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Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole -^ signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre filmds d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clich6, il est filmd d partir de Tangle sup^rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images n6cessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 '' ). STANFORD'S COMPENDIUM OP GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL (NEW ISSUE) V, ■JiU *^% STANFORD'S • OtMH-XDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AXD TRAVEL (NEW ISSUE) NORTH AMERICA VOL. IT THE UNITED STATES BY HENEY GANNETT CHIEK GEOORAPHKR Of TUF; CMTED -STAIES fiLOLoaiCAL SUHVEY MAPS AXD ILLL'.STIIATIONS LONDON: EDWAKD STANFORD m <\ iii cocKsriTu street, charing cross, s.w 1898 Sangre do Cristo Range Parks of Colorado Park Range . Sawatch Range Elk Mountains San Juan Mountains Continental Divide Plateau Country Canons of Gree and Colorado Grand Canon of the Colorado Great Basin , Great Salt Lake Death Valley Pacific Ranges Cascade Range Sierra Nevada Yosemite Valley Coast Ranges Elevation of United States River I'S PAGE 48 52 53 51 55 57 58 59 59 60 61 66 69 80 82 84 86 87 89 90 94 95 Rainfall Humidity Temperature Forests Flora Fauna Bullalo Jack Rabbit . CHAPTEK II Climatk Fauna, ax D Flora 96 100 100 102 107 110 112 115 CHAPTER III Geology and Minkral REsouRCEa Surface Geology Volcanic Action Lava Fields . Glacial Phenomena 118 121 124 124 PAGE 48 52 53 54 65 57 58 59 59 60 61 66 69 80 82 84 86 87 89 90 94 9;'. CONTENTS Mineral Resources . Coal . . . ' ' Iron .... Iron Mines of Lake Superior Region Pig-iron Steel— Silver Conistock Lode Leadville r.old ...'_' California Gold Mines Methods of Placer Mining . Black Hills of South Dakota— Crijiijle Cree Results of Precious Metal ]\Iining Coi)])er— Lead Zinc- Pi'troleuni Natural Gas— Quicksilver— Salt CHAPTER IV POPULATIOX The People Centre of Population Settled Area St'X— Size of Families Urban Population . Plans of Cities .._'_' Xaniu.-: of Cities Ruined Cities . . Xegroes Distribution of Xegroes Illiteracy of Xcgrocs— Occupations of Xegroes IMortality of Negroes IMoral and Social Condition of the Negroes Chinese Nativity— Innuigration Foreign-iuirn Element . . Distribution of the Foreign-liorn Occupations of tlie Foreign-born Illiteracy of the Foreign-born-Moral and Social Condition of th. iM.reign-born-Age and Sex of the Foreign Con,munitv Interstate Migration . . Native Whites of Foreign Parentagcj IX PAGE 126 128 132 132 134 135 136 137 139 140 142 144 145 146 147 149 151 155 156 157 158 160 161 lo2 163 166 168 169 iro 172 173 176 178 182 183 184 187 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL CHAPTER V Social Conditions Illiteracy . . . . Education : The Common School rA(;i': 191 192 Higher Education . 193 Religion 196 Denominations and Membersliips 198 Mormons Mortality 202 207 Crime 209 raui)erism . Insanity— Deaf— Dumb and Blind Social Customs 210 211 212 Language Hospitality . Summer Resorts 213 215 216 CHAPTER VI The Great Cities New York .... Boston — Rochester — Albany Providence — Worcester — Philadcl[iliia Baltimore .... Washington .... Norlulk .... Richmond — Charleston — New Orleans San Antonio — Mobile — Atlanta (Jalveston — Chicago Indianapolis — Louisville St. Louis .... Bullalo, Cleveland, and Toledo— Detroit— P ^lilwaukee — St. Paid and Minneapolis Dulutii a)id Siijierior — Omaha and Kansas City — Denver Salt Lake and San Francisco Santa F('' — Seattle and Tacoma Portland and Los Angeles . ttsburg and Cincinnati 220 22i 225 228 229 234 235 237 238 239 210 242 243 244 245 218 249 CONTENTS XI rAfJK 191 192 193 196 198 202 207 209 210 211 212 213 215 216 i HAPTER VII Indians and their Remains Indian Wars Classification of tlie Indians Cliaracteristics of tlie Indians Indian Policy- Five Civilised Tribes Pueblo and ]\Ioki Indians Numbers of the Indians— Are tliey Dying Out ? Progress in Civilisation Intermarriage between Wliites and Iiiuians Mound Builders ... Kuins in the South-West PAOF, 250 254 . 258 260 . 263 266 . 271 . 273 -Prehistoric Remains 274 . 275 . 279 CHAPTER VIII Extent and Area Accessions of Territory— Louisiana Purchase Florida Purchase— Accession of Texas Mexican Cessions— Alaska— Public Lands Funuation of States . Areas of States 284 285 286 288 290 CHAPTER IX History Discovery Colonisation . French Settlement . Union of the Colonies Revolution . Union of the States . Adoption of the Constitution Inauguration of Government War of 1812 . Inilustrial Period Texas and the Mexican War Struggle over Slavery Civil War 291 292 294 295 296 300 301 302 305 307 310 311 313 xu COMPENDIUM OF GEOGIiAPIIY AND TEAVEL General Government Executive Executive Departments Civil Service Congress Judiciary Governments of States and Subdivisions of the States I'olitical Parties Budget— National Debt State Debts— Money National Banks Army Navy . ■ Pensions CHAPTER X The Government Territories PA OR 334 336 337 340 341 342 343 344 345 347 349 350 351 352 353 'ill' I' ; I. CHAPTER XI Agriculture Importance of the Industry Number-Area and Size of Farms Ownership of Farms-Cultivated L^-nd A alue of Farms and Products Cotton Tobacco Wheat Indian Corn . Oats and Barley Rye-Buckwheat and Live Stock Kanclies Dairy Products Poultry-Eggs and Hay Potatoes Sugar— Molasses and Rice Fruits Iii'igation 355 356 358 359 361 363 364 367 368 369 370 376 Ol I 378 379 380 381 CONTEXTS Xlll PAfiR 334 336 337 340 341 342 343 344 345 347 349 350 351 352 353 CHAPTER XII Manufactures Importaiioo of tlio Ii^, ustry Value of Product Lumber— Slaugliterin.,^ ami Meat-raokiii> 101 M ) J 104 128 ? J 134 )) 156 'S )> 170 >> 286 >l 400 >l 45d PAOE 438 439 442 443 447 448 449 450 451 453 457 ^w^c 1 2 48 80 90 94 96 101 104 128 134 156 170 286 400 454 LIST OP ILLUSTKATIONS 1 2 3, 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 1.'). 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. . The Capitol, Wasliington . From the Suinniit of Koaii lAIountaiii, N.C. . Hickory Xut Valk'y, N.C. . Gap of tlie Potomac at Harper's Ferry Natural Bridge, Va. The Southern Catskills Great Dismal Swamp, Ya. Drummond Lake, Great Dismal Swamp Crevasse in Mississipi)i River Levee, La. Rapids above Niagara . American Falls, Niagara, from Goat Island Black's Fork, .Alau-aises Terres, Wyoming Shoshone Falls, Idaho Upper Fall of the Yellowstone Mammoth Hot Si)rings ' Old Faithful ' in Eruiition . Upper Firehole, from ' Old Faithful ' . Mud Geyser, Yellowstone Yellowstone Falls Grand Canon of the Yellowstone Alountain of the Holy Cross . Buttes in the Plateau Region . Crested Butte, Colorado Grand Cafion of the Colorado, Arizona Grand Canon of the Colorado. In tlie Granite Grand Canon, Colorado River . The Lower Colorado, Arizona . In Death ^'alley, California . In the Cascade Range, Washington . Mount Shasta, California jMount Rainier, Washington . Mount Shasta, California P.\(1K Frontispiece 5 6 8 10 12 14 15 20 24 25 31 38 41 43 45 46 47 49 51 58 63 64 70 74 78 79 85 86 87 88 8^9 XVI COMPENDIUM OF GEOGllAPIIY AND TR WEL 3:i. ;u. 35. 'M. '37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 4(5. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. .52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 6.5. 66. 67, 68. 69, 70, 71, 72. 73, Tlic Sierra Nevada, CaliforMia, from tlie East Tlio Yoseniite Valley, California Big Trees, ^Mariposa, California Vegetation of Cascade Range in Washington Desert Vegetation ... Cactus ..... The Giant Cactus ... Tree Yucca .... Antelope .... ^lountain Sheep Coyotes .... Bullalo .... Rabliit Drive at Fresno, California Devil's Tower, Wyoming. A Volcanic Xeck Hydraulic Alining in California Oil Tanks and Tank Cars, Linui, Ohio A Louisiana Xetcro's Home New York, with Brooklyn Bridge Li})rary of Congress, Washington Randolph Street, Cliicago Bridge over the Mississijipi at St. Louis River Front at St. Louis New City Hall, San Francisco Santa Fe, from the College Sioux Indian .... Pai Ute Inilians Washakie, Shoshone Chief Shoshone Village Pueblo of Taos, N.M. . Pueblo Indian Women Pueblo of Taos, N.M. . Aloki town, Arizona Navajo Indians Mandan Village, on Upper ^Missouri River Clill'-Dwellings, Arizona ilule Deer or Blacktail Wapiti or Elk .... Whalebaeks in Lock of Sault Ste. Alarie Canal, Mic. Mount Saint Elias, Alaska Fur Seal Rookeiy, Pribylof Islands, Alaskii Family of Fur Seals, Pribylof Islands, Alaska PAOE 91 93 103 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 116 122 143 148 169 221 233 239 240 241 246 218 255 256 257 259 266 267 268 269 270 277 281 871 372 397 430 444 445 I'AflE 91 93 103 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 116 122 143 148 169 221 233 239 240 241 246 248 255 256 257 259 266 267 268 269 270 277 281 371 372 397 430 444 i;5() I'ZO II r- *<".: '.y-K \^ h. I .:«fi ^.\^, ./' #■ ■y^x M > *%^^ ^>i ■^:. ^'Vv. r / G^. "c/, H/' r<'fJ»v>' S "Zt 4?*«: T'f/ X. ''/. v/, /if, /^ «'/. * ''m fth i"/ •'■J^' .( ''/^r: r? ' ^i If try H -^1 ,!l>*^ r/:i ^c A !^ /. f,>T '<'/ :!'''/ '//V -^ o '^;^ '^//-, >Vy ^//, /' Vy/ ^ ^^j <>/^ 'fV' 7 ■^•'«-^^^*'"^'^;t' 40 -;^^ iS / ^ ^"^^^ -5 (? y:^'**fri ,■"■'■ '^Jll « f>f •^ tf ii^^^Mi liki^ A MAP OF THE UNITED To illustrate Chapter I. General view of 110 - — ■— — *-T-— — ^ rr{\ .^ 8 n-^ YiAJlF *" l/i 4^. ■'"■■' ■8p' :\ ■\"--- rr 9 '1.^ ;j «^ai^^n^^f ;v ,1 ^ '•"> AP OF THE UNITED STATES. ustrate Chapter I. General view of the Continent. iU) 85" TX7/~r — '"^ ~^-'->'ZF 5a j 80° ^-uvDsor^ HAY ",;."• V SI, tjfji' /^ U///} r I on mna. [/. MOI / •jlV< j[> uU U\ 7 • ^ -«i 'A /viid^iJTH'W >s^ ^-N SlJiise^>lil Jtuin ibiil'^ ''jonisiitniv. Jd^ . A \, !•■ '-^; n..o... ..: 'tl'* 1/ 75' _>^ 70" %:.\ r \j ^.•*i* %^^^^ ■ .K^-^^'r ii''' .(? A .Ci'i \ 'I^ «ij ]hy! A -i4/< \: (« ro:s M} ,^jij^ « c-;) O \ y>ri "A ^/^i ^^-...^/|^ ^J^i s**' '^y/ *//« ""-; bl V Ci-L, C'"^^ .r*' THE SAWATCH ILVNGE SUiuU Mile*. " 2 ip 2p 3p 4.0 ».- '-W^ daiy^ f Ul( u& 100 2=^ Scale of t^i^Iitili Stal.uie Mil<>n 100 30« »0O 40O BOO '// ^3*^ A^n *^^^ * 5* ^.•- iu — i: 110" 105' 'Watituia'-dii a. o Hr> liUiKlun: Eilv/ai'it Staiiil>r(i,2C>& 27(:U>ck»pur St ^. rs^T^.: w ■I ^ 111 lOijt a' mil rv ^— _, uintlHil\ t'n Lonu ■1% ft-eJ tVtUimhi*'*) KA !K}iiisa.s ^f^. J Sioiiiii*^* I ..''' ^a ^/y -»., /\ -i^ t'h'fn/i lOMV it'^^iL m 1«/.V| /A- •»7m A\U;«i»v< l. ^ ^.;i x>. r; f/ X F \ t'yti * o F c o'l Loiiduii: Kilward KtiUii*ard.S(i& 27 CA>ckspui- St.Charing Cross, S.W. f"»^-' 85 \ \ •«BP^ \ 5s. flioiif^^ 1^=4 _ ,,C$aM5e-'/ ^ liOiigitiicle West 75" of Grefinwidi . StjoniiifclW tkxxf:£sluh'j. rir " THE UNITED STATES CHAPTER I GENEKAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT Topography North Amepjca has, in a general way, a triangular shape, with its base at the north and the most acute angle at the south. Its northern sliores are within the Arctic Circle and are covered with perpetual ice and snow, while its southern extremity is within the tropics and is covered with profuse vegetation. Politic illy, it contains several divisions, the central and by far the most populous of which is the United States. North of this, having nearly the same area, is Canada, while north-west of the latter is Alaska, a terri- tory of the United States, although disconnected from the main body of that country. South of the United States are a number of smaller republics, the principal of which is Mexico. This work will be confined to a description of the United States, the largest, most populous, wealthiest, and, in many respects, tlie most highly civilised of the nations of America. B COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPIIY AND TRAVEL fl The United States is in two parts, which, as stated above, are disconnected. The smaller part, knov/n as the Territory of Alaska, comprises some 570,000 square miles, and occupies the extreme north-west part of the continent. The other portion of the country, which comprises live-sixths of its area and 99 per cent of its population and wealth, occupies the middle latitude of the continent, stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from latitude 25° to 49°. Its neighbour on the north is Canada ; on the south is Mexico. Its area is 3,025,000 square miles. It lies entirely within the North Temperate Zone, and yet witli its wide ranges of latitude, its great extent, its variety of topographic features, it exhiltits a wide range of climate and has a correspondingly wide range of })roducts. The principal physical features of the United States are very simple. There are two systems of uplift, one near the eastern coast, the Appalachian system, which trends parallel to the coast, that is, nearly nortli-east and south-west, and is of little elevation and breadth in comparison with the other. The other is the Cordilleian system, which stretches from tlie Isthmus of Tanania to r>ering Sea, and has its greatest development within the United States. Between the two is a broad basin drained by the Mississippi lliver and the Great Lakes. The Coast The Atlantic coast has, on the whole, a tolerably straight course in a direction nearly south-west ; but in detail it is greatly broken and indented with nimier- ous deep bays and harbours, and is fringed by many islands. The coast of New England on the north is maiidy broken and rocky, with deep fiord-like bays, and J s stated lown as square t of the y^, which nt of its titude of le Pacific I- on the Its area ithin the range of pographic and has ,ed States iplift, one nu, which i-east and ircadth in 'ordillevan *anania to within the ad basin Lakes. toh'rably St; but hi th numer- by many north is bays, and GENERAL MAP OF NORTH AMERICA SCMXOr STATUTE MUJCS 1000 800 aOO 400 20'3 I \ 1 ) 1 \ ittnnlcntii txm'Estoh*Jjcndc 1000 Louduu Edwia-dStBiahi'd.2G«27.UH'lu|«uc StXIinriu^ Cross. S.W. -isasMaEETEL't-ia.— -. GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT many islands, forming a very intricate coast-line. In this part of the coast excellent harbours are numerous. Among them may be mentioned those of Portland, Me., and Boston, Mass. The harbour of Xew York is one of the finest in the world, and has been the chief factor in making that the greatest of all commercial ports. South of Boston the character of the coast changes to a low sandv shore, and this character it maintains thence southward and around the Gulf to the southern boundary of the country. All along this part of the coast ex- tends a line of narrow, linear islands, which are sand- bars thrown up by the waves, behind which are in many l)laces shallow bays or swamps. In tliis part of the cMjast are the bays of Delaware and Chesapeake and .Vlbemarle and Pandico Sounds, u'reat indentations extend- ing far up into the land. The great peninsula of Florida is the oidy projection of magnitude from this coast. This separates the Gulf of Mexico from the Atlantic ( )cean. The (Julf coast trends nearly east and west, turning sharply to the south at the east and west sides of the Gulf. Like the Soutli Atlantic coast, it is low and sandy or marshy, often with reefs enclosing bays on the land- ward side. Many of the rivers flowing into the Gulf have deposited bars oft' their mouths, and certain of them, notably the IMississippi, have built up deltas about the point.: of discharge. The I*acitic coast is much simpler than that of the Atlantic or the Gull'. It is very abrupt, rising from the shore for thousands of feet to the summits of the Coast lianges, and descending l)eneath the surface abruptly to great depths. It has few harbours, San Francisco Bay and I'uget Sound being almost the only ones. These are, however, magniticent in extent, 4 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL in depth, and in protection from wind. In tliis connec- tion should be mentioned also the harbonr of San Diego, near the Mexican boundary, which, although much smaller, is of importance. The Alaskan coast resembles in many ways that of New England, but its features are on a much larger scale. It is rugged and rocky, bordered by thousands of mountainous islands, and abounds in excellent harl:)ours. In latitude G7° the American coast approaches very nearly that of Asia, being separated from it only 34 miles by the Strait of Bering. The Appalachian System This is the easternmost of the two great systems of uplift of the continent. In magnitude and height it is far inferior to the western or Cordilleran system. Its general trend is parallel to the coast, being nearly north- east and south-west, and the numerous parallel ranges and ridges, which are its component parts, conform closely to the general trend of the system. The structure of the ranges which make up this system is ^'a^ied. In Pennsylvania and thence south-westward this system consists of three members clearly distinguishable from one another, the ]^lue Kidge, the Appalacliian valley, and the Cumberland - Alleghany plateau. (3n the south-east is tlie lUue Uidge, which extends from Pennsylvania to (Jeorgia. It is of no great eleva- tion in the former state, scarcely reaching 1000 feet in altitude, but as it is traced south-westward through Virginia it is seen to increase in altitude rapidly. At the gap cut by the Potomac Iliver it is 1500 feet high. At Stony Man, midway of the state of Virginia, it has risen to 4000 feet, and at the peaks of Otter, :0 '4 ;onnec- Diego, 1 mailer, that of larger ;ands of :bours. les very )nly 34 5teras of leight it 3111. Its [y iiorth- ■1 ranges conform structure led. In i system l.)le from n valley, On the ids from it eleva- 000 feet through dly. At 500 feet Virginia, of Otter, GENERAL VIKW OF THE CONTINENT 5 farther south, it has aljout the same elevation. In Xorth ("aroliiia the form of tliis feature changes greatly. In- stead of a inouiitain ridge, it l)ecomes a plateau with a steep esearpineiit toward the south-east and a gentle inclination north-westward. Upon the summit of this l)lat('au stand numerous mountain masses and ranges, which, l»y virtue of their height and magnitude, make this tlie culminating region of the Appalachian system. The FUOM THE SUMMIT (JF JIOAX MOUNTAIN, N.C. disposition of these ranges is very complex, hut in general they may l)e said to treiiu north-east and south-west in accordance with tlio general trend of the system. If' 're are found many mountains exceeding GOOO feet in heii i. Among them, one of the best known is lioan ]\Iountani, whose hi'oad summit is G."500 feet above the sea. Upon this summit is situated a hotel, which in the summer time is thronged with visitors. ]\[ount ]\ritchell, in the IJlaek Mountains, with its elevation of 0711 feet, is tlie higliest peak in the Appalachian system, and the highest point east of the Iiocky ]Mountains. St ■iH if; ii GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 7 These mountains are great rounded masses, like over- grown hills, with little of that ruggedness commonly associated with the word mountain. They are covered with dense forests, so generally, that the few bare summits are distinguished as " Balds," In nortliern Georgia this menilier of the system, the lilue IJidge, drops down and disappears in the plain. The Appalachian Valley Tlie Blue Bidgc is succeeded on tlie north-west by a broad valley, which extends from north-eastern Penn- sylvania into Alabama. This is known as the Appal- acliian Valley. It is traversed throughout its whole extent by numerous ridges, long, narrow, and sinuous, witli level sunnnits, parallel to one another and to the general trend of the system. This region lias been the scene, in past geologic times, of repeated elevations, with faulting, bending, and breaking of the strata, which have brouglit to the surface beds of differing degrees of hard- ness and solubility. There has also taken place here an enormous amount of erosion, which has acted differentially upon the beds, those of limestone having Ijeen eroded more rapidly than those of sandstone or conglomerate, with the result that throun;hout this vallev the sandstone and conglomerate beds remain as ridges, while the lime- stone areas have become valleys. ^lany curious topo- gra})hic features have been produced by this coml)ination of uplift with erosion, and the structural history of this valley is one of surpassing interest. To describe it in detail would, however, far transcend the limits of this volume. The larger streams of tliis region flow across this valley, Atlantic-ward, cutting gaps in the succes- sive ridges, as they encounter them. Such are the GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 23 Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, and James Iiivers. Their present courses evidently antedated the existing lopoL^raphy, having been determined by the broader slopes of the country. The secondary streams are. as a rule, confined to the limits of the narrow, sinuous valleys, l)etween the ridges, but here and there they cross a ridge irom valley to valley, cutting a gorge, or " water gap," through the ridge. Such are the gaps of the Juniata in Pennsylvania, and Big Moccasin Gap in the Clinch Mountain in south-west Virginia. In some places the ridges have been cut by streams at so frequent intervals that they present merely a succession of knobs, their orderly arrangement only showing the original form. It is a region of sinks. The limestone forming the floor of the valley is soluble, and by subterranean solution caves are formed. These are very common. Among them may be mentioned the Caverns of Luray, Weyer Cave in A'irginia, and Nickajack Cave in Georgia. AVhen the surface over such a cave gives way a " sink" is formed, the drainage from which flows down into the ground. Grassy Cove, in East Tennessee, an area of a dozen square miles surrounded by mountains, is a sink. The streams collect the waters in the middle of the valley, where it sinks to reappear many miles away in a powerful S})ring. The Cumberland-Allegliany Plateau The westernmost member of the system is the Cum- Iterland-Alleghany plateau. Eising from the Appalachian valley w4th an escarpment 2000 to 3000 feet in height, the plateau slopes gently away to the north-west. Its crest line in Pennsylvania reaches an altitude of 2500 feet above the sea. In Virginia it exceeds 4000 feet, and thence gradually becomes lower as it extends down 10 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGIIAPIIY AND TRAVEL throuLjli Tciinossee and into Alabama, where it disappears. It lias l»i>eii deeply eroded by streams. Indeed, in some NATUllAI, lilllDCK, VIKGIXIA. parts, as in West Virginia, it lias been reduced l)y them to a skeleton of ridges and gorges. The streams How in crooked courses, but generally in a north-western direction, GHNEUAL VI KW (JF THE COM'INDXT 11 isuppetirs. , ill some ^..i^:"" ^m^- •^'^i >,'r<^y>.:. I l)y them US iiow ill lii'ection, down the slopc3 of the i)liiteau, iiiid in this respect are sharply contrasted with the streams of the Appalachian valley, which tlow mainly in straight courses })arallel to the ridges. The Northern Appalachians In northern New York and throughout New England the Appalacliian system presents a very different character. Instead of a broad valley traversed by parallel ridges, succeeded to the north-westward by a plateau, the system is here represented by ranges and groups of granite and other ancient rocks, presenting little appearance of system in their distribution. ^Vmong these are the Adirondacks, which occupy a region in northern New York between J.ake Cliamplain on the east and the St. Lawrence Eiver and Lake Ontari(j on the west. The region is mainly a plateau, elevated from 1000 lo 2000 feet aliove the sea. rjsing from this plateau are many groups of mountains and hills, some of considerable magnitude and others isolated, or nearly so. The mountains are highest in the eastern part, toward Lake Cliamplain, tlie culminating point being Mount ]\Iarcy, with an altitude of 51579 feet. In its neighbourhood are many mountains exceeding 4000 feet in height. The region is covered with heavy forests, excepting in a few spots where they have been removed by the hand of man. It is dotted with innumerable lakes and ponds, which with the connecting streams -afford access by canoe with short portages to almost all parts of the region. It is penetrated by three railroads, one from the south, another from the east, while a third crosses it from north to south. It is a vacfc game preserve. The deep forests afford protection to deer, which are still found there in abun- dance, while the lakes and streams abound in trout. /'^1 > ' Jl. I ■J. GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 13 The most accessible portions of this region have becom'^ very popular as summer resorts, and are dotted with hotels and summer villages. The less accessible, wilder portions, especially in the west, are much frequented by fishermen and hunters. Fartlier south, in eastern New York, are the Catskills, which contain many peaks approaching 4000 feet in altitude. The broken and rugged ridges which form the Green Mountains of Vermont and the Serkshire Hills of jMassachusetts are also part of this system. The highest summits of the CJreen Mountains are Mount Mansfield, 4430 feet, and Killington Peak, 4380 feet; while among the Berkshire Hills of Massachusetts the highest summit is Greylock, 3535 feet. Much of the area of Xew Hampshire is mountainous. The highest portion of the region is known as the White Mountains, and of these the crowning summit is Mount Washington, 6201 feet. This is the highest summit in the A})palachian region north of North Cirolina. Upon its bare summit, 1500 feet above the limit of forests, is a large and comfortable hotel, reached by stage from the east l)ase, and by cog- wheel railroad from the west. The )iorth-western part of !Maine is alt>o a hilly region, the hills forming a part of the same mountain system. The highest summit in that state is a detached mountain oast of the centre of the state, known as Mount Katalidin, which has an altitude of 5200 feet. The Atlantic Plain East of the Appalachian mountain system the country slopes gently to the Atlantic coast. Toward the mountains it is somewhat broken, and the streams have scored it to a slight depth. Not far from the coast, the underlying rock cl^'nges from granite to a soft recent formation : and I ? 14 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL along the line of change, known as the " fall line," all the streams have rapids or falls. These points mark the head of navigation on the larger streams, and this fact, coupled with the facilities for water power here afforded, has determined the hjcation of many large cities. On the fall line are found Trenton on the IJelaware ; Phil- adelphia on the Schuylkill ; Georgetown, D.C., on the tlUKAT UI.S.MAL SWAiU', VA. Potomac ; Piichmond on the James ; and Augusta on the Savannah. Pelow this fall line the country is low, rarely more than 200 feet aljove the sea, and tlie relief is very faint. Near the coast are large tracts of marsh land. The Great ])ismnl Swamj) of Virginia, the Pocosins of Xortli Carolina, and the Oketinokee Swamp of CJeorgia are the largest and bust known among tliem. Of these the Ch-eat Dismal Swamp is probably the GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 1 •V.-.- ; ^ II Ix'.st kiiuwn. It is sitiuited in the soutli-east eornor of Virgiiiiii, and projects into Xorth Carolina. It lies very low, the highest part being bat 2G feet above tide. This highest part is occupied by iJrumniond Lake, a Ijody of water covering perhaps a dozen square miles. The swamp is covered with a dense growth of cypress and cane, and the water of the lake and swamp is coloured IIKU.MMUNI) J.AKi;, Gl;K.\r IHSM.VI, sWAMl', by the cypress roots to the tint of claret. There are I many canals and ditches in the swamp, l>y means of which I its waters are carried awav and farms are constanth" I cncniaching on its margni. The rivers of the Atlantic I'lain are not lonu', are ■> navi-able only to the fall line, and arc of inii)ortancc niaiidy for tlie water itower which ihcv afford. Tiic chief among them are the Penobscot and Kennebec of :Maine, I lie Coiniecticut, the Hudson of Xew York, the Delaware 4 16 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL and Susquehanna, the Potomac and James of Virginia, the Koanoke and the Savannah. Peninsula of Florida The peninsula of Florida is a peculiar region. It lies very low, its greatest altitude scarcely exceeding 200 feet. Its surface is extremely irregular, being made up of little hills and sinks, or areas without drainage. Though dotted with lakes and ponds, it has few living streams, for the rains that fall on its surface sink almost im- mediately to reappear elsewhere, perhaps, as springs only to sink again. The underlying rock is mainly a porous limestone, absorbing the rainfall, which percolates through it to the sea. In its journey it dissolves the rock and carries it away, and the surface thus undermined, sinks, forming the irregular depressions so common all over the state. The Great Valley The Great Valley between the Appalachian and the Cordilleran mountain systems is mainly drained south- ward by the Mississippi and other smaller streams to the Gulf of ]\Iexico. The north - western part is drained eastward by the chain of the Great Lakes to the Atlantic, wliile a small portion is drained northward by lied Eiver to Hudson Bay. The eastern part of this region is diversified by low hills and undulations, and some of the streams have cut deep channels between bluff's. In north-west Arkansas, south- west Missouri, the south part of Indian Territory, and Oklahoma is a group of mountains of some importance, known as the Ozark Hills. South of the Arkansas Ifiver tliese have the form of sinuous crooked ridges, with a GENERA i VIEW OF THE CO" TINENT 17 Virginia, . It lies 200 feet. p of little Though r streams, most im- ,s springs mainly a percolates solves the idermined, )mmon all n and the led south- treams to part is eat Lakes drained Jay. The low hills cut deep lisas, south- ritorv, and mporlance, msas Itiver ges, with a . Eads. By means of a system of jetties, by which the ri^^er current was extended out over the bar, the river itself was induced to scour its bar away, and to carry the material to the deep waters of the Gulf. By this means the South Pass, which previously had a depth of but 4 feet on its l)ar, now has a depth of 34 feet, which is ample for purposes of navigation. The largest and longest branch of the Mississippi liiver is the Missouri, which heads in its Jefferson fork in GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 21 Orleans lies away, f Mexico At the ecked by . and bars s impedi- ibour and ISIANA. Inove them. American system of led out over ,s bar away, ,f the Gulf. lusly had a [epth of 34 1. Mississippi -son fork iu south-western Montana in the heart of the Eocky Mountains. After a course of 2900 miles in length, in which it flows in every direction excepting west, it joins the Mississippi just above the city of St. Louis. In its turn it has many and important tributaries. Chief among them is the Yellowstone, which is nearly equal to the Missouri, the Milk IJiver, wliich, although a long stream, carries but little water excepting in the wet season, and • tlie riatte, which, heading in the b.ighest of the Eocky ]\rountains in Colorado among perennial snow-fields, runs dry in Nebraska in the summer time, leaving a broad bed ^ of gHstening sand. From the west the Mississippi receives also the waters of the Arkansas, which, heading in the Eocky IMountains \ at an altitude of 10,000 feet, flows down the slope '( of the plains and enters the river in south-eastern Arkansas. This stream also sometimes runs dry in its i passage across the great arid plains. The Eed Eiver heads in the bluff's of the Llano Estacado, and after a , tortuous winding course it joins the Mississippi in Louisiana. J From the east the main branch of the Mississippi is I the Ohio, wliich heads in the Appalachian ]\Iountains in f Now York, Pennsylvania, and AYest Yirginia. Indeed, § tliis river drains the western part of the entire Appalachian system, and pours its waters into the Mississippi at Cairo. The Great Lakes The drainage of the north-eastern part of this great valley is collected into a series of inland seas, Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, which are connected with one another and are drained to the Atlantic by the St. Lawrence Eiver. :i;^ 'I 22 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL The following tal)le presents the area, dimensions, depth, and elevation of the Great Lakes comprising this system : — Area, Length, Breadth, Depth, Elevation, Lakes. sq. miles. miles. miles. feet. feet. Lake Superior 31,200 412 167 1,008 602 Lake Huron . 21,000 263 101 702 581 Lake ^liehigan 22,450 345 84 870 581 St. Claii 396 29 • • • 19 576 Erie . 9,960 250 60 210 573 Ontario 7,240 190 54 738 247 The shores of Lake Superior, the largest of these lakes, are rocky and bluff, and the surrounding country is heavily timbered with conifene. From near its head a chain of lakes, witli connecting streams and swamps, extends westward to the Lake of the Woods. The boundary line between the United States and Canada follows this line of water-communication as far as this lake, and thence westward the 49 th parallel serves as the boundary. The river Ste. Marie connects Lake Superior with Lake Huron. On this river are picturesque rapids, the Sault Ste. Marie, where the river rushes tumultuously down an inclined plane among rocks and islands. The shores of Lake Huron are mainly low, and covered with heavy forests. The western shore is simple, being broken only by Saginaw Bay, an indentation into the lower peninsula of Michigan, but on the east the lake extends with many deep bays far into the Dominion of Canada. Lake Michigan, like Lake Superior, is tributary to Huron, being connected with it by the Straits of Mackinac at its northern extremity. This lake divides the state of Micliigan into its two peninsulas, and separates the lower one from Wisconsin. Lake Huron is drained by the St. Clair Eiver south- GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 23 nensions, 3ing this ward to tlie Lake St. Clair, and thence by the Detroit liiver into Lake Erie. The Niagara Eiver connects the latter with Lake Ontario. Elevation, feet. 602 581 581 576 I 573 i 247 lese lakes, ountry is ts head a L swamps, ods. The d Canada 'ar as this serves as with Lake the Sanlt y down an ad covered iple, being into the the lake oniinion of tributary Straits of ke divides I separates Lver south - Niagara Falls The greatest natural wonder of the region of the Great Lakes are the Falls of Niagara, which were dis- covered by Pere Hennepin in 1678. The Niagara liiver, which connects Lake Erie and Ontario, and forms the boundary between the United States and Canada, has a course nearly due north for 36 miles, of which 22 are above and 14 below the Falls. Just above the Falls the river encircles a large island, known as CI rand Island, its course thus for being gentle. Fresently, however, it begins to feel the influence of the coming leap, and, sweeping along more tumultuously, soon breaks into furious rapids. Iveaching the head of Goat Island, it separates into two branches, that on the American side rushing straight forward to the brink in a mass 1000 feet broad and shooting over into the gulf below. That on the Canadian side of Goat Island sweeps around and plunges over a cliff in the form of a horseshoe (whence the name of the Fall), the two parts of the river meeting at the foot of the Fall. The height of the American Fall is 180 feet; that of the Horseshoe Fall is slightly less, owing to the smaller height of the crest, being 1 7 3 feet. Like most waterfalls, Niagara is working backwards up stream. It is retreating towards Lake Erie, which it will some day reach, when that lake will be lowered to the level of Ontario. " The great cataract is the embodiment of power. In every second, unceasingly, seven thousand tons of water nil 2;"") GENEUAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT leap from n cliff ono Imndrod niid sixty feet hi.^h, and I'liiiliicliroiii Co. I'hoto. AMIcniCAN FA(,I„s, XIAfJARA, FROM r.OAT ISLAND. the coiitiimous blow they strike makes the earth tremble. It is a spectacle of great beauty. The clear, green, pour- 26 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL ing stream, forced with growing speed against the air, parts into rhythmic jets which burst and spread till all the green is lost in a white cloud of spray, on which the rainbow floats. Its charms are the theme of many a gifted bard and artist, but the fascination of its ever- varied yet continuous motion, and the awe that waxes rather than wanes with familiarity, are not to be felt at second-hand ; and so the world, in long procession, goes to see." — Niagara Falls and their History, by G. K. Gilbert ; National Geographic Monographs. J The Cordillera Tlie western part of the United States is a great plateau, crested by the numerous ranges which col- lectively compose the Cordillera. Occupying practically the entire width of Mexico, from ocean to ocean, this plateau enters the United States with a great breadth, extending with its long eastern slope from, say, the 100th meridian westward nearly to the Pacitic coast. Its flat crest is at the continental water-parting, in western Kew Mexico, where it is 4000 to 4500 feet above the sea. As we follow it northward, we find its eastern limits still less clearly defined. The western boundary is, however, sharply limited by the Sierra Xevada and the Cascade Eange, which sweep somewhat to the westward and thus increase its l)readtli. The great streams of this region follow tlie general slopes of tliis plateau, »vith little regard to tlie course of the ranges which cap it, as though their courses were estal)lished before the mountains rose. The continental divide or water-parting, which sei)arates the rivers flowing to tiie Atlantic from those flowing to the Pacitic, is a line, following in general, from south to north, the highest part of the plateau, and the courses I 1 GFNERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 27 :he air, till all ich the uaiiy a :s ever- t waxes I felt at on, goes ' G. K. a great uch col- ractically ?eaii, this breadth, he 100th Its flat tern New the sea. luits still however, Cascade and thus lis region tie regard DUivli their ose. The irates thr u;4 to thr south to he courses of the great rivers indicate broad depressions in the plateau. Tlie continental divide enters the country from the south with an altitude of 4000 to 4500 feet. Thence it increases in altitude northward, and readies a maximuni in Colorado, where it is nearly 10,000 feet above the sea. Passing north-westward through Wyoming with a height of 7000 to 8000 feet, it drops to 40 QO feet in crossing the Canadian boundary. Eastward from its crest this great underlying plateau slopes gently and gradually to the eastward down the great incline of the plains. On the west its features are more complex. The Colorado liiver of the west heads near the crest-line of the plateau, and pursuing a general course somewhat west of soutli, enters tlie (Julf of California beyond the southern l)oundary of the country. This great river, with its long tributaries from either side, marks a general depression in the surlace of the plateau. The rise on the west i'rom this depression separates the basin of the Colorado from the (ireat IJasin, a region extending from the Wasatch IJange in Utah to the Sierra Nevada in eastern California, and from L^outhern Oregon to southern Nevada, the waters of which have no communication with either ocean, and conse([uently no outlet save evaporation. Near tlie middle of this basin there is a well-marked rise of tlie general level on a meridional line, east and west of which there is a depression. Tlie easternmost of these depressions is occu})ied l)y Great Salt Lake ; th*^ westernmost by the lakes and sinks of western Nevada. In the northern part of the country the plateau appears to have a uniform slope westward from the crest. The ranges which crown this plateau are many and complex, ranging widely in height, in orographic form, 28 COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL li and in origin. One broad generalisation, however, in- cludes nearly all of tliem. Their trend is, with very few exceptions, nearly north and south, ranging but a few degrees on either side, but generally slightly west of north. The only well-marked exception to this rule which is known is the Uinta liange of Wyoming and Utah. It was stated above that the main streams of this region conform to the general slopes of the plateau, regardless of such minor obstacles as mountain ranges which have risen to dispute their path. Thus the branches of the Missouri, Arkansas, and lied Eivers flow generally east down the incline of the plains. While the Colorado Paver occupies the bed of a depression and liows in a general south-westerly course, it encounters numerous obstacles, such as mountain ranges and in- clined plateaus, tlirough which it has cut tremendous gorges. Indeed, the system of canons on this river, by which it passes these obstacles, whicli will be described in more detail hereafter, is on a scale utterly unknown in any other part of the world. Many of its branches tldw at right angles to it, cutting directly athwart the ranges, through whicli tliey make their way, by deep canons. The Humboldt liiver, in northern Nevada, also has a course directly across the ranges, which it passes in a similar manner. Tlie Columbia liiver carries its immense ^olume of water to tlie racific coast, cutting across the Cac^ade Eange in a similar manner. This apparently inexplicable conduct of the larger streams in cutting their way across seemingly impassable obstacles, when in many cases easier ])aths are ofl'ered to them, is explained when one learns tliat the streams were there before the ranges and that streams are extremely tenacious of their courses. As the mountains slowlv rose, the rivers, like Jiuge saws, cleft their way through the rising masses, m GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 29 21, m- ry few a few north. lich is of this )lateau, ranges ns the ;rs flow While ion and jounters and iii- nendous •iver, by [escribed nknown jranches vart the by deep ada, also :)asses in immense ross the parently cnttinj^' when in xplained fore the of their ers, like f masses, preserving ncu only their general courses, but in many cases even the details of their meanderings. Of this class of orographic phenomena the Cordilleran region affords many line examples. Earely has a stream been driven from its course except by violent catastropliic action. The Great Plains Tlie plains which form the eastern slope of the great CoriUUerau plateau have no well-defined eastern limits, but shade imperceptibly into the prairies of the Missis- sippi valley. They rise gradually, with a very uniform slope, towards the west. The surface is a monotonous, rolling, treeless expanse. The stream-beds are but slightly below the general level, and tlie water-partings between the streams are indicated only by broad swells in the surface. The landscape resembles the ocean in its long billowy undulations. There are no landmarks, and the mariner is no more dependent upoji his compass and sextant than is the traveller upon this great expanse when away from the travelled routes. IJetween latitutles 49" and 4G', the plains extend- westward to longitude 112°, rising from 2000 feet above sea-level at the mouth of the Yellowstone to about 4ri00 feet at tlie base of the mountains, a mean slope of out 3"o feet per mile, farther south, in latitude 44°, the monotony of their surface is broken by the group of low mountains known as the lilack Hills in South Dakota. At the foot of this outlviuix utoui), which rises to a mean height of 7000 feet above the sea, the plains have an elevation of 3000 feet, having risen from the ]\Iissouri Eiver at the more rapid rate of 7 feet per mile. Southward from the latitude of the Black Hills, the base of the mountains is in approximate lou^jitude 105\ 30 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL In Colorado the elevation of the western edge of the plams rises with the South Platte Eiver, from 5000 feet at the northern houndary of the state, to 7500 at the water-parting between this stream and the Arkansas. Thence it falls to 5000 feet at the debouchure of the Arkansas from the mountains, and thence gently rises and falls with the water-partings and valleys as far as the valley of the Canadian liiver. Along the line of the Platte and its North Fork, the slope of the plains is about 8 feet per mile ; while along the Arkansas it is 10 feet, showing a marked increase in rate of slope in going from the north southward. South of the Canadian liiver, the Llano Estacado, or Staked Plain, forms a marked departure from this uniform slope. This is a great, waterless, well-grassed tableland, having an elevation above sea of 3000 to 5000 feet, its greatest heiglit being on its western and northern borders. On the west it descends by steep l)luf(s to the valley of the Pecos, a branch of the liio Cirande, which separates it from the mountains ; on the north it falls with an ecpially abrupt descent to the valley of the Canadian. On tlie east and south the descent is less steep, but decidedly more rapid than the slope of the plains. No streams tlow across it, l)ut in its eastern slopes head most of the streams of Texas, and many small branches of the Canadian. Mauvaises Terres " Pad lands " are found in many localities over this western country, and some sections of the plains present fine examples of tliis peculiar feature. On White Piver, a western branch of the Missouri, in latitude 44°, there is a large area, and another covers a great extent of GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 31 of the 00 feet ' at the 'kansas. of the [y rises far as ork, the ; while marked 3 north Lcado, or uniform ibleUuid, feet, its borders, valley of irates it ec^ually On the cidedly streams t of the of the le nver tliis present White lude 44°, extent of coinilrv on tlic Lower Yellowstone and t])o Little ^Missouri. Tlie rock formation liere is a soft, friable, argillaceous slialo, which disintegrates readily on exposure to the elements. The surfoce is covered with a deep bed of soft powdery clay, the jirttduct of disintegration, from which rise cliffs, turrets, towers, indeed all sorts of arclii- r,i,A( k'.s kokk, mauvaisks tkukes, wyomixu. m tectural forms, sculj>tured by the chisel of nature from "l tlie soft yielding material. Indeed, the resemblance to ■: some lialf-buried city of modia'val times is so great tliat I some localities have received names expressing this f likeness. For years "Goblin City," in western Colorado, had a ])lace on the nia})S. To make the resemblance still more striking, these old ruined cities have had their ,^ inhabitants, who are buried with them. Evervwhere we ..J# (" TT- 32 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL find their remains, tlie bones of those ancient tertiary inhabitants, the gigantic saurians, pterodactyls, etc. The Rocky Mountains For purposes of description these mountains may be divided into the following parts, which differ from one another sufficiently to make it a natural subdivision. 1. The Eocky Mountains, which embrace the mountain region of Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico. 2. Tlie plateau region, drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries. 3. The Great Basin, with its complex system of ranges. 4. The Pacific Coast Eanges, including the Sierra Nevada, Cascade, and Coast Eanges of the Pacific States. Orographically, the Rocky Mountains are divided into two parts by a break in the system in southern Wyoming, where, from the southern end of the Wind River Range to the northern end of the Park Ranges, the system is represented only by elevated plateaus. The characteristic of the system is that of parallel chains, trending somewhat west of north. In northern jMontana the Missouri Ranue faces the plains from the boundary southward to the 46th parallel, and carries the continental water-parting. East of it the monotony of the plains is broken only by a few groups of hills, wliich, from their isolated position in a fiat country, have been, in some cases, honoured beyond their deserts by being called mountains. Among them are the " Little Rocky," the " Bear's Paw," etc. West of the IMissouri Range rises Clarke Fork of the Columbia, which pursues a devious course among the many mountain spurs whicli obstruct its passage, and is GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 33 bertiary may be •0111 one Lon. lountaiii .nd New- do Kiver r'steni of le Sierra Lc States, aded into ►Vyoniiug, rer llange system is acteristic somewhat uri I'ange the 46 th East by a few Ltion in a ed beyond long them ork of the imong the ige, and is ng. finally driven far to the north-west to escape from the mountain maze by which it is surrounded. It finally finds a passage through the second great range of the system, the Bitter Eoot, in the southern part of British Columbia. This range trends south-eastward, parallel to the Missouri" Eange, and at the end of the latter is con- nected with it by a low, broad saddle known as Deer Lodge Bass. South of this point the continental water- ])arting is carried by the Bitter Eoot Eange to its end in latitude 44^ The depression between these two ranges is filled with short ranges trending parallel to them, and contains several fine large valleys, valuable for agriculture and cattle-raising. The Missouri and Bitter Eoot Eanges reach altitudes in the peaks of upwards of 10,000 feet, and probably the average height of the ranges is in the neighbourhood of 8000 feet. They are crossed at a number of passes at elevations ranging from 5500 to 0500 feet. West of the Bitter Eoot are several detached ranges, some of considerable extent, as the Salmon Eiver ^loun- tains, which consist of a succession of ranges parallel to the Bitter Eoot, and greatly exceeding it in altitude. They occupy most of Central Idaho. Missouri River In latitude 45° 50', longitude 111° 34', the Missouri Eiver divides into three large streams, known resi»eetively as the Jefferson, ]\Iadison, and Cfallatin Eivers. These branches head far to the southward, meetinulders and ledges. In several places there are noteworthy falls. The upper of these is the American Fall at a point a few miles below the mouth of the Port- neuf, where the " Mad " Eiver, as it was called in early days, leaps over a wall of basalt oO feet in height. Shoshone Falls Some distance farther down is Shoshone Fall, by far the greatest and finest on the river. This fall was visited in October 1868 by Mr. Clarence King, who gives the f(jll()wing fine description of it : — " The wall of the gorge opposite us, like the clitf at our feet, sank in perpendicular bluffs nearly to the level of the river. A horizon as level as the sea ; a circling wall, whose sharp edges were here and there battlemented in luige fortress- like masses ; a broad river, smooth and unruttted, flowing quietly into the middle of the scene, and then plunging into a labyrinth of rocks, tumbling over a precipice 200 feet high, and fiowing westward in a still deep current to disappear behind a black promontory. . . . " In plan the fall recurves up stream in a deep horse- shoe, resembling the outline of Niagara. The total breadth is about 700 feet, and the greatest height of a single fall about 190. .. . The whole mass of the fall is one ever-varying sheet of spray. In the early spring, when swollen by the rapidly melted snows, the river pours over with something of the volume of Niagara. . . . There are !' ■ i I i ^rr M' III 38 COMPENDIUM OF GKOGRAPIIY AND TUAVKL iio rocks at the haso of the fall. Tlio sheet of fitaiu pluiiiL^'cs almost vertically into a dark, l»eryl-greeii, lake-like expaiisc of the river. Imiiiense volumes of foam roll up from tiie catai act-base, and, whirling about in the eddying ^vindR, SHOSHONE FALLS, IPAHO. rise often 1000 foot into the air. . . . The incessant roar, reinforced by a thousand echoes, tills the canon." Snake Biver Plains Great desert plains extend from the southern ex- tremity of the Bitter lioot and Salmon liiver Ikangos southward to the Snake, and from eastern Idaho nearly to its western boundary. Their surface is slightly un- dulating, broken only by crevices, and covered by driftin<,' sand, or, in its absence, by bare rock and boulders. GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 39 [)illlSt' 11 the vinds, lit roiu , Irn ex- nearly itly uii- idriftiiiL!: )ulders. Artemisia is alriost its sole vegetable product, and here this bush attains arborescent proportions, growing to a hoight of 12 to 15 feet, witli trunks nearly a foot in diameter. It has little water upon its surface. The streams from the mountains soon disappear in crevices, to reappear and disappear perhaps again, meantime flow- ing beneath the basalt floor in subterranean channels. Near the middle of this desert an three mountains, standing alone and detached from one anotlier, the " Three P)Uttes." Strange objects are these mountains, rising nearly 3000 feet above the plain. From time im- memorial they have served as landmarks to the traveller on these pathless wastes, like lighthouses to the mariner. Bighorn River The Bighorn River is tlie largest branch of the Yellowstone, flowing into it from tlie south-west. Its tributaries from the west drain the Absaraka and Wind liiver Eanges, while those from the east drain tlie Bighorn Mountains. Tlie latter is a broad massive range, in whose eastern slopes head the Powder, Tongue, and other large branches of the Yellowstone. This region was long the home of the most warlike of Indian tribes, the Sioux. From these rocky fastnesses they long repelled the invading white man. It is only within a few years that the advancing wave of civilisation has here acquired sufficient power to sweep the red man away, and put the beautiful valleys and the rich mineral deposits of this region into the hands of the whites. We pass now southward across the broad valley of the Wind River, a branch of the Bighorn, and the Sweetwater valley. These valleys have long been a borderland, the scene of many bloody fights between the '■ 40 COMPENDIUM OF GKOGRArilY AND TRAVKL two coL*"3iidiiig races. The old overland road up the valley ot" the Sweetwater is lined with the graves of victims of Indian atrocities, and the ruins of caliins here and there "Veil a similar tale. Yellowstone Park The country about the heads of the I^fadison, Yellow- .stone, and Snake LMvers, in the nortli-western part of Vryominjjj, seems to have been set aside by the (Jod t)f Fire for the exiiibition of the action of volcanic forces. In times \ouiT past, but geolotj;ically very recent, this region has been repeatedly covered by Hoods of lava; great ranges of mountains Jiave been built l)y catastrophic action ; and to-dav we find these forces still activclv at work, as evidenced by tlie innumerable hot sjjrings and geysers whit li art! fotmd all (»ver the surface. Uefore the gevsers of this region, the Yellowstone National I'ark, ail others of the world — eviMi the celebrated ones of Iceland — sink into insigiuticance. I'ntil a very recent period this country was a /n-rc liicdi/iii/n, save from the vague tales of Indians and white hunters and trappers, and these wonders were scarcely suspected. Di'terred by the dillicultics of approach, many exploring parties have passed by this region. It >vas not until 18^ that any authentic account of any ])art of this country was obtained. In that year a }nospecting jtarty, undtT the leadership of Captain W. \V. I)e Lacy, l)enetrated the western edge of this region, and by accident came to what is now known as the Lower (Jeyser Uasin, near the head-waters of the Madison lliver. The accounts of this discovery, however, attracted little attention ; but in 1S70 a })arty was organisetl in Montana to test the truth of these stories. This party, under the l(>adership of ? ^ I ill I 42 COMrENDIUM OF GEOGKAPIIY AND TRAVEL General Wasliburn, then Surveyor-CJeneral of Montana, discovered most of the wonders of the region, and first publislied them to the world. During the two following years, 1871 and 1872, the region was explored by the parties of the U.S. Geological Survey of the Territories, and the results were pr.ldisliod by the Government; and in the winter of 1871-72 the region embracing these wonders was set off by Congress as a national park. Tliis park contains about .'{aOO square miles. It is mainly a liigli rolHng country, covered by a dense growtli of coniferous Lind>er. Several small groups of mountains diversii'y its surface, and along its eastern border stretches a high, rugged, volcanic range, separating the waters of the Yellowstone from those of the Uigliorn. Tlie average elevation of the Park is about 8000 feet above sea-level, an elevation which gives it an almost Arctic climate. For netirly nine months of the year snow lies on the grouiul and frost is liable to occur even on midsummer nights. The month of September usually ushers in the winter. Geysers and He Springs TTot springs ininimerable are found throughout the Park. They are omnipresjMit. Among the dense forests, on the i)lateaus, in the valleys, on the walls and at the bottoms of canons, on mountain sloj)es and even at their summits, — yea, even in the beds of lakes and rivers, — they are found. AVith their de])osits they have built mountains, as at the Mannuoth Hot Sjirings, or have „ lloored whole valleys, as in the (Jeyser P>asinsof the Fire- | hole or Madison Iliver. They are of all sizes, from a few inches in diameter to areas of several acres o ' liot water, of all temperatures, from te]>id to boiling. Associated with these springs, at a do/en or more localities, are '^ M GENEItAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 43 ;u'tive geysers, llirowing ooluiuns of l)oilin<^ water, in cxtrcinc cases, 250 feet in liei^L,dit. Allotretlier there are known to l)e fifty ;.i,eysers witliin the I'ark. The Mammoth Hot Springs Tlio first group of sjtrings whicii arrests nttonti(in on enterinsi tlie J'aik from the nortli is tliat of Wiiito .MAMMOIir IKtr SI'UINUS. Mountain or the Manunoth Hot Springs. . These s})rings are liighly eliargeil with cah-areons matter, which they 'l<']'osit,on cooling, in marvellous (piautity. On a))proa"h- iiig them th(! visitor heholds a hill, .several hundred feet in height, of dazzling whiteness, with its sides •striped with hands of vivid red and yellow. This hill is the Work of the s}»riiigs, which hurst fortli ^ 44 COMPENDIUM OF GKOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL * > U[»(iii its sinniiiit, and pour their waters down from Itasin to basin upon its sides. The stee}) sides of the hill are ornamented with a series of these semicircular basins, with margins varying in height I'rom a few inches to 6 or 8 feet, and so beautifully scallo})ed and adorned with a kind of bead- work, that the beholdei' stands amazed at this marvel of Nature's handiwork. Add to this a snow-wliite ground, with every variety of shade of scarlet, green, and yellow, as brilliant as the brightest of our aniline dyes. Th<^. pools or basins are of all sizes, from a few inches to or 8 feet in diameter, and from 2 inches to 2 feet in depth. As the water Hows from the spring down the hillside i'rom one basin to another, it loses continually a ])ortion of its heat, and the bather can find any tenqx^rature lie desires. At the top of the hill there is a l)road, ilat terrace, covered with these l)asins, 150 to 200 yards in diameter. Here are the active springs. The largest one is near the edge of the summit. It is 2') by 40 feet, and the water is so ])erfectly trans})ar(Mit that one can look down into the blue ultramarine depth to tlie bottom. Tlie nuns of extinct springs tell us that we see now only the lingering remains of an enormous past activity. Everywhere in the ncighbourhoofl, for miles in all direc- tions, are the calcareous deposits of extinct springs, some vet naked of vegetation, but luost of them covered with soil and trees, ^fany cones of this formation, sell'-built mausoleums of hot springs, arc to ]»e seen. Tiie most prominent of these is known as tlu^ " Liberty Cap," a cone ."tO feet in heiglit, and about 20 '''ct in diameter at the base. (;knei;al vikw of the continent The Geyser Basins Xear the head of the ]\Iiidison JJivcr, wliicli liero is known as the Firehole, are two small valleys, one 'ul.D IAHIII'TI. in l.lil iikin. ooiitaining a ilo/en, the otlu'i" about 20 scjnare miles, in which is the greatest colleetion of hot spiinjiis and geysers ill tile n'giiin. Of these the np^u-r contains the i^ieatest iiuniher iiiid the most active neysers. Imagine a vallev ll li \\ (l( tri geyst "llicil T iiiilt'.sl iiicliij itllniit GENEKAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT r| .--hiiL ill It}' luLi'li, liluff walls, its bottom lloorcd tlii'(»u,L;ii«iut with a hard, j^distciiiii^j ciust of silica, thu deposit fiom thu almost innumeraMo Imt sprin,i,^s and geysers which dot its surface. Throiu^li the middle of the vallev Hows a small river, whose water is rendered tepiil by the con- tributions of the wvsers. In this valley there are no less than eighteen true lU it: 'liil Mil) (ll.Y.SKU, yki.i.uwstom;. geysers, most of which throw water to a consitlerable lii'ight. Some (»f them are irregular in their jteriods, "iiliers doubly periodic, having two or more erujttions at •■^hort intervals, and then taking a lonij; rest. The J.ower Geyser Uasin, which is situated about 10 miles below the Vjijier ISasin, on the Kirehole L'iver, includes a much larger area than the latter, occu] tying idtniit 20 S(puu-e miles. Though it contains several lino d 48 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAl'HY AND TRAVEL fi ■ \: ^1 geysers, it is distiiiguished rather by the size, number, and beauty of its quiet hot springs than by the activity of its geysers. Jsetween these l)asins, on the Firehole liiver, are many springs, one of them being of enormous extent, covering many acres. A third large collection of geysers and hot springs is at the west end of Shoshone Lake. This l)asin, which is off the beaten track of tourists, and conseijuently is not often visited, contains ten geysers and numerous hot springs. Still another smaller group is found on the shores of Heart Lake, at the foot of Mount Sheridan. Near the head of Gibbon Itiver there is a large group of geysers and hot springs, known as the Norris Basin, whose peculiarity is the small amount of deposits about them. Either the water contains but little matter in solution, or these springs have but recently burst forth. Yellowstone Falls Hot springs and geysers are not the only objects of interest in this region, for Dame Nature, ever lavish of her treasures, has richly endowed this country. Its mountains, waterfalls, and canons are well worthy of a momentary glance. The Yellowstone liiver, from the lake near its head to its point of exit froai the Park, ju'esents the traveller with an ever-changing panorama. I.eaving the lake, for several miles the river is broad, flowing with a gentle current between high -wooded banks. Soon, however, rapids intervene, the river-bed becomes narrow and broken up by huge rocks ; the river roars tumultuously along, down a steep broken incline, and shoots over a precipice 112 feet in height. This is the Upper Fall, llecovering itself from this ebullition, 1(5 2 •20 & I OS 'Si M w itli : !( 1 1 1 J , Ml i THE YELLOW STONE NA iicaowe SCALE OF STATUTE MILES ^ M ? ! ? t___ J2_ JL 20 Londna Edward Stautbrd. 26 * 27, Cookspur S ■Bte^ ^AM GIVE NATIONAJ. PARK. 20 SianfbrdJs GeucflEstaHlxmdoth ibrd. 26 * 27. Cockspur St.Charaiig Cross. S.W: ^v>. ^^s%^t% IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 mm 1115 t ■- Ilia U lllll 1.6 V] o /a < 4>»v '^.^'* ■> ^<^ t ]l GKNEKAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 49 the great river moves (quietly along its course for half a mile, and then suddenly rolls over a sheer precipice oOO I >■ I YEIJ.OWSTONK FALLS. fwt in licight into the depths of the Grand Canon, down whuse sinuous course it roars and tears along, an em •.•ald- .0 COMPENDIUM (JF GEOGRAPHY AND TliAVEL green liaud, Peeked with snowy foam, between tlie deeply- coloured walls of the cafion. Of the Lower Fall and the (Jrand Cafion, ])r. A. C. I'eale writes as follows in the ixeport f(n' 1872 of the Geological Survey of tlie Territories, p. 132: "The river suddenly narrows to a width of only 100 feet, and rushes over a ledge of trachyte, falling (oOO feet) to the bottom of the canon. The water at the edge of the Fall is very deep, and of a deep green colour. . . . "When we approach the lirink and look over into the abyss, we begin to realise the Mttleness of man in the presence of Nature's grand masterpieces. Down, down goes the whirling mass, battling and writhing as the water dashes against the rocks with a noise like the discharge of artillery. Here and there a resisting rock is met with, and the water rebounds, broken into myriads of drops, which throw back to us the sunlight resolved into its primitive colours. Tlie bottom of the canon readied, the immense mass of water seems to dissolve itself into spray, and then recovering, it flows down the gorge an emerald- green stream, dashed with patches of white, beating witli furious waves the rocky walls that imprison it. Tak(Mi in connection with the varied tints of the canon itself — red, yellow, orange, white — the dark-green pines fringing the top, and tlie bright green of the spray -nourislied moss on the sides of the fall, we liave a picture of almost unequalled magnificence and grandeur. It is a scene of which one never tires, and in the description of whicli language fails." Tlie Grand Canon is a gorge some 20 miles in length, cut in a volcanic plateau. It has a depth of 1200 to ' 2S exceed- top 1' ing half a mile. The walls are precipices or inclined at a fearful angle. The river Hows in the sharp notch at GENEKAL VIEW OF THE CONTLNENT 51 piy- aiul i in the to a e of LUOll. of a n-iiik > the Tvaud mass, t the Here water throw mitivo imuiist' ^' ami iierahl- if with Taken tself — 'ringin;i nrished almost 3cene of f which length, .200 to exceeil- -lined :it iiotcli at tlie liottom. Access to the bottom of the canon is to be found (inly at a very few places, and in those the climb (ii;ANU CANON UF Tllli YELLoWMUNK. is iKit unattended with danger. On the east side of ihe river ii narrow crevice in the i'rial)le volcani(.' rock affurds '■i't.f 'I'l M §1^ r - ' 52 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL a way down to the foot of the fall, where, if the visitor desires a thorough shower-bath at Nature's hands, he can obtain it. Hot sulphur-springs are found in the greatest abund- ance at the foot and on the slopes of the canon-walls, adding the colours of their deposits to those of the brilliant volcanic rocks. Southern Rocky Mountains Soutli of the Wind lliver liange the continental " divide " follows a line of plateaus south-eastward to the Park Eange of southern Wyoming and Colorado. These plateaus decrease in elevation on either hand ; on the east grading down into the valley of the North Platte and the Laramie Plains, on tlie west to the Green Piver Pkisin. The sunnnit of this plateau is broad, and so flat that for many miles one cannot tell whether he is on the Pacific or Atlantic slope. The height of the water- parting in this section is about 8000 feet above sea- level. The southern section of the liocky Mountains com- prised in southern Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico contains the greatest mass of elevation. Though not containing the highest peaks, being excelled in that respect by the Sierra Nevada, it contains the greatest number of high peaks. Here are ranges extending for hundreds of miles, whose crests are surmounted bv lines of peaks exceeding 14,000 feet in height, and whose mean elevation exceeds 13,000 feet. While the ranges trend a few degrees (20 to 25) east of south, the edge of the plains, i.e. the foot of tlii' mountains, trends nearlv south. The result of this is GENEHAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 53 nil cii echelon arrangeineiit of the ranges, the front one (hsappearing in the plains, while that which was second in the line comes to the front. Proceeding westward from the western border of the plains we cross a succession of two, three, or more well- defined ranges, beyond which are scattered groups of mountains apparently without system. There is a great contrast in this respect between the eastern and western sides of the system. On the east the plains are bordered by well-defined ranges, whose crests are sharply cut; wliile on the west the mountain-making forces seem to have expended themselves in throwing up groups more or less isolated. Colorado Range From the North I'latte Eiver, in southern Wyoming, southward to the debouchure of the Arkansas from the mountains, one continuous range faces the plains. The northern part, in Wyoming, is known as the Laramie llange. This is comparatively low, reaching a mean height not above 9000 feet. It is crossed at Evans Pass (Sherman Station, Union Pacific Piailroad) at an elevation of 82G9 feet. Entering Colorado it suddenly increases in height to 13,000 feet, while its peaks rise above 14,000 feet. Among them are Long Peak, 14,271 feet ; Gray, 14,341 ; and Pike Peak, the well-known land- mark to the pioneers of '"59," 14,147 feet. With the latter the range ends, falling off into the plains in a few miles. Early in this century Major Pike, with an ex- jiloring party, made a valiant effort to reach the summit of this mountain, but was finally obliged to turn his hack upon it, sadly remarking that nothing but a bird could reach its snowy summit. Put nctw a railroad has heen built to the top, and every sunnner's day sees scores 'if -1 1 ^ \ i 54 COiMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAI'HY AND TRAVEL of visitors — men, women, and cliildren — upon its broad, isolated summit. The higher portion of this range, which is nearly coincident with the part in Colorado, is known as the Colorado or Front Eange. It is a granite range, heavy and massive in its orographic forms, and with a V»road belt of foothills on its eastern slope. It is cut through by the South Platte, which, heading in South Park, seeks this exit to the plains. About the canon of this stream the range is very much Ijroken down by erosive agents, but southward it rises again in the mass of which Pike Peak forms the centre, only to disappear immediately in the plains. Sangre de Cristo Range South of the Arkansas Eiver the front rank is taken by the Sangre de Cristo Pange ; while a short range, known as Greenhorn JMountain, occupies for a short distance the position of a skirmish line. For a long distance the former is a beautifully simple range, with a sharply defined crest and a single row of peaks. In latitude 37' 30' it l>roadens and cuhninates in a group of mountains, the Sierra Planca, whose highest peak, Blanca, overtops everything in Colorado. Its height has been determined to be 14,404 feet. This is the highest peak in the country, excepting in Alaska and a few summits in the southern part of the Sierra Nevada. East of this group are the Spanish Peaks, two sharp volcanic summits rising high altove the hills which surround them. Southward the range continues with a slowly decreas- ing elevation, until, in the latitude of Santa Fe, New Mexico, it loses its continuity, being represented farther GKNERAL VIEW OF THK CONTINENT m south only by short low r{inn of narrow valleys, sejiarated from one another by high ranges, spurs from fl ,'s ^7 r 66 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL V \ . m^H 1 m 1 III i il 1- 1 Wk the walls of tlie Park. Tii this depression heads Grand liiver, a fork of the Colorado. The next in this series is the South I'ark. This is a table-land, very uniform in surface, with the exception of a few minor ridges, and in the southern part numerous volcanic buttes. Its shape is nearly elliptical, its longest axis being nearly north and south. It is about 50 miles long by 25 in breadth, and its area is about 1000 square miles. The prevailing slope is from north-west to south- east. The elevation in the northern part is 9500 to 10,000 feet, while in the south-eastern corner it falls to 8000 feet. Its limits are sharply defined by the surround- ing mountains, which rise abruptly on all sides to the highest summits. It is drained l^y the South I'latte and its branches. Its surface is covered with the highly nutritious bunch grass, which makes it an excellent pasture-land. Crossing the Arkansas liiver, where it tiows in a profound canon in tlie hills which border South Park on the south, and rounding the north end of the Sangre de Cristo liange, we enter the great valley of San Luis, a vast plain which stretches southward for 140 miles, with an average width of 35 or 40 miles. Its area is more than 5000 square miles, and its elevation ranges from 8000 feet at its northern end to 7400 feet in northern New Mexico. Its surface is as flat as a billiard table. Variations of level are very slight, and are imperceptible to the eye. The beds of the streams are but slightly depressed below the general level.' Most of the soil is sandy, and towards the eastern side the sand is heaped up into dunes, many hundreds of feet in height, against the mountains. The Rio Grande del Xorte heads in the San Juan Mountains on the west* side of the valley. From the GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 57 lateaus, indicating the former height of the plain of which they formed ]iarts. " The landscape everywhere, away from the river, is I f GENEUAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 03 of rock — cliffs <»f rock, -ables of rock, plateaus of rock, terraces t)f rock, cra^'S of rock — ten tlioiisaud stranEi;ION. must not conceive of piles of boulders, or heaps of fragiiicnts, liut a whole land of naked rock, with giant fiiriiis carved on it; cathedral -shaped l>uttes, towering liuii(h'cds or tht>usands of feet : dill's that cannot he scaled, and canon walls that shrink the river into in- sii;iiiticance, with vast holhnv domes and tall ]>innacles, and shafts set on the verge overhead, and all highly i!p COMPENDIUM OF (JEOGUAPHY AND TRAVEL »' 11 ■i ■■■ . t-. coloured — biift', gray, red, l)rowii, and chocolate; never lichened, never moss-covered, but bare and often polished." The above description by Major J. W. Powell, whu has explored the canons of tlie Colorado, gives a graphic pen-])icture of the lower and more arid plateaus uf this regKjn. Nearly every watercourse, whether the fitream be ^.IJ: ...t'.: -■.