv,.!,I«« •• „,-. La ^^'^^ ^^'"-" """''^ '" ^^^S^l^- NyciditH," wo find- ' Hitter constraint Compels UK and 8ad occasi season dear disturb your season due. \U I 1 , II 78 GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. And, in Shakespeare's " TempcHt " (v. 104), we read — " All torment, trouble, wonder, and amazement Inhabits here." In this case we may look upon the statement as = " A condition which embraces all torment," etc. (ii) When the verb pwcedes a number of different nominatives, it is often singular. The speaker seems not to have yet made up his mind what nominatives he is going to use. Thud, in the well-known passage in Byron's " Childe Harold " we have— " Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro. And gatliering tears, and tremblings of distress." And .so Shakespeare, in " Julius Caesar," makes Brutus say, " There is tears for his love, joy for his fortune, honour for hi.s valour, and death for his ambition." And, in the same way, people say, " Where is mv hat and .stick?" ^ Rule XXX.— The verb to be i.s often attracted into the same number as the nominative that follows it, instead of agreeing with the nominative that is it.s true .subject. Tlius we iind': "The wages of sin is deatli." ''To love and to admire has been the joy of his existence." ''A high look and a proud heart is sin." pow< 2.— GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. Rule XXXI.— A Transitive Verb in the active voice governs its direct object in thi; objective case. Tims \v<> say • " I like him ; " " they dislike her." The following su])-rules are of some importance :— (i) The participle, which is .an adjective, ims the same governing )wer as the verb of which it in a part as," Seeing the ruin, I reumin.-.l at heme" -where seeing agrees with I as an adjective, and governs rain as a verb. (ii) The gerund, which is a noun, han the ,samo governing puvvci- as the verb to wliieh it belongs. Tims we say : " Hating one's neigiibour i, forbidden by the (3.,,spel," where hating i,s a noun, the nominative to i» forbuldeu, and a gerund governing neighbour m the objective. Rule XXXIT. — Active-transitive A^erbs of giving, promis- ing, offering, and .suchlike, govern the Direct Object in tiic 79 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. objective c,w, au,l tl,„ Indirect Object in sho dati>-e " I gave him „n apple," " Ho promises me a book" ought to s.y, "An W^'tJ^nTT-- J^LfT"' T'' ' ™'' ™ mod, of cliMige ; »„d we also l!v " ?' ■" '^'°"' "' «">« promised . b'ok " DrAb^tt call, ,7 ?™°,-'° ""'"''■" "' »" «tata.d Object, becL^te'. ^ , tw^t'X "'^^ '"' " ..tho„,H „e k„ow t^ . .0 p Ji.e ..IZTtSJl r^^ oT tM^nv'''''"-*'* '''''' '^ """'=■ --te. "PPOmt «'t},p I.,-, • . ; -^ ■ ^^'"^y '"^^'*^ him Mnjr-" w.::. tl;: rt°L'':;:;r^r;r:;;:;;f.' "-, -- -*■ w„ made king ; " « l,e wa. appoint.., g:™™;;*"'' ' ""'' "'^ »y- " "' ^ Rule XXXIV._0„c verb governs aiiotlier in the Inflnitive. The Inflnitive Mood of a verb, being a pure noun, ,„ay be he object of another verb, if that verb is active-t^n Le hus we say ■ " I »aw hin. go ; " " we .aw tlie ship eil " I ordered Imii to write." .»:;'.r«srtV.";br:n;,''iTttr.rc^^^^^^^ r:ia2:;rs::;^^r:.!::!„:r"r'^^^^^'-: the verb, that Ko.ern'C " '' "'°^ ■"■• """"' '" '*«'•" '" (ii) In tho annteuoe, " I ordsred liir, t,. v.i, ,•• him I m .1. i .■ sentence, «I like to play football." ^^ '"' "^•^'''*^ "' ^''^ Rule XXXV.~-So,ne Intransitive Verbs govern the Dative iin^f^f I iirl II V 80 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Case. Thus wc have " Methour/hf," "me.sm/ix," "Vioe worth the day ! " " Woe w me ! " " If you phH.se / " (i) Worth is tlie imperative of an old English verb, weorthan, to be- come. (The German form of this verb is werden.) (ii) Shakespeare even construes the verb look with a dative In "Cymbeline," iii. 5, 32, he has— She looks us like A thing more made of malice, than of duty. I in ;i ^f li 3.— MOODS OF VERBS. 1. The Indicative Mood is the mood of direct as^sertion or statement and it speaks of actual facts. The Subjunctive Mood is the mood of as- sertion also, but with a modification given to the assertion by the mind through which it passes. If we use the term dbjcctlve as describing what actually exists indepenc^ently of our minds, and suhicctlve as describing that whicli exists in the mind of the si.eaker,— whether it really exists outside or not,— we can then say that— (i) The Indicative Mood is the mood of dbjective assertion. (ii) The Subjunctive Mood is the mood of subjective assertion. Tlie Itidieative Mood may be con.imred to a ray of light coming straight through the air; the Subjunctive Mood to the em-et produced by the water on the same ray-the water deflects it, maisar," we find— " Were I Brutus, And Brutus Antony, thew were an Antony Would ruffle up your spirits." Rule XXXVIir._Tho Sixnp-le Inlinitive-without the si.ni to -IS used with auxiliary vcrhs, such as may. do. shall, will, .■tc. : and with sucdi v.rhs as let. bid, can. must. see. hear, make, leel, observe, have, know, etc. Ill' mn h^ I », 82 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (i) Let darkness keep her raven gloss. (ii) Bid the porter come, (iii) I saw him run after a gilded butterfly, (iv) We heard him cry. (v) They made him go, etc., etc. It was tiie Danes who introduced a preposition before the infinitive, Their sign was at, which was largely used with the infinitive in tlie Northern dialect. Rule XXXIX. — Tlie Gerund is both a noun and a verb. As a noun, it is governed l)y a verb or preposition ; as a verb, it governs otlier nouns or pronouns. There are two gerunds — (i) one with to; and (ii) one that ends in ing. (i) The first is to be carefully distinguished from the ordinary in- finitive. Now the ordinary infinitive never expresses a purpose; the gerund with to almost always does. Thus we find— " And fools who came to scoff remained to pray." This gerund is oftsn called the gerundial infinitive. (ii) The second is to be distinguished from the present participle in ing, and very carefully from the abstract noun of the same form. The present participle in ing, as loving, hating, walking, etc., is always an adjective, agreeing with a noun or pronoun. The gerund in ing is always a noun, and governs an object. " He was very fond of playiug cricket." Here playing is a noun in relation to of; and a verb govern- ing crichet in the objective. In the words ioalking-sticl;,fr}/ijig-pan, etc., walking and frijiwf are nouns, and therefoi-e gerunds. If they were ad- jective's and participles, the compounds would mean the stick that walks, the pan that fries. (iii) The gei-und in ing must also be distinguished from the verbal noun in ing, which is a descendant of the veibal noun in ung. " He went a hunting" (wliere a = the old an or on) ; "Forty and six years was this temple in building;" "He was very impatient during the reading of the will." In tiiese sentences hunting, building, and read- ing are all veibal nouns, derived from the old verbal noun in ung, and are called abstract nouns. But if we say, " He is fond of hunting deer; " " He is engaged in building a hotel; " " He likes reading poetry,"— then the three words are gerunds, for they act as verbs, and govern the three objectives, deer, hotel, and noetri/, EuLE XL. — Tlie Gerundial Infinitive is frequently con- strued with nouns aud adjectives. Thus we say : " A house GE. SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB— AND PKEPOSITION. 83 to sell or let;" ''Wood to burn;" Deadly to hear, and deadly to tell ; " " Good to eat." re the infinitive, infinitive in the n and a verb. osition ; as a (ii) one that the ordinary in- a purpose; the ay." snt participle in %me form. Tlie c, is always an erund in ing is fond of playiug a verb govern - fri/infj-jmn, etc., f they were ad- stick that walks, from the verbal [1 in ung. " He y and six years ent during the ding, and read- Dun in ung, and hunting deer; " poetry," — then overn the three squently con- Y : "A house V.-SYNTAX OF THE ADVERB. EULB XLI._The Advorb ought to be as near as Possible to the word .t modifies. Tb„., ,.„ „„ght to .say, " H Tve „t ony *r shiUing," and not " H. on,, Jl ,„, ^^^'^ lings, bwansc ohI;, modifies three, and not gave. EutE XLII. -Adverbs modify verbs, a. Hiolpgraphic Sciences Corporation \ <>^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 <>? <^ 1^ :: •' i^\. aMMMy 86 THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. til ^ 1. Words arc gregarious, and go in groups. When a group of >TOrcls makes complete sense, it is called a sentence. A sentence is not a cliance collection of words ; it is a true organism, with a heart and limbs. When we take the limbs apart from the central core or heart of the sentence, and try to .'^how their relation to that core, and to each other, Ave are said to analyse the sentence. The process of thus taking a sen- tence to i)ieces, and naming and accounting for each piece, is called analysis. (i) Analysis is a Greek word which means breaking np or taking apart : its opposite is Synthesis, which means tnaking vp or puttiiiQ together. ^ / ^ y (ii) When we examine a sentence, and di-ide it into its component parts, we are said to analyse the sentence, or to perform an act of analysis. But when we put words or phrases together to make a sentenct), we perform an act of composition or of synthesis. 2. A sentence is a statement made about something, as, The horso gallops. (i) The something (horse) is called the Subject. (ii) The statement (gallops) is called the Predicate. 3. Every sentence consists, an■'""■' ™»»i* of one subject and one predicate. zSd-,nS.r;:e'ic:r'"'' " ™°*"'"' "°-"'°»°'' -'»— In this ca,. the seutcnco „,ay I« troatcl as Simple. « J„,„„3 .ma^ John f„™,„g a Compound Subject to the fedicate FORMS OF SENTENCES. 6. Sentences differ in tlic Form which thoy take. As re- ii^rds form they nmy bo classified as follows :- (i) Assertive — (a) Positive ; -The nighf. grows eold. (b) Negative :— 1 am not going. Not a drum was beard. They caught never a one. nil mmum 88 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Ji. (ii) Interrogative : — Whom seek ye 1 (iii) Exclamatory : — How swiftly the river flows ! In tl)e cases of Ii.terrogativG or Exclamatory sentences, in which the usual order of the words is changed for the sake of emphasis or effect, the sentences should be put in ansertive straightforward order for the purpose of aralysis, thus : — Ye seek whom ? The river flows how swiftly. (iv) Imperative : — Sir, look to your manners. In imperative sentences the subject is usually omitted. In tin's sentence "Sir" is really a nominative of address, and the real subject *' thou " is not expressed. (v) Optative, expressing a wish or invocation : — "God bless us every one ! " " Oh, could I flow like thee ! " In Greek there is a special mood of the verb, called the optative, for expressions of this kind, but in English the verb is in the subjunctive. Note how the Optative differs from the merely Asserr Com- pare : — God bless us, i.e. May God bless us (Optative) ; and God blesses us (Assertive). 'Hit ! ..; :' ill 11 ■■j,i^ PARTS OF THE SENTENCE. 7. The Subject of a sentence is whr,c we speak about. What we speak about we nuist name. If we nama a thing, wo must use a name or noun. Therefore the subject must always be cither — (i) A noun ; or (ii) Some word or words equivalent to a noun. 8. There are eight kinds of Subjects — (i) A Noun, as, England is our home, (ii) A Pronoun, as, It is our fatherland. . V THE ANALYSIS OF SExNTENCES. rb, calletl tlio L?lish tlie verb peak about. 80 (iii) A Verbal Noun, a., Walking is l.^altlo. (iv; A Gerund, as, Catching fish is a pleasant pastinu,. (V) An In.'initive, as, To swim is quite easy, (vi) An Adjective, witli a noun understood, as, TJie prosperous are sometimes cokl-Jieartetl. (vii) A Quotation, as, ''Ay. ay. sir!" burst from a thousand throats. (viii) A Ifoun..lause or sentence, as, That he was a tyrant is generally admittecl. (b) catching i3 a gerund, because it is both a noun (nomm at.ve to ^.s) and a verb, governing>A in the obl^cl?.e NOTE (i) The subject is sometimes composite-con- i«t.n. nf . more words. "'"I'uon.o con-.i&tmg of two or To seize my gnn and (to) iir, w.is the work of a moment To them hi, heart, hi. love, hi. .rlef., were given thr^Lti^::b;:ottr.n:^-:; ^^ ^-y --^- - -Ld!^ sole reward, the approval of 'i.ir king ■ ^"'"*'"' "'«" ="" ^I'at was tlieir In these cases, "it," "this " anrl "fiiDf" „- . , . subject coming afterwards out of its . tural ord r ' " ^''""''^ ^"'^^*=*«' ^'"^ '•^■^' is called the ProvWonal Subject "' "'' ""^ '^«''» «'"« "-^e'l, My banks, they are famished with bees. Tired Nature's sweet restorer, balmy sleep, He, like the world, his ready visit pays Where fortune smiles. subiee?' u'^'""'" i'^^ sentence is what we say about the ubj ect. If we say anything, we must use a saying or teUing ^vord. ^Nowatellingwwdisaverb. " ' Tlierefore the Predicate must always be a verb, or soum word or words equivalent to a verb. km i' i.a..a,ihwita.«-^.: •"'^■^■****""fl 11 il ''1! If 1| I: 1 I I I M Ml 90 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 10. There are six kinds of Predicate — (i) A Verb, as, God is. The stream runs. (ii) " To be " + a noun, as, lie is a carpenter, (iii) " To be " + an adjective, as, Tliey are idle. (iv) " To be " + an adverb, as. The books are there. (v) " To be " + a phrase, as, She is in good health, (vi) " To be " + a clause or sentence, as. His cry was, I die for my country. NOTE (i) Only Finite or Complete Verbs can form Predicates. When the Verb is incomplete or iuHuite, as in the case of — (a) A Participle, (li) All Inliiiitive, it cannot form the Predicate of a sentence except by the addition of other completinfi: W;Ords. Thus "loving" or "to love" could never form a predicate, although "loving," when converted into a finite verb by prefixing "was," may form a predicate, (ii) Tho Verb is sometimes modified by an Adverb or Preposition which is closely attached to it, and whicli for the purpose of analysis may be regarded as part of the Predicate. They agreed to ( -accepted) my proposal. The subject was well thrashed tu •, ( = debated). The pirates stove in ( = broke) the cabin-door. 11. Cautions : — (i) There is a large class of verbs known as Copulative Verbs, whioli being connective rather than notional in their cliaracter, require another word or phrase to be associated with them to make the predicate complete. Thus : — He appears healthy. The apprentice became a merciiant. The girl grew tall. The poor creature seems to be dying, John stands six feet. NOTK.— Some of these verbs are alao used transitively, and then take an object like other transitive verba : — Stand it on the table, (ii) The frequently occurring verb "to be" (except in the few cases where it means "to exist"), and some 91 THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCKS. jdicates. When otlun- copnlativ. verhs, as, to seem, to become etc., can never fonn i.r.Hlioates by themselves (Hi) I^owaro of associating two dissimilar verbs as predi- e. i ;us .n tho sentence : " If o refused to leave tslup, the predicate is not "refused to leave," but simply «« refused." 12. When tbe pr,.,lic-ate consists of an active -transitive verb ,tre,uu-es an object arte, it to make complete L, J ins object ,s called either the object or the comXtn Is tl^Jibject, be a noun, or some word or words equivalent to a kinds otot"V" "^''' ^"''^ "' ^"^^■««*«' «<• tJ-e are ei^ht kmds of Objects or Completions. These are :~ (i) A ISToun, as, All of us love England. (ii) A Pronoun, as, \\^o saw him in the garden (in) A Verbal Noun, as, IVo like walking Ov) A Gerund, as, The an-der prefers taking large iish (V) An Infinitive, as, ^\'e hate to be idle. (vi) An Adjective with a noun understood, as, Good men love the good. Ihey consider it infamous to desert This I command, no parley with the foe. That he abhors, the sale of flesh and blood At noon the outlaw reached his ^len His gathered spoils, his merry men. ' ^^A t^ Welve the poor lad began to learn a trade and (to) help .is til 1:1 ■1 i; 92 (SIIAMMAR OF TIIK KNOLISII LANfiUAOR. 14. Verbs of giving, promising, offering, handing, Jiiid miuiy sucli, take also an indirect object, wliich is sometimes calleil the dative object. There are several kinds of Indirect Objects : — (i) A Noun, AVe gave the man a shilling, (ii) A Pronoun, AVe ofl'erecl him sixpence, (iii) A Prepositional Phrase : — 1 took him for a sailor. And therefitre think him as a serpent's egg. (iv) An Infinitive : — (a) after the Direct Object : I saw him (to) run. (b) after an Intransitive Verb : They appeared to shine. *^ Some autliorities prefer to regard such a case as (a) "him run " as a Compound Object, treating as a whole the two or moro words forming the object. 