-(■. I'llESTKU BUTIE, COLORADO. *' ,\' perennial or not, is a canon ; a narrow valley, with pre- ci[)itous walls, often of enormous height. In many cases these canons are so numerous that they cut the plateau into shreds — a mere skeleton of a countrv. Of such a section Lieutenant Ives, who explored the course of the lower Colorado, writes : " The extent and magnitude of the syston of canons in tliat direction is astounding. The plateau is cut into shreds by these gigantic chasms, GENERAL VIEW OF THE COXTINEXT 65 and resembles a vast ruin. Belts of countiy, miles in width, have been swept away, leaving only isolated luoimtains standing in the gap ; fissures so profound that the eye cannot penetrate their depths are separated by walls whose thickness one can almost span ; and slender spires, that seem tottering on their base, shoot up a thousand feet from vaults below." But few of these canons contain water throughout the year. Most of them are dry at all times, excepting for a few days in the early spring, or for a few minutes or hours at most after a heavy shower. It is a characteristic of western North America, as of all arid countries, that the streams, away from their sources in the mountains, lose water, rather than gain it, in traversing the lower coimtry. The dry atmosphere and tlie tliirsty soil alisorb it, and, in very many cases, large streams entirely disappear in this way. This is the case to a great extent in the plateau country, and still more so in th" Great Basin, where these are the only outlets to tlie drainage. A few words will suffice to sketch the manner in which the climate has acted in producing these strange and uni(i[ue orographic effects. The great degree of aridity of the atmosphere, and the slight rainfall, coupled w'th its sudden, explosive character, render plant -life very limited in amount. The soil, having little or no protection against the sudden Hoods, is washed away nearly as fast as it is formed ; or, in other words, trans- lx)rtation nearly or quite keeps pace with disintegration. Tlie rains, coming as they always do in Hoods, run im- mediately off' the liare rock, or over and through the thin sandy soil, sweeping it with them ; and, collecting in the little runs with incredible rapidity, rush down them in great body and with great velocity, sweeping everything before them. The waters are turbid and thick with if :i' i •;l,. ^ n 1 1 *::ii yM nf i « ■ 66 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL I P .J;i ■ 'i L \^ sediment, coarse and sharp-edged from the rapid cutting of the rocks. It is this detritus which Dame Nature uses as her chisel in carving canons, chffs, buttes, and the other quaint and curious forms which one meets in this strange land. A clear stream, wliatever may be its velocity, has little erosive, power ; 1 nit put these tools in its possession, give it the quantity of coarse sand and gravel which the Coloiado and its tributaries always hold in suspension, and its cuttnig power is enormous. The difference in climatic conditions between the district under discussion and the plains is one of degree only, but it is sufficierit to produce very marked differences in orographic forms. Wherever the climatic conditions are such that soil can be formed and be covered with vegetation, there canons cannot be produced, other than as gaps for the passage of streams through mountain ranges ; but, in proportion as the climate becomes more arid, so will the country approach, in its physical features, a canon land. The Caflons of the Green and Colorado Bivers While every stream in this region Hows in a canon — and there are thousands of canons which contain no streams whatever — the most remarkable succession of canons is that on the main stream of the region, the Colorado, and its principal branch, the Green. Tlie canons of this river were explored in 18G0 by Major J. W. Powell. He started from Green liiver, in south- western Wyoming, and safely threaded the devious and dangerous path of the river as far as the mouth of tlie and Wash, a distance of 1000 miles. Throughout this distance there are few miles where the river is not deep in the bowels of the ear 'Ji. GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 67 The Green liiver, on leaving the Wind liiver Moun- tains, traverses southward a great plain or valley, known as the Green River Basin, at present an arteniisia waste, but capable of being reclaimed, in large part, by irrigation. At the foot of this valley it meets the Uinta Eange trending at right anglei^: to its course. This range it traverses by a devious course, cutting gorges of enormous depth. On emerging from these canons, it enters another valley, quite similar to that above, but smaller, and known as the Uinta Basin. Traversing this, it gradually enters a canon in sedimentary rocks. Tliese beds, and the suri'ace of the country with them, incline at a very low angle to the north, so that the stream in its southern progress is constantly getting deeper below the surface, until in a distance of 100 miles the canon walls have risen to a height of 3300 feet above the river. At this point the walls break off' abruptly, in a direction transverse to that of the river, leaving a small valley at the foot of the cliff". Lower down there follow two similar canons, but of less height and length. The inclined plateaus, in which these three canons are cut, which slope to the north and break off" abruptly on the south, extend east and west to the bases of the ranges whicli border this region, i.e. they extend across the plateau country. Of these plateaus Major Powell writes : " Conceive of three geographic terraces, many hundred feet high, and many miles in width, form- ing a great stairway, from the Toompin Wunear Tuweap (the land of standing rocks) below, to the Uinta Valley above. The lower step of this stairway, the Orango Cliffs, is more than 1200 feet high, and the step itself is two ld yet majestic in form, so infinite in their details, that as the truth gradually reveals itself to the perceptions it arouses the strongest emotions. Unquestionably the great, the overruling feature is the wall on the opposite side of the gulf. Can mortal fancy create a picture of a mural front a mile in height, 7 to 10 miles distant, and reced- ing into space in either direction ? As the mind strives to realise its proportions its spirit is broken and its imagination completely crushed. If the wall were simple in its character, if it were only blank and sheer, some rest might be found in contemplating it ; but it is full of diversity and eloquent with grand suggestions. P is deeply recessed by alcoves and amphitheatres receding far into the plateau beyond, and usually disclosing only the portals by which they open into the main chasm. Between them the promontories jut out, ending in magnificent gables with sharp mitred angles. Thus the wall rambles in and out, turning numberless corners. Many of the angles are acute, and descend as sharp spurs like the forward edge of a ploughshare. Only those alcoves which are directly opposite to us can be GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 73 seen in their full length and depth. Yet so excessive, nay, so prodigious, is the effect of foreshortening, that it is impossible to realise their full extensions. " Numerous detached masses are also seen flanking the ends of the long promontories. These l)uttes are of gigantic proportions, and yet so overwhelming is the effect of the wall against which they are projected that tliey seem insignificant in mass, and the observer is often deluded by them, failing to perceive that they are really detached from the wall and perhaps separated fro: it by an interval of a mile or two. " At the foot of this palisade is a platform through which meanders the inner gorge, in whose dark and sombre depths flows the river. Only in one place can the water surface be seen. In its windings the abyss which holds it extends for a short distance towards us and the line of vision enters the gorge lengthwise. Above and below this short reach the gorge swings its course in other directions and reveals only a dark, narrow opening, while its nearer wall hides its depths. This inner chasm is 1000 to 2000 feet deep. Its upper 200 feet is a vertical ledge of sandstone of a dark rich brownish colour. Beneath it lies the granite of a dark iron-gray shade, verging towards black, and lending a gloomy aspect to the lowest deeps. Perhaps half a mile of the river is disclosed. A pale, dirty red, without glimmer or sheen, a motionless surface, a small featureless spot enclosed in the dark shade of the granite, is all of it that is here visible. Yet we know it is a large river, 150 yards wide, with a headlong torrent foaming and plunging over rocky rapids." In Major Powell's story of his trip through these canons we find the following fine description of the Grand Canon. " The walls now are more than a mile in i W i •! l)^ ^! I ;■ 'V: ! "» Iv: ?■ I ! I; 11 1^- 74 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAl'IIY AND TRAVEL height, a vertical distance difficult to appreciate. . . . A thousand feet of this is up through granite crags, then steep slopes and jierpendicular cliti's rise, one above another, to the summit. Tlie gorge is black and narrow below, red and gray and flaring above, with crags and angular projections on the walls, which, cut in many places by side canons, seem to be a vast wilderness of |l OUANI) C.\NON OF THE OOLOKADO. IK THE GKANITE. rocks. Down in these grand gloomy depths we glide, ever listening, for the mad waters keep up their roar ; ever watching, ever peering ahead, for the narrow canon is winding, and tlie river is closed in, so that we can sci' but a few hundred yards, and what there may be below we know not ; but we listen for falls, and watch for rocks, or stop now and then, in the buy of a recess, to admire the gigantic scenery. And ever as we go there is some new pinnacle or tower, some crag or peak, some GENERAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT 75 distant view of tlie upper plateau, some strange-shaped rock, or some deep narrow side canon. Then we come to another broken foil, which appears more difficult than the one we ran this morning. " Clouds are playing in the canon to-day. Sometimes they roll down in great masses, filling the gorge with gloom , sometimes they hang above, from wall to wall, and cover the canon with a roof of impending storm ; and we can peer long distances up and down this canon corridor, with its clo" ^-roof overhead, its walls of black granite, and its river bright with the sheen of broken waters. Then a gust of wind sweeps down a side gulch, and, making a rift in the clouds, reveals the blue lieavens, and a stream of sunliglit pours in. Then the clouds drift away into distance, and hang around crags and peaks and [)innacles and towers and walls, and cover them with a mantle that lifts from time to time and sets them all in sharp relief. Then baby clouds creep out of side canons, ^lide around points, and creep back again into more distant gorges. Then clouds set in strata across the canon, with intervening vista- views to cliffs and rocks b'>yond. The clouds are children of the heavens, and when tliey play iiiuong the rocks they lift them to the region above. . . . " The varying depths of this canon, due to tlie varying altitudes of the plateaus through which it runs, can only be seen from above. As we wind about in the gloomy depths below, the difference between 4000 and 6000 feet is not discerned ; but the characteristics of the canon — the scenic features — change abruptly with the change ill the altitude of the walls as the falls are passed. In running the channel which divides the twin plateaus, we pass round the first great southern bend. In the very dt^ "hs of the canon we have black granite, with a narrow cloft through which a great river plunges. This granite |i'^ rnir' 76 COMl'KNDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL ll;i. portion of the walls is carved with deep gulches, and embossed with pinnacles and towers. Above are broken, rairged, iionconforniable rocks, in many places sloping back at a low angle. Clambering over these, we reach rocks lying in horizontal beds. Some are soft, many very hard ; the softer strata are washed out, the harder remain as shelves. Everywhere there are side gulches and canons, so tliat these gulches are set about ten thousand dark, gloomy caves. One might imagine that this was intended for the library of the gods ; and it was. The shelves are not for books, but form the stony leaves of one great book. He who would read the language of the universe may dig out letters here and there, and with them spell the words, and read, in a slow and imperfect way, but still so as to understand a little, the story of creation." — Ei pi oration of the Colorado River of the West : Washington, 1875, pp. 83, 85, 193, 19^. The dangers of tlie navigation of rivers like tlie Colorado, winding through a series of canons, are natur- ally often of a very formidable character. The writer just quoted, who ran many risks in his exploration of these regions, had on one occasion to navigate a rapid in the (Jrand Canon at the imminent peril of his life. " Alxnit eleven o'clock," he writes, " we hear a great roar ahead, and approach it very cautiously. The sound grows louder and louder as we run, and at last we find ourselves above a long, broken fall, with ledges and pinnacles of rock obstructing the river. There is a descent of perhaps 75 or 80 feet in a third of a niih', and tlie rushing waters break into great waves on the rocks, and lasli themselves into a mad, white foam. A\'e can land just above, but there is no foothold on eitluT side by which we can make a ])ortage. It is nearly 1000 feet to the top of the granite, so it will be im- of coav uiul fina IS liiii th CJENEKAL VIEW OF THE CONTINENT / I possible to carry our l)oats arcnind, though we can climb to the summit up a side gulch, and, passing along a mile OUANll CANON, t'OLdliAUO UIVKi;. ' ',eitt* 9 * •'^- ^ffi^'. Pfff^^ -lit '*' « '^r /■ H j^onco* I 'r.,- '• 'to 11^ ■ .KFi -'^ •■Jit * - "v^^. TA'-J/'" ■ ■ ^N,^v { V (ft ' - ^ #■ ''-^ r' r/ X © r ; ^. V I. '■ ' V- *■**- 4-"' yM*' '.y ■ ''h. 4 :r 3- ;Lio*LontfitudeVfeBiof Oreenwioh. US" LStaii£brd.26«-27.Co(>l(Ji]>ui> St nmiinj^ Cross. S.W. Stanfbrds Geoff}£stab*.Zondon. p T .lip 1 1 i\ -y I GEXKRAL VIEW OF IIIE CONTINENT 81 Wfisjitch and other ranges, and on tlie west l)y the Sierra Nevada. On the north and south, liowever, its limits are not siiarply defined, the water-partings l)eing, in most cases, mere swells in otherwise Hat valleys. On the east side of the Great ]5asin, separating it from the plateau region, is a liigli range, known as the Wasatch. Its extreme sunnnits reach nearly 13,000 feet, but for the most part they are from 10,000 to 11,000 feet in height. The, range is traversed by several streams which, heading in its eastern foothills, How westward, cutting terrific gorges through its centre. Of such are the Provo (formerly known as the Timpanogos), the "VVeber, Ogden, and several branches of the Bear, a tributary to Great Salt Lake. The Great lUisin is traversed by a large number of ranges of mountains, trending nearly north and south. They are distributed over this area with tolerable regu- larity, and are simple in structure ; some are short, others extend over several degrees of latitude, and are of heights ranging from 5000 to 10,000 feet aljove sea-level. Between them are broad valleys, floored by the detritus washed down from the mountains. The bases of the mountains are so deeply buried in this detritus, that the imagination alone can picture their full magnitude, of which the summits only appear above the surface. These ranges are composed of sedimentary rocks, unaltered or metamorphosed ; granite and cognate rocks, and volcanic rocks. Most of these valleys are utter deserts. There is absolutely no water in them from one end of the year to the other. In the spring tiny rills may spring from the snow in the mountains, but they sink immediately on reaching the plain, and for nearly all the year these even G Ij Ir 82 COMPENDIUM OF GKOGIIAI'IIY AND TKAVKL fi ' i 1 I ' are tlry. Thi' only source of siii)ply to tlie traveller over these arid wastes is from the spriiij^s which are found here and there at the hases of the nioiintiiins. A few of the valleys are watered in jiart by small streams which How throu<;h them, and, in such cases, the soil is found to be of marvellous fertility. The Humboldt Jliver, which takes its rise in the Huml)oldt l{anr,ui and Hows south-westward, to disa]»pear in the Humboldt Sink, waters a narrow belt in each valley which it crosses. The Sevier lliver, too, though a small stream, waters a long, narrow belt along its sinut)us course, and deposits its remaining waters in Sevier Lake. The (Ireat IJasin is a collection of smaller basins ; each, in cases where it has any drainage whatever, with its own stream or streams ; its sink, which, in cases where sutlicient water is brought in, develops into a lake or marshy swamp. Those lakes wliich have no outlet are salt ; those which communicate with others lower down aie of course fresh. The lakes of the l>asin are mainly disposed in three groups, one on the east and west sides of the JJasin respectively, under the shadow of the limiting ranges, and one in the northern part. Great Salt Lake The principal ineml)er of the eastern group is the Great Salt Lake, which receives most of the drainage from the Wasatch Mountains. It is almost an inland sea, having an area at present of about 2000 square miles. It is very shallow, having a mean depth ot but four or five fathoms, while in its deepest part it reaches but eight fathoms. GENKHAL VIEW OF TV?. CONTINENT 8;; ues, but iclies As it has no outlet, its waters would rise were it not fur the enormous evaiumition in this dry region. The level of its waters is constantly suhjeet to change with the character of the seasons, whether wet or dry ; and it is theref(jre a very sensitive indicator of clianges in the climate, jjarticularly as the country around it is extremely level, and but slightly above the present surface of the lake. The water of the lake is strongly saline. The human body Hoats almost entirely on the surface. At the time of Captain Stansbury's survey in 1850 the water con- tained 22*4 per cent of solid matter. At present the percentage of solid matter is much less. In 18G9 it was reduced to 14"8. An analvsis of the solid matter bv the Survey of the 40th Parallel (vide livpt. Siw. 4:0th J'ar. vol. ii. p. 4. ").■)) gave in 150 parts. ^ril^l,'Il('si;l ..... Lime ...... iSdda . ..... I'dtassa ..... Siilpliuiie arid .... Cliloiiiie Les.s oxvireu of soda and iiKiiruesia or, in other words — Cliloride of sodium Chloride of magiiusinm Siilidiate of soda . Siil]iliatt' of i)otassa Sulphate of lime . E.xceis of chlorine G-;'.oi 0-357 66-978 2-001 8-215 8.3 -946 lti8-698 18-758 149-940 79-11 9-95 6-22 3 -58 57 0-57 100-00 The elevation of the lake above sea-level is 4218 feet. CJreat Salt Lake is but the ruin of a much urander ■ 84 (JUMl'KNDiLM UK (;K(»( IIJArilV AN'D 'I'll.W KI. Like, wliicli, ill a^'S past, cnNcicil a lar^c pail of llic area of the (Ircal IJasiii. The .shoic-liiu' ol' lliis ^icaL lakr, for which {\\r iiaiiic of rmiiiicxillc has hccu [)ropos(i!, is yet (lisliiictly luarkt'd hi-h iij) oil the slojics of the AVasatch ami other ranges in this ])art ol' the liasiii, !)70 I'eet aliove its ])res('iit surface. At tliat time it had an outlet, drainiiiL; northward into Snake K'iNcr. Diiiiirj the process of desiccation of the country, caused l)y the rise of the Sierra Nevada, the laki' receded, but its recession was checked fur greater or less intei\als, which are iinh- cated by minor l»eacli-liiies, which form a siiccessimi of steps u[)on the mountain side. Death Valley 'rh(M'e are within the (Jreat Jlasin two vaUevs wliicii ari! reniarkahle as lying lielow the level of the sea. One of these, in Kaslern (."alifornia, is known as l)eath N'ailey, from the niimlier of jiersons who ha\'e niiserabl\' perished tiiere from thirst. Tarts of this valley are 1 oU feet below sea-level. it is a desert valley, l}iiig between two of the characteristic ranges of the ])iisin, known as the Amar- gosa and the ranamint IJanges, winch rise 7000 feet above its level. 'J'iiere is no water or vegetation in the whole valley, — nothing but bare roi-k and shifting sand, if we e\cei»t a lew cacti and a little stunted sage. In the summer the sun's rays, pouring down on the bare rocks, make the heat intolerable, an1A, ( Al.lFuli.MA. ward thron^di Oi-ej^ou and Wasliinu;ton, is ^coloj^ieally (juite distinct from the southern portion, and (Hffers markedly from it in its topoHrajjhieal featui'e«. Thjs part of the bvstem is knoN,vn as the (.'ascadt; l{anv many h.:'j,li, volcanic m 88 COMrKXDll'M OF CEOdKAl'IIV AND '. ..\\FL peaks. Many of lliese peaks rcacli ■.•(i;:>i(u. .i eu eleva- tions. The ]iiHASIA, ( Al.lFoKMA. lava liclds and tht dark, wt)odcd )>elt encircling it far alto\e the numerous satellites at its hast', impart to this imposing mountain a grandeur scarcely et[ualled by any other elevation in the New Wnild. Sierra Nevada The Sieira Xevada extends along the eastern hoi'der of the State of California, fiom Tejon I'ass northward to * i 1' 00 COMPEXDIUM OF GEOGRAPHV AND TRAVEL I Lassen Teuk, ;i (listancc of about 4.'"»0 iiiik'S. South of Tejoii I'ass tlie range decreases in liei^lit, joins tlie Coast Kan.tfe, ami lu'conies topogra})hieally identlHed with it. North of Lasst'u Peak tlie nietaniorphic rocks wliieh make up the Sierra disap])ear beneath a volcanic phiteau whicli stretches northward to Mount Shasta, forniin,Li; tlie Hnk connecting the Sierra Nevada witli the Cascade liange. The average l)readth of the Sierra Nevada is about 80 miles, of which ])y far tlie greater part is taken up with the western slope. The western foot of thit range is but little above sea-level, while its eastern base is 4(100 to 5000 feet above tide-water. The highest and most rugged portion of this range is ■about latituile oG oO', where the peaks range in height from 14,000 to 15,000 feet. South of this, it falls al)ru[)tly to Tejon Pass, while northward its elevation decreases graduallv but uniformlv to its northern end. Yosemite Valley We cannot do bettei', in order t(» give a general idea of this remarkal)le natural feature, than quote the de- scription of this valley written by Professor J. I). Whitney in the Guide Book to the Yosemite, p. 84 et seq. " The Yosemite Valley is nearly in the centre of the State (California) north and south, and just midway be- tween the east and west liases of the Sierra, here a little over 70 miles wide. . . . The valley is a nearly level area about G miles in length, and from half a mile to a mile in width, and sunken almost a mile in perpendicular depth below the general level of the adjacent region. Tt may be roughly likened to a gigantic trough hollowed in the mountains, nearly at right angles to their regular trend. . . . This trough ... is quite irregular, having '11 IS hi l»U doa 1). tlu> be- tlli' to }l liar It ill I liar ling (• t i I I I I ^ ■ I ■, I . ■l 1 i' i' i 'f t > I ! ,i 1)2 COMl'KXDIUM OF ( IKOCItAl'IIV AND TTJAVKL I i several re-eiiteriii<; aiij^le.s and square recesses, let back, as it were, into its sides; still a general north-eaot liy easterly direction is maintained in tlie depression, until we arrive near its n])per end, where it turns sliarpl}^ at ri_L!,lit angles almost, ami soon divides into three branches, throuu'li either of which we may, goini; u]) a series of jfi^aiitic steps, as it were, ascend to the general level of the Sierra. Down each of tlu'se branches or canons descend streams, ibi'ks of the Pierced, coming down the steps in a series of stupendous waterfalls. At its lower ci;d the valley contracts into a narrow gorge or canon, witli steeply inclined w^alls, and not having the U-sliape of the Yosemite, Init the usual V-lbrni of Californian 'valleys. '• Tlie principal ieatures of the Yosemite, and those by which it is distinguished i'rom all other known valleys, are — first, the near a]t})roacli to vcrticality of its walls ; second, their great lieiglit, not only absolutely, but as compared with tlic widtli of the valley itself ; and linally, the very small amiaint of talus or debris at the l>ase t)f tliese gigantic cliffs. These are tlie great characteristics of the \'osemite throughout its whole length, but, besid(\s these, there are many other striking peculiarities, and features both of sublimity and bt>auty, which can hardly be suri)assed, if e([ualled, by those of any mountain valley in the worM. >^ither the domes or the waterfalls of the Yosemite, or any single one of them even, would be suUicient in any European country to attract travel- lers i'rom far and wide in all directions. Waterfalls in the vicinity of the Yosemite, surpassing in beauty many of those best known and most visited in Europe, are actually left entirely unnoticed by travellers because there are so many other objects of interest." The objects of interest in this valley, which render it without a rival in scenic effects in the known world, are in y lit N ! i 94 COMl'HN'J'U'M OK GKOOKAI'HV AND TIJAYKL — first, the mrciit cliris and cmifs Avliich lionler it, risin.L;' 3000 to 400(1 I'L'ct in vertical lieight above its level ; second, the Wijnderl'ul bas-relief of eolunnis, spires, and arches upon its jiiranite walls; and third, the ^rand and beautiful waterfalls by which the many tributaries to the Merced enter the valley, lea]mig over its walls from ureat heights. These deserve a mcu'e particular mention. Chief amom^ them is the Yosemite Fall. This has a total height of 2000 feet, the u\^]k'v 1500 feet of which is in a clear leap iVoni the to}) of the cliff. Then follows a succession of cascades of GOO or 700 feet, below which the strciim makes a second fall to the bottom of the valley. The' I>ridal Veil Fall, thouuh carrying much less water, is very beautiful. In its leap of GoO feet the colunni of water is swayed hither and thither by the wind, and nearly dissolved into spray, which makes its fanciful name by no means inappropriate. Other notalde falls are tiie \'ernal, 400 feet, and the Nevada Fall, GOO feet in height. Coast Ranges The Coast Raniies extend along the Pacific coast, in most jdaces closely hugging it, and nowhere far from it. They connnence in "Washington, and, with many breaks, they run to the southern end of the i)eninsula of Cali- fornia. The system is made up of a great nund.)er of short ranges, in many cases but slightly connected with one another except by juxtaposition. From northern Washington to southern (.'{difornia thev are se])arated from the Cascades and Sierra Nevada by the broad Pacific Valley. There is but one link between them, but one break in the continuity of the vallev. In the south(;rn part of Oregon and in northern California they become confused with the Cascade range, large heavy \4 ' i^ (HUH.UAI'JIU'AJ, AJAI' iW J'l lou l.tiiiiiou; KtaiilV>r{|,tt!y.'/-^ (ttiuiit I (?;< ^.A'«'"" X f/nuL Nirt-,, o -r' ilvi'ston .t/.lls/l / A'./, ,i^..r.f/i O /' I Piinii'iF M A/i.?si I Ki'iUriiNvillr ... (XI Stimloril.mi* J7i'iHl>Hjiiir Ht.,CliBriii)i, ('roii«. S.W '■""■"""A J b 11 i ¥^'^'""'""" ■' , v'"'*' MTi (.S'ul'l'^'^ >P Loiigiliidr VVVst 7r>° of rirooiiwiiih . M"''' {«) W' |i|*! mm\ 'i. '■'!■' ill 1 j 'ill j 1 ^ 1 •;! iM 7T — " ■I^ GENEKAL Vi'W 07 THE CONTINENT 05 spurs from the latter connecting tlieni. In soutlioiTi California, tlie Sierra Nevada, greatly reduced in altitude, sweeps around to the westward and joins the Coast system. In point of elevation the parts of this system vary widely. From :')000 to 4000 feet above the sea in mean lieight in north-western Oregon, it rises southward, until in the southern part of this State, and in ( "alifornia nearly as far as the Bay of San Francisco, it has a mean height not less than GOOO feet. The l^ay of San Fran- cisco occupies a gap just in the trend of this system. South of it the ranges have less height, reaching .''000 to 4000 feet above the sea. One of the most prominent peaks is jMonte Diablo, rising from the bay of San Francisco to a lieiglit of 3800 feet, and commanding a, most beautiful view of one of tlie finest harbours in the world, which lies spread out at its base ; while to the west, away across the yellow plain of the San Joaquin Valley, is revealed the splendid panorama of tlie snowy crests of the Sierra Nevada. Among tliese ranges are many of the most fertile valleys of this most fertile state. it Elevation The mean elevation of the United States, excludin" Alaska, is about 2500 feet. The following are the areas of tlie ditfi'rent zones of elevation above sea-level : — ZiiiR's, fi.'et. Arras. s S ^ J35 J ^1 It: s ! t li c V II ]; \ Hi CLIMATE, FAUNA, AND FLOKA 97 whicli approach most nearly tlie typical desert type, are the plateau region of Arizona and Utah, the Great liasin, comprising most of Nevada and parts of Utah, and southern California and the southern portions of Arizona, where the rainfall is also extremely slight. In these regions the rainfall is ordinarily less than 10 inches, and in many localities it is almost entirely wanting. The causes for this irregular distribution of rainfall over the country are easy to understaiul. There are thtee principal sources of moisture. The most injportant is the (iiilf of Mexico; next in importance is the Atlantic Ocean, and thirdly the Pacilic Ocean. From these three bodies of water, air-currents, saturated witii moisture, drift upon the land. The source of moisture for the Mississippi Valley and the Lake regi(m is mainly the Gulf of Mexico. The moist air- currents l)r()ught by southerly winds, from scjutiiern seas, reach a land which is connnonly cooler than the currents, and C(jntact with it causes them to deposit moisture — most heavily im- mediatelv u])on reachin*' the coast — and being ufraduallv drained of their moisture as they progress nortiiward, they deposit in smaller and smaller (juantities. The Appjdachian Mountains have a heavier rainfall than the surrounding regions, since their elevation forces the air- currents up into cooler regions and thus causes them to precipitate their contents more freely. Similar phenomena are observed upon the Atlantic coast. Here air-currents from the east bring moisture, which is deposited ui)on a cooler land, and also is de])Osited more abundantly upon the mountains than upon* the low- lands, as is shown in the case of the Adirondack's and the White Mountains. The moisture from the Atlantic does not, however, extend far inland, owing to the fact that easterly winds are not the prevailing ones. It is prob- H *i| I .ill. \'J m 98 COMPENDIUM OF ClEOGKArilY AND TRAVEL in • I 'I t-^i ii. I i\' I 'i a))le that tlie Atlantic moisture is not felt west of the Appalachian Mountains. Throughout the eastern half of the country, the rain- fall is heavier in the winter than in the summer, owing to the fact that the land is colder than the sea in the winter, while in the summer it is commonly as warm or warmer. As was shown above, the I'aciiic coast is bordered l)y highlands, the Coast IJanges, and the high ranges of the Cascades and Sierra Nevada, which extend soutliward to the 34th parallel of latitude. The presence of these ranges ya-oduces certain interesting phenomena in the rainfall of this region and indeed of the entire Cordilleran region. In the first place, the aridity of the Cordilleran region is primarily produced by these great mountain barriers. The westerly winds which reach this coast laden witli moisture are innnediately forced upward to high altitudes and are rapidly cooled. In winter time this high land is much colder than the air-currents and causes the deposi- tion upon these ranges of practically all the moisture contained in them, leaving them to flow over the Cordil- leran region eastward as dry winds, while upon the mountains and valleys of the I'acific coast there descends a large quantity of rain. In the summer this is measurably changed. The low- lands are then warmer Jian t ^e sea, while the mountains are not sufficiently cooler to induce the deposition of all the moisture contained in the atmosphere ; consequently at this season the rainfall is very slight in the great Pacitic valley, but little falls upon the low Coast IJanges, while even upon the Cascades and Sierra the rainfall is by no means heavy, and the currents How eastward over the Cordilleran region retaining a considerable part of their moisture. On their journey eastward they en- 4 I3i s m tvll CLIMA.TE, FAUNA, AND FLORA yo pat |cs, is rev of jii- couiiter many high mountains, which induce the precipi- tation of much of their retained moisture. Hence it is that through the south-western states and territories, Colorado, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and western Texas, the summer season is the rainy season, wliile the winter season is dry. In the eastern part of the United States, the rainfall is ample for all the needs of agriculture, although it is irregular, much more coming in certain years than in others. It is not often, however, that east of the 97th meridian tiiere is an insufficient rainfall for the needs of cro])s. Between the 97th and 100th meridians lies a belt of country where, in certain years, the rainfall is sufficient for agricultural purposes, while in other years it is entirely insufficient. It is a debatable ground in which for a generation the farmer has striiL^'ded to maintain his foothold without irrigation, but in which liis eflbrts have been repeatedly defeated. Time after time has he returned to the attack, and time after time has he been obliged to give way to the forces of nature. West of the 100th meridian, the rainfall is, everv- where east of the Cascades and Sierra Nevada, insufllicient for the needs of crops. Throughout tliis region and in southern California, irrigation is resorted to almost uni- versally. Here the measure of agriculture is not land, but w^ater ; land is iibundant, but without water it is almost worthless. Water is the most precious of com- modities. In certain regions every stream is now utilised to its utmost, and resort is had to artesian wells and other devices for luingin^^ unilerground water to the surface. In other regions there is still an abundance of water, the supply of which is almost untouched. w 1 1 1 *■' ■ 100 IM H[ I » i ^■il ! I COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Humidity The story of the rainfall is incomplete unless supple- mented by an account of the humidity of the atmosphere. The humidity, taking the year around, ranges from less than 50 per cent up to 90 per cent ; in other words, in the most moist parts of the country the atmosphere is, on an average, loaded with moisture up to nearly its full capacity, while in the arid parts the proportion of moisture which it ordinarily carries is not more than half its capacity. The humidity is greatest in the states bordering the Gulf, the Atlantic Ocean, the Great Lakes, and in the Api)alachian Mountains. It is less upon the Atlantic plain and the upper Mississippi valley, and diminishes westward, reaching a minimum in the Great Basin of Utah and Nevada and in Arizona. Again, it is greatest of all upon the n"^thern Pacific coast, and it is by no means slight upon the southern Pacific coast, reaching a proportion there equal to that upon the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. The humidity upon the high plains and in the Cordilleran region is so small as to affect the skin materially, causing it to crack and bleed. Meat seldom spoils in this region, as the dry atmosphere desiccates it before decaying processes set in. Temperature The country extends from latitude 25° to 49°, and from sea -level to nearly 15,000 feet of altitude. This great range of latitude and altitude involves a corre- sponding range in temperature. In the lower and more southern regions the mean annual temperature is as much as 75° Fah. ; while upon the high mountain summits and in the most northern parts of the country the temperature is below 40°, and in extreme cases is below the freezing- li ■ ' i 4 [e- re. JSS he an ch ty- he he tic les of JSt no a tid in :in )in it nd tiis re- )re ch nd ire ig- SI ' rf' liii iiiii CLIMATE, FAUNA, AND FLORA 101 T .a .5 3 7. r 3 'i point of water. The (listributiou of mean annual tem- perature is shown upon the map •constituting Plate 8. The hottest parts are southern Florida and Texas and the lower parts of Arizona and California ; the coldest regions are nortliern Maine, Minnesota, and North Dakota, and in the high mountain regions of Colorado, Montana, Idaho, and Washington. The general trend of the isothermal lines is nearly east and west, although their course is affected greatly by the presence of mountains. There is one feature of them which deserves a passing mention. Although an abrupt elevation of land everywhere depresses the temperature at the rate of about one degree to (100 feet, these isotherms climb the slopes of the plains with a westward course, being dellected little, if any, by the increasing altitude. The mean annual temperature at Denver, 5000 feet above the sea, is practically the same as at Omaha, which is only 1000 feet above the set;. While this map shows the distribution of mean annual temperature, it tells nothing regarding the extremes of temperature at different times of the year. In a moist region these extremes are not great, wliile in an arid region the reverse is the case. Thus, upon the northern Pacific coast, where the climate is probably moister than anywhere else in the country, the temperature of the hottest and of the coldest months differs but a few degrees, while in the interior of the Cordillera the range of tem- perature between summer and wiuter is many times as great ; indeed, in this region the range of temperature between day and night is extrao:dinary, the thermometer in the shade reaching 80°, perhaps, in the daytime, while at night it sinks below the freezing-point of water. These extreme changes are due, however, in part to want of moisture in the air, and in part to the altitude and the 102 COMPENDIUM OF Gi':OGRAr'[IY AND TIJAVEL I ; 111 conseciuont raretactio)i of the atmosphere, which is unable t(5 absorb and retain heat. Forests Tilt' distribution ol' forests in the United States ibllows very closely that of lainlall, bcini^ measurably a direct result of it. The eastern half of the country and its north-west corner are forest-clad. The Great Plains and the Cordillcran region are without forests, except upon the high mountiuns. Tlie western limit of forests, or rather of woodland, enters the United States from Canada in western ^Minnesota at the border of the Red IJiver Valley. It trends southward, skirting this valley, crosses south-eastern Nebraska and eastern Kansas, tlie eastern part of Indian Territory, and swings far to the west in the southern ])ortion of this territory, entering Texas near tlie UStli meridian. It crosses Texas in a south-easterly direction, reaching the coast some distance north of the ]{io (Jiande. All this is shown upon the map, but there is one feature wiiich cannot be expressed upon a ma}) upon so small a scale. East of the line above deiined extends, for a varying distance, what is known as the prairie regi(»n — a region of alternations of woodland and open countrv, a transition ground Itetween tlie true forest region and the [vne plains region. This is very narrow in Minnesota, but in Iowa, Missouri, and Illinois it becomes very broad, extending eastward even into Indiana. It narrows again in Indian Territory and Texas to comparatively small dimensions. West of the limit above outlined stretch the Great IMains, which are absolutely treeless, excepting foi* narrow belt;^ of timlier along the streams. In th(> more arid portions of tiie plains even these disappear. The valleys CLIMATE, FAUNA, AND FLORA lOo and lower plateaus of the Rockv Mountain recrion are as treeless as the plains. The liiLilier juountnins are, exc^'pt is- nil. rilKI'S, MAIUI'OSA, ( AI.IKtilIM A. in the south, forest-ehul, hut it is rare that tlie. tinihcr is of mereliantahlo size. It is coumionlv larue eiKiudi oulv for railroad ties or lirewood. Upon the lower slnpes the ij 11 104 rOMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL timber i :; jonimonly of those species peculiar to an arid region, such as Pifion pine and cedar ; above this is a belt of quaking aspen, indicating cooler and moister conditions, while above that, and extending to the timber line, are coniferaB, mainly the Douglas spruce and pine. The upper limit of timber, known popularly as the timber line, ranges in altitude from GO 00 feet, near the Canadian boundary, to 12,000 feet in southern Colorado and New Mexico. In western Washington, Oregon, and northern Cali- fornia, where the climate is very moist, the timber growth is phenomenally large and dense. The trees are mainly coniferai of various species, and they grow to enormous sizes. Among the best known of them are the sugar pines, the redwood, and the sequoyas, of which the celel)rated Mariposa and other groves in California are composed. Some of these trees are said to be older than the Christian era. The principal species in commerce are the white pine, which is found maiidy in the northern states, in New England, Michigan, AVisconsin, and ]\linnesota, and the supply of which is nearly exhausted ; and the various species of yellow pine, ^'lown as long-leaved, sliort-leaved, and loblolly i)ine8 of the southern states from Virginia to Texas, the supply of which is almost unlimited. Of the hard woods, black walnut, chestnut, cherry, poplar, and various species of oaks are abundant in the Appalachian Mountains of the south and in the ]\Iississippi Valley. Spruce, balsam, and hemlock are abundant over the northern states, but are of little use except for firewood. The principal hunber r<'l{int of this region, 1 ;■ 11 I I ■; 'I' 108 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPIIY AND TRAVEL ili extending all over the nortliern part and to a less ex- tent in the south, is what is generically known as sage brush, consisting of difierent species of artemisia, mainly A. tridentata. The pervading odour of the West is the 1 IHK GIANT CACTUS. smell of the sage. The prevailing colour is its dull gray tint. There is probably no plant on earth which enjoys so complete a mono})oly of such enormous areas. Over hundreds of thousands of square miles, a region larger than Western Europe, this plant well-nigh mono- polises the soil. T CLIMATE, TAUXA, AND FLOKA 109 Various species of cacti are abundant, and especially so in the south. These assume many odd and grotesque forms. The prickly pear is perhaps the most abundant. Globe cacti, ranging from an inch to a foot in diameter, are found in abundance all over the desert, together with many other species, the strangest of which is tree cactus. Imagine the stump of a tree with two or three branching TUEE YUCCA. arms, bent out at right angles, extending from it, the whole 20 or 30 feet, perhaps, in height. Imagine the desert plain covered with these spectral-looking objects, almost the sole vegetation upon it, as are the deserts of Mohave, Gila, and of Salton Lake. Another -character- istic plant of this region is the yucca, or Spanish bayonet, of many species, which forms dense clunii)S of spine-like leaves two feet in length and stiff and hard as of steel. Generally these start direct from the ground, but in some r 1 1 1 13 . I 1 1 .li; , I ; ■ I 110 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHV AND TUAVKL „.i-»>'»» ■: species they spread from the top of a tree trunk 20 or oO feet in liei^ht. O The niez(|uite is found only in the south, nuainly in Texas. It is a shrub or low tree seldom reaching a height of more than 25 feet, with a light green, feathery foliage. Its forests cover an immense area in central and southern Texas. The Fauna The native fauna of the United States, which before the settlement by whites was very abundant and varied, has almost disapju-ared before the marcli of settle- ment, and many tragic stories can be told of the practical extinction of large game. Here and there in areas which settle- ment has passetl by, or where the game is pro- tected liy dense Ibrests, there are still found the remnants of the immense nund)ers which once peopled the land. In the fastnesses of the Appala- chian IMountains and the Adirondacks there are still found enough deer and black bears to tempt the hunter. Occasionally one still sees upon the (Jreat Plains a few scattered antelope, the remnants of the vast herds which once ranged ANTELOl'K. CLIMATE, FAUNA, AND FLOIIA 111 over that region. The hufTiilo has practically disappeared ; its millions have been reduced until now probably not over fifty survivors still exist in freedom. These are supposed to range between the ^Missouri and Yellowstone Elvers on the high plains of ^Montana, and in the Yellowstone Park, where some protection is afforded them. Elk and mule i i ill I! MOUNTAIN SlIKKP. deer, mountain sheep, and liocky ^Mountain goats are still found in a few localities, such as Y'ellowstone Park and the high mountains south and east of it, the Salmon liiver JMountains of central Idaho, the ])itter lioot Mountains and the Kootenai country of northern Idaho. Elsewhere in the AVest large game is now extremely Scarce. Upon the high mountains bears — grizzly, cinna- mon, and black — are still found, but by no means in the ! P *' 'I Ml w 11 112 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TltAVEL abundance of a generation ago. Even prairie dogs, COYOTES. coyotes, and other wolves have diminished in number astonishingly. The Buffalo In tlie case of the buffalo we have before us probably the most startling instance of the practical extinction of a species of large animal that there is on record. Twenty- five years ago this was probably the most abundant animal in the entire West. Their range at that time was mainly confined to the plains, although a variety of the animal was found throughout most of the mountain regions to the westward. Their number was almost incalculable. It is probably no exaggeration to say that the plains alforded pasturage to many milHons of them, as the records of shipment of hides indicate. ii w CLIMATE, FAUNA, AND FL01!A 113 At times, herds have been met witli of immense size, numbering thousuuds, and even millions, of individuals. The accounts given l»y many veracious travellers respcct- ing their size sound almost Yikc exaggerations. Herds were formerly met with extending for many miles in every direction, so that the expression, " so numerous as to lilacken the } Jains as I'ar as the eve can reach," has become a hackneyed description of theiral no'd- ance. Some writers speak of travelling for davs to- gether without ever being out of sight of bu Haloes ; while it is stated that emigrant trains were sometimes detained for hours by the passage of dense herds across their routes. In the early history of the Kansas Tacitic Railway it re- peatedly happened that trains were stojjped by the same cause. The construction of the Kansas racific liailroad from Kansas City to Denver was their death-knell. I'assing through the heart of the buffalo country it afforded the hunters the best possible oi)portunity for reaching their range and for shi])ping the products of the Ijunt. The killing of them was attended with no more risk or labour than that of slaughtering animals in the corral, and the market for the robes was such as to encourage the The result was that in half a dozen vears the I .■^■'' BUFFALO ii' slaughter J 11 COMl'KNKILM OF (IKOdKAl'lIV ANI» TKAVKL ■-I ,: P^ m \ l)uHaln \vas wi]K'(l dtt' the lace ol' tlic oarth. rractically ii(» uso \vlial(!\t'i' was iiiadc of llic moat, l)nt tlicy were slaun'litcreil inr llicir hides alone. Jietween ISTO and 187") careful estimates show ''>at ahout two and a hall' millions were killed annuall}'. The methods of luintinij; this anima. are best dcscriht^d hy Mr. -F. A. Allen, the well-known Anu'riean naturalist, in his llUtonj of tin' Aincficaii JJisoii. The two modes of huntinii' the bufliilo chiellv i)ractise(l at present are the jiursuit on horsel)ack and the " still hunt." The tirst named is the one usually chosen where sport and excitement arc the thiiiLis mainlv ilesirc(l, th(! still hunt heinn ])ractiseil when a sujiply of meat or of hidi's is the cjliject. The latter nu'tho(l affords but littlt> excitement, and entails, with projter precautions, little or lu) risk of lif- or lind) on th(^ })art of tin' hunter. I'arties huntini;' for pleasure prefer the chase on hoi'se- back, shootiu!^' from tlie saddle with heavy revolvers at clo.se range, when at full gallop. Success depends ahn<»st wholly (i)rovided tlie hunter is a good rider) upon the speed and bottom of his horse, and is really about as noble sport as attaidl that in the case of the butfalo the hunter has the consciousness of pur.suing a iiomiKally wild animal, and hence legitimate game. That the chase on liorseba(d': atfords the wildest excitement is Liii undeniable fact. The swift p. 'it (if a Hying mass of bulfaloes, the mingling with the terrilied herd, the singling out of the viclini, the rapid shots at the huge mo\ing bulk of hair and tlesli, at so close range that the game i.s almost within reach of the hand, the tottering fall or headloiiLi' lumble of the doomed animal, llu' risk !! '-^ CLIMATK, VAUNA, AND FLOI.'A 115 of })iu'suil Ity ii ^V(llllule'l Imll niaddeiU'U with i»aiii, the jreiieral din and coni'usion, witli tlie douhlo risk of coHisioii uith the hHnd, HeciuL!: monsters, or of lieinn' thrown hy treacherous marmot or had^er lioles, can, of cours", yiehl only excitement of I he intensest kind, botli to th< rider and his steed. The still hunt is far more fatal, and is the method adopted hy the professional liunter. The buflalo lu'intr naturally unsus]»ieious and slutinish, even to stujiidity, is readily a])proached within easy rantje, even in a level country, wiiere the sliuht la-rliaue of the ])lains is the only slielter. Tlie chief precaution necessary is to kee)) to leeward of tlie herd, in order not to ^dve them the scent. Thi' i)rofessional hunter, when desiring to load his teams with meat, will raielv make ids first shot at a ifreater distance than r»0 or 70 vards. If the sliot result fatally, the herd rarely moves more than oO yards Ix'fore stoppin.u to look for the cause o^' the mishap to tlieir lallen companion. Here others fall hefore the hunter's shots: the herd, aLjain sli^htlv startled, moves on a few 7,-1 '^ *. ' l)aces, and again stops to u'aze. The liuntei-, still kee[>in^' jtrostrate, approiu'hes if necessary, and continues tlie work of destruction. The shots are thus often repeated, till tifteen, twenty, or even tiiirty hutfaloes are killed hefoie the herd becomes thorounhly alarmed, and, in hunter's ])arlance, " stani]»edes." The Jack Babbit All over the West, in the saji'e-brush country; a species of hare known as "jack rahi)it" is very abundant. This is tile only species of wild uame which has increased in numbers since the settlenu-nt of tiie country, and this has 'A Wl CLIMATt;, FAUNA, AND FLORA 11 beconiB almost as great a pest to the fariiiers as has the liare in Australia. In the fall of the year the fanners in this region combine for ral)bit hunts, Tliey first buihl a corral, the opening to which is a narrow lane, with a high, close fence u}>on each side. This lane opens out ilaring like a tunnel, the two lines of fence extending to a long distance from the corral. The farmers in great numbers form a segment of a circle, the ends of which rest upon the ends of the lines of fence leading to the corral. In this way a great extent of country is sur- rounded and is beaten thoroughly. The game is driven inwards toward.^ the opening to the corral, into which it is finally forced, and it is there killed with clubs. Many thousands of jack ralilnts are thus killed in each such hunt, but such is their remarkable fecundity that these annual slaughters cause little apparent reduction in their numbers. I™f ' CHArTEJI 111 GEOLOGY AND MINERAL KESOUHCES Surface Geology The surface "colony of the United States is best shown ill ii graphic way by map Xo. 10, wliicli presents tlie (Hstrihution of the superficial rock deposits over the country as far as it is known. As the distril)ution of the formations has an intimate relation with the mineral lesources of the different j^arts of the country, it will ha protitable to go oyer the ma}) and ti'ace out, in a rough way, the extent of the different formations. The oldest part of the I'^nited States, geolt>g:icnlly si)eaking, is found in tlie East ; New England and northern New York, tlie lUue IJidge and the riedmont region lying to the eastward, Iteing those parts of tlie continent which earliest rose above the waves. These regions are floored in the main with the Archean formation. In Xew Kngland the Archean formation is inters])L'rsed to some extent with Cambrian and Silurian beds, while the Archean core in northern Xew York, which constitutes the Adirondack Mountains, is surrounded on all sides by the Cambrian and Silurian formations. The Archean area, com])rising the Ulue IJidge and the Piedmont region, extends from rennsylvania into Alabain.i, is terminated on the e.'ist by the Fall Line, GEOLOGY AND INflXEHAL HKSOUliCKS 119 I ■ ;• uiul on tlie west by the ^^'oat Ai»});ilac'hiaii valley. Scattered here and there upon this Archean area are ])atehes of fluratrias, one of wliich, lyini;' just west of Ikiclnnond, A'irginia, contains valuable deposits of coal. These areas Ijroaden northward, and l>econie ol great importance in south-eastern rennsylvania and northern New Jersey. An area of these formations is found also in the Hudson valley, in Connecticut, and ]\fassachusetts. In lihode Island is an area of Carboniferous formation whicli contains deposits of anthracite coal. These deposits, however, are not workable at i)resent, owing to the com- petition of the rennsylvania anthracite. Another area of Archean formation is found on the upper peninsula of ^Michigan and in northei'u Wisconsin and north-eastern Minnesota. This formation is succeeded on the north and east by irregular areas of Algonkian formation bordering Lake Superior. In this formation are found the enormous deposits of iron ore in this region, of wliicli more will l)e said later. IjcIow the Fall Line, extending thence to the Atlantic coast, are soft Tertiary beds. These form tlie surlace rock of parts of all the Atlantic coast states from >s'ew .Jersey to Florida and around llu; Gulf to the Ilio Grande. Tiiey cover the whole of Florida, ^Mississippi, and Louisiana, with the exception of the alluvial regions of the Mississii)i)i and the coast marshes, the western parts of Kentucky and Tennt ',ee and suutliern Arkansas. The Ap[)alachian valley consists of an alternation of old beds of Algonkian, Camlirian, Silurian, and I Devonian, with here and there a strip of Carbonil'erous beds still remaining. This region has been subjected to a very comj»licated folding and faulting, the lu'ds have licen raised, bent, and twisted, and witli it all there has gone on an enormous amount of erosion. The orograjjhieal ! !■ :|:; 120 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL ^ T lih: ir« 1 ■ I ti iiKn'ements have exposed heds of diflorent grades of hard- ness to erosion, and erosive agencies have acted \\\Hm them in different degree, the soft and sohible limestones liaviug suffered vastly more than the hard sandstones and conglomerates. The result is that the Appalachian valley presents us now with a succession of sandstont; ridges, long, narrow, and sinuous, and between them valleys floored with limestone. The Cumberland-Alleghany plateau is almost entirely of Carl)()niferous age, and from New York to Alabama these Carboniferous beds carry throughout almost the entire extent of the plateau workable beds of coal. It is so al)undant that it is mined in comparatively few localities, where exceptional facilities for mining and transporting prevail. Most of the coal is bituminous ; but at the extreme north-eastern point of this region, where it merges with the valley country, volcanic action has converted the coal into anthracite over an area of perhaps 450 square miles. This little area, lying in north-eastern Pennsylvania, has been for half a century a source of supply for anthracite coal to the eastern half of the United States. From it hundreds of millions of tons have been extracted, and while its exhaustion is in sight, it is not so near in time as to occasion any worry to the present generation. The Mississippi Valley is floored in the main with Carboniferous beds, and over much of its area this forma- tion contains coal in great abundance. In several localities, as in northern Kentucky, western Ohio, and eastern Indiana, in south-eastern Missouri, in northern Illinois, southern Wisconsin, north-eastern Iowa, and south-eastern Minnesota, there are extensive areas of Silurian beds. In the latter area these are succeeded northward l)y Cand»riaii beds. The same beds appear in south-eastern ^Missouri, ^il GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES 121 III 11 in which locality are found Pilot Knob and Iron Mountain, wliich at one time were of great importance for their iron deposits. This hjcality is now producing, besides a notable amount of iron, large quantities of zinc. The alluvial region of the Mississippi commences at Cairo, at the mouth of the Ohio Eiver, and extends thence to the (Julf, with a breadth varying from 25 to 100 miles. This region is supposed to have been reclaimed from the Gulf by the deposits of the great river. The Great Plains are floored with more recent forma- tions. Indeed, starting from the Archean area in the east, there is in general a westward succession of more and more recent formations, and we find the plains floored in the main with Cretaceous and Tertiary beds, while the Juratrias formation occupies most of Oklahoma and parts of northern Texas. This is the oldest forma- tion found upon the plains. The Cordilleras present the most complicated picture possible. All formations are represented there, from tlie top to the bottom of the scale, and indeed, in many ])laces in a day's journey one may ride from Silurian to Tertiary beds over all the intervening formations. The mountain ranges have various forms of origin, some being anticlinal uplifts, others monoclines, while many of the isolated and scattered groups are of volcanic origin, the core of the range being volcanic rock which has been thrown upward. Other forms of mountains, known as ^■olcanic necks, consist of chimneys of volcanic rocks which have been forced up among the stratified beds, tlie latter having subsequently been carried off by' erosion. Volcanic Action While there are few symptoms of existing volcanic action in the region, evidences of violent action in the Rii-! 122 COMrEXDIUM OF (IKOGUAl'IIV AND TItAVEL past are coininon. There are many volcanic craters, some Ibrining liigh inoiintaiiis, as in the case of Sau Francisco Monntain, and the peaks of tlie Cascade liange, others low, scarcely rising above the phi hi. ]]asalt flows are found in various parts of the region, covering enonnons areas. A beautiful type of mountain structure is seen in the PKVILS TOWEll, WYOMING. A VOLCANIC NECK. Black Hills, situated in South Dakota and north-eastern Wyoming. This is an elliptical group of mountains, with a core of granitic rock, which when forced \ipward bent the stratiliml ])eds upward over it into a domelike form. Subseciuent erosion has carried them in part away from the central portion, leaving a succession t>f them ui)turned around the edges of the mountains, loitering the grou]) one passes in succession over Cretaceous, duratrias, and GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RKSOUllCKS 123 Carbuniterous beds, each bent upward and dipping away from the monntains in great hogbacks, tlieir crest forming an ellipse around the mountain mass. Within these is an irregular mass of granite mountains. A similar formation of the stratified beds is seen at the base of the mountains in Colorado. The mountains here are of granite, and when forced upward this granite mass bent the stratified beds of the plains up with it, forming a succession of hogbacks along the whole mountain front in Colorado. These beautifully regular hogbacks form the foot-hills of the mountains which rise in long granite spurs to sunnnits exceeding 14,000 feet in height. The Wasatch Range, so prominent from Salt Lid\e City and other towns bordering upon the Dead Sea of America, consists of stratified Ijeds, mainly of Carboniferous age, dipping eastward, and presenting a rugged, broken laci^ to the valleys of Jordan liiver and Salt and Ttah Lak(>s. The Uinta Range, which is distinguished among all these great ranges by having an east and west trend, is a broad anticlinal bend of the strata. Erosion has carried away most of the material which was ujilifted, reducing it to less than one-half the height which tlie force of elevation alone would have given it. The ranges of the Great Basin are, for the most part, narrow, simple ranges, formed by monoclinal flexures and faults. The valleys between them are floored with the most recent deposits, commonly known as Tleistocene, formed of material eroded from the bordering ranges, which has been l)rouly west- ward. Glacial Phenomena In ancient times, earlier than anv records of historv and yet in very recent times geologically speaking, the northern part of the North American continent was buried in ice. A great glacier moved down from the north, enveloping most of Canada and the northern part of the United States in its icv embrace. The origin of the climatic change which induced this ice invasion has never been satisfiictorily accounted for, but the facts are clear and indisputable. The traces of this ice invasion are found all over Xew England and New York, most of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and Nebraska, the Dakotas as far west as the j\Iissouri Tiiver, and northern Montana, together with the states lying north of these. The work of this great con- tinental glacier was of two kinds — erosion and deposi- (lEOLOOY AND MIXKIJAL UKSOUKCES 125 tion. Toward tlie Canadiaii liordor erosion prcdoiuiiuiU's. Toward the southern limits of its range lliere are lew traces of erosion, l)Ut niueh dejiosition. The erosion of this ice muss has resulted, as usual, in the survival of the hardest. The soft rocks wherever encountered have heen worn away, the hard rocks have remained comparatively untouched. This results in leaving irregular masses of ahrupt rocky liills ah)ng the northern border of the country, as in the higher I'anges of the lake states, and hi the formation of the rounded granite hills of Xew England. Deposition of the glacier has taken many interesting forms. Along the soutliei'ii l)order of the glacier, and in many otiier places wliere the glacier appears to have paused for a time in its retreat n<»rth- ward, are found terminal moraines, some of them of great extent and all of them very complicated and irregular. Within the area covered by the glacier are found thousands of drumlins, ellii)tical- shaped hills of gravel and sand Avliich appear to have heen deposited l)y the glacier just as a stream de])osits sand upon its Itottom below a projecting snag, ]\fany of these drundins are beaulifullv reuular, arranged synnnetricallv with relation to one another, their directions Itetraying tlie course of movement of the glacier. In the Cordilleran region there are many evidences of former occujiation of the mountain gorges by glaciers. At the heads of the mountain goiges, particularly in the northern and higher ranges, are found amphitheatres. The form of the gorge is comnu:)nly U-shape, which is characteristic of the work of tlie glacier, while upon its sides, especially lower down, extend lateral moraines, and at the point where the gorge debouches into the plain are found terminal moraines. Some of the most lieautiful examples of these phenomena are seen upon the west ' '■ '. I!. I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 ■M 112.2 2.0 U 11.6 L