15. The following may be regarded as special kinds of Indirect Objects : — (i) A Factitive Object : — They made him President. Milton did not hesitate to call Spenser a better teacher than Socrates or Aquinas. It should he noted that the words " made " and " call " have a more restricted meaning than when followed by ordinary simple objects. Compare: — "They made him "President" with " They made a boat," "Milton . . . Aquinas," with "Call them quickly." In the latter cases "made" and "call" have a fuller meaning than in the former. NOTE. — Sometimes it may appear as an Adjective with a Noun . understood. Exercise made liim strong ( = a strong man). They painted the house white ( = a white house). (ii) A Cognate Object, in Avhich the Predicate and Object are words from the same root : — Let me die the death of the righteous. He ran his godly race. ial kinds of teacher than with a Noun rodicate and THE ANALYSIS OF SKNTKXCKS. 93 (in) \Vhon an active verb with two objects is <.l.an,^,.l into tl,e passive form, that object which is retained wlule tlie other becomes the subject is termed tho Retained Object : A sliilling was given the man. The door was denied him. 16. Cautions: — (i) Special care is neede.l in dealing with tho Tmliroct Object. J here is a tendency on the part of many young students to put down any wonl or ph.-aso which they cannot easily classify as "Indirect Ubject. Jhus words or phrases which are K.xten- sions of the Predicate or Enlargements of tho (Object are often wrongly classed as Indirect Object. Con^pare : I heard him read (him read = Componnd Object). O^ect)!"" '"^"^ ^^'"''"^ = Enlargement of ' X-ectr ''''^" """*" ^'" then,aster^Indirecl I -nUnm for the master (for the master. Extension (ii) Some authorities propose to overcome the difficulties a tending the Indirect Object by recognising a Com- piemen of the Predicate as a secondary part of tho Predicate ; but on the whole it seems preferable to widen somewhat the signification of the In.lirect Object, as the term is universally accepted. fall under one of the other heads. niuiBen that it does not 17. The Subject or the Object must always be either- (i) A Noun ; or (ii) Some word or words equivalent to a noun or «/T T^ ^'"''" '''''^'"^ *" '' ^"V """^ter of acyectives 01 adjectival phrases. An adjective or adjectival phrase tlal f M u GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. !, M goes with a subject or with an object ia called, in Analysis, an Enlargement. It is 80 called because it enlarges our knowledge of the subject. Thus, if we say, "Tlie man is tired," we have no knowledge of what kind of man is spoken of ; but if we say, "The poor old man 18 tired," our notion of tlie man is enlarjred by the addition of the facts that he is both jioor and old. 18. There are seven kinds of Enlargements: (i) An Adjective— one, two, or more— 'J'luit big old red book is sold. (ii) A Noun (or nouns) in apposition, William the Conqueror defeated Harold. (iii) A Noun (or pronoun) in the Possessive Case, His hat flew off. (iv) A Prepositional Phrase, The walk in the fields was pleasant. (v) An Adjectival Phrase, The boy, ignorant of his duty, was soon dismissed. (vi) A Participle (a), or Participial Phrase {]^~ Sobbing and weeping, she Avas led ivom the room (a). The merchant, having made a fortune, gave up business (b). (vii) A Gerundial Infinitive— Anxiety to succeed ( = of succeeding) wore him out. Eroad to eat (==for eating) could not be had anywhere. 19. It is plain that all these seven kinds of Enlargements may go with the Object as well as with the Subject. 20. An Enlargement, being a word or phrase that goes with a noun or its equivalent, must always be an adjective or equivalent to an adjective. NOTE (i) An Enlargement may itself be enlarged by the same parts of speech as form the primary enlargements. (n) The handle of this aword forged by Indians is richly jewelled. (b) The Romans crossed a stream fed by a glacier of the Southern Alpi. The phrases "forged by Indians," and "of the Southern Alps," THE ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. 95 .reenUrgementsof "8word"and "glacier" respectively which are themselves parts of qualifying phrases. ^ enli^Lt Jt.^^?* ""' ^^^•'* ""^y ^^^^^ «° uniUnlted number of emargementa of various kinds :— «»*wr 01 The poor King, an outowt from Us own domain, mxttMng the pann Of hunger and stnng by bitter reproache.. ended 'his d^in Xr? Here King IS enlarged by— ^ (a) An Adjective. (b) A Noun in Apposition. (0) Two Participial phrases, 21. The Predicate is always a Verb, standing alone if comp ete, or accompanied by other words if a verb of in- complete predication. The part of the sentence that goes with the verb is either a simple adverb, a compound adverb, or a phraae adverbial m Its character. 22 The adverbs or adverbial phrases that go with the predi- date are called, in Analysis, the Extensions of the Predicate. 23. There are seven kinds of Extensions :— (i) An Adverb, as, The time went slowly. (11) An Adverbial Phrase, as, Mr Smith writes now and then. (iii) A Prepositional Phrase, as, Mr Smith spoke with great effect, (iv) A Noun Phrase, as, W\ ' aiked side by side. (V) A Participial Phrase, as, The mighty rocks came bounding down, (vi) A Gerundial Phrase, as, He did it to insult us ( = f or insulting us), (vii) An Absolute Infinitive Phrase, as, To tell you the truth, I think him very stupid. J^'Thfl^l^^^J '"'"" ^^'"^ *^^ ^*~^"*« Participial Phraae. such as, ihe clock having struck, we had to go. " 24. Extensions of the predicate are classified in the above „ii! .... ^^m, oi vic;v or grammar; but thev are also frequonUy cla^ifiod from the point of vie. of dlatinXn in enoughs. ^1 m II : 1 1 96 GRAMMAR OF THK ENGLISH LANOUAOK. In this latter way Extensiona are classified as extensions of— (i) Time, as, We lived there tbi«« ysurs. (ii) Place, (a) Wbenoe, as, We came itom Tork. (b) Wbere, as, He lives over the way. (c) Wblther, as. Go home ! (iii) Hanner (a) Manner : He treads firmly. (b) Degree : She writes better. (c) Aooompanyine: circumstanoes : They went for- ward under a heavy fire, (iv) Agent : James was represented by hie minister, (v) Instrument : They ravaged the land with flra and sword, (vi) Magnitude (a) Order : He stood first in his class. (b) Number : The field measured ten acrei. (vii) Mood (a) Afibrmatlon : He certainly returned. (b) Negation ; The enterprise will never succeed. ^ Never is here a more emphatic form of not, and therefore comes under the head of Nega- tion rather than of Time. (c) Doubt : Perhaps you will meet your friend, (viii) Cause : The clerk was dismissed for idleness. (ix) Purpose : They went abroad to better their condition, (x) Condition : Without me ye can do nothing, (xi) Conoession : With all thy faults, I love thee still. Here the sense is obviously " Notwithstanding all thy faults," etc, 28. NOTE (i) Just as a Subject or Object may have an unlimited number of Enlargements, so a Predicate may have any number of Exten- sions. For tlira* yuu the widow dwelt quleUy In the loMly cottage. Here we have tlirtc extensions of time, manner, and place respeotivelj'. Care should be taken to kepp the various extensions quite distinct in analysing ; the student should letter or number them (a), (b), (c), etc., or (1), (2), (3), etc., and state after each its ktod. (ii) Where two or more extensions of the same class appear they should be kept distinct. At nightfall, during a heavy snowstorm, they wandered forth. Here the two extensions of time should be taken separately. Caution i : — (i) The same word may be used as Object or as \ Extension of the Predicate. un \ \ \. They went for- conditlon. ►bject or as au THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 97 He gave me nothing. (Object.) ^gree.) "obv,o„sI,t.er,.eotO.,ectof'.,rreU^^^^ Compare.-Whatdidyousee? (Object.) What recks he of his daily dutv? (Vrt^r,.- " What " i« +»,„ fi i. vwutvr (lixtension— Deffree ) vvnat »» the first sentence is evidenfix, *u «. ' interrogation " did see » ; in the seZ^ . ^^ ^*"*'* ^^^^^t <>{ the Ph^ae. they i,..o<,„ce •« ^C'"l"°„*^i"««- •"<■ «•« (") The same phrase niav bp «» tp^i * Subject or ObjectHLn ^^, *T"' <°' ""^ oate. E»ten.lon of the mm.. He take. hi. exerc»e ta «.. ,p,n «,. (E,.«,^^_p^.„ , In the first Mnieac, the phna..,,„ ,k °"«o..) UMt. the Mord "• eiercise "iSf- ° °P™ "' " 1«»Mm or m the second se„.e„r..'i ;f'„°!''°f' r '"■"'»"«' «»«cUe he takes his exeroise. .„d t^Z iuZ Ei'""" ft "^ ">»" >.e .[ IS nn Extension of the Predicate. NOMINATIVE OP ADDRESS. ?7. The Nominative of Address may relate to- (a) The subjeot . M«ton , thou shouldat be li^g »» ,^ (b) The Objeot : I welcome yo„, good M«ter.. Or it may be detached. The castle keep. „^ XK,rd. I b„,. ^- the .^y z. b;th?:rhe:rf car:^ . ■■li '98 GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Address really forms no part of the logical sentence. Hegarded as somewhat appositional, it may be placed with that part of the sentence to which it specially belongs, or the rule may be adopted of placing it in the same column as the Subject, care being taken to indicate that it forms no part of the logical subject. 28. The following cautions are of importance :— (i) The Noun in an absolute clause cannot be the Subject of a simple sentence. We can say, " The train having started, we returned to the hotel." Here we is the subject. The phrase "the train having started" is an adverbial phrase modifying relumed, and giving the remon for the returning. (ii) A subject may be compound, and may contain an object, as, '* To save money is always useful," Here the subject is to save money, and contains the object money— the object of the verb "to save." An object may also contain another object, which is not the object of the sentence. Thus we can say, " I like to save money, » when the direct object of like is to save, and money is a part only of that direct object (iii) An Absolute Participial Phrase (or Nominative Absolute) is always an Extension of the Predicate, and may express — (a) Time : The clock having struck one, we proceeded. (b) Cause : Darkness comlag on, the wanderers quick- ened tbfiir pace. (c) OtrcumstanoeB : I crossed the moor, the snow falling heavily. (iv) Not usually forms an Extension of the Predicate, but it may also form — (a) Part of the Subject : Not a drum was heard, (Nega- tive Eulargcmcnt, ) (b) Part of the Object ; We carved not a line, (Negative Enlargement. ) Tliey heard never a sound. (Negative Enlargement.) THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. tbe enow falling 99 other' ete^sLTa?" **' '"' ''"'''"*«' "«* ^« "^^^^^ -''«/-«'^«^ of They moved j °o*. (Extension of Negative) but«o™«H- .j'^.^^gtheBtorm (Extension of Time) (v) There is generally— (a) An Extension of Kace s There they rested. But it is sometimes — (b) An ladeflnite Extension (a mere Expletive). There were twenty present. V^^y^^f'^IJ^t^:!::;':^^^^^ ^^- is shown by the translating the sentenrinto 1 ' i *''° ^^ *'^« ^*«* *hat in be put for ••there." ""^ny languages no equivalent would (vi) Distmgmsh between various uses of the Infinitive (a) subject : To quarrel is not my wish (b) Part of the Predicate : He might (to) win the shield. ^ Those who regard might as being always a OhieT """"'^ P"* "^''^ *" partTthe (c) Object : They love to wander. (d) Extension of the Predicate : She came to learn in this case "to InAm " i'^ ««*. -,• undial toflnitive or Intaltl J«. « "'' °"*'''*F '°^"^*^^«' ^"* ^ «•'" learning." Sel p! 4^ "' ^'^''°"' '^^ " equivalent to '• for (vii) Care must be taken to distinguish between the same word when used as— (a) An A<«eotive, forming par*; of the Pr«rti«+^ -li. Intransitive Copulative ^rb- *** "^^^ *° The king looks weU, This apple tastes iwtet, or (b, An ««,., fo^i^ ^ ,^^ ^, ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^ The king eats ma. HowiWMt the moonliKht ties™ ,,««„ *wj.. ,,._,_ •«d will form part of th. SS~L'^*' ' '.' ""ij^'i'"' i» Mture, -.verb.., i„ .!„, Jjfor r k^i-i^'^^r" " *- iW'l 41 E, j jll. ''iiiK. W; ■■ 5 .,. f >l!| 100 GRAMMAR OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (viii) In the case of qualifying or limitiiig phrases (especially participial phrases), it is sometimes diffi- cult to determine whether they are simple Enlarge- ments of the Subject or Extensions of the Predi- cate. Retnnifaig then the bolt he drew, A widow bird sat monialng for her lore. In the first sentence "returning" ia an enlargement of «'he" • in the second sentence mourning does not enlarge "bird," but shows How It Sit mourning, i.e. sadly, sorrowfully. The safest plan in cases of this kind is to determine what principal part of the sentence the qualifying or limiting word or phrase is most closely connected with. If it is essentially qualifying innature. xt IS probably an Enlargement of the Subjeot or Object ; if, on the other hand, It expresses some modification of, or condition in respect to, the Predicate, it is an Extension of tbe Predicate. THE MAPPING-OUT OP SIMPLE SENTENCES. 29. It is of the greatest importance to get the eye to help the mind, and to present to the sight if possible— either on paper or on the black-board— the sentence we have to consider. This is called mapping-out. ' Let us take two simple sentences :— (i) " From the mountain-path came a joyous sound of some pewon whistling." *^ (ii) "In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pr^ * Lay in the fruitful valley." 30. TLese may be mapped out, before analysing them, in the following way : — Joyous 0)A SOUND CAxME is. some parson whifit!inB> distant, secluded, stilL UttI* md of some person ing them, in the THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. (K) lUe VILLAGE a 161 LAY •••.1» Orand-Pr^ W»« fruitflU valley. theAcadlanland the shores of the Basin, etc. FORMS OP ANALYSIS. 32. The sentences may then he analysed in either- (a) the DetaUed form. '^^ (b) the Tabular form. an? g]:^;s ^sis^e^rsrvidtrt^e ^'t^'^^*^^ ^- ^-^. extent, and giving^hema;:^rZunto^etr '° "^ '^'"^^'^ hai'lhe'rdvtSl^e "Xn^r '%^^^ ^ ^ ^^^t*". ^nt it the examination ff an Ter iseTr/r?' "" '* ^'"^'^^ ^*«'"*«*«- public examiners. * * " *^^ ^'"■™ "««a^ly preferred by 3a (i) a. A sound & joyous c. of some person d. came e. from the path / mountain (ii) a. The villiif« b. little 0. distant '^. secluded e. still Detailed Analysis. Subject. whisth-na p'^J**'*^*^ Enlargement of Subject, whistling Prepositional Plfrase. Enlargement of Subject. Predicate. Extension of Predicate. Place whence. Adjectival Enlargement of e. subjdot. Adjectival Enlargement of Subject. »» 14 i!' i!'' i I i . 1 • 102 GRAMMAR ©F THE ENGLISH UNGUAGE. /. ofGraad-Pr6 flr.lay h. in the land t. Acadian j. on the ahorea k. of the basin L of Minas m. in the valley ». fruitful 34 Prepositional Phrase, Enlargement of Subject. Predicate. Extension of Predicate. Place where. - Adjectival Eulargemer t of h. Extension of Predicate. Place where. Prepositional phrase, enlarging j*. *> .>> ,, k. Extension of Predicate. Place where. Adjectival Enlargement of m. Tabular Analysis. Subject. Enlaroe- MKNT oi Subject. A sound The village (a) joyous (b) o? some person whistling Predicate. came (a) little (b) distant (c) seclud- ed (d; still (e)of Grand-Pr6 lay Object. Enlargi- MKNT OK Object. Extension OF Predicate. from the mountain path (place whence) (a) in the Acadian land [place where) (b) on the shores of the Basin of Minas {place where) (c) in the fruitful valley {place where) II.— THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 35. A Complex Sentence is a statement which contains one Principal Sentence, and one or more sentences dependent upon it, whicL are called Subordinate Sentences. There are three AGE. ise, Enlargemeut od'cate. Place mer t of h. Bdicate. Place e, enlarging y, idicate. Place nent of m. THE ANALYSIS OP SENTENCES. Extension OF PRjmiCATE. from the mountain path (place whence) (a) in the Acadian land {place where) (b) on the shores of the Basin of Minas {place where) (c) in the fruitful valley {place tohere) contains one pendent upon lere are three i;o3 A .«bo,du,..e sentence i. .„„„«„« oaUed a ^^. Darkness, which might be felt f»ii x.. "enrence. jub-sentence, '. which-mi^hti felt ' ' ^l P'?.*^t«'*y-'' ^^^e the belongs to it. and cannot be sepalldT^^^^^ '\' ?"" ^^^^^ therefore an adjectival sentence ' ' *"'* **'" ««»*«»»«« i^ I will go whenever you are reuAv » xr 'whenever you are ready » is attl^S"* S^"^ ^^^ ««b-sentence. it. and cannot be separated from t^ V? *^' ^"'"^ «^°' ^l«°g« t<^ adverbial sentence. '*' *"^ '^^^^^ *Ws sentence Ui an 38. A Subordinate Sen tenrft that- f^ fulnls the taction of "Vol "" tr"""" "* ' °»™. Sentence. . *"""• ""'^ '» "'"■■efo'^ called a Komi -;™«:°" hrelttdT": tlr •*:r ■" «•» *- «■■>- t.v. verb tea. It fulais th "wLTnf " ^^"* °' "" "■"'" Mm naMiM. ™™°° °' " "w™. wd i. therefore a M. An Adjectival Sentence may be attached to- rt S! nlilf' "* "/ *" ''"""■P'" Sentence ; or to Wf'O'-J'o'onho Principal Sentence, -or to (I") Any Noun or Pronoun. (iu\ Th^ U-, J ; ,; *^ * °^ *^® **^^e •• to the object. .n.r.uuc„,g an Adjectival Sentence In ^,.nb /t.aaually a correlative of such or s"""^ ihTsTsTeir^^^' " '^ ^^"S^* •«*'»« Avon, ihis IS the same bag a. you gave me last y^. i\ 104 GRAMMA^^ OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. l:: I if|i k (. 