A •^^■^^•■^■^ T( II MAI' OF riii: iL\]Ti:i) states ao »r 80 (3:. tji T >^ J-"pn'"»^'S, J ,v» r \ l^r „lH..'"" ■ RKll-UKNCK Ti<'iKt«i<'«'iu> NfCK'f'IU" :io 1 M.,^ .1, ! ^-,^ „.-,, _. ...>.• I"' l.;l'-"^ Cr r L /' '''••''•S"'-*)|lV,.,/„. H..iJ[ii-.>ilI.- O /' vai-il Stiiii)'.ii-.l.:'.KH S W. M.'. ( Sill''*' / ^ l.oii|^ilii<|t West 7r> 1)1" (;fff:iiwii>li . /„.M->-''":" • •'•f.'V- Sf„rif!a i: list «- m iH i»a. ffrf~ . - riT a ' iJ Ji i g i ^' ^ ^ia'sg . a ^wM^ioiABagiumiasa lM '^M il u^Ja■ ^^g^| ,^leJga PBa? m B flaJ | .. ju^ - ^ GEOLOGY AND MINEltAL IIESOUItCES 129 I'liODUcTUix OF Coal ix 1896 in Shout Tuns Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Illinois . Ohio West Virgin ill Alabama Iowa Indiana ^Maryland Kentucky Colorado Kansas Tennessee Anthracite Bituminous r4,34t5,081 49.557,453 19,786,6:>t) 1 -2.875, -202 12.876,296 5.748,697 3,954,028 3,905,779 4,143,936 3,333,478 3,112,400 2,884,801 2,663,106 Bitiiiniiious coal was reported as produced in sixteen other states, but in quantity less than two and a halt' tons in each state. The supply of anthracite coal is derived almost entirely from deposits in the north-eastern part of Pennsylvania. These cover but a few hundred S(|uare miles ; indeed, the area would be covered by the head of a pin upon the map, Plate 11, showing the coal areas of the country ; yet from this comparatively insignificant area are shipped annually from 45,000,000 to 50,000,000 of tons of coal, supplying heating material for the cities and towns of a dozen states and for millions of people. The coal occurs in thick beds, which have been greatly disturbed by the folding of the strata, so that now they lie in very- complex manner. The supply is necessaril}' limited, and it is estimated that at the present rate of mining it will be exhausted in a few hundred years. A little anthracite is found in two or three localities in Colorado, where local volcanic action has modified the K i ' rl ^i liii ,! I i T M 130 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAI'llY AND TIJAVEL constitiitidii of the coals. Limited deposits nve also found in liliode Island and the adjacent part of ^Massachusetts, hut, owinj,' to the expense, little niininif has been done, and even that is at present (.'iitirely sus})ended, owing to the competition of the I'ennsylvania coal. Bitumininis coal ranges in character from semi- anthracite down to lignite. The coals of the eastern states and of the Mississippi Valley, which are of Carboniferous age, are much harder than those of the C(jrdilleran region, which are of Tertiary or Cretaceous age. The principal bituminous coal-field of the country, at least in point oi' ])roduction, is the Appalachian field. This comprises nearly all of the Alleghany-Cumberland plateau, extending from the south boundary of New York through Pennsyhania, eastern Kentucky and Tennessee, and down into Alabama. The coal occurs in several beds, (littering in thickness, and lying nearly horizontal, but commoidy with a slight dip toward the north-W(>st. The streams flowing to the Ohio and Tennessee rivers have cut deep canons in this plateau, exposing the seams of coal in their walls, thus rendering mining very easy and inexpensive. Further- more, many of these streams are navigal)le, at least to coal barges, thus reducing the cost of transportation ; and lying, as these deposits do, in the midst of a rich and populous part of the country, the market for coal in manufacturing, and the development of power is very great. As a result of the abundance and cheapness of coal in this region, especially coal of a variety suitable for mak- ing coke, the smelting of iron and the manufacture of steel has been developed in this region to an enormous extent, and this, too, in spite of the fact that much of the iron ore is necessarilv brought from long distances. The second coal-field in importance underlies most of Illinois and extends into western Indiana and Kentucky. (lEOLOGY AND MINERAL KESOUKCES lol Tlie lliinl great area underlies a larne part of Iowa, Missouri, and eastern Kansas. A large part of the lower peninsula of Michigan is underlaid 1 >y this mineral. 1 )e- posits of great iniportanee are found in western Arkansas and in Indian territory in the neiuhliourhood of the Arkansas and Canadian rivers, and central Texas contains immense beds, the extent of which has not yet Iteen ascertained. In nrany localities upon the (Jreat I'lains, coal is f(juiul at varying de}»ths beneath the surface, but the extent of the beds is little known. Along the front of the liocky Mountains, where the strata are tilted up against the mountains and broken off, forminLi; lines of "hog backs," these coal deposits of the plains are exposed, and mining is carried on in many localities. Tlie mines at Trinidad, Colorado, and the neighljourhood of Canyon City are among the most important in the west. At Evanston, in the south-west corner of Wyoming, and at Eock Springs, in the same state, are C(jal mines of great im- portance, supplying fuel for the Union Pacific Kailroad system. There are large deposits in ^Montana, the work- ing of which is now being carrieil on, and several in Utah of importance. The I'acitic coast is not as well supplied with coal as the eastern portion of the Cordilleran system. In Wash- ington, at the west base of the Cascade Eange, are several deposits which are being worked, and at Coos Ba;y, in Oregon, promising deposits have been opened. The de- posits of the Cordilleran region, however, are but little explored, and while they are worked at many different points, the relations of the beds to one another have not yet been traced out, and but little is known of the extent of the deposits. m 'm ,1 • ! ■i. :',l if \W'\ 13 .: Ri I, I r 132 COMTENDIUM OF GEOGKAPEIY AM* TlJAVEL Iron Ni'xt to colli, iron ore is oik; ot" the iiKjst aluuidant and widely dislnl)uted mineral products in the United States. In some Ibrni it is t'oimd in nearly every state and territoiy, lait it is mined on a commercial scale in only comparatively few of them. The following tahle shows the amount of iron ore mined in the principal iron- producing states in the year ISOO, together with the character of the ore : — Mk-higaii Miiinosutii Alabatiui PeunsylvMiiia . Virginiii .... Wisconsin Tennessei' Xeu- York- New Jei'scv Georgia and Xnrtli Carolina Colorado Lull:,' tons. r>, 700, 736 Hematite 4,283,880 ^'0^^'"»^'liLin;onite 747,784 1 fjl"^"'";^'^ Sr>9,466 Linionite 607,40.') Hematite rQT ^Q. i ■' Hematite £ioi),484 ■( T T • -4- 3Sr(,477 Magnetite •2ti4 iiP9 17r>,;>31 .} Limonito '''1;' S19 ^ The Iron Mines of the Lake Superior Region Near the south shore of Lake Superior, upon the upper peninsula of Michigan, in northern Wisconsin and in north-eastern Minnesota there are found, in the Algon- kian formation, the largest and the richest deposits of iron in the country, indeed, in the world. These deposits, although sei)arated l>y many hundreds of miles from coal and limestone for smelting purposes, are so rich, so pure, and so abundant that they form In' far the principal source of iron to the country. Out of a total production in 1801' of 11"6 million tons of ore, O*." million tons, or consider- ably nu^re than one-half, came from this region. The ore * -■*-.■ . ■ GEOLOGY AND MJNEHAL KESOUltCES I3;i is inaiiily heiiiiitite or aiiliydious sesquidxkle of iron. It occurs in enormous masses, wliidi near tlie surface are (juarried from open cuts, mining becoming necessary only when the upper deposits hav^ l)een removed. In all the operations of mining, liandling, and transporting the ore the utmost economy of lahour is practised. Tlie ore, on reaching the surface, is dumped directly from the buckets into specially prepared ore cars standing on the railroad track. When a train of these is tilled it is drawn to the shipping point on the hike shore, Marquette, L'Anse, or Three lliver.', where the train is drawn upon an ore dock, the bottoms of the cars are opened, and tlie ore falls through chutes directly into the holds of the vessels. In these it is transported to Cleveland, Detroit, or Chicago, where much of it is smelted, while a large proportion of it is transported still farther, even to Pittsburg, Pennsyl- vania, for smelting. ^"!'ext to the mines of the Lake Superior region in im- portance are those of Alabama. The ores here consist of hematite and limonite. They ai-e of lower grade than those of Lake Superior, but they have this advantage over them, that coal and limestone for smelting are found in immediate juxtaposition with the ores, so that the expense of transportation of ore and coal is avoided. The ores of Pennsylvania are in part magnetice and in part limonite. Here, as in Alabama, the ore is found in the neighbourhood of the coal, and transportation required to l)ring them together is not an element of great expense. The ores of Virginia and West Virginia are found in the Appalachian Mountains, mainly in the south-western part of Virginia and the southern part of Wdst Virginia, and here, too, coal is mined (piite near the ores. The iron ores of Xew York are found in the Adiron- dack region, and consist almost entirely of magnetite. ,.3l ! to I i:u ("oMi'KNDir.M iiF (;Er»<.ii;Ai'iiv anh tiiavhl Tin LSI' oi' New flersey arc siinilar in eliiiractcr, and am found in the nuitlitTii nmuntainous ^lail of the slate. The ores of Tennessee consist of niapietite, lieniatile, and linionile, and, Hke tliosc of Alahania and \'iruinia, thev are found in close itroxiniitv to coal for snieltinii-. The iron mines of Missouri, at IMloi Knol> and li-on Mountain, in the south-eastern jiart of the state, which at one time were of jjjreat importance, now produce coiii- ]"»aratively little, owinij; t(» the conq)etition vi' other mon; favoured regions. Pig-iron The United States is the liea\ 4 ])roducer of pii;--iron in the world, its [)roduct for ISOT) amountinu; to 0'4 million tons. This is the largest product ever made, the ne.\t largest heing in ISOl', the ])roducl in that vear having heen I>'2 million tons. In 1804 onlv l>"7 million tons were ])roduced. the red..v'tion being due to the general de]"»reciation in business. The ]>roduction of pig-iron is distrihuted over the country in a manner (piite dilferent from the mining of iron ore. While more than half of the iron ore is mined in the region honU'ring on Lake Superior, no pig-iron whatever is imu luced m this rcLiion, tlu' few cliarcoa furnaces which once existed there having heen shut down. The ibllowing table shows in long tons the production of })ig-iron in the states which led in that. industrv m SO. I'l'iiiisylviiiii: Oliic '. I.olli,' tons. 1,701, 1(1:5 l,lt):5.7S!i Aliilui nil. IViiiiessfc S.'tl.titl ;Mt; >>'• «f\V «irl Wisconsin . West Vir''iniii •J4S.r2'.t IS 1,700 US.lliO Ul.DtlS } illioii U'V; the I'j; of 1 miK'i ;4-110U •t'oal shut tlio that lii' !ii> I ., [) ,. — r ^ i. 1 , 1. ui , r . ' ,"-':"-'-^-'- S ■! ' < .■■ ' "''• ' ..-".■■, I - II i i: '' 1 1 i (iEOLO(!V AN1> MINERAL llESOUKCES 135 From this table we see that reinisylvaiiia, which is ])}' 110 means prominent in the mining; of iron ore, pro- (hiced more than half of the pig -iron of the country, iliis product conies mainly, of course, from ore which was mined elsewhere, especially from the Lake Superior region and Xew York. Next in importance is ( )liio, which produces no iron ore worth mentioning, hut which is su])plied with ore from the Lake Superior region; then conies Alahama, which smelts its own ores; then come Virginia, Tennessee, and New York, which smelt most of their (»wn ores. Steel In the production of steel the rnited States also leads the world, although within the last two years its produc- tion has heeii greatly diminished l>y the general de[»recia- tioii in business. In 180 2 the production of IJessemer steel ingots was 4"2 million tons, but in the following year it dro})ped to .">"2 million tons; in 1894 it was still less, while in 1895 it recovered mucii of the lost ground. The production of steel is distributed in very much the same manner as that of ])ig-iion. IVnnsylvania is the leading state in tiiis industry, Ohio and Illinois occupying the second and tliird ])laces. Silver The silver [)i'(Mluct of the Lnited Stales in 1. 89(1 was valued at S40, 000,000. This was the intrinsic value of the silver. Its coining value in the rnited States mints was much more, about !!?7b,000,000, owing to the fact that the American silver dollar contained at that time bui altout one-half dollar's worth of silver. Silver is obtained ojdv in the western states and 1^ T 136 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL !^ 1 if' territories. Of these, Colorado is tlie heaviest producer. In 1894 the commercial value of its silver product was 15 million dollars, while Montana produced 8, Utah 4, Idaho 2, Arizona 0'7, and Nevada, at one time hy far the lieaviest producer of all, yielded in that year only 0"7 millions. ►Silver is found in a great variety of ores, the richest being those of native silver and chlorides, associated with carbonates of lead, and galena, which is probably the commonest ore. The Oomstock Lode Ores of silver liave been found in workable (|uan- tity and richness in very many parts of tlie West, and many notable deposits have been worked in times past. Among them two deserve special mention, the Comstock Lode and the deposits of Leadville, Colorado. Comstock Lode is in western Nevada, on the slopes of Mount Davidson. Virginia City is located above this lode. It is an immense ore liody extending for many Inmdreds of feet in length, with a breadth of from 200 to oOO feet. Most of the vein matter is barren, or con- tains low grade ore, but there have been founil in it great liorses or bonanzas of extremely rich ore, so rich that for a score of years, 1860 to 1880, the Comstock Lode pro- duced fully one-tenth of all the silver mined in tlie world. The ore carried both gold and silver in the proportion of one-third of the former to two-thirds of the latter. From tlie time of its discovery in 1859 until 1895, the em»rnious amount of nearly $400,000,000 in gold and silver has been extracted from it. The Comstock Lode was discovered about 1859, and by the end of the following }ear its entire extent was taken up by mining locations. The town of Virginia GEOLOGY A^'D MINERAL RESOURCES 137 City was built upon it, and tliis town rapidly grew to a good-sized city, and was, in the heyday of its prosperity, probably the liveliest city for its size that the sun ever shone on. There probably never was a time or place wlien wealth was created more rapidly than there during the sixties, and consc piently speculation ran riot. Enormous fortunes were made in a night, and lost in an equally l)rief space of time by the tiuctuations in mining shares. Mining upon the Comstock has been carried to a depth and extent uneipialled elsewhere in the country. At a depth of 2000 feet from the surface the vein has been tapped by a tunnel known as the Sutro Tunnel, and the various mines have been connected with it foi- purposes of ventilation, drainage, and hoisting. In recent years the output from this vein has diminished greatly, until now little more than a nominal amount of work is done by the different companies. No l)Oiianzas liave been di.scovered for many years, and the vehi mi.ter is too poor to ]>ay for mining, hoisting, and smelting. The glory of Virginia ("ity has departed. From a city of 25,000 inhabitants, the liveliest on earth, it has dwindled until it now (1S95) barely nundters 80OO, and has become one of the deadest towns on earth. Leadville In ISGO, placer gold was discovered in a gulch on the east side of tlie Arkansas Valley, Colorado, high u]) in the mountains. This was called California Gulch, and it proved to be enormously rich. Within a few months many million dollars' worth of gold were taken from it. Upon its exhaustion the place was abandoned, and the thousands of men who nwd collected tliere scattered to ri 138 COMI'ENDIUM OF f;KO(H!AI'IIV AND TRAVEL new fields. A lew reiiiiiiiied, however, and traced u\) the placers to the veins which had supplied them. For nearly a score of years the Liulcli supported a little town, Oro, .(jf 100 or 200 inhabitants, who maintained them- selves l)y workinu' two or three ^uold claims high up in the mountains alxive the mdch, and hv re- workinu' the tailings from tlie placers. In 1879 a Hume was built to hriu!^ water from the East Arkansas around into the gulch, with a view to reworking the tailings from the placers in a wholesale way. Upmi commencing this work, tlie miners experienced much ditticulty from the collection of some heavv, urav material vith tlie gold l)ehind the rilHes. One of them had the curiusity to have th's material assayed, and, to his astonishment, found that it was very rich in silver. Tracing it u[) he found its origin in great lieds of carbonate of lead and iron, carrying a high percentage of silver. Upon this discovery becoming known there ensued a rush to this new El Dorado, which rivalled that to Virginia ('ity in the early sixties. Again tlie ]>anks of California Clulch were studded with houses and crowded with people. Thi' mining camp of Lead- ville, which succeeded the camp of California (hdch, for a time rivalled Denver in size and Virginia City in its palmiest days in liveliness. lUit tlie intluence of Leadville was not confined to its immediate surroundings. A great impetus was given to prospecting, and many valuable discoveries were made in other parts of the state. An impetus was also given to speculation, and tliis speculation was not confined to Leadville, or to the state of Colorado, but extended all over tlie country. For years a prospect hole was sufficient basis for floating a mining company, and hundreds, perhaps thousands, of wih''"'' schemes were floated in the East, with disastrous results, both to M GEOLOGY AND MINERAL KESOUKCP:S 130 Kiistern investors and to worthy mining projects in the West. The final result was that vvould-l)e investors became distrustful of all mining projects, no matter how- fair nught be their appearance. After a few years of flush times and wild speculation, Leadville settled down to a stead}- business basis. Its output of silver has not materially diminished, yet its ])opuiation has been reduced until it is probably not riiore than one-third what it was m its palmiest days. Gold The production of gold in the United States in tlie year 1896 w-as $53,088,000. Of this between one- third and one-fourth came each from California ami Colorado, and smaller amounts from the Black Hills of South Dakota, Montana, Oregon, Arizona, Itlaho, and Alaska. Practically all tlu; gold of the United States c<»nies from the western states find territories. A little has been produced in the Piedmont region of the soutlu'rn states, in Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia, and prior to the discovery of gold in California in 18.7, this region w-as the sole source of gold to the countrv. Since the discovery, however, of g(jld in the West the production of this Eastern region has become relatively insignificant. Cold occurs in two forms of deposits : in placers, that is, gravel beds along the courses of rivers, and in veins in the rocks. Extracting gold from the former is known as placer mining, from the latter as quartz mining. The earliest mines discovered are connnonly tlie ])la('ers. These have Ijeeu discovered in various parts of the West and quickly mined out, yielding vast ([uantities of gold in a short time. The discovery of the placers has led to a 1 1 ! «^ 140 COMraXDIUM OF GEOGIUPHY AND TKAVEL seaieli for their sources in the rocks, and tlius quartz mining lias succeeded phicer mining. The vein deposits consist of free gold in (piartz, and of gold in combination with silver, lead, and other metals. Most silver and lead ores in the West contain more or less gold. The California Gold Mines The discovery of gold in California was made about 1 847, when placers were found on the American Kiver in the Siena. This first discovery was f(dlowed l)y others made upon adjoining streams, so that in a few months placers had been found along most of the streams flowing down from the Siena from Feather Eiver south- ward to Mariposa, that is for 200 miles along the foot- hill of the Sierra. The stampede .vhich ensued to this El Dorado was something never before witnessed in the history of the world. In an incredibly short space of time a hundred thousand men assembled from all parts of the earth, from all nations, and of all grades of society. Mechanics, merchants, and professional men, with a large admixture of the worst elements of mankind — all minyled in a mad rush for gold. Adventurers poured into Cali- fornia from all quarters of the globe : from Mexico, Chile, and Peru ; from the Hawaiian Islands and China ; from the United States and Europe. During the six months between the 1st 'Tuly 1849 and the 1st January 1850, it is estimated that 90,000 persons arrived in California from the East by sea or across the plains, and that one- fifth of them perished by disease during the six months following their arrival, such were the hardships they had endured, and the privations to which they were subjected. From the troops which were stationed in the state, hundreds — officers as well as privates — deserted and went to the mines. ]\Iining was the universal occupa- GEOLOaV AND MINEIJAL KESOUKCES 141 tioii,and it w;is almost impossible to get or l sprang into existence with inci'ediltle activity, and presented scenes of busy life. The currency in common use was gold dust. When payments were to be made, if scales were at hand, amounts were weighed out ; if not, tiiey w^ere guessed at, or measured in a spoon. All were rich — a gold-dust aristocracy. The connnunity was a peculiar one. Gathered from all classes of society and from all civilised nations with extraordinary rai)idity, it would have been strange had it not been so. At first law and order were unknown. Exerybody was too busy in getting rich to provide ])rotection to his riches other than he could attbrd himself with revolver and knife. The bad elements revelled in this state of societv, and for a long time he who was quickest with his six-shooter, and surest in his aim, ruled the camp, and ordered things according to his own will. This prindtive but liarbaric simplicity could not long continue. The civil authorities were too weak, or were indisposed to cope with the "roughs," and at last the hiw- abiding citizens were obliged, for nmtual protection, to combine and take the law into their own hands. ( 'onHicts, more or less bloody, ensued between the "Vigilantes" and the "rouglis." Scores of the latter were killed, some shot ; others, after a form of trial, hung ; while the rest, dismayed l»y the fate of their comrades, fled from the country to partici- pate in like scenes elsewhere ; so, finally the connnunity was purged of its most violent elements. This picture of the early mining days in California has been repeated, on a greater or less scale, in nearly every mining locality in the AVest. w 142 (.(J.MrENDIU.M OF (JEOGKAl'lIY AND TJtAVEL h:i i' Methods of Placer Mining The gold ill ]»la(/er.s is native gokl, in the form of liaiticU'S more or less tine, fnnii nuugets of several ])ouiuls' weight down to the finest dust. All the nicthods used in separating it from the sand and gravel in which it is disseminated depend njuai the fact that the gokl is heavier tiian the sand and gravel, and tlierefore when agitated in water sinks to the bottom very readily and ([uickly. The sim])lest and most primitive instrument used ior this pur}iose is the })an. In this the miner puts a small amount of the auriferous sand, pours in water and agitates it, tilting it oeeasionally to ]»our off the water and sand, the gold meantime aceumulating at the liottom. This was the tool used in the earliest stages of ]»laeer mining, when every man worked his own claim. As men l)egaii to coml)ine their interests and work togetlier they were al)le to use more complicated machinery, and the rocker, tlien the toni, and tinally the sluice came into use. As they are all alike in ]»rinciple, diifering mainly in size, a «, the work is suspended and tlic amali^am of <;(»ld and mercury wiiich has accumulated is scraped up fnim the i»ottom of the sluice and retorted. The amalgam is placeil in a hottle-shaped vessel, in which it is heated until the mercury is driven away, the mercurial vapour being condensed by ]>assin«4 through water. The Black Hills of South Dakota In the lUack Hills, as everywhere else, placer mines were the tirst discovere.., and afteiwarcl exhaustive search was made for the sources of the gold. In this re^iou it was found in enormous veins of low grade ore. The gold is free, but averages only 8'»'00 or 1?4'00 to the ton, still these mines are among the most profitable gold mines ui the country. The enormous ([uantity of ore, coupled with ease of mining it, for it is simjdy quarried, and the ease with which the gold is extracted, for the ore is simply crushed and stamped, and the particles of uold dust thus set free collected by washinu; and umul- yamating, make these n;ines very i)rotitable. Cripple Creek This, the greatest gold camp of the world, after the Transvaal, is in Colorado, a few miles west of Tike Peak. Although only three or four years have elapsed since it came into prominence, it now contains a score of thou- sands of inhabitants, and its annual product of the precious metal is reckoned by millions. The scenes of Virginia City and Leadville are to-day being re-enacted ou this stage. GKOLOGY AND MINERAL KESOUUCES U5 Results of Precious Metal Mining In spite of tlie fact tliat many hundreds of millions of dollars in gold and silver have h'^en taken from the earth since the first discovery of gold in California, the fact remains that if we consider only the innnediate proceeds of these mines the country would he richer to-day if no such mines had heen discovered. There has been more money expended in extracting this gold and silver than the nunes have returned. But this would be a narrow view to take of the subject. To draw men from the comforts of Eastern civilisation, to sustain them in the long journey across the plains, thiough the mountains and the deserts, required a powerful motive, and that motive was 8upi)lied by the possibility of wealth derived from gold and silver mining. Thus the mines have induced settlement of the Cordilleran region, and have furnished the nucleus about which other industries have collected to su})ply the miners ; thus farmers have migrated to the West ; thus manufactories have started up and attracted operatives, and railroads have been built through these remote regions ; indeed, if there had been no mining of the precious metals in the West there is every prol)al)ility that its plains and its fertile valleys would be to-day as unoccupied as two generations ago. In this way the mines of precious metals in the AVest have proved the greatest of boons, not only to that region, but to the country at large, for through them millions of people have found homes, opportunities for pecuniary improvement have been aftbrded, and milliojis of people have thus been rendered hai)py. Add to tiiis the fact that by the emigration from the East better opportunities have been afforded those who remained, and their con- ! 1 I ; ' 't 146 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAl'IIY AND TKAVKL ih! ?; (litioij thoruby improved, iiiid we soe tlio full sliare of blessing which these mines liave ])roved to the couutiy. Copper For many years the sole source of supply of copper to the United States were the mines upon Keweenaw Point, on the upper peninsula of ]\liehigan, near the shores of Lake Su])erior, and this is still one of the ])roniinent sources of that metal. The ore is native copper, (Hstri- buted through the rocks in strings, sheets, and masses, and in tine particles. The last oi: these forms of occurrence is the most abundant, and has proved to be by far th'^ most proHtal)le in this region. The ore of the Calunuu and llecla mine, which for many years has pro(hiced more than half of the total ])roduct of the Lake Su])erior district, is ol" this character, consisting oi' line particles of copper scattered through conglomerate rock. This ore is mined in large (piantities, hoisted to the surface and stamped, and the j)articles of cop])er collected by washing. The ore is very low grade, and can be profitably worked only by thci utnu)st economy of labour. At i)resent (189G) the most prominent sources of copper are the mines in the neighbourhood of JUitte and Anaconda in south-western Montana. Here the ore consists of sulphurets, carboiuites, and oxides, and carries some silvt'r in combination. The tliird soui'ce of coj)per of magnitude is Arizona, where it is mined in considerable (piantity at three or four different localities. It is also mined to a small extent in Colorailo. Lead Lead is mined in several localities in the Mississip))i Valley, notably in soutli-west Missouri, and south-eastern i— . GEOLOGY AND MINKUAL IIKSOUKCES 147 Kiiiisas, in north-wostorn Illinois, souLh-weHtiTn Wisconsin, and north-eastern Jovva. From these localities what is known as soft lead is produced, and the total output of soft lead in tliese states in 189G was 52,000 tons. By far the greater part of the product, however, conies from the states and territories of the West, where lead is mined in connection with silvi'r and gold mininj''. Durinu the year 1890, 145,500 tons were produced in these states. The greater part of the produ(;tion conies from Colorado, which is also the heaviest silver-proilucing state. Next to that ranks Utah, while other states prominent in silver production are also prominent in the production of lead. Zinc Zinc is found at sevci'al |»laces in the Mississippi valley in close juxtaposition with lead ores, as in south-eastern Kansas and south-western IMissoui'i, in south-eastern Missouri, and ii; north-western Illinois. It is also ibund to a smaller i xtent in the nortiiern part of New flersey and adjacent ]»arts of rennsylvania, i)ut the production from these localities is but trilling. u : Petroleum The discovery of petroleum ;it Titusvilh;, in north- western Pennsylvania, in 1850, was the signal for a mad rush tt) this region and the o})i'ning of an era of wild speculation in oil lands. Farms witiiin the oil region, which formerly couhl not he given away, brought faiadous prices, and the derricks of oil wells wen; more abundant over this regie;! than wind-mills in the Netherlands, but, as everywhere else, the fever ol' speculation in a few years burned itself out, and the l)usiness *' oil production, us of 148 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAI'IIY AND TIJAVEL !f i; a t ' that of gold and silver production, settled down to a rational working basis. The oil-producing regions are north-western Pennsyl- vania, extending a short distance into scuih-western New York, an area in northern Ohio, and anoilicr one in the south-western portion of the same state with the adjoining m on, TANKS AM) lANK (AliS, LIMA, OiUU. portions of West Virginia. Oil is found also in Indiana, and to a small extent in Colorado and California. I'ractically all the oil produced in the eastern part of the country is in the hands of the Standard Oil Company, which owns nnu'h of tlie producing territory, and ])urchases the oil raised in the remaining territory, retincs it, trans- ports it, and disposes of it. Upon rcacliing the surface the oil is run into tanks, tlie })ropcrty of the Standard Oil Company, the owners of the oil being credited by means GEOLOGY AND MINERAL RESOURCES 149 of Standard Oil Certificates, which are bought and sold in the markets as representing so much oil. From these tanks the oil is transported to the principal centres of refining and consumption by means of pipe lines, which extend from the producing grounds in western I'ennsyl- vania to Xew York, I'hiladelphia, and other points. ,1 .lit Natural Qas In close juxtaposition with petroleum, occupying nearly the same territory, is found natural gas, wliich is obtained by boring wells similar to those made for oil. Natural gas has been struck in enormous quantities in Tennsyl- vania, Indiana, and Ohio, and is piped from points where obtained to large cities, where it is utilised for domestic purposes, such as cooking, heating, and lighting, and is also used in manufacturing, supplanting coal to the value of several millions of dollars annually. At present, however, the sup])ly of gas seems to be falling off, and many of the factories which had adopted it have been obliged to give it up and return to the use of coal. Quicksilver Ores of quicksilver are practically confined to the coast ranges of California. They are found in a number of localities, the principal one of which is New Ahuaden, which is south of the Hay of San Francisco. Other well- known mines are the Napa Consolidated and the Mirabel. Salt Salt is produced in many parts of the country and from several different sources, the principal of them being salt springs. New York, which now contributes a larger }>r(>duct than any other state, derives it from springs in . ^ 1 ) ■ ■ ! 150 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY A>^D TRAVEL the neighbourhood of Syracuse. Michigan also, which has a large product, gets it irom springs in the eastern part of the lower peninsula. The sources of supply in Kansas, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia are also springs. In Louisiana the supply comes from mines of rock salt at Petit Anse, in the coast swamps, while in California a notable amount is made by the evaporation of sea water. ■!r Hi 'i:;;ii i,il The population of the United States in 1890 was 02,622,250, having increased to this number in just one hundred years from 3,9 2 0,2 1 4. At the end of the century the people were sixteen times as numerous as at the beginning. The figures above given as the population in 1890 included only what is known to the United States Census as the " Constitutional Population." In them are not included the Indians still remaining in tribal relations, whites upon Indi".!! reservations, or the population of ^^laska. Adding these, the total number of iniiabitants of the country in 1890 becomes 62,979,764. In 1896 the people of this country probably numbered not tar from 70,000,000. The following table shows the population at each census, the rate of increase and tlie average number of inhabitants to a square mile : — Density. 4-75 6-41 3-62 4-82 6-25 32-G7 8-29 Census. Population. 1790 3,920,214 1800 5,308,483 1810 7,239,881 1820 9,633,822 1830 12,866,020 1840 17,069,453 Pnr Cent Increase. 35-10 36-38 33-07 33-55 1 ' 1 CHAPTER IV THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES The People 152 COMI'ENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TltAVEL Censi's. It I ml i i 1850 i8t;o 1870 1880 1890 Population. 23,191,876 31,443, 321 38,558,371 50,155,783 62,(522,250 Pit Cent Incre.ise. 35-87 35-58 22-63 30-08 24-86 Density 7-78 10-39 10-70 13-92 17-37 The rate of increase lias tlirougliout lieen astonishingly great, lar grtiater than in any other nation of which we have records. The density of population has increased greatly, in spite of the great accessions of territory which the natiuii has made. The following table gives the leading elements of the constitutional population in l.SOO : — Total population 62,622,250 M;il«'.s 32,067,880 FcMialcs 30,554,370 Native bnni 53,372,703 Native born whites 45,862,023 Native born whites of native parentage . 34,720,066 Native born whites ot" foreign jtarentage . 11,014,355 Foreign born 9,240,547 Whites 54,983,968 Coloured, including Chinese, Japanese, and Indians 7,638,282 Urban 18,284,385 Rural 44,337,865 The population is not distributed uniformly over the country, but very irregularly. In southern New England, and in parts of New York, New Jersey, and I'ennsylvania the population is as dense as in the most densely settled cduntries of Eur()i)e ; thence westward and southward it diminishes in density, shading off until we reach the desert regions of the west, which are, as yet, practically uiH)eople(l. The following table shows the population by States and Territories, and by nativity and race in 1890 : — THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 153 Poi'iTiiATioN HY Nativity and Race ■ - ~ STATt> ANli TKIIIUTORIKS. Tdtiil Pcipulatioii. White. ('(ilonreil. 079,299 r Niitive. • ,498,240 Njitive White. Kc.reigu born. Aliibaiiui . 1,513,017 833,718 819,114 14,777 Ari/oiiil . 51),<>-'0 55,580 4,040 40,825 38,117 18,705 Arkiiiisiis . l,VJ,S,.S7il 818,752 309,427 1,113,915 .804,058 14,204 (Jiilit'oniia 1, -JOS, 130 1,111,072 90,4,50 841,821 818,119 300,309 CdlDl'lUio . 4lL>,l',tS 404,408 7,730 328,208 321,902 83,0110 ConiiL'clicut 74t;,-_'5s 733,438 12,.S20 .502,057 5,50,283 183,001 Dt'liiwiin^ . 1(;8,4!»3 140,0(10 28,427 155,332 120,070 13,101 Dist. rjf Columbia . 230,3i»l> 1,54, 0115 75,0'.i7 211,022 130,178 18,770 Florida 3!ll,4-'-2 224,11411 100,473 308,4110 200,771 22,932 (k'orgia . 1,837,353 978,357 858,91(0 1,825,210 900,405 12,137 Malm Si. 385 82,018 2,3117 00,929 00,554 17,450 Illinois 3,82,>,351 3,708,472 57,879 2,084,004 2,027,497 842,347 Iinllana . 2,liej,404 2,14(1,7.30 45,008 2,040,199 2,0(M),733 140,20.5 Iowa l,911,8!Mi 1,1(01,080 10,810 1,.5,S7,827 1,, 577, 1,54 324,009 Kansas l,4l>7,0'.»t; 1,370,553 50,54.3 1,279,258 1,228,023 147,,S38 Kentucky 1,858,1)35 1,5110,402 2(8,173 1,799,270 1,531,222 59,350 r.oiiisiana 1,118,587 ,558,3115 5(30,192 1,008,840 509,555 49,747 Maine ()t>l,08() 051>,203 1,823 .5,82,123 580 508 78,901 Maryland . 1, 042,3110 820,4113 215,81(7 048,094 732,700 94,290 M.assaclmsetts . 2,238,043 2,215,373 23,,570 1,581,800 1,, 501, 870 057,137 Micliigiin . 2,()'.'3,88<.1 2,072,884 21,005 1,5.50,009 1,531,283 543,880 Minncsnta 1,301,821-. 1,2110, l.V.) 5,007 834,470 829,102 407,350 Mississiiipi 1,2811,000 544,851 744,749 1,281,048 ,537,127 7,952 Missouri . 2,ti70,184 2,528,458 150,720 2,444,315 2,204,170 234,809 Montana . 132,1511 127,271 4,888 89,003 80,941 43,090 Xebruska . 1,058,1110 1,040,888 12,022 850,308 844,044 202,542 Nevada 45,7iil 311,084 0,077 31,0.^5 27,190 14,700 Now Hainpsliiio 37t 1,530 375,840 090 304,190 .303,044 72,340 New.liTsey 1,444,1133 1,3II0,,581 48,352 1,115,908 1,008, .590 328,975 New Mexico . 153,5113 142,719 10,874 142,334 131,,S.'.9 11,2.50 New York 5,11117,853 5,923,1152 73,901 4,420..803 4,358,200 1,571,0.50 North (Jarolina l,f>17,lt47 1,055,382 502,. 505 1,014,245 1,(151,720 3,702 North Dakota . 182,71'! 182,123 ,590 101,208 100,775 81,401 Ohio 3,072,3! 1 3,584,805 87,511 3,213,023 3,120,2.52 4.50,293 Oklahoma (il,83 ,58,820 3,008 ,59,004 50,117 2,740 < (n'Kon 313,70; 301,7f)8 12,(109 250,450 253,030 .57,317 Pennsylvania . 5,258,014 5,148,257 109,757 4,412,294 4,304,008 845,720 Rhode Island . 345,r,0i> 337,8.59 7,047 239,201 231,,S32 100,305 Scmth Carolina 1,151,1411 402,0(J8 089,141 1,144,879 45.5,.S05 0,270 South Dakota . 328,808 327,290 1,518 237,7.53 2.30,447 91,055 Tennessee 1,7(17,518 1,330,037 430,881 1,747,480 1,310,738 20,029 Texas 2,235,523 1,745,935 489,.5,88 2,0.82,507 1,. 504,400 152.950 Utah 207,1105 205,899 2,000 1.54,841 153,700 53,004 Vermont . 332,422 331,418 1,004 288,334 287,304 44,088 VirL;inia . l,«155,!t80 1,020,122 035,858 1,037,000 1,001,033 18,374 \Vashin;;fon 341t..S110 340,513 8,.S77 2.59,385 2.54,310 90,005 West Viririnia . 7(12,7114 730,077 32,717 743,911 711,225 18,8s3 Wisecuisin 1,08(1,880 1,0.80,473 0,407 1,107,081 1,101,484 519,199 Wyoming . 00,705 59,275 1,430 45,792 44,845 14,913 Alaska, 32/ -2, of wlioin 4,298 are white. Iiidiiin Tenitory, 179,321, of wliom 50,055 arc ludiaiis, and 109,384 are whites. The distribution of the population i.s sliown upon map No. 12. This map has Ijeen prepared by taking the county i 154 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL '' I m U' \'i !fil :|l :'' as a unit, dividing its population by its area in square miles, and platting the figures upon a map, upon which the areas showing different densities of population have been coloured in different tints. The deepest tint indicates the densest population, the lightest tint the sparsest. The population of the large cities has been taken from, that of their counties, and these cities are represented by dots of size proportional to their population. The following table presents the density of population, i.e. the number of inhabitants to a square mile in each state in 1890. The states are arranged in geographical Older, so as to bring together those having similar conditions : — Persons to Per.sons to a s.'inaro a square mile. mile. Maine 22 Tennessee ... 42 New Hampshire 42 Ohio 90 Vermont 36 Indiana . 61 Massachusetts . 278 Illinois . 68 Rhode Island . 318 Alichigan 36 Connecticut 154 Wisconsin 31 New York 126 ]\Iinnesota 16 New Jersey 194 Iowa 34 Pennsylvania . 117 Missouri . 39 Delaware SI] North Dakota 3 Maryland 106 South Dakota 4 District of Columbia 3840 Nebraska 14 Virginia . 41 Kansas . 17 West Virginia . 31 Montana 1 North Carolina 33 Wyoming 1 South Carolina 38 Colorado . 4 Georgia . 31 New Mexico . 1 Florida . 1^ 1 Arizona . 1 Alabama . 29 Utah 3 Mississippi 28 Nevada . — Louisiana 25 Idaho 1 Texas . 9 Washington 5 Arkansas 21 Oregon . 3 Oklahoma 2 California 8 Kentucky 46 THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 155 In total population the Empire state of New York heads the list, with a population of almost 0,000,000 ; while Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio follow close behind. Leaving out of consideration the District of Columbia, which is practically a nnmicipality, the little connnon- wealth of lihode Island lieads the list in density of popidation with 320 people to a square mile, followed by iMassachusetts with 275 ; while the list ends witli the states and territories of the Cordilleran re«;ion, some of which have scarcely one inhabitant to a square mile. Centre of Population The centre of population and its movements from one federal census to another have attracted much attention as the results of each census have been obtained and published. The centre of population is the centre of gravity of the people of the country, supposing each inhal)itant to have the same weight, and to press down- ward with a force proportional to its distance from that centre. Every movement of the people which is of magnitude, whether it be north, south, or west, has affected the position of this centre. In 1790 the first census showed it to be located in the northern part of Maryland, a few miles south-east of Baltimore. With each succeeding census it was found to be mo\'ing west- ward, at one time with a slight southward component, at another slightly northward, l)ut all the time following closely the 39th parallel of latitude. In 1890 it was found in the southern part of Indiana, in almost precisely the same latitude in which it started, but west of its initial position not less than 505 miles. The map No. 12 shows the position and movement of the centre at each decennial census. 15G COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAl'IIY AND THAVKL rosniON OF THK CKN'THK OF Poi UI.ATION 1790. 39' 16-5' X lat ,76' 11-2' W • long 1800 . 39'^ 16-1' 76" bQ-i/ 1810 . 39" 11-5' 77' 37-2' 1820 . 39" 5-7' 78" 33-0' 18:50 . 38" 57-9' 79° 16-9' 1840 . 39" 2-0' 80' 18-0' 1850 . 38° 59-0' 81" 19-0' 1860 . 39" 0-4' 82" 48-8' 1870 . 39^ 12-0' 83" 35-7' 1880 . 39" .i-l' 84" 39-7' 1890 . 39" 11-9' 85" 32-9' Settled Area I I i- When the first census was taken in 1790 but a com- paratively small part of the country had been occupied by Europeans. Assuming a population of two or more to a square mile as representing a settled country, that having a less population being regarded as unsettled, the settled area in 1790 comprised but 239,935 square miles. The settled area increased by enormous leaps, however, and in 1890 comprised 1,947,285 square miles. In 1790 the settled area comprised little excepting the country east of the Appalachian Mountains, and stretched along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia. In the hundred years that have since elapsed it has spread over these mountains and over the Mississippi valley ; it has climbed the long slope of the plains and reached the mountains which stand upon their summit ; while among these mountains, wherever there are fertile valleys or valuable mines, settlement has spread and extended until even in this region settlement is the rule and unsettled regions are the exception. The frontier has disappeared with the buffalo and otlier wild game. are the has the [ig or ntil tied ired I ^1 .1! '■ ( m m I ! r i:;i| m if.t, 1 II' t ! ii'"' ! ^h"^- ' THK POPULATION OK TIIK UNITKI) STATES 157 1700 ISOO 1810 IS'JO 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 SeTI'I.KI) AllK.V AT KACH CkNSUS CKNHua. S(>tt It'll area, sciuiirt' iuili"<. l'rci)>iirtioii of X'ttll'.l to tiital area, licr cents. •^39,915') 29 30r).70S 37 ■107,945 20 508.717 25 (332,717 31 S07.292 39 979,249 33 1,194,754 39 1.272,239 35 1.5()9,570 44 1,947,285 54 Sex While in most European countries females are sliu,litly in excess of males, in tlie United States the reverse is the case. In 18!)0, and indeed ever since statistics upon the subject have been obtained, males have l)ecn in excess. In 1800 out of every 100 ])ersons 51 '21 were males, and 48"79 were females. This disproportion of males is doubtless due to the extensive innniuration which the United States has received during the past half-century, lin innuigration which consists in lart;e proportion of the male sex. In the states on or near the Atlantic coast, which are the oldest and most densely settled, females are, almost without exception, in excess ^f males, while in the states of the Mississippi valley the reverse is the case, and in those of the far west nudes are largely in excess, reaching a maximum in Montana, where there are two males to each female. • Sii^e of Families The United States census regards as a family all those persons who are living together in one home ; besides the 158 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGUAPHY AND TRAVEL fatlier, iiiothcr, children, and other relatives, the servants are regaixled as constitutiijg part of tlie family. Under this definition the average size of a family in 1890 was •l"0o individuals. It has been diminishing for the past half-century, a fact indicative of a decreasing number of children. The size of families is largest in the south, especially among the negroes. In the north it is small among the native inhabitants, but large among those of foreign birth. In the west, owing to the frontier condi- tions, the family is commonly small, as women and children are less numerous. I i I ; r I • 1 M \ !• I, !: ! I ! ! 1 H. !■ ^1 1 ! i 1 i 1 I 1 kd: t Urban Population The United States forms no exception to the general rule that urban population increases more rapidly than rural population ; indeed, tlie increase in the population of cities has been astonishingly rapid. In 1790 only 3"o5 per cent of the people were grouped in cities of 8000 inhabitants or more; while a century later, hi 1890, the proportion was '29-20 per cent, that is, be- tween one-fourth and one-third of all the people of the country were grouped in cities of 8000 inhabitants or more. UuBAN Population- at i.Aca Census Census. 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 Pro lortion ot Urlmn popu- urbi in to total lation. po piilii'.ioii per cents. 131,472 3 210,873 4 35(5,920 5 475,135 5 8(J4,509 7 1,453,994 9 2,897,586 12 5,072,256 16 8,071,875 21 11,318,547 23 18,284,385 29 THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATEc: 159 Like the total population, the urban clement is grouped very irregularly. The distribution is shown roughly upon the map, plate No. 1 2, by the distribution and size of the dots representing the cities. In southern New England, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, the cities are most abundant, and, as a rule, larger than elsewhere ; indeed, their distribution I'ollows in a general way the distribution of the population. In certain states the urban element constitutes the ruling part of the com- munity, thus m Khode Island 79 per cent of all the inhabitants are found in these cities, in Massachusetts 70 per cent, in New York oU*o per cent, and in New Jersey 54 per cent, while in Connecticut just about one- half of the population live in cities. The great cities of the country are New York, which with its suburbs included in 1890 a population of three and three-quarter millions, Chicago and I'hiladelphia, each with a population of over a million. There were at that time no fewer than twenty-eight cities having a popula- tion of 100,000 or more, and with a population collec- tively of 9,788,150, or more than one-seventh of the entire population of the country. CniEs OF OVER 100,000 Population in 1890 New York . 1,515,301 Detroit 205,876 Chiea^'o 1,099,850 Milwaukee . 204,408 Philadelphia 1,040,904 Newark 181,,s30 Brooklyn 800,343 Minneapolis 164,738 St. Louis 451,770 Jersey City . 103,093 Boston 448,477 Louisville . 101,129 Baltimore . 434,439 Omaha 140,4.^2 Sail Francisco 298, 997 Rochester . 133,890 Cincinnati . 290,908 St. Paul . . 133,150 Cleveland 201,353 Kansas City 132,710 Buttalo 255,064 Providence . 132,140 New Orleans 242,039 Denver 100,713 Pittsburg . 238,017 Indianapolis 105,430 "Wiishiugton 230,392 Alleghany . 105,287 1 ' ;n 1 ' 160 COMPENDIUM OK GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL In spite of this rapid growth of the iirljaii element, and particularly of the larger cities, it cannot be said that in any case does tlie city rule the commonwealth. There is no city in the United States of which it can be said, as of the capital of France, that l*aris is France, or that London is England. Even New York, which, next to London, has the greatest aggregation of people on the globe, does not rule the state, but on the contrary is ruled by the state to an extent, as many people believe, which is injurious to the interests of the city. Chicago is not Illinois, nor is Philadelphia Pennsylvania. Plans of Cities The older cities, including those on or near the Atlantic coast, were not laid out, but simply git'w. The streets are, as a rule, irreguliir, crooked and more or less windiug, with little appearauce of plan in their arrangement. Exception to this must be made in the case of "Washington, which was i'rom the first the result of a delil)erate, preconceived plan. IMost of the cities in the interior and tliose in the West were, on the other liand, i)lanned and laid out in advance, and sliow the result of intelligence in the regular arrangement of streets which, although they may be tiresome in their regularity, are at the same time simple, convenient, and easy to comprehend. Another generic difference is seen between Eastern and Western cities. While those of the far W«3st have ad(»])ted the most recent improvements in the matters of water supply, drainage, lighting, street r.ulways, etc., those of the East are seen to 1)0 l)ackward in many of these respects. It would be surjn-ising if this were not the case. These brand new Western cities grew up with THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES IGl these iinprovenieiits. When the electric ligiit and street curs were invented they had no street cars or street lain[)S ; they had no heavy investments in ohl stock whicli it would l)e neoessarv to throw awav in order to introduce the improved methods, l)ut i'. the Eastern cities it was dili'erent. ^Millions were invested in gasworks which would be a total loss upon the substitution of electric lighting, and similarly with the trans[)ortation service and other municipal conveniences. The more recent parts of the Eastern cities, with the entirety of those in the interior, were built in accordance with plans — in regular S(|uares, with broad streets inter- secting at right angles, resembling, as has been often said, si'i'j'antic chess-boards. In many cities the streets are designated l)y numlteis and letters of the alphal)et ; and in some one hundred numljers arc allowed to eacli square, the next square commencing with a new iumdred. These arrangements are of the utmost convenience^ in tinding one's way in strange cities, however much of the a\sthetic may be lost in consequence. ) ; Names of Cities Tn the names of the cities one notes the utmost variety. i\Iany are taken from well-known cities of the Old AVorld — thus we meet with London and Xew London, Paris, Petersburg, etc. The classics are not neglected; for Troy Utica, Alexandria, Carthage, and otliers have l)een re- surrected on this western continent. The names of great men are freely immortalised. Washington appears in nearly every state in the I'nion. Xear the northern border, along the ]\Iississippi liiver and in Louisiana, Frencli names are common ; and in the soutli-west Spanisli names abound, l)etraying the early occupation of these M *M 162 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TEAVEL regions by French and Spanish peoples, while everywhere are found Indian names in abundance. In the newer parts of the country, especially in the Western States and Territories, there are few self-styled villages. The sanguine American mind sees in every new settlement a future metropolis, and, like Minerva, it springs into being, in name at least, a full-grown city. Every straggling settlemeni on the frontier — built, it may be, of logs — is a "city"; and the speculator in corner lots confidently predicts for it a vast future. Tlie first building of these to-be cities is, not a church or schoolhouse, but a hotel, if a log-cabin of one room can be so caliod consistently. Xext a saloon appears, and then a small proportion of dwelling-houses. When the town has passed its lawless stage, when it has sown its wild oats and has settled down into a law-abiding conmiunity, then churches and schoolhouses appear, and the religious and educational elements are ministered to. This is the general history of the growth of settlements on the Western frontier. :tll i Ruined Cities Again, many of these incipient towns die prematurely. Mining excitements give birth to numberless " cities " which perish when the mines become exhausted, or, from one reason or another, work on them is stopped. The oil regions of Pennsylvania contain many of these mush- room towns which, from the failure of the oil-wells, are now in a state of decay. All over the high plains of the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado, are the remains of " cities " which were started during the boom period of 1885 to 1 888, and which were dep(ii>ulated by the droughts of succeeding years. All over the West are deserted towns, monuments of departed placer diggings, or "played-out" ^w TIIF. '.-or. LATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1G3 urely. ities " from The iiiusli- Is, are of the liuains riod of ()u;j;hts towns, -out" quartz \:\ s. The raih'oads, too, contribute their quota ut r'jcent ruins. Every important raih^oad, during its construction, carried at its end a town — even a city in some cases. As tlie end of the road moves on, the town follows it. It is a city upon wheels. The houses are made of the thinnest and lightest materials, and are often can. bodily in sections from one stopping-place to another. The Union Pacific Eailroad, during its construction, carried a town of several thousand inhabit- ants upon its end. As may be supposed, the people of this town were not of the most desirable sort. Besides the employes of the road, it consisted mainly of gamblers, desperadoes, and loose women of the baser sort. Law and order were nnknown, save as administered by " Judge Lynch." Shooting was a pastime freely indulged in by both sexes and all classes. The revolver was king over tlie community. It has often been charged, to the discredit of the United States, that it had no ruins. The charge is imjust in the highest degree. I'robably no country can l)oint to a larger or more varied collection of hric-d-hrac of this sort than the United States, or to a more pathetic history connected with tliem — a history of disappointed hopes, of hardships, and troubles. The Negroes Classifying the population by race, as returned by the census of 1890, it comprised 54,983,908 wliites, and 7,638,282 of the coloured race. Tlie latter figures are composed of 7,470,040 persons of negro l)lood, 107,475 Chinese, 2039 Japanese, the remainder being Indians. The persons of negro blood include, besides the full- blooded negroes, the mulattoes, quadroons, octoroons, and others of mixed blood. 164 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGHAPHV AND TRAVEL I : V ^^X' - -i I *l The negro element in the United States was brought there originally as slaves. The importation of slaves began early in the sixteenth century, the first slaves being brought to Virginia from the Barbados. The slave trade was lor two centuries very active, and altogether probaljly milliijus of the African race were Ijnnight to the United States, although statistics upon this subject are absolutely wanting. The slave trade ceased by statute in 1808, and since that time the race has been recruited only ])y natural increase ; indeed, importations of slaves before the slave trade entirely ceased were of but small amount, and prol»al»ly cut little or no figure in comparison with their naturtd increase. In 1790, when the first census of the United States was taken, the negroes numbered about three-fourths of a milHon. In the century which has elapsed since then they have increased in number ten times, while the whites have increased in number about eighteen times. This statement is suilicient to show tliat the negroes have not increased by any means as rapidly in the United States as the whites, that relatively they have become much less numerous. This is brought out more in detail ]>y the following table, which shows the percentages in which the two races have made up the population at each censns. Ci'iisus Years. 1790 1800 1810 18-20 1S30 1840 18.'.0 18t)0 1870 1880 1890 Wliitc. Colomvil 'it I'C'llt. r.T cent. 80-73 19-27 81-13 18-87 80-97 19-03 81 -til 18-39 81-90 18-10 83-17 16-83 81-31 15-69 8". -0-2 14-13 87-11 12-65 80-54 13-1-2 87-80 1-2-20 THE POrULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 165 Examination of this tal»le shows tliat wliile in 1700 the whites constituted 81 per cent and the negroes 19 per cent of tlie population, the corresponding proportions in 1890 were 88 per cent and 12 per cent. It will also he seen that this reduction in tlie percentage of tlie negroes has heen almost continuous, there heing only two eases where they have apparently made a gain on the whites. As will be seen hereafter, the wliite race has received large accessions during the last half-century from innnigra- tion, and the question naturally arises whether the great relative gain of the whites over the negroes is not due to this immigration rather than to a more rapid growth from natural increase. To test this it is only necessary to examine and compare the records before and alter the connnencement of this immigration. Immigration began abnut 1847. Prior to that time it was not of magnitude. From that time down to 1800, fifteen million Europeans have emigrated to the United States. Jf, therefore, we compare the records of tlie half-century beginning wnth 1790 and ending in 1840 with those beginning at the latter date and ending in 1800, we shall be able to measure tlie efl'ect of immigration upon the relative status of the two races. The results of this comparison may he concisely staled as follows: between 1700 and 1840 the whites increased from 3,000,000 to 14,000,000; that is, they multiplied themselves four and two-third times. In the same period the negroes increased fnjiii three -cpiarters of a million to two and nine -tenths millions, or something inore than three and j.i half times. Ill the succeeding half-centurv, while the whites increased from 14,000.000 to 05,000,000, the negroes increased from two and nine -tenths to seven and four- tenths millions. The whites were four times as numerous, the ■ i. •• *■ ! 1G6 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL III! ^r : 'f i ! if I If blacks less than three times as numerous. Thus it will be seen that in each of these periods the blacks lost ground, although somewhat more rapidly in the second of these periods. In recent years there has been fear expressed lest the negroes were increasing in numbers more rapidly than the whites, and would in time outnumber them, at least in that part of the country where they are mostly con- gregated. The census of 1870 was grossly incorrect as regards the number of negroes, the omissions being of wholesale character; and when the census of 1880 was taken, which was full and complete, it showed such an astonishing rate of increase of the negroes as to give colour to this fear. The erroneousness of the census of 1870 is now fully established, however, and the fears to which its errors gave rise have been allayed. Distribution of Negroes The negroes are mainly found in the southern states. In the states south of Pennsylvania, the Ohio Eiver, and the north boundary of Missouri, and east of western Texas, are congregated more than nine- tenths of their entire number, the few remaining being scattered widely over the north and west. Their distribution is shown simply and clearly in the map which constitutes Plate Xo. 13. While in the northern states the proportion which the negroes bear to the total population is everywhere trifling, in the south it ranges very high, being in every one of the southern states more than 25 per cent, in Louisiana 50 per cent, in Mississippi over 50 per cent, and in South Carolina not less than 60 per cent, or three-fifths of the entire population. The reasons for this distribution of the negroes are THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 16' twofold. In the first place slavery fiourislicd in these states from the beginning, and it was to these states that the great importations of slaves were made. Secondly, while negroes have been free for thirty years, or more, to change their habitat, tliey have foiled to do so, owing to the fact that the climate and the agricnltural and social conditions of the sonth are better suited to tliem than those of the north. Up to 1863, when the slaves were freed by the emancipation proclamation of President Lincoln, most of them were held in a state of slavery. Originally slaves were held in nearly all of the states, but one after another it was abolished in the northern states, so that at the opening of the civil war slaves were held only in the states south of ^Mason and Dixon's line, the Ohio Eiver, and the north boundary of Missouri. These are what are commonly known as the slave states. In these states are 92 per cent of all the negroes of the country, and the population of thes,"' states is made up in the proportion of about two whites to one negro. In the slave times about nine -tenths of the negroes in the country were slaves. Of the free negroes more than half lived in the southern states. Although the negro is a very gregarious being, delight- ing in the society of his fellows, very prone to ally him- self with societies, guilds, and churches, and that sort of thing, he has, as a race, never shown much appetency for city life. Of the negroes of the south only about one- eighth are found in the southern cities, while one-sixth of the whites are found there. Coming originally from a tropic climate characterised by great and long-continued heat and great moisture, the negro retains his liking for these conditions, and accord- ingly we find this people congregated in greater proportion 'M ni 108 COMJ'ENDIUM OF GEOGRAI'HY AND TRAVEL than elsewhere in the coast swamps of tlie Carolinas and (leorgia, and in the alhivial bottom lands of the Mississippi liiver, in Louisiana, Arkansas, and Mississippi. In these regions, as a whole, tliey constitute mucli more than lialf the population. On the other hand, they avoid high vud mountainous country, very small proportions being found in the southern Appalachian region. I ■einle that of tlie whites, as is seen below. St. Louis .... Baltimore .... New Orleans "\Vasluu,i,'toii Loiiisvillf .... The figures given aljove are the number of deaths per thousand per year of the two races. Whether this great excess of the death-rate of the negroes over that of the whites prevails in rural districts to the extent that it does in cities is an open question. Although doubtless greater than that of the wliites, it is probable th;it the excess is not as large, since rural conditions suit the negro's constitution better than urban conditions do. Ill I -ii,,... '— Moral and Social Conditions of the Negroes As to the moral condition of this race, it may l)e summed up in the statement that out of every 10,000 there were 33 prisoners in 1890, while out of every 10,000 native whites of native parentage there were but 9 prisoners ; in other words, the criminality of the negro was three and two-third times as great as that of the whites of native parentage. There is one qualification, however, to make to this statement, which is this, that the offences committed by negroes were, as a rule, of a more petty character than those of the whites. It is a common saying that the amount of pauperism in any community is a direct function of the extent of the provisions for its relief, that the larger the relief fund is, the more numerous are paupers. This holds true especially in regard to the negro. The long course of the ition, that of a ' I »-^ THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 171 training in dependence upon the white race wliich he has undergone, makes him instinctively look to them rather than to himself when in troul)le ; and while there are practically no almshouses in the south, there is a vast amount of what may be generically called out-door relief, of which the negroes are almost the sole recipients ; indeed, it is quite a connuon thing in southern cities, when an appropriation is made for the relief of the poor, to see the negro labourers and household servants give up their places and live for as long a time as possible at leisure upon what they can obtain of this relief fund. The negroes are a very impulsive, emotional people, aiul capable of strong attachments for persons and places. This characteristic of the race was verv well illustrated at the close of the civil war, when, after being freed, large numbers of the ex-slaves, probably the majority of them, remained upon the old j)lantations, or returned to them after a brief season of wandering, to spend their days upon the familiar acres, and to serve, even more heartily than when slaves, their former masters. They are an intensely religious peuple. True, their religion has little or no effect upon their morals ; it is the sentiment only of religion which attracts them. Probably church membership is more geneial among them than among whites, as nearly all those of mature years belong to the Methodist or ]>aptist Church. Re- ligion with them is a matter of excitement, and the preaching, praying, and the singing are commonly uf the i\aturc of spiritual gynmastics. They delight in music, and tine voices and musical al)ility abound among them. They liave founded a school of music of their own, quaint, curious, and sweet, and in harmony with their own peculiar musical instru- ment, the banjo. iti^i 172 COMPEXDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL The Chinese A geneviitioii a|L,'o a Chiniiiiiaii was an ol)ject of great interest in the United States, owing to liis pecnliar costnme and colour, his cue, and his scarcity. Between 1870 and 1880, liowever, tliey began to migrate across the Pacific in considerable nuni])ers, and landing in Cali- fornia, which then >vas not as populous as now, they soon formed a large and important element of the population. In 1880 there were 10-4,000 of them in the country, and ]iearly all of these were in (.'alifornia. Moreover, of tlie California contingent, far the greater part were in the city of San Francisco. Thus, concentrated largely in one city, they formed in manv ways a serious eyil. Altliough industrious and la w-al tiding, frugal and econo- jnical, their un])leasant hal)its and modes of life, and particularly, it must lie said, their ability to underbid in the labour market the American or European labourer, produced great hatred and fear of them on the Pacific coast. In consequence of this feeling, a series of acts was }»assed by Congress, forljidding further immigration of the race. These acts have proved effectual, since it was found in 1890 that the Chinese had increased only 2000 in the ten years intervening, being in the latter year about K 0,000 in num]»er. Moreover, the condition of the California people was greatly ameliorated by the scatter- ing of the Chinese to other parts of the country, instead of being concentratetl almost entirely in the state, and largely in the city of San Francisco. The number in the state and city was mat.i'ially less, while it had increased in other parts of the country. The Chinaman makes an excellent labourer. Al- though not powerful, he is patient and enduring, reipiires THE POPULATION OF TIIK UNITED STATES 17.. little food and that of the plainest description, a mere handful of rice serving him for a day's sustenance. To him <[iiite as mucli as to the eneruy of Stanford and H<)])kins, is due the completion of the Central racific JJailroad, for his were the hands that graded it and laid the tracks, ]>y many he is regarded as the hest coolc on earth : and upon the Pacific coast, whether we will or not, we have to take our food from his hands. U])on the TaciHc coast he has monopolised the laundry business, and elsewhere he is fast getting it into his hands. Indeed, w'ere the I'aciHc states to be suddenly de]»rived of Joim Chinaman there vould be an aching void remaining, and one very oitlicult to l)e tilled. Nativity As regaids the nativity of the people of the United States, they may be l»roadly classified as native and foreign born. The native element again is subdivided into white and coloured, and the native whites into those of native and of foreign parentage. The foreign born in the United States numbered in 1890, 9,249,547, leaving as persons of native birth 53,372,70;3, and as native whites 45,802,023. Of the native whites those who had native-born parents numbered 34,720,000, the remainder, 11,014,355, having been born in the United States, but of parents who had come from abroad. This foreign element is almost entirely of European origin. Immigration After the first inihi.\ of colonists from Ku.ope, in the first half of the seventeenth centurv, innniyration was very slow, and by far the greater part of the growth made by the colonies was from the increase of Itirths over if :|i; 174 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL deaths. It was not until nearly the middle of the nine- teenth century, in 1847, when a succession of famines in Ireland drove the Irish peoi)le forth to find food, and political troubles in C4ermany drove many of her sons from the fatherland, that immiu;i'ants became numerous. They came to the United States not by hundreds but by hundreds of thousands ; and year by year since that time the How has continued unceasingly, and with increasing volume. Between 1840 and 1850, 1,700,000 people came to these shores; between 1850 and 18 GO the number was 2,000,000 ; in the succeediug decade, owing to the civil war, it was slightly less, being but 2,300,000 ; but between 1870 and 1880 it rose again and was 2,800,000; and between 1880 and 1890 it swelled to almost double that of tlie decade before, being nearly five and one-quarter millions. During the first half of the last decade of the century the rate has been somewhat reduced, owing to the financial ditliculties which the United States were passing through, yet it was not less than 2,280,000. Tluis in less than half a century, nearly 17,000,000 souls have migrated from their homes to tlie new world. Of this enormous number two-fifths at least have come from the United Kingdom, and by iar the greater part of this contingent from the mother country consists of Irish, ^lore than one-fourth of the whole number of immigrants lias come from Germany, the German contingent being on the whole somewhat larger than that from Ireland. Indeed, the T"'nited Kingdom and Germany together have supplied more than two -thirds of this great body of immigrants. In the earlier years the innin'gration was composed almost entirely of Ih'itish, inclnding in that name the natives of Ireland ; and of Germans. In later years M' m THE POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 175 irt of lish. •ants io; on lland. have y of hosod the K'cai'S otlier elements, Nor\vej:jians, Swedes, and Danes, French Canadians, liussians, I'oles, r)o]ieniians, Huns, and Italians have appeared in increasing inunbers, so nuich so as to make them of mncli greater relative imjiortance. Some of these elements are by no means desirable as additions to the population. Moreover, the German and Irisli innnigration of recent years is not by any means of as high a character as in earlier years, as is shown by the greater proportion of illiterates among them, and by the character of the occupations which they pursue. The question is beginning to force itself upon the people of tlie United States whetlier it is desirable to allow this Hood of innnigration to continue practically witliout restriction. Certain it is tliat the standard of American citizenship is being reduced by the intlux of so large an element of ignorant foreigners of the lower classes. There seems no reasonable question but that the nation will be henetited by close restriction of innnigration, by the levying of an innnigration tax or some measure of that kind, which will restrict the numbers and at the same time elevate the (quality of the incomers. But there is another point of view to which the more enliu'htened amom^ Americans are inclined to give weiLrht, that is, the effect, not alone ujxm the United States, but upon the world at large, of permitting these people free access to the country and its institutions. There is no doubt but that these millions of innuigrants are benefited in every respect by leaving their homes in Euro])e and coming to this country ; financially, intellectually, and morally the change is a good one for them, and from this ]ioint of view the question in tlie minds of American statesmen is whether they can alVord to contiinie to use their country as an eleemosynary institution in aid of the jioverty-stricken of Europe. HBHHOaaH ' . nil 170 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL The Foreign-born Element The nine and a quarter iniilions who constituted the foreign-born popuhition of the country in 1890, are mainly distributed through the northern and western states. Very few of them are found in the soutli, partly for climatic reasons, partly because the foreign born refuse to compete with the negro in the field of labour Of this element more than a million and a half, or about one-sixth, were found in the state of New York. Penn- sylvania and Illinois each contained about 850,000, or a little mo than half as many; Massachusetts 050,000. ^lichigan and Wisconsin more than half a million each, and Ohio and Minnesota nearly half a million. The enormous number found in Xew York state is due largely to the fact that the main port of entry for immigrants is the metropolis of that state. Here nine out of every ten who come to the country land, and here a large pro- portion are stranded and never get away. Here those of different nationalities colonise, and there are great sections of the city which are German, Irish, Ijohemian, I'ussian, and Italian ; indeed, in these districts tlu^ English language is of no use whatever, for oidy the tongue of the natives is heard or understood. The following table shows the distribution of the foreign-born population among ditferent nationalities in 1890:— (Jeniiaiiy .... Ireland ..... England, Scotland, and Wales Norway, Sweden, and Denmark Canada and Xewfoundland Italy Russia ..... Toland Austria 2,784,894 l,8n,4ti8 1,251, 397 9;3;5,249 980,!t41 18'2,.