1 m HE i ': ■ i' ! :■ (ii) But in certain cases may be taken as a negative rela- tive introducing an Adjectival Sentence. (a) There is no man here but loves you. This = '♦ There is no man here who does not love you. " (b) «• No land but listens to the common call." " But " is equivalent to • ' whicli does not. '* 41. An Adverbial Sentence may be attached to— (i) A Verb ; . (ii) An Adjective; or to (iii) An Adverb. It !ll5l * 7wu i^ ^?*' "°* "^***«*" i» ^l^a* position the verb is. It may^be (a) the Predicate, as m the sentenc^ "I walk when I can. It may be (b) an Infinitive forming a subject as "To iret nn When one is tired is not pleasant. » It m% be c) a pa^ticip^^ll ij the sentence, "Haw dined before he came. I started alo^ce." niri f? ""l ^*^f *'«• " His grief was such that aU pitied him. " Here the sub-sentence •' that all pitied him » modifies the adjective h1?« fh*" V*T' " ^^ "^^^ «° """^^ *^»* ^* «<"««» not stand." Here the sub-sentence "that he could not stand" modifirS^e adverb so, which itself modifies the adjective weak. 42. Just as there are many classes of Adverbs; so there are many different kinds of Adverbial Sentences, (i) Time. I will go, when you return, (ii) Place. Where the bee sucks, there suck I. (iii) Manner. He strode, as though he were in pain. (IV) Degree. I spoke as loudly as I could (speak), (v) Proportion. The sooner you complete your task the sooner you can leave. Xvi) Condition. If you stand by me, I will oppose him. (yii) Concession— Provided this is done, I will consent, (viii) Cause. Avoid him, because he is dishonest, (ix) Effect or Consequence. I carefully tended him; consequoatly the wound soon healed. (x) Purpose. He worked very hard, for he wished to do well - THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES 105 Cautions: — (i) In nearly eveiy case the word introducing the ad- verbial sentence, as when, where, if, etc., helps us to recognise it, but occasionally there is no introductory word, and we must judge by the sense alone. » b j In the sentence — " Pass that line, and I fire upon you " (ii) "Ye meaner fowl, give place, H«r« f K / am au splendour, dignity, and grace." were the second sentence is Adverbial to fh^ « * (ui) Avoid the mistake of calling a sentence Adverbial simply because it begins witli an adverb ning with who, which, ctc-the saTthing n,!; tZ^'Z :::::tnai:ri::^z:----^^^^^^^^ Take two of tlie sentences given above. "Which might be felt." (Adjectival) "When I can." (Adverbial.) Xheir incompleteness is at once perceived. Their function i, to qualify, extend. modifV or iLif +1 T i«nction is ..ru- I. J.-L moaiiy, or limit the master sentence in ceived whrr '"'^^^^' "' *oun.sent«nce8 is best pet- "hit- "oTbT/" '"'.f"°^ "^"-^'^ oMinaryconnccfiv. that . m other cases then- tnie nature may be recocnised from the.r relationship to the principal sentence! ^ %i m loe GRAMMA^^ OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, r'i 44 A ITotm Sentence may be — (i) The Subject of the Principal Sentence ; or (ii) The Object of the main verb ; or » (iii) The ITominative after is ; or (iv) In Apposition with another Noun. (i) "mat-he-ls.better cannot be denied " : the robjeot. Here the true nominative is that. " That cannot be denied." What? thlf,?!"* .' " ^ , • F''''^ "'*8e that in such sentences acquires the function and force of a conjunction.) ^ (ii) "I heard thathewas-bettor : " the object. _ (iii) "My motive in going was thatl-mlght-be-oMwe " : nomina- tive after waa, «-»««• JailJluSl^*lV*J*!:*''"'''**'*****"*'""-»^y " ^«" known " : la appoeltion with fact. Impersonal Oonstruction— And methought, while she liberty sang, 'Twali liberty only to hear. "'Twas-liberty-only-to-hear" is a Noun sentence, subject to the mipe^^nal verb '.Rethought." and forming with it i prinVpal 45. Any number of Subordinate Sentences may be attached to the Principal Sentence. The only limit is that dictated by a regard to cleai-ness, to the balance of clauses, or to good taste. The best example of a very long sentence, which consists entirely CoK>rdlnate Subordinate Sentences. Two or more subor- dinate sentences of the same kind may be attached to the same prmcipal sentence. Type of the wise, who soar but (who) never roam. If the day be fine and (if) I am ftee, I will go over the common aJlothf "* 8«ntence8 we have two Adjectival sentences, subordin- ate to the principal and co-ordinate with one another. In the nf V,"r Taract^' Th« ''^l^^'*^,*"^ Noun-sentences of a corresponding shoitdbl'-.,. . *^' "^'^^^ parentheses are understood and Should be shown m your analysis. of-nse " : nomlna- is well known inderatood and THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 107 ^46. Principal and Subordinate. The same sentence may be subordinate to a principal sentence, and at the same timo principal to another sentence. The man who hesitateB when danger is at hand, is lost. «.n^tn/'°*r°' "■""^:' l^^^it^te'" is adjectiral to the principal sentence, and principal to ' ' when danger i» at hand. " The sentence would not be properly analysed unless its twofbld character and relationship were fully shown. Compare :— Tell her that wastes her time and me. That sow she knows, When I resemble her to thee. How sweet and fair she seems to be. 47. Connectives: — (i) Care must be taken to associate introductory and connective words with their proper sentences j otherwise confusion wiU result and the nature of the sentences may be misunderstood. Yet he who reigns within himself, and rules Passions, desires, and fears, is more a king. The Principal sei .ence here is " Yet he is more a king. " Thus, while I ape the measure wild Of tales that charmed me as a child, Rude though they be, still with the chime Return the thoughts of early time. "Thua "in the first line introduces the principal sentence «' Still . . . time. Note the inversion in "Rude though they be," and remember that inyersions are very common in poetry. , CAUTIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OP COMPLEX SENTENCES. 48. (i) Find out, first of all, the Principal Sentence. (li) Secondly, if the sentence is complicated or of more than average difficulty, look out the finite verbs ; these are the kernels of the various sen- tences ; remember that each finite verb means » Beatence. When you are sure of your verbs you will be able to connect with each its sub- ject, object, and exteno^ -, lii jit . '('I' 108 ifi GRAMMAR OF ITfE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. (iii) Thirdly, look for the sentences, if any, that attach themselves to the Subject of the Principal Sen- tence. (iv) Pour^y. find those sentences, if any, that bclon. ' to the Object of the Principal Sentence, or to any other Noun or Pronoun in it (V) Fifthly look for the subordinate sentences that S^r^ZT^ *^ *^^« Predicate of the Principal , woTr^Vr ir -^^^^^^^^^ onl. .e nr. and la. 49. The following Cautions are necessary :— (i) A connective may be omitted. In Shakespeare's " Measure for Measure." Isabella says- • ' I haye a brother is condemned to die. ' ' Here who is omitted, and "who ««•'>;» \- ,. , tence qualifying the obj;ct brot^r * ' " '" "^^''''''^^ ««"• (ii) Do not be guided by the part of speech that in- troduces a subordinate sentence. Thus •— was-a-s<,ldier.isnowa;ardene?" ""*'°*^' ^^' " ^^H who- (b) An adverb may introduce a noun sentence as "T ^ .* so few marriages aret;;;r3 beclfyr;^^^^^^^^^ "w^; ;"' w'p:"is"trT- ?^f -*'^ -wSt^trent Bitiont^ ♦Yl ^^^ »?-though introduced by an adverb-in apno Bition tK, the noun reason, and is therefore a noun sentence. ^^ (iii) It is sometimes difficult to decide whether a given sentence is Acyectival or Noun. Whoever flret reaches the fort gains the-prize. 1 will reward whoever flrst reaches the fort. In these sentences some would prefer tn r«rra..^ *u l ,. sentence a« qualifying "he" o/" hTm » I^^ J , '"''°''^'°**" adjectival, bit. inasmuch as they stand in'he In T *''" ^' aT,A i^ *u_ -i^i_ _, . . y Bsana m the on j case for auhlAnt. .Tnte^cer """' "' °°'""'' " " ^'"'''^^'^ *« '^^^ them as n^'un' We speak that we do know. the first and last tHK ANALYSIS OF SKNlKVcE . 109 Here, instead of taking -that we do know " .a a noun sentence, it Ind t^I " T^^ f1 " ^* "^""^^^^ «'^*-«) -to "that which " *nd take "which we do know " as an Aajeptival sentwioe. THE MAPPING-OUT OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 60. Complex Sentences should be mapped out on the sam. principles as Simple Sentences. Let us take a sentence from Mr Morris's " Juson " :— "And in his hand he bare a mighty bow, No man could bend of those that battle now. " This sentence may bo drawn up after the foUowing plan •— his hand ° *^ H0 .3 1 baro a mighty bow if no man could bend battle now. :^n:f:<^:^^^^o^^^ *«>« dc„ble line a coa- 51. The larger number of subordinate sentences there are, and the farther away they stand from the principal sentence the larger will be the space that the mapping-out wiU cover. Let us take this sentence from an old Greek writer •— iZ^^'^l ""■* about, O king! to make war against men who wear eathern trousers, and have all their other garments of leather; who feed not on what they like, but on what they can get from a soil that is sterile and unkindly ; who do not indufge in wine.Zt dr"k water ; who possess no figs, nor anything else that is good to eat." This would be set out in the following way :— Thou art about . . . against men (i) wear . . . trousers (ii) have . . . leather (iii) feed not on that (a) they like *1 no mill: M GRAMMAR OF THK KHOLISH LANGUAGE. (iv) feed on that (b) the. can get from a aoil •*■ (4 /„x J X ^^'^ " "*®"^® '*'».^w In high Pamir " ... I MKNT. CATE. •A. He. passed ^^°}^^ ti.e ^. r-nn. black Tartar sentence tents (a) which clus- tering like bee - hives stood on the strand of Oxus, I (b)[intheplace] which the lionda flv placed in marked- THE ANALYSIS (»F SBNTEN( FR 63. There is n hind of Continuous Analysis, which may often-not without benefit-be applied to 1. ngor passages, and CHpecially to passages tak(m from the poets. For example :— "Alia ! the meanest herb thai scents tlie gale, The lowliest flower that blossoms in the vale .Rv* n whore it dies, at spring's sweet call renews To second life its odours and its hues." 1. AIM ! an interjection, with no syntactical relation to any word m the sentence. 2. the meanest, attribntive or enlargement to 3 3. herb, Subject to 4. 4. renews. Predicate to 3. 5. odours and hues. Object to 4. 6. at . . . call, Extension of reiieim, to 4. 7. to . . . life, Extension of reneiog, to 4. 8. the lowliest, attributive or enlargement to 9 I 9. flower, Subject to 10. 1 10. renews. Predicate to 9. 11. oaonrs and hues, Object to 10. 12. at . . , call, Extension to 10. 13. to . . . life, Extension to 10. •A B ri4. that. Subject to 15 and connective to .1 '^ 15. scents, Predicate to 14. U6. gale, Object to 15. n7. that, Subject to 18 and cMinective to 9 i^ j 18. blossoms, Predicate to 17. U9. In the vale, Extension to 18. po. even, Adverb mo tifying 21. ]U2I. where It dies, Extension to la p2. it, Subject of 23. ^^2.3. dies, Predicate of 22. III.-^THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 54. A Compound Sentence is one which consists of two or more Simple Sentences packed, for convenience' sake, into on'e. Thus, in the '« Lay of the Last Minstrel," Sir Walter Scott writes :_ 'Th The e w . was long, the wind was cold, minstrel was infirm and old." M Ha might have pat » full stop at loag a.n,1 at cold, for the scan end. 113 III MAMMAB^ OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Cr SHL::^ rS^t?;; ."'• '"» «- '-'™ '^™ "Jolm jumped „,,..+ "j„\"i!*,f"7,rl'»f off. the ^nUno. i.= Compare :_And out ,g.i„ I curv. and flow (iriT ., ^"'"'"'heliiimmmg river. I"; in tlie sentence " Pin..,.. „ i the sentence ia contractod m the L^?7 7 * ^"^^ ^*« '^""^ th«." ing the repetition of the v^ b /'! Ze *''' ^^^^"^^ °^ *^«^^- the sentience is%oSctTd1n Valh!^.^^'"!'''''"*''^ *'^« ''^b^^^ Object of both sentences ''^'''*' *^« "^^'^^^-^ " being the (iv) So„.etinjes both Subject and PrecUcate are omitted, as- Who grewest not alone in power And knowledge ; but from hour to hour TT«. « u ^" "^^^^^''^e and in charity." Here who grewest " :„„.t be inserted afL •. but " can\iLrfa:tr;:na7;:::r "^^'''^^""^ °---'"- ^-^ore they "No land but listens to the common call. And in return receives supply from all '■ This may be rendered ' a,r.;r ■ '""™"-' "■"""• -- "» -"ado „„,.„ they are ,„>. CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES one preceding it is eitlier- ^ co-ordinate (a) Copulative or continuative. {••/ i^iajtUlctive, (c) Adversative. (d) Illative. BDtence, and should ess they are un- THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. II3 ^'^"i t ,^°P^**^^« ^'^^"tence is so connected with a preceding? one hat the idea expressed by it agrees with or simplv carries ftirther the thought going before. " Each change of many-coloured life he drew Exhausted worlds, and then imagined new lladtg.- '""^ ""^^ *'^ ^"""«^""g --'i in itself is ml ^'« '"«*''«' man at the gate, Who told us the way Here the function of the sentence "who told," etc is not to quahfy the preceding sentence, but to express a^ a^ldilioLrfLt which ,s co-ordmate with the preceding Who-and ^r 7 •' really copulative. p ^i-eumg. wiio-and he, and ts (ii) He was not at home, which was a great pity. "Which" does not introduce a subordinate qualifyine sentence. coS^;r"' "''"'"' "'^" '""'^ ^'^ ^^--^-* *« " - "OV are The enemy will not fight, nor will they even prepare for battle They refused to pay. neither did they offer to'lxpTal '' (iv) While and whilst are sometimes only copulative- The greater number laid their foreheads in the dust whilst . profound silence prevailed over all " co-ordinate. ^ ^' *^® ^'^^ sentences being connccfion of'tTeV'7 '"""7''"' " "^''''^^^ *'°^"«<»' ^>"* the logical Her court was pure ; l,er life serene ; God gave her peace ; her land reposed. 58. A Disjunctive Sontenoe is a sentence .vl.icli implies , «, ^„,„,,uta an aitei-aativo to the one before it. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. The breath of heaven must swell the sail •. Or all the toil is lost. -ll iIHa 114 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ^i lii: The connectives of disjunctive sentences are ; Either, or • neither nor ; and sometimes " else " and " other^^ise. " ' ' 59. An' Adversative Sentence is one which expresses an, Idea in opposition to or in contrast with that of a pre-' ceduig one. ^ To them his heart, his love, liis griefs were given • But all his serious thoughts had rest in lieaven. The connectives of adversative sentences are .-But. however never- the ess, notwithstanding, only, still, yet ; and such correlat les a, on the one hand-on the other hand, now-then. NOTE. -Sometimes the connective is not expressed : it Tlw Jyr"' """" ^""'' ^"' "" "'*"^* ' *^^y ^'" ^h^"'^ y°" for 60. An niative Sentence expresses a reason or inference in reference to one before it. Illative sentences niay be- from or tmphed comequaice o/ what is previously expressed The leaves are falling ; therefore the swallows will soon be gone. certain inference expressed in the preceding sentence. The swallows will soon be gone ; for the leaves are fdling The connectives are (a) Illative Proper : Therefore, hence, so, con- sequently, etc. (b) Causative : For, Caution. -. Great care is necessary in distinguishing be- tween an Illative Sentence and an Adverbial Sentence of Consequence. wiutoiVe'Lr^T"' ^''V'*^^-- f'^"-^ 5 therefore the swallows will soon be gone, the second sentence is a fair inference from but not a necessary conse,juence of, the first, and is an Illative Sentence Whereas in the sentence, The leaves are falling ; therefore the trees will soon be bare, the second sentence is a neLary conse^ZZ the first and is an Adverbial Sentence of Effect or Consequence, twien '"''' ^'^^ ^°' ^""^''^ * corresponding distinction be- """" "^ y^J^c , ror the leaves are falling, and The trees will soon ))e bare ; for the leaves are falling. '■ will thank you for THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. HfJ 61 Note.— (i) In some cases an introductory "for" is simply a preposition, and the sentence is neither lUative nor Adverbial. For pathless marsh and mountain cell The peasant left his lonely shed. (ii) The connection in the following is exceptional:— A.nd out again I curve and flow To join the brimming river ; For men may come, and men may go, But I go on for ever. q^Z"" T.""*^ '™'' " ^' ''^'^^'^' *" "l^t"'« nor an AdverbUl Sentence, but a co-ordinate sentence, copulative to the prece^^g In niatlve Sentences the connective is very rarely omitted but examples are not unknown. ^ oumwa, but Milton ! thou shouldst be living at this hour s iiUgland hath need of thee ; she is a fen Of sf,agnant waters. . The »o„„d and third .entence, ar. in ilLtivo relationship to the U stinguishing be- >ial Sentence of PARENTHETICAL SENTENCES. 62 Sometimes sentences are interposed in a way that com- phcates the analysis. These are the very people who you thought were lost '. ^X '^^f'jri ^r* " '' '■'*"y ^ »°"" ^^"t^n'^e to its principal . cipal These are the very people." " You thought " is therefore be^t "trorre^r""^ ^^"^'^°«' l-in.apriLipalr:i:^ZX relf r s:Z^- ^^:^ -^ *^« ^-^^^-^ — to the Jnd flredty ^uV '"' ' "*^ ''''''''' '^"'^--« ^' -^ -fundings The interposed sentence may be regarded aa nr{n^i«»i » j ordinate with the other two, bu"; on accCt of L wS LSlht iti.bettertakena.Biniply.par.EtlietloU." «""« """MBhip M i?ii;i Ill EXERCISES. hi 1*1 EXERCISE I. (Introduction, p. 3). 4. Contrast our present lanffuaee with wh«f •; -^ gfmmar. century. 5. Account for the Sfrenre 6 Whll "^^ J" *^' ^**^ unnecessary except in a written Sngiage? TDiSllTr^ orthography and etvmolocrv s «ai,„. *i ^distinguish between and prosody. ^'^'"^^^'Sy- 8. Show the connection between syntax EXERCISE II. (Sounds and Letters, p. 5). whL'tre'th: viwIuTn tht^n "•"°"^' T^ ^ «°"-"-*- 2. Say in oon«m«OM., idea, shoetL jon o^i, ZJ "^^P^^^hongs, if any, tan^ity 4 Howa^econso'A/nrcSerT'sTcrk^^^^^^^^ gutturals from the followina words • ,/«« .i^/ ^^'®*'* *^« '^^^tals and and labials from the following VfotA^- Zh R. ' • S® palatals 6rfe/«^.m. method, pscUm,7acht T bS^^^T w' «''^^»''?'*^'^«^««^ spirants. 8. Show which «rp;i,. ^" ^ ' ^^i«^ between mutes and 9. Change TrnTuX vou cl ntluTi^ •''■"^'''*' ^^^^^' ^~ sharp sounds -Ta/ LIlw f« ^«"«^i"g into corresponding cat, set, trick, chick, pet. 1 cSifv 7h« nn 1^' '■ ^\'*' ''"'^*' fundamental. ^iassity the consonants in the w^rd EXERCISE III. (The Alphabet. - 7). 3. VSte^;: ctaJattistic's o^Tt *'^ P^^*^'"^ ^'^^ ^'P^^^b^*' alphabet faulty. 5/wh!:ra*;e%ht:dl^^^^^^^^^^ *• ^^^ - I 208 KXEUGISES. EXERCISE IV. {Nouns, p. 9). 1. What is a noun > o v^„. abst^et nouns. I S.^ifP^::,:^^^;;^!^^ '' ""'"'^ (a) "Come forth into the light of things, Let nature be your teacher. "- Wordsworth ^reserves Rome's greatness yet. "—Co«.% «"" wxt (c) "All in the Downs the fleet lay moor'd."_i>». («) Foictiers and Creasy tell ■ , .. , .7^'" '"'''* *^"^" P"d« ^'id swell."_i),.ay/o«. ^ brSality tiS* "^"^'^ ^^ «""*' ^^ -^-^^-y without art is TiV-f^ZJ;Lr£:7T^- '^'^^ *^--I> -*-ned to barracks, m, ddven doTthe lane ^ * <^o»gregation missed him. The flock EXERCISE V. Classify the nouns in the following :— (a) " Young Henry met the foe with pride • Jane followed, fought ! ah, hapless 'stoiy ! In man's attire, by Henry's side She died for love, and he for glory."-?'. Bibdin. Though I fly to Istamboul, Athens holds my heart and soul. "— £yro». '• The time I've lost in wooing, In watching and putsuing The light that lies In woman's eyes, Has been my heart's undoing."— 71 ilfoore "Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife Their sober wishes never learn'd to stray ''_Wy. EXERCISE VI. (Gender, p. 11). 1. "What is inflexion? 2. Define ttenAi^v q n- ^i. ,.«. •ways in which gender is marked 4. ^Svethe^endlr *^/^5«^«"* ch^ef, se^or, actor, debtor, eailor. kUten. .Xl ^tjTi'L^^ Londoner, 6. Write the feminine of ..«; SS^: ::;S;; ^:Z;;k:;Z (6) id) EXERCISES. 209 or of Latin origin. ^ ^*^ *"** (^) as of Teutonio EXERCISE VII. (Number, p. 15). 1. Define number. 2 CUva +v,^ i • r 3. Supply the plurals of chiTchief r^tf T^^^a ""^ ^"""^^^ plurals. German, Henri, Babt,lon trL w^^^^^ '"f' *'^*^ <«*^«. i>«k • u'l ,,;.^"® "®*" o* a sheep. 15. The taila nf «1 my ooL'cilnL'"'"'" °' '^''"°"*' «"''° "" '^-Kland. 17 Tl^"^ki EXERCISE XIV. folfowLr:!'™'*" °' ""^ "'^■'^ "* <»"=•' of the nouns in the deserve to have a holiday given von 7 Tf • i-, ^y*' ^^^ 8. In this place ran Cassias' fl^^erCui 9 HrZ. V V^."t for conscience' sake 10 Ti,^ 1- V ^V" °- W« Paid him the debt Th« ladS- lent ttV":^' ,«„?Cr„"" IrBM" ""^"V V' EXESCISE XT. State fuUy the cases of the nouns in the following •_ 1 1. It rains, it hails, it blows, !t snows, Methmks I'm wet thro' all my clothes. i.V ii ' wl 212 Ji' r • ii'i EXERCISES. EXERCISE XVI. belot"!!-^""^ ^" *^' ''*'""' occurring in the sentences quoted ^"^ "IndLl^th^^ r^'; ^"^ *"'^g« f'^™ »"«. to «very little boy If teSv^-" ^''r-^'"'''" "*"' *'^«»'- *'">« >»««* happy is ^' If to theyr tune they reason had to know the truth of this." (6) •• Underneath this sable hearse ~^' ^"''^ ofSurreif. Lies the subject of all verse, Sidney's sister, Pembroke's mother. "_i?en Jomm. (c) "Give me a looke, give me a face, Ihat makes simplicitie a grace. " Id. ^"^^ ' H^hT."/-^ ^"°r. *° *" *'»« ^'^g^^* fain ; (e) Yet shall poor Tom find pleasant weather. VVhen He, who all commands, Shall give, to call life's crew together 1 he word to pipe all hands. "— G Dibdin. EXERCISE XVII. (Pronouns, p. 23). proU'!ilT^harar;"hl ^X^^^'"^^''^-'^- ^V.at is a personal 8 ..Thiv^'r^' the m in u^kom, the ther in iZflnd the fS^T two ^neU^? Twhyife'rTa"'"^ ^^ ^'^^ oonjuUont these a distribuJIVe pronoun '^"'' P'""'^^""' "««^*' »0' ^'^^^ EXERCISE XVIIL the";'ireL' :- ■■• '""'^'' ^'^''' "^ ^^ "' '-<> of (a) "I am monarch of all I survey My right there ig none to dispute. "-Cot/mer. " SS/S ^'f """'^ c«ndemn'd."-rorrf«M,ora^'''''' He is the freeman whom the truth makes free And aU are slaves besides. "— Cotcper. (c) (d) {e) (/) iff) (A) ii) il) EXERCISES. 215 fie sentences quoted to every little boy, ist happy is, he truth of this," The Earl of Surrey. Joimon. in; • V^m."—Ooid8mi*h. . 23). . \S .i&t is a personal can be used in the 3tinction of gender? nguish between who myself. 7. Explain 'Iher, and the t in it. )njunction for these used? 10. Define id case of each of er. enpeare, bell. se. " — Shakespeare. vse."~MUton. S-" — Chaucer. imed apostles. " — Bihie. ordsworth. ee. EXERCISE XIX. Pa^e the relatives and antecedents in the following •- Tk * I. • ,. , . " T° know rhat which before us lies in daily life Is the prime wisdom. "_il/,7<0H. ' (b) -^ Who steals my purse steals tvaBh.»Shakespeare. He prayeth best, who loveth best , A ut °^'' ^''''* *"^ ^mBilV'-Colf ridge. Freedom has a thousand charms to show, ^^ That slaves, howe'er contented, never know."_Co.^e.. Sl'Vr^ I*.''!' "^y ^^^'•y ««arch to find ..^^^* b'- -J^'^-h only centres in the nnnd."--Gold^ith. U ) Be strong, hve happy, and love ; but first of all Him whom to love is to obey. »-! J/t/^on (9) ;' Whoever lov'd, that lov'd not at first sight r'-^Aa^e.pe«.. ^) ^Vhatsoever he doeth shall proEper."~Bible. k) " Let such teach others, who themselves excel. ''-/>op.. EXERCISE XX. Parse fully the nouns and pronouns in the followina •-_ ia) "That thee is sent receive in buxomness. "-CAawm^ "fnnf ' P'^^'t!^ forth-on, best out of thy stall ^^ Look up on high, and thank the God of all.»--/rf. ' ' The place that she had chosen out, ■Herself in to repose, Had they come down, the godj. no doubt The very same had chose. " -Drayton, id) '« So, -Villy, let you and me be wipers Ox scores out with all men, especially pipers • li wl'I *''''*'^!^,P^P^ "« ^''^ fr"'" rat^« or fx^m mice If we ve promised them aught. let us keep our pTomlse'" (e) " Let beeves and home-bred kine partake -J^rowning. The sweets of Burn-mill meadowV The swan on still Saint Mary's lake Float double, swan and shadow, "-ron/si^ora EXERCISE XXL (Adjectives, p. 28). (6) (c) kl 1 2U EXEfiCISES. HnTo ^" "^^ '^''f ways may quantitative adjectives be used? 6. How are numeral adjectives classified? 7. What adjectives are i Sowi V""''"' '■■ ^?-*-li-«-«-e inflected fXmpariso'l !n A >* ^, comparative formed ? 10. Distinguish between /ur^Aer ot 07ie, two, three, four, forty, eight, twenty, hundred, five, twelve. EXERCISE XXII. Classify the adjectives in the following :— 1. ''In the body politic, as in the iiatural body, mo/bid lancuor succeeds morbid excitement. "-3/,,ca«toy. 2. "So thick a Tod raTis'-'^'oK:!;:' *'/^ '■ "HfsM'tat^nhl a «knfnr„ ^ ^' ' ^l ^""^ * '^""'^y °^^*«'-' '^n elegant poet, LeS'-^ ^Sr ^" T-^"'f ^^^' ^""l ^ "•««* contemptible sTeeD^'^rnTl r'..v- ^''■''^ "/^^''^'^ «^^^* ^««t«'-e'-. balmy sleep. -ioMn^ 6. '« You gave good words the other day of a bay STSL If"' hr'^^.«t«-^--- 7. " The poor man that loveth Chr^J ol^tn 2^ * r'"''''' "™r- --^""^Z"". 8. " Sole Eve, associate 9 ''Fox Lt^Tlf Tr" *^°^' "'; "^^"S ^'•^^*"'-«« dear."_i^i;'■ ■I'i . ! EXERCISE XXm. Parse fully all the adjectives in the following :— 1. "The better part of valour is discretion ; in the which better part I have saved my liie.^-Shakespeare. 2. «' Act welTyour part- here aU the honour lies.»-Pop.. 3. " The greater The new S'^er they create, the grea.^r seems their revenge against theold.-r^E' 4. It was a very low fire indeed for such a bitter night. "_^?S Sa ''™l;*'r " ^°"7'/^" ^'^' ^"« ^^"^ courteous'conducfto 2; place. —Shakespeare. 6. ' Many a carol, old and saintly, sane the rr't!!^^ r/'""^^'''"- 7- " T^'« "'^•'"W comes cold L r jSv one. ^Curhjle. 8. " I'll fill another pipe. »-^«e,-ne. 9. " Our hos? presented us round to each other."-7Wemy. id. "He is one of those wise philanthropists. "-/moW. 11. -We two saw vou fnnr set on{onr."~makespeare. 12. "This said, trey both ^tc^k them EXERCISE XXIV. it/1^ Compare the following adjectives where they admit of ahh^'lnf''' '"^7^f'"«'. '^«^'». ^y> lady-like, gentlemanly, wet, hmour. able, dead, near, ftdl vrim. lovehi. eln,,^., a„»,V, »^ j „"/_.. ' "•'"''•^^ (2) Write the positive of Mxt, more, inner, last, least, first, inmost, better. djectives be used? 6. What adjectives are iflected for comparison ? iguish between further 1. Write the ordinals Wed, five, txoelve. body, moibid languor 5. "So thick a drop "His ain coat on his ator, an elegant poet, a most contemptible ^eet restorer, balmy 3 other day of a bevy lan that loveth Chrii>t " Sole Eve, associate tures dear." — Milton. their own weapons." vmg :— in the which better ' Act well your part ; sater the new power St the old."— Bulioer. ter night."— i)tc*en», teous conduct to this nd saintly, sang the nes cold for a July 1-ne. 9. "Our host 10. "He is one of e two saw you four y both betook them m eeem'd a second EXKHCISES, EXERCISE XXV. 215 % r'?!!j""j ^^' ^J"'*^^'«« '" t*'^ following ■_ ''ThatIutttrw.rs?.:\trTir *-d-"-^-.-. 2. 3. "Those thy fears mUt have wroujh A^"' •" "^«-"~'^'^«'te-/'««m 4. "Can the false-hearted boy hive !5o«' 'Y^e."-Shake.peare. fellow? "^Dickens. 5. ^'lJ7 hlT , Z,"''''^ * *°«1 *« yonder father .ed at Blenheim then, yon liJ^sELmtrSyT^l^.t;.?^ 7. "The oracles are dumb; >^outn.y. No voice or hideous hum Rtms thro> the arched roof in words deceiving. .'__,/^^ 8. • She stepped upon Sicilian grass, A ?hTf *T • t''^^^'^ ^'•^"h and fair, A child of light, a radiant lass And gamesome as the morning air. "_/«„« fngelow. EXERCISE XXVI. Once she was all Thy own • ' Her love Thy fairest heritage ^^ Her.power Thy glory's throne. "-Moore. ^VoLyLlSSZ^r^sZ!Zc!:::' "P^« "-t'« leather have gone ^"^ rru . . ".^' ^^'•' *o wilful men, lt.!ZT-^^^i *^"y themselves procure ,, ^^-t be the^r schoolmasters. "ShlkeZle. ''' - -s— s — ,;r i::!;:^--- ., , (e) "Who said that I had given thee ^ '"' -'^^^- " Who said that thou wert sold ?"-^^^,jSro,,o,, lere they admit of zmaiily, wet, honour- futz, solar. EXERCISE XXVIL (The Verb, p. .34). 1. Define a verb. 2. What ai-c fi,« * are divided ? 3. Define a tl'itittVerb ^T* ^^^^l'"*^ "^-'^ ^^^bs an mtransitive verb may become tlllL ^'/^^ ^^e ways in which pitposition«,i verb* « vVhaf ;= „." -V. ''• " "ai is Uie test for a aries necessary? 8. What fs voi^: ^^"^9^"^ /" ^^y are auxTli'^ that can be in the passive voice ? S ' Whv v n V '^^ ^'^ ^^'''^^ voice formed? ^^z. wny? H. How is the passive :| ': 1 ll ■ -.1 i'i 1 n ■ 1 216 fi'i.'i; ' ti EXERCISia. EXERCISE XXVm. Classify the verbs in the following into transitive and in- transitive : — , (**) "Who reads Incessantly, and to his reading brings not A spirit and judgment equal or superior, Uncertain and unsettled still remains. "—j|ifi7i!ore. (h) " As yet a child, nor yet a fool to fame, ! I li'3ped in numbers, for the numbers came. "—Pope. ; (c) '« I think, articulate, I laugh and weep. And exercise all the functions of a man ; How then should I and any man that lives Be strangers to each other ? " — Cowper. {(1) "A thing of beauty is a joy for ever ; Its loveliness increases ; it will never Pass into nothingness. " — Keats. (e) '' He prayeth best, who loveth best All things, both great and small ; For the dear tiod who loveth us, He made and loveth all, " — Coleridlge, EXERCISE XXIX. Arrange the following verbs as prepositional or causative :— 1. The magif^trate swore in the constables. 2. The goodness of the soil soon raised a crop 3. I have spoken to a man who once baited a hook and drew m a pike. 4. The gardener will fell the tree, and lay out the borders. 5. The pirates having jeered at the thre;ts. sank the ship. 6. Some of the children will fly kites, others swim boats. 7. Tom will run his pony up and down. 8. They glory in little faults, wmk at great ones, aad cough down the remonstrances of the wise men. 9. "A falcon, towering in her pride of place, Was by a mousing owl hawk'd at and killed. "—Ma/fce«pea»-e. EXERCISE XXX. Rewrite the first eight sentences in the for jproing exercise m the passive voice. EXERCISE XXXI. Give particulars of the tense of each of the verbs in the fol- lowing : — (») '«^The king is come to marshal us, all in his armour drest." beln^heie^-Ai!**" ''"'"'^ '' "'^'"^ ' had happ^iielt £e (c) " I am, I will, I uxiall be happy. "—Zy«o»t. transitive and in- ' ' — Shakespeare, •r jgoing exercise verbs in the fol- mour drest." — -tt/uc ulay, happened to have EXEfiCISES. 01- -1 < (h) We know not, ne ther ' do^ we c/J ^f."? ^''^* f^^^ ^ad lost? way, stopped till a boy came ZZZ ^'\ ^ '"^^ "''''' ^^^ lo«* h« right road for London ^'Tid ^ ""^ ^? "!\ ^^'^ " ^^"^ ^ ^ the " but you will notiet ih.rlf 11 T"' ^^^ ^es," was the reply; «I have blen walkbiVth^^^^^^^^^ S travelling a ^^^^ ^11 ^S r^^'^^J^^^ l^^' ^^ ^^ EXERCISE XXXII. State the mood of each of the verbs in th« f«n« • point out the gerunds and partrdples 1 ' "'^'"«^' ""^ ^"^ " wr'/° *", *^^* '"^y ^^^^^^ a man : ^ho dares do more is non^-~Shakespear' ;^«^' therefore stopp'st thou me ? "-Co^enrf^e. And llT l!'' "P' P^'^^*^'^'^ ^ith double sway. And fools who camB to scoff remained to pray'.'_^o,,,,,,. " Well, sit we down. And let us hear Bernardo speak of this. ^^-Shakespeare, ie) I watched the little circles die. "-Tennyson. (/) " I am ashamed to observe you hesitate. "-Scott (g) " Come unto these yellow sands. And then take hands ; Curtsied when you have, and kissed. (1 he wild waves whist) ^ Foot it featly here and iher^.^-Shakespeare. I do not think my sister so to seek."-J/e-to. Cromwell. I did not think to shed a tear Onflll ™T'^' ^"* *''«" ^^«t forc'd me Out of thine honest truth to play the woman Lets diy our eyes, and thus L hear me. Cromwell. " — Shakespeare, EXERCISE XXXIII. the'tt ofVa^h :"!"" '"'" ''^ '^"°^^"« -"^«--. and she. (a) •• I dfi send to you for goU."- Shakespeare. (ft) " T . Been -'^"'■"^y. W My l«'>'k'i they are furnished with bee. Whose murmur invites one to s el "W, , SWl fin«h what hi. short-liJeS siX"n. "-/..^ oiins in the fo]- EXERCISE LIII. '"' "Si-f^ortthTii?:™?,®'.'. . . (6) "Blow Kl^ XL *"" "g"*- — w/t t^««o«. ThI' I ''' ^''^^ ^'"t^'- wind, Thou art not so unkind . As man's ingratitude. "Shakespeare. On wl,,- , " ^""^^ays the pillars are On which heaven's palace arched lies" Gr/r. (c^) "^-^"edun. or animated bust ~ ' ''"^^^ y weze now arrived within a n,ile of High^ate " (/) ".Neither a borrower nor a lender be. "-.v...^,„,., ~''^^'''^- . EXERCISE UV low^^g *_!"* "■" ^"""""-S --"-b. and th«r obje, (a) "He gave to mi W "They made cts in the fol- miD£kM«>' "11 (c) " Thou hast a tongi 7 a.11 ho had, a tear, me queen of the May."— -Gray. Tenny, 'son. ue, come. let u« hear its tune. —Horace Smith. i ! S34 EXERCISES. {d) " Past all dishonour, Death has left on her Only the beautiful, "—r. //borf. {<•) " Methinks we must have known some former state." - L, E. Landon. {/) " To scatter plenty o'er a smiling land, And read their history in a nation's eyes. Their lot forbade."— Gr,.(,_y. ^ » • EXERCISE LV. Explain fully the mood of each verb in the following:— («) " Had I a heart for falsehood framed, I ne'er could injure you."— Shendan. " The good of ancient times let others state ; I think it lucky I was born so \&iey— Sydney Smith. " Oh, then, while hums the earliest bee, Where verdure fires the plain, Walk thou with me, and stoop to see The glories of the lane ! "—Eh. Elliott. " They make obeisance and retire in haste, Too soon to seek again the watery waste : Yet they repine not— so that Conrad guides, ,And who dare question aught when he decides ? »_i?yro„ (c) (a) EXERCISE LVI. ^ Distinguish between, gerunds and infinitives in the follow- ing : — > (a) " To gild refined gold, to paint the lily, To throw a perfume on the violet, To smooth the ice, or add another hue Unto the rainbow, or with taper light To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish, Is wasteful and ridiculous exceaa." —Shakespeare. " To make mankind, in conscious virtue bold. Live o'er each scene, and be what they .behold : For this the tragic muse first trod the stage, Commanding tears to stream through every age/'—Pope. " Sr??'