^.S0 182,(i4.5 147,440 123,271 THE POPULATION' OF THE UNITKD STATES 177 Boliemia France . Switzerland China Hungary 118,106 113,174 104,069 106,462 62,435 From the above table it is seen that the country most fully represented is the United Kingdom. Fully a third of the whole foreign-born element came from that country, and of these about three-fifths were from Ireland. Nearly as large is the contingent from Germany. Then there is a great drop from these imposing figures to the natives of Canada and Newfoundland, who were less than a ndllion in number, and to the Scandinavians, including the natives of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. Then there is another drop to the natives of Ilussia and Italy, each of which numljers about 182,000 ; then come the Poles with 147,000, etc., the table ending with the Hungarians, who number but 011,000. As will be seen, the objectionable nationalities are not as yet represented in large numbers, but from the rate at which they have been coming into tlie country during recent years, these figures will soon be nndtiplied many times, and these peoples will become a very appreciable element in the body politic. In 1850, when statistics of nativity were first obtained l)y the census, it was found that the foreign-born con- stituted a little less than 10 per cent of the entire popu- lation. In 18G0 this had risen to lo per cent, in 1870 it was about 14^ per cent, but in 1880 it had dropped back to a little more than 13 per cent, while in 1800 the proportion had risen and was nearly 15 per cent. The constitution of this element of foreign birth has varied in times past with the prevailing nationalities of the innnigration. Thus, in 1850, two-fifths of the entire foreign element was composed of Irish, which N \^ Jffj m it ■ : 1 : 1 .■ ^' 178 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL outnumbered every other nationality, wliile the natives of the United Kin<,fdoni in that year far outnumbered all other nationalities combined. In ISGO the natives of the United Kingdom still formed more than half of the entire foreign element, and the Irish still outnumbered every other nationality ; but the (Jerman element had greatly increased in proportion, and at that time consti- tuted nearly one-third of the entire foreign element. In 1870 the natives of the United Kingdom constituted less than half the foreign element, and the Irisli, although still the most numerous, formed less than a third of the foreign-born. The Germans had again increased relatively to them and were close upon their heels. The Canadians, too, had increased greatly, while a number of other elements first appeared in tliat year in numbers sufficient to attract notice. In 1880 the (iermans surpassed the Irish in numljers for the tii'st time, although the natives of the United Kingdom, as a whole, still remained the most numerous. Again the Canadians had made a relative gain, and indeed nearly all of the minor contribut- ing nationalities had a larger relative representation. In 1890 the (Jermans were far ahead of tlie Irish, their number being nearly 50 per cent greater. They were nearly equal numerically to the natives of Great Britain and Ireland together. The Canadians had in- creased sliglitly, the Scandinavians had increased greatly, and were nearly abreast of the Canadians, while the Italians, liussians, Poles, and Austrians had gained, not only numerically, but in proportion to other nationalities. Distribution of the Foreign-born The distribution of these great foreign industrial armies over the country is a question of interest and THE rOPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 179 importance. As was said above, spcakiiiLj of the foreign element as a whole, they are found in the nortliern and western states, to a very sliglit extent only in the southern states. This is true not only of the foreign element as a whole, but of every nationality represented in it. None of them, not even the Italians, have migrated to the soutli to any considerable extent. In the first phice we nnist look to the cities f(jr tlu^m. With the exception of tlie Scandinavians and Canadians this foreign element has congregated mainly in the cities. While only 14 per cent of the natives of the I'^nited States were found in its great cities, that is, those having 100,000 inhabitants or more, IG per cent of the Canadians, 18 per cent of the Scandinavians, 24 per cent uf the Jh-itish, 30 per cent of tlie Germans, 42 per cent of the Irish, 46 per cent of the Bohemians, 49 per cent of the Poles, and of the Italians and Itussians 51 per cent, or more than one-hall', were found in these great cities. Were we to add tlie number found in the smaller places the proportion would be much larger, and corre- spondingly the proportion who were engaged in rural pursuits much smaller. In New York city alone there were found 190,000 Irish, not less than 10 per cent of the whole Irish population of the country, and 210,000 ( Jermans ; thus a quarter of the population of New York city was at that time composed of people of these two nationalities. One-fifth of all the Eussians and one-fifth of all the Italians in the country were found in this city. Turning to Chicago we find a very similar condition of things. Its German population numbers 100,000, which was nearly one-sixth of the po])ulation of the city ; it contained one-sixth of all the Poles, and nearly one- tilth of all the Bohemians in the country. T' ■f : : J: fil 31 li til 180 CO.MJ'EXDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL In Milwaukoc more tliau one-fourth of tlie population was of German birth, and of ])oston more than one-sixth of its inhabitants came I'rom green Erin's shores. The Ciermans were widely scattered over the northern part of the country. Out of the 2,780,000, 550,000, or nearly one -fifth, were found in New York State, :U)0,000 in Illinois, 280,000, or fully one- tenth, hi Wisconsin, and more than a ([uarter of a million each in Temisylvania and Ohio. The natives of Ireland were not as y;enerallv dis- tributed, the greater i)art of them being found in the north-eastern states, especially in New England and New York, the latter state containing nearly half a million of them, Massachusetts more than a quarter of a million, and Pennsylvania nearly as many. These three states together contained more than a million, or considerably more than half of all the Irish. The natives of Great Britain, excluding Ireland, were very widely distributed over the nortii. I'ennsylvania and New York each contained nearly 200,000, and Massachusetts and Illinois nearly 100,000, the four states together containing nearly half of the entire nundjer in the country. The natives of Canada were found mainly in the states closely bordering the northern boundary. They were by far the most numerous in Massachusetts, which contained more than 200,000 of them. ^Michigan contained about 180,000, while New York had less than 100,000, and Maine, which is fourth in the list, but a tritle over 50,000. Indeed, out of the million Canadians found in the country, nearly one -half were in Massachusetts, Michigan, and New York. The Scandhiavians were found mainly in the north- western states; Minnesota with 220,000, Illinois witli THE rorULATIOX OF THE UNITED STATES 181 12i1,000, and Wiseoiisiji with 100,000, Leing tliose in which the greatest numhers were living. The I'ussians, I'oles, and JJohunuans were scattered pretty generally over tlie northern states, l)eing most numerous in New York, l*ennsylvania, and Illinois. Of the Italians nearly one-half were in New Ycnk State alone. This state contained more than double the number in any other state, California and Pennsylvania being those which contained the next laigest numbers. But a statement of the absolute number of foreign - born in any state expresses oidy a part of the situation. The numbers of these ])eople, when compared with those of other elements of the population, shows in each state their relative importance, their political and industrial strength. Thus in the state of Xorth Dakota r§ J> flfi I! t England States, Mnssaclmsetts, lihode Island, and Con- necticut, and in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, the Irish were a very important element, composing in each state, with the possible exception of Tennsylvania, one-third of all the foreign -born. In jMaryland, Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Missouri the Germans formed one-half or more of the foreign popula- tion. Norwegians, Swedes, and iJanes were in large proportion in ]Minnesota and North Dakota, in each of whicli states they exceeded one -third of the foreign element. Occupations of the Foreign-born The occupations of the element of foreign birth are mainly those connected with manufactures, commerce, and personal service. Tlie proportion engaged in the professions is trifling. As compared with the native whites the numlter of farmers is small. Of the former, 41 per cent were, in 1890, engaged in agricultural pursuits, while of the latter a similar proportion was 25 per cent. On the other hand, in personal service, mainly domestic service, only lo}^ per cent of the native white wage- earners were engaged, while 27 per cent, or just twice the proportion of the foreign-born, were engaged in this class of avocations. In connnerce the corresponding proportions were, for the native whites, 17 per cent, and for the foreign-born 14 per cent, and in manufactures, 2o and 31 per cent. Of the wage-earners of this element of the population, 85 per cent were males and 15 per cent were females; and of the female wage-earners three-fifths were engaged in personal, mainly domestic, service. m^ TIIK POI'ULATION OF THE UMTHD STATES 181^ Illiteracy among the Foreign-born Amon.ij; the I'orcigii-lxjrii illitenicy is nearly tlireo times as prevalent as anioiit;' the native whites. Of the latter class there were in 1890 only 4"r> per cent who were unable to read and write. On the other hand, among the foreign-born there were not less than ]2"4 per cent. The amount of illiteracy in the diiferent nationalities represcmted in this foreign element dilfers widely. nil Moral and Social Conditions of the Foreign-born The foreign -born element is responsil)le for a large proportion of the crime committed in the United States, their degree of criminality being more than double that of the native whites. Of the latter element but eight persons out of every 10,000 were confined as prisoners at the time of the census of 18i)<^, while of the foreign- born no less than 17 persons out of every 10,000 were thus under confinement. The foreign element, too, swells the list of paupers, or those supported by public charity, enormously. The extent of it is characterised by the following statement : — While of the native whites there were but nine paupers out of each 10,000 people, anujng the foreign-born there were thirty out of each 10,000, showing that the paupers were proportionally three and one-third times as numerous among the foreign-born as among the native whites. Age and Sex of the Foreign Community The element of foreign birth is composed mainly of persons of mature years, and the males are considerably in excess of the females, as would naturally be expected among a bodv of immigrants. AVhile among the native 1. : , i r!:. S . I /■ 'HI 1^ 184 COMPENDIUM OF GKOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL wliites tlie sexes are almost equally divided, being com- posed of 51 per eent of males and 49 per cent of females, among the foreign-born the disproportion is much greater, there being 55 per cent of males and only 45 per cent of females. Again, while among the native whites the children under ten years of age constitute not less than 28 per cent of all, and among the negroes fidly 30 per cent, among the foreign- born they constitute but 5 per cent, not less than 95 per cent of this element exceeding the age of ten years. Inter- State Migration The United States is nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and several of the states compare favourably in size with the independent countries of Europe. The migrations of the people from state to stiite are therefore, from a certain point of view, of as much interest as the migrations of people from country to country in Europe. The relative extent of their migratioiis may l)e summed up in tlie following statement. In Eui'ope tiiere are two and a half million jteople living in countries other than those in which they were born. That is only about cue per cent of the whole jtopulation of Europe. In the United States, on the other hand, out of a total native po])ulation of about 53,000,000, no fewer than 11,500,000 were found, in 1890, to be living in states other than those in wliich they were born. More than one-lifth, or 22 per cent, of tiie nativ^e-born, therefore, have changed their state of residence. No other statement could, perhaps, more forcibly illustrate the migratory character of the people and the looseness of their attachment to their birthplaces than this. Compare tlie magnitude of this movement of the ':'r THE POPULATION OF THK UNITED STATES 185' f the native population from state to slate with the luagiiitiule of the i'oieign iMiinigration. There were in 1890, 250,0r0 persons of foreign birth in the United States. The vohinie of native migration, therefore, exceeds tliat of foreign immigration by 2,250,000. Every state and territory in tlie country has sent out its sons t(» assist in setthng other states, and in turn every state and tL-rritorv lias received accessions from other states. Some have sent out more and others less. Some have received large numbers of immigrants, others IiaAe received but few. 1'he net result of the migration of the native-born has been to some states a gain, to others a loss. Nearly all the eastern states have sus- tained net loss(^s ; nearly all the central and western ■states have made net gains. Of the natives of Maine nearly one-third have left the state, while in exchange she has received very few native innnigrants. Xew Hampshire has sent out even a larger proportion, but their places have Iieen taken by much larger contributions from other states. Two-thii'ds of those born in Vermont are .scattered owv other states, and slie has received comparatively few to take their places; indeed, of all the states in the Union, \'ermont has contributed most largely, in proportion to her means, to the settlement of other parts of the country. In Massachusetts and lihode Island the numbei- of mitive innnigrants slightly exceeds the emigrants; wiiile New -ler.sey has received nearly twice as many as she has sent out. in Connecticut tlu' immigrants slightly exceed the eniigrrnts, while in Xew York and Pennsylvania three times as many peo})le have gone as have come. Dela- ware shows a small balance on the wrong side of the ledger, and Maryland has given twice as many as she has received. 'i n r ' , ISO COMPENDIUM OK GKOGUArilY TIJAVEL § If II ffl'f ii» Tlic states of Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia all show large emigration and a small immigration. West Virginia, on the other hand, shows a very ditlerent condition ol' things, immigration being nearly three times as large as enngration. The ease is similar with Florida, in even greater degree, for Florida is a com]»aratively new state where this sort of tiling is to be expected. In Mississi})pi the income and outgo are about equal. Louisiana has gained decidedlv bv this interchange, and in Texas and Arkansas the balance is largely upon the proHt side. Kentucky and Tennessee show conditions very similar to one another, emigration being far larger than immi- gration. The states north of the Ohio, namely, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, have all lost population as a net result of this migration, but in different degrees, Ohio having lost nnu'h more than the other two states. Michigan and Minnesota have gained larna the condition is almost as extreme ms in Washington. The general direction of this movement is toward the .setting sun. There has been little movement eastwaril, northward, or southward, except as great cities have formed local centres anil thus attracted emigrants. The movement has been in the main along parallels of lati- tude. Natives of ^Maine have gone to the lake states — the Dakotas, AVashington, ami Oregon ; those of Virginia to Kentucky and Missouri, and those from the states lartlun" south to Arkansas and Texas. This enormous western movement has resulted in depleting the native element of the eastern states, ar.d in the north their ranks have been filled by ibreign (.'migrants, mainly Canadians, Irish, and (Jermans ; while in ihe south-eastern states, which have received practically no foreign immi- grants, the nornuil rate of increase of population has been greatly reduced by this emigration. In the past geneiation the character of the jteople (jI Xew Kngland, Now York, New .lersey, and Pennsylvania has been well-ni L'^78,;5:i-J 1,'J31,072 744,773 510.509 5fJ.771 30!t,458 225,158 187,432 l<)ti,125 13:5,313 130. 1!)G 107,208 73,705 (57,74'.) 00,41)1 4!t,llll 41,541 1"he (at holies are by Car the most iiowerl'ul bod\ numerically in the country, nundiering about one-thiiil of all Ciuuch njcmbers; and in their strongholds they an- more numenais than all other denominations togethe:. This is ihe case; in Massachusetts, llhode Island, Con- necticut, and Xcw York, where they are niuiidy compo.sed "^ I SOCIAL CONDITIONS 199 il 1 Hilly j-tliinl o|>le of SjKinisli l)lood. Sinnlarly ill Louisiana, whieli is inhabited huut'lv by jx'ojiU' of I'reneh desccnl. The Catholic deiionunation is slroni;' all over tlu' north and west, while in the south, exeejilini;- Louisiana, it is weak. New \'ork state alone contains more than one-sixth of all the ('alholics of the country, Alassa- ehusetts one-tenth, and Pennsylvania nearly as many. Indeed, thesi* three; states, with Illinois and Ohio, contain half the nund)i'r found in tlu' I'nitcd States. Next to the Catholics, the JNIethodists, the followers of John Wesley, are the most numerous, heini'' hetweeii one-fourth and one-lifth of all Church mendiers. "While this denomination is found in some strength in lu'arly every state, l>ein>4 widely distributed, it is in the southern states that it apitears in greatest strength. In several of these states its adherents outnumber all other Church connnunicants. Tractically all the ne^^roes are either j\Iethodists or IJaptists, in ])retty nearly e(|ual ])rojiorlions ; while amon^ the whites also the ^Methodist dentiminatiou is very stronu^ in the south. Th(! r.a])tists, with their midtifarious subdivisions, are also widi'ly distributed over the country, and, liUi; the ^Icthodists. are strongest in the south, both aiuonj; whites iuid ne^'roes. Indeed, the ten states haviiiLi,' the lar^^est imiubcr of r>aj)tists are all southern states, and in tin; southern states are contained nearly thrced'ourths of all I'>;i]itists. On the other hand, Jicre is scarcely a stale or tenitory in which this (K'Honnnaiion is not rciiresented in notable |»r(»iK)rlioii. Tlu! I'resbyti'rians are in greatest strenn'th in Pennsyl- vania and New ^'ork, and thence westward in dinnnish- I if i 1 ■ vl if III' fcf 1 I 200 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL Ing numbers. In these two states are found thrce-tentlis of tlie entire number in the country, wliiki the remainder are spread widely over the northern states, excepting in New England. In that section their place is taken by the Congregational ists, a closely-allied denomination. Indeed, there is little or no difierence in their beliefs, but only in the Church government. Of the half-million Congregationalists in the country about one-thiul are found in the two states of IMassachusetts and Connecticut, while in all New England there are found nearly one- half, the remainder being scattered over llie northern states, wherever the sons of New England have gone. The Lutherans are mainly German and Scandinavian, and theii- distri])ution follows closely that of the people of those nationalities. They are strong in Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, iMinnesota, Illinois, Ohio, and New York. In tliese six states are contained two-thirds of all Lutherans ; the remainder being distril)uted widely over the north. The Disciples of Ciirist are widely distributed east, west, north, south, but are especially strong in the central states, such as Missouri, Indiana, Illinovs, and Kentucky. These four states togetlier contain nearly one-half of all. Episcopalians number together only a little over half a million, not much more than one-fortieth of the entire membership of all denominations and only aoout one- twelfth as many as the Catholics. They are found in greatest strength in New York, New Jersey, and Penn- sylvania. These three states together contain about two- fifths of those in tlie country. These are the greater denominations, and comprise nearly nineteen-twentieths of all communicants. "While the other denominations are numerically of little importance, certain of them are of great interest from their peculiar tenets, customs, or history. H' SOCIAL CONDITIONS 201 Among tlioin are the Jews, who, tliongh numhoring only 130,000, liave made, through their strong indivuhi- ahty, a tremendous impress upon the industrial life of the country. Tlie Friends or Quakers, wlio originally came to J'ennsylvania under the leadership of "William IYmiu, are now scattered far and wide over the northern states. The T^nitarians, who number only 07,749, include in their ranks the more intellectual classes, and are found mainly in the north-eastern slates. The ]Juid,and are found mainly in the central states. The Advent ists, or those who look forward to the destruction of the world, with the accompanying second cimiing of Christ in tlie Hesh, number 00,4 91 ; the number I'epresenting those who are yet undismayed by the repeated failure of predictions regarding the great event. The Shakers are a very small l>ody, forming a dozen or more little villages or conununitics located in the north-eastern states. They are of interest because of their peculiar tenets. Tliey are connnunists in tlie strictest sense : all i)roperty is held in connnon ; all labour inures to the common Ix-nefit. I'ut their jirincipal distinguishing characteristic is their belief in and ])ractice of celibacv. The sect is recruited onlv by ])roselvting. They are mainly devoted to agiicultural pursuits. They make their own clothes, and as tlii'ii- wauls are simple, they su))jily nearly idl of them by their own labour. They cat little meat and avoid stimulants. Indeed, their food is of the plainest character. The men and. women scarcely ever meet except at meals and religious exercises. ii 202 t ! 1 COMl'ENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TUAVEL Mormons But the most iinportaiit of these rehnious "sports," both socially and politically, is that of the Mornioiis, or " Latter-Day Saints," most of whom have settled on the shores of the Great Salt Lake in Utah, where they have converted the wilderness into a smn '"i: garden. Fanatical enthusiasm for a pal[)al)le fraud, theocratic combined with democratic institutions, polygamy not merely permitted but opeidy preached, gross materialism sid(; by side with belief in the ]>il)le, very remarkable successes wherever they have settled ; while the leaders themselves are animated by purely sellish motives — all these circum- stances have long attracted to the young state rising by the Salt Lake amidst the Cordillera the earnest attention of all interested in the affairs of the Xew World. It is ([uite a mistake to suppose that the Mormons lead a disorderly or dissolute life. On the contrary, tliere prevails the greatest order amongst them ; neither mendicants nor " htafers " are anywhere to be met, and what was a dreary waste so recently as the year 1847 has now become in their hands a highly-cultivated region. The people are quiet, jjeact^'ul, and industrious. But society has here Iteen develojted very differently from that m the rest of the United States, having ac(piired an organic character anything but republican in its main features. fbjseph Smith, founder of ^Mormonism, was the son of a farniei- of Sharon, Windsor County, Vermont. Ho was born on 2.')rd September 1S05, and, when some thirty years of age, bi'gan to surround himself witli followers, who gave out tliat he was a prophet sent of Cod, or rather a 8(>cond j\Iessiah. In cnler to snpiwrt his pretensions with tbe necessaiy mystilieations, lu; ])roduced SOCIAL CONDITIONS 203 certain golden plates enQ;raven " in Egyptian characters," and professing to contain laws and records directly dictated by CJod Himself. He further pretended that he had been enabled to decipher these records by means of an instrument revealed to him in a vision, and described by him as a "curious instrument, which the ancients called Urim and Thunnnim, which consisted of two transparent stones set in the rim, on a liow fastened to a l)reastplate." The plates were said to have been written soon after the destruction (»f Jerusalem by IMormon, a Jewish pro]»het, and by him brought to America, where they were afterwards buried. Smith retained the Old Testament, mutilated the New, and supplemented all the obscure points of the Christian religion, especially those turning upon tlie future state. He pulJished the liook of Mormon, professing to be translated from the plates by means of the above- described instrument, and endxxlying his new doctrines. This work his followers liold in the same veneration, and look upon as possessing the same authority as the Dible itself. Smith selected twelve apostles, and by means of miracles and many fresh revelations soon attracted a large number of the curious, many of whom became believers, his convenient positive tenets suiting the tastes of a certain ty[)e of weak-headed doubters. Driven from the State of Chid, tbt .Abtrmons jtitched their tents in the, at that tnne, still uncultivated district of Xauvoo, " the beautiful," on the 1)anks of the Missis- si])i)i, in Hlinois. Here tliey increased rapidly, and even began to erect a vast temple, large enough to contain the whole people. ^Meantime Smith (Kivised a political con- stitution giving him the fullest autocratic [xnvers ; and altliough at that time he preached and wrote against m I > " ■=* k ■ III' 51 l 204 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL polygamy, this doctrine was already laid to tlie cliarge of his adherents, together witli many otlier nnpopniar in- stitutions, which excited the ill-feeling and antipathy of the people on both sides of the jNIississippi. Joseph became constantly embroiled witli the authorities, Xauvoo was attacked, the prophet arrested, lodged in Carthage jail, and soon after murdered by the rioters, togetlier with his brother Hiram, who had also l)een confined in the same prison. Tliis occurred on June 7, 1844. A Mormon named Jligdon now became President, but was soon replaced by Brigham Young, " the Lion of tlie Lord," who l)egan forthwith to search for a land where he might govern his people after his own jdeasure, without danger of furtlier interference on tlie part of " the Gentiles." He first of all led his followers to tlie western limit of civilisation, boldly crossing the ice- bound Mississippi in the montli of February, and settling temporarily in the western part of Iowa. From this point Brigham made reconnaissances beyond the Rocky Mountaius, and at last made choice of the desert shores of Great Salt Lake in Utah, at that time belonging to Mexico, in the hope of thus for ever escapiug from the Government and peo])le of the United States. Thither the " IMormons " migrated in 1847 and subsp(]uent years, encountering incredible dilliculties and privations in their journey through the wild region still occupied by savage Indian tribes. The place, by them named Deseret, in the Territory of Utah, was, the very next year, ceded by Mexico to the United States ; and twentv vears later its isolation was disturbed by the Pacific Pailway crossing the continent from ocean to ocean. Mormonism was once more brought into collision with the outer world, and l)ecame a public scandal and eyesore to the United States. 'L_ w^ SOCIAL CONDITIONS 205 .Sing After proclaiming himself the successor of Joseph Smith, Young assumed the oifice of " prophet." Accord- ing to his teaching, God spoke through liim, as through an oracle, to His chosen people. The " Saints " rely more on the Old tlian on the New Testament, and Ahraluim and David are the greatest of the patriarchs. Although baptism is still performed in the name of the Saviour, still Mormonism resembles Christianity on the whole perhaps rather less than does Mohammedanism. Young strengthened his own position, and made polygamy a doctrine of the Church, declaring tliat this dogma had previously been revealed to Smith. But members of Smith's family deny this, and have caused a schism in the Church. According to Brigham's teaching, men have divers ranks in heaven. The more numerous are one's wives and children, the greater his earthly merits and the higher his heavenly dignity after death. The women enter heaven only through their husbands ; hence it becomes all-important for every girl to get married. If her husband has other wives, and if she has to endure manv trials and humiliations on earth, the more glorious will be her position in the heavenly kingdom. Accord- ingly young women on their deathbed get married, or " sealed " to a man — where possible to a minister of the C'hurch — as she secures through him a higher rank in heaven. Young controlled everything. He was the suprsme Judgt', and also the recipient of the bulk of the revenue and of tlie tithes. He alone decided what was his and what belonged to the Church ; he had the best of every- thing, the best workshops, farms, and mines. He distri- buted office, and to the twelve apostles he added the council of seventy, in whose numl)er are the bishops and .1 ,i ' .■ i ; '1 ' ' i It:;! t'. 11 : \ 206 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAl'IIY AND TKAVEL ':l' !lr I" ill ill' ji m\ If 'i III' v I i elders. IJcsides their olHcial duties tliesc men carry on the most profitable industries in tlie country, some being mercliants, others manufacturers and hotel-kee[)ers, and as they enjoy the largest incomes, they possess also the greatest nundjer of wives. From the valley of the Great Salt Lake the Mormons have spread northward and southward, occupying the valleys of Utah, wherever there was fertile land and water to irrigate it. They have overstepj»ed the bound- aries of Utah, and have taken up residence in south-eastern Idaho, western AVyoming, and northern Arizona. With the advent of the railroad in Utah came the beginning of the end. In spite of the active proselyting carried on by the Mormons, and in spite of the ship-loads of converts brought Ironi Europe to aid in peopling J)eseret, the Gentiles increased in Utah more rapidly than the Saints. Along with this increase was a steadily growing hostility, not only to polygamy as practised by the Mormons, but to the Church inlhience, which was seen to be dangerous in the same pro])ortion in which it was powerful. For many years Utah sought admission as a state, but statehood was refused her on these accounts. It was thought to abate the evil of polygamy through legislation by Congress, l»ut the execution of laws in regard to it was i)revented. Finally, however, the Ednninds r>ill was passed by Congress. This was a (h'astic measure prescribing penalties for polygamy, enabling wives to testify against tlieir husbands, disfranchising all polygamists, and confiscating the projierty of the ]\Ioinion Church. This law was carried out in a most thorough manner, and in a short time all polygamists had either reformed, were in jail, or were in hiding. Tolygamy was destroyed and the power of the Church was broken. Moreover, the rapid growth of the Gentile element in ■^T SOCIAL CONDITIONS 207 Utah had made it so nearly equal to th.at of the ^loinions, in point of numbeis, that on tlie whole it has not been considered unsafe to give statehood to Utah, and accord- ingly she was admitted l)y a proclamation of the President, 4th January 1800. By the last census the ^Mormons numbered 100,125, most of whicli were in Utah, and neiglihduring states and territories, although a few were scattered widely over the country, most of them being in the upper AIississi})pi valley. Mortality In most ])arts of the United States there is no registra- tion of deaths. It is only in the states of Connecticut, Delaware, District of Cohnnbia, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, liliode Island, and Vermont, and in a nundier of the larger cities, that there is any adequate registration of deaths. The census attempts, every ten years, to obtain a count of the deaths which occurred during the census year, liut with very indifferent success. It lias been estimated from the incom- plete returns, however, tiiat the death-rate of the country is not far from eigliteen per thousand, which is a very low death-rate as compared with most European nations. Among the negroes the death-rate is much higher than among the whites; indeed, in the registration cities it is known to be very nearly double that of the whites. In the country the diflerence is probably not as great, owing to the fact that rural conditions are l)etter suited to the negro than are urltan conditions : still all the facts at hand warrant the conclusion, as stated above, that tlie negro death-rate is much higher than that of the whites. The death-rate of the foreign-born is also greater than I' '' .1 i m #■! ill: 208 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPIIY AND TRAVEL I' r ill' 1 1' J' ■! that of the whites ; and since a large prcjportion of tlie foreign-born are grouped in the cities, tlie evidence is more complete and conclusive than in the case of the negroes, the death-rates in registration states of the native whites and the foreign-born being respectively 20 and 34. This difference between the death-rates of the native and the foreign-born is delusive, since the two elements of the population are not upon the same level. The native-born contain a large proportion of young children, among whom the death-rate is excessively large, while the proportion of young children among the foreign-born is not large, and therefore their deaths form a smaller proportion of all deaths. If the two elements of the population were distributed uniformly as to age, the death- rate of the foreign-born would unquestionably be much larger than it is. The death-rate in large cities is mucli larger than in rural districts, particularly among young children, to whom the summer's heat is very trying in the cities. The most prevalent and fatal disease is pulmonary consumption. This in 1890 was the cause of not less than 11*6 per cent of all deaths. Xext to that was pneumonia, which was the cause of 8"8 per cent of all deaths. The third in point of importance is the group of diarrheal diseases, which in that year was responsible for 8*5 per cent of all deaths. Di])htheria and croup carried off 4'8 per cent ; enteric fever, o"l per cent ; and malarial fever, 2'1 per cent. The diseases of the lungs, sucli as consumption and pneumonia, are especially prevalent in the nortliern part of the country, and particularly in the north-east, where to the extreme cold is added the element of dampness. Malarial diseases, on the other hand, are far more prevalent in the south, and especially in the low and T— PT m SOCIAL CONDITIONS 200 swam])y rc\t^ions alont,' tlie coast ami in the bottom lands of tlio Mississippi Ik'ivur. 1)11 and |-ii part where Inpiiess. more bw and Crime The extent of crime in any comnninity as measnrcd liy the number of comniitmcnts or of prisoncis in coii- linement at any one, tinu!, must be (jiialilicd by .some knowledj^e resale linij' the moral status of llie community. In certain communities Ihin^s are ic'^ardcid as crimes which are merely winked at in olhei' communities. Anion^' certain Indian tril)es, horse -stealing;', if from a member of some other tribe, is the hiuhest of virtues. Fn the western United Slates amon^- \vhite ])eople not many years ag(j this same crimi; was punisliable l»y death, and that without form ol' trial. In those davs one miuht kill a nu'.n and j^et off scot-free, but to steal his horse was a capital crime. With this (pialitication in mind the followiniLf ti^ures ie_!j;ardin<^- the munber of prisoners in custody in 1890 within the United States are jiresented. The total number was 8.3,329, of whom 75,924 were men, and 040") were women. This does not mean that men are twelve or thirteen times as wiekcd as women, but that of the crimes of which the law takes co;j;nisance they were more Li,'uilty than the otiier sex in that i)ro[)ortion. The total number of piisoners includes native whites, persons of i'oreign birth, and negroes. Separating these elements from one another and comparing then* with the total numljcr of that class of the population in the country, it is discovered that while the prisoners are in the pro])ortion to the whole popidation of 13 to 10,000, the native white prisoners of native parentage; are to the iiaiive whites of native parentage among the whole popula- I' ::j|; IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) ''/. ^ / {■/ A o I? (A !l.O I.I 1.25 i^ i^ 12.2 1^ 1.4 2.0 1.8 1.6 m O 7 /A ^U A L-P' [.lit i If I i i' i i f r |!.| ' . i ■ f 1 ': i f\ 210 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL tioii as 6 is to 10,000 only. The proportion which the white natives of foreign parentage bear to the total of that element in the population is as 13 to 10,000. The proportion which the foreign-born among prisoners bear to the total foreign-born is 17 to 10,000, and finally the proportion which the negro prisoners bear to the total negro element is as 32 to 10,000. Thus it is seen that there is far the least criminality among the native stock of the country, that is, the natives of native parentage ; that the natives of foreign parentage show more than twice as great a degree of criminality ; the foreign -born nearly three times as great, and the coloured more than live times as great a degree of criminality as native whites of native parentage. These figures are taken at wholesale. They include all parts of the country, all sorts of laws, and all degrees of execution of them. Their teaching is clear and decided. There is no possibility of escaping the conclusion that the crime done in the United States is done mainly, first, by the negroes, and second, by persons of foreign birth or immediate foreign extraction. If •.I mi - Pauperism By this word is meant the support of persons in greater or less degree from tlie public purse. Xo reference is here made to private relief of the poor, and iudeed, little could be said about it inasmucli as no comprehensive statistics have ever been collected. It is only in the northern part of the United States that any systematic provision is made for the relief of the poor. In those states there are almshouses, and besides these, the cities connnonly make extraordinary provision for relief in the winter time, otherwise there SOCIAL CONDITIONS 211 would be excessive hardships. In the south there are practically no almshouses, and little public provision any- where for the relief of the poor. This is generally left to private charity. In the far west it may almost be said that until recently there were no jjoor. The only statistics which are at hand are those of the census of 1890, and they concern only paupers in almshouses. Naturally enough the south is scarcely represented in these figures at all, and consequently the negroes are, as a race, but feebly represented. It appears that in LSDU the number of paupers in almshouses was 73,045, or 12 in every 10,000 of the population. Classify- ing them as above, in the case of the prisoners, it is discovered that of white nati\es of native parentage there were 9 to every 10,000 ; in the case of white natives of foreign parentage the proportion was the same, while in the case of the foreign-born it was not less than .30, and for the coloured it was again 9. The last is the result, as before stated, of the absence of almshouses in the south. It appears from the figures above presented that the great bulk of the pauperism in the United States, as illustrated by the nundier of paupers in almshouses at least, i? produced by the element of foreign birth. Slates ief oi" s, and ■dinary there Insanity, etc. The number of insane in the United States in 1890 was reported as 100,254; of feeble-minded, 95,571; of deaf and dumb, 41,283 ; and of blind, 5511., The numbers of these classes have been reported census after census, and each time the figures show a decided increase over those of the previous census, indicat- ing on their face a rapid increase in the numbers of these " (lefectiveH." The fact is, however, that the figures are m i •■ ! ^ 3i: ii I I '! f 1 ! (! ! I' 212 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL not at ill conclusive upon this point. It is well known thut each succeeding census has Ijeen able to ol)tain fuller figures regarding these classes than its predecessor, and to that fact rather than to any increase in the absolute numl)er of these people is to be attributed the increase ill the figures. Still, although these are facts well known to most pel. (JUS of intelligence, we constantly see articles in the magazines concerning the increasing prevalence of insanity, blindness, or other congenital defect, quoting the census figures as authority. Social Customs As might be expected in a country so broad, contain- ing so great a diversity of peoples who differ from one another in origin and antecedents, and so great a diversity of industries and occupations, the manners and customs vary greatly, so that it is ditlicult to generalise concern- ing them. One feature of the social life of Americans which strikes the average European at once on visiting the country is the freedom in the relations between the sexes, and the standing of woman in comparison with that of man. In most European countries the man is the un- questioned head of the household ; in the United States the liead is a double one, the husband and wife apparently being associated in equal partnership. In France tiiis sort of pavtnership exists between husband and wife, and there it relates not only to the home life but to business as well. In the United States the latter is not the case. The bailiwick of each of the partners is pretty clearly defined, that of the husband embracing the relations of the household with the business world, while the wife is I 'IT' SOCIAL CONDITIONS 213 ; the sexes, bat of le uii- State.s leiitly ce this fe, ami msiness le case, t'leavly ions of wife is supreme in her own home, managing tlie housekeeping, practically without supervision. In a certain way, too, she is the social bead of the house. The freedom of young girls in their relations with the opposite sex is something surprising to Eui'opeans, The American girl dispenses with a chaperon on most of those occasions wherein a European considers such an appendage absolutely necessary. The American girl, through her education and training, is free and independent, and is perfectly competent to take care of herself. She knows what is proper and right, and acts accordingly. There is no nominal rank in the country, but there is division into social classes, which here depend upon wealth, upon education, or upon ancestry. In some cities these classes are sharply defined, as in most of the old eastern cities, particularly those of New England and Pennsylvania ; while in the western cities and also in the capital the lines between the classes are loose and easily passed. In the new towns of the west one finds the best society made up of all sorts of people from top to Iwttom of what is generally denominated the social scale. "Washington is, of necessity, similar to these places, since its population is drawn from all parts of the country, indeed, from all parts of the world, and is continually shifting and changing with the changes of administration. Language Englisli is the language connnonly spoken in the United States, but, as has l)een noted elsewhere in these pages, there are many localities where English is un- known. These are not only the newly-created colonies of foreigners, such as those of Ilussians in the IJakotas, of Scandinavians in JMinnesota, of Germans in Wisconsin, tilliti ^I I ■ < I ijilil Ills , ,■■ '1 ■ : ' '' ■ ' f ^'i. '' Jt ' '■ \' 11 il f ^111 ,■1 ':i?i -r 1 5^ :51 I- m 1" 214 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL etc., but several of them are communities which have existed within the United States for many generations, (^ne such consists of what are known as " Pennsylvania Dutch," settlements of Germans in the eastern part of Pennsylvania, who have retained their language and many of their customs for a century. Another is the French of southern Louisiana. Mjiny of these are the descendants of tlie original Frencli settlers of the terri- tory, who came over with Bienville, others are French Acadians who were expelled from Nova Scotia l)y the English during the French and Indian wars. In tlieir connnunities English is rarely, if ever, spoken : and without a knowledge of the French language the visitor is as helpless as in one of the small towns of France, and much more so than in Paris. Another region consists of southern Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and southern California. Over this great area are numberless villages in which Spanish only is heard, and a knowledge of that language is indispensable for communication. The stranger visiting the States will be struck not only by the diveisity of tongues above mentioned, but also he will find tliat in different parts of the country there are slight differences in accent and sounds given to different letters, etc., amounting to what may be called brogues. One who is acquainted with these brogues recognises at once the part of the country from whicli the speaker conies. Tlie New Englander uses the English language in the form most closely akin to that used l)y the Londoner. Tlie native of New York is easily iHs- tinguished from the New Englander by shortening the " a " and rolling the " r," and the western man by an ex- aggeration of these peculiarities. The Virginian has an indescribable brogue whicli is detected in an instant, but it cannot be imitated or characterised; and his descendant, j I ■ry m SOCIAL CONDITIONS 215 tlie Kentuckian, has imitated many of his peculiarities of speech. Tlie ]Marylaii(ler says " taown " and "dacnvn," ahiiost precisely as the typical Yankee is said to pronounce them. He also flattens the " a " in " farmer" to " former." Throughout the country there are peculiarities of speech as well as of bearinfj which betrav the section of birth. i ' Hospitality The hospitality of the people of the States is pro- verbial ; but different parts of the country differ greatly in this as in other respects. In the older and most densely settled parts, hospitality is by no means as full and free and unstinted as in the south and the sparsely settled west. In the south to-day, especially in parts remote from railroads, the traveller has but to ask food and shelter to receive the best the house can afford, and the chances are that an offer to pay for the accommo- dation will be regarded as an insult. In the early days, before the jidvent of the Anglo- Saxon, southern California was sparsely peopled by a pastoral population of Spanish origin. The country was divided into broad estates, or ranches, which covered uianv thousands of acres. Over them ranged countless herds of cattle and sheep. The proprietor lived a lazy, indolent life, surrounded by a numerous retinue of servants and retainers. Life was easy in those days, for food was abundant, the flocks and herds practically took care of themselves, and the soil needed little encourage- ment to yield an abundance of fruits and grain. The hospitality of these ranchers was proverbial. The house and all its contents were i)laced at the dis- posal of the wayfarer. Every one who came was furnished with the best shelter and food his house afforded, for as 'i!:' ' 'i mil, ! ^iiii I"'- ] ■I, 1:1 II 1 •■i : ■i , :j , ill - |(H L 216 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL long a time as he would remain, and when he resumed his journey his tired horse was exclianged for a fresh one. Thus one might, in those days, travel over the southern half of (Jalifornia, meeting the heartiest welcome at every ranch which he passed. Gradually, after the advent of the Anglo-Saxon, all this wjis changed. The great farms and ranches passed from the hands of the Spaniard into those of the Anglo- Saxon, and have been in great part cut up into small farms, watered and highly cultivated. The world as a whole has vastly benefited by the change, but the old picturesque life is gone. Summer Resorts A marked feature of the American people is the «lightnoss of their attachment to places, and the ease and freedom witli which they move about from one part of the country to another. This is illustrated in many ways, and perhaps one of the most marked and characteristic of them is the great summer exodus. A large propor- tion of the inhabitants of cities, numbering probably in the aggregate two or tlu'ee millions, annually migrate from their city liomes to tlie country, the seashore, or the mountains, and there spend weeks and months in the pursuit of health or anuisement. It is a movement mainly confined to women and children, the scarcity of the male sex at summer resorts having become a proverb. From June to October this sojourn continues, and during these months the proprietors of hotels at summer resorts wax fat and haughty as the purses of the visitors wax light. This exodus is, of course, mainly from the upper or well-to-do class. At the sunnner resorts there are n SOCIAL CONDITIONS 217 several grades of society wliicli are clearly defined. At the top of the social scale are the cottagers, and these are divided into two gronps, those who own their cottages and tliose who rent them, the former l)eing the npper crust. Next below come the boarders in the hotels, while at the bottom come the boarders in boarding- houses. These classes have little or nothing to do witli one another. The various summer resorts have cliar- acteristics of tlieir own, ranging from tlie most aristocratic and expensive places down to the cheapest. The rugged and picturesque coast of New England is a succession of summer resorts, which, in tlie hot season, are densely populated. The liardy fisliermen, who a generation ago wrested a scanty livelihood from tlie l>riny deep, now make an easy living from the sunnner visitors. Indeed the principal industry of that coast is catering to their needs. Among this succession of summer towns along this coast a few may be mentioned. The most eastern one of importance is on the beautiful island of Mount Desert, near the entrance to Penobscot Bay, in j\Iaine. The town, known as Bar Harbor, makes some pretensions to aris- tocracy and exclusivcness, but is by no means equal in this respect to Newport, liliode Island, which, of all the American resorts, is unquestionably the most exclusive and expensive. Old Orchard Beach, in the western part of Maine, is of the common type, comprishig numerous hotels, which, in the summer time, are crowded with over- flowing humanity. The beach, from which tlie town gets its name, is one of the finest on the coast, extending for miles, a hard surface on which the surf pounds with a force accumulated by 2500 miles of travel. On the south shore of Long Island, within a few miles of New York and easy of access from that great city, is a m ■ ■!■■ - f' i- }'■ ft: I' 1 ij^ •■: i t: J-f I it 1 in ■ '-i - ■ i ■ iL i;i ,1! ,•: -1 'iiii (iitj 218 COMrEN'DIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TIIAVEL group of summer resorts stretching along tlie sand reef whicli borders tlie island; among them are Far Rockaway, Manhattan lieach, and Coney Island. To these places the people of New York resort of a Sunday evening during the hot season to obtain a respite from the heat of the city, and these places offer the usual amusements of sea- side resorts. At ^Manhattan Beach amusements are of a rather dignified order, the clientage of the place Ijeing of a different character from that of Coney Island, which place has aptly been characterised " the seaside Bowery of New York." On Sunday evenings of the heated season the latter ])lace is crowded with all kinds and conditions of people, millionaires, roughs, ladies of fashion, and courtesans. Five railroads and numerous lines of steamers bring the crowds from New York. Beer saloons, concert halls, dance halls, razzle dazzles, toboggan slides, and so on, are in full blast. B.ands of music are on every hand, all playing different airs. The Ijrilliant lights, the music, and the roar of the crowd are all rather bewildering to a stranger. The amount of beer consumed is simply fabulous, and as the night advances the revelry becomes louder and more general, the quality of the crowd perceptibly deteriorates, the better elements returning to the city by early trains. The coast of New Jersey is almost a continuous line of summer resorts from Sandy Hook to Cape May ; Ocean Grove, Asbury Park, Atlantic City, and Cape May being the leading ones. South of the last -mentioned place there are few resorts of importance, Bay Ptidge, Fort Morroe, and Virginia Beach, in Virginia, being the principal ones. The first mentioned is to Baltimore and Washington much what Coney Island is to New York, only on a less scale. On the Pacific coast, specially in southern California, TTT' W SOCIAL CONDITIONS 219 tliere are many seaside resorts wliich are populated during the entire year, and among them are Santa Barbara, San Diego, and Santa Monica. But it is not alone to the seaside that this movement of people is directed. The hills and mountains take their share. The population of the hill country of Massachusetts is largely increased during the summer season, especiall}^ in the western part of the state. The White Mountains of New Hampshire are filled with summer villages ; while the vVdirondacks in north-eastern New York are covered with hotels, cottages, and camps. The Catskills, in south-eastern New York, receive large numbers in the summer time from the metropolis, while all up and down the Appalachian mountain chain are found summer hotels for health and pleasure seekers. Owing to the distance from the east the Cordilleras are not as yet largely frequented ; still there are, here and there, places which attract the tourist in considerable numbers. ifornia, lit CHAPTEll VI THE GREAT CITIES New York ii ¥'v\ New Yokk, with a ]M>puliilioii of a million and four-fifths within its chaiter limits in 1895, was the largest city in the Union, hnt the charter limits of ISTew York included by no means all the people who jjroperly ludonged to that great nietio[)i)lis. The shores of Xew York Bay and Harbour and the country thereabout contained several great cities and numerous suburban towns and villages, the population of which was in as true a sense a part of the po[)ulation oi' Xew York as if they lived within its charter hmits. Their business is on Manhattan Island, and thence they go daily, returning home at night. Because of this connnunity of interest, the charter lindts of Xew York were extended on 1st January 1898, to include Brooklyn, with a population of a nnllion, the rest of King's (A)unty, all of Stateu Island, nearly all of Queen's County, and a small part of Westchester County. This territory of the Greater Xew York includes a popula- tion estimated at 3,450,000, making it, next to London, the largest citv on the globe. Xew York is the principal commercial city of the country ; indeed, to show the extent of its commerce it may be said that nearly half of the exports of the country i Iff, "I its and, the fce it iiitrv m ';.; ' 1 s ■ ' ,; li ■ i ■ ; f n:i ; !;if 1 1' If! t LI i? ii; m Pi Si ooo COMl'KNIHUM OF CiEOGKArilY AND TUAVEL leave this port, ami two-thirds of the imports entei* it, ft is one of the most im])ortaiit seaports in the world. It is situated at tlie mouth of Hudson River, mainly on the Island of Manhattan. It w'as originally settled by the Dutch, and by them named Xew Amsterdam. Its harbour is niMgnitieent. The older part of the city, situated at the lower end of the island, is rather irregular in plan. Farther north, however, the general scheme of the citv is that of Ion*'- streets runninu' nearly north ami south, lengthwise of the islaiul, and known in lost ca.ses as avenues, with cross streets running from (uie side of the island to the other. The cross streets are named in the lower part of the city, but above Union Square they have received nund)ers. The southern portion of the island is devoted to business, and ind- hI, this business ])ortion is rapidly moving up the island and disi)laeing the residence jx.rtion : and the residence jiortion of New York is now scattered widely over the surrounding country. ih'oadway, though not, as imi)lied by its name, a broad street, is the princi])al among the business streets. It runs down the island in a southerlv direction to its lower end. The city contains, besides vast numbers of magnificent dwellings, many tine i)u])lic buildings and business edilices. Of the public buihUngs one of the most noted is the City Hall, a graceful and elegant structure, with a white marble facade ; another is the new Court House, notorious as the means whereby manv were enriched from the citv treasury. The Custom House is an immense and massive structure of Quincy granite. The national Subtreasury occupies the ohl C^istom House, a beautiful and spacious building of white marble. The new Tost Ollice building is the tincsi public structure in the city, and is admirably adapted foi' 4ts purpose. ■^WIP m THE GKKAT CITIES 223 Willi parks, the birathing- places of the cities, this lueti'opolis is well proviilod. Tlie largest of these is Central Park, in the northern ]>arl of tlu> eitv. It is two miles aad a half h)ng, hy half a mile in width, of a reetangular shape. ll is divided into t\V(t une(|ual })arts by the Crolon reservoir, whence water is snpplied to the eitv. Tile surface of the i>ark is sutlicientlv inululatinLr to uive an aureeable diversitv tit the scenerv. Nature had dont' little for it, but art has beautitieil it until it is due oi' the tinest parks in tlu' world. ll is embellished with tine groves of trei's and shrubbery, ponds and fountains, statuary, etc. etc. IV'sides Central I'ark the eitv contains several other ft- open ])laces. Among these are tlie J>attery, JJowling (iroen, the City Hall Park. I'nion S(piare, and others, amounting altogether to more than 1000 acres. The piiblii' seluxtl system is adnurabli'. and is main- tained tin a lavish srale. 'J'here are s»nt'ral schools of higher grade, comnuady known as academies, and sup- ported in whole or in ]iarl by religious denominations. There ai'i' two "oljeges. Cohunbia and the Cniversity of New \'ork. both of which are llouiisjiing institutions. There are also se\ cral schools of nu'diciiu' and surirerv. The city contains no h'ss than twenty-three public libraries. The jiublic improvements of tlu' city are by no means all thai could be desired. The mai)i business streets are paved with Pelgian blocks, and the residence streets with slicei asphalt. The jKipulation is very mi\cd. Most ol>ihc lines of European steanu-rs have tins as tlu'ir western port, and bring to it anniudly hu!idreds of thousands of inunigrants from the Old World, and the worst elements of this throng of innuigration remain to curse the city. A large proportion of tiu'se are Irish, and they are taken up by J f Mi 224 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL 1 1 } h It' '■ I'! ijir a v.: i!" HI the democratic party of the city, and they in turn assist it in keeping political control. The result is that the city is mainly ruled, or lias been in pa^^ time, by its worst, lowest elements, and a systematic pulaging of the public treasury was carried on for years with impunity. Recently, however, better men have regained control of power, and the reign of Tammany, it is to be hoped, is over. Boston Boston, Massachusetts, is the oldest of the large cities of the country, having been founded about 10 30 by the Puritans under Winthrop. It is situated at the head of a fine harbour, and upon the navigable river Charles. It spreads i'rom the harbour-front back into the country for many miles, embracing a large suburl)an population. In 1890 the munber of inhabitants included within its charter limits was 447,477. The older parts of the city are very irregular, with narrow, crooked streets, while the more modern parts are regularly laid out, with fine, broad avenues and numerous parks. Rochester Rochester, New York, is tlie iburth city in that state in population. It is situated near tue shore of Lake Ontario, and is connected witli it by a navigable stream, so that it is in fact a lake [)()rt. It is also a railroad centre of considerable importance, and has extensive manufactures. Its populntion in 1890 was 133,890. Albany Albany, the capital of New York state, is situated upon tlie west bank of the.Huilson, 175 miles i'rom New York, at the head of tide-water. At this point the Erie THE GREAT CITIES 225 state Lake ream, ilroad jiisive lated New Erie Canal, which connects the Hudson with Lake Erie, has its terminus. The population of the city in 1890 was 94,9 2 o. Providence Providence, Ehode Island, is the capital and by far the largest city of the state. It is situated upon Provi- dence Itiver, which is navigable to and beyond tin's point. It has large manufacturing interests, consisting mainly of iron and steel works and cotton mills. It had a popula- tion in 1890 of 132,146. Worcester Worcester, Massachusetts, is a manufacturing town situated in a country of rolling hills in the interior of the state. It is, in point of population, the second city of ^Massachusetts, having 84,055 inhabitants in 1890. Philadelphia Philadelphia, the " Quaker City," the chief city of llie state of Pennsylvania, with a populati(Ui in 1890 of 1,046,964, is one of the largest in territorial area, and the third in population, within the Hmits of the United States. It is situated on the west side of the Delaware K'iver in the south-eastern part of Pennsylvania, and I'xtends N.KE. along the river to a point 22 miles from the mouth of the Schuvlkill Piver, reaching 5 to 10 miles westward from the Delaware. The site was dis- covered in 1623 by the Dutcli of New York,, who soon located there. The Swedes settled along the river within the boundary of the city in 1638. By the treaty between England and Holland in 1674, the settle- ments of the Delaware fell under Englisli authority, and ill 1681-82 Philadelphia was laid out by William Penn. ^. n j.- 226 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL mi'b ii ;■ " r-|- «- !