?''*,; S^o^'-n'ght ! parting is such sweet sorrow, Ihat I shall say good-night till it be morrow."— Shakespeare. ... ..„,„,„„ au arii36, an; nath tnus decreed, To make some good, but others to exceed. "—7(/. («) " Giving ia better than receiving." (A) ic) KXERCISE. 2U er state." * - L. E. Landon. following : — . ley Smith. des ? "—Byron. !s in the follow- sh, leare. Id: age." — Pope. let sorrow, . " — Shakespeare. -Id. EXERCISE LVIL theSl'r^'^l'" "''"'''"■ preposition,, and co„i„„«i„„. ;„ On It may stay his eye:' All precious things, discovered late. Fo?w • ^''^^ '^"'^ *^«"^ '■««»« forth . For Love xn sequel works with Fate. "I.^.^^^,,^ ANALYSTS (p. 8Q). KXERCTSE I. I. What is a sentence' 2 Of ». * 3. What can form a subject »' 4 DpfiL*"'* P^'*' '"""* i* consist? necessary for the completion of som« .. r^ Predicate. 5. What i. completions called objects ? ^ Predicates ? 6. Why are thew EXERCISE II. • Arrange in columns the subjects in +h. f n • of what each consists :— '"''J''^*^ ^« ^^^ following, and say (a) The potato is wholesome ^/i\ Wa+ •* , > mother, (rf) -Hurrah!" rZ from fh. '*• /'^ "Hush .."said the most pains. (/) Thinkingleids T «.*• '*"'''• ^^^ '^^^ J'^^y take means to beg eagerly (h\\\l ^ ''*'°"- <^> ^o learn mea^i^lv wealth oft rSinsUth. Vw-'^ "^7^ <'^ ^--'^« Laughing is contagious. ^' ^'^'^"teJ the audience. (;) EXERCISE III v / ^ snau clothe a man with ^„™~ /f> * ~* — is a good dog. f(/\ . i-iiJ'lv."' ,.}"/ *-'**'^^> mice. /c» discovered America ^^ ^ ^^ ^'"^« ^'"« ^»"« gold L ■ deserves play th\ Y^ i '^*' ^^i"«d l>y Brutus (n^ ^ glad father, '{l'' J^ ^gj^? ^k^- ^^ ^ome^i) — makt^ 226 EXERCISES. 4. 7. 10. ; EXERCISE IV. oon'^lt *' ''""'"''™ '" "■' f"""""* «<> -y of «h.t each cr«tlnate. 6. The del j^n'e a^" h:p,^" '^^v, L'^"-? ^'"'' ""r Chanty beareth all thir»^« o "'*' "*PPy- '• V\ e are ail here. 8. coward ^'- ®' ^^'°^' d^« <>««. 10. No one loves a EXERCISE V. Supply predicates to the following subjects :— EXERCISE VI. oonS :-!'"' *J"'' '" "-^ ^o""™*. -<) -y «f what eaoh E«ch »,.„ plucked . ^r I n Who d~ '^ '' '^*'"« "' Friends dWike saying To^.C/^J" ^"" ":^' '»" «»ein6? to) diet™,. . (i) He deetLfd^l Im iL ,t ' v'"?"'' '" S"" ««or saved the other. "'JLI ^L ^rttn'dl"™ ^SS;; '" °™ EXERCISE VII. direclTl*^' ''''•^''*'' distinguishing between direct and in- a letter. 10. The sailor h^v- nf*r: ^- ?homas posted his uncle 11. Play the chiSrentun:'^' " bnng their friend, curiosities. EXERCISE Vlil. Supply objects to the following :— tau^hr^h*^!-.?,""^' • 2. Perseverance taught the httle a new . 4 Th« L^^ZL ""'r'^'ThJ^n" '"J"y — • 6. He"g^ve the poor uew . 7. 1 he Queen prorogued , *^ merits t^i-kQ^«vlA*. 1 MM I "trail t/lUUgfJo 3. She J. . Ti ^>iLta»M | ■EXERCISES. 227 ntl say of what each lis 3. A live dog is ig. 5, The idle pro- We are all here. 8. 10. No one lovea a ;ts : — 3. A man I in time in boots - 4. 7. 10. FOBMS FOR THE ANALYSIS SCHEME I. Predicate. Subject. The sun The soldiers A good son Ripe corn-fields The child OP SENTENCES shines, were brave, obeys always rejoice appears ill. Object. his parents. the farmer's heart. say of what each r cries "Prepare!'" to lie baaking (e) t lo\(? singing? {(/) 7 found in great ne behinn direct and in- •ed him the crown, handed the visitors fine sport. 6. The Grant us a holiday, laa posted his uncle friends curiosities. te ^ 3. She r— - 1 1 . Firais ttlUltgtJC the poor a SCHEME II, J'"o...jKso,. !t.a.,.arpenter!, ..ended" The company ^„n.uuts,ne,. j ,.ad taken The princes of Europe ! w f, O'-J-t. Enlargement. v«'ysoon the gate j b,-oken. early next departure their. Parmenio tlio Grecian had done ouiid recently once « P'an j better, soniethini; pleasing to 1 the njulti- 1 tudo. 1. Maud Miiller 2. on a summer's dav 3. Raked ^' 4. the meadow 5. sweet with hay. 1. But 2. knowledge 3. to their eyes 4. her ample -5. p.ogo, 6. Rich -with the spoils 7. did unroll 8. ne'er, SCHEME III. of time . Subject, Bxteimou 0/ predicate (3). Object. Enlarucment of object (4). {connective word). Subject. Extension of predicate (V). Objeci. •"-'^^^-Mo;. Enlargement 0/ object (o). Predicate. Evknmn of predicate (7). ■BI 22S EXERCISES. SCHEME IV. AnalyM ; — " Those who are conversant with books well know how often they mislead us, when we have not a living monitor at hand to assist us in comparing theory with practice. " — Junius. a ■ffl'l I. Those !. who I. are conversant with k books >. well I. know '. how often I. they I. mislead \. us, I. when 5. we ' I. have I. not >. a living I. mofiitor '. at liand I. to assist us in comparing theory witli practice. A. Principal sentence. £. Adjective sentence to {A) (1). C. Noun sentence to {A) (6). J}. Adverbial sentence to (C) (9). Subject (6), Subject (3). Predicate { = uuderstand). Object (3). Extension of manner (6). Predicate. Extension o/time (9). Subject (9). Predicate. Object (9). {Conjmictioii), Subject (13). Predicate. Extension o/negaiton (13). Enlargement (16), Object (13). Extension o/ place (13). Enlargement (16). i know how often they at hand to assist ub in 6). 3). le { = U)idpys(nni{). 1). 71 of manner (6). n of time (9). 9). 'e. I). Hon), 13). e. H of negation (13). nent (16). 3). n of place (13). te?J< (16). n 00 ® 2 -M 3i •s j3 o s •n u « la 'i § fl - C I* ~, P,.2 J3 g "^ « § ♦J 2 DO s o •c 4> U a 3 a' V so a o s tn O 3 O > * _ " " W c fc( f» CO EXEUCISES. 229 I i 1 3 i4 S d o I .3 a 3 o a 0) "r" •5 S 5 « 3 ■9 L. 2 -^ fM CO b 1 = .2 = - * § _ o o •s •^3 1 1 3 i « V u i^ o .£; l§ ^ 1 1 ■S^ Ji ^ ■ IS l§ gc. :§C i§ 1^ 1^ 1^ 1^ £S 1^ cc 03 so ;j 00 X ^ -i-.l a o 'A S 3 5 p •3 2-= 2. 8c « -^ o t4 ?g. "5. a he c( core ion: 2^ 1 S m" T) 4) a g 4). O S 3> 2-5 a ^ .2 a «^ g£^ .Z -3 a; n u « '■ .= 3 ■c =? S s — "5 ►5 s ■"^ as ^ ci «1 15 -rt 01 > 2 .. -= ■tt.: ai 15 e4 5 c a 8 55 u 4) "is c " ■5| I i Ed 230 . EXERCISES. EXERCISE IX. Analyse the following according to Scheme I. : — (a) Cowards fear themselves, (b) He appears earnest, (c) Swim- ming teaches self-reliance, (d) To labour is to pray, (e) "Beware," said the sentry. ( f) Make haste, (g) The bells are chiming. (A) : George told his father the truth, (i) Stop, (/t) Plumbers stop the : leaks. (I) The pipe leaks, (w) The field yields the farmer a fortune. {n) Love not sleep, (o) Here we are. {p) The child brought the invalid a garland, (q) Tlie captain will give the crew a warning. {»•) Luna shows the traveller the way. («) Phoebus loves gilding the corn-fields, (t) Chanticleer aimouuces the morn, (u) Mary, call the cattle. m': f.e I Ml'. l' '1 P'li il'l' EXERCISE X. i, Of what may enlargements consist? Point out the enlargements, and say of what kind each is : — 1. A good little girl sat under a tree. 2. Wilful waste makes woful want. S. A desire to excel actuates Smith, the foreman. 4. A ramble on a summer evening restores tlie drooping spirit. 5. Feel- ing sorry, he gave the poor old fellow a hearty meal. 6. William, the captain of the school, knowing tlie game, taught the new scholars the rules. 7. One man's meat is another man's poison. 8. Re- membering your duty, visit the sick. EXERCISE XL Supply enlargements in Exercise IX. EXERCISE XIL Select the extensions in the following, and say of what each consists : — 1. Sweetly sing soft songs to me. 2. In a whisper she gave them the order. S. They filled the gardens quickly and completely. 4, Inch by inch the spider travelled. 5. I come to bury Ctesar. 6. Listen patiently to hear the nightingale. 7. Everything passed off successfully, 8. The tide came creeping up the beach. 9. The old man walks with two sticks. EXERCISE XIIL Supply extensions to E3i;ej'cise IX. EXEftCISES. 231 lat kind each is : — 1 say of what each JEXERCISE XIV. Analyse the following sentences according to Scheme II. :— (a) "I will make thee beds of roses." — C. Mnrlowe. (6) "Then came the Autumne all in yellow clad." — Spenser. (c) '• Give me my scallop-shell of quiet, My staff of faith to walk w^on."—Bah\gh. (rf) " Thus clad and fortified, Sir Knight From peaceful home set forth to fight. " — Butler. (e) " Dear Thomas, didst thou ever pop Thy head into a tinman's shop ? " — M. Pnor. if) " One mom a Peri at the gate Of Eden stood, disconsolate." — T.Moore. (g) "The spirits of your fathers Shall start from every wave. " — Campbell. (A) " The castled crag of Drachenfels Frowns o'er the wide and winding Rhine. " — Byron. EXERCISE XV. Number the parts of the following sentences according to Scheme III., and say what each is : — (a) " Sometime we'll angle in the brook, The freckled trout to take." — M. Drayton. (h) " The shepherd swains shall dance and sing For thy delight each May morning." — C. Marlowe. (c) ** Read in these roses the sad story Of my hard fate, and your own glory." — Carew. (d) " Thy gentle flows of guiltless joys, On fools and villains ne'er descend. " — Johnson, (e) " The cheerfu' supper done, wi* serious face. They, round the ingle, form a circle wide." — Burns. EXERCISE XVI. Analyse the following sentences : — "Attend, ye gentle powers of musical delight." — Akenside. " Through the trembling ayre Sweet-breathing Zephyrus did softly play. "Spenser. " When then shall Hope and Fear their objects find ?" — Jqhnaor^. "Close by the regal chair (a) (6) (<-) (d) (e) A baleful smile upon their baffled guest. "- " The Sundays of man's life, Threaded together on time's string, -Gray. liliMii iHlH , I I'm v\\ ^32 KXERCISES. (/) iff) {h) Ma,ke bracelets to adorn the wife Of the eternal glorious king. "-Oeorge Herbert. Ihe trenchant blade, Toledo trusty ' A^ ith beatmg heart to the task he went. "-^co«. How calmly gliding through the dark-blue sky Ihe midnight moon ascends ! "Smthey. EXERCISE XVII. 1. What is a compound sentence' o Wn«, »-« ^. tences s<5metimes contracted? S qL "*u ? ^ ® co-ordmate sen- .ometimes used as :::; Sons. 4. 'tllyte th^S^' ^^^^^^^^^ ^''"^ sentences according to Scheme 11. *1 "^^^^^ *''« following compound (a) (b) {c) {d) (e) Of conversation sing an ample theme, And drmk the tea of Heliconian stream. ''_CAa«er«- ^et Nature «be your teacher. "- Wordsworth. He gazed at the flowers with tearful eyes He kissed their drooping leaves. "-L;«/e/W. On piety, humanity is built ; And on humanity, much happiness. »_ro««.,. ^•^^ ?hrC';f n"?^"^"^ '« ^''"'^ -^* of *he west, "" Through all the wide Border his steed was he best He roHl^' «""'* broadsword, he weapons had 'one • He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone. "-Sc^i ' EXERCISE XVIII. Expand the adjectives in the following into phrases — 1. A merciful man considers his beast. 2. The mistress scolded the lazy servant. 7 mu '■'^^P'* "*" ^^^""^ <^«wn the lane. 4. The pla«ue carried off the young ones. 6. Numerous birds were found dead. 0. bailors dislike a dead calm. exercise" XIX. Expand the adverbs in the following into phraser :- 1. Green seldom tries the eye. 2. The soldiers rested there, 3. The man answered the charge easilv. ». Ill wetiUH grow apace. 6. Dead dogs never bark, fi. Come quickly. .iitLUSSUt EXKRCTSES, 233 EXERCISE XX. Analyse the sentences in Exercises XVIII. and XIX. EXERCISE XXI tence :- ^ ''^ expanding the adjective into an adjectivauJn! '"' fe%T''^1T''«*he moat noise. S^!ll f ? '1°'^'^ ^««P« time. Small strokes fell great oaks. The^rpln^?'^ ^^*'" '^^"^ ^ ^«ft heart. (a) (6) {'J) (A) A modest I said to 1 an robber ? ^^'^'^^^ ^^eu no longer, But th^fi; • T '"*^^'"' *'"^^ y''"'' forgiveness I implore ; And so fi^fl" ^ ""^ °"PP^°«' *"*^ «« ««"*ly yo" «ame rapping Th^t T - ^ y*"" "*'"' *^PP^"g' **PP'»« at my chambS door Ihat I scarce was sure I heard you. '"—Foe. ' (r) " ' My Lord has need of these flowerets gay ' rhe reaper said, and smiled ; wu *°^®"® °^ *^® ^a'"** are they, Where He waa once a child. ' "—Lomjfdlow. 235 (I i V ! Ill ; MM- - i APPENDIX. PART I. CHAPTER T.— NARRATION. To the Teacher -Insist, from the beginning, on correct form in composition. The foUowing points are the most mxportant. 1. PupU's name in the upper right-hand corner. 2. Title in the middle of the page (from left to right) The first word and each principal word in the title must begin with a capital letter. 3. Margin, of about an inch and a half at the top of the page ; of about three-quarters of an inch on the left of the page ; paragraph margin, half an inch to the right of the ordinary margin. • 4. No margin at the right of the page, each line being well fiUed out, except, of course, the last line of the para- graph, which may end at any place. B. A hyphen at the right to show the division of a word, when the line is not long enough to contain the whole of it it. A syllable must never be divided. 6. Correct terminal punctuation marks. '' ii APPENDIX. llllli ! Till APPENDIX. REGISTER STAMP. STAUP. Messrs. Potter & Cox, Portage la Prairie, Box 317. Manitoba. Wl¥i iBi'> (11) Copy the above forms carefully observing the posi- tion and punctuation of parts. (12) Write superscriptions, or envelope addresses, to your father, your sister, your teacher ; your grocer, your doctor ; your friend who lives in Augusta, Georgia. For additional forms and exercises see last pages. ARRANGEMENT. Arrange the following detached sentences properly, and form connected fables : — (1) The Fox and the Eaven. The favor of a song xrom you would doubtlass show that your voice is equal to your other accomplishments. A fox observed a raven on the branch of a tree with a piece of cheese in her mouth. The fox snatched up the cheese in triumph, and left the re 3n to lament her vanity. The fox considered how he might possess himself of this. The raven was deceived with his speech, and opened her mouth to sing, and the cheese dropped. " I am glad," said he, "to see you this morning, for your beautiful shape and shining feathers are the delight of my eyes. " He decided to try flattery. IlilifisaataiHi APPENDIX. ix raine. Manitoba, )serving the posi- addresses, to youi- »cer, your doctor ; a. last pagei. !es properly, and ubtless show that lishmenta. A fox h a piece of cheese 86 in triumph, and ox considered how was deceived with ^, and the cheese L this morning, for J the delight of my (2) The Wolf and the Lajub. ™«T?''iT^ ^P^'^ ^^^^ «^« ^-as not then bom. The wolf wn« Determine the proper order of facts and topics in the foUowing. Events should follow of course, the order of lar*- "'^''^^ ''^'''' character and influence shonld come (3) John Milton. John Milton died November 8 1674 In iftR7 i,« -l-,- -^ -, chanpfil nf «f n,'i "" ■^^"'"sres. ±ie was buned m the crancel of St. Giles. Incessant study iniured his evR^iX Alter tne death of his mother in 1637 he went ahmaA n^v,iL Fran4 SwiCkid and fr^J'^'^'^y ^""^ He visited imagination, and a musical ear. "Paradisft In^t^i' T^^Z greatest poem in the English language. '' *^® (4) Oliver Goldsmith. i I i 1.1 lib! iw'i|i?;i'^iif \m X APPENDIX, 1764. College life. Made a tour of Europe on foot, and returned to England in 1756. After serving as usher, he settled in London and began to write. School Ufa His novel "Vicar of Wakefield," appeared in 1766. Bom in Ireland, 1728. Studied medicine at Edinburgh. Died in 1774 Wrote for various periodicals. Wrote a drama in 1773, "She Stoops to Conquer," and gained great applause. Got into debt at Edinburgh, and was forced to flee. Buried in the Temple Church. Character. From Edinburgh he went to Levden. Holland, 1754 ^ "^ ' CHAPTER III.— DESCRIPTION. To tlXO Teaohor.— The purpose of the following set of lessons is to teach the pupils to observe carefully and to express accurately the results of their observation. The materials and hints furnished are to be considered simply as suggestive of types of profitable work. (1) Hints. (1) Ask the pupils to observe the object carefully, then to state the results of their observation. Record these on the blackboard in whatever order given by the pupils. The need of proper arrangement of material will probably become evident once. Let the pupils, under guidance if necessary, arrange the material in proper order. Let this arranged material be divided into topics suitable for para- graphs. These topics will serve as hints when another object of a similar kind has to be described. An oral description following the order of topics should now be given by one or more pupils. Next let a written descrip- tion be given by all pupils, due attention being given to ope on foot, and vin^ as usher, he ol lifa His novel Bom in Ireland, d in 1774 Wrote L773, "She Stoops Got into debt at Bd in the Temple went to Leyden, A?i«i!NDIX. 3^{ heading, margins, etc. Finely let tha composition be carefully corrected. nif *^? ^^r'!f ""^-^ ''*^"^"' *^^ «^ ^^^-^ l«««°«s to com- plete It. rhe first may be given to the observation of tOie object and the formation of the topical outline, tha second to the oral and written description from the topical outme, and the third to the correction of the writen noN. following set of carefully and to 3servation. The onsidered simply (2) Oranges, Katt« given W ,urti..-Kind ol f™it ; » lutle larger than apples; outside caUed the peel; used for food; found Unted States; nearly round; raised in warm climates- ms.de or pulp is soft, juicy and sweet ; when ^ is oT^ deep yellow color ; seeds a>. in tough c;Us in the«nto M»tt«r awaagej iy pupUg._What they ai-e, climate where ra.sed whe:. obtained, si^ shaped c^o^^ pulp, seeds, cells, use. ' ^ ' :i t carefully, then Record these on by the pupils, ial will probably inder guidance if order. Let this uitable for para- s when another ribed. An oral ; should now be written descrij)- I being given to ORANGES' Topical Outline. "What they are. Climate where raised. Where obtained. Genera, appearance j IS^'^rr.fjrr'* m Parts Use (. Colorr— deep yellow. r Peel—rough, oiJy. J J^P -3oft. Juicy, sweet 1 ^®!73 -many in centre. Cells— tough, contain I seeds. Food, uncooked. w flt"l'I" 'Wl-t' xii Oranges. Oranges are a kind of fruit raised in a warm olimafce in different countries. They are obtained from the southern parts of Europo and of the United States, and also from the West Indies. In size, oranges average a little larger than apples. They are nearly round, and when ripe are of a deep, yellow color. The outside of an orange is called the rind or peeL It is rough and oily. The inside consists of the pulp, seeds and cells. The pulp is soft, juicy and usually sweet ; the seeds are in the centre enclosed in a tough substance called cells. Oranges are used for food and when fuUy ripe are very pleasant to the taste. '(3) Topical Outline^ What they are. How they grow. S Size— hazel- nut. Shape— nearly roL.nd. Color — various. Kinds. . , . Wild, cultivated. > 'Skin — thin, tender. CHERRIES Parts Use Pulp — soft, juicy, sweefc, bitter. (^ Seed— single stones. Food, when ripe, cooked or uncooked. (4) ArPLES. Topical Outline. — What they are. How they grow. When they ripen. Shape. Size. Color. Skin. Pnlp. Seeds. Use. (5) Watermelons. Outline. — Where produced. Shape. Seeds. Rind. Pulp. 3- APPENDIX. xiii warm climate in rom the southern and also from the lan apples. They >p, yellow color. ind or peeL It is le pulp, seeds and • sweet ; the seeds ice called cells, ally ripe are very hazel- nut. — nearly rou.nd. —various. cultivated. / -thin, tender, -soft, juicy, sweet, bitter, single stones. when ripe, cooked mcooked. [qw they grow. •. Skin. Pulp. Rind. Pulp. Prodnced: Temperate climates, on vines. Shape: Oval, short or long, round. Bindi r.ark green, light green, striped, thick or thin. Pulp: Pale red, deep red, yellow, soft, sweet, very juicy. Seeds: Black, broxv-n, white, tipped wiin black, surround the Cora (6) Topical Outlines. («) Name. Nama General appearance Pa: s. fEoot. Growth. St Class. Description. CI* ™ TT ( Whera j btem. Uses. Cultivation ] How. Parts.... ^ Leaf, Habits. (When. I Flower. Locality. Uses, l^^iiit- Locality. History. Uses. Where found, (7) Describe according to any of the plans outlined :— a pear. a plum, a berry, a grape, a cucumber. a potato, a beet a turnip, an onion, a pea. wheat, barley. oats, corn. a mapla a poplar, an oak, a pina a cedar. (8) DESCRIPTIOX OF ANIMALS. Observe a dog carefully, then write a description of i( under one of these outlines :— («) Form. Size. Color and Covering. Parts. Uses. Habits. Class. General Description. Particular description. Food. Uses. Habits. (") Class. Structura Habits. Uses. Locality. II i|!i i I I /I iil^, ,/) XIV APPENDIX. (9) The Whale. ori^rSng MlTelSpC"'' «^«-vatio-.. by study of good pictures Class: Mammal, how it dWcrs from :a iii:;). Structure: Size, head, ccveiiug. Habits : Breathing, food. How caught: Hf<; yooned. How «?.?.p?>aod of: Blubber, whalebone, flesh. The W'ha':> U <>b laa-gmi. of all animals, and has on that account been <'aU...>A ^ ' fcl..e liiouarch of creation. " It ig a mam- mal, reseiriol',.^-: % fiv^-j ;,! appearance, but differing from one m bemg v^ui7.v rljoded, in requiring to breathe air and in suckIdij.^' its vciing. It is from sixty ifo ninety feet in length, and abour thirty feet round. It.^ mouth is very large, and in the head vi.ore are biow-holes a foot long. In the upper jaw, the whalebou) sup- plie.H the place of te«th. All over the body there is a thick covering of fat called "blubber," which is in some places twenty inches thick. It can remain beneath the water for an hour, but requires to come to the surface to breathe. This it does through its blow- holes, throwing up a fountain of water visible some miles off. As It swims along, it keeps its huge jaws open, and thus obtains its food in the shape of small fish, lobsters, etc., which become entangled in the whalebona The whale-fishery is carried on in this manner: A number of small boats are sent out from the whaling vessel with a harpooner in each. He stands in the bow, and as the boat approaches the whale he plunges the harpoon into it. Attached to the harpoon is abcjut a mile of ropa When the whale is struck It dives, carrying the harpoon with it. Soon it comas to the surface to breathe, and, receiving another harpoon, dives again. This is continued till the whale is killed. The blubber and whalebone alone are cut off. From the blubber an oil is extracted ; The whalebone is manufac^ ured into many useful articles, and the flesh is frequently et %n by the Esquimaux. Note.— Before .^ -iting learn as much a por- observation, by r. . ; ig, and by inquiry abo'r' c!:ic id by object udy uf good pictures APPENDIX. ^^ SSl^K. t"*;" *-*•••—' -I" In describing an animal, the order may l>e •- ^ze, shape, color. (General description.) Where found. ^ Parts. Head, neck, body, legs, feet, (Particular descrip- Food. ^ Habits. Character. Disposition, strength, agility, etc. Uses. If any. abl™:J^""'"' """"""« " "^ °« '""P'-'' outlined a hen. ^ fly. ^ goosa a bee. an^owL a spider, a hawk a batterfly a cat. a sheep, a cow. ahorsa a fish, a frog, a clam, an oyster. (10) Comparisons. anStr °"""^' -^' - ^■''". -""ant, of appear- ap?n"'^''s'i7d'htb^ ''^" <"■* -^ "««"l 'he ha« live, pato'^tU"'"'' """'"" '^ ^^-^'y ^-t, "at, when fa T' :- 1 "' |i , : I li Imh XVI APPENDIX. The dog has a etoat of hair ; the hare has one of fur. The dog has a long tail ; the hare has a small tuft. The dog varies considerably in size ; the hare is generally of one size and much smaller than the dog, S ^"^ ^^^^^ ^" *^°^°^ ' *^® ^^^ " invariably brown or (12) Plants and Animals. (Similarity.) Life is common to both animals and plants ; and in the pos- session of that attribute they are both distinguished from things inanimate. Plants, as well as animals, require food to maintain them in existence, and, like them, are furnished with vessels to con- vey nounshment to the diflferent parts of their system : the circulation of the sap in the one, and that of the blood iA the other, presenting one of the most striking analogies between them. They breath^ by means of the leaves, which thus per- form the functions of lungs, and they also absoitj and exhale moisture abundantly. In many other respects plants.exhibit a close resemblance to animals. They are benumbed by cold and revived by heat • frost or poison deprives them of life ; and in adapting them- selves to the situation in which they are placed, in closing or shifting their leaves on symptoms of danger, and in vanous other ways, they display qualities that are very Uke what in animals we call instinct , Finally, in its development, a plant passes through succes- sive stages of existence, just as an animal goes through a progress Irorn birth to death. Both are at first comparativelr feeble. Both acquire, as they advance, greater power of action or resistance. Both must, after a certain period of time, sink under the same decay of their faculties, and go back to be ''.resolved into the elements." ' & " "»- (13) Compare an owl and a duck (a) as to parts and description of parts, (&) as to uses of parts, (c) as to habits. (14) Compare cork and sponge (a) as to appearance, (6) as to qualities, (c) as to uses which depend on those qualities, (d) as to mode of growth. . ' (15) Compare a blade of grass and an oak leaf. of fur. [ tuft, is generally of ably brown or irity.) md in the poa- iguished from intain them in /esaels to con- r system ; the e blood in the iogies between 'hich thus per- MxJ and exhale "esemblance to ived by heat ; lapting them- , in olosinff or nd in vanous J like what in trough succeo- )e3 through a somparativelr 3wer of action of time, sink o back to be to parts and as to habits. pearance, (6) 3se qualities, leaf. APPENDIX. BESCEIPTIOJT OP COMMOiV OBJECTS. (16) Topical Outlines. xvii (a) What it is. What it is made of. what It is used for. (*) Size. Color. Parts. Uses. («) Appearance. Qualities. Materials. Pr^ess of manufactura (17) l>^ribe according to any of the plans outlined : a chair, arifla an umbrella, a plougL aspada paper. pens. mk. PICTURE LESSONS. .apo„!?L';ri^rittr'^tr ''?"■- what the picture show« f>,. ^«/° ^ee. Let the pupils tell suitable plan or mV,Z, T ^^' '^' them make nut a aeveloped^ e^ l^l^ i^^.f „r -^ "^ "^ '"» ^ 0M'^;lTs\::i:f,:~-'--' -^-^^ or cut ,ro» should be talcenT ie t i T1 """l^ '""^™'- Care At «rst tbere -uldtl^Lrtrinr^ir (18) Example. What persons do you see in fT,,- • . „ each person doiHK . What anL I / ""^ "^^^' ^'' is each animal doi.g? Wh,t "rt LT "'' ^^^* P--ai.an^.err^i:^~^^ i .f' XVIU JIDIX. order to tell tLr> story in the picture, what shall we speak of first? "Wiiat next? What then? etc. Looking at these heads, John may tell the story the picture suggests to his mind. Mary may tell tho -Ir./ „ .rested to her. Each napil may now write the scory in his own way. WORD PICTURES. (19) Bead the following carefully. Close your eyes and trj'^ to see the picture clearly in your mind. Write a des- cription of your mental picture : — \ NBLLr. Nelly sat under the apple tree, And ^"atched the shadow of leaves at play, And heard the hum of the honey bae, Gathering- sweets through the sunny day, Nelly's brown hands in h^r lap were laid ; Her head inclined \vi*^^h a orentle grace ; A wandering squiiTel was not afraid To stop and peer in her quiet ice. Nelly forgot m c her dress was old, Her hands were rough and her feet were bare ; Tor round her the sunlight poured its gold And her cheese wtsre kiss^ by ^he suiimej .dr, And the distant hills in their glory lay, And soft to her ear came the m^ \ o call ; 'Twas sweet to live on that p immer day. For the smile of God w*' 'er r>^ Musir'-^ under the spreading f achv >f an old apple tree sits }-os} -cheeked Nelly, forgetful of her uld dress, bare f'^et, and folded rough brown hands. Shadows of leaves play auout her. Call of robin and hum of bee float in the summer air. Far off lie purple hills. Calm peace and golden sunshine are everywhere. -t shall we speak tc. Looking at picture suggests „?ested to her. is own way. >se your eyes and d. Write a des- t play, rday, kid ; se: I'fire bare ; gold uamej .dr, iall ; APPENDIX. And hfoh in heave?teh°"l ?""■«<>«'<"■'? mill ? '^ '^'^ '^Th'JJiff'^'"? chestnut t^ A«.»trong.,,ir„„Xj5«™yarms Sl^'i:1i£Stt'n"''»^W. . ^^^^ '^^:^^'^^^'a^e« dashed hi-h "^Tlfhin'^'^^.'^S^^* hung dark ^ne hills and waters o'er xlx sn«. an old apple tree dress, bare f^^^t, leaves play about . the summer air. Iden sunshine are TOPICAI A.\AtrsiS. ^P^^:^':Lr^ -f ^- -s .orth the the skeleton or plan in the ''"ho- ' T '' '"^'^^-^ Po^ ^i the selection. These hLv ^ """"^ "^^^^ ^^ «°"^- iiiese headings may be stated in pro- l\'l •'\ ilii'l 1 I 1 ■I t ' 1 ii 1 i .-a XX APPENDIX. positional form, by a sentence ; or in a titular form, hy a phrase or word. Headings of equal rank in thought should have the same for' . of expression. (24) Gold. (1) In appearance, gold is yellow, opaque, and brilliant (2) Gold is principally found in hot climates ; in Brazil, Peru, and Mexico. Part of the western coast of Africa is called the Gold coast, fr(jm the quantitjy of gold dust which is brought down by the natives to trade with. Gold is also found among the sand of many African and American rivers. A small quantity of gold is also found in Hungary and Saltzburg. (3) By experiment we find that gold is malleable ; that is can be extended by beating ; that it is ductile, tenacious and heavy. When thrown into a fire it is fusible ; that is, it will melt ; but is indestructible ; that is it cannot be consumed. (4) Gold is used for many purposes. When mixed with copper, it is used as coin and for ornamental purposes. For the latter it is well adapted both by its brilliancy and beauty, and from its not being liable to tarnish. Gold .when beaten m thin leaves is employed for gilding. Analysis 1. — Appearance. 2. —Geographical situation. 3. — Properties. 4 — Uses. (25) The House in the Meadow. It stands in a sunny meadow, The house, so mossy, and brown. With its cumbrous old stone chimneys. And the gray roof sloping down. The trees fold their green arms around it— The trees a century old — And the, winds go chanting through them, And the sunbeams drop their gold. The cowslips spring in the marshes, The roses bloom on the hill, And beside the brook in the pasture, The herds go feeding at will. lar form, by a ik in thought and brilliant. atea ; in Brazil, a,st of Africa is aid dust which is old is also found rican rivers. A y and Saltzburg. alleable ; that is a, tenacious and I ; that is, it will be consumed. hen mixed with I purposes. For mcy and beauty, d when beaten m bion. aow. neys. oxxnA it — ;h them, 3ld. es, re, APPENDIX. xxi Where It stands . | Meadow. ANALYSIS J J^OW it looks . . j Mossy, brown, I chimneys, root ^ ( herds, Prepare topical analysis of the following selections :- (26) Thk Chow .ind the Pitcher. ^vhtpxa It firtti^t^' xv'i '"' *° ^ p^^^- found water, indeed, bj? so near tL W^" ^l ^'^"^^ ^ i*' 1»« fooping and strain W, Te iouJi? ^i! •^**' ^^^h all his deavoured to overturn^the niVW > ^T^ '^ "« *hen en- sufficient for thia At lasf ofc ■^''* ^'' strength was not place, he cast them one hyon^Z^V^'T u^^^""^'' ^«^^ ^^e degrees rais^ up the - J t^tLt^^^^Vd ^ (27) Excelsior. The shades of night were fallinc^ fast As through an Alpine village ptss^' A youth, who bore, 'mid sn?w andte A banner with the strange device '' Excelsior ! vt i'^Tv^^^ '^'^ = ^'^ eye beneath And hI ^r '^^"^^"" *''"»^ i*« sheath, And like a Sliver da) ton runs The accents of that ankr own tongue Excelsior! ^ ' In happy homes he saw the light Of household fires gleam wanS and bright • And from his lipg escaped a groan Excelsior ! f:i***^' 1 1-'! Xxii APPENDIX. "Try not the pass," the old man said p •'Dark lowers the tempest overhead, ^^ The roaring torrent is deep and wide ! And loud that clarion voice replied, Excelsior ! " O stay ! " the maiden said, " and rest Thy weary head upon this breast. " A tear stood in his bright blue eye, But still he answered with a sigh, Excelsior ! ' ' Beware the pine-tree's withered branch ! Beware the awful avalanche • " This was the peasant's last good night. A voice replied, far up the height, i Excelsior! — Longfellow. Additional exercises may be selected from the lessons in reading and history. To tbe Teaolxer.— As seat exercises preparatory to the regular class exercises in reading and history, these topical analyses are most helpful. The substance of these lessons may at a later period be reproduced from these outlines. CHAPTER IV.— REPRODUCTION. i pi ' • , (1) Reproduction of another's thoughts in our own words may be given in three ways— by a condensed, an equivalent, or aa expanded statement of them. ABSTRACT. (2) An abstract is a condensed statement of another's thought. The most important ideas are presented but the details are omitted. APPENDIX, XX in aid ;~ d, de!" rest branch ! ight. — Longfellow. n the lessons in sparatory to the ry, these topical ) of these lessons ;hese outlines. TION. ;hts in our own a condensed, an hem. nent of another's presented but the 1. Make^a topical analysis of the composition to be condensed. 2. Omitting iUustrative, repetitionary and amplify. ing details, select only the cardinal thoughts and arrange these in the author's order. 