<■ I The present city luis an area of 82,603 acres, and includes the entire county, which was consolidated with it in 1854. Previously it included only a strip a mile in width, which reached westward from the Delaware to the Schuylkill Iliver, a distance of 2 miles. The portion west of the latter stream is now known as West Phil- adelphia ; and other parts of the city are frequently called by the names which they have retained from the time when they were under independent municipal govern- mrnt, such as Kensington, Eichmond, and Southwaik ; while the ■ utlying villages, buch as Manayur.k, German - town, and Frankford, are still suburban although under the city government. The streets of the city were originally laid out to run west from the Delaware, witli intersecting streets running north and south. This plan has generally been carried out wherever practicable, and almost everywhere the streets cross at right angles. The east and west streets are named, and the north and south streets numbered. On the former the buildings are nund)ered toward the west, all between Front and First Street having numbers between 100 and 200, and all between Second and Third Streets between 200 and oOO, and so on. The l)uildings on tlie south side have the even numbers, as 102, 104, 202, 204, etc., and Ihose on the north side the odd numbers. On the north and south streets the buildings are numbered in either direction from Market Street,, which is the central street, certain streets being designated as the boundaries of the hundreds. Four- teenth Street or Broad Street is the central north and south street, and is built for 6 miles. The city nearer the Delaware is built upon for a greater distance north and south than P>road Street. The line of street lights extends along the Delaware for about 13 miles. THE GllEAT CITIES 227 Ludes it in le in re to Drtion Phil- called i time overn- iwai'k ; 2rman- L under ^ were :e, witli lis plan ble, and s. The id south to\vavd havin;j; Second The uliers, as ith side eets the Market ;ts beiuii Four- orth an^^ n. Chestnut Street is the Ikshionable thoroughfare, and has many fine buildings of granite, marble, and brick. Brick has been always principally used for buildings, and the city is noted for its uniforri rows of brick builcUngs, witli white marble facings and steps. In the more I'ashionable and wealthy portions of the city, brownstone and marble are largely used. l*hiladelphia is conspicuous for the number and neat- ness, as \vell as durability, of its dwellings. The build- ings of all kinds miniber about 200,000, and the tenement system, so common in Xew York, is almost unknown. The average of persons to a dwelling-house is about 0. This fact has gained for I'hiladelphia the pleasant appel- lation of the " city of homes." In the number of its dwelling-houses it is probably only surpassed by the Ihitish metropolis. The city is surroui led by a ricii agricultural country, and the food supply is abundant and varied. There are about 3 5 market-houses, some of which are large, costly, and imposing in appearance, Tlie supjjly of water is good, and the draiui'ge system excellent. The public buildings are lunnerous ; many of them are rich and elaborate. Among them is the Ciiy Hall, recently completed. It is of granite and marble, four stories in height, covering 470 feet l)y 48G.V feet, and surmounted by a tower whose sunnnit is 450 feet above the ground. The ^lasonic Temple is of granite, built in Xorman style. Tiie University of I*ennsylvania, which dates its foundation from 1749, has the largest and most conveniently arranged college structures in the country, built of green serpentine rock and greystone. The prin- cipal place of amusement is the Aca'^emy of Music, whieli has a seating cap ity for 2900 pei ons. There are 2 parks and 13 public squares belonging '11" i' S! '■iir ! H: \H ? i^ ■1 if li 1 li i I .'1 'II I: r i tL 1 ; 1 \ 1 228 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL t(j the city. The principal one is rairmount Park, best known for its being tlie site of the International Ex- liiltition of 1876. It contains 2740 acres, and (next to Epping and Windsor Forest in England, and the 1 'rater of A^'nice) is the largest park in the world. It is situated on both sides of the Schuvlkill, commencing at Eairmount, an elevation from which it derives its name, and extending for more than 7 miles along the river, and along the banks of the Wissahicken to Chestnut Hill, t\vi total length being about 13 miles. It extends westward aliout 4|- miles, and possesses muci. natural beauty, being well wooded and having a great variety of surface. The property was originally composed of country seats, among which were many shaded glens, ravines, and valleys. The fine old forest trees have been preserved with great care, and as the river is in view from nearly all the roads in the eastern and western portions, the diversity is charming. In Fairmount Park are also the first estali- lished American Zoological Gardens, which, although only first opened to the public in 1874, have the air and general appearance of long-established similar institutions in Europe. IMiihidelphia was the seat of tlie Federal Government from 1790 to 1800, when Washington became the capital. Baltimore Baltimore, the principal city of Maryland, is situated at the head of navigation of the Patapsco Iiiver, near tlic Chesapeake Pay. Its population in 1890 was 434,4.')9. Tlie city is mainly laid out at right angles, the build- ings being principally of brick, witli some '^ granite and iron. It contains many fine public buildings, among thein the City Hall, built of white marble, and costing THE GREAT CITIES 229 lituated lear the f4,439. build- lite ami among I costing $3,000,000. It has excellent graded schools, in which about 50,000 children are instructed. It has several academies or minor colleges, and one, known as the Johns Hopkins University, has become one of the first institu- ti(jns of learning in the land. The city has many breatliing-p! ill- ( W'' 234 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL forms a most attractive park, and is a favourite resort during the hot « ason. It was established by the Government, and is maintained by a small tax levied upon the pay of the soldiers of the regular army. The National Deaf and Dumb Asylum, situated at Kendall Green just beyond the limits of the city, deserves mention. It occupies 100 acres, comprises a number of buildings in semi-Gothic style, and accommodates 100 pupils. Among other buildings are the Naval Hospital, the Soldiers' and Sailors' Orphans' Home, and the Washington Orphan Asylun\ besides several others, supported entirely by private subscriptions. In matters of primary education, Washington is not behind other large cities. Its schools are excelled by none, save perhaps those of Boston, Massachusetts. The society of the city is cosmopolitan. Gathered as it is not only from all parts of the country indiscrimi- nately, but from all countries of the world, and from all grades of society, it would be strange if it were not so. It is also extremely democratic ; such things as classes in this society cannot exist. While it has long been a political centre, it has recently become also a scientific and literary centre. The great number of scientific and literary experts employed by the Government in various capacities give a tone to the society ; while the unexampled advantages to the litterateur, artist, and scientist, afforded by the vast libraries, museums, and works of art, are daily attracting to the national capital more and more of this class of population. Norfolk Norfolk, Virginia, is situated at the foot of Chesapeake Bay but a short distance from its entrance through the Capes Charles and Henry. It has an excellent harbour, THE GREAT CITIES 285 and is a seaport of great and increasing importance. It is a large ship^nng point for tobacco, coal, and cotton. Its population in 1890 was 34,871. Eichmond Piiclimond, the capital of Virginia, is situated on the north bank of James Eiver, at the head of navigation and upon the fall line. Its manufactures mainly relate to tobacco, in which branch it is of considerable importance. Its population in 18f^0 was 81,388. Charleston Charleston, South Carolina, is one of the principal seaports of the South, and is situated upon Charleston harbour, which while it aftbrds admirable protection has a shallow entrance affording access over the bar only to vessels of light draught. This city suffered greatly during the civil war, and had hardly recovered from the losses incident to that struggle when it was rudely shaken l)y an earthquake in 1886, which destroyed or injured a large proportion of its buildings. It has never been, since the war, of as great im^ irtance as before that time. Its population in 1890 was 54,955. New Orleans On the Mississippi, 100 miles above its mouth, stands the city of New Orleans — population, 242,039 — the commercial capital of the Gulf coast. It was founded by Bienville in 1718, and during the century and three- quarters in which it has existed has had a wonderful history of prosperity and relative decay. Its site, although ! ( • RK.I if^ i\1 ■ I ■ \l s i: 1^ fi^ i 1 1^ ll \l hi ■■' 1 ! fi ■ i r 236 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAI'HY AND THAVEL the best to be found in the re^ittn, is a verv unforLiinate one. It stands npon a low river ridge on the left-hand bank. The site is very low, and were it not for tlie levees surrounding the city it would be flooded at eacli high-water in the river. It is practically impossible to sewer the city, and the water supply taken from the liver is none of the best, consecpiently the death-rate is always high, and the city has been very subject to epidemics ut in France of two centuries ago. It is a quaint and curious town, with its Creole jxipulation. its narrow streets, and it,, old French architecture. THE GREAT CITIES 237 li^ San Antonio Stan Antonio is the largest city of Texas. It is situated upon a broad jtlain in the midst of a forest of nies(juite. It is regularly laid out, and is })robably the most beautiful, as well as the most interesting of Texas towns. It is a place noted in the annals of the Texas revolution ; for in the centre of the town is the Alamo, a stone building, where was fouglit one of the most saiiLjuinarv l)attles of the war for Texas freedom. This building, serving as an impromptu fort, was defended hy General Sam Houston and a liandful of Texans against the whole force of Santa Anrwi's armv until every man of the Texans was killed. Tlieir death, however, was amply avenged in advance, for many times their number of Mexicans were killed before thev Kuccumbud. The city is a (|uaint mixtuie of the old and new. The ancient Mexican architecture is found scattered about it, inter- spersed with modern American buildings. The popula- tion in 1890 was 3 7,6 7 3. Mobile ]\Iobile is another southern port of im})ortance, situated in the southern part of Alabama at the head of Mobile Bay. This ])lace has had in recent vears a com- l)aratively slow growtli. It had a population in 1800 of ;U,07G. Atlanta Atlanta, C4eorgia, the capital and largest city of the state, is lieautifully situated among the hi^'s which Hank tlie Appalachian range at its southern extrenn'ty. Tins is probably the most active and progressive city of the ■ipff 238 CO.Ml'ENDIUM OF GEOGKAI'IIY AND TliAVEL south, aiul since its destruction by Sherman ihiring the Wiir it has liad a rapid and a healthy growth. Its popula- tion in [SOU was 05,553, being nearly double what it was in 18S0. Galveston Galreston, Texas, the principal seaport of that state, being situated \\\nm Galveston J»ay, is an important shipping port lor cotton and meat products. The harbour has a, shallow entrance, but is otherwise excellent. The population in 1890 was 2 0,0 8 -i. ilii Chicago The metropolis of the great interior valley is Chicago. Its site was (dd Fort l)earb()rn, which was established at this point on the south shore of Lake Michigan on the main route of Indian travel from the Lakes to the Mississi]>pi. At this point a short carry from the waters of the Ciiicago Iviver to the Illinois Piiver was all the land travel involved m the route. Startin*'- al)Out 1830 the citv grew with tremendous strides, and in 1870 the popula- tion had reached about 300,000. Then came the fearful fire of 1871, which, though apparently a terrible disaster, in reality proved a great l)lessing to the city. Ten years later, 1880, the population exceeded half a million, and in the next ten years it had more than doubled, being about 1,100,000, making it the second city in size in the Union. Chicago is one of the chief ports on the Great Lakes, sharing the bulk of lake tratlic with lUilfalo. It is l)robably the greatest railway centre in the world; im fewer than 23 railroads radiate I'rom this city to all parts of the country. It is the great centre of the grain and TIIK GHKAT CITIES 239 cattle trade of tlie Xortli-we.st, and in the extent of its manufactures it is exceeded only l»y New York and riiiladelphia. Indianapolis Indianapolis, the capital of Indiana, has been likened to a waggon wheel, from the lines of railway which enter IlANDOLl'U srilEET, CHICAGO. ihnifrvu'id, I'hotn. it radially from all directions. Tt is a city which in ISOO contained 10r),4.")() inhabitants.' Louisville Louisville, Kentucky, is situated on the south bank • if the Ohio lliver at the fulls. A canal enables the I [ 240 ('O.MrKNDIU.M OF GEOC;i;ArHY AND TIIAVKL navigation of the river to pass tlu*ni. The presence of these falls explains the loeation uf tiie city at this point, as they formerly limited navigation, and as they furnished water power to manufactories. r.ouisville had, in 180(), a popuhition of 1.01, 12I>. St. Louis St. Louis is situated upon the west bank of the ^Mississippi IJiver, just l)elow the mouth of the ^Missouri, M J' ■ fifi mUDCJK OVKU THE MI.SSI.SSU'I'I AT KT. LOUIS and nearly in the centre of the ^Mississippi valley. Located thus it has an extremelv favourable situation, and so long as the ]Mi.ssissippi was the main artery of commerce in the interior of the country, St. Lcnus bade fair to become the metropolis of that valley. The advent THE catEAT CITIES 24:1 ice of [)(»iiit, lisln'tl 1890, of railroads, however, lias chaiif^ed all this, giving first iiii- purtance to Chicago, although St. Louis will always remain one of the great cities of the valley. Tt has a large river trattic and is an inu)ortant railway centre. The growth >f the ssouri, »-*a*f va Uev. huation. Irterv nl' I v las hade advent JIIVKU KUUNT AT ST. LOUIS. of the city has l)een rapid, the pojtulation increasing from 75,000 in iSaOto 160,000 in ISGO, .'UO.OOO in 1870, •■!."0,000 in 18S0, and 451,770 in ISOO. Its rapid growth, therefore, has received in recent years a decided clieck, at least in comparison with other great cities of the ^lississippi valley. It Pi '::l:i il !i it !,],■ li' I If Jl, "if »! .{! ' 1 i I 1 1 II 1 ^ i! ![ 242 COMrENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Buffalo, Cleveland, and Toledo Of the towns in the interior a few call for special mention. Among the chief cities are Buffalo, population 255,604; Cleveland, population 261,353; and Toledo, population 81,434, all which are lake ports of importance. Cleveland is especially famous for its extensive petroleum refineries, rivallinfi^ those of Pittsburg, as well as for its lumber yards, iron foundries, smitlieries, and shipbuilding yards. Bufl'alo is the most important port on the Great Lakes, is a great railroad centre, and an important manu- facturing city. Detroit Detroit is a city of the second rank with a population of 205,876. Here are concentrated the smelting works, where the copper ores of Lake Superior are smelted, and large quantities of bacon are also cured in this place. It has not yet forgotten its French origin, many French Canadians residing there, and the French language being still used to some extent. Pittsburg and Cincinnati Mention should also be made of Pittsburg — popula- tion 238,6 17 — originally the Fort Duquesne of the French, now famous for its smelting works, petroleum refineries, coal-mines, glass works, and manufactories of every sort. In a word, it may be regarded as the Birmingham of the New World. With it should be mentioned its residence suburb, Allegheny, with a population of 105,287. Nor should we overlook Cincinnati on the Ohio, the " Queen City " or " I'orkopolis," as it is frequently called, on account of its immense trade in pork. Wine is also here THE GREAT CITIES 243 produced in large quantities, its chanipag:ies, hocks, and especially its sparkling Catawba, in the op.Tiion of the natives, rivalling in flavour the corresponding produce of the European vineyards. This city, the metropolis of the Ohio Eiver, had in 1890 a population of 290,908. MilTi'aukee Upon the shores of Lake Michigan, 100 miles north of Chicago, is Milwaukee, the largest city of Wisconsiti, population 204,468, noted for its beer and its large German population. St. Paul and Minneapolis The cities of St. Paul and Minneapolis, known as the " Twin Cities," have long maintained a good-humoured rivalry for superiority in numbers, wealth, and volume of business. The cities are situt.ted the one on the left, the other on the right bank of the Mississippi, about 15 miles apart from centre to centre. They are connected bv lines of steam and electric railroads, and indeed, settlement has almost drawn them together into one city in point of fact. Both are of comparatively recent growth, St. Paul, the older of the two, having in 1850 a population of 1112, while Minneapolis was still a wilderness, but tlie latter appears to be a litt^ , the more successful of the two, for by the census of 1890 it returned' a population of 164,738, while St. Paul had but 133,156. They are both active, progressive cities, Minneapolis being distinctly a manufacturing town, containing immense lumber and flour mills, wiiile St. Paul is more (hstinctly a connnercial town. i>H , :i ill »i I r MY ! ; i u !?iii '3' iH^ I I vr l!: ■}.i il lillf If! i If -i'i 1 'I 244 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAl'HV AND TRAVEL Duluth and Superior At the head of Lake Superior a bar, known as Minnesota' I'oint, extends nearly across the lake, forming behind it a most perfect natural harbour. Upon the north side of the lake at this point, upon the slope of high, steep bluffs, extending 600 feet above the lake, has been built Duluth, the "queen city of the unsalted seas"; while upon the south side, upon a broad, level site, stands the city of Superior. These cities are located at the head of navigation upon the lakes, and although almost in their infancy, have already a tremendous lake traffic, consisting mainly of lumber, iron ore, and wheat. Duluth had, in 1890, a population of 33,115, and Superior 11,983. Though small as yet, they are destined to become jointly a great metropolis. Omaha and Kansas City Upon the Missouri Eiver are two rival cities, separated by a long stretch of the Big ]\Iuddy. They are Omaha, Xel)raska, and Kansas City, Missouri. Situated upon the right or western bank of the river, both cities receive most of their business from the west, and take their character from that part of the country. Both are important railroad centres, and both have an extensive packing -house industry. Of the two Kansas City is much the older. In 1870 it had a population of 32,260, while that of Omaha was but half as great. Twenty years later, in 1890, Omaha had grown until it included 140,000, while Kansas City was not far behind with 133,000. Denver Far out on the plains, at the foot of the Eocky Mountains, in Colorado is one of the most recent muni- THE GREAT CITIES 245 cipal Lirovvths of the country. Tliis is Denver. Originally II station on the old overland sta or down them. Indeed, it was to overcome these territic grades that the cable system of street cars was invented, and it was tirst apjtlied in this city. ]^esides numerous small ])arks and open S([uares the city has one great park, the (loldeu (Jate Park, which stretches from the middle of the peiunsula across to tlu' il THE GllEAT CITIES 247 racific coast. This has been l)uilt at enormous expense of money and labour out of a sand desert, and the con- trast between the profuse senii-tro[)ic vegetation of tlie Park and the surrounding desolation is very sharp. However beautiful and convenient the city may be in other respects, its climate will always be a drawback to it as a residence city. The temperature is quite uniform, rarelv ranging during the year below 60 or over 70 deurees Fahrenheit ; but with this uniform temi)eratnre are cou])led, for six months of the year, almost constant fogs which blow in from the Pacitic, with frei|nent rains. xVcross the Bay, in Oakland, Berkeley, and other towns, there is very much less fog and rain, and altogether a much more desirable climate for residential purposes. It results that a large part of those doing business in San Francisco live in these towns across the Bay, travelling back and forth by rail and boat to their business each day. San Francisco, the Yerba Buena of the Spaniards, first assumed prominence at the time of the rush to California for gold in 1849. A large portion of the arrivals came by sea, and these landed on the present site of San Francisco, whence they took boat up the Sacramento to the mines. It was this that gave the city a start, and it grew with liot-bed rapidity during the years t)f the California gold excitement. As the gold production has diminished and other industries than mining have developed in the state, the city has grown, but not by any means as rapidly as in its early days. In 1852, only four years after the discovery of gold, the population of San Francisco was 36,154; in 18(10 it was 50,802; in 1870, 149,473, and in 1890 it had increased to 298,997. This population is of the most varied description ; l)csides those of American birth nearly every country of Europe and Asia is represented, and many of them in force. ! ) li-. ;i H'i If 1 ' 1 1 1 248 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKArilY AND TRAVEL Santa T6 i !.:: Tlio capital of Xew ]\Iexioo, Santa Ft', is, next to St. Augustine, Florida, the oldest town in the United States, having heen founded in 1598 hy the Spanish invaders from Mexico. It is a quaint and curious old place, wliich has l)een almost untouched bv the Anglo-Saxon, an<' is seen almost in the same condition in which it stood a iii; J 1 iJl-.! ihih 11 ■ SANTA FK, FllOM THE COLLEGE. century ago. Its population, which is almost at a stand- still, was, in 1890, G 185. Seattle and Tacoma On the shores of Fuget Sound, in Washington, distant from one another only about 25 miles, are two rival cities, Seattle and Tacoma, two lively, energetic, far western cities. Both are seaports, having fairly good harbours and enjoying nmch commerce. They bid fair one day to divide the commerce of the coast with San mw THE GHKAT CITIES 2-iU Francisco. Their itopiilatioiis in 1800 were, of. Tacoma. :30,0OG, and of Seattle, 42,8137. Portland, Oregon Portland, ()rement was accompanied by wars and bldodslRnl. To-ilay most of the abori>j;inal inhabit- ants of tlu^ country have been forced back int6 the West, renniants onlv of the Ljreat tribes of the East atill remain- in\e here evjnts of n'- (v' tie lony ^^^'-'- id tribes, 10 cohtiiy t'olhnved the Indians nnder Ivinu' l*hillip, surrounded iheir viHage, and practically annihilated his force. This destroyed the power of the New England Indians, and never thereafter did thev m\Q the colony serious trouble. Then followed the French and Indian wars, in which the Tive, afterwards Six, Nations of Xew York joined with the French in niakinu war upon the settlements of Xew York and New Enu'land. For nianv vears the war was prosecuted with varying results, until at last England, with the aid of the colonies, destroyed the French power in Canada, and with it the power of tin- Six Nations. They, numbering now some four thousand, are congre- gated upon reservations in the western part of New York State, where they are learning the arts of peace. Thus was cleared for white settlement practically the entire area of the North-eastern States. As settlement progressed southward down the valley of the Tennessee, in the midst of the Appalachian Moun- tains, and westward on the Athmtic Tlain into Georgia, in the early part of the ]»resent century, its progress was iipposed. and was for a long time tlelaycd by tribes known as the Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, and Chicka- ^aws. The lirst occupied the mountain region of western North Carolina and Tennessee, while the others were found upon the })lains which extend from the (Julf to the foot t»f mountains in Georgia, Alabama, and Missis- sippi. A hmg struggle ensued, but llie end was iinally reached. The Indians were conquered, and, being mucli ill the way, were removeil west of iW Mississippi, to what is now Indian Territorv. There thev were estab- Hshed upon large, fine reservations, and then' tliey have developed a civilisation of their own. The results of this war were to open up for settlement tlu' (Julf States. Later, a war broke out with the Seminoles of Florida; ;')i I; 'MM I II' ; 252 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL _i_ altliough their nuiiiber was small, their home was in a oouiitiy extremely difficult of access, and consequently they gave a vast deal of trouble before they were subdued and moved to Indian Territory. But the tribe whicli has probably given the whites most trouble, on the wliole, is the Dakotas. AVhen the whites first began to settle the north-west, they found this tri])e ranging over what is now Minnesota, the Dakotas, eastern ^lontana, and Wyoming. They resisted the encroachment of the whites very fiercely, and being an intelligent, warlike tril)e, and one of the most numer- ous, they succeeded in doing great damage. The war began in 1862 with the Minnesota massacre, and from that time down to very recent years the Dakotas have made periodical outbreaks, the last one of magnitude beinu; in the year 187G. At this time near'v all the fighting men of the tribe, numbering five or six thousand, were on the war-path, and to suppress them nearly one- half of the regular army of the United States was brought into recjuisition. The operations extended over an area of 100,000 square miles, mainly in eastern Wyoming and in tlie Dakotas. One notable incident of this war was the total destruction of (General (Juster's cavalry by the Indians, only one survivor escaping out of a force of nearly three hundred. The Apaches of Arizona have been known from time immemorial as one of the fiercest and most bloodthirsty of savage tribes. From time to time they too have broken out into war and have raged through the setlle- ments of Arizona, killing and destroying and doing immense damage before they could be suppressed. At present, however, and for a numljer of years past, tlicy have been quietly located upon their reservation, content to enjoy " Uncle Sam's " bounty. PUS! INDIANS AND THEIR REMAINS 253 These are the principal tribes which have given trjiible ; hut there are many others which liave made occasional lapses from the paths of peace, as th:. outbreak of the northern Cheyennes in 1876, that of the Kes Perce in 1877, that of the Modocs, whose famous campaign in the lava beds in northern California would have been immortalised in verse had they been Greeks instead of red men, — had they been led by Ulysses instead of Shacknasty Jim ; and that of the Utes, in Colorado, who in 1878 imprisoned for weeks a force of soldiers superior to their own. In most of these wars the offensive operations of the Indians were confined to murdering tlie weak and inolfen- sive, to raiding ranches and killing their occupants, and attacking waggon trains and stage coaches. IJarely has he attacked an armed force, no matter how superior in numbers he nuiy have been. Wlien soldiers have taken the field against him he generally practises Falstaff's axiom, " discretion is the better part of valour," and gets away as fiist and as far as he can. This has not always ])een the case, however, as was seen in the Ute war mentioned above ; moreover, when he is brought to bay and forced to figlit he fights savagely, giving and asking IK) quarter. In each of these cases, war resulted upon the gradual encroachment of whites upon lands occupied l)y the Indians, lands held by them not for agricultural or even pastoral uses, but as hunting grounds. If we were to discuss here the ethical side of the question, it might be pertinent to ask whether the Indian, holding the land for sucli uses, had any proprietary rights in it, wliich the whites, who could use it to so much greater advantage, were bound to respect. As land was wanted from the Indians it was at first hm I ; 254 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL ili j i ' i lii;t:i j ;i|i taken vi et armis, but it was soon discovered that land obtained in this way was too expensive, and that a cheaper way to olttain it was by purchase. Accordingly, most of the later acquisitions of tirritory from the Indians have 1)een made by treaty, and have been paid for in money or goods, or at least in promises. ]\Iost of the Indians have thus been moved away from their native soil, and always westward. Tliere now remain in the Eastern States upon reservations only two small bodies of Indians, one in western New York, and another of about 1500 in \v'estcrn North Caroluia. Classification of the Indians Linguistically the aboriginal inhabitants of the United States were grouped into a nundjcr of fannlies ; the groui)ing in some cases conforming to their tribal allinities, in others not. The I'oUowing are the princij»al of these families, with the original habitats of the tribes of whicli they were composed. The Algoncpiins inhabited most of the southern ]>art of Canada, the region about the Great Lakes, and the upper ]\Iis.sissippi valley, extending westward to include the valley of Hed Iiiver in ^Minnesota and the Dakotas, southward to include Illinois and Kentucky, and east- ward to include all of New England, with })arts of Xcw York, Pennsylvania, and ^Maryland. The tribes which the New England colonies iirst encountered btdonged to this great fannly. The Iroquois comprised the Six Nations, who ranged over a territiny comprised in New York aiul Pennsyl- vania, surrounded on all sides by the lands of the Algonquins. The Six Nations who, throughout the long series of Indian wars, were allies of the l''ri'nch, gaM' IN'-I,'. AND THEIR KEMAINS 255 the coloiiios more tiDublu tliaii any otlun* tribes. A Inaneli of the Iroquois, ^vlliell had no relation to the MiilX INDIAN. ^ix \ations, Ix-yond liii^'uistic aflinities, was found in llif southern Appalachian Mountain icgion. This was llif Cherokee! trih(\ who raided over western North ('iiiniiiiii and ])arts of adjacent states. ill- or. 5G COMPP]NDIUM OF GEOGliAPHV AND TliAVRL Th(3 ]\ruskogees, including the ('linetaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, and Seminoles, inhal>it('d tlie CJulf States east of the ]\Iississip})i Kiver. l-AI UTE INIHANS. The great Sioux family, wliich included the Dakota nation, the Assinahoins, Oniahas, I'oncas, Kaws, Osages, (^>uapa\vs, lowas, AViiniehagos, Alandans, Crows, and otluT smaller tribes, occupied, in the main, a region stretching east of e Dakota ( )saj^<.'t^, iiiul other 8trctclun'4 INDIANS AND THEIR KEMAINS 257 from the Mississippi Eiver westward and north-westward over most of the Great I'lains. South-west of the country occupied by the Sioux family was that of the Shoshones, covering most of the (heat ])asin, the Rocky Mountain region in Colorado, and extending thence down into central Texas. This family included the Shoshones, Ban- nocks, Utes, Comanches, and I'ai Utes. Included in this family are also the Moki, of which in- teresting people more will he told hereafter. The Caddoes ranged over eastern Texas, western Louisiana, and jiarts of adjacent states. Tlie Athabascans, whic'li included most of the Indians of nortliern Canada, were repre- sented in the United States by a tribe far removed from tlie rest ul' tlie family, not only ill habitat, l»ut in dis- }iosition, customs, and mode of life. These are the Apaches of soutliern Arizona, the most troublesome, bloodtliirsty, and untamable of all the Indians. Tlie Yumas and Timas are to-day found in the same region as when first known, — south-western Arizona. S WASHAKIE, SHOSHONE CHIEF. if i If;. t ■ ;6 ; ■ • ? m 258 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TllAVEL hi' ': > I I r, ■ ill ■ ■■'" , A li'! ^ Upon the Pacific Coast there is the greatest possible linguistic diversity among the Indians. ^Nfany diit'erent families are represented within small areas, and any attempt to describe them would result in failure. Characteristics of the Indians When first made known to the civilised world, the various tribes differed widely among themselves, in degree of civilisation, in habits, customs, and disposition. Some of them were sedentary, others roving without fixed habitations, some of them supported themselves almost entirelv bv hunting, others by fishing : while most of them carried on a rude primitive agriculture by which they supplied themselves, in part at least, with food. Some tribes were almost constantly at war, while others were very peaceful. I'robably the most warlike trilx's were the Six Nations, the great tribe of the Dakotas, and the Apaches. While Indians differ physically, mentally, and morally among themselves like other men, still they have certain features which are more or less common to the race. They are inordinately vain, and delight in adornment, and their adornments are of a sort which we would call grotesque. Bead-work covers the Indian's leggings and his buckskin shirt, a necklace of bears' claws or the finger- nails of his victims adorns his neck, his hair is decked with feathers, and his face and body are painted in hideous figures. Thus decked out he is the adniiratinn of himself and of all the women. The Indian is cruel beyond belief The tortures which he infiicts upon his prisoners are excelled by nothing in history, unless it be the Spanish Inquisitinii. He is a coward. Although with UKJSt tribes war is his ossible tt'ereut id any rid, the 1 degree Some it tixed almost most of ly which .th food, e others ^e tribes otas, and I morally certain he race. ornment, ould call ings and le tinger- is decked iuted in dmirati'iii e [\ tortures celled hy iqviisition. war is Id;^ ;!• 1 260 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL \l. m mil If! :|.:': trade, such a thing as engaging in open fight and risk- ing his precious person is something never contemplated by the Indian. He seeks to take ev.?ry advantage of his enemy. His mode of fighting is by anibu.sh. by treachery. His glory is to destroy the weak and defenceless. The Indian is reputed to be grave, taciturn, and dignified. This, however, is true only when among whites. When off his guard and among his fellows, when he is no longer on dress parade, he is gay and jolly and as full of fun as any other child. Physically the Indian is quite different from tlie popular idea. On the whole the race is not a strong one. They are wanting in vitality, and their systems easily give way to attacks of disease ; in particular, they are ex- tremely subject to consumption and rheumatism. They are not long lived, nor are they prolific. In physical en- durance they bear no comparison with the trained white man. Indeed the Indian is easily excelled by the whito in any and all of his peculiar avocations. The cowboy is a better rider, the white hunter will find and kill more game, the white scout will follow a trail more surely and more rapidly than will the Indian, I'artly from his nature, partly from the fact that for a generation he has been supported, the average Indian is probably the laziest mortal on the continent. It is scarcely matter for surprise. Few of us could maintain habits )f industry if we were fed and clothed without any effort on our part, if all incentives to exertion were thus withdrawn. The "Indian Policy" The United States has never had any settled policy in its treatment of the Indians. The history of its relations with them has been one of makeshifts, each to llipi INDIANS AND THEIR REMAINS 261 tion were suit a separate emergency. Still, all these makeshifts have one feature in common. They recognise the tribes as sovereignties, and treat them as such. In the early colonial days this stand was perfectly consistent ; but now, when the United States claims jurisdiction over the whole country, the absurdity of its position, in treating as with a foreign power a people who dwell within and subpossess its own land, is apparent. It makes treaties with them, affects offensive and defensive alliances, pur- chases land from them (and then fails to pay them the purchase money), and then, suddenly forgetting that they are foreign powers, it imprisons them on reservations. On one pretext or another, in payment for land, or for the purchase of peace, the Government feeds and clothes nearly all the tribes which will accept donations of food and clothing ; and as the Indian is at least no more inclined to work for a living than the average white man, most of the tribes have availed themselves of the muni- ficence of the Government. And not only does " Uncle Sam " supply them with food and raiment, but with the best of breech-loading rifles and fixed ammunition, which are, in very many cases, put to use by our red brother in depopulating the border settlements and in resisting the authorities. This policy of supplying the Indian with all necessaries of life is what is known as the " peace policy." It is a beautiful policy. Let us see how it works. The average Indian immediately jumps to the very rational conclusion that the Government is afraid of him, or it would not purchase a peace, and he is apt to. act accordingly. If things are not to his mind — if provisions, blankets, or annnunition are not forthcoming when and in such quan- tities as he wishes — he dons the war-paint, and a disas- trous war is the result. The upshot of the war probably is, that he gets what he fought for, and he is confirmed !' ■:) ■i ' ' . 1 ■ m ill ir|l|i!fi 262 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL ill his belief that to (<;et wheat he wants he has only to demand it under threat of war. The theory is tliat the Indian, kept quiet on reserva- tions, and supported there, may be in time educated to civilised pursuits. But it is a pertinent question whether, under such circumstances, even the average white would labour to support himself. If all his wants were supplied, wliat incentive would there be to labour ? And if, under such circumstances, the white man would prefer a life of inglorious ease, how much less would the red man be dis- posed to exertion, — the noble red man who regards all manual labour as degrading, and as worthy only of squaws. Under such circumstances, it is strange that any success whatever has attended the project of civilising the Indians, and it would seem to be rather in spite of this system tlian because of it that any considerable portion of this people have adopted civilised ways. Yet such is the case, and it shows that they can be civilised, and that if managed properly they might be made into good citizens with comparative rapidity. At present, all Indians who still maintain tribal relations, are established upon reservations. These re- servations are forbidden ground to whites, while the Indians are permitted to leave them only by the consent of the " Agent." Upon the reservation the Indians are supported either entirely or in part by the Government, partly from the interest on trust funds held by the United States which the Indians have acquired by sale of their lands, partly by direct gifts by Congress. Upon most of the reservations are " agents," who are in charge of the Indians, so far as concerns their relations with the Government. In most cases, also, he is reinforced by a physician, to look after the physical welfare of his charges, a teaclier to attend to their intellectual welfare INDIANS AND TIIKIU liEMAINS 2G: (commonly the position is a sinecure), and a larnicr, to tcMcli the Indians to cultivate the soil, besides several oilier assistants. For many years efforts have been expended toward civilisinf;; these people, which, until recently, have met with little success. Indeed, ten years ago, it seemed tiiat the wild, western tribes were farther from civilisa- tion than before the whites appeared among them. AVith the advent of the whites came free supplies of food and clothing, and, thus relieved from the necessity of working, they soon gave up and forgot their aboriginal arts. Moreover, the education which the Government offered them was not suited to their tastes or condition. A pastoral people could not easily be taught to follow the l»lough, nor was book-learning the best thing with which to begin the education of a savage. In recent years, how- ever, their education has been given a more practical turn. They have been employed as lierders, teamsters, i)olice, etc., and in such capacities have made marked progress. The Five Civilised Tribes The tribes which have made the greatest advances in civilisation are unquestionably the tive civilised tribes of Indian Territory. They were moved there between 1825 and 1830, after a long and disastrous war. At the time of this removal Indian Territory was so inconceivably remote from the rest of the country that it was not supposed that the Indiaps, if located there, would ever be disturbed. Two generations have passed, however, and in spite of all restrictions and prohibitions they are absolutely overrun by the whites, and are in danger of losing their tribal organisation, and their lands, if not also all their property. 1 1 'II 264 COMPENDIUM OF CKOGltArilY AND TRAVKL Establishetl in Iiuliaii Torritorv, each tribe upon a reservation, they have developed tar in civilisation. They have established <:jovernnients, which in form at least conform closely with those of states, electin<]j a governor and a let,nslative body. They have courts, and all otiier machinery for enft)rcing the law. They live in houses anil wear white men's garb. Most of them are farmers, each cultivating his little plat of ground. They have their ovn school svstem and churches, and in manv respects compare not unfavourably with the poorer farming class of the South. In this Territory is being conducted an experiment in land-holding which meets its parallel nowhere else on the globe, except perhaps in Russia, Under the Unitinl States law, by which these reservations were created, the tribes are prohibited from selling land to individuals, or otherwise disposing of it. The result is that not a foot t)f land in the Territory is owned by any one. It is the pro- perty of the tribe. Any member of the tribe may take up any land which is unoccupied, and turn it to i\isown use, as there is an abundance of land for the needs of the Indians. There has thus far been little clashing of interests on this account. The Indian is content with very little. He takes u]> a few acres of land remote from railroads and settlements, and by its cultivation he supports himself and family. lUit the Tntlian is not the only one entitled to the use of this land. Any ])erson, white, black, or red, who marries into the tribe becomes thereby, under their laws, a member of the tribe, and entitled, thereby, to all the emoluments connected therewith. Negroes, who were held as slaves by several of the tribes before the Civil War, were, uj)on being freed, ailmitted to membership in the tribes, and they have intermarried freely with the Indians. INDIANS AND TIIKIK REMAINS 2G5 ilians. im this He s jiiul ininsoll" 'iititUHl ov ivil, lluMV to all lo wore 10 Civil rship in ith the lint the ooiitroIlinLT oloiuont in the tribes is what is ratiior ofVoitsivoly known as tlie " siiuaw man," that is, a white man who lias married an Indian woman. Ho eonimonly uses his position as a monihor of tlio tribe tor all it is worth. He has taken possession, stVietly aecord- ing to tribal law, of all the ooal land whieh is worth liavinjj;, of all the best farming; and ij;ra/in- ceeds out of the country. *■' It is probable that nearly all the land in the Indian Territory which is worth having is thus in the hands of a few huudrod individuals, all or nearly all of whom are white men who have married hulian women. The reader will ask, to whom does the " s(|uaw man" rent his property, since the Indians are free to locate where they choose? The answer is, that the Territory is full of whites. The Hulian population, including mixed bloods, con- sisted, in 1800, of 51,279 Indians, 18,0:50 negroes, and 100,o93 whites. Thus nearly two-thirds of the jiopidation of the Territory consisted of whites, while the Indians, including all those of mi.xotl blood, consiitutod loss tiian one-third of the total numluu-. During the live or six years which have ola])sod sincv the taking of the census, whites have boon i)ouiing into tho Territory at a rapid rate, and at present they doubtless outnumbor the liidims ihreo or four to one. Si'voral railroads traverse the Territory, and upon them are strung a success'on of towns, some of them containing thousands , r 2GG rOMI'ENKirM OF CEOCKArHY ANI> 'lliAVKL (if pL'oplc^ each, ami it is seltlom that one sees in ihest; towns ail Indian face. The wliites Hving in the Territory remain tliere mainly through the sui'l'eranee of the liulian Governnient, to which they pay a small poll-tax i'or the privilege of "remaining. >thers, and their numher is ra})idly increasing, are inteilopers, who remain in tlie Territory in spite of the Indian authorities, which have become more and more powerless to suppress this tres- ])assing. l'UKm.<> OF TAOS. The Pueblo and Moki Indians Among the tribes whicli possessed a civilisation of their own, not ac(piired by contact with the wiiites, aiv the town-building Indians of >Cew Mexico and Arizona, the Tueblo and tlie ^loki Indians. The Pueblos constitute several tribes, with dillciviil languages. Some of them have become extinct since tlic occui»ati(tn of the country l)y ijie Spanish, but lliose now- existing are the Zimis, in tiie town of Zuni, the Toltos, INDIANS AND TIIKIK KEMAINS 207 hesc itory ulian • llu' 2V is 1 tlu' have ires- itiou <'f iU'S, aiv Vrizuua, ilitlV'iviit iiH'i' ill'' )st' ll•'^v Toltos, in Taos, with whom are classed the peopk^ of Ticuris, SaiKha, and Isleta; the Tii^nias in San -luan, Santa ("laia, Xanibe, San lldel'onso, Pajuaqiie, and Tesu({ue ; the (^)ueres I'UEULO INDIAN WOMEN. ill Cochite, San Domingo, San Felipe, Santa Ana, Zia, La;^iina, and Aeonia ; and the .hmiez, in the IMichlo of liic same name. In llu; nineteen Pueblos named lliere ^ '! 13 INDIANS AND THEIR REMAINS 2G9 are 8287 people, the most populous being Zuiii, with 1G21 souls; and the least, Tujuaque, with but 20 persons. At the time of the first Spanish Conquest they were as far advanced as now, raising grain, vegetables, and cotton, and manufacturing fine blankets. Their houses are sometimes built of stone, but generally of adol)e, and MOKI TUWX, AUIZOXA. are usually several stories in height, each one receding iVoiii the one below, leaving a terrace or walk. The general plan is a hollow S(piare, circle, or irregular ellipse ; althougli in some cases they are built in a solid mass like a pyramid, six or eight st,ories in height. In each jaieblo there are large rooms, sometimes miderground, tor religious observances or council, or for both }»urp()ses, which are calleil in Spanish cdiffas. Tlie towns are .some- times built u})on the summits of high terraces or mesas, extremely dillicult of api)roach. ) ■■;. 270 COMPENDIUM OF OEOGRAPHY AX1> TUAVEL The ]\roki, who arc scnii-civihsed Indians, Hvo in six villages on tlie plateau between tlie San Juan and the Colorado Chiquito rivers, in north-eastern Arizona, I (1 m I i i j -f f, i; is i' 1 1 L 1 i NAVAJU INJJlA.N.s. Their villages are perehed upon the snniniits of mesas, •400 to (iOO I'eet al)0ve the surrounding level. Tht; houses are built of stone, laid in a(lol)e mortar, in terra((; foi'ni, seldom excei'ding tliree stories in heiglit, and arr reaelu'd onlv ]»v ladders. Tlie ])i'oi)le are extremelv kind- INDIANS AND THEIR KEMAINS 27 lieartcd and hospitable. Their pursuits are agricuUural. They raise maize, squashes, puinpkius, and peaches. They also have large herds of slieep and goats. The women knit, spin, and weave, making fine blankets, women's robes, and other like articles. They use no intoxicating drink ; and are, men and women, industrious and virtuous. The men have adopted the usual Mexican dress, while the Wfjmen wear a woven tunic, and a small blanket, fastened over the shoulders, l^efore marriage tlie hair of the women is worn in two large rosettes, one on each side of the head, and after marriage it is worn loose down the back, or rolled up on the back of the head. By a census taken in 1890, the popuhation of the.se six towns was 19 90 souls. • Numbers of the Indians The last census, 1890, tells the following tale regard- ing the present number of this people. The total was 248,25;.). Of these 58,806 had abandoned tribal rela- tions, had left their reservations, if they ever had any, and were taking chances for sul)sistence among the whiles. 189,447 remained under tribal relations, lived u])()n reservations, and were supported more or less fully iVum the bounty of the United Slates Government. mesas, Tlie terriice and art' Iv kind- Are the Indians dying out? It has long been the popular beiief that Indians are last dying out, that they were rapidly disa[)pearing l)efore the advancing wave of civilisation, that in the struggle fnr existence in progress on this Continent barl>arism is giving way, but in recent years this belief has been ([uestioned. It has l)een shown that the statements of '^i I i li ! f » I If ill ii »7' f|:S: 272 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL the numbers of Indians made in the early days of settle- ment in this country were grossly exaggerated. It has been shown that, living as most Indians do and did by pastoral pursuits, and hunting, the land was never cap- able of supporting the dense population it was said to have contained. In recent years statistics of the number of Indians, which have been carefully obtained, sliow that on the whole this people is about holding its own. It seems probable, looking at all of the evidence, that the Indian tribes, which formerly inhabited the eastern part of the country, have greatly diminislied in numbers. Indeed those who inhabited the north-eastern part of the United States have been almost entirely wiped out, the only fragment of any importance remaining being the relics of the Six Nations now located in western New York. In the south the Creeks, Cherokees, Chickasaws, Choetaws, and Seminoles unquestionably lost numbers during the wars with the whites, prior to being moved to Indian Territory. But since their removal they have at least held their own, and the western tribes also have, on the whole, not lost in numbers. The total area comprised in the reservations is not less than 134,176 square miles, on an average of a little more than half a square mile for each man, woman, and child. This is an ample allowance ; indeed, far more than ample for agricultural uses, but it is not sutticient to support these people if engaged in pastoral pursuits, or in hunting. There is expended annually for the support of Indians, including the expenses of the Bureau of Indian Affiiirs, the support of agents and their employes, about seveu million dollars, or about 28 dollars per head of Indian population. INDIANS AND IHKIR ItEMAINS 273 ittle- b has d by cap- dd to t the ained, oldiiig 3, that jastern inbers. of the lUt, the ng the 11 New kasaws, .uiiibers oved to have at have, is not a little lan, aiul ore than cieiit to its, or in Indians, 1 Atfairs, ut seven ,t' Indian Progress of the Indians in Civilisation Some idea of the progress wliieh this race has made in civilisation may be gathered from the following state- ments, collated i'rom a recent report on Indian Affairs. From these statements are excluded the Indians of Alaska, which have made little progress, and the five tribes of Indian Territorv, which have made such urcat ])rogress that they are now distinguished as " civilised " tribes. Leaving tliese two groups out of account, there remain, in round nundjcrs, 179,000 Indians. Of these 45 per cent dress as do white men, in cloth goods, many of them wear " boiled shirts " and silk luits. One-tifth of the whole number can read. Fully one-half of them. live in houses, having abandoned the skin or canvas lodge, and one-seventh of them are cliureh members. One out of every nine of the entire population is enrolled in school, and the average attendance at school is nearly one -eleventh of the population, Xearly one- half of the families are engaged in cultivating the soil, and one -sixth of all have already accepted lands in severalty. As to their progress in industry they have the follow- ing showing to make. They had under eultivation in 1893, 41 2,8 8 G acres of land. They produced, of Wheat, l)Usliol.s (nearly 10 bushels per lieu'l vu an average) ],722,r)r)6 Oats and barley, bushels Indian corn Vegetables llay, tons fhey possessed, of Horses and mules . Cattle 88;j,172 1,:!7:3,-J;30 4G2,87l 217,925 300,000 20.'), 844 i I'.i: Sheep 1,000,000 T U r \l :• I - 274 COxMl'ENDlUM OF GEOGIIAPHY AND TRAVEL Considering; the. disadvantages under which they have laboured, their savage condition, and the want of in- centive for adopting- civilised ways, their progress along the path of civilisation has been really remarkable. AVilli the more enlightened, consistent, and firmer policy now in operation, it is probable that another generation will see them far advanced on the road. Intermarriage between Whites and Indians Considering the fact that this quarter of a ndllion of Indians have been surrounded by whites for centuries, there has been astonishingly little intermarriage between the races. In many tribes half-breeds are unknown. In others, as is the case with the tribes of Indian Territ i'e(>t. At one point there is an entrance throngh the wall. The bouiuling walls at this point are higher than elsewhere, and turn outward to ibrni the approach to this entrance. The diameter of this circle in one direction is 1180 feet, and in a course at right angles to it IIG.'! feet, a dill'eri'nce between the two diameters of only 20 feet, and the cur\e of the em- bankment seldom departs appreciably from that of a circle. In the centre of the area enclosed is a mound in form reseml)ling verv rudely a bird. (If the age of this work little can be said. There are trees growing upiai the embankment which are evidently nmch more than a centurv <»ld, thus setting the mini- mum limit to its age. The maximum limit no one can tell. It is hard to guess at the purpose for which this was constructed. If it were for pur])oses of defence one would suppose that the ditch would have been upon the outside of the wall instead of the inside. In this neighbourhood are found other circular works, but none in as good a state of preservation as this. 'Hhtc are also found works in the shape of octagons and otlirr geometrical figures. The a.nimal mounds, so-called, are found mainly in AVisconsin. They attain no great elevation, being commonly raised above the prairie I'rom 1 to feet, but the surface dimensions are in some cases enormous. The Turtle Mound at Waukesha has a total length of INDIANS AND THKIIt IIKMAINS 277 )!' the trees 11 the ' out- IVoiii in;j; iu is an It this art! to Liter of eouri^c ;eii the ihe cm- it of a iiuntl ill u'l'e are videutly le iniiii- no one this was lie would > (Uttsitle av works, 'HiL'i'e naiuly 111 L)u, being ;o 6 feet, enoriuous. leuivth of upwards of .'500 feet. A inaiilike figure lias ji leuLTth of 214 feet, while one wliicli Ikih faneifully been likened to ii night liawk lias a spread of wings of 240 feet. In these mounds are found numerous ini})l('ments of ('<»i»per, whicli were evidently derived from the mines on Keweenaw Toint in northern ^Michigan, for whi-n mining connneneed in that region there were found numerous signs of former workings, which, from all the indications, were of date similar to that of the mound builders. MANDAN V1I,1,A(;K OX THK ri'l'Kl; .MISSOIIU HIVKK. The site of St. Louis, Missouri, was so thickly studded with mounds as to give it the name of the ^lound (Mtv. On the east side of the river, in the bottom lands below the bluffs, there is a vast collection of these works of a great varietv of form. Among them was the celebrated one known as the Cahokia j\lound, the greatest in the coiuitry. It had the form of a parallelogram, with sides wliich at its base were 500 and 700 feet in length res]>ectively, with a height of 90 feet. On the south- west side there was a terrace IGO by .')00 feet, which was reached by a graded way, and the summit was i 1 :f : 278 COMPENDIUM OF Or.OORAPIIY AND TKAVEL II 3! -i truncated, forininu; a ])latr()rni '200 by 450 feet. l'])()n this platlbrm stood a mound 10 feet liigh, wliicli, on being opened, was Ibund to contain human bones, funeral vases, and various implements of stone. The entire area oeeu])ied by this mound eomjn-ised about six acres, and in close pi'oximitv were four elevated platforms rauLiinii; from 250 to 'lOO feet in diameter, besides a vast number ol' other smalli'r works. An exhaustive study of these mounds has been made by the United States lUu'eau of KtbnoloLj;y ; their location and extent have been mapiuHJ, and many of them have been opened to discover tlieir contents. Tlie result of this louL!; and exhaustive study has bct'u to demonstrate, with some deuree of certainty, that these nioumls were made by })eoi)le not further advaiu-ed in cultuic than the Indians who inlial)ited the country at tlu' time of its discovery by the whiles: indeed, that tlu>y wmc ])robably built by the ancest<»rs of these sanu'. Indians. Thoy also show that the mounds are not uiulbrndy ol' the same deuree of antitiuitv, but dilfer widclv in date of erection. None of the mounds were built for relin'ious ])urpo.ses, but some religious ceremony was ol'tcn perfornu'd at burial, which invohed tlu> use of lire, probably in criMuation. In the case of mounds constructeil in the Mississippi bottom lands, where they are very abundant, it is i)robable that they were constructed in order to remove the dwell- ings abovi' the reach of Hoods by ])lacin!j, tlu'm u])(tii the sunnuits of tlu' mounds. indeed, the report of tlu? Bureau ujion this subject (doses with the foll(»wing siijiii- licant statenu'nt :— " I''iually the links of evidence connecting the Indians and ]\h)und lUiilders are so numerous and well established as to justify urchiivdogists in assuming that they were one and the same i)eople." INPIANS AND THKIH REMAINS 27!) Ruins in the South west In the territories borileriiin' upon the CoUjnulo (haiiuJt^e system are found ruins and oilier remains of a peopK' evidently more or less distinct from the Mound r)uil(lers. and. ])robahly, niueli more closely related tt» the Aztecs of Mexico. All over Arizona, the westi'rn half of New .^[l'xico, the south-western ])ortion of Colorado, the southern part of Utah and Nevaila, with the snuth- eastern portion of California, are found the ruins (»f structures raised hy this ])eoj)le. 'fin-y rt>send>le. in many imi)ortant particulars, the towns and houst's of the Moijuis and I'uehlo Indians of the i)i'esent day, which are described elsinvhere in this volume, and are, probably, the last renniants of a once i:;reat race which covered this reu'ion at tme time with a dense population. These ruins, in their locations and I'haraeters, serve to sketch, in lough outline, the history of this people, their lieaceful, ([uiet, pastoral, and agricultural lives; then the rude onslauuht upon them by the barbarous tribes tVom the north, who drove them from their indefensible agri- cultural towns, tirst, to taki' shelter ujion the summits of lii'j;h mesas, arid then, as they became weaker and less alth' t can easily distinguisii t\V(( entirely different classi's of structures,- lirst, the agricultural settlements; and second, those iiscd as fortresses or retreats in time of war. Those i;f the tirst class were Imilt in the fertile river tiottoms, (lost* to water and arable laud. The houses N\<'ie mainlv connuunal, several stories hiuh, sinnlai to the Pueblos of the present day. They were made ot slone, laid in more or less rciiular courses in mortar, t>r of adobo hi* ( ! 280 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TliAVEL im (sun-dried brick). In their ground-plan tliese communal houses are rectanifular, circular, or elliptical, or, more rarely, of irregular form. They are usr.ally built around, or nearly around, a rectangular or circular court, into which the houses open ; while on the outside the structure presents a blank wall, broken only by small apertures which served as windows. In every town lias been found at least one estufa, oi- sweat-house, as it is called, for the sake of a name. This building or room is rectangular or circular, and much more commonly the latter. In some cases, howciver, it is an underground apartment. However built, it is always with very great care, and oftentimes with a view to architectural effect. It is usually the most pretentious l)uilding in the settlement. A very common form is that of a tower, usually with a double wall, the annular space between the two walls being subdivided into rooms. One of these having a triple wall has been found. It is probable that this building was used as a place of worship, or was in some way connected with their religion. It may also have been used as a council-house, where grave afl'airs of State were discussed. At a locality in south-western Colorado, known as ^Vztec Spring, is situated one of the largest of these towns. The mass of ruins — for the town is in a very ruinous state — cover an area of about 480,000 square feet, and is about 3 to 4 feet in depth, making 1,500,000 cubic feet of masonry. The stone used is from a cliff fully u mile away. At Ojos Calientes, New Mexico, are the ruins of anotlier large town. It is placed upon a high terrace near Caliente Creek. It was built chiefly of adobe, ami consisted of rows of rooms built around central courts. INDIANS ANI> TJIEIU REMAINS 281 nunal more round . ., into Licture ufa, (»r Thi> miieli er, it is always ^iew to :entioiis is that ir space s. One It is worsliii'. ion. 1' re grave lown as je towns, ruinous feet, and 00 cu\)ie fully a ruins of I terraee lobe, ami central ( )n the Itios San Juan, Chaco, and De Clielle are found ii number of olher towns, nu)re or less similar. The second class of structures, those built mainly for purposes of defence, are, in general, in a mucli bettei' state of lu'cservatioii, owing in part to their more sheltered position, but mainly, undoubtedly, to the fact that they are of a somewhat more recent date, as indicating a later C'l.ll<'K-l»\VKI.LI.Vn.S. AHIZON.V. cliapter in the history of this peo})le. Some of them, and jcrliaps the, more elaborate structurQs, are built u])on the suiiiniits of almost inaccessible me.sas, as are the Moki towns of the present day. Here are found round towers of (((iisidcrabli' heiglit, serving not only as fortresses but lis watcli- towers. Jhit the clitl'-dwcllings, us they are ('idled, are by far the more numerous and interesting. This country, as was stated in tlie geographical description. Ki III! f !- :b>' iw , IB i a 282 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGIIAPIIY AND TRAVEL is very arid. There are but lew streams, and most of these traverse the country deep down below the surface in canons, with rocky precipitous walls. Diflerent strata in these canon -walls have l)een eroded in different degrees, so that one linds horizontal caves in the walls, where one; of the horizontal beds has weathered back a few feet farther than the harder beds above and beknv it. Tn many cases where these caves have occurred part way up a cliff, these ])eople, sore beset by their enemies, have built places of refuue, secure from attack from aljove bv reason of the overhanging cliff, and nearly so from IjcIow, as the occupants had to depend upon ladders or steps cut in the nearly perpendicular face of the r(jck. Travelling down the canon of the liio ]\Iancos in south-wcsteiii Colorado, one sees everywhere on the walls, which encompass him on either hand, these structures, like swallows' nests, in the clefts and crannies of the rocks. In some cases there are quite large groups of houses, well built, of stone, even two stories in height. In others, a simple wall has been thrown up across the front of a crevice. Other traces of this ancient people are not wanting. (Jreat areas — hundreils of scpiare miles, indeed — arc so thickly strewn with fragments of pottery that one niiiy ride for tlays, ami at every step his horse's hoofs will Ptrike them. Few whole vessels have been found in the ruins. They have been thoroughly ex[)lored by the Indians, who have taken almost evervthing of value tn them. The ])ottery reseml>les very closely, in material and in the designs painted u[»on it, that of the ]\Io<|ui.s and l'u(;blc [»e()])le of the present, but in (pudity it is superior to the latter. Again, in many localities, arrow- heails of chalcedony and obsidian have been found ia abundance, indicating the scenes of many a bloody conllict. INDIANS AND TIIEIll REMAINS 283 As to the age of these ruins little is known. It is certain that they date back several centuries, undoubtedly hei'ore the first Spanish conquest, and a lew facts point to a very great antiquity. That they niav have been a colony of the Aztecs, founded by them in their southward migra- tion to the tablelands of .Alexico, is not improbable. But iew facts are known on which to base a theoiy. IP] II m m> m ■f i' , ' |i; J . m ,;. i! 1 iii' '' i i , CHAPTER VIII 'tl U'}: EXTENT AND AHEA Accessions of Territory Upon the conclusion of peace between the colonies and the mother country in 1782 the limits of the United States, as defined by the treaty, included an area of only 827,844 square miles. The northern limit of the country was practically the same as at present, the boundaries established by the preliminary treaty of peace having been adjusted by subsequent treaties to but slight extent. On the west the boundary line was the ]\Iissis- sippi liiver, and on the south practically the olst parallel of latitude. Subsequent additions of territory have in- creased it to 3,596,500. The Louisiana Purchase The first of these accessions, known as the " Louisiana Purchase," was by far the largest of all. This, which was obtained from France in 180o, included most of the drainage basin of the Mississippi River west of the river. Its northern limits were undefined, its western limits extended to the divide between the Mississippi and the streams flowing westward to the Pacific. The line followed this divide southward to the Arkansas ■I' EXTENT AND AREA 285 lliver, thence down the river to the 100th meridian, which it followed southward to lied Kiver, and thence it followed the course of tliat river to the present western boundaries of Arkansas and Louisiana, which continued it to the Gulf Witli this territory, for which the United States paid some il 2,000,000, was acquired, by prior settlement, wliat was then known as ( )re<^'on, which included the present areas of Washington, Oregon, and Idalio, with small portions of Wyoming and ^lontana. Jurisdiction over this area by the United States was not, however, fully established until the adoption of the Webster-Ashl^urton treaty in 1846. Thus directly and indirectly the Louisiana purchase addetl to the jurisdiction of tlie United States a territory of 1,171,931 square miles, thus more tlian doubhng its original area. The Florida Purchase The next addition of area was the purchase of the Fluridas, which were ac(piircd from Spain in 1821. For many years the boundary line between the United States and Spain, east of the southern part of Louisiana, had been a bone of contention between the two countries, and largely for the pur})ose of settling this (UtHculty this puicliase was etfected. This extended the jurisdiction of ilu; United States to tlie Gulf of Mexico and added o!),2G8 square miles to its area. W Accession of Texas Texas, which acliieved its inde})endence from Mexico in 1836, voluntarily joined the sisterhood of states in 1845. At that time its area extended westward to the Eio Grande and north to the Arkansas liiver, and thus it brought into the Union an area of 375,239 square ,1 1 r ' ■! ; i ^amm^^ 280 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEArilY AND TRAVEL miles, tlms including, besides its present area, aboui 100,000 square miles. This area was subsequently sold by the State to the United States, and now ibrms part of New Mexico, Colorado, Kansas, and Oklahoma. First Mexican Cession and the Gadsden Purchase In 1848, by the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, Mexico ceded to the United States, for the sum of $15,000,000, an immense area of country, not less than 545,783 square miles, which now ibrms the states of California, Nevada, and Utah, and parts of Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexicd. and Arizona. This was followed, five years later, by the CJadsden purchase, which included 4 5,5 o 5 square miles, for which the sum of $10,000,000 wa^ aid Mexico. This now forms the southern part of Aiizuna and New ]\Iexico. Purchase of Alaska The last investment in real estate made by the United States was Alaska, which was purchased from Itussia in 18G7 for $7,200,000. This added an area commonly estimated at 570,000 square miles. It must be added that the area is only approximately known, as the limits of the territory have not becin accurately fixed. The Public Lands Besides the land acquired in fee simple by the general government in the manner above specilied, there was another large grant to it made by the states. At tlu* conclusion of peace with Great Britain the original territory of the United States comprised, besides the areas of the thirteen original states, a large extent i»l' territory lying mainly west of the Appalachian Mountains, which was unsettled, and which was held bv the states '!■ aboui y sold Dart of bse Mexico )0,OnO, square STevada. Mexici-s , by the d miles. Mexico. nd New 2 United lussia in )iuiiionly )e added le limits e general lere was At the orig;iiial sides tlif extent "1 lountain^, the stales f 1'^^ 'I ML III! ri t M EXTENT AND AliEA 287 or colonies. Their claiuis to these western lands were in many eases ill-defined, and some of them overlapped one another in a perplexing manner. In conseipience of these conflicting claims, as well as for other reasons, it was finally agreed by the states to cede tiieir western lands to the general government, and tiius the United States became the possessor in fee of all the lands west of Pennsylvania and nortli of the Ohio liiver, and of everything west of the west boundary of Georgia. Most of the territory added by these successive pur- chases and cessions was unsettled, and, indeed, was almost unknown. In all cases, excepting that of Texas, the United States not only acquired jurisdictit)n over these areas, but aofpiired property rights in them ; indeed, this country has l)een one of the largest land-owners in liistory. After allowing for all pre-existing private ownerships in these regions it is probable that the United States acqniied, in fee simple, title to not less tlian 1,800,000,000 acres. Out of this magnificent domain it has alienated, in one way or another, about one-half, or 900,000,000 acres, and still holds an equal amount. Its jxdicy in disposing of its land has not been a money-making one in a direct and immediate sense, but it has disposed of the land in such way as to induce the spread of settlement and the making of homes, and thus to increase the general well- being of the people. In this view it has passed home- stead and pre-emption laws, by which actual settlers could obtain land for little more than a nominal price, the sole condition being that the claimant shoukl occupy and use the soil. Liberal grants have been made to encourage the building of railroads through unsettled regions, and these have proven a very successful means for inducing the spread of settlement. Its lands have bet'u given freely in aid of education, at first one section, f ff i ■i^^ H r i- 1 \ 288 COMrENDIUM OF GEOGHAl'HY AND TllAVKL a square mile, unci subsequently two sections out of every township of oG s([uare miles, Laving been donated for the use of the public school system and for universities. Formation of States Out of the territory ceded by the states to the general government sliortly after the treaty of peace with (Ireat liritain, there were formed from the territory north of the Ohio Itiver the states of Ohio, Iiub'ana, Illinois, ^Michigan, and Wisconsin, and a part of ^Minnesota. Out of the southern territory thus ceded were created the states of Alabama and ^Mississippi. The Louisiana purchase has become the states of Louisiana, Arkansas, ^Missouri, Iowa, Minnesota in part, the two Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas, Indian Territory, and in part Colorado, AVyoming, and Montana. Out of Oregon lias been carved the states of Oreuon, AVasliington, and Llaho, besides a small part of Montana and Wyoming. Fnmi the purchases from ^Mexico and Texas lune been created California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, Xow Mexico, and a part of Colorado, The Union is at ])rcsent composed of forty-five states, ibur territories, the federal district of Columbia, which is the seat of government, and the Indian Territory, which is a group of Indian reservations. The Ibllowing table gives a list of these subdivisions, with the dates of their formations as states and terri- tories : — Alabama . Alaska Territory Arizona Torritory Arkansas California Colorado . >rritoi'y. State. 1817 1819 1868 • • • 1863 1819 1836 > * * 1850 1861 1876 w Connecticut District of" Columbia Florida . Georgia . Idalio . Illinois . Indiana . Indian Territory Iowa Kansas . Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts . Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri . Montana . Nebraska Nevada . New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico Territory New Yurk Nortli Carolina North Dakota . Ohio Oklahoma Territory Oregon . Pennsylvania . Rhode Island . South Carolina South Dakota . Tennessee Texas Utali Vermont . Virginia . Washington . West Viigiuia , Wisconsin Wyoming EXTENT AND AREA • . Original State. ia • 1791 • 1822 1845 . Original State. ■ 1863 1890 ■ 1809 1S18 • 1800 1816 • 1838 1845 • 1854 1861 1792 • 1805 1812 1820 • Original State. ■ 1805 '1837 • 1849 1858 • 1798 1817 • 1812 1821 • 1864 1889 • 1854 1867 • 1861 1864 • Original State. y . " I) • I80O • Original State. • 1861 '1889 • ••• 1802 • 1890 1848 1859 • Original State. ■ 1861 'i889 .• ••• 1796 • - 1845 • 1850 1896 • ■•• 1891 . Original State. • 1853 1889 • •■• 1S63 • 1836 1848 • 1868 1890 289 ; 1 u iM' 290 COMPENDIUM OF GEOCUArilY AND TRAVEL Areas of States i i I -fin The following table gives territories in .square miles : — Sttates anil Tcrritoriw. Aicii. the areas of the states and stales and Territorie Total 3,025,600 Nebraska . 77,510 XeViida New Haniiishire . . 110,700 9,30.' .Mahaiiia 52,250 Arizona 113,020 New Jersey . 7,815 Arkansas 53,850 New Jlcxico . . 122,5,80 Califoniia 158,?:)0 New Yoik . 49.170 Colorado 103,925 North Carolina 52,250 Coinieeticut . 4,990 North Dakota 70,79.^. Delaware 2,050 Ohio . ''1,(it)0 District of Cohiniliia 70 Oklahoma 39,030 Florida 58,680 Oregon 96,0:!0 Geoi>,'ia 59,475 Pennsylvania 45,2ir, Idaho . 84.800 Rhode Island i.2r.o Illinois , 56,650 South Carolina 30.570 Indiana 36,350 South Dakoi'i 77,6.'-.0 In liaii Territory . 31,400 Tennessee 42,050 Iowa 56,025 Texas . 265, 7mi Kansas . 82,080 Utah . 84,!t70 Kertuv 40,400 Vermont 9,5i;ri Lonisiana 48,720 Virj,'iiiia 42, l.VI Maine . 33,040 ^Vasllington . 69. ISO Maryland 12,210 AVest Virj^inia 24, 7M) Massachusetts 8,315 Wisconsin 56,0 ;o Mi(']iij,'an 58,915 Wyominj; 97,s:'0 Minnesota 83,365 Mississijtpi . 46,810 Delaware liay &20 Missouri 69,415 Raritan liay and lower Montana 14t),080 Ntiw York Hay . im s. Area. The area of Alaska has been omitted from this talilc, since it is known only approximately. It is commt»iily given as 570,000 s([uare iiiile.s. ,es aiui Area. 77,r.i" 84,lt70 >,t,.Mi"' 42, l.'''* GO.l^t" 24, 7M) r.o.o'iO 97,M'0 \V('I C.-JO ui't this taltU', CHAPTER IX HISTORY Discovery Tt appears to be well established that the North American continent was discovered by Norsemen from Iceland, centuries before its discovery by Columbus, and that they established temporary settlements on the New Knj^dand coast. Tlie records of the voyages of Leif Ericsen seem to be conclusive on this matter, and some imaginative l)ersons have even discovered 8up[)0sed traces of the occupancy of these shores by these Northmen. These early discoveries and attempts at colonisation, however, led to no result. Tlie world did not learn of the existence of the continent from the Norsemen, and their colonies were short-lived. At the time of Columbus' voyages the world was ignorant of tlieir discoveries. '"'he shores of the continent were '.scovered and ex- jdored by piecemeal, generally from the south northward, eiirh explorer opening up a little longer vista of the coast line. The Spanish were natundly the pioneers, but were followed closely by Englisli and French mariners. Tliough its ( ((asts were discovered in the early ])art of the sixteenth century, it was not until 150') that the first settlement was maae witiiin tlu^ present limits of the United States. This was elfected by the Spanish at St. ;Vugustine, in \tn. I 1 292 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAFHY AND TKAVEL I m i; i what is now Florida. Somewhat later, in 1598, the Spanish pushed up from Mexico and established settlements at Santa Ee and its neighbourhood in what is now New Mexico. Colonisation The English claimed from the first most of the territory which is now the United States, its claims extending along the coast from Nova Scotia to Elorida, and made grants, covering large pii ts of this region, to corporations and ])rivate individuals. These grants and charters were so numerous and so loosely described, that they ovcrlappi'd one another in various ways and caused thereby great trouble. The first permanent settlement made under any of them was under wliat was known as the Virginia grant, and was effected at Jamestown, Ya., in 1G07. Thirteen years later, in 1G20, a party of Puritans from the Majijioiucr connnenced the setllement of t^lymouth, in Massachusetts, under a sub-grant of the charter of Massachusetts Bay. Under the latter charter, settlements were effected at Boston and neighbonring points on Massachusetts Bay, connnencing in 1G29. These t»\(> colonies, Massachusetts Bay and I'lymouth, althoiigli subjected to great hardshi])s in their earlier years, grew rapidly by accessions from England, and spread very early over southern New England. Tliese people were Puritan dissenters from the Estal)lished Cliurch of England, and the immediate reason for their leaving the old country was a religious one. Th(,'ir descendants, to a large extent, have peopled New Enghuul, and have im])ressed their characteristics upon the entire population. Indeed, their intluence is very widespread; for the descendants oi' llie New England Puritans liave spread far and wide over the northern half of the country, and everywhere they '[■ % HISTORY 293 :\ts at ?nitory g along grants, 3ns and were so Ln-lapiit^!^^ by gi'^'^t [e luuli'v "Virginia n 1007. ,ans from .^ly mouth, barter of 3ttlenients >oints on These tA<> althougii ears, gv^'^^' very early re rnritaii gland, aiul lid coxnUry liv England emigrated to enjoy freedom 294 COMPENDIUM OF (3E0GRAPHY AND TRAVEL ■li-' i Hi: . ill 1 ; L 1 1 ' l< : i) I ill religious matters, while those of the southern colonics came in the hope of bettering their worldly condition. Tlio people of the South, as a rule, came from *> liiglicr grade of society than those of the North, many o. Jieni being gentlemen bom and bred. With them, however, came a large number of bondmen and convicts, who, wiien tlieir term of service was over, remained in this country, and their descendants may be found to-day among tlie poor whites of that section. Tiie colonies grew slowly, for immigration was slow, and natural increase was discouraged by the hardships of life, incident to the constant struggle against Xature and against savage foes, for tliey were in almost constant war with tlie Indians who surrounded them. Still, at tlie open- ing of the lievolution in 17 70, it is probable that tliey numbered about two and a lialf million souls, including about two million whites, and half a million negroes. N> 'ro slaves were introduced into the Soutliern O colonies very early in their existence, and the slave trade, which was very profitable, was prosecuted with vigour until the early part of the nineteenth century. While in colonial days slaves were held in nearly all tlie states, tlu'y were mainly found in the Soutli, where the climate and the products were peculiarly fitted to them. French Settlement Meantime, the Freneli had not been idle, as tliey liad early seized upon the Canadas, had made settlements upon the St. Ivawrenee at IMontvenl, (^fuebec, and otlier jdaces, ami had puslied tlieir outposts up t! e Great Lakes, and across to tlie Mississij»pi. Tliey understood the nrt of managing the Indians better than the English, and consequently we find, in tlie freijuent conflicts between HISTORY 20 o onics The n;rade being came when uiitry, ig the \ slow, hips of ire an»l Lut war le open- at they icUuhng )es. .outheni re trail*', vigtnir ^Vhile in states, climate they hiul Uleineuls lul oUuT at Lakes, I the ait tihsh, au«l hetNVtH'ii the Eiiglisli and the Frencli, that the Indians were generally the allies of the latter. Tlie succession of wars which were prosecuted between these two groups of rival colonies was ended in 1759 by the complete subjugation (if Canada by the English, thus leaving that nation master of the continent north of Florida, and west as far as the Mississippi Ifiver. Union of the Colonies During the colonial perijd several efforts were made to unite the colonies, but without any permanent result. ( )wing to their dilference of origin, their wide se})aration, — for in those days distances were much greater than now, — the difference in their industries, religion, and social life, there was little sympathy among them and many grounds for jealousies ; indeed, to illustrate their total independence one of another, it may be noted that certain of the colonies levied customs duties upon imports from other colonies. For a while Connecticut and ^lassa- cliusetts quarrelled over the dues levied by the former at Saybrook on goods shipped through that country to Spiingtield, Massachusetts. Controversies were carried on between New York, Xew Jersey, and ^'onnecticut over the control of the waters in New York lUiy, and lu'tween ]\Iarvland and Virginia concerniu'^ the naviyation of Cliesapeake Bay and the Potomac liiver. On several occasions two or more of the colonies united in defence against the French and Indians, but n.s soon as the exigency which had called them together dis- aiijteared the confederation ulso was l»roken uj). One such case is especially to be noted, when in 104.') the colonies of riyniouth and Massachusetts Day, which after- wards became jMassachusetts, and Connecticut and New 296 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL ■t ■: I j'i MS;'! If i!? Haven, which afterwards became Connecticut, united in a confederation called the United Colonies of New England, for their common defence against Indian tribes. In 1754 a similar confederation was formed between the four New England colonies above mentioned with New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, for defence against the French and Indians. The Revolution Breathings of discontent against the mother country, on the part of her colonies, were heard for many years prior to the actual outbreak of hostilities. In 1765, eleven years before independence was declared, the opposition to the Stamp Act was so general that representatives of nine of the colonies met at New York and formed a con- federation for the purpose of resisting this form of taxation. This congress, however, had no powers further than those of remonstrance, and it was dissolv^ed in the following year upon tlie aljolition of the Stamp Act. This discontent seems to have been most marked in New England, reaching its focus in Boston, wliere, in 1770, occurred tlie so-called massacre of citizens by British troops. In 1773 in that city a mob, disguised as Indians, boarded a ship loaded with tea, and consigned the cargo to the waves as an expression of their defiance of the British tax levied upon that stimulant. This was the famous Boston Tea-Party. Tliese and similar otluT minor events so aroused the colonies that in 1774 ii congress, representing twelve of them, met at Philadelphia to consider the rights of the colonies and take such action as seemed fit. Tliis, the first Continental Congress, was short-lived, aiul confined itself to protests against the acts of the mother country. Meantime, events made vu\)'\d progress in the colony of Massachusetts. The Governor's Ik^ IIISTOUY 29' 1 in a gland, 1754 r New York, it the ountry, rs prior eleven ition t(J tives of I a con- axation. m those allowing irked in lere, in zens l>y isguised onsigned Icliiince 1iis was ar other 1774 a adelphia h action ress, was t the acts le ra]»i«l overnor's council, appointed hy order of Parliament, were forced, by the popular feeling, to resign their commissions, and the people forthwith elected a popular assembly, which practically governed the colony in defiance of the royal (lovernor from that time until a permanent government by the people was established. Shortly afterward occurred the famous skirmish at Lexington. At that point near Boston the colonists had established stores of iunmunition, learning which a force of British troops was (lii^patched to destroy them. On their way, at Concord, ihoy met a detachment of militia, and a collision ensued, in which several of the militia were killed and wounded. From that time on the British troops were pursued by the irregular militia of the colony, many of the troops were killed and wounded, and indeed, the detachment would have been utterly destroyed had it not been re- inforced on its way V)ack to Boston. This occurred 19th April 1775, and in the following month, 10th May, the second Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, most of its members having been elected before any thought of armed resistance to the power of Great Britain had been entertained. Meantime, however, the skirmish at Lex- ington had taken place, and had utterly changed the condition of affairs. Their functions were transformed from those of a purely deliljerative and advisory body to one of action. The second Continental Congress became, liy the necessity of the situation, tlie organ of common resistance. An army was raised, a, commander-in-chief, George Washington, of Virginia, was selected, a currency was created, and a general treasury and post office estai)- Meanwhile, events followed one another closely. Upon the appointment of Washington as Commander-in-Chief, he immediately proceeded to the neighbourhood of Boston 298 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL m UT>\ f! ; and got togetlier, as rapidly as possible, a small army of militia, with wliieli he took position upon the lieights surrounding the city, thus placing it practically in a state of siege. One of these positions, known as Breed's Hill, now in that part of Uoston known as Charlestowu, commanded a portion of the harbour, and the British decided to force the Americans from it. The ensuing battle, known as that of Bunker Hill, was of the last degree of importance in many ways. In the first place it taught the provincials that the British regulars were not invincible, since their first two attacks were de- feated with heavy loss, and since the provincials were finally forced to retire because of the exhaustion of theii' ammunition and not because of want of fighting qualities. Again, it caused to burst into fiame the spark of opposition to Great Britain which l)efore had been smouldering sullenly. Still, so close was the attachment which tlio colonies felt for the mother country that it was more than a year thereafter before the step was finally taken which dissevered them. It was on the 4th of July 1770 that the Declaration of Independence was adopted by ihc Continental Congress and pronuilgated to the colonies. The war which followed lasted for seven years, from 1770 to 1783. It was prosecuted, on the American side, under the conduct of the Continental Congress, which had no coercive power over the colonies, and could only request from them men and money and receive whatever they chose to give. The seat of war, which at first was in and abmit Boston, was soon transferred to New York. Sir William Howe, after defeating the American army on Long Island on 27th August 1776, occupied the city of New York and controlled the country about the lower Hudson, wlnlo Washington was obliged to retire into I'ennsylvaniu .rniy ol' heights y in a Breed's lestoNVii, British ensuhi^ the last 'st place ars were ,vere de- als were , of their qualities. )pposition icnilderhiii vhich the was more iilly taken luly ITTO ted by the B colonies, roni 1776 side, under ch had no ily request tever they and ahont Ijir Williiini ong lsli>ii"^ Nv York iintl Ison, wlido ennsylvaniii HISTORY 200 l)eyond the Delaware liiver. Then followed tlie In-illiant actions at Trenton and Princeton, in wiiich the Americans were victorious, and tlie British were thrown hack into Xew York. Tn the following smnmer Sir William Howe transferred tlie greater part of liis force to tlie neighliour- hood of rhiladeli>hia, capturing the city and defeating the Americans at ]>randywine, besides repelling an attack ui)on his forc3s at Germantown, just north of Bhiladelphia. In the same year a second Ikitish army was sent from Canada southward rid Lake Cluunplain and the Hudson, with the purpose of occu})ying that line of connnunication and thus cutting off tlie New England colonies from the otliers. (ieneral Burgovne, in command of tliis colunni, was at first very successful. He ca])tured Kort Ticonderoga and Whitehall, and l)egan to make his way down the Hudson. At Saratoga, however, he was hrouo-ht to bav, and after two severe actions was com- ]i('lled to surrender to (General dates. The utter defeat of this movement determined the French King, who had lung been wavering, to throw his forces on the side of the colonies, and from that time on they received in- valuable assistance both in the form of men and money from his government. In 1778 Howe evacuated Philadelphia and retired upon Xew York, where lie was succeeded in command by Sir Henry Clinton. In tJK' fall of 1778 a force was sent from Xew York for the cajiture of Savannah, which was effected at the end of tile year, and, largely reinforced, the invading column lArrran much of Georgia and South Carolina, and com- menced a northward movement. In this emergency 'ieneral Gates, who hail been so successful in X^ew York, was sent to the South, but met with no success, being 'Iffcated with great loss at Camden. He was succeeded by General Greene, who, understanding the pejple and ■I; "^~5*PP I I' r! I M' M^ 300 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TUAVEL their methods better tlian his predecessor, availed himself of them to the fullest. A partisan warfare was carried on by a force of irregular troops, which upon occasion could assemble quickly at any place and disperse as rapidly. Before the attacks of these almost invisible foes the solid columns of the British could avail nothing, and they were compelled to abandon North Carolina and nearly all of South Carolina. Cornwallis, who was in command of the British, succeeded finally in making his way to Yorktown, on the James Bdver in Virginia, when! his army was hennued in by the Americans under Washington and by the French tleet, and forced t« surrender. His surrender ended the war. On oOtli November 1.782 a preliminary treaty of peace was signed, and a definitive treaty on 3rd September 1783. 41 Union of the States At the same time that the Declaration of Independence was adopted a connnittee was appointed for preparing a plan for confederation of the colonies. This committee did not report until November 1777, nor were the articles adopted by all the states before 1st March 1781, very nearly at the close of the war. This form of government was in operation only eight years, and proved to be little better for its purposes than the Continental Congress. On 21st February 1787 Congress invited the colonies to send delegates to a convention at Philadelphia for the purpose of revising the articles of confederation. This convention met in the following May, George Washington being I'resident, and comprised many of the greatest and best-known names in the history of the country. They were called upon to face a difficidt situation, and it was long doubtful whether the conflicting interests could ho !]fn HISTORY 301 limself carried ccasioii erse as iivisiblc lothiiHj;, ina ami was ill kiup; liis [I, where s under )rced to 3n 30th IS signed, ipendencc eparing a omniittee le articles 781, very Dvernnieiit o be little imress. le colonies lia for the ion. This Washington reatest iiiid try. They and it nv^s is could he l»ronj4ht to agreement. Besides their jealousies and (hllerences of interests, the smaller states feared that ihey would not receive their adequate share of the jjower, while the larger states feared lest their superior power would he reduced. The result of the adjustment among these interests is seen in the two Houses of Congress, in (»ne of which each state receives an equal representation, while in the other the states are represented proportion- ally to their respective populations. I'hen there came \\\) the question of slavery, and had the South dreamed of the future difficulties which it would encounter on this score it is more than doubtful whether this question would not have proved aa insuperable obstacle to the agreement. With all this there were radical dill'erences of opinion as to the character of government to l)e inaugurated. Some wi>^hed a strongly centralised government, while others wisiied the states to retain all possible power and to reduce the central government to the feeblest government (•(insistent with establishing a conmion tie among the states. This last question was never derinitely settled, and, as will be seen hereafter, has been the princii)al bone of contention underlying all other questions from that day to the present time. Adoption of the Constitution Out of all these conflicting opinions, feelings, and prejudices was evolved the constitution of the United States, which, except for a few amendments, none of which are of vital importance, stands to-day. It was suhniitted to the states for ratification, and was by them ratitied in the followin-^ order: — Delaware . Pi'nnsylvania Now Jersey ppccmber 7, 1787 IVff'inbcr 7, 17S7 December 1*2, 1787 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 2.5 2.2 1:° 2.0 1.4 1.6 V] // ^^ >^ r.'. ^^'^^^-T^^TT '#. I 'rt^^im^ »r 302 COiMl'ENDIUM OF CIEOGIfAPHY AND THAVEL j, . (i '<*' ill «■( Geoigia Connecticut Massacluisetts . Maryland South Carolina New Hampshire Virginia . New York January 2, 1788 January 9, 1788 February 7, 1788 April 28, 1788 May 23, 1788 June 21, 1788 Juno 25, 1788 July 26, 1788 The ratification of nine states being sufticient, under the agreement, to ensure its adoption, the new govern- ment went into operation 1:»efore its ratification by lihode Ishmd and North Carolina, which agreed to it on the following dates : — North Carolina Rhode Island . November 21, 1789 May 29, 1790 Inauguration of Government At the first election for President and Vice-President under the new Constitution, Washington was found Id have received the entire number of electoral votes cast, and was, therefore, unanimously elected President. rh)hii Adams of Massachusetts was found to have received tlie next largest numl)er, and was, therefore, under the Constitution, declared Vice-President. The first Cabinet was made up as follows : — Thomas JcH'erson Edmund Randolph Alexander Hamilton Henry Knox . Secretary of State Attorney-General Secretary of the Treasury Secretary of War Nominally this new government was inaugurated 4tli ]\Iarch 1789, but actually it was not until Gth April of that year that it went into operation. From the time of the first suggestion of a confedera- tion among the colonies down to the present day thero ■¥\, ii ' T-p-'f! HISTORY 303 }, under goveru- V ltb(3(le ; on tlie 17i President I found to otes ciist, ,l()hu received .aider the Cabinet •casury rated 4th April ol" confedera- (hiy there lias been a division of opinion among tbe people of the United States regarding the powers and (hities properly helonging to the general government and those wliieh sliould appertain to the states. Tliis question of centralisa- tion has been, at bottom, the issue between the great ])olitical parties, however it may have been disguised by superficial details. One party, under various names, has always consistently maintained and endeavoured to in- crease the power of the general government, the other to Umit it and maintain the power of the states. At first very feeble, the general government has, lujwever, steadily increased in its power, always gaining, never going backward. Upon this issue the Cabinet of Washiiig^-on was divided, Hamilton and Knox standing for centralisation, and Jefferson and Randolph for state rights. During the second administration of "Washington, for he was re-elected to office, several struggles upon this question took place, in each of which the result was in favour (jf centralisation. One of these was the creation of a National Bank by act of Congress ; another, tlie assump- tion l)y the United States of the war debts of the several states ; a third was the levying of customs duties and internal revenne-tax by the general government. Tiie collection of the latter caused the well-known whisky rel)ellion in western Pennsylvania, which required the services of the militia of that state and Maryland before it was quelled. The success of the government in carrying out these iiiciisures added vastly to its strength*, and the government which Washington left at the end of his eight years of service was a much stronger government than that which lie assumed in 1780. Upon his retirement in 1797, •lohn Adams was elected President, as the candidate of in f? h • \' im .: i 'i hud 11 I 111 order to maintain, and, if possible, to increase their power in Congress, the slave -holding states in- sisted that at least one-half of the newly-created states should he slave states, and a hard fight was waged upon the admission of Missouri. Finally this controversy reached a temporary settlement in 1823, when Missouri was admitted as a slave state, but with the proviso, which has gone into history as the Missouri Compromise, that no more slave states should be formed north of latitude 36° 30'. The presidential election in 1824 resulted in no choice by the electors, and it was consequently thrown into the House of Eepresentatives. By a combination there, John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, was elected President. One of the leading events of his administration was the passage of the Tariff Bill of 1 8 2 8 , by which the protective system was carried to a much higher point than before. This was supported, in the main, by New England, in which section manufactures had become of great relative import- ance. In 1828 General Andrew Jackson, the hero of the battle at New Orleans, was elected President. He was a man of very decided character, as shown by many acts of his administration. One of them, which is perhaps the best known at the present day, was his wholesale discharge of officers of the government and their replacement by friends of his administration, acting upon the barbarous principle that " to the victors belong the spoils." The practice thus inaugurated by him persisted under the federal government for generations. The opposition to the tariff by the people of the southern states became bitter during his administration, and Acts were passed by South Carolina to nullify tlie tariff legislation as an invasion of the rights of the state. Other southern states contented themselves with protests, nn\\ HISTORY 309 increase ates in- >d states ;ed upon itroversy ^^lissouri proviso, upromise, north of , no choice 1 into the here, John rresideut. on was the > protective ,han before, id, in which ive import- hero of the t. He was 7 many acts perhaps the ,le discharge kcement I'V [le barbarous )oils." The under the but South Carolina not only attempted to nullify these acts, but prepared for war. Conciliatory measures were taken, and finally a compromise was effected by wliich the duties were reduced gradually, year by year, to a general rate of 20 per cent. Another feature of this administration was its hostility to the United States Bank. Although its charter had still seven years to run and could not be abrogated, the President determined to injure the Bank as far as thu administration could do so, by withdrawing from it government deposits and placing them in state banks. This was done in 1833, and it was a deathblow. Shortly after it suspended payments, and its affairs were wound up. General Jackson was re-elected in 1832, with Martin Van Buren, of New York, as Vice-President. During his second administration the receipts of the government, from its high tariff and from sales of public lands, were so large that the public debt was entirely wiped out and a surplus accumulated in the treasury, which, after a long discussion, was finally distributed among the states. The financial troubles which commenced in 1837 fortunately prevented the necessity of resorting to any similar expedient a second time. General Jackson's foreign policy was, throughout his administration, extremely vigorous, and under the pressure which he brought to bear several European countries satisfied claims against them which had been of long standing. Among these was France, which paid over 85,000,000 on account of depredations committed many years before. In IS'^G Martin Van Buren, of New York, became President, with Eichard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, as Vice- Piesident. Van Buren came into power in the midst of a period of financial depression, probably the most severe It! ' ' 310 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL ii III ■f fi- ll:!;* mi ii9 m :i^ which the country hcas ever undergone, and it lasted fully five years, from 1837 to 1842. This produced its usual effect upon matters political, so that in 1839 the party which had long been in the minority elected its candidate for President, William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, with John Tyler, of Virginia, as Vice-President. The question of slavery, which was always present, and frequently pressing, first became a political question in this election. The so - called Liberty party, which subsequently became the anti- slavery or Eepublican party, polled a few thousand votes. The Whig party, which had elected Harrison, enacted in 1842 a tariff by which the existing duties were largely increased. Texas and the Mexican War Texas, originally a state of Mexico, was largely colonised by Americans. Their number became so great that in 1835 it revolted from Mexico, asserted its independence, which, after a short but bloody war, was achieved. In 1837 Texas offered herself for admission to the United States. This movement was favoured by the South for obvious reasons, since Texas would necessarily add to the strength of the slave states, and was, of course, opposed by the North. The matter was held in abeyance until 1845, when Texas was admitted. At that time Texas claimed the territory southward and westward to the Eio Grande, while Mexico claimed the territory to the Nueces, the region between these two rivers being thus in dispute. The war with Mexico upon this question, thus connected with the admission of Texas, commenced early in 1846. The American troops were commanded in the early part of this war by General Zachary Taylor, and later by General Winfield Scott. General Taylor commenced operations on the Eio Grande, ^' HISTORY 311 whence he advanced into Mexico, and fought successively the battles of Palo Alto, Eesaca de la Palma, and Buena Vista, which resulted in leaving him in possession of all the north-eastern provinces. In March 1847 Vera Cruz was captured by a naval movement, and General Winfield Scott, with about 10,000 troops, marched inland upon the city of Mexico. At Cerro Gordo he made a victorious attack upon the forces of the Mexican President, Santa Anna, and entered the valley of Mexico. In August and September battles followed one another with startling rapidity — Contreras, Churubusco, Molino Del Hey, and Chapultepec, in all of which Scott was successful, and on 14th September he entered the city of Mexico. This practically concluded the war, and by the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo in 1848, Mexico conceded the United States claims in Texas, and gave up all of the territory which is now California, Utah, Nevada, and parts of Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. For some time after the failure of the United States Bank the public moneys were distributed among various State banks. Upon their wholesale failure in the crisis of 1837 the Government withdrew its funds, and re- tained them in its own custody in sub-treasuries. This policy was, however, opposed by the Whigs, repealed by them in 1841, and the public monies were again de- posited in State banks. Shortly after, however, during the administration of James K. Polk, 1845-49, the sub- treasury system was permanently re-established, lixe Democrats still further signalised their return to power by reducing the tariff greatly. The Struggle over Slavery In the election of 1848 the Whigs were successful in electing their candidate, General Zachary Taylor, who Ii; 312 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL .1: f. , It' was so prominent in the Mexican war. At this election the Liberty party, subsequently to become known as the Free Soil or Eepublican party, showed an astonishing accession of strength, but as it carried no states, it had no votes in the electoral college. Taylor died after occupying the presidential chair for a year, and the Vice- President, Millard Fillmore, succeeded him. During his administration the slavery question was discussed with increasing bitterness. In 1850 California was admitted as a free state in spite of the bitter opposition of the slave interest. In the same year slavery was abolished in the District of Columbia; but, coupled with this was the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law, which, perhaps, more than anything else, intensified the feeling against slavery in the North. And so from year to year and from administration to administration '^^e struggle went on, a'^ the time increasing in bitterness. In 1854, when the settlements in Kansas assumed importance, and the possible erection of that territory into a state was seen, the war between the two hostile interests was transferred to this theatre. New England on the one hand and Missouri on the other were actively engaged for years in colonising this territory, the first with a view to making it a free, the latter a slave state. Of course the colonists from these two parts of the country, having such diverse views, frequently met in conflict, and many were the crimes charged one upon the other ; and the struggle was not finally closed until 1861, just before the beginning of the Civil War, when it was admitted as a free state. The progress of this struggle served to intensify the feeling between the parties of freedom and slavery still more, and the great political parties ranged themselves at each election more and more sharply upon the two sides of this question. In 1856 the struggle for HISTORY 313 election . as the )nishiiig \, it had ed after he Vice- iring his 3ed with admitted n of the abohshed this was , perhaps, icT against year and ggle went In 1854, nportance, to a state erests was n the one ,y engaged ith a view Of ecurse ,ry, having and many ; and the before the imitted as served to [eedom and fies ranged xply npon .truggle for L 3 presidency was really between slavery and freedom, James Buchanan being the candidate of the Democrats, and John C. Fremont that of the Eepublicans or Free Soil party. The election resulted in favour of Buchanan, but by no means by an overwhelming majority. The Civil War In the Democratic Convention, held at Charleston, S.C., in 1860, for the nomination of Buchanan's suc- cessor, the party broke up into two wings, that of the South and that of the North, the former insisting on radical action in regard to slavery, not alone with a view to defending but extending it ; the latter, on the other hand, taking much more conservative ground. The southern wing nominated John C. Breckenridge for President, the northern wing Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois. Meantime, the Republican party nominated Abraham Lincoln, and in the election which followed he was chosen President. Thus, for the first time, the Free Soil party had elected its candidate. It must not be supposed that the Eepublican party had declared any hostility to slavery further than to express its determina- tion to oppose all extension of that institution, but so jealous of their rights had the slaveholders become that they accepted the election of Lincoln as a menace to the life of their institution, and immediately took steps to protect it, as they supposed, by withdrawing from the Union, and in making preparations, for the war, which they knew was inevitabio. South Carolina, the plucky, iir '4sive, hot-headed little state, led in secession in De».„inber 1860, only one month after the election. Other slave states followed; and in February 1861, two months after the secession of the first state, their dele- I 'f ■ 'T: ^■■■^^»^^ K liii:! II ii lit' 314 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL gates met in convention at Montgomery, Alabama, and framed a constitution for " the Confederate States of America." Jelferson Davis, of Mississippi, was chosen President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice- President. Th'in followed seizure after seizure of the United States posts, arsenals, and other depots of supplies located within the southern states ; and desertion from the army and navy by southern-born officers, until, at the opening of hostilities in April, the South was in far better position for war than was the North, both as regards men, arms, and munitions of war. Meantime, the Government, which up to the 4th of March, was in the hands of Buchanan, the Democratic President, lay supine and inactive. It is not fair to suppose that ]\Ir. Buchanan was a traitor to the Government that he was sworn to uphold, but lie was weak and cowardly, and his only desire appeared to be to avoid trouble by any means in his power, until he could drop the responsibilities of office. Whatever his motives may have been, however, the results could not have been worse than they were ; and when Lincoln assumed the responsibilities of the Government, with one of the greatest wars in history upon him, he found an empty treasury, the arms and munitions of war belonging to the Government in the hands of the rebels, and no preparations whatever matle for meeting the emergency which had long been apparent. Of the few posts within the seceded states which still remained in the hands of the Government was Fort Sumter, in Charleston Harbour, S.C., which was held by an officer and a company of troops. An at- tempt to reinforce this garrison brought on a collision, and after a bloodless bombardment of two or three days the commander, Lieutenant Anderson, surrendered tlie post to the Confederates on 14th April 1861. Thus the m HISTORY 315 na, and ,ates of chosen a, Vice- ', of the supplies on from il, at the s in far both as leantime, ti, was hi Lclent, lay that Uv. it he was y, and his iny means abilities of , however, hey were ; es of the |iu history arms ami ,nt in the ever made li apparent, lites which iment was hich was An at- la colhsion, three days Ldered the Thus the war opened, and for tiio succeeding four years it was prosecuted by the United States steadily, without waver- ing for an instant in its purpose, although the cost in human lives and in treasure was enormous, and it was fought to a successful finish. Let those who question the stability of a republican form of government, — a government by the people, — study this lesson and take it to their hearts ; for there is not recorded in history a war upon a similar scale, involving as large bodies of armed men and costing such enormous sums of money, fought with s ich singleness of purpose as this. It was the most searching test of the stability of the republican form of government that could be devised. At the outset the South appeared to realise more fully than the North the magnitude of the struggle that was to ensue, and made preparations accordingly. Lincoln at first called for 75,000 volunteers for three months only, but long before the three months were up, calls were made for 300,000 volunteers for three years, and subsequent calls exhausted the volunteers of the country and resort was perforce had to drafts. Altogether it is stated that a million and a quarter of men were in the military service of the United States Government during this war. On the Confederate side the numbers were not as great, but comprised nearly every man capable of bearing arms. The country was scratched with a fine-tooth comb, and men were dragged at wholesale into the armies. Altogether it is estimated, although no full records are at hand, that the South had 700,00.0 men in its armies (luring the war. A rough estimate j)laces the losses Upon each side at about 300,000 men, including the deaths by casualty and by sickness. President Lincoln's call for volunteers for service in tlie army had the effect, throughout the border states, H « i' 'Jf i. liffi .l''^ 316 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL which up to that time were undecided as to their allegi- ance, of deciding them to take one side or the other. In most of them the calls were refused, and North Carolina, Arkansas, Virginia, and Tennessee all seceded and joined the South. In Missouri the promptness and effectiveness of the military actions on the Union side were effectual in savxxig that state for the Union, although at first it attempted to preserve neutrality in the conHict. Ken- tucky also attempted to preserve the same attitude, hut the military operations of the early part of the war threw that state practically on to tlie Union side. The feelmg in Maryland was, from the first, hostile to the Union, and the state was for a time doubtful ; but the rapid collec- tion of troops at Washington, thus securing its safety, prevented Maryland from joining the Confederacy. Dela- ware from the first was loyal to the Union. The field of operations of this war was a very ex- tensive one. The line between the combatants stretched from the Atlantic coast in Virginia westward througli Kentucky to the Mississippi, and across southern ?Iis- souri, a distance of fully 1000 miles, as the crow fiies. The coast line of the South is fully 3000 miles, the area embraced within the region iu rebellion was 800,000 square miles, and it contained fully 9,000,000 of people. The war was prosecuted from the first simply to save the Union. It had no reference whatever to slavery, but the intention was simply to restore the authority of the United States over these states. Shortly after the secession of Virginia, the capital of the Confederacy was removed to Richmond, where it remained throughout the war. Tliis place is only 100 miles from Washington, the capital of the licpublic, and the heaviest fighting, the greatest battles of the war, were fought in the region lying between these two places. ^^^1 HISTORY 317 allegi- er. In aroUna, I joined tiveness effectual , first it . Ken- iude, l>ut ar threw e feelnig nion, and ,id collec- ts safety, cy. Dela- L very ex- t stretched i through hern ^lis- crow fiies- s, the area 800,000 of people. )ly to save DO slavery, luthority of capital of where it on ly 100 [public, aiul )f the Nvar, I two places, Tliere is hardly a square mile between AVashington and Iiichmond that has not been the scene of a battle of greater or less magnitude. The next most imjiortant field of operations lay in Kentucky and Tennessee, between tlie Appalachian ]\Iountains on the east and the IMississippi on the west. In the early part of ttie war operations were carried on between two armies on each side, one in the eastern and the otlier ii the western part of this region; while towards the close of the war the struggle narrowed down to one army upon each side, and the field was shifted further south into Georgia. West of the Mississippi the lighting was upon a small scale, and desultory in character. In the first months of the war there was some fighting in the mountains of West Virfdnia, but the Confederates were quickly driven out of that region, and never after- wards reappeared there. The first battle of impoi'tance of the war was fought at Bull Eun, or Manassas, a few miles only from Washington. The armies engaged upon the two sides were raw levies of militia. The result was an over- whelming and crushing defeat of the Federal troops, who tied from the field, and it is said did not stop running until they reached Washington, on the north side of the Totomac. The Confederates took no advantage of this victory, although they might, had they been under sufficiently good discipline, have easily captured Wash- ington as the result. Among the economic and financial consequences attendant upon the commencement of the war should be mentioned the fact that specie payments were suspended toward the close of 18G1 in the Kepublic, and the price of gold at once went to a small premium, which, later in tlie war, increased greatly, the gold dollar being at one M p*^ i ( \'' 11 !i !?? IJUJ ffc i|p! '.'IW H: i ^11 318 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL time worth $2*65 in paper. On the Confederate side the depreciation of paper was something enormous, reaching a maximum toward the close of the war of three or four hundred for one in gold. In the United States the expenses of the war were deferred mainly, of course, by loans ; but furthermore the income of the government was increased by a high tariff placed upon imports, which necessarily stimulated manufactures enormously, and afforded abundant employment, at high rates of wages, to the labouring classes. Throughout the war the con- dition of the people of the North was greatly improved by reason of the abundance of work, at high prices, due to the excessive demand created by the destruction of property, and by the absence of so many of its wage- earners in the army. On the other hand, the condition in the South was quite the reverse. There were no manufactures in that part of the country to be stimu- lated ; there was no market for their cotton, which was the principal, almost the only, product of the region , the food supply was scanty and poor, and indeed, during most of the war there were no wage-earners left to supply the necessaries of life, so that on the whole the war aided the North, at least temporarily, by stimulating industries of all kinds, while, on the other hand, it practically destroyed the South. After the disastrous battle of Bull Run, George B. M'Clellan was placed in command of the Union army, operating about Washington, and Carlos Buell in com- mand of the army operating in Kentucky and Tennessee. Little was done by either army until February 18GL', when General Grant, having command of the western wing of Buell's army, captured Forts Donelson and Henry, upon the lower Tennessee liiver, thereby obtaining control of the whole of western Kentucky and Tennessee. iiii " " U 1 1 HISTORY 319 je side (rmoiis, f three States course, rnment 3, which ly, aivl ■ wages, he con- oaproved ices, due ictioii of ts wage- sondition were n»» )e stimu- ^hich was lU, the ing most Lipply the var aided ndustries »racticaUy On 6th April was fougl.t the terrible battle of Shiloli, or Pittsburg Landing, in West Tennessee, when Grart's army w^as attacked by Albert Sidney Johnston, who effected a partial surprise. For a whole day Grant, with the Tennessee Eiver at his back, held the Confederates at bay, but at nightfall their condition was wellnigh desperate, when the arrival of ]^'- Irejoined Lee, was the so- ld, the result any speeiul was replaced kia Ily inducLHl inond hy way klrawii, Ix'ing transported down tlie d unit's and np the Potomac hy vessels. ])urin,g its progress, Lee, with his entire force, attacked Pope upon the old familiar hattle- ground of Manassas, and, having an overwhelmingly superior force, defeated him, hut tlie defeat was not a rout, as in the ease of the first fight on this field. The troops were now seasoned veterans, and although defeated they retreateil iu order, Lee and Jackson, however, after the fight moved northward and crossed the Potomac into Maryland. Meantime M'Clellan had reached AVashington witli his army, and followed Lee, overtaking him at Antietam. A terrific hattle ensued, in wliich Lee was defeated and forced to retreat ^ipon Pichmond. The discontent with ^M'Clellan's n.anagement of the war, which had long been intensifying, resulted finally in his depositicni and the appointment of (Jeneral A. K. Uurnside. Burnside went immediately to the opposite extreme. The Confederates at that time occupied de- fences in and about Fredericksburg, Virginia, upon the south side of the Pappahannock. Purnside with his anay crossed the river in the face of tlie enemy, and at- tempted to carry their position by direct assault. The natural result followed. They were driven back with terrific slaughter ; indeed, the losses of some parts of the, aniiy rivalled, even exceeded, those of the celebrated six hundred in their charge at Palaklava. Purnside was immediately relieved of command, and CJeneral Joseph Hooker, " Fighting Joe," was put in command of the army. As has been stated aljove, the war was prosecuted simply for the purpose of bringing the rebellious states back into the Pinion. So far as its policy was concerniHl, it had nothing to do with slavery, either for or against tlic institution. It is true that in the early days of the 1 i;''l'' 324 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL l^^ni M. ;: I i i war General ]3utlei" had issued orders that captured negroes were to be treated as contraband of war, and on that ground not returned to their masters. During this time, of course, there were not wanting enemies of tlie institution in the Xorth, who urged very strenuously upon the (Government the policy of destroying slavery, but until President Lincoln became convinced that the destruction of the institution would be a powerful weapon of offence did he consent to take action in regard to it. Purely as a war measure, therefore, on 20th September 1862 he issued his famous Emancipation Proclamation, giving warning to the states and parts of states then in rebellion, that if they persisted in such rebellion after the 1st of January following, the slaves would be freed in such territory as rapidly as the jurisdiction of the United States should be extended over it. On the 1st of January he issued a supplementary proclamation, con- firming that of 20th September preceding. Thus a war brought on by the South for the purpose of perpetuating and extending slavery became the cause of its destruction. Upon the sea the Confederates were able to eifect little. Largely through the aid of private individuals in Great Britain a few privateers were set afloat, which in- flicted considerable damage to American commerce. The best known among these was the celebrated Alabama, which, together with the Florida, did most of the damage. These two vessels were built and largely equipped in Great Britain, and although the Government was warned of their purposes, they managed to elude the authorities and get to sea. The vessel which did the most damage to the American vessels was unquestionably the Alahainn. This ship, after an extended and very successful cruise, put into Cherbourg for some petty repairs. While there the American sloop-of-war, Kearsage, of about equal 1' HISTORY 325 ;apture»l , aiul on iug this s of tlu' Lsly upon but tnitil sstructiou of offence Purely as 1862 hi" .11, givm^ then ill 1 after thf e freed in the United .he 1st of atiou, eou- :hus a NViU- erpetuatii«;4 destruction, e to effect Lividuals in ;, which in- !erce. The Alabama, [the damage. .qui]3ped in iWas warned authorities it damage to le AlahavuL Issful cruise, lAVhile there tbout equal tonnage and arnianiont, appeared off the liar])our, and challenged Captain Seninies, of the Alabama, to a fight. It was plainly the duty of the Kcarsage to fight the Alahama under any and all circumstances, since, if even liy the loss of his own ship he could damage the other, the delay thus occasioned in her movements w'ould he innnensely to the advantage of American commerce in ])reserving it from one of its destroyers. It was equally foolish on tlie part of Semmes to accept this cliallenge, since it was plainly his policy to avoid a. fight witli any United States war vessel. His mission was not to fight, l)ut to destroy. He accepted the challenge, liowever, and tlie fight took plac(; off the port of Cherbourg, and ended in the easy victory of tlie Kearsaije, which quickly sent the Alahama to the bottom. Turning now to the AVest we find Roseerans in coni- iiKuid of the army of Tennessee, lighting the battle of Afurfreeshoro in 1862, which resulted in a draw. Farther west Grant, destined later to become the central tigure in tlie drama, was besieging Yicksburg, tlie princi- pal point left in the hands of the Confederates on the j\Iississippi River. At first his army invested it from the western or Arkansas side of the river ; then he crossed over below the city and drew his lines upon it from the east and south. Meantime Johnston, with an army, was at Jackson, Mississippi, attempting to effect a junction with Pemberton, wlio was in command in Vicksburg. Grant prevented this movement by a rapid march upon Johnston, attacking and defeating liinl so totally that his army never again became a factor in the struggle ; then he returned to Vicksburg, and after a long siege Ibrced its surrender, with 35,000 prisoners, on the 4th of July 1863. A few days later Port Hudson, the only point upon the river remaining in the hands of the Confederates, Ji I.- ' 326 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL 'il I W- '^-. i M ■'i y ZH. surrendered to General Banks, who had advanced upon it from New (Jrleans. We return now to East Tennessee and the oi)erations of the army under Ifosecrans. Alter the fight at Mur- freesboro, l>ragg, who was in connnand of the Confederate forces, was driven slowly backwards to Chattanooga, and through that town, but in an attack upon his fortified position on IVIission Eidge, Eosecrans was defeated and soon found himself cooped up in Chattanooga, with t\\v. Confederates occupying all the strategic positions about the town, liis sup})ly routes cut ofl", and his position well- nigh desperate. i,.t !;his juncture of affairs he was re- lieved, and Grant was placed in command. The difference in men was quickly felt. Grant immediately opened uj) the supply routes, and after getting his army in condition, attacked the Confederates in their positions on Mission Kidge and Lookout Mountain, and in one of the most dramatic fights of the war he defeated them and drove them southward. Turning now to the field of war in Virginia, Hooker, who was in command of the Union forces, connnenced a forward movement early in May, but met Lee, and was whipped by him at Chancellorsville on the 3rd of tin- month. It was a most unfortunate battle for the Con- federates, for in it " Sl newall " Jackson was killed. After the battle Lee moved north through Northern Virginia, across ^Maryland, and into Pennsylvania. Mean- time Hooker was relieved and Meade placed in charge of the Union army, which moved parallel to the Con- federates on a line somewhat to the eastward. The two armies met at Gettysburg, in Southern Pennsylvania, and after a three days' battle, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd July, the greatest of the war, the Confederates were defeated and driven back to assume their old position in front of ff I iV IIIb'TOKY 327 upon it ii-ations ,t Mui- t'edeiate 3ga, and fortitied ,ted and ,vilU l^it' fjg about ion well- ; was re- lUlTerenCL' pened up condition, 11 [Mission the most and drove Hooker, Lnienced a and was rd of tlu' the Con- as killed. Northern la. Mean- in charge the Con- The t\vi' Ivania, and July, tlie Ifeated and Ricliniond. During the remainder of the year little w, s acconipli.slied by either side. Early in 1804 Grant was placed in command of all the Union armies, and furthermore, assumed personal charge of the army of the Potomac, leaving General W. T. Sherman in command of the army at Chattanooga. Operations were resumed early in the spring by a direct advance upon Kichmond. A series of terrific battles ensued almost immediately upon this forward movement. From 5th to 18th May was almost continuous fighting, the battles being known as those of the Wilderness and Spottsylvania. From 23rd to 27th ]\Iay occurred the l)attles of North Anna. En this succession of battles l)oth sides lost terribly, but probably the Federal side the most severely, as they were the attacking party. By means of these ba'tles, and a succession of flanking move- ments, Grant succeeded in working his way southward to tliP immediate neighbonrhood of liichmond, where at Cold Harbour another general engagement took place, in which Grant was worsted, but held on to his position. Finding the fortifications of Richmond too strong to be forced from the north, he gradually worked his army south- ward along the east face of these fortifications, with Lee following him. In this way the liiie of attack and defence became extended from the north of Richmond down south of Petersburg, a distance of many miles. During this movement, which lasted for months, there was almost constant fighting. Every advantage gained by the Union forces was held. Whatever attempts at diversion his enemy made. Grant's hold upon the throat of his adversary was never loosened. Early was sent to the Shenandoah Valley to induce a withdrawal of troops to check him, and his raid was successful far beyond expectation, for he reached almost within the city limits of Washington in '■ {• If Mi; m \Hl''i'< ' t ■ u i <' i ii i 328 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TltAVEL J! mi^ the course of it. Had it been Jackson the capital would have fallen, but Early had not the nerve of Jackson, and failed to take advantage of the situation. Grant responded to this move of Lee's to the extent of sending Sheridan to the valley to meet Early. He met him at Cedar Creek, and Early's army was never thereafter a factor in tlie struggle. Meantime Sherman, in command of the army at Chattanooga,, moved southward, and after a constant succession of battles and flanking movements, succeeded in driving Johnston, his opponent, into iVtlanta. Theu followed the siege of tliat town, during which Johnston was deposed by the Confederate Government, and Hood, their fighting general, put in his place. Hood distinguished himself in several offensive movements against Sherman's army in each of which he was considerably worsted, and he was finally driven out of Atlanta. Tlien followed the surprise of the war. Hood, upon evacuating Atlanta, had started nortliward through Tennessee for the apparent purpose of raiding the northern states. Sherman detached Thomas with a part of his army to check him. He over- took Hood at Nashville, and after a severe battle destroyed his army. Meantime Sherman, with the balance of liis army, numbering some 60,000 men, destroyed the city of Atlanta so that scarcely one stone remained upon another, destroyed the railroad which had supplied him, and started eastward across Georgia towards Savannah. His move- ment was unexpected, his destination unknown, and the movements of his army wc^re so enveloi)ed in a cloud of cavalry that it was impossible to predict what his objective point might be. Partly on account of this uncertainty he was unopposed in liis march Irom Atlanta to Savannali. He swept through the country, supporting his army upon its products, impressing the livestock and negroes which he L MJ i. u.. jfe^Md HISTORY 329 would icksoii, Grant sending him at jafter a rniy at -onstanl icceedeil . Then Tohnston id Hood, ngviished Sherman's •sted, and Lowed the, lanta, had 1 apparent . detached He over- destroyed icc of his he city of u another, nd started His move- , and the |i cloud of ^ ohjective \certainty Isavannah. jirniy upon 1 which he found. Tliis celehrated inarch commenced on 1 Gth Xoveni- ber and terminated on 12th Decemlier, and on the 20th» he captured the city of Savannah, with a large number of jtrisoners and immense stores of cotton ; thence his army moved northward across South Carolina towards the field of war in Virginia. Wiiile tliese movements wore (•oinu; on Sheridan, after luiving destroyed Early's army, rejoined Grant and formed the left wing of his army, extending it southward and westward, and one after another capturing tlie railroads which Lee was using as means of supply. TIkmi in March 1865 a general advance was made along the whole line. It was successful at every point, Richmond, Petersburg, and all intermediate defences fell into the hands of the Federal forces, the (.'onfederate Government lelt Piich- iiiond secretly, in the utmost haste, and Lee's army retreated to the south-west. The end was not far off, however, for on 9th April his retreat was checked by Sheridan, who stood fairly in his path, and he surren- dered at Appomattox. The terms given by Grant were of the most liberal description ; all oHicers and men were paroled, with their animals and side-arms. Lee's surrender occurred on 9th A])ril. Lt'ss than a week later, on loth April, Lincoln was assassinated in a Washington theatre by John Wilkes ])O0th, a half- crazed enthusiast. This was pro])ably the most luilbrtunate event which could have happened for the South at this juncture, for the policy of reconstruction which Lincoln would have carried out, had he lived, would have [)roduced peace between the sections much sooner, and would have conduced far more to the settlement of all aninu)sities and to the prosperity of the Soutii than that which finally grew out of the struggle between the Executive and Connress. Lincoln was h'lr i li' ■! |t«r, it I', i S If l' ii '^•'.0 OO' COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TIJAVEL succeeded by Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, who represented the minority, the Wiir Democrrit^i, and not the nia.jority, the liepublicans. The points of difference between him and Congress in the matter of recon- struction rapidly developed, and the quarrel became so bitter that finally he was impeached, but upon trial before the Senate was acquitted, the requisite two-thirds not voting against him. I'ending a readmission of the states which had been in reljellion, the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the constitution were adopted, which prohibited slavery, and gave all men the riglit of siifi'rage without regard to race, colour, or previous con- dition of servitude. The states were readmitted in 18()H and 1870. During the war the French Emperor, seeing a favour- able opportunity for establishing power in Mexico, invaded that country and placed Prince ]\Iaximilian upon the throne of the newly constituted monarchy. Immediately upon the close of the war the United States sent troops towards the Ptio Grande, coupling their movement witli a demand for the withdrawal of the French troops from ]\Iexico. The arguments of tiie President, backed as they were by an army of half u million of men and a great navy, proved conclusive to the French Emperor, and he withdrew his pretensions in that direction. The building of the Alahama, Florida, and one or iwo other Confederate privateers in Great Britain letl to claims upon that country for damages done by these vessels, which, after long negotiation, were settled in 1871 liy the treaty of "Washington. In 187o, owing largely to over-production, especially of manuAictured goods, the country was subjected tu financial troul)les, which were severe for several years. The conferring of the ballot u})on the negroes in tla' HISTORY 331 nt, wlio not the ifference [ recon- icame so )0U triiil ,vo-tliirtl^ ,11 of tlie eiith ami adopted e riglit of s-ious cow- el in IBGS 7 a favouv- co, invaded up'ju the mmediately sent troops nent witl> h Lroops from Iked as they bul a great L-or, and he one or two (1 to claims kese vessels, |ubjecte( l-al year South gave them, in most of the states, the political l)ower, which tliey abused shamefully, spending the public funds in the most absurd maimer, and incurring debt on the part of the state upon one pretext or another for vast sums. They were what are known as " cari)et-bag governments," from the fact that tliey were in most cases led by whites who had migrated there from other states. To correct this condition of things the whites resorted to every conceivaltle means, and the Eepublican Congress, on tlie other hand, attempted by the use of the arm}' and by legislation, to prevent them from succeeding. The upshot of the nuitter was, however, lliat by terrorism, by murder and arson, by illegal ballot- l)ox stuffing, in one way or another, the whites finally succeeded in obtaining control of the governments of all these states, and having once obtained control naturally enough they so shaped legislation that they should never again lose control. Most of this part of the history of the South took place during the administrations of Grant, who was elected in 1809 and again in 1873. In 1877 the candidates were, for the Jiepublicans, Hayes, and for the Democrats, Tilden The results of the (Section were so close that a decision by the ordinary inaclnnery was impossible, and an electoral commission of til'teen mend)ers, five from the Senate, five from the House, and five from the United States Supreme Court, was constituted for the purpose of investigating the matter and declaring the result. This conuuission decided in favour of Hayes, although the vote, it must be confessed, was a strictly partisan one in the conuuission. The large production of silver in the western states in recent years has led to its extensive use in coinage. In 1878 an Act was passed by Congress requiring that S2, 000, 000 per month be coined in the form of silver ■' \' " li I'lV'U' ■f j.; if ^ ! 1 ; 1 1. V '• i; i" - j i^ i ' f : I'i 332 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL dollars, and sulisequently tliis was increased to 84,500,000. The depreciation of silver reduced the intrinsic value of these silver dollars from approximately fonr shillings down to little more than two shillings, bnt throughout the United States they pass current as dollars upon tlie fiat of the Government. The administration of Garfield, who was elected in 1881, was cut short by his assassination hy a maniac, and he was succeeded by Chester A. Arthur, who com- pleted the term. This administration was uneventful. Then for the first time since 1857 the Democrats elected their candidate in the person of Grover Cleveland. The principal event of this, his first term, was the practical application, under the law, of civil service reform, which has since been carried out quite fully by succeeding presidents. In 1889 he was succeeded by Bcnjannii Harrison. In 1893 Cleveland was re-elected, and the Government being for the first time in the hands of the Democrats in all branches, extensive tariff revision was done. During the entire re(jime of the liepublicans the tariff had not only been increased until rates were very high, but its character had been made in the highest degree protective, this being the policy of the Eepublicaii party. One of the nrst acts of Cleveland's second administralion was to reduce the tariff greatly, and particularly to diminish its protective character. This reduction in tarilf, together with the uncertainty caused by the issue of vast amounts of paper money and of silver money, which was not intrinsically what it purported to be, — together, it may be, with over-production and over- speculation,— caused, in 189:i. a financial crisis of great magnitude, from which the country has not recovered. In the presidential campaign of 1896, the two great parties divided on the question of the standard of value, ii i\ HISTOKY 333 .—.nee of the «oM .a.,., an. theTHc/o^ pir^ CHAPTER X THE GOVERNMENT '1 II ill General Government The Government of the United States is, in theory at least, a very logical one. It is not only a Kepublic in tlie sense that the people govern theniselv^js, but the princ'ij)l(' of Home liiile is recognised, and is carried out quite frlly. This results in what appears to a stranger to be an amazing complexity of governments, but which in reality is simple in the extreme, and is the perlection of ad- ministration. The Government begins with the smallest political units, in some states the towns or townships and municipalities, in others the counti(!s. In them are lodged all the powers of government which concern only them- selves, and do not affect the ir neighbours. To the county or to the state, as the case may be, which is the in^xt larger government, are delegated all matters which concern two or more of the subdivisions beneath them, and to the United States, as the central governing authority, appertain those prerogatives, and those only, in theory at least, which affect two or more states, besides all relatiniis witli foreign governments. Thus the greatest freedom possible, consistent with the rights of others, is guaranteed not only to individuals, but to the smaller political units. In most matters these smaller political units govern themselves. mii THE GOVERNMENT 335 This is beyond questioi' the ideal form of government, it is not claimed that it is carried out in an ideal wav in the United States, but it is a system wliich is capable of giving the best possible government. It can easily be conceived tliat there are communities formed of ignorant people who are not capal)le of establishing a government themselves which will Ije as wise and just as could be afforded them by some more intelligent ruler imported from abroad, but the effect upon the people themselves in the long run would unquestionably be far more beneficent than if under such an alien government ; they would develop into a more intelligent and self-reliant people. The United States Government is a liepublic both in form and in name, and in this respect it is paralleled by uidy two others, France and Switzerland. The so-called Eepublics of Central and South America liave but the form without the substance : the so-called monarchy of Great lUitain has but the form of a monarchy with all the freedom of a Eepublic. The comparison between Great lUitain and the United States in this respect is instructive. Popularly the United States is supposed to be a lia(hcal Government and that of Great Britain a Conservative one. The reverse, however, is the case. Any wave of popular feeling in Great Britain may change its g(jvernment. A single vote in the House of Commons upsets the executive branch of the Government and substitutes one by the opposite party. Such changes cannot take place in the United States. The executive is elected by the people, and is in no way responsible to Congress. The Congress is elected at stated intervals, in such a manner tliat it takes a number of years to change the political constitution of both Houses. Hence, no passing wave of feeling can affect the Government ; it is secure against such emotions, and only sober second thought can produce an eifect on it. ) ■I' \i ' 336 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGliAI'HY AND TRAVEL The general government is composed of three depart- ments, wliicli are quite clearly distinguished from one another, the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial, althouglt in certain minor ways they interlock. M' The Executive At the head of the Executive Department is the President. He must be, under the constitution, a native of the United States, and must be at least thirty-five years of age at the time of election. With the Yice- President he is elected for a term of four years, and iiiny be re-elected, although custom has decreed that he cannot be re-elected more than once. His election is effected by a piece of machinery designed by the makers of the con- stitution, and which is conscientiously used at each election, although it has become the merest matter of form. At the presidential election the qualified voters vote not for the President and Yice-President directly, but for electors. The electors thus selected meet upon a certain day in their respective states and vote for President and A'icc- President, transmitting the result to Congress, which declares it. It was intended by the fathers that these electors should meet, deliate, discuss and finally select the persons who, in their judgment, were best fitted for these high offices, but in practice each candidate for the position of presidential elector is pledged in advance to support certain candidates, who are those selected by liis party, so that the subsequent meeting of the electors ami casting of their votes is purely a matter of form. The man who is to become the next President is determined n[)on and known as fully as possible when the results of the election for electors has been •telegraphed over the country. THE GOVERNMENT 337 depart - rom one dthough lit is the , a native Lhirty-tive the Vice- , and inin- he caiuiut effected by )f the cou- ,ch election, 111. At the not lor the or electors. tain day in and Vit^'- [ress, which that these |nally select it fitted for ate for the advance to icted by hirt electors ami form, l-'l'^' deterniined L results ot led over the A majority of tlie electors elects the President and Vice-President, not a majority of the jiopular vote, hence the condition has arisen that a majority of the popular vote was for one candidate, while a majority of the electoral vote was for another, and a president was installed who was not the candidate of the majority of the people. Twice in recent years lias the Democratic party, which has overwhelming majorities in the South, i'ailed to elect its candidate although it cast a majority of the popular vote. Since a majority and not a plurality of the electoral vote is reijuired to elect these officers, it is quite possible that there will be no election, the electoral votes being too much scattered for one of the candidates to receive a nuijority. This has happened at least once in the nation's history. In such a case the election goes to the House of he[)resentatives in Congress, which votes not individually, but by states, each state casting an equal vote. The great state of New York, with six million people and thirty-six representatives, has no more voice in this case, in the election of a president, than has the little state of Nevada, with forty-live thousand people and c e re- presentative. The I'resident selects a number of advisers, who are known as his Cabinet. These are designated as the Secretaries of State, Treasury, War, Navy, Interior and Agriculture, the Postmaster-General and the Attorney- General. The Executive Departments The work of the executive branch of the Government is carried on by a number of departments, at the head of each of which is one of the above Cabinet officers. These tlepartments are organised into bureaus, offices, etc., and 'fi' LSI' Vv If-' ill :''i ;(•], .i.;s. U\M if I S38 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL the bureaus into divisions. To the State Department are delegated all matters relating to the relations of the United States with foreign nations ; to the Treasury Department all matters relating to the finances of the nation, including income and expenditure, of matters connected with the currency, etc. To this department are also attached certain bureaus of internal improvement, such as the Lighthouse Board, the Life Saving Service, the Coast Survey, the Bureau of Navigation, and the Eevenue Marine, The Departments of War and Navy are concerned with the national defence. The Interior Department contains a variety of bureaus which have here been collected mainly because they had no other place to go. Here are found the Patent Office, which has an enormous business, due to the inventive genius and industrial activity of the country ; here is the Pension Office, whose business is even larger, owing to the munificent way in which the United States lias undertaken to reward the veterans of the Civil "War; the Indian Office, which carries out the policy of the Govern- ment towards the red man ; the Land Office, wliieli subdivides and disposes of the public lands ; the Bureau of Education, the Geological Survey, and the Census Office. The Department of Agriculture is a small affair, which has been constituted in recent years for the purpose of collecting and furnishing to agriculturists information in aid of that industry. It contains besides the Bureau of Agriculture, as it was formerly called, the Weather Bureau, which attempts to predict the weather. The Department of Justice is presided over by the Attorney -General. Its function is not only to advise the President and the Administration, but to prosecute, m THE GOVEKNMENT 339 lent are of the :reasury i of the matters Dartment oveinent, Service, and the concerned of bureaus , they had 3ont Office, . inventive ^; here is rger, owing States has War; tlie le Govevu- fice, which the Bureau the Census ift'air, which purpose of formation in the Bureau ^^e Weather over by the [y to advise :o prosecute, l)y means of its agents, all cases in United States courts. It is the attorney for the connnonwealth under the Tnited States Government. The Post Oftice Department is simply a business department for transporting and delivering the mails. Besides these departments there are several bureaus and minor organisations which do not belong to any particular department. Among them is the Ihireau or Department of Labour, as it is called, which is concerned with collecting and i)ublishing statistics relating to industry ; the Fish Commission, whose business it is to restock the streams and sea coast with food fishes ; and the Smithsonian Institution, of which more than a passing mention is necessary. This institution was founded by the bequest of Mr. James Sniithson of a large sum of money, the income of which was to be expended by the Ignited States Government in the increase and diffusion of knowledge. The principal of this sum has been kept intact, and the interest annually made over to the institution, together with large appropriations by the United States Government. Of the usefulness of this organisation in leading, aiding, and suj)porting the progress of science in the United States, it is impossible to speak too higldy. At its head as Secretary has always been one of the greatest scientific minds of the country, and its influence and its practical help in the increase and diffusion of knowledge have been very great. In many cases it has supported the feeble, tottering steps of a new movement in scientific research', or of a scientific organisation, and has aided it with its influence, with its means, and with its advice, until it was able to stand alone. Thus it supported the first faltering steps of the science of meteorology, and helped it forward until it acquired a sure footing as the Weather Bureau. So with |l/ I'r I 340 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPIIY AND TRAVEL I ! y Is" ' ft!' I i II 'I •2 i ii it II- rt i 1:^; M m geology, wliicli, thanks largely to its aid, is now repre- sented by tlie United States (Jeological Survey. The study of terrestrial magnetism was similarly encouraged, until it was taiven up by a division of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. And so a long list might be given of the scientific organisations which have been in turn aided liy this institution. It is largely due to the interest of the Smithsonian Institution that the United States has become by far the most liberal patron of scientific work of civilised nations. Many millions are appropriated annually by the Govern- ment for the support of such work and investigation, and to Washington, as the headquarters of the Government, has been attracted a small army of scientific men, many of them in the employ of the Government, while otiiers have been drawn there by mutual attraction. The Civil Service The Civil Service of the United States includes considerably more than 150,000 persons, one-half of whom, perhaps, are employe 1 by the Post Office Depart- ment, including the postmasters, postal clerks, etc. Outside of the postmasters nearly all of this Civil Service is under the protection of a Civil Service Law. The essential feature of this law is that it requires that all accessions to the Civil Service within the classes protected by it shall be made from lists derived from Civil Service examinations, which are practically free of entry to all. The law does not in terms protect the present incumbents of the offices from discharge in the least, but by preventing the appointing power from appointing its particular favourites, it removes the principal reason for discharge, and thus indirectly protects. The enforcement of the Civil Service Law in all THE GOVERNMENT 341 ■ reprti- :)urage(l, d States it might ctve been ithsonian ,y for the i nations. 