3. Consider therelativeimportance of these thoughts, and decide how much space can be given to 4. Express these thoughts accurately, distinctly, concisely, without repetition, and withoui ornament. (3) The Lion, the Wolf and the Fox. flocked in great nnmlS^ t^-T !,_ • ® ^'^^^^^ »* *he forest to accuse him of dTs^esS ^nH 'i^'"' u^'f^ t^ opportunity ^hat the lion's wratfS blgTnningt^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^■"^^' ^ whit £ W roLg^o^fiT"^ '° ""r' -^ '^---ed wolf's discouW^ hI ^hJT ^^"^""^ overheani a part of the in thefolloSg manner "fior/^ ^^'^^^ tend great affeftirCy;urferS ^1^1; '^T^ P^^' service by idle words. For m v naS ^fJ^'^^ *h«y ^o you a present myself aoonpr nn L ^ ^ x' ^ ^^^'^ '^'^ unable to pure for your 36 T V.L "^^ ""^ «iy endeavoi-s to find a could findfandthey^li agree thVZ^^^^^ '^'L^ ^^^^^^^^^ I made of part of a wolf s E tnvi only remedy is a plaster applied tjyour Mal^ty'sltoma^k" ""'""^ ''"^'^ ^'^ ^"^^ ^^^ *-***■ Xxiv APPENDIX. Iff^ •Analysis. — The sick lion, the visitors, the wolf's scheme against the absent fox, the absentee's fortunate arrival, his artful excuse, the prescription, the experiment, the moral. Abstract. — A sick lion was visited by all the beasts of the forest except the fox, whom the wolf accordingly accused of disloyalty. The absentee, chancing to arrive, artfully pleaded that he had been consulting the doctors, who were agreed that the only remedy was fresh wolf skin applied to the stomach. The wolf thus became the victim of his own wicked design. Evil recoils upon the evil-doer. (4) Material. — "In the old days (a custom laid aside With breeches and cock^ hats) the people sent Their wisest men to make tbe public laws ; And so, from a brown homestead, where the Sound Drinks t^e small tribute of the Mianas, Waved over by the woods of Rippowams, And hallowed by pure lives and tranquil deaths, Stamford sent up to the councils of the State Wisdom and grace in Abraham Davenport." — Whittier. Abstract.— More than a hundred years ago, it was the custom to choo,«e the wisest men to make the laws, so Stamford Bent Abraham Davenport to the Legislature. Thr lessons in reading, literature, history, and geography furnish sufficient materials for the making of abstracts. i 1 li! PARAPHRASE. (5) Paraphrase is the reproduction of an author's com- plete thought in other language. Its object is to bring out the full significance of a pa,ssage. It requires close • attention to every word and phrase, meaning and shade of meaning. The following rules for paraphrasing should be observed : 1. Study the selection word by word, thought by thought, to secure a full and accurate under- standing of it. *««B«S>.,^ APPENDIX. XXV ago, it was the laws, so Stamford 2. By change of expression seek to reproduce what is involved in the original, and no more. 3. Let every change be made for the sake of greater clearness. 4. Reproduce as far as possible the tone and spirit of the original (6) Material.-" And last of all he was seen of me also as of one bom out of due time. For I am the least of the Apostles nn^ S iln! ^-- u^''* ^l *^^ -^^*'*^ "^ <^"d I am whit I am : and His gr.ace which was bestowed upon me was not in vain ; but I labored more abundantly than thev all • vet not Jh.l were I or they, so we preach, and so ye believed." '^"^''"^'' — i. Corinthians, xv. 8-11 Paraphrase.-" Last of all, when the roll of Apostles wfl"^ ^■"T£^"^^^^ the sudden appearance to Se; a just delay a just humiliation for me whose persecutiou of the iTef ofthTA"' ^.f' people did indeed siS me Sow the level of the Apostles, and rendered me unworthy .3ven of the favrorGod'^'Tf"' '^yf^-i^-y^Z all to tb^e undeserv^' InT^ I- It! ^ ^^^."^' ^"^^®*^' ^hi«h ^'as not bestowed in vam which has issued in a life of exertion, far exceedino- that of all the Apostles, from whose number some w™ wkhlo exclude me ; but yet, after all, an exertion not the result S my own strength, but of this same Favor toiling with me as my constant companion. It is not, however, on any dktlnc dwell 1'"?;^?^'" ^"i^ f'\t^^' ^P"«^^-' ^^-' I wLld nX d veil. I confine myself to the one great fact of which we all alike are the heralds, and which was alike to all of you the foundation of your faitL "-2>ean Stanley. ^ ould be observed : ord, thought by accurate under- (7) Material.— The Happy Life. 1. How happy is he bom and taught That serveth not another's will— Whose armour is his honest thought, And simple truth his utmost skill ! ,.V*'! XXVI _ APPENDIX. 2. Whose passions not his masters are, Whose soul is still prepand for death— Not tied unto the worldly care Of public fame or private breath ! 8. Who envies none that chance doth raise, Or vice ; who never undei-stood How deepest wounds are given by praise : Nor rules of state, but rules of good ; 4. Who hath his life from humors freed, Whose conscience is his strong retreat : Whose state can neither flatterers feed, Nor ruin make accusers great, — Sir Henry Wotton. Paraphrase.— L How happy, by birth as well as by educa- tion IS the man who is not obliged to be a slave to the will of another— whose only armour is his honesty and simple good- ness, whose best and utmost skill lies in plain straightforward- 2. How happy is the man who is not the slave of his own passions, whose soul is always prepared for death, who is not led to the world or the world's opinion by anxiety about his public reputation or the tattle of individuals. a Happy, too, because he envies ho man who has been raised to rank by accident or by vicious means : because he never understood the sneer that stabs while it seems to praise • because he cares nothing for rules of expediency or -f policy,' but thinks only of what is good and right. ^ J-' 4. Who has freed himself from obedience to humours and to whims, whose conscience is his sure stronghold : whosf rank is not exalted enough to draw flatterers, or to tempt accusers to build their own greatness upon his Ml- Meikhjohn. (8) Paraphrase the following :— («) "Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, A youth to fortune and to fame unknown. " (i) '• Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime ; And departing leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time." -r-«r-MB APPENDIX. XXVll are, or death — ath! ith raise, d >y praise ; >f good ; Ereed, J retreat : rs feed, r Henry Wotton. i well as by educa- dave to the will of and simple goorl- n straightforward- slave of his own death, who is not anxiety about his an who has been Leans ; because he t seems fn praise ; mcy or f policy, o humour > and to Id ; whosf rank is tempt accusers to kfejohn. if earth, unknown. " us Ime; ime." ^ R JTv, f *^T^' *^^* ^'^ ^«^th our feet, ^l JT T h^"^ mastered of good, and gain By the pride deposed, and the Lssinn «iaf„ (d) («) ■rXt +v;r -A T "^ mascerea of good, and gair By the pride deposed, and the passion slafn, the vanqmsh'd ills that we hourly meet," "SJ" l?yal<-y is still the same. Whether it win or lose the game : True as the dial to the sun, Altho' it be not shin'd upon. " . " Ein^ out the old, ring in the new, ±tmg, happy bells, across the snow : ihe year is going, let him go : Ring out the false, ring in thi true. ■^ mf °".* t^^%^ P"ey knew not »h?lher,lper! X'C I?"' Th f Sa Stfv 5: *» g""* Sea or the G^uif broad, bare siiSK uXr tl,-^ th,,?"^ ""'3 """l""" ""'^ whose top, looked dS f.om atalthe M?h.i^ ?"' '*'"'^" like a bridS veil then mSf^° l^if ^^l""'^^ ^""S ^^ the river to fte iSMtrYm^rthe '„"" """^ '"" "«" To* foZTd'f™^?,trptr^^^^^^ energy and ambition He 'Jr the onlvCn"*of'°"" -'i'" °i cS^ o?: ^-; tr^s^sl f r'" '» «" "^ n^j^StiiiiirJSSl^H"^^ from her ohild«,n that^hl'wlti i'„Tan4r """ "'""^^''•' J^^JilSrohTr"' MofctreJ-^liJ^d"' *%^T^ m„dng vessel caie to eitherlhS'^On^on: s*"r'a^^ found themselves lin. They carried •ong journey down sanoes a mile and ■sh, they launched the waters that themselves to the lot whither, — per- ifch Sea or the Gulf t tranquil stream, entangling grape arks and pleas ure- and marshes and 'g trees, between 3w of some woody inverted on the flesh or venison, irs ; and when in lung on the river 1, till the glassy 3ss in the sultry from New York were two school alth was failing ever a;fterwards itiful September ew York, bound the products of back a cargo of ng man full of of a widowed ■ and a girl, the leen at school in nt home by the the separation 1, but the good :> tidings of the APPENDIX. xxix ™S b?cri"y^ tV^'^'i^'^t''::^^ -r -^ ^ the sea, moanel " Give blckrJy dear onl"'*B'.!f' ^ '^^^"S "^othe^ Years have rolled away, and Eh r^^^ ^^^"^ ^^''^ "° '^^"• there IS "no more sea"' bntS ^i^"*^"^ have gone whli^ secret. •"* ' '^^^ still the waves hide their cruel (12) Amplify the following sentences:-. thifhu4^gs?out"§ tl^h attempted to pluck some grapes less sour !4 not^llh ^SeffoT"^^ ''''' ^^^>^ wereSS and now first thro.?n op^f f El%Tn":ytr™"' "' '^ ™^-^' (13) Amplify the following paragraph : - intense rays of a tropical sun N ■ ''''"'^•^' ««orched by the The rainfall is scanty_the dew^'n'^tr ^"^^' ^^"^ °^«r it rare and hardy plants that grow in ^haoi?^'''"/.^"^"^^"^^ t^e wells and springs are the sS IreX^'Z'tSt' ^'^ (14) Amplify in prose the following poem ; — The Beggar Maid. side, an aged Her arms across her breast she laid • She was more fair than wonis can'sav • Bare-footed came the beggar maid ^ * Before the King Cophetua. In robe and crown the King stepped down " To m««t and greet her on her ^v^ ; '^' It IS no wonder." said the l<.nls, ' She IS mcj^ beautiful than da!y." ^%tJ'^\^^^ "'°°'' i*^ ^lo^'led skies, She in her poor attire was seen : One praised her ankles, one her eves One her dark hair and Ioveso„rmien. ^^^ APPENDIX. So sweet a face, such angel eraoe In all that land had never been : U)phetua swore a royal oath : That beggar maid shall be my queen. " reading, literature, geography and history will furnish sufficient materials for exercises in amplification PART II. CHAPTER I.— WORDS. iii^i r it is by such a haHt S,™ TJ? ' ^''"^' '^^^i'^ *« overstated what L worMtS^''X*i\rSt™tSt'hr ""'"" — -Oenung. (1) Accurate Use. Choose words that say precisely what is meant-words that are exactly conmensurate with the thought. This accurate nse can only he attained by careful observation olsynonC ' "''°™ '"^ constant comparison may oMe„.p( anyfting •'Taitl,„ ?f """"P'^'imont Any one The wom u^ed should liv?S"L%r coS'^iix^'/-^''^' r^f'i'^e J custom enem3;, foe; adv^arran'tagotS • tS' Ut^^^^ -^^^^"^ damage, hurt, harm, mischief ' ' ''^^' ^"^ ' "^i^^^' (3) Superfluous Use. to^SSr^'^Th^THTi "^^J^ T ^^' /"^^ ''Z "^'^ '"^ih has duties courr^;„an^t?''!!r?o'tri"reTp^^"°"^ ^ redundant, as " return ''m^ins^lL ^^^ '''''''' ^^-"^ ^^ (&) Bo not repeat the same idea in different words. - an^Teat~7t'i:^'^' ' ' G^t^P^'^?^'' ^H r^^animity translation of ''mlinanimit^^nnT- °^ ""'"'^ ^^ '^'^^^ » effects and con,«,«S of™S corrup inn Trf.T'^' " ^« deplorable and lamentabh *' shmTJ C ^.^^'^ ^.'7««roc^/ are effects such of CO Wtior««tplorabt""''' ^^'^'' " ^^ -•.***1 1 ', 1 I '' 1 f^ I 1 ■ i' 1 (• m 1 ; , ;r ii ;ilti I m , xxxii APPENDIX. (4) Exercises. Rewrite these sentences omitting all superflous words :— Another old veteran has departed. Emma writes very well for a new begniner Thought and language act and react mutua ly upon each other. I ^{\\ give you my advice and counsel gratis and charge you nothing. The world is fitly compared to a stage and its inhafritants to the actors who wr form their parts. Hence, he must necessarily, therefore, bo in error. I never was so astonished before in the whole course of Sila"^ ' ^"'""^ monopoly of the whole salt (5) Present and Intblligihlb Usk Choose pure English words in good, standard, present use. .J^,-^^' ^^^" ^^®. °' ?^^"^ "^^^^ o^ expressions. These sometzmes !■ positive ignorance of the words of polite dic- tion. _ b;.-, tv. sometimes intended l,o save the necessity of ^^n^ Tl u ^^T"^ *?^ P^'^'P""'^ Examples—Stunning, r^, bosh, a^A^T'iUy jolly, cut up, smell a rat, perfectly splendid, {b) Avoid the use of foreign wonJs and phrases unless they express ideas for which there are no fitting terms in EnfflisL i^xaraples. -It was comme ilfaut. Having acquired the mvoir fmre, he is never afraid of making a /awa^ pas, and in every conversation plunges in medias res. ^ (c) Avoid the use of obsolete or old-fashioned words, such as peradventure, erst, beholden, vouchsafe, methinks, etc. (f ) Prefer simple words. Large wonis do not increase the size of snaall thoughts. Compare "He proceeded to his resi- dence and there perused the volume," with "He went home and read the book "; "An individual was precipitS " S "A man fell' ;" They called into requisition the services™ physician, " with ' ' They sent for the doctor. " (e) Do not use jioetic diction in prosa Do not caU horses steeds or chargers ; waves, billows ; twilight, gloaming ; an^er ire ; tu^, aweary ; before, ere ; valley, vale ; etc ^ ' ^ ' I I I , APPENDIX. XXXlll lerflous words : — la writes very well ge act and react ou my advico and L'he world ia fitly he actors who ptT ly, therefore, bo in he whole course of of the whole salt ,B Use. tandiird, present pressions. These ards of polite dio- I the necessity of fiples — Stunning. )erfectly splendid, rases unless they terms in English, cquired the savoir las, and in every 3d words, such as inks, etc. not increase the seded to his resi- "He went home 'ecipitated," with the services of a 5 not call horses, loaming ; anger, etc (6) Exercises. ■^ Point out any violations of Present and Intelligible Use m the following sentences. Eewrite the sentences in good English : — It is awfully warm. That duck of a bom, .,uite too ovely for anything; it's perfectly sweet. lie ...narked S i'r^^n T nl'^f*^ ^"'^ ""^^ ^T'"' '^^ -^^«- That Ts at-:: dnw« • .1,^ ®.?'^'^,'''^^ "P°^ hi« ear and the boys looked down m the mouth. The house was burglarized The audi- ence did'nt enthuse worth a cent. The conflagration extended 1 I ™r.lT;i. ^^ ,"?^"* ^'^^"^ its%arthly haWta- t on. I regret that the multiplicity of my engagements pre- dS"JhisT ^'''P'^"^ y^"-^ polite invita'iior.^ Mram?nt, UW^^Sly^ T\"^^^- ""^'"^y «««"P"^ ^ith the Emerald SENTENCES, (1) A sentence is a combination of words expressing a single complete thought. (2) Grammatical Classification. ' Grammatical] sentences are known as Simple, Com- pound and Complex. (a) A Simple sentence contains hi t one subject and one predicate. (&) A Compound sentence contains two or more inde- pendent statements. (c) A Complex sentence contai one indrijendent state- ment, and one or more subordinate statements caUed clauses. ,%. .V*„ '^'^- v«>. '' "°' IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 1.25 Hi KM 2.0 lAO 1.8 U. 11.6 . %':< 'Fv*' *v Phoipgraphic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 '^ iV a7 \\ - <^^ ..v * , l\ sB xxxvi APPENDIX. y^) Variety m sentence struct re should be the aim as the nund soon tires of the continuous use of any one"'; (8) Exercises. JtenT:- ^ '^"°^^^»^ ^-^''^ ^ ^ ^-o Loose . invulnerable, hLas whe„ a .I'l^ V^?"" *? ^'^^der AchUles every murmirer a^government m'-^^T^ "' '^®^*^ ^^'^'^ gl^ty Of thf style,^.ltrr^^eSt^^^^^^^^^ seiteU :-"' *^^'^«"«--^I^-- sentences into Periodic at^n':ff'SL'ri\f r\T ^-iT^-^Owen Sound over his head ; he wrap^ his^L^'' -7°^'*' ^'^ ^^^^gh mantle out from theWlSn^ock anr^t^^^"^ -^ ^' °*"^« receive the Divine communic^t^SL '*S^ ,^n«ath the cave to hearsay^ but from sight anTTnenS". ^^^ T ^'"*" '"^"^ S-.h it, si^^^^^'^VZ^t^ JZJ!"::''' ''^ '°^'°"^"^ "^*° -^^-- -th Balanced i- ti^^^at'SeS fS ^slnTacro^l '{ ^^T^^^ ^**«-«- will disfigure the imbs KeletTjy^-^'''\ ^°"^ continued, enemies clamored against HrnS^ him when alive though him amidst the silence ShSrienSa ""oT ^' ^^^ ?« P^^^^^i noh and yet have nothinV or he mL li^ ""^^ '"^^« ^""«e" yet be very rich. *=' ^^'^ P°"^ ^^ one sense and (11) Construct a Loose and a Periodic sentence about :- Iron, Frenchm.n, snow, happiness, apple. enc ^ into Loc APPENDIX. xxxtii (12) Form sentences with Balanced structure about •- tees into Periodic s with Balanced tence about:— QUALITIES OF A GOOD SENTENCE. (13) As regards the arrangement of its parts there are three quaht.s which a sentence should possess: Un^ Clearness, and Emphasia. ^' (14) Unity. ml^'iT '' that pror>.rty in a sentence which keeps all its pans m connection with, and logically subordinate to, the prmc.'pal assertion. ' pos'sible" id ''". W r'^*"' ^^"^' '^ "^"^^ - li"l« - possible Ideas that have but little connection should be expressed m separate sentences and not crowded into one • and long parentheses should be avoided. The rule is, - to beware of distracting from thp pfffl^f ^f +!,« • . r^ ,. , ^ ^^"'" '^'i^ ettect of the mam statement by particulars not immediately relevant." noble actions, ai'id a numem Jan^Uv S '"f '^."^ ^"""^ sons; I one of them GeoSp nlr f'J I y^""^ th^e were virtues, as >Nell aa to hT^,!;,-,^ ^\^^^^' ^^■"'. *° ^^^ ^^^^^r's where most of bis father'. P""«^f ^ ^^t^tes in Cumberland, afterwards eltteS memLr^ oTJl,^ ^^' situate and shortl^ ^everal generations .S^^l^^S^ L^^^et ^pt£ There are at least four distinct and equal subjects in 1^4r^:i;"' °' ^'^ '"^^°^^^^°- ''-'-^ ^' '^^ Ilk \h m':\ f I i 1 I xxxviii APPENDIX. instead of whicl^ you go around about the country stealing ducks. Better : Prisoner at the bar, you possess a good edu- cation and respectable family connections. This fact should incite you to lead a decent if not exemplary life ; but, instead, you go about the country stealing ducks. (15) Exercises. Correct these sentences so as to maintain unity : — Dr. Kane described the Arctic silence as sometimes almost dreadful ; and one day at dinner, while Thackeray was quietly smoking and Kane ^yas fresh from his travels, he told them a story of a sailor readinjj Pendennis. His companion was a short, stout man, with a gray beard and bushy hair ; and as they approached the top, Eip heard noises like peals of thunder. The doctor was called, and the sick man rallied, but as night came on, the storm increased, and no word came irom the fort. The place was approached through a pasture-field,— we had found it by mere accident,— and where the peninsula joined the field (we had to climb a fence just there), there was a cluster of chestnut and hickory trees. (16) Clearness Clearness requires that the parts of a sentence — words, phrases, clauses— should be so arranged as to leave no possibility of doubt as to the writer's meaning. Words, phrases, and clauses that are closely related, should be placed as near to each other as possible, that their mutual relation may clearly appear. (o) Adverbs. Ex.