3 Goveru- ation, aiul (veriimeut, neu, ui^i'iy hile others ■s inclnt^es -ji^e-half of ice Depart- tc. Outside ice is unelev ,e essential iccessioiis to ^y it shall be .aiuinations, |law does not offices from appointing k, it removes LS indirectly ■e I.a\Y ill all aspects is in the hands of a Civil Service Oonnnission, wliicli is a non-partisan comniission appointed by the Tresident. This movement, which was inaugurated upon its present basis some ten years ago, was carried througli Congress in spite of bitter antagonism from both of the great political parties, and though in its earlier years supported by the best men of both parties, it was decried by the spoils-mongers. Latterly, however, the feeling of the latter toward the movement has changed, and we see before us the singular spectacle of the spoils-mongers of the past doing their utmost to carry out and extend this law. The party in power having filled the excepted ])laces by friends of their own, are eager to put those excepted places under the protection of the Civil Service in order to retain their friends in their positions. On the otlier hand, the party out of power watches the operations of the party in power with the utmost jealousy, for fear their friends who still remain in office may be discharged for party reasons. The Congress The legislative branch of the Government consists of two Houses, known as the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives. The Senate is a continuous body, one-third of whose members retire every two years, thus the term of service of a United States Senator is six years. They are elected by the legislatures ^^^ the states, sitting in joint session. Since there are two from each state, without regard to the population of the state, eacli state has an equal voice in this House. The number of Senators is at present (1896) ninety, there being forty-five states in the Union. The Vice-President is the presiding olficer of the Senate. I ; '>, J. 9 *> T^ *J (lOMI'KNDIUM 0¥ (lEOGKArilY AND TliAVEL (in ;^ ffifif' 1 1 ■ .1 *' ft! fl 'riio Ifoiise of llepiVKontutivcs consists at present ol' .^50 niemhcrs. Tlioy ure elected directly by the pe()j)li', each from iiis own district, of which he must be a resident, and tlieir term of ollice is two years. In each state tlie numl)er of representatives is allotted in propor- tion to the ninnber of inhabitants, as determined by the decennial census, so that tlie a[)i)ortionment, as it is called, is chimt:;ed every ten years. At present a re])re- sentative is tdlotted for every 175,000 inhabitants, with an additional representative in case the fraction remaiuinj;' in the state is nu)re than one-half of that nundter. No bill ])ecomes a law unless passed by both J louses of Congress and si^iuid by the I'resident. The President has the veto power upon idl measures, but if passed liy both Houses by a two-tlurds majority o\er his veto, it beconu.'s a, law in s))ite of his o])j)osilion. Tl'.c work of Congress is mainly done by means ol' Comnuttees, and uidess the matter is one of great imi)ortance the Connnittee re])orts are agreed to by the two Hous(>s. In case there are disiigreements between the two Houses concerinng the details of bills, which connnonly happens in the matter of a|)[)ropriation bills, coni'erence Committees from both Houses are constituted to formulate terms of agreement. The Judiciary The .ludicial Department of the United States consists of a Su])reme Court, made up of a (Jhief .Justice and eight associate justices, which sits in "VVasliington duriiiu a part of the year. At other times these justices hold court in other jKirts of the country, each in his own circuit, as it is called, hearing cases in the United States Circuit Courts. Jiesides these there are circuit aiul f THE GOVEHNMKNT 343 csent of > peopli', st be a In eiu'li 1 pri>|>y [lis veto, il 7 means of e of ^veal to by til'' Ls bi'tvvt'cii )ills, Nvbicli ialion I'iH^. constituleil ales consists -lustice mul iglon duriii:-i "wsliees lioUi in his «'^^'" fnitcd Sliiti's circuit iiiiil district judges, who liold minor United States courts. The cases which coiiu; under tlie Jurisdiction of the United States are oflences a;j;aiiist United States laws as distinguished from state hiws. Among these may be mentioned the making oi' untaxed " nioonsliinc " whisky, eases of attempted smugghng, etc. In certain regions the United States ciairts hohl exchisive jurisdicilion, as over tlie territories, Indian Reservations, and the J)istrict of Cohnnbia. Here tlie United States courts are the only courts, and have jurisdiction over all cases. The -ludgc^s of the Supreme, Circuit, and J)istrict Courts are u})pointed by the President. Governments of the States and Territories The (Jovernments of the states are ]>alterned very closely after that of the gi'ueral ( Jovernment. Kach hns a governor, who is thi^ chief executivi; otlicer, and legis- latures, ('om])ose(l of two Tfouses, and a Judiciary, whose duty it is to enforce all state laws. Th(^ government of the territories is divided Ixitween the ik'ojiIc of the terri- tory and the United Statics (iovcrnnu'ut. The ]>eople elect a Legishiture, which frames laws, while the governor and the other executive ollicers are ap})ointi'd by the President, as are also the .ludiciary. TJKi .Judiciary is in some states ap])ointed by the governor, to serve for life ; in other states, and far the majority of them, tiiese ollicers ari^ eh'ctive, and serve for short; terms only. The District of Cohnnbia is an anomaly. It is the capital of tlu^ greatest liepublic on the gh)be, and yet in tlu" form of its government it is an absolute monarcliy. Its ])('ople have no share whatever, except the rigiit of petition, in its government. Us executive, whicli is com- hS ^? 344 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL posed of three commissioners, is appointed by the Presi- dent. The Congress of the United States is its Legis- lature, and its Judiciary is appointed by tlie President. Thus in no way or shape do the people have any voice in the government. To this it nmst be added, in all fair- ness, that it is by far the most efficiently and economically managed municipal Government which is to be seen in a city of its size in the country. Subdivisions of the States The states are divided into counties, which in Loui- siana are known as parishes; and these counties are further subdivided in Xew England into towns and cities : in the other northern states into townships, while in the southern and western states the subdivisions of counties are known by a great variety of names. In Delaware we find the old English hundred preserved in the name of the county subdivisions ; in Maryland and Florida they are called election districts ; in the Virginias and Ken- tucky thev are designated magisterial districts ; in the Carolinas, townships, although they bear little resemblance to the townships of the northern states ; in Georgia they are known as militia districts ; in Alabama and Mississijipi as beats, and in Louisiana as wards. Generally in the west the counties are divided into election districts. Tlu; powers allotted to the county and to the sul)division of the county differ widely in different states. In the Xew England States practically all the powers appertain to the town, the county being used simply for recording transfers of real estate and for the holding of state circuit courts, the registration of wills and the settlement of estates. In the other northern states the powers are pretty evenly distributed between the county and the township, THE GOVERNMENT 345 i Presi- 5 Legis- esident. voice in all fair- niiiically een in a ill Lniii- iilies are nd cities ; ile in ilie f counties nltliono;h they differ in details in different states. In the south and west the powers are nearly all assumed by the county, the subdivisions of the county having few duties and functions. Municipalities are chartered in all states, and are of different decrees of power, rangin^r from the citv of the first class down to the chartered villacje. The names of these different forms of corporations differ in different states. In all states cities are chartered. In some of them they are created as cities of the first, second, third or fourth classes : in others boroughs are chartered, in others villages and hamlets ; in many of them a class known as towns receive incorporation, and so on. Political Parties Suffran;e is almost universal. All males above the acje of twenty-one who are not criminals, insane or paupers, have the right to vote without regard to race or " previous condition of servitude." A few exc('])tions must be made to tliis. In two or three of the states educational quali- fications are re(pured by which a voter to be qualified laust be .able to read and write, and in Rhode Island there is a small property qualification. In three states, Colorado, Utah, and AVvominu;, women have the full suffrage, and, in several others, they are allowed to vote upon certain matters. The voters of the United States are in the main divided into two great parties, the Deraocratic and the llepublican. There are other ])etty j^olitical groups, as the Populists, as they are called, and the Prohibitionists. Tlie Populist party is composed mainly of the farming clement, and has no well-defined political creed except that of general discontent witli i»iesent industrial coniiitions, Ik ^-^r"^^ ' 34G COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL 1 I 'I" • i U! i i ij and a vague desire to impi -\<' tliem in his own interest. The Prohibitiouisus luive the well-detined issue of obtain- ing legisl lion hostiV to the liquor traffic. Neither of these parties, howtv.ji, cuts mucli figure in the national elections. The, two great political parties, the Demo- cratic and Eepublican, have no well-defined political differences ; indeed, the two groups of men occupy very anomalous positions, liolding together, as they have done for many years, pra ally without any political purpose to subserve beyond the acquisition of the power and the offices. At the end of the Civil War the Repulilican party was the loyal party, and the Democratic party was, as a vvliole, the party of disloyalty, althougli it must be ad- mitted that there was a large element of war Democrats, as they were called, who supported the preservation uf the Union as heartily and thoroughly as any Itcpubli- cans. After the war the issues between the parties were well defined on tlie ground of reconstruction, but when that work was concluded there remained little or no dilference between them. In more recent times the Ikcpublican party has, as a whole, maintained the policy of protection to the country's industries ])y means of duties upon imports, while the Democratic party has opposed this policy, and has rather leaned toward free trade. Party organisation is probaljly more complete and thorough in the United States than in any other country. Wherever either l)arty is numerically strong it is thoroughly organised. There are in each party generals, colonels, captains, and lieutenants, officers of all grades, and of all degrees, whose orders are obeyed' as implicitly by their followers as those of an army officer ujtnn a field of battle. !? THE GOVERNMENT 347 interest. ,f obtain - either of national le Demo- politiciil enpy very have done al purpose er and the lican party J was, as a ust be ad- Deuiocrats, iervation ft" ly llepubh- parties were 11, but when Uttle or no times the the pohcy Ly means ot party has toward free jniplete awl ther country, brong it ^^ irty generals, f all grades, las impliedly licer upon a Budget The income of the general Government is derived in part from customs duties and in part from internal revenue, i.e. taxes on spirits and toljacco, the two sources commonly yielding pretty nearly equal amounts. Besides these the only source of income which is of any magni- tude is that earned by the postal service, which is, of course, off-set, and more than off-set, by its expenses. \\i the year ending with June 1897, at which time the liscal year ends, the income of the general Government was as follows in millions of dollars. Customs duties Internal reveiuie Postal service Miscellaneous Total 177 147 83 24 431 The expenditures of the general Government for the same year amounted to 460 million dollars. Of this the largest single item is the expenditure for pensions, amounting to 141 million dollars, granted to the sur- vivors of the late Civil War and their relatives. The expenditure for the army and navy is trifling as compared with the expenditures incurred by European nations, but is large when compared witli the size of the military and naval establishments. The regular army nundx-rs l)Ut 25,000 men. National Debt The public debt of the United States presents an in- teresting history. At the close of the Revolutionary War it was absolutely a trilling amount, although it looked enormous to the feeble, poverty-stricken colonies. From I I!:; l! I m "i ■!'■■ i iJiiSslMl 348 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AXD TEAVEL that time to the Civil War, which opened in 1861, it was never large, never exceeding 127 million dollars, while in 1835-36 the country was practically out of debt, a con- dition rarely enjoyed by a civilised nation. At the opening of the Civil War in 1861 the debt was 90 million dollars, and the credit of the country was at a low ebl). During the war the debt was increased by tremendous strides, until at its close it reached the enormous total of 2773 million dollars, and yet so wisely had the finances of the country been managed during this trying period that its credit was probably quite as good nt this time as four or five years earlier, when the del)t was only one-thirtieth of this amount. The war had scarcely closed before the nation com- menced to pay off the ])rincipal of her del)t, and this work has been going on almost continuously since tlmt time at the average rate of nearly $60,000,000 annually. On 1st November 1807 the national debt of the United States was $977,000,000. As the principal of tlie debt was reduced the credit of the country correspondingly rose, and as the various issues of bonds matured they were replaced by bonds bearing lower rate of interest, so that the burden of interest has been reduced in still greater proportion than the principal of the debt has been reduced. In 18G6 the annual interest was not less than $143,000,000, while in 1897 it was less than $35,000,000. Further- more, the burden of the debt and the interest has diminished in still greater proportion, since the country has increased rapidly in wealth and population. in 1866 the debt was not less than $80 per capita of the population, and the interest $4. In 1895 the debt was reduced to $13 per capita, and the interest was but 42 cents. T\ THE GOVERNMENT 349 l,it was while in t, a con- At the million , low ebb. emendnns Qous total liad the tiis trying )d at this b was only ation com- D, and this since that annnally. the United the credit le various by bonds burden of wrtion than In IHOG 3,000,000, Kurther- nterest has the country lation. Ill apita of tlu' he debt was jst was but The income of states, counties, and municipalities is derived mainly from direct tax upon property, and those taxes are levied principally upon real estate and im- provements thereon. Attempts are made in all the states to collect taxes upon personal property, but this is measurably a failure, since such property is returned to the assessors only in small amount, and the most of it, therefore, cannot be discovered. State Debts The debts of states difier greatly in amount. The ^•uui total of them in 1800 was 8229,000,000, and they had been materially reduced in the ten years immediately [•receding, especially in the older eastern states. At the close of the Civil War many of the southern states, while in the hands of "carpet bag" governments, ran reck- lessly in'uo debt. Subsequently, when the whites of these states regained political control, nuiny of these debts were reputliated on the ground that they were illegally created, or on no ground at all, and the innocent holders of the bonds sullered great loss thereby. In other of the scnithern states the burden has been as- sumed, and eilbrts are being made to pay oti' the load of (.lebt. Money The amount of money in the Unitetl States Treasury and in circulation in he countiy amounts commonly to about $35 per capita of the population. Of this about one-fourth is gold, with a m^arly e([ual propoi n of silver, the balance being paper money of one sort or another, either that issued by the Government or national bank notes, which are guaranteed by the Government. :1 M n ■ I 1 c>r; 50 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL The distribution of money is a matter of no little interest. In the north-eastern states paper money prevails ; silver dollars are not common. In the south, on the other I almost all the money in circulation consists of dollars, while in the far west, and especially upon ; Pacific coast, paper money is almost unknown, liver is scarce, while gold is almost the only money in circulation. National Banks In the United States the only banks issuing notes are what are known as national banks. These are chartered directly by the Government, are constantly under close supervision of the Treasury Department, and their circu- lation is guaranteed by the general Government. The Government protects itself in this wise : the bank is required to deposit with the Treasury Department in United States bonds an amount 10 per cent in excess of its circulation, which is in the nature of a redemption fund. The national banking svstem was estal)lishc(l .shortly after the close of the Civil War. The baidvinu business and bank note circulation was in the hands of banks chartered by the states. There were constiint losses through failures of banks. The circulation of their notes was limited to the neighbourhood of the bank, so that an individual in travelling from one part of the country to another was obliged to exchange the notes iu his possession for those of banks in the neighbourhood which he intended to visit, nnich as one is now oldigvd to change money in travelling to a distant foreign land, and there was constant uncertainty and danger in Iiand- ling these notes on account of the frecpient failure of banks. The present banking system does away witii all these difficulties and embarrassments. Since the laiited ir THE GOVERNMENT 351 interest. 3 ; silver tie other iisists of illy upon mknowii, monev iii notes are chartered luler close lieir circu- ent. The e bank is irtnient in n excess oi edeniptioi) estaV)lish('(l le bankiii;i hands of constant on of their bank, so ,art of the le notes in vhbourhoud ow oblii^ed reign land, iY in hand- failure of ly Nvith all the United States gnarantees the redemption of all national bank notes, there is no question of the solvency of any bank, and consequently notes issued by a l)ank in Maine pass current as freely in Louisiana or California as those of Xew Orleans or of San Francisco banks. Army The United States is not a militant l)ut an industrial nation, and has ever pursued a policy of maintaining but a trifling armed force, sufficient only for preventing Indian troubles and quelling riots upon occasion. The regular army consists at present (1896) of 2109 commissioned officers and 25,000 non-commissioned officers and privates. Tlie proportion of officers to men is very great, in order to provide for a sudden expansion (jf the force in case of necessity. This force is distributed as follows among various arms Divisions. General .staff Ordnance corps Enrrineer corps . 10 regiments of cavalry 5 regiments of .irtillery 25 regiments of infantry Indian scouts, etc. Coniniissiouod Olllcers. 400 113 432 239 877 Xoii-oiuninissioupd Olliccrs ami Privates. 450 500 (i,050 3,675 12,125 2,200 The regular army is, of course, under the exclusive control of the general Government, and can be used by it only in the territories or in the District of Columbia, unless a request should be made by the governor of a state for its services, or unless certain of the functions of the general Government be imperilled within states by sedition or other cause. The latter case arose in con- f !#! I o o ^ COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAl'IIY AND TKAVEL iiection with the riots in Chicago in July 1895, when tlie movement of mails 'as prevented by an extensive strike upon railway lines. In this case the regular army was brought into requisition to ensure the prompt and regular movement of the mails, and that in spite of the protest of the governor of Illinois. Many, if not most, of the states maintain a force of militia which are armed and equipped at the expense of the state, and while pursuing in ordinary times their regular avocations, are liable to be called upon for service by the governor. These number altogether 9000 com- missioned officers and a trifle over 100,000 non-commis- sioned oHicers and privates. Of this force 5000 are cavalry, 4800 light artillery, and 97,000 infantry. m' i Navy For a non- maritime nation the navy of the United States has had a brilliant history. Its conflicts, man for man and ship for ship, have commonly been to tln' advantage of the Americans from the time of the lievolu- tion down to the Civil War. The American navy has never, excepting in time of war, been of maguitude or of importance. It has seldoiu been a first-class Power upon the sea, although for u short time, during and after the close of the Civil War, it probably had the most powerful navy of all nations. At the close of the Civil War the navy, like the army, was rapidly reduced, and for a long time it was neglected, so that for many years the nation was one of the weakest upon the sea of all the Powers. In recent years, how- ever, attention has been drawn to the necessity of in- creasing the naval strength, and many first-class ships have been constructed, ships which hold their own among THE GOVKIiNMENT o r '> oDo )5, when extensive tlar army nnpt aiul .te of tlie I force of expense of ,mes their for service 000 coiu- m-coiuiui^- 5000 are utry. the United ets, man for )eeii to thf the Kevi.hi- tlie best in the navies of the world. In 1.807 there were in commission, or nearly completed, six armoured liiittle-ships, two urmoured cruisers, a ram, six double turreted monitors, thirteen single turreted monitors, thirteen protected cruisers, three cruisers, nine gunboats, besides a numl)er of special and smaller craft and old wooden vessels. The naval force consisted hi 1897 of 720 officers, 8250 enlisted men, and 2177 officers and men of the Corps of ^Marines. Pensions It is an old saying that llepublics are ungrateful, l)ut the recent history of this liepublic disproves this. To the soldiers of the late Civil War and their de- pendants she has certainly given evidence of her grati- tude, for in their support she has distributed among them, on one plea or another, the vast sum of nearly S2, 000, 000, 000, double the amount necessary to pay oft' the balance of the national debt. At i)resent, thirty years after the close of the Civil War, the number of pensioners on the rolls is nearly a million, three- ([iiarters of whom are ex- soldiers and one -quarter their widows and children, to whom is paid annually 8140,000,000. The growth of the pension list has been one of the crying evils of the Government. Since the close of the Civil War these claims have been incroased, upon one plea after another, until they have become an enormous burden, a burden of such magnitude as to threaten the credit of the United States Treasurv. These several increases in the pensions have not been brought about primarily by the ex-soldiers who are the recipients of the bounty of the Government, but rather by pension agents, 2a . I ■- I? 354 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL whose business it is to prosecute pension claims before the Government, and wlio receive for their services ii certain percentage of the amount secured. The various increases which have been initiated by them have been entertained and puslied forward by the Repubhcan party, which has not dared, because of its fear of the soldier vote, as it is called, to discountenance them. For the same reason the Democratic party has feared to place itself on record as opposed to such claims, and the result has been a constant increase in the pension list. Whether this will finally result in the utter depletion of tlie treasury is an open question, for it is not to be supposed for a moment that the insatiate maw of the claim-agents will ever be satisfied. ill II .V > m lis before orvices a, e various lave been can party, he soUlit'V I'or the d to place the result Whether ■ion of the je supposed daim-agenls CHAPTER XI AGRICULTURE Importance of the Industry Among the nations of the workl tlie United States is commonly regarded as pre-eminently an agricultural nation rather than a manufacturing or a commercial nation. While it is easily the first of agricultural nations in tlie quantity, variety, and value of its products, it is not wholly true that it is mainly an agricultPiral nation at present ; for in recent years the value of its manufactured products has become greater than that of its agricultural i)r()ducts, thus placing the manufacturing industries in advance of a,n'ricultural industries. It is true that the value of its agricultural plant — that is, the value of ftxrms and their ajipurtenances — is as yet greater than that of manufactures. It is also true that the number of persons employed and supported by it is greater than those concerned with manufactures. In those two respects agriculture remains the leading industry of the country I'f we may look forward a short distance into the future, however, we may safely predict that within a few years — possibly a decade — manufactures, even in these respects, will surpass agriculture. In the year 1890 there were engaged in agricultural pursuits about 9^ million people out of 22|- millions, e r^ f o 5 G COMPENDIUM OF CEOGRAPIIY AND TIJA', EL the total number who were engaged in gainful occupa- tions. This was nearly .'>7 per cent of the entire nunii.er, and it is probal)le that about an equal proportion of tlu' entire population were supported by this industry. This statement measures the degree of importance of agriculture to the people of the country. Tlie proportion of persons engaged in tliis industry and the proportion sup])()rted by it have constantly diminislied since the earliest statistics concerning it were obtained, as the relative importance of manufactures and connnerce has increased. In 1880, ten years earlier, the proportion of the wag(> earners who were engaged in agricultural pursuits was 44 per cent, sliowing a remarkable diminution during the decade. In 1870 it was 47 per cent. { 1, I H Number of Farms The numlier of farms in the United States in 1890 was 4,.") (54,041. This shows an increase of slightly more than half a million since 1880, when it was 4,008,907. The number of farms increased much more rapidly between 1870 and 1880, for in the former year the nund)er was but 2,6") 9,9 8 5. In 18G0 the number of farms was 2,044,077, and in 1850 it was 1,449,073. In forty vears the number of farms had trebled, and in the saiiic forty years the population had increased from 2."> to nearly 03 millions. The number of farms had increased, therefore, at a more rapid rate than the population, ami this in spite of i,he fact that a. constantly inereasiiiii proportion of the population has other avocations tliaii farming. Area and Size of Farms The area included in farms in 1890 was 023.218,010 acres, or nearly a million scpiare miles, nearly one-tliirtl j:l ACRICULTUKE 357 1 occupa- 3 iuuui»er, DU of tlu' :ry. This mncultuvt' of persons supp'>i"^^*^ le oiiiliesl [\Q relative s increased. ,f the \va;4e ursuits was tiou during tes in 1800 slightly luoiv s 4,008,907. >idly hetweeii iiuniher Nvas f liiiius was ;. lii forty ill the sauu' from 2:'. to ad inereasi'tl, ipulatiou, aiul y inereasiuu )catious tluiu of the area of the country, exehulin»' Alaska. This urea is a little more than douhle that of 1850, wliich sut>;nests that the average size of farms has dimiii'shed during this jieriod. In 1850 the average size of farms was 203 acres. This dimini.shed steadily until 1880, wlien it reached a minimum of 134 acres, and in the succeeding decade it increased slightly, being returned by the census of 1800 as 137 acres. The size of farms follows closely the density of popula- lion. In the tliickly settled north-eastern states farms are very small, and are devoted mainly to supplying local markets, specially with vegetables and fruits. In the south and in the Mississippi Valley they are of average size, while in the sparsely -settled west they are very large, especially in the California Valley, on the Great Plains, and in the lied Iviver Valley, where irrigation is unnecessary. Irrigated farms, which fire scattered over the Eocky Mountaiu region, are commonly small and highly cultivated. Statements concerning the average size of farms give no information concerning their classification as regards size. This is furnished in the following little table, which gives the proportion of the total number of farms whieli are of certain areas. Per cent. • •••••• ^«7 • •••••• ^'t •• . 41 2 1 Under 50 i icres no- 100 !) 100-r.oo II r.oo-1000 J> Over 1000 II 100 ,23.218,010 [vly oue-lhii'l The above table shows that 44 per c^mt of all farms have an area between 100 and 500 acres. This large l^ioportion is doubtless mainly made up of farms of 100 ;^ \l' i : ,., * u : j ^ w 1 ll ' 1 1 1^ ;: i i '1 1 I r ' ' '■ n k i'l ^;l 1 1 1 i ■ I t\ 1! in ff III « kl M •■»:■ 358 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL or 320 acres, thus comprising each a quarter or a halt' section of land, which are the amounts which the Government permits a settler to acquire by homestead or pre-emption. Ownership of Farms In the United States the farm is, in the main. owned by the occupant. A comparatively small pro- portion of the farms is rented. In 1890 72 per cent of all farms, or nearly -|-, were owned by the occupants, while of the remaining 28 per cent about -J- were renttid for a hxed money rental, and -j for a share in the products. In the northern and western states the renting of farms is comparatively rare but is far more prevalent in the southern states, wnere maaed the practice of renting for a share in the profits is very common. As to whether the practice of renting farms is increas- ing, it is difficult to speak with any certainty. In 1880 the proportion of the farms which was owned by the occupants was 74 per cent, being slightly greater than in 1890. The difference, however, was not sufticient to warrant any conclusion in the matter. Cultivated Land Of the land included in farms only a portion is im- proved or cultivated. In 1850 but little over | of the land thus included was cultivated land. The proportion, however, has increased, and in 1890 it was returned as ^, or in acres 357,016,755 (about 559,000 square milesV This is nearly 1 8 per cent of the area of the country, ex- cluding Alaska, and this proportion is more than three times as great as in 1850. The proportion of cultivated land to the total urea a,gi:toulture 359 fiiirr ' lost of the .y in 1800 »urposes is ishiug. it ned ahiiost y, however, ;outli, wliere )NVU. xy in 1800 the country, tlian in tlie lie census as ;3;J niilii""*^. lation. Kor In the eastern ^)art of tlieni, Irtliern stauvs Ions of thi'ni lintain rej^ion, liruished iVoui Xeoraska, has a rainfall insuHicient in amount for the needs of agriculturt'. Over most of tliis vast region, com^irisiiig two-tifths of the area of the conntry, excludin;^ Alaska, it is })ossible to carry on agricultural operations MULE DKKK OR IILACKTAIL. Ii meridian of Kansas iiud only by the aid of irrigation. Since the amount of water is limited, tho extent of land which can thns be rendered profiiable is comparatively small. I^y far the greater })art I'f lids country, even after exclnding the rugged mountains, is now, and for ever will be, usefnl only for grazing punKtscs. Most of it has already been put to such uses. m :; I . • ff ■ I ), : 'i ^1: ill (M IJ 372 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Outside of tlie small areas which have been irrigated and cultivated, on the one hand, and which are too mountainous or desert for any useful purposes, on the other, the country is occupied by cattle and sheep. It is a pastoral country. WAl'ITl oil Kl.lv. Whili". formerly the great plains and the mountain valleys were occupied by bulTalo, deer, and elk, tliey are now covered with herds of cattle and sheep. The pnstnniLV is scanty in this arid region, and grasses, although very nutritious, do not grow in a dense, close sod as in wcll- watered regions, but in bunches scattered over the i>luin AGRICULTURE 73 liaiu va IbougU NH'vy at intervals of two or three feet ; hence the name bunch grass, applied to the grasses of the west, whatever their species. The western cattle ranch is an interesting place. It consists of the home ranch, where there is a house occupied by the proprietor and his employees and a group of corrals. The latter are simply enclosures covering from one to half a dozen acres, surrounded by a high fence. The home ranch is, of course, located where water is to be had, either from a stream or a spring. The cattle range over tlie surrounding country, mixed with cattle from other ranches, from which they are to be distinguished by the hrand of the owner. Indeed, the range may extend 100 miles from tlie home ranch, and cattle be mixed up with those of hundreds of other ranches. The ordinary routine of life at a ranch is uneventful in the extreme; indeed, there is commonly as little occupa- tion as at a military post in time of peace. The event of the year is the spring round-up. The calves are Itorn in the spring, and by May or June they are able to go about, but are still with their mothers. It is partly for the purpose of securing and branding the spring calves, and partly to select cattle for the market, that this annual round-up takes place. This operation is now carried on on a tremendous scale. Puinchnien living within a terri- tory of thousands of square miles meet and organise, 11) (pointing one of tlieir number to the direction of aflairs, aud apportion the territory to be searched to different ranchmen, wlio arrange for driving tlie cattle from different jiarts of the territory to corrals at convenient points. Each ranchman employs a number of cowboys, proportional to the number of his cattle, and sends them out with parties wherever he expects to find cattle of liis brand. A systematic search of the whole territory is then begun. mv . 1 1,1: H |[:|' f 1 H ^ '■': ' ' ' m. -,''}■ i ■ 1 ■ , i'. ■ m Iw^ r j;-^^ S ■ 374 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL The men, each with plenty of horses at his disposal, ride singly over the country within sight of his neighbours, and thus scratch it, as it were, with a fine-tooth comb for cattle. Everything on four feet is gathered up and driven into corrals, where it is sorted over, and cattle bearing different brands are separated from one another, and the calves are branded as their mothers. Then, after eacli owner has selected the beef cattle which he desires foi- sale, the rest are turned loose for another year's freedom. Thioughout most of this region cattle subsist the year round upon the native grasses without protection. Occasionally, however, there occur heavy storms which destroy large numbers of them, but in the southern part of this region such storms are not of so great frequency as to warrant making provision for feeding and sheltering them during the severe weather. In the northern part of the region, however, frequent and severe storms have taught cattlemen the necessity of making provisions uf hay and shelter. Of the great ranch states Texas is far in the leatl in the number of cattle. Of the total number of cattle in the country Texas is credited with five millions, or between one-sixth and one-seventh of all, and most of these aie held upon ranches. In the number of cattle it exceeds all the states and territories of the west togetlicr. The western half of the state is one huge cattle ranch. It is at present, and can be in the future, used for little else. From this state there is a constant migration of cattle northward. The ranches of Colorado, "Wyoming, Western Kansas, and Nebraska, are largely supplied with Texas cows, which, being crossed with eastern blooded stock, produce the best combination for ranch life and for beef, possessing the hardiness of the Texas breed, together with the fattening qualities of eastern stock. Moreover, many AGRICULTURE 375 osal, ride dghbours, comb for nd driven e V)earin!i; ', and the after each desires for s freedom. b the year protection, rms which ithern part b frequency i sheltering )rthern part storms have rovisions tjf the lead in of cattle in millions, or ,nd most of of cattle it est together. iattle ranch. or little else. ,on of cattle .ng, Western with Texas loded stock, md for heef, fOgether willi reover, many scores of thousands of head are hronrdit from Texas into the northern states, and ranched there for the summer to take on flesh before sending them to the market. The business of slaughtering and meat-packing is carried on in a wholesale way. At Chicago, Omaha, and Kansas City are the great slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, which practically control the meat market of the country. Their supply of beef comes mainly from the ranches, whence it is brought by rail. The operations of the establishment are conducted with the greatest possible economy of labour and with the utmost rapidity. Indeed, the packing houses of Chicago are among the leading sights of that city. They have scarcely reached the perfection of the famous sausage maclune, into one end of which a black-and-tan dog is fed, wliile from the other is drawn a series of finished products, from a link of sausages to a pair of dogskin gloves, but they approxi- mate this ideal. Hogs are found everywhere in abundance. Indeed, the number of liogs is nearly equal to tlie number of the popula- tion. They are distributed widely over the country, lait are perhaps most abundant in the northern states of the Mississippi Valley. They are of all sorts and conditions, from the full bred " Berksliires " found in Xew England to tlie half wild " Eazorbacks " in the south. Sheep are equally widely distributed, and the clistri- l)ution is, in some respects, a little peculiar. The industry of sheep and wool raising is not extensive in the southern states, nor is it generally distributed over the north. It is an industry of great importance in Ohio, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and New York, and in these states fine breeds are cultivated, great attention being paid to the (inulity of the wool. On the otlier hand, in most of tlie western states and territories sheep-raising on ranches w 'i ■ ?i L ' I ;s!i ft Rail"* ^ i 376 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL is a large industry, and liere mutton rather than wool is the product to which most attention is paid. In this category Texas, California, Montana, and Oregon are prominent. On sheep ranches the sheep are not allowed to roam for months, as in case of cattle, without a keeper, but are herded in bunches of a few hundreds to a thousand, and shelter and food are commonly provided for them in the winter season, except in the far south, as in Texas and New Mexico. There is an unceasing warfare going on in the west between the cattlemen and the sheepmen, in which the cattlemen are the aggressors. The country was originally occupied by them, and when sheep were brought in they crowded the cattle. The cattlemen naturally felt that they owned the country, and that the sheepmen were interlopers, and they claimed that the ranging of sheep over the country destroyed the pasturage. For these and other reasons, some of them perhaps sound ones, there has been constant hostility between the two groups of ranchmen. Dairy Products The amount of milk reported as having been yielded by all the milch cows of the country during the year 1890 was 5209 million gallons. Let us see what tliese figures mean. In the first place, they mean 83 gallons for every man, woman, and child in the country, or half a pint of milk a day for eacli individual. This is sufli- cient to make a lake a mile in length and width, and nearly 30 feet in depth. It is equivalent to a streani flowing throughout the year at the rate of 25 cubic I'eut per second. Of butter there was made on farms over a billion pounds, besides the product of foctories, which was large, AGRICULTURE O K h- wool is In this Ton are allowiMl I keeper, housaiid, theiii in 'exas and the west v'hich the originally it in they felt that men were r of sheep these and Dnes, there groups of »en yielded t the year Ivhat these 3 gallons Iry, or halt lis is snlVi- Iwidth, and lo a stream cubic i'eet IX a billion was large, and is constantly increasing at the expense of the farm product. Of cheese the amount produced on farms in 1850, at wliicli time it Avas all manufactured there, was 105 million pounds, but the amount has been steadily and rapidly diminisliing as the manufacture of cheese has been transferred, in a greater proportion, to factories ; so that in 1890 nearly all of it came from factories, the amount still produced on farms being but one-sixth of that pro- dnced in 1850. Poultry and Eggs The number of chickens reported as being consumed in the year 1890 was 259 millions, or al)out four for each inhabitant. Of this large number of chickens about one-half came from the Upjjer Mississippi Valley and the region bordering the Great Lakes, the remainder being distributed somewhat uniformly over the rest of the cduntrv. The egg crop aggregated 818 million dozen, or about 10 billions, which allowed about 150 per annum to each man, woman, and child, or about half an egg a day. The product of tiax and hemp raised in the country is small and of little importance. Alost of the supply needed in manufactures is imported from abroad. Hay This, one of the most valuable of all tlie agricultural products, is raised all over the country, but like so many otlier products it is obtained mainly in the northern states. In the south, pasturage is to be obtained all the year round, but throughout the north live stock are de]it'ndent upon man for food and shelter, and tlie iificessity for food causes the laying in of large (Quantities 378 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL of hay for winter use. In all these northern states the species which are most commonly cultivated for forap;e purposes are : timothy (herds grass), red top, blue grass, and red clover. Of these commonly two crops are cut during the season. In the arid region the leading forage crop is alfalfa. This is not indigenous, but has recently been introduced, and its cultivation has increased with great rapidity. It requires less water than the other forage crops, as its roots penetrate very deeply. It pro- duces heavy crops, several tons to the acre, and is cut from two to five times in the course of the year. A field of alfalfa, when in bloom, with its deep brilliant green foliage contrasting with the pink of the blossoms, is one of the most beautiful sights which the farms present. If fff* Potatoes More than a barrel of potatoes was produced to each inhabitant in the year 1890, and as the exports of this vegetable are trilling, this amount was consumed by the people of the country. I'otatoes are raised very generally over the country, but are produced mainly in the northern states, where the climate is better fitted to them than in the southern states. Out of the total production, in 1890, of 218 million bushels, the northern states produced 189 million . bushels. Indeed, far more than one-half of the entire product of the country comes from the states of the Upper Mississippi Valley and the Great Lakes. Sweet Potatoes There is no reason why this should be called a potato, further than the fact that it has an esculent root, being AGRICULTURE 379 no more related to the potato proper than is the turnip or beet. It is peculiarly an American plant, being scarcely heard of in Europe, and is produced almost entirely in the southern states. Indeed, out of a total product of 4?> million bushels, the southern states produced nearly •40 million bushels. Sugar and Molasses They are obtained from four different sources, namely, from the sugar and sorghum canes, sugar beets, and from the sap of the sugar maple. The sugar cane is produced only in the far southern states, and mainly in the southern portion of Louisiana, where more than half of tlie country's product is raised. Smaller quantities are produced in Alabama, Georgia, Florida, South Carolina, and Texas. The cultivation of the sorghum cane is widely dis- tributed over the country, but is mainly carried on in the Mississippi Valley, both in its northern and southern parts. The production of beet sugar, which is not an item of importance, is mainly carried on in the northern states of the Mississippi Valley. The production of sugar from the sap of the sugar maple, which is not an industry of importance, is carried on mainly in the northern states, practically none being obtained from the south. Bice Kice is not a crop of importance ; indeed, it has never regained the importance which it had before the Civil War. It is produced only in the southern states, 380 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL and among them, mainly in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Louisiana, where the necessary conditions of a warm, moist climate and facilities for flooding the fields exist. is I \l\v Mil' Fruits The greatest possible variety of fruits are produced. In the north apples, pears, and plums. Farther south, to these are added peaches, and in the far southern states, oranges, lemons, pine-apples, and bananas, while every- where, from north to south, grapes are raised in the greatest profusion. Most of the fruit raised siin])ly supplies the local markets, and is consumed directly. For many years, however, the eastern part of the country has been supplied with lemons, oranges, and pine-apples froiu Florida, but frosts have, in a great measure, destroyed the orange and lemon orchards, so that the Italian pro- duct is again seen in the markets. The cultivation of oranges in Southern California has also received a great impetus by the misfortune which has befallen the Florida fruit growers, and California oranges and lemons are now transported in great quan- tities as far as the Atlantic coast, and as they are kv superior to the Florida product they will doubtless rotaiu a portion of the market even after the Florida groves have recovered themselves. While grapes are produced in almost all parts of the country, the principal export regions are Xew York and Ohio in the east, and California on the other. The latter region is especially known for its wine and raisin gra})es. The California wines and raisins are now competini: successfully with those of Europe. Indeed, it is said that vast quantities of California wines are sold under foreign trade-marks. AGRICULTUEE 381 Irrigation As has been stated in otlier parts of this vohime the western part of the United States is more or less a desert, owing to an insulficient amount of rainfall. This region of deficient rainfall commences in ahout longitude 97, and a belt, extending about half a dozen degrees westward therefrom, is a sort of debatable ground, wiiere ill some /ears sufficient rain falls to supply the needs of most crops, while in other years the rainfall is deficient. This may be called a semi-humid region. Beyond longi- tude 103 rainfall is generally too small in amount to be d('[)ended on for success in agriculture. Tlie aridity con- tinues to decrease westward and soutliward, and reaches its maximum, and the rainfall its minimum, in South- eastern California, Southern Nevada, and South-western Arizona, in the Mohave and adjacent deserts. In this ri'uion the average annual rainfall does not exceed three or four inches, and often years pass without any. The temperature is, moreover, extremely high, and conse- quently the evaporation is great. In the north-west, however, there is a region which enjoys an excessive rainfall. This includes the north- west half of Washington, the western third of Oregon, and the north-western part of California. In this region the rains come in the winter exclusively, while the summer is dry. The winter rains are, however, so aliu!idant as to su])ply the soil with moisture for the entire year. Throughout tliis Cordillerian region, therefore, witli the exception of the area last outlined, irrigation is almost universally essential to the farmer. Land is everywhere abundant, but water is relatively scarce. There is not enough water flowing in the streams the year J: f, I If'!. 382 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPPIY AND TRAVEL round, even if it were used to the best possible advantage, to irrigate more than one-tenth of the entire area of the country. The extent to which this country can be cul- tivated, therefore, becomes a question of water, not nt' land. Usually the order of things is reversed ; in other parts of the country land has become the thing of value, while water, being very abundant, has no value whatever : but here water is the valuable thing, and land in itself is almost valueless. Here then is an area of 1;|; million square miles, of which 125,000 square miles only can be irrigated aod cultivated. In a region of mountains, valleys, and plains, which is watered by several large rivers and many small ones, the problems which present themselves to irrigation engineers are varied, and many of them difficult of solu- tion. They are complicated still further by the fact that most of the irrigation which has been done already has been carried on at haphazard, without plan, and simply as the needs of the individual farmers and the little com- munities seemed to dictate ; consequently wasteful systems have been carried out. Vested rights have been secured in land and water, which make the adoption of more economical systems difficult and expensive. In 1890 there were under irrigation in this region only about 3^ million acres, or about 1 acre in every 200. One-twentieth part only of the total amount of land which it is estimated can be irrigated in this region has thus far been placed under cultivation. The amount irrigated in the different states of this region varies widely, ranging from one-third per cent in Colorado down to less than one-tenth per cent in Arizona. Thus it will be seen that irrigation, although it has been prac- tised for a quarter of a century in this region, is still in its infancy. While the current flow of many streams is AGUICULTUItE 383 entirely used, but few storage reservoirs for preserving the flood waters have yet been built, and hence lar the (freater part of the water carried by the streams is still allowed to ru i to waste. Irrigation works are commonly carried out by private individuals and corporations, not by state or government authorities. In some cases the farmers themselves have joined together, but in other cases the works have been constructed by other parties, and water rights sold to the farmers along with the land which is covered by the rights. In such cases the average cost to the farmer of the land with the water right is a little over eight dollars per acre, and the cost of maintaining the works is annually a tritie over a dollar. The cost of bringing water to the land will doubtless increase as more exten- sive works are required. Thus far the cream has been skimmed ; the streams which are easily diverted and the laud which is most easily reached have been those em- ployed. Irrigated farms are commonly small in area and highly cultivated, yielding a maximum product per acre. 11 : V ' 1 1 ■''. i i 3!*. ;' •? CHAPTER XII MANUFACTURES Importance of the Industry TliK United States is the leading nianufiicturing njition on the globe, though it is only within a few years that it has reached this pre-eniincac(3. It passed Great P)ritain, formerly the greatest manufacturing nation, during the decade between 1880 and 1890, and by the census taken in the latter year its manufacturing product exceeded that of Great Britain in the proportion of 7 to 4. As measured by the value of their products, nuuiu- factures are the most important branch of industry which is followed in this country, largely exceeding agriculture. As stated, however, in the chapter u])()ii agriculture, that industry exceeds manufactures in the number of persons em})l(>yed and supported thereby. Manufactures have had a very rapid development in the United States. It may be said to have been a liut- bed development, as it lias been produced largely by the lirotectionist policy wliich tliat country has pursued. The history of this develoi)ment is set forth in the f(»llowing table, wliich presents at each census since 1850 the ca])ital in millions of dollars, tlie numl)er of employees in tliousands, the amount of wages, the value of the material if MANUFACTURES 385 I, ma un- used, the gross product and the net product, all in millions of dollars : — Year. CapiUl. Hands. Wages. Material. Gross Pnxliu't. Net Product 1850 533 957 237 555 1011' 464 1860 1010 1311 379 1031 1886 855 1870 1692 2055 500 2000 3384 1384 1880 2780 2739 948 3397 5370 1973 1890 6524 4712 2282 5159 9370 4211 From this it will be seen that the capital invested has increased, in the forty years represented in this table, twelve times ; the number of employees is five times as numerous ; the wages paid have increased nearly ten times ; tlie value of the m.<:;erial nearly in the same pro- portion ; the gross product more than nine time, and the net product also nine times. All these rates of increase are far greater than the increase of the population during the same period, and point, therefore, to an extremely rapid development of this branch of industry. It is natural that this should be the case. The north-eastern part of the country, which is that wliere most of the manufactures are located, has been fiUing up rapidly, and long ago passed the limit of density compatible with a farming ])()pulation. Accessions to the population since that time perforce have consisted mainly of persons engaged in other avocations, and those of a class which admit of a dense settlement; hence it is that the country, as a whole, and especially this north-eastern section, is changing its cliaracter from an agricultural to a manufacturing people. Along with this extraordinary development of this industry have gone many changes in its conduct, to which it is of interest to call attention. The first thing is the great concentration of manufactures. In 185U manufac- turing was carried on in a large number of small establish- ments, each with a tritling amount of capital and few 2c 11 Y'- s ■ if J ii*:!' iv m 386 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGllArilY AND TRAVEL employees ; indeed, at that date the average capital for each manuiacturing establishment was only $40 00, while in 1890 the average capital had increased to $15,000. In the same period, of forty years, the average number of employees per establisliment had greatly increased, but not in the same ratio that the capital had increased. This is due to the fact that to a considerable extent machinery has taken the place of hand labour in factories, for th(^ development of macliinery for doing things, as every one knows, has gone on at a constantly accelerated rate during the past generation or two. While the numl)er of employees has not kept pace witli the amount of capital invested in manufactures, their rate of wages has increased astonishingly. In 1850 the average yearly wages per employee was but $247, while in 1890 it had increased to $480, having nearly doubled in the ibrty years. This increase in average wages has taken place in spite of the fact tliat on an average the skill required of employees is less. Forty years ago most persons wlio were engaged in manufactures were skilleil meclianics, men who had devoted several years to acquir- ing the necessary knowledge and skill for doing certain things. At present, on the other hand, most employees are machine-tenders, and the mental and physical require- ments demanded of them are of much lower grade. Since 1850 the proportion between the capital invested in manufactures and the net product has steadily diminished. In 1850 the net product was 87 per cent of the capital invested. In 1890 it had diminished to but 65 per cent. "While ti.i proportion of the capital invested to the product has thus steadily increased, the proportion of that product which is paid as wages to employees has remained about the same. Since 1850 the net product has been divided about equally between the MANUFACTURES 387 employees in the form of wages, and ,is profits on tlie capital invested. Manufactures are confined to the cities, and, con- sequently, their distribution coincides with that of the urban population. The Xew England states, with New York, Xew .Jersey, and Pennsylvania, are pre-eminently the manufacturing states. Indeed, in these nine states more than half the manufactures of the countr}' are con- centrated. If to these are added the manuliictures of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, nearly three-fourths of the manufactures of the United States are accounted for. [vested :eadily |r cent lied to capital h1, the Jges to ^>0 the Value of Product The manufactures of the United States are extremely varied, covering almost the entire range of human needs and desires. The following table presents a list of the principal classes of manufactures, with the value of the gross product expressed in millions of dollars : — m the Liunbcr Slaughtering and meat- packing Flouring mills Clothing .... Iron a!id stool Foundry and machine .sho])s . Carpontoring .... Printing and jiuMislung . Cotton goods .... Boots and shoos Tobacco Cars of all sorts Masonry .... Miilt li(iuors .... Leather ..... WoolU^n goods IJakerios Sugar and molasses rotining . Oross I'roiliict. 587 .562 f.l4 4.S.'> 4i\\ 412 2S1 275 2(58 2()0 210 204 191 181} 180 134 128 123 Mil: * ini i i (' 388 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Carriages and waggons . Furniture Distilled liquors . . . . SUk Refining petroleum Agricultural implements. Worsted goods . . . . Paper Hosiery and knit goods . Butter, cheese, and condensed milk Chemicals . . . . . Blacksraithing and wheelwrighting Carpets Gross Product. 115 112 104 87 85 81 79 74 87 61 59 54 49 Lumber While lumber mills are found almost everywhere over the country, supplying local demands, the principal development of this industry is found in the cities bordering upon the Great Lakes, upon the margin of the great lumber region of Northern Mich'gan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. A few of them may be enumerated, the most prominent being Minneapolis, Minnesota, while Bay City, Saginaw, and Muskegon, Michigan, and La Crosse and Oshkosli, Wisconsin, are also of great importance. Carpentering establishments are scattered far and wide over the country, still they are clustered about the great lumber regions in larger number than elsewhere. The case is similar with establishments for the manu- facture of furniture. The greatest development of this industry is in the towns on the lower peninsula of Michigan, especially in the city of Grand liapids. Slaughtering and Meat-Facking The business of slaughtering and meat-packing is an enormous one in the United States, but that part of it MANUFACTURES 389 which is carried on upon a large scale for export purposes is confined to very few cities ; indeed, outside of the great slaughtering establishments of Chicago, Kansas City, and Omaha, the business is prosecuted on a comparatively petty scale. Cattle are brought to these great centres of the business from the ranges of the plains and mountainous states, and from the farms of the Mississippi Valley, and the products of these immense slaughtering establishments are si lipped to the eastern states and to Europe for consumption. riour Milling Flouring and grist mills are found everywhere over the country, but in most localities they are small, and each supplies a limited area of country only. At Minneapolis, however, are the greatest flouring mills in the country. Here the business is carried on in a whole- sale way. Much of the wheat from Minnesota and the Dakotas is brought to this city to be ground into flour, from whence it is supplied to the East and to Europe. ;e. and .t the sre. Imanu- )f this Lila of 13 an of it Clothing The clothing manufactured had a value of $485,000,000. This consists in part of custom-made clothing, and in part of what is known as ready-made clothing, in the proportion of about one to two. The wearing of ready-made clothing is vastly more common in the United States than in Europe, and naturally enough, with the great demand for this article, its quality has iuiproved, until it is to all, intents and purposes as good as that which is custom-made. The distril)ution of this branch of manufactures is quite general through the large cities. In its manu- I p -i -I- 1 ■ > f "1 1 Vl 1 ! •'i i i I;. llfl: 390 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGItAPIIY AND TRAVEL facture New York naturally leads, followed by Pliil- adclphia, Chicago, Cincinnati, Boston, Baltimore, and Kochester. Cars and Locomotives Many of the steam railroads construct their own cars, and in that way their manufacture is widely scattered. The principal towns noted for this class of manufacture are, however, Detroit, Michigan, and Pullman, Illinois. The latter town was built by the man whose name it bears, is peo])led almost exclusively by the employees of the rullman Company, and practically the sole occupation of the inhal)itants of the town is the manufacture of Pull- man sleeping and other cars. This town is uni(|ue in the fact that therein paternal- ism is carried to the utmost. The dwellings, as well as the business buildings, are all owned by the Pullman Company and rented to their en^ployees ; the stores are carried on by the Company — indeed, the entire town is permeated with Pullman. The manufacture of locomotive engines is mainly carried on by one company, tlie Ijaldwin Locomotive Company, located at Philadelphia. Locomotives bearing this name are found all over the country, from the Atlantic to the I'aciHc. Iron Manufacture In 1894 the iron and steel plant of the United States comprised 519 l)last furnaces, with a capacity of over sixteen million tons annually. There were 487 rolling mills and steelworks, 4715 puddling furnaces, and 3054 heating furnaces. The annual capacity of the rolling mills was twelve and a half million tons. The manufacture of iron and steel is highly centralised, MANUFACTURES 391 being mainly confined to a few loealities. The most ])rominent among tliese is tlie group of cities around the forks of the Oliio in rennsylvania, viz. Pittsburg, xVllegheny, and adjacent towns. Next in impcatance is Chicago, while Cleveland and Youngstown, Oliio, Scranton, Pennsylvania, and Birmingham, Alal)ama, are also centres of great and increasing importance in this regard. In this branch of manufacture, viz. tlie production of pig- iron and steel, Pennsylvania is fyr and away the most prominent of all the states, its production of pig-iron in 1894 being half that of the entire country, while of P>essemer steel it produced much more than half The next state in importance was Ohio, then Alabama, and Illinois. These four states together produced nearly seven-eighths of the pig-iron and nine-tenths of the steel of the country. The manufacture of articles from iron and steel, in founchies and machine shops, is widely scattered over the northern states. Philadelphia leads in these manu- factures, with Chicago and Xew York closely following. Brooklyn, Pittsburg, Providence, St. Louis, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Puflalo, AVorcester, Massachusetts, and Erie, Pennsylvania, also have extensive foundries and machine sliops. Agricultural Implements The manuiacture of agricultural implements and machines is a distinctively American industry, and is a very important one, due lai'gely to the wholesale way in which the Americans cultivate the soil. ]\Ianv machines for using animal and steam })Ower in agriculture have been devised, and are in extensive use. The centres of this manufacture are in the ^Mississippi Yalley or the lake region, and, enumerated in the nrder of their importance, JJ! F 1 i •i } 1. i '1 i V ?l lii ! 