— "I only saw two birds." Does this mean "I saw them but did not hear them sing; or "I saw two birds and no moref" If the latter, write: "I saw only two birds." {h) Phrases. Ex.— "He went to town, driving a flock of aheep on horseback, " Corrected : — "He went to town, on horseback, driving a flock of sheep." (fl) Pronouns, Ex.—" The figs were in small wooden boxes which we ata " APPENDIX. xxxix J country stealing possess a good edu- This fact should life ; but, instead, in unity : — sometimes almost jkeray was quietly als, he told them a companion was a ushy hair ; and as e peals of thunder. Hied, but as night ame trom the fort, lire-field, — we had I peninsula joined lere), there was a jentence — words, [ as to leave no ning. closely related, as possible, that rds. " Does this sing ; or "I saw rite: "I saw only liriving a flock of 1 flock of sheep." nail wooden boxea Corrected : — " The Jigs which we ate were in small wooden boxes." miS ^*r««;Ple8- Ex.-" I saw my old school-fellow by mere accident when I was in Loadon at the exhibition walk^ mg down Eegent Street." Who was walking? ' Corrected : — ^^.l!?^^'' ^ 'V^^"" f^^"'^"'' ^^ *h« Exhibition, I, by mere acci- dent, saw my old school-fellow walking dowA Eegent S?r^" (c) Clauses. Ex.-" Please tell my mother, if she is at home, I shall not hurry back." Does this mean "If she is at home'"? ' ^" ^''' °'' " ^ '^^" "°^ ^''''y ^^«k, if sSe is at (/) Repetition of Words. Ex.-" I think he likes ma Ifkefyou!" ^"'^ ' '"• ''*^^ "*^"" y^'^ '"^^ "^«" «' '^ha-^"' (17) Eocercises. Correct the foUowing sentences, pointing out the error :^ bokter filL/''^?v,^*'^^* ''^. "SSf ^^«" *he Moor, seizing a t^Whof i?w*^u*f.l^'''^ jealousy, smothers her Did you ^ke that book to the library which I loaned you? The horses ^flTthef ^Tlf'r*^ ^'*"" ^""^^^S ^ council they decided to go no farther. The farmer went to his neighbor and told him thit his cattLB were in his fields. And thus the son thrfervent sire addressed. A piano foi sale by a lady about to cross SeChan- nel m an oak case with carved leg& If fresh milk doefnof ;iTl d?if ' ^^'' "^'^ ''' ^^^""°* *«" y^u, iJ youSme! (18) It is a help to Clearness, when the first part of the sentence prepares the way for the middle and the midn. nent are naturally, lated at the failure g bribed (receiving neglecting) to take delay was not an ing that the fort, *vould be forcjd by mt general to cap- as good reason to premeditated, and by art and nature mpr and the indo- 8k." Or, "He has not accidental but rt, though strong ced by the treach-. pitulate within a : out the errors: 3, His death. His cent up Calvary. 3 receive me, my iguished. What the agonies, the soners ! Believ- id in the hope of ig all his estates, itry. With the n^ also to clear bam how far the I the prosecutor. ce a word, or ?er distinction or lack of distinction accordinj? to its significance. Any word or combination of words, placed in a position diffei-ent fiomthatwhichitusuallyoccupiesarreststhereader'satten- tion and IS thereby rendered emphatic. Thus the principal subject belongs naturally at the beginning of the sentence and to be made emplmtic must be put out of its usual position and placed towards the end. The predicate verb, adjective or object, ^vhich belongs naturally in the latte; part of the sentence, acquires especial distinction by beine placed at the beginning. An abverbial word or phrai whose unemphatic place is before its verb, is empLsizei ll^ZS::':''''-'^ ^^^ stm more by bemg placed ^M^%^^:^IS ^J^^.^^!^ Here arShfrse^of^iveSV'' '''""' '" themercifuL" "^^, deservingofexaminSi;;'a^tEti;^''S,P'SS;^,well (22) Exercises. Change the following sentences so that the italicised words may stand in emphatic positions :— silences ^auL^f ti'^'l. T''^^''' ^'^«"' '^ *^«^ ^^H'^t^ He was !l;i I It :l-l*' if::e:if''i ' I I I xlii APPENDIX. (23) THE PARAGRAPH. A Paragraph is a connected series of sentences consti- tuting the development of a sinf?Ie topic. TTnTlTrrH "?* ^"" *° ^ ^'"^^^ ^' ^ i*« construction: Unity, Continuity, and Proportion. (24) Unity. As a paragraph is a distinct division of the discourse, complete m itself and exhaustive of its topic, its primary requisite must be Unity. Tliis forbids the introduction of any sentence or detail that has not a manifest connection with the leading topic. The subject of the paragraph is usuaUy set forth in the opening sentence,^ which is ordinarily a comparatively short one. Sometimes it is delayed till the close, following the analogy of the periodic sentence. (25) CoXTINiriTY. Continuity requires that the sentences making up the paragraph should be so arranged as to carry the line of thought naturaUy and suggestively from one to the other The bearing of one thought on another should -be clearly indicated ; and the topic should be brought to a complete and properly rounded conclusion. To preserve Continuity in the paragraph, the exact rela- tion of the constituent sentences to one another, as also the relation between the paragraphs themselves, must be d stmctly indicated. The principal means by which ex- plicit reference is maxJe from sentence to sentence are con- junctives and conjunctive phrases, demonstrative words and phrases, and repetitions, e.^., "consequently," ''how- ever," \-/«ecting its possessor's relation i ;. i I- f I APPEXDIX. (d) Proportion is shown by the bnlt pn,i accorded the ideas In th. fl . Prominence trie icieas. in the first sentence of the first n«rn eraph, after the topic has been stated, the uly^lZZ hav^, j,„etion is set forth ,• and, in the sec nc s ^eLf the d sadvanta^e of being without it is considered T he li ' practical no difference l^tween those sente es so toptc of th" • ?' ""'"^"^^^ '' '^'--t-n beinrth topic of the paragraph, the sentence stating this is deemed more important than the other and nrn^ ^^/t^emed it by placing it, first Th. ^^^^'"'"^"^e ^^ given examined in thell^lll '''''"''''' "^^^ ^ CHAPTER II.-DESCRIPTION. (1) Description is verbal portraiture of obiect. Tt =n v -^r ..H son,eai*/o" r:.t::s t.r:^.;' z writer originally- jierceived it. *^^ (2) Hints. (a) Before attempting to describe an nh^^.^ i, or V stud,i„, good pictures and reading M tSS Ai'PKNnrx. —no new topic Ijeing xlv tion has never «een the object descriW.l, and wishes o (c) Select the point of view from which the object is in Of deta Is depend upon the nearness or remoteness of the pom of view Everything must be examined from this pomt if unity is to be preserved. .>.!? f'^Pf/^^" °"tl'"o 6'ving the smallest nnmber of Anange these with more or less confonnity to some of the plans suggested in pages 10-19. The order wiU be tha wilh d!,r"^ f7 °"*^'^' '^"^ *^^ ^°^P^^ descriptioir w h due regard to unity and proportion. Think out care: fully every sentence before it is written. usIf^^dT/'^^'x'"^'^ descriptive word is accurately u^d and that each adds something to the picture pr<^ ducedm the mind of the reader. ^ure pro- NABBATIOy. (3) Narration is an orderly and connected account ol he particulars that make up a transaction. The oide o uneis the general basis of every narrative. Somet me m a complex narrative this order must yield to that d dependence-cause and effect determining the successiol J^L ^n! P*^^*'",^"^ «™^r^«ed in the account of a trans- motion will generally refer to the foHowing heads : Z xlvi APPENDIX. I. I '1' / C; '*:,^"'^; '*'*-«-"'• «'™«««^v concerned, l^c (5) HlNTH ^ («) PU clearly i„ the mind what was done by eaol, actor, or group of actors, and in what order it was dotif; W Find out whether what was done by one ,«son or se of arsons, M to what was done by the 0^1;,° thToT ™: '™"*' '" "'" o*^ "' -"•* ""O effect „nfe the order of time is of more importance. ind*le!,rrtt"th""™ °. ''*°" °°"'"""'« "» <■«'""» inaispensable to the mam interest of tlio narrative. from tit .'"P""^-* *« ™"™. I'ee,, in view the end fM>m the begmnmg so that every part be shaped and pro per loned w,th reference to the^. Introduce no event great effect. Make each detaU a link jomed to the one gomgbeore and the one coming after, in facrmake^U t^T^^T °™ "'r *^"' ""°'' ""^ -^- ™ L';l J. ' "^^ "'""' "'* ■"» -* -'«» - >o»g (e) Keep up aU the threads it the narrative by bringing up each m its turn to the leadmg epochs in the story adl!,Uta ntJ^r:!."""^^ ^''^^ -"" °^ -""^ <"»- BlOURAPHV. (a) 1. l>«»**;^iptI«,._,Brief general statement of position and character. APPENDIX. xlvii ateinent of position 2. Birth and owlv Ilfp t,, , i i •w*.! '"''— fum» and p Hce of liirfJ, • 3. '^^"^-t^^^^^ university, or other ,.,.. of events in public life; characteristic laboi-M^ events, private life,, friendships; work/e^"' • • "^» -Its cause and accompanying circum stances; age; burial. ^ ^ S cucum- fi. Character-Estimate of, in detail- th. 1« • of the life. ' ^" uetau, the lessons (/>) 1. Description. ' 2. Xarratlvp, including- («) Parentage, (/.) Birth, (c) Edr,- at -o,. .a -Events of Life, (.) Dealh. ^ "''' ^^> 3. Character. 4. inflnence. ((•) TlIK LaxI)IN'(} of the PriaDT« i:^ ""v JTiLGRiM Fathers. - '"■""""-ThePilgrhn Who weratLl. w^ tW leave England? DmS '|m i f H if pi 1 1 ? ; 1 ! . ! ': 1 ■ . 1 1 1 i ' ' ii ■ M' III 1 1 ■ '' in tti jljll^ mils^ xlviii APPENDIX. 4. Uveiit— Thelandingof the Pilgrim Fathers. 5. Manner.— How they sailed across the Atlan- tic in the Mayflower. Brew x;p codes of laws. Landed at Plymouth. Winter. Indian chief's present. Governor Brad- ford's present in return. Frightened Indians. Cleared the wood. Raised crops: PuU nterrative from these expanded notes. Describe the terrors of the voy- age The anxiety of the adven- turers to reach land. Their fear of the Indians. The iVildnesa of the country. Their consterna- tion when they received the Indian's present Explain what it ail meant Describe the differ- ent aspect of the country after the settlement had been mada CHAPTER III. -FIGURES OF SPEECH. (1) A ngure of speech is a deviation from the plain and ordinary mode of speaking, for the sake of greater effect. Figures are divided into two classes : those that pro- mote clearness and concreteness, and those that promote emphasis. The chief figures that promote clearness and concrete- ness are, ^m,7e, Metaphor, Synecdoclie, Mdmymy, Pet- samMton and Allegory, Those that promote emphasis are, Intey-royaUm, Hyjm'Me and AntftheMs. (2) SiMILK. The readiest means of illustrating an object or action ia by representing it as like something «lse. This expressed the terrors of the vov- le anxiety of the ad veil - reach land. Their fear dians. The iVildnesa of try. Their constema- m they received the present Explain what .nt. Describe the differ- it of the country after 'tnent had been mada anded notes. •F SPEECH. I from the plain and {e of gi-eater effect, s : those that pro- those that promote ness and concrete- e, Metonymy, Pet^ promote emphasis object or action ia, B. This expresaed APPKXDIX. resomhlam-e in ,ume one poin, V^tween two objec-,t.s of tlifferent kinds or sj^cies is called Simile (3) Metaphor. A Metaphor is a figure in which the objects compared aie treated by the mhid as idenfical for the time being A simile treats them as resevMing one another: and the mmd keeps the two carefully apart Metaphor. ) ^^^ ^^y ^^ done ; and the darkness / ± alls from the winffs of night Simila . . . j ^%^ feather is wafted downwani ( From an eagle in his flight. Be careful not to use mixed metaphors. Example.— "This is the arrow of conviction whir>h i;t^ (4) Synecdochr SynecdcK^he is that figure of speech by which some strik- ing part of an object is put for the whole or a whole for the part. Examplea -They put to sea with fifty mi/ (ships) He wa. canvas glow s. AH hand^ (men) to the pumps. (o) Metonvmv. Metonymy names, not the object, but some accompani- ment of it so closely related in idea as to be naturally jnterchangeable with it. of%S""rel'^irfT i'-'^r **■''•?'' *he.r««-«« for the bench (.ormKmg.j J^ond me your ear (attention.) 1 APPENDIX. ;i i I I I I 1*^) f'liR.SONIPlOATION. the an^rr^, tempest. Pa/" fenr ^^''*^^ V'"'"'' He stiUerl /m«rf«/ Hope. S^peri^^JZ: ^'''""■''^'^' 'fealousy, ?,./.S (7) Alleuorv. An Allegory is a prolonged ii«,p nf . i sonification in the form J . metaphor and per- ProgresV founded oTthe\ 7. """"^""'^ ''^"^^'^ »i^eisa,rilo.;'.C:t:X^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^'-^ (8) iNTERROflATlOX obta-::::ttlftt r ^^"°"' ^^^ '^- ^'- P-pose ot but in order raffirm;,. ''" '' ^^ indication of doubt, sis lies in irvirtarchll^'^ Tl '''^''''''' ''' ^^P^a: chased at the priSof oW^"*' °^^P^*^«« so sweet as to be i.nr was I not ?: L"2i t'SeTeew'T^'r '^^^^* •' ^-«™: -e you fn>n, al, the^e -SiSaSSiei^dX"^^^^^^^^ ''' (9) HypRRHOLii Hyperbole exaggerates for the sake nf n i • (10) ANTITriESlS. lioor, luxurious; thmJl? ,,,?'• '•"'''" ''"' ''«"■«»• Thonsh *fass, humor la'a^SiThZ™' """• ^it laugta S li AppFNnrx. ADDITIONAL LETTER-FORMS. The foUowing headings, introductions, etc. of letters Some of the mo.st common forms of addre-s a,-e Si,- Dear Su, My dour Sir, Bespec.ed Sir, Si..^; st Oentlemej,, Wie«, Madam, Dear Madam ? ^. ^Zl S, .„„ Uy Dear Friend, My dear Mr, Smith, M^ ^ M, Sm,th, Mother, Brother, etc., according t; the r* .ons of resKct, iulinracy, or affection existing blt4te„ the par-fes. Note that the fonu of addr^s m2,„ZI ^., . as applicable to «„■«. as to ^arZ J uis, veij tally yom-s, Yours respectfuUy, KesnectfuIK ^.nce..ly yours. Your friend. Your obedient serva'^^e Yours affectionately. Your affectionate friend YomWh; ' brother, sister, ,tc., foUowed by the name of ar^:^' rhe^closmg w.,. vary „,th the varying ration,:;*; # 9t) Pearl St., New York Mes8r«. NICHOL.S & Hall, '^''^^ ''' '''^• B2BromfieldSt., Boston. I>«ar8ii-s,— o heighten their My Dear Friend,— I am, Gentlemen, ResijectfuUy yours, David B. Smith, ,Jr. Yours truly, Isaac H. Hamlin. \J ' I t l.ll'l s 111 jitiS4>J ' i t lii APPENDIX. To th« Hon. thk Minister of Eoucation Sir _ ^^^"rito, Out ^' Dear Madajn, — I have the honor to be, Sir, Yom- obedient servant, Edward Evans. Mi8s Amklia D. Cook. :r8 Rideau Street, Ottawa. Sincerely yours, Henry Varnum. -My Dear Sister, - Your affectionate brother, ~5?^ --"^-" ^^~„_. ga'„.Ji'^e*t=S"n^tSL:, r' «" * ■""-'"' ■■ public' your Ideas about Uiat period of your Ufa ^ ■mpressions- Notes of Invitation and Eeplv Informal notes are written in the first person. My dear Mr. Williams • Borden, Augast 3. 1891. "xSSS~S^^^r.iftrr«-' Sincerely yours, Thomas Crossbn. TION, APPExnrx. liii fcobe, Sir, edient servant Edward Evan.s. * " • • • , , 'rely yours, Henry Vahnu.u fciouate brotljer, WJLLIAJL *i»g your oxi)erieuces )1— -your aniuseinents ?lit3 or observations. a museum .■ public ihood— your earliest -your impressions— y~the number— th€ social intercourse. Replv. ; person. , August 3, 1891. ' old college friends SIX o'clock. . a ? I am sura that ■ours, lOMAS CROSSBN. My dear Mr. Crossen ; MoRDKX. AugTist 4. 1891. neL!Tht^l"Va3V" ST " jl'' i-"a«on for Wea„«d.y pleasure to meet old ilLge friend! ^"^^ ""''"'' '"" «"»' Ever yours, A. .T. Williams. Formal notes are written In flm fi,- i Tuesday, August 4. -|wartrErirr„:;;i™'«''- ^- W-K'- -.ea„d 4!ii James Street, August 4. -^ronday evening, the lOth inst ^'^^•^'"'' ''^ ^^eir company on 7 Ann Street, " ' July a July 4. ' ~t^eXi;rrhi^^^^^^^^^ Mr Black and next at 7 o'clock. compan;^' at dinner on Thumlay i^^ Banks Street. July 7. Julys. ' _«f^ Jiv '^PL'K.vnrx. to .»„„„,. 15. Apply for a situation as nlarL- a* . , fications. ion as clerk State briefly your qua],' la WriteSanta Can. .p„ .„ tZLr '"" ^'""^ might .be^rtn li^Zg S'-^Z'Tt °"J "-'-»- '-a, pubtahe,, „( thl, book ; anSiCte ?rio^| "' •""'"anient, 4e UK' )rx. e/i. Wend, returning thanks for ^terview. State clearly th*. xr teacher for some thought- tt, introducing a friend wl,o ing him to he away from ly^newspaper, asking him friend in a distant town :!hri.stmas gift which you some hook state what itulatijig a friend on his mbscription to a dailv se and m what form. ' "Other's name, inviting •nd hour, * in invitation to dinner, n invitation to aoconi- itatehrieflyyourquali- ige across the Atlantic. I child to Santa Claua. lild. and conclusions that >r, brother, cousin ; a >er of parliament, the no. 3 3280 02684216 7