302 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL are Chicago and Springfield, Illinois, Akron and Canton, Ohio, and Aul)urn, New York, Printing Tlie manufacture of books, papers, and periodicals, meaning thereby the work of type-setting, printing, and binding, is a large business, and is greatly centralised. New York is the leading publishing city, while in that city, I'hiladelphia and Chicago, most of the publishing of the country is done, with the exception of the making of local newspapers. Textile Manufactures The manufacture of woollen goods is practically con- fined to the north-eastern states. It is of the most importance in the city of Philadelphia, while Providence, Rhode Island, Lawrence and Lowell, jMassachusetts, are also centres of great activity in this industry. The manuiacture of cotton goods is a very important industry in the United States. A1)ont one-third of the cotton crop of tlie country is manufactured at home, the balance, as has been stated elsewhere, going to Europe. The principal seat of the cotton manufacture in the United States is New England, ])ut a coiuparatively small proportion of the product is manufactured in the south mainly into cotton goods of coarse quality. In New England the principal seats of the cotton manufacture are Fall liiver, Lowell, New Bedford, Manchester, Lawrence, and llolyoke, Massachusetts, Lewiston. Maine, Lincoln, Pawtucket and Woonsocket, Rhode Island, together with Newark, New Jersey. In the south there are mills at Augusta and Atlanta, Georgia. The industry is increasing in the south, but it has not yet i MANUFACTURES 393 )rtant f the e, the irope. I the snuiU south New icturo ii ester, laine, Kliliul, there The It yet readied a great decree of prominence, and its iuture is beset by the diHicidties which attend all nianui'actiires in the south, that is, of inducing white operatives to migrate to that p{irt of the country, since negroes do not make good factory operatives. The manufacture of rubber clothing is carried on largely at Chelsea, Massachusetts. The boot and shoe industry, with a product valued at $260,000,000, may be divided into two parts, the custom- made ]»roduct and the factory product. This first is, of course, widely scattered over the country ; the last is confined almost exclusively to Eastern Massachusetts, and particularly is carried on in the cities of Lynn, Haverhill, and Brockton. The manufacture of wheeled vehicles is carried on in all cities of magnitude, but in the manufacture of heavy freight ami r(jad waggons the little cities of Kacine, Wisconsin, South Bend, Indiana, and Moline, Illinois, are very well known. Their names are found upon wagg(ms scattered over the country as far as the I'acilic coast, and from its northern to its southern boundaries. The silk industry is very limited in its areal extent, being almost entirely carried on at Baterson, New Jersey. The preparation of tobacco for smoking and chewing, and the making of cigars and cigarettes, are mainly carried on in Kichmond, Betersburg, ana Lynchburg, Mrginia, Wheeling, West Virginia, iJurham, North Carolina, and Key West, Florida. In the latter place Havana tobacco is mainly used in the manufacture, while in the other places the tobacco used is of native growth. While the manufacture of pottery is carried on in a great many places, the potteries of Trenton, New Jersey, hm m ■ m\ M' ](■■ 1 t ■ i 1 I f i 1 1 ' 1 li '1 ji: i 394 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL are the lar<^est and the best known in the country, Ixith on account of tlie quality and the quantity of their pro- duct. The refining of petroleum is, in the main, carried on at Philadel})liia, Pa., and Cleveland, Ohio. 1 i Hi * ■ wmm ■I ■ b CHAPTER XTTI TltANSl'OllTATlON AND COMMERCE Extent The commerce of the United States is of enormous pro- ])ortions, but by far the "'^" ^^J^y IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 L^ I.I 1.25 "1— lllii^ ■" Ki II 2.2 " us 1111° 1.4 nii.6 «• 4i>^ \^ O^ e^ v\ I -n ] 't' flpllKiif (■;f M Ih i\ a J I 'M •ft :i„ 396 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL and that it had diminished until it was but of trifline account. Such, however, is by no means the case. Her fleet is not only larger than that of any other nation excepting Great Britain, but is only a trifle smaller than hers. By the census of 1890 the shipping of the United States was represented by 7,033,676 tons, while that of Great Britain was represented as a trifle under 8,000,000 tons. But when we consider the amount of shipping which the American nation has engaged in foreign trade we discover where she has sustained losses. Out of her whole tonnage less than one-eighth, or 928,062 tons, were engaged in foreign trade, th?. remainder being engaged in domestic trade upon her cousts, lakes, and rivers. In traffic along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts there was engaged sliipping amounting to 2,385,879 tons, or about one -third of her wliole tonnage. Upon the Great Lakes there was engaged 926,355 tons, an amount almost exactly equal to that engaged in foreign trade, while upon her rivers, those great arteries of commerce, there was engaged in traffic a total tonnage amounting to 3,393,380, or about three-sevenths of the whole. Thus the tonnage engaged in traffic on the great rivers ^f the country is equal to that upon her coasts and her Great Lakes together. Of the whole Ignited States tonnage about one-fourth, or 1,820,386 tons, were steam vessels, nearly an equal amount, or 1,795,443, were sailing vessels, while a trifle more than one-lialf, or 4,017,847, were unrigged. These unrigged craft require more than passing mention. It is a new development in naval arcliitecture, adapting it to the conditions of traffic prevailing upon great river systems. These unrigged cralt are barges, often of large tonnage. The average tonnage of the unrigged craft of t TKANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 397 the United States is 500 tons. These barges are arranged in long trains, stem to stern, the whole train being drawn by a tug boat, precisely as a locomotive draws a train of freight cars. There is another interesting development in naval architecture, as ap /lied to transportation of freight, in tlie so-called whale -backs on the Great Lakes. These are substantially cylinders built of boiler plate, stitlened * iS^BBi iiii. ■ ' Hn^*"^ w^^^KtSKS -9 3EHE^ WHALE-BACKS, IN LOCK OF SAULT STK. MAUIE CAXAL, MICHIGAN. ler coasts with ribs of steel or iron, with pointed bow and stern. This cylinder is supplied with engines and boilers, and is jiropelled by screws at the stern like any other screw steamer. The cylinder is tilled with the cargo, commonly iron ore or wheat, and the hatclies are fastened down, when tlie whole thing is practically wilterproof, and so far as wetting the cargo is concerned the craft might l)e rolled over and over in the water witliout damage. Turely as a freiglit-car^ier the whale-back is ])robably the laost economical craft that has vet been devised for the c(jmparatively still water of the lJr»'at Lakes. h I tf, i:;hi . II If! 398 COMPENDIUM OF CEOGKAPHY AND TUAVEL The Foreign Carrying Trade In the foreign carrying trade the Americans reached tlieir most prosperous condition about 1820. In that year this nation surpassed all otliers in the amount of tonnage engaged in foreign commerce. From that time down to the beginning of the Civil War, while the tonnage of the United States did not diminish, but in- creased, the importance of that country relative to other countries in the foreign carrying trade diminished. Great Britain soon took the lead, and in the extent of its tonnage surpassed the United States and became, as it has been since, the queen of the high seas. The Civil War brought danger to all vessels flying the American flag. To avoid that danger, or the necessity for paying high insurance rates (" war premiums "), in one way and another, most of the shipping of the United States was, during the war, transferred to foreign flags, mainly to that of Great Britain, and there it has perforce remained, since, under United States laws, made for the protection of the shipbuilding interest, ships cannot be imported. Thus since 1820 the foreign carrying trade of the United States has diminished relatively to other nations, and since the beginning of the war it has absolutely diminished in tonnage, while all other industries, agricul- ture, manufactures, mining, and all internal transporta- tion have grown with a rapidity that almost surpasses belief. The reasons assigned for this decadence have been many and various, and various cures have been suggested. The true reason, however, appears to be simply that Americans have found better-paying invest- ments in their country than upon the high seas. They cannot build ships as cheaply as can be done in England, TKANSPOETATION AND COMMERCE 399 and they cannot sail them as cheaply, while they must be content with the same freight receipts as the English. Consequently their percentage of return for the invest- ment must be less than that of the English, whereas, by investing within the United States, they can almost certainly obtain a percentage of receipts upon their investment of several times the magnitude. This in a nutshell seems to express the situation. It is dift'erent with coastwise or inland transportation. There the American is not obliged to meet the foreigner in com- petition. His government gives him a monopoly of the carrying trade, and it has accordingly prospered. In 1890 the total tonnage of vessels in foreign trade entering and clearing at American ports was about 18,000,000 tons each way. Of this only about 4,000,000 tons were under the United States flag ; in other words, only two-sevenths of the imports to and exports from the United States were transported under the liag of that country ; indeed, British vessels alone carried much more of the exports and imports of the United States than did United States vessels. Navigable Streams In treating of the navigability of streams one is dealing with an uncertain and variable quantity. It is necessary, at the outset, to define what is meant Ijy navigability. Some class or classes of vessels must be selected as the test, whether a boat of 10 feet or of 2 feet draft for instance. Again, what stage of water in the river shall be selected, high water, low water, or a medium stage. In order to arrive at some definite result, it will be assumed, in the following sketch of the navi- gable streams of the United States, that the high water ^-.•'-'^ ! ! 400 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL \h ' stage is referred to, and that streams having three feet in depth will be regarded as navigable. Under these premises the following are the resources of the country in internal navigation. On the Atlantic coast the navigable portions of the rivers are short, but in general they increase in length southward. The following table lists the principal of them, with a rough estimate of their navigable lengths, measured as straight lines : — Navigable to Miles. Penobscot, Me Bangor 30 Kennebec, Me. . ■ . Augusta 60 Connecticut, Conn. Hartford 40 Hudson, N.Y. . Albany- 150 Delaware, N.J. and Pa Trenton 75 Potomac, Md. Georgetown, D.C. 100 Rappahannock, Ya. Fredericksburg 90 York, Va. . • • 1 60 James, Va. . Richmond 76 Roanoke, N.C. . Weldon 76 Pamlico, N.C. . . . . 50 Neuse, K.C. Goldsboro 100 Cape Fear, N.C. . Fayette 100 Waccamaw, S.C. 75 Great Pedee, S.C. . * ■ 100 Sautee and branches Columbia 150 Savannah, Ga. Augusta 125 Altamaha and brunches, Ga Milledgeville and Macon 300 St. John's, Fla. . . . Sanford 125 1860 Navigable rivers flowing to the Gulf of Mexico are few in number, and, with the exception of the Mississippi, are not long. The larger ones are as follows : — Apalachicola, Fla. and Ga. Flint, Fla. and Ga. Chattahoochee, Fla. and Ga Mobile, Ala. Alabama Navigable to Miles * * • 75 • • ■ 125 ■ • • 125 . • • 25 Montgomery 150 SL three feet ader these tie country ons of the J in length )rincipal of Die lengths, Miles. 30 50 40 150 75 100 90 60 76 75 50 100 100 75 100 150 125 Macon 300 125 1860 Mexico are Mississippi, Miles. 75 125 125 25 150 w 1 ( :( ;.f • ^1 i TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 401 fiivigable to Miles 250 225 40 30 25 Presidio 700 Tombigbec . Pearl, Miss. Sabine, Tex. Nocbes Trinity Rio Grande . The Mississippi system is far more extensive than all others taken together. The navigability of the main stream is interrupted only by the liock Island rapids, in Illinois ; that of the Ohio by the falls at Louisville, Ken- tucky ; and the Tennessee at IMuscle Shoals. The two first are passed by canals, while the last has been im- proved by dams and locks. With these exceptions the navigability of the main river and its principal branches is unbroken. The following table schedules the navigable rivers of this svstem : — Main Mississippi . Upper ^lississippi Bayou La Fourclie, La. Bayou Atcbafalaya, La. Red River and brancbes, La. Ouacbita and brancbes, La. and Ark, Yazoo, Miss. Arkansas and brancbes, Aik. St. Francis and brancbes, Ark. Wbite River and brancbes, Ark. Obio River . AUegbeny, Pa. Monongabela, Pa. Tennessee, Ky. and Tenn. Cumberland, Xy. Green, Ky. . Kentucky, Ky. Licking, Ky. Big Sandy, Ky. . Guyandot, W. Va. Kanawba, \V. Va. Wabasb, Ind. 2d Navigable to Miles Cairo, Ills. 650 Minneapolis, Minn .700 100 150 Gainesville, Tex. 600 • . . 450 300 ^Vicbita, Kan. 600 • t • 300 • * * 400 Pittabui'g, Pa. 800 ••. 125 .. ■ 100 A. 550 • •« 350 ..< 100 • t • 125 »•• 125 • •■ 125 • •• 75 • t« 150 ♦•• 150 r* pi Mi ■; 'I I'ri "" "pf ii ^ 402 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL Jsiivigablo to Milos. Muskingum, Ohio Illinois Missouri Gasconade . Osage . Yellowstone Fort Benton 200 1500 50 100 260 The Great Lakes furnisli, by tlie aid of the Welland Canal at Niagara, and the " Soo " canal at the Hault Ste. Marie, an unbroken stretch of navigation from the foot of Lake Ontario to Duluth, at the head of Lake Superior, a distance, roughly measured, of 1050 miles. Li addition to this is the stretch afforded by Lake Michigan, which from Mackinac to Chicago is 400 miles, (3n the Pacific side there are few navigable rivers. The Colorado bears steamers only 400 miles from its mouth ; the Sacramento of California is navigable for 150, and its branch, the San Joaquin, for 100 miles. The Columbia is navigable for 500 miles, and its main branch, the Snake, for 100 miles only, while the Willa- mette is navigable for 125 miles. Altogether the navi- gable length of the rivers of the country, roughly measured in direct lines, not by following the details of their often crooked courses, is no less than 14,100 miles. Following their sinuous courses, doubtless the total length exceeds 20,000 miles. Of the straight line extent of navigable waters the Mississippi has by far the lion's share, as with its branches it has a navigable extent of 9200 miles, which, when all its curves and windings are followed, swells to nearly 15,000 miles. Canals In the early part of the present century, before tlie advent of the railway, many of the states of the Ameri- TRANSrOllTATION AND COMMERCE 403 )0 )0 50 00 iUand b Ste. 3 foot perior, In 'higan, rivers, om its o\e for miles. s main AVilla- navi- L'onj^hly [tails of |l4,100 :ss the i>ht line liar the Ivigable les and ties. lore the Ameri- can Union were seized with a fever for public improve- ments, and several of them carried out extensive works. Prominent among them was the building of canals. Among these states were prominent New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, and Indiana. Partly at public and partly at private expense a large number of canals were built at this time. Most of them have, however, since been abandoned, having succumbed to the competition of the railway. In 1890 the total mileage of canals in operation was but 2700, and the tonnage which they conveyed during that year was about 21,000,000 tons. The principal of these canals now in operation is the Erie Canal, extending from Bufftilo, in Western New York, to Albany, on the Hudson Pdver. A project is now (1896) on foot for deepening and widening this canal to enable large lake vessels to traverse it. Railroads The railroad made its advent before the world about 1830, sixty-live years ago, and as an agency of transporta- tion it has grown up with this country. In these sixty-five years a railroad system has been constructed in this country aggregating 178,708 miles, representing an expenditure of more tlian $11,000,000,000 of capital Nearly one- sixth of the entire wealth of the country is invested in railroads. In mileage of her railroads the United States leads the whole of Europe, and indeed all -the rest of the world. There is probably no nation which, in comparison with her area, population, and wealth, has as complete and well arranged a system of railway transportation as this. The rapidity of its growth is but one of its startling features. Since the beginning there has been no year in which some railroads have not been built, and flir-^n^ i^ ■ ■'H lili ; iiff- f > : '. ' ' i 't t 4 ( } rt ?^ ii ;■,!;■ I'M- 404 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL ill some years the extension has been astonishing. In the ten years between 1880 and 1890 there were almost as many miles of road built as there were in existence at the beginning of that peiiod ; in other worc^, the mileage was almost doubled in the ten years between 1880 and 1890. In one year, viz. 1887, nearly as many miles were built as the entire number of miles in operation in England. JVIuch has been said about the great under- taking of the Russian Government in building a line of railway from European Russia across Siberia to the Pacific, a gigantic undertaking, to which Eussia will devote much of her means for a number of years to come. In that single year of 1887 there were many more miles of railroad built in the United States than would suilice to stretch from Moscow to Vladivostock, and the world scarcely knew that such great enter^^'ises were in progress. The railroads of the United Sta.es differ widely among themselves in quality and equipment. Those of the eastern, densely settled states, where traflic is heavy, are in all respects, in road-bed, equipment, station houses, equal to the best in Europe ; indeed, in some respects they surpass them, particularly in those matters relating to the comforts of travellers, and to the cheajiening of freight rates ; but upon the frontier, where people are few and travel limited, railroads have been built and equipped in the cheapest manner possil)k'. Little grading has been done, ties have been laid on the prairie without ballasting, and the equipment is of the simplest and cheapest. This, however, has been done deliberately, on the theory that a poor railroad is -s'astly better than none, and that no better railroad could be built and operated at a profit under existing conditions. As the population and traffic increase the road is improved, so the railroad systems develop with the country. TPvANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 405 . In Imost [ice at lileage and miles ion in under- line of to tlie La will ears to i many es than v'ostock, er'^'ises 1 Sta.es lipment. •e tratVic lipment, deed, in .n tliose to the r, where jve been possible, on the of the in done s vastly be built ins. As iiproved, Ownership of Railroads The railroads of the United States are owned by about 1500 dill'erent companies. They are operated by about lialf that number, say 750. These companies operate the property of the others imder some form of lease. While tliere are some 750 operating companies the greater part of the railroad business is in the hands of comparatively few. Ten per cent of these companies, or say 75, operate three-fourths of all the mileage, and have more than three-fourths, indeed nearly seven-eighths, of the business. The great railroad companies can almost be counted on one's fingers. Nearly all the railroads of Maine are in the hands of the Maine Central Eoad ; those of Massachusetts in the hands of the Boston and Maine, Boston and Albany, and the Old Colony companies ; those of Xew York in the New York Central, the Erie, Dela- ware and Hudson, and the New York, Ontario and Western ; those of Pennsylvania are still more highly centralised — the Pennsylvania Company owns and con- trols most of the railroads of the state, besides having long branches in other states, and operates a mileage not less than 8816 miles. Besides these there are the Bead- ing, the Delaw^are, Lackawanna, and Western, and other smaller systems. Farther south, connecting Baltimore and Washington with the v. ^st, is the Baltimore and Ohio system, which operates 20G5 miles. Most of the railroads in the south-eastern states are at present operated by what is known as thf Southern Eailway, which operates 4334 miles. But it is i. he northern central and western states that consolidation among railway lines has gone farthest. Here are the Chicago and North-Western, Chicago, Mil- waukee and St. Paul, the Great Northern and Northern til, !'"!!; IJ 406 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAniY AND TRAVEL m . , I. Pacific systems, the Atcliisou, Topeka, and Santa Fe, tlie great Burlingtou and Eock Island lines, the Missouri Pacific, and lastly, the Union Pacific and the Southern Pacific systems. These great systems each operate from 5000 to 10,000 miles of road. To illustrate the extent to which consolidation has gone in these railroads it may be said that one can travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, 3000 miles in round numbers, by using only two railroad systems ; thus, he may go from New York to Chicago by the Pennsylvania Railroad, and from Chicago to San Diego by the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe. From Xew Orleans he can travel to Portland, Oregon, a dist.'ince of not less than 3260 miles, without leaving the lines of the Southern Pacific, and return thence to Chicago bv the Northern Pacific road. Many other illustrations ol' extended single lines of road might be given, but these are sufficient to illustrate the enormous territory traversed by the lines of single companies. This tendency toward consolidation serves the public in many ways. It makes travel easier, on the whole it tends to reduce rates, both freight and passenger, and it tends to better the equipment and the service, making it safer and more comfortable. Nowhere in the world is travel so easy as upon American railways. Women and children may travel from end to end of the country without care, worry, or trouble, either for themselves or their baggage. Comforts of Railway Travel Pailway travel in the United States has become a luxury ; the troubles, worries, and discomforts attendant upon it have been reduced until they have almost dis- appeared. Now one purchases a single ticket covering TKANSrORTATION AND COMMERCE 407 ii Fe, ;, the id the 5 each on has L travel liles ill ^sterns ; by the I Diego in New :ance ol' lines of icago by [itions of 3ut these traversed pnbhc whole it r, and it aking it ,vorld is nnen and conntry iselves or become a attendant most dis- covering his entire journey instead of buying it piecemeal from place to place. His baggage is checked at his residence for delivery to him at his destination, and meantime tlie railroad compiuiy takes all care and responsibility of it, and in case of loss in transit, a tiling, however, which was never known to happen, pays him the estimated loss. Fih route the passenger travels in luxurious rullman or Wagner day cars, and at night reposes his tired limbs upon downy couches bearing the magic name of " rullman." The railroad restaurant, with its twenty minutes for refreshments and its hurried gulping of food and drink, is a thing of the past, at least on through routes. In its place the railroads have substituted dining cars, in wliicli the best of meals are served at reasonable rates, and which the passenger enjoys at his leisure. Some trains carry barber shops, bath rooms, libraries, pianos, and other devices for shortening the hours. Add to this that the road-beds and alignment of most of the leading roads are excellent, that the trains are run regularly, and with the greatest regard lor the safety of passengers. In the western United States are manv railroads, which pass through regions of rare scenic beauty, .lourneys upon them arc well worth while for the mere sake of tbe mountain scenery which they attbrd. Among them may be mentioned tlie Denver and Leadville IVraiich of the I'^nion Pacific road. Tiiis road, after leaving Denver and crossing a dozen miles of plains, enters the gorge of the South Platte. It passes up this and that of its north fork for many miles, running alongside of a tumultuous mcimtain stream, while on either hand rise precipitous granite cliffs, carved in all manner of strange Ibrins, to thou.sands of feet. Near the head of the north fork of the South Platte the road crosses the Keno.sha divide, having reached an altitude but little below timber- 1L If .'' ' 408 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL ^ i line, and then drops suddenly down into South Park, a broad, level mountain valley. Crossing this it enters one of the highest ranges of the continent, and by many crooks and windings it finally reaches a divide at nearly 12,000 feet above the sea and several hundred feet above the timber-line. Here the scenes are arctic. Snow banks are seen on either hand, and the entire outlook is wintry. There are no trees — nothing but bare, rocky summits. From this divide the road drops, by steep grades, down to the valley of Blue Eiver, running down the side of a long mountain spur, while opposite to it, five to ten miles away, rises in grandeur the Blue Eiver range, whose peaks exceed 14,000 feet in altitude. Eeaching the bed of the valley the road follows it for a few miles, and then turns up Ten i\Iile Creek, where it soon enters a gorge, on either side of which the cliffs rise to sunmiits of high mountains. Occasionally a peep at one of these summits is seen far up a side canyon. Up this creek the road passes until it reaches a summit which sej^arates Ten Mile Creek from the head of the Arkansas liiver, where it is again nearly at timber-line. Then it runs down the Arkansas in its broad valley, the Sawatch range upon the west and the Park range upon the east, each crowned by summits more than 14,000 feet above sea. Near the end of this ride, if one is fortunate in regard to weather, he gets a peep at the mountain of the Holy Cross, twenty miles away to the westward. Another road which offers great scenic attractions is the Denver and llio Grande. Starting at Canyon City, Colorado, one enters almost immediately the portals of the Grand Canyon of the Arkansas, where that river cuts a gorge through a granite plateau 3000 feet in depth. For many miles one travels in the bed of this gorge upon a railroad hung in places upon the sides of the clilf TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 409 xk, a s one rooks ^,000 e the banks intiy. nmits. ►wn to a long miles whose he bed id then )rge, on )f high ummits le road ;es Ten where down be upon rowned ear the veather, twenty ]ions is l)n City, irtals of rev cuts depth. gorge he cliif and braced across from one side of the gorge to the other, so closely is the stream confined. Then the traveller reaches Salida, where the oad divides, one branch con- tinuing on up the Arkansas to Leadville and beyond. Let us follow this branch and return by the other. All the way up the Arkansas valley one sees the magnificent procession of the Sawatch peaks upon the west and those of the Park range upon the east. At its head it crosses tlie Tennessee Pass and descends the Eagle. Soon he enters a narrow gorge upon this river, a gorge witli ])recipitous sides, rising for thousands of feet. Looking upwards along these walls he is astounded to see niine-openiugs in the rock above him, cabins hung on to tlie face of the cliffs, which can be reached only by rude ladders which have been attached to the cliffs from the water's edge up. Vet here in these almost inaccessible places men live, move, and work. This gorge continues for many miles. Tho Eagle joins Grand Eiver, and the gorge continues down Grand Eiver. At last it opens out into a broad valley, flanked on either liand by great mesas, the lioan plateau (so called from the colour of the rocks) upon the north and the Miini plateau on the south. Then the stream canyons up again, and the railroad, following it, runs through another narrow gorge, which grows narrower, deeper, and closer, until all of a sudden one emerges into daylight, and before liim is the broad valley of the Grand, in which it joins the Gunnison. The junction of the two rivers is at Grand Junction, one of the great fruit centres of the west. Here the tiaveller leaves his train and takes another upon a narrow ,uauge road to return eastward. His train now Ibllows lip the crooked windings of the Gunnison lliver in a low canyon in sandstone rocks. Reaching the month of the illftJ'pif^TW I M 410 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Uncompahgre the road follows that stream through a broad, irrigated valley, green with alfalfa, interspersed with orchards. Then the road turns more to the east- ward, crosses a high divide, and then plunges down into the canyon of the Gunnison. This is the Black Canyon, so called from the colour of the rocks in the lower part of the gorge. There are here two gorges, the upper being formed of stratified sandstone, while the lower part, which is much the steeper, narrower, and more rugged, is of black granite. Through it the river rushes and tumbles, and the railroad is hard pushed to find a way. Many engineering devices are resorted to here to sustain the road. The road follows this canyon to its head, where the valley opens out, and keeping along close by the river, and one of its branches, ascends gradually as it nears tlie western flank of the Sa watch range. The road crosses this range pt what is known as Marshall Pass. The ascent on the west is very steep, and the road over- comes it by a series of switchbacks zigzagging back and forth upon the broad face of a mountain spur. The sunnnit is just at timber-line, and from it the descent upon the east is at first quite steep, and then more gradual, following the Arkansas to Salida, which is the terminus of this branch. One may leave this route midway, at a point in the Uncompahgre Valley, and going south pass through the San Juan Mountains by rail. The San Juan are amonL,^ the most rugged mountains upon the continent, and some of the highest, their peaks ranging from 14,000 to 14,500 feet in altitude. This road, the Rio Grande Southern, leaves the Uncompahgre Valley, and going west passes a high divide and descends into the gorge of the San Miguel River. It follows tin' river up into the mountains, among the highest and mcst rugged peaks of TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 411 the range. For many miles it is graded upon the side of a cliff hundreds of feet above its base, and ""lakes innumer- able twists and turns to obtain sufficient grade to over- come the slope of the rapid stream below. Among the countless magnificent mountains which are in view of the passenger on this route it is difficult to specify. Tlieir name is legion. The road at last leaves this maze of mountains, and turni ig to the south-west runs down to Rico, a mining camp just west of the range, thence it continues around the west side of the mountains, finally joining another branch of the Denver and IJio Grande at Uurango, on the Animas Eiver, near the south boundary of Colorado, At this point the tourist may turn north up the Animas, by the Denver and liio Grande road, and cross this group of mountains by another route. The Animas cuts a gorge through the heart of the range, and the road follows the river closely. Almost in the centre of this great mass of mountains is a little valley a few square miles only in extent, known as J^aker Park, and in this is the old and well-known mining town of Silverton. The road passes through this place and thence up a mountain valley, gradually ascending until it reaches a divide on Eed ]\Tountain at the timber- line. It descends the other side a short distance, and then abruptly stops at a group of mines. Here the passenger is forced to seek other means of locomotion for completing his journey. Ouray is his objective point, at the upper end of the Uncom})ahgre Valley. The con- nection with this point from the Red Mountain mines is by stage. The ride, although a short one, is exhilarat- ing in the extreme. At first, high up on the slopes of the mountains, the road rapidly descends and finally enters a gorge, upon the side of which, and half-way illlp' ;; I'TTi i ^- 412 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL up, the road has been cut in the solid granite. There is but little travel upon this road, and fortunate it is, for there are few places where teams could pass one another. Eeaching Ouray the traveller takes a train therefrom down to the Uncompahgre Valley to the start- ing-point. Bailway Statistics The traffic of the railroads of the United States, both in respect to passengers and freight, is stupendous. The figures are too large for any proper comprehension. The number of locomotives in service was 45,492, and of cars more than 1,250,000. Of the latter 33,000 were used in passenger service and 1,200,000 in freight service, the remainder being in construction and other service of the companies. As already stated, the total railway capital was nearly $11,000,000,000, a little less than half of which was stock and a little more than half of which was bonds. The average cost of construction was a little over $60,000 per linear mile. This of course was much greater in the north-eastern part of the country, where* the railroads are better built and equipped, and was least in the prairie region, where the railroads are not only poorly constructed and ecpiipped, but where, owing to the level character of the country, the cost of grading is a minimum. The amount of passenger travel in the United States may be summarised in many ways. 540,000,000 passengers were carried during the year 1894. Multiply- ing this number by the average journey of each passenger it appears that 14,125,000,000 of passengers were carried one mile. Since there were probably 68,000,000 persons in the country at tliat time, it follows that each person, TKANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 413 There it is, 5S one , train ', start- }S, both 5. The 1. The and of }0 were , service, 3rvice of IS nearly lich was ,s bonds. ($60,000 ir in the railroads in the [y poorly to the lling is a United looo.ooo llultiply- )assenger re carried persons |i person, man, woman, and child, travelled on an average 210 miles during the year. This not only empliasises the enormous passenger traffic, but it also illustrates the ex- trenae mobility of the American popidation.. Now as to tlie volume of the commerce which this system transports. In 1894 the railroads carried more than 638,000,000 tons of merchandise, or, multiplying it by the average journey, it appears that more than 80,000,000,000 of tons were carried one mile. Bear in mind, too, that the iigures, both of freight and passenger service, in the year 1894 are considerably less than those of the two preceding years, owing to the prevalent depression in business. In 1893 the number of passengers carried exceeded that in 1894 by fully 10 per cent, and the amount of freight carried was greater in an equal or larger proportion ; indeed, in the amount of freight transported the operations of 1894 were less than those of any year since 1890. Taken as a whole the railroads of the United States do not constitute a profitable property. They rarely pay on the average dividends of more than two or three per cent on the par value of their capital stock. Of course the differences among them in this regard are great, some railroads paying ten and twelve per cent, while others are operated even at a loss. As a rule those in the north-eastern part of the country are those which are paying the greatest profit, while those in the west are, as a rule, less profitable, having been constructed rather witli a view to future than to present profits. Foreign Commerce The foreign commerce of the United States has a value in difl'erent years ranging from $1,500,000,000 up to nearly $2,000,000,000, of which commonly a little w ! ^ il' 1 I i ; 1 i 1 I' ) < :| l\ , ii I i u i It ;, . t \ r L 1 l^^i^ iiiii 414 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL more than half is exports and a little less than half im- ports, the balance of trade having been fur several years in favour of the United States. The exports consist largely of agricultural products, meats and provisions, raw cotton and wheat being the principal items. Among items of lesser importance are petroleum and tobacco. Indeed, two-thirds of all exports are agricultural pro- ducts, and adding the products of the mines and the forest, three-fourths of the exports are accounted for, leaving but one -fourth as the product of manu- factures. Tlie imports are much more varied. Coffee, tea, and sugar are the principal agricultural products which are imported. Besides these the imports consist of a great variety of manufactured or partly manufactured goods. The foreign commerce of the United States amounted in 1895 to $1,525,000,000, of which $793,000,000 consisted of domestic exports and $731,000,000 of im- ports. The balance of trade in that year was on the side of the United States to the extent of $74,000,000. Tlie following tables give the domestic exports to and imports from those countries with which the foreign trade is most extensive, arranged in the order of their importance, the amounts being given in millions of dollars : — Domestic Exports. Imports. United Kingdom 384 United Kingdom . 159 Germany 90 Germany 81 Canada 49 Brazil . . 79 France 44 France 61 Netherlands 30 Cuba . . 53 Helgiiini 25 Canada . 37 Italy .... 16 Japan . 2-t Brazil .... 15 Italy . 21 Mexico 15 China . 21 Cuba .... 13 India . 21 Spain .... 11 Mexico 10 Netherlands 15 TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 415 If im- . years consist asions, A.inong obacco. il pro- is and iounted manu- tea, and licli are a great Toods. mounted 300,000 3 of im- tlie side 0. Tlie imports is most nee, the 159 81 79 61 53 ;37 24 21 21 21 10 15 As will be seen, the trade of the United States is by far the largest with the United Kingdom, the exports to that country forming nearly half the total exports of the UrdL3d States. Next in importance in the matter of exports are Germany, France, and Canada. Similarly the imports from the United Kingdom are greater than from any other country, Brazil and Cuba, Germany and France following in the order named. The balance of trade with the United Kingdom is largely in favour of the United States, the exports in 1895 being two and a hall times as large as the imports, and for the last ten years they have been, on an average, more than three times as great. On the other hand, the trade with Brazil and Cuba consists mainly of imports from those countries, the exports to those countries being of much less importance. The following table shows the principal articles of export and import, arranged in order of magnitude, figures given being in millions of dollars : — EXI'OKTS. Cotton ..... 218 ;Mcat and dairy products 131 Bread stull's .... 115 Petroleum .... 47 Animals ..... 35 Iron and steel, manufactures of 32 Tobacco ..... 30 Lumber, and manufactures of . 27 Leather, and manufactures of . . 16 IMPOIITS. Coffee 96 Sugar and molasses 78 Wool, manufactures of (34 Silk, and manufactures of 54 Cotton, manufactured 33 Flax, hemp, and jute, manufactured 26 Iron and steel, manufactured . 23 |'i'"!M'!!'|M * III pi: M .■' h\ i, ■ ]', i ^^^^B l:»l gpil HI m 1 ' 'f i ■1 LmL.' i i n Mm 416 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Fruit .... Chemicals Wino .... Wood, and luamit'actures of 15 13 7 4 It will be noticed that the exports consist mainly of raw material, and with the exception of cotton they consist almost entirely of food products, such as meat and bread stuffs. The imports, on the other hand, consist in the main of sugar and molasses, coffee and manufactured products. The following table shows the value of the imports and exports, expressed in millions of dollars, which pass through the principal ports of the United States : — Tdl-ts. Exports. Imports New York 369 416 Boston . 83 50 New Orloiins . 81 18 Baltimore 78 12 Philadelpliia . 40 64 Galveston 3.0 • • fl Savannah 26 • •• San Francisco 24 38 Charleston 13 • •« Norfolk . 10 • • ■ It will be seen that nearly half of the exports and more than half of the imports of the entire country pass through the port of New York. In the matter of exports Boston, New Orleans, and Baltimore follow next in order, but a long distance behind, while in the matter of imports, Philadelphia and Boston are next in importance to New York, but the importations which pass through them are of little amount in comparison with it. Internal Commerce Of the internal and coastwise commerce little can be said except to characterise its volume. This can be ex- TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 417 ainly of )n they xs meat , consist factured imports lich pass mports. 416 50 IS 12 38 )orts and country natter of [low next ^e matter liportance tlirongh le can be In be ex- pressed by the statement that in 1890 172,000,000 tons were carried by vessels coastwise upon the lakes and upon the rivers, and in 1894 the railroads transported more than 638,000,000 tons of merchandise, while in 1890 the volume was quite as great. Here then is a total movement of freight amounting to not less than 810,000,000 tons. Transportation by vessel is, as a rule, clieaper than by rail, although by no means as ra;pid, consequently where railroads and vessels compete the heavy, bulky, non- perishable articles are commoidy carried by the latter agency, while by rail are carried all articles in the trans- portation of which speed is an object. It is impossible to describe in any comprehensive way the character of the freight movement about the country. One can only touch upon certain of its leading features. Cotton, which is produced mainly in the Gulf states, is in part exported to Europe, and in part transported to the New England states for manufacture, in the propor- tions of about two-thirds and one-tliird respectively. The part transported to the New England states is mainly carried by water, although a certain proportion of it is transported by rail. The eastern states do not produce sutiicient wheat for the consumption of their inhabitants, while the western states, as a rule, produce much more than is required. All wheat which is produced in the wegtern states in excess of that required for its inhabitants is transported to the eastern states, a part of which, amounting to about one-fourth or one-fifth of the annual crop, is ex- ported, mainly from New York, to Europe. So there is a heavy movement eastward of whe^t. What has been said above regarding wheat is equally true in regard to meat products. As a rule the eastern 2e If IP 1\ 1 If' I! 418 COMI'ENDIUM OF GEOGIlArilY AND TRAVEL states do not produce enough meat for their needs, and the western states produce an excess, consequently there is a heavy movement of cattle from the western ranches to the railroads, where they are taken aboard of cattle cars and carried to the great meat slaughtering centres, such as Chicago, Kansas City, and Omaha, where they are slaughtered, packed, and transported east for consumption and export. Thus there is a heavy eastward movement of meat, either on the hoof or packed. Lumber is another important article of transportation. It is produced mainly in the great forests of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, in Washington, Oregon and northern California, and in *,he northern states, hardwoods in the mountains, and southeiii pine in the regions nearer the coast. From these regions to the regions of con- sumption the lumber is transported by water wherever water transportation is available, otherwise by rail. The greater part of the iron ore of the country is produced near the shores of Lake Superior in Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, far away from coal for smelting it. The transportation of iron ore to the coal, for they are brought together commonly in that way, is an im- mense business. Iron ore is transported in part b}' steamers and barges on the lakes of Chicago, Cleveland, and Detroit, and in part by rail. Some of it meets coal at these points, while another pa. ' is carried still farther, by rail, to Pennsylvania to the coal region. The transportation of coal is an element of first im- portance. As was stated in another part of this work, practically all the anthracite coal of the country is pro- duced from a little region in north-eastern Pennsylvania. It is carried thence by rail and vessel, the latter wherever practicable, to the cities of New England, and New York, even to those bordering on the Great Lakes, as far TUANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 419 Is, and f there aiiches cattle centres, hey are mption vemeiit )rtatioii. ichigan, pon and rdwoods s nearer of con- vherever il. untry is lichigan, smeltmg for they an im- part by ;leveland, leets coal 1 farther, first im- ,his work, ■y is pro- iisylvania. wherever and New kes, as far west as the IVIissouri liiver, and southward to the James. These appear to be about the limits to which anthracite coal can profitably be carried to find a market. Beyond these limits it cannot compete successfully with the inferior qualities of coal produced in the neighbourhood. Bituminous coal is produced in many localities, widely scattered over the country. Its transportation is a matter of great magnitude, but its journeys are relatively short, and cannot be easily described. Each region derives its bituminous coal from the mining locality nearest to it, subject, of course, to the condition that tlie coal be of suitable quality '' r tlie purpose for which it is desired. This condition introduces one element which it may be worth while to mention. There are few localities in the country where bituminous coal of the requisite quality for coking is produced. The leading one is in the neighbourhood of Connellsville in south - western Pennsylvania, and this Connellsville coking coal or coke is an important article of transportation to the iron- smelting regions. Fruit is an important article of commerce, and is, as a rule, carried by rail in order to ensure rapidity of transportation. The leading producing regions are Florida and southern California, and from these fruit is carried northward and eastward in enormous quantities. In the above no mention has betn made of the exports from the north-eastern states to the other parts of the Union, in exchange for the bread stuffs, meat, lumber, and fruits which it receives. The exports which it gives in exchange consist almost entirely of manu- factured goods. It is tlie manufacturing centre of the country, and to a large extent it supplies the rest of the country with such articles. i' il; f'i ^frap mil- I ! If 1. 1 ; ':! ;!••' ■ h lb V 1';- 1 If) i,i i ,, 1^' !:- i i !■ ! ii 420 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPHY AND TRAVEL Postal Service The postal service is entirely in the hands of the United States Government, which insists by law upon a complete monopoly of it. It is carried on by the Government at a loss, ranging in recent years from $5,000,000 to $10,000,000 annually. To illustrate the extent of the service a few figures may be presented. The total number of post-offices in 1895 was 70,064. The extent of post routes 456,026 miles, of which 171,212 were railway routes. The revenue of the department was about $77,000,000, and expenditure $86,800,000, showing a deficiency during that year of $9,800,000. Nearly every railroad in the country carries mail matter, in other words, is a mail route. Besides these rail routes there are nearly 300,000 miles of route over which mail is carried by stage, waggon, or on horseback. Wherever there are settlements in the most remote parts of the country their mail is carried to them, and in many places at heavy expense, exceeding many times the receipts from such routes. The business of carrying mails in the more tliickly settled parts of the country is an extremely profitable one to the United States Government. At the present postal I'ates, viz. two cents per ounce for written matter, the mail transportation between the great cities and through the thickly settled north-eastern states would pay immense dividends to any company which might possess such a francliise. On the other hand, the losses from carrying the mails by waggon road, and to sparsely settled and remote regions, are sufficient in amount not only to offset the profits in the thickly settl ^ parts of the country, but to create the large annual deficit above mentioned. 4 i^ TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 421 f the )Oii a r the from te the ;ented. 0,064. which of the iditure ^-ear of ;s mail s these ite over rseback. te parts n many receipts thickly »rolitable present matter, ties ami js wouhl h might ;he losses sparsely lount not parts of cit above This enormous business is administered smoothly, promptly and efliciently, and probably with as great economy as would be exercised by a private company. Telegraph This agency for facilitating communication, whicli is so closely akin to the postal service, is in the United States carried on by a private corporation, at least practi- illy the whole system is in the hands of one company, that known as the Western Union Telegraph Company. There are a few small companies which maintain a few miles of lines and a few offices, but tliey are hardly to be mentioned in this connection, since so nearly is the whole business monopoHsed by the Western Union Company. To show the extent of the business of this company, which is probably the largest and most powerful corporation in the world, it may be stated that in 1895 it had 21,300 offices, operated 189,714 miles of line, and sent over 68,300,000 messages, nearly one to every man, woman, and child in the country. Its receipts in that year were $22,200,000 and its expenditure $10,000,000, showing a profit to the company of $6,200,000. These figures pve especially interesting when compared with the statis- tics of the postal service for their bearing upon the question of national control of these two branches of the public service. The Western Union Telegraph Company is managed with the utmost intelligence and efficiency, and except, perhaps, in the matter of its charges, no complaint is made against tiie way in wliich it serves the public. Telephone The teleplione business is also practically in the hands (if one company, the American liell Teleplione Company, m 'WfW ^ Mr ' 422 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL which has made a monopoly of it. This business has in the last few years grown to enormous proportions. In 1895 it had 867 exchanges and 243,432 subscribers, and operated 396,574 miles of line. The dividends paid during tliat year amounted to $3,340,000. Shipbuilding The statistics of shipbuilding show that in 1894 the total number of vessels constructed was 838, having a tonnage of 131,195 tons. Classified as to character of vessels they are as follows : — Sailing vessels : — Ships and barques Schooners .... Sloops, canal boats, and barges Steam vessels .... 3 253 289 293 Of these, thirty-nine vessels, having a tonnage of 51,470 tons, were constructed of iron or steel, the remainder being wooden. Banks In 1894 the number of national banks in operation was 3755. Their net earnings were $22,192,422, and they paid in dividends $22,101,910. The following table gives the liabilities and assets of the national banks in that year : — LlAIUMTIES. Capital Surjilus Undivided profits Circulation Deposits Duo to banks Other liabilities . Total $6f)8, 900,000 245,200,000 88,900,000 172,300,000 1,742,100,000 526,900,000 29,600,000 §3,473,900,000 las in . In ibers, 3 paid H the ving a iter of 3 53 189 !93 51,470 tnainder TKANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 423 Assets. Loans .... Bonds for circulation . Other U.S. lionds Stocks, bonds, etc. Due from banks . Real estate Specie .... Legal tender notes National bank notes . Clearing house exchanges . U.S. certificates of deposit , Due from U.S. treasurer Other sources Total . $2,007,100,000 199,600,000 2.'), 900,000 193,300,000 399,300,000 97,900,000 237,300,000 120,.^)00,000 18,600,000 88,r.00,000 4r), 100, 000 9,600,000 31,200,000 §3,473,900,000 The savings banks numbered, in 1894, 1025. Their deposits amounted to $1,777,900,000, and their surplus was $139,700,000. They carried undivided profits of $26,000,000, and had other habihties of $37,100,000. Besides tliese there were also numerous other banks operating under state charters and private bankers. m peration 22, and llowing 1 banks poo poo poo looo poo 1,000 ,000 Wealth The assessed vahiation of property in the United States, as given by the census of 1890, was about $25,500,000,000, on which taxes were levied to the amount of $470,000,000, which on an average was a little less than 2 per cent. Tliis included state, county, municipal, and school taxes, indeed, all direct taxation. Of the total assessed valuation about $19,000,000,000 consists of real estate, and $0,500,000,000 personal property, being about in the proportion of 3 to 1. It is well known that the value of personal property is about equal to that of real estate and improvements thereon, and the discordance between these two sets of \. iffPITTnr »■» 111 I 424 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL figures indicates the extent to which personal property escapes assessment in the states. The true valuation of property has been estimated by the United States census since 1850, with results as follo\A — < sus Year. 1850 . . . , 1860 . 1870 . 1880 . . . , 1890 . The following are the principal items of the estimate for 1890: — Estimated Valuation. Per Capita $7,135,780,228 83-08 16,159,616,068 5-14 30,068,518,507 7-80 43,642,600,000 8-70 65,037,091,197 10-36 Real estate and improvemcuts . Live stock, farm implements, and machinery .... Mines, quarries, and products on hand Gold and .silver coin and bullion Machinery of mills and products on hand either raw or manufactured Railways and equipment . Telegraphs, telephones, shipping, and ;anals Miscellaneous Total .... .$39, 544, 544, 333 2,703,015,040 1,291,291,579 1,158,774,948 3,058,593,441 8,685,407,323 701,755,712 7,893,708,821 $65,037,091,197 Distribution of Wealth Of the distribution of this vast body of wealth among the people, a subject upon which much has been said and written in recent years, little that is definite can be affirmed. One thing is certain, that wealth is concen- trated in the hands of a few persons to a vastly greater extent than heretofore, and that this concentration is still going on at a rapid rate. Tliis does not mean that as the rich become richer the poor become poorer ; on the other hand, there is every reason to believe, both from argument and from statistics, that the reverse is the case, that as TRANSPORTATION AND COMMERCE 425 property aated by jsults as Capita. 53-08 5-14 7-80 8-70 10-36 estimate t4,333 15,040 91,579 74,948 93,441 07,323 55,71-2 08,821 91,197 lltb among In said and ite can be is concen- |tly greater :ion is still tbat as the the other argument l.se, tbat as the rich become richer the poor become richer also, though less rapidly. Certain it is that the poorer classes of society, in the United States at least, are in vastly better circumstances at the present time than they were a century ago, that the day labourer of to-day lives far better, and enjoys more of the luxuries of life, than the skilled labourer or clerk was able to afford in earlier times. On the other hand, the richer classes have become undoubtedly far more wealthy, not only ab- solutely, but relatively to the poorer classes. The number of millionaires has increased enormously, and out of all proportion to the increase in the wealth of the country as a whole. An estimate of the distribution of wealth made with some care, but which from the nature of things can lay claim to being little more than a guess, shows that GO per cent of all wage-earners owned less than $1000 worth of property each, 37*24 per cent owned property valued at between $1000 and $10,000, 2-47 per cent had from $10,000 to $100,000 each, 0-28 per cent owned between $100,000 and $1,000,000, while the millionaires constituted but one-hundredth of 1 per cent; that is, one wage -earner out of every 10,000 was possessed of over $1,0 00, 000, only twenty-nine wage-earners out of 10,000 owned more than $100,000 each, and fewer than three persons out of each hundred owned more than $10,000 each. Again, from the same estimate, it appears that the millionaires of the country owned only 5 'per cent of its entire valuation. Those who owned estates valued at between $100,000 and $1,000,000 possessed a total property amounting to 27 per cent of the entire valuation of the country, or a little more than a quarter. Another quarter was owned by those who individually had between $10,000 and $100,000, while tl.at class which possessed iii' 'ii liijl hi i'f'-'!'l! ( • P ! ^ ::! 426 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRArilY AND TRAVEL the largest proportion of the valuation of the country, viz. 37 per cent, was tliat whose individual holdings ranged from $1000 to $10,000. The poorest class, tlvat is those whose possessions were less than $1000 each, had a total holding amounting to 6 per cent of the entire wealth. The United States probably contains the largest number of wealthy men of any country in the world, and most of them live in a princely way, compatible with their immense possessions. Their homes, most of them in or near the large cities, principally in and about New York, are veritable palaces ; indeed, few kings and princes of Europe could afford the lavish scale of expenditure and the magnificent establishments which these princes of industry can command. ■ r : i m \Mk l' j^ y, VIZ. ranged l^at is h, had entire iiS< largest L'ld, and Le with ►f them it New princes ^nditure princes CHAPTEE XIV ALASKA Position and Area This territory of the Ignited States lies detached from the main body of the country, occupying the north- western portion of the North American continent. On the north it is washed by the waters of the Arctic Ocean, on the west by those of Bering Sea, and on the south by the Pacific. The eastern boundary is the 141st meridian of longitude west of Greenwich, from the Arctic Ocean to a point ten marine leagues from the Pacific Ocean, but thence southward and eastward the boundary is unsettled, being defined in the following terms in the treaty of purchase of the territory from Eussia : — " Commencing from the southernmost point of the island called Prince of Wales Island, which point lies in the parallel of 54° 40" north latitude, and between the 131° and 133° of west longitude . . . the said line shall ascend to the north along the channel called Portland Channel, as far as the point of the continent whore it strikes the 56° of north latitude. From this last-mentioned point the line of demarcation shall follow the sunmiit of the mountains situated parallel to the coast as far as the point of intersection of the 141° of west longitude. . . . " That whenever the summit of the mountains which ill' -f f m ! ■ : 428 COMI'KNDIUM OF (lK()(iI!Al'IIY AND TKAVEL extend in a direction jnirallel to tlie coast from the 56° (if north latitude to the })()iiit of intersection of tlie 141° of west Ionian tude sliall prove to be a distance of more than ten marine leagues from the ocean, the limit . . . shall be formed by a line parallel to the winding of the coast, and which shall never exceed the distance of teu marine lea^ijues tluirefrom." The interpretation of this clause of the treaty, and the demarcation of the boundary upon the ground, are at present matters of discussion between the United States and Oreat Jhitain, as rejiresenting the interests of Canada. 15ut little of Alaska has been explored, and its area even is only approximately known. It is conniionly put at 570,000 S(|uaro miles, but these figures may be in error to the extent of 10 per cent, owing to the uncertainty regarding the coast-line and the meridian of 141°. i ii pu B; i ! < f ' ' 1 : i ■ \ . \ : '■ \ 1 t ; i 1 1 1 ! 1: ' f ■ ■f The Coast The coast of South-eastern Alaska is an extremely broken one, and is bordered by many large and small islands, i'orming a veritable archipelago. The channels separating these islands are deep and tortuous, and from them the shores rise in steep, precipitous cliffs. The coast, both of the islands and of the mainland, is cut by deep fjords, extending far inland, thus affording ready access by vessel into tlie interior-. Farther westward the coast becomes somewhat more simple, and the islands bordering it less numerous. From the extremity of the Alaskan peninsula, and extending far to the westward, even to longitude 187°, stretches a chain of islands known as the Aleutian Islands. Most of these are of volcanic origin, and are, as will be shown later, simply the summits, of submarine mountains. ii ALASKA 429 tie r.G° i 141° f more it . . • ; of the of ten md the are at I States (yaiiada. its area )iily put y be ill certainty xtremely nd small channels xnd from I'he coast, by deep ly access lat more IS. From jxtendinf,' tretches a IS. Most )e shown Ins. The west coast of Alaska is, in the main, low, and is cut by deep bays and sounds, making it somewhat complex. The northern, or Arctic, is so far as known (piite a simple coast, containing few harbours of im- portance. Alaska was purchased from Eussia by the United States in 1867, the price paid being $7,200,000. Topographic Features The Cordilleran mountain system, which in the United States is of great breadth and height, narrows rapidly northward as it passes through British Columbia, and enters Alaska with a greatly reduced breadth. It follows the Pacific coast closely as it swings around to the west, and the main body of this mountain system occupies the Alaskan peninsula. It finally disappears in the sea at the extremity of this peninsula, its summits only reach- ing the surface in the islands which form the chain known as Aleutian Islands, which extend westward fron- the end of the peninsula. The whole of South-eastern Alaska, in which term is included the area lying south and east of jNIount St. Elias, is a mountainous region ; indeed, the Cordilleras not only cover the whole breadth of this region, but they extend far to the eastward into Canada in this latitude. In this part of Alaska the mountain system is extremely irregular, being broken by numerous inlets ex- tending into the coast at directions more or less at right angles to it, and by many streams which head far to the eastward in Canada. Still there is in the system a general parallelism to the coast. Through most of this region the mountains do not exceed 7000 or 8000 feet in altitude, but they increase 11 : T "'f f f . I 1 I' 430 compp:ndium of ceocuaphy and travel iiortli-westward, roaching, in tlu^ iieii^libourhood of Mount .St. Elia.s, tlie gruatest altitudes found on tho Nortli American continent, Mount St. Elias itself having an altitude of 18,100 feet, thus exceeding in height Mount i'opocatapetl in Mexico by a few hundred feet. In the neighbourhood of Mount St. Elias are many high peaks, some of them in Alaska, others in Canada, which rival MOUNT ST. ELIAS, ALASKA. St. Elias in altitude, and it is possible that summits may be found in this neighbourhood which exceed it. Earther to the westward and south-westward the mountains, as a whole, diminish in altitude, althougli there are among them many notable peaks, but, in the absence of definite information regarding their altitudes, it is scarcely advisable to go into details regarding them. Many of these peaks have been active volcanoes in recent times, and, indeed, volcanic action is still going on in several of them. ALASKA 431 VTount North iig an Mount 111 the peaks, ;h rival This great mountain, St. Elias, which rises ahnost directly I'roni the sea, has long been an object of envy to mountain -('linil)ers. Many have atteini)ted its capture, but all attempts prior to the summer of 1897 re.sulteil in failure. It is not only the great height of the mountain above its base, i.e. sea-level, and the fact that it is covered from base to summit witli ice and snow, but the diHiculties of approaching it. It involves a journey of seventy-five miles over glaciers, interrupted by I'requent ice falls and their attendant crevasses, tlie fording of numerous glacial streams and the danger from falling avalanches. Animals cannot be used upon this journey, but everything necessary for subsistence must be carried upon the backs of men. These difliculties, coupled vvitli the fre(|uent snowstorms wliich prevail all the year in high altitudes in this latitude, have brought failure to all expeditions prior to the one referred to. In July ol 1897, rrince Luigi, of Savoy, with a party of Italians, landed upon the shore of Yakutat Uay, made the long journey to the base of the mountain and ascended it, reaching its summit in the following month. 1 B " L *"i irif i ii Is ill! % Glaciers ^lits may rard the lalthougli It, in the Altitudes, ivT them. r tanoes in [going on This mountainous region of Alaska, and especially the region about St. Elias and thence south-eastward for many miles, presents us with the greatest glaciers upon the continent. Indeed, they are only exceeded in the northern hemisphere by the Greenland ice cap. From near the summits of the St. Elias group to the coast, for ;)0 miles or more in breadth and 100 miles in lenuth, parallel to the coast, the land is covered by one great ice-field, the Malespina glacier, which is fed by numerous ice -streams flowing down the gorges of the m -w ■'' ii? iMm 432 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL mountaius. This is probably the greatest of glaciers of this region. It is described by Mr. I. C. Eussell in the National Geographic Magazine, vol. iii., as follows : — "This is a plateau of ice having an area of between 500 and 600 square miles, and a surface elevation in the central part of between 1500 and 1600 feet. It is fed by the Agassiz, Seward, Marvine, and Hayden glaciers, and is of such volume that it apparently has displaced the sea, and holds it back by a wall of debris deposited about its margin. All of its central portion is of clear white ice, and around all its margins, excepting where the Agassiz and Seward glaciers come in, it is bounded by a fringe of ddhris and by moraines resting on the ice. Along the seaward border the belt of fringing moraines is about five miles broad. The inner margin of the moraine belt is composed of rocks and dirt, without vegetation, and separated more or less completely into belts by strips of clear ice. On going fi;om the clear ice to the margin of the glacier one finds shrubs and flowers scattered here and there over the surface. Farther seaward the vegetation becomes more dense, and the flowers cover the whole surface, giving it the appearance of a luxuriant meadow. Still farther toward the margin dense clumps of alder, with scattered spruce trees of larger size, form a veritable forest. That this vegetation actually grows on the moraines above i living glacier is proved beyond all question by holes and crevasses which reveal the ice beneath The curious lakes scattered abundantly over the moraine-covered areas, and occupying hour -glass -shaped depressions in the ice, have already been described. " From the southern end of the Samovar hills, where the Seward and Agassiz glaciers unite, there is a com- pound moraine stretching southward, which divides at ALASKA 433 lie iciers of 11 in the lows : — een 500 [1 in the [t is led glaciers, displaced deposited 5 of clear ng where 5 bounded n the ice. ; moraines ;in of the s, without [etely into le clear ice ^nd flowers Farther and the ippearance ihe margin trees of vegetation glacier is [sses which scattered occupying e already ^lls, where is a corn- divides at its distal extremity, and forms great curves and swirl- like figures, indicating currents in the glacier. " All the central part of the plateau is, as already stated, of clear white ice, free from moraines ; at a distance it has the appearance of a broad snow surface. This is due to the fact that the ice is melted and honey- combed during the warm summer, and the surlace be- comes vesicular and loses its banded structure. A rough, coral-like crust, due to the freezing of the portions melted during the day, frequently covers large areas, and resembles a thick hoar-frost. Crevasses are numerous, but seldom more than a few feet deep. They appear to be the lower portions of deep crevasses in the tributary streams which have partially closed, or else not completely removed by the melting and evaporation of the surface. " Many of the crevasses are filled v/ith water, but there are no surface streams and no lakes. Melting is rapid during the warm sunmier days, but the water finds its way down into the glacier and joins the general sub- glacial drainage. It is evident that the streams beneath the surface must be of large size, as they furnish the only means of escape for the waters flowing beneath the Agassiz, Seward, and Marvine glaciers, as well as for the waters formed by the melting of the great Malaspina glacier. " The outer borders of the Malaspina glacier are prac- tically stationary, but there are currents in its central part. Like the expanded ends of s^me of the Alpine glaciers, as the Galiano and Lucia glaciers, for example, this glacier is of the nature of a delta of ice, analogous in many of its features to river deltas. As a stream in meandering over its delta builds up one portion after another, so the currents in an expanded ice-foot may now follow one direction and deposit loads of cUbris, and then 2f t " 1 : i jr ■ :i It if' ; J ■ lli'i ,■ ) '■ ; ;;! ' / ill! !:■■ ! • "i' 434 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL slowly change so as to occupy other positions. This action tends to destroy the individuality of moral nal belts and to form general sheets of debris. The presence of such currents as here suggested has not been proved by measurements, but the great swirls in the INfalaspina glacier, and the tongues of clear ice in the upper portions of the dihris fields on the smaller glaciers, strongly sug- gest their existence. " The Malaspina glacier is evidently not eroding its bed ; any recordr that it is making must be by deposition. Should the glacier melt away completely, it is evident that a surface formed of glacial ddbris, and very similar to that now existing in the forested plateau east of Yakutat Bay, would be revealed." Another glacier which is much better known because it is upon the track of tourists to South-eastern Alaska, is that which bears the name of Muir Glacier, named after the well-known Professor John Muir. This lies farther to the south-east, at the head of Glacier Bay, adjoining Lynn Canal on the west. It occupies a depression in the mountains about 35 miles long and from 6 to 10 miles wide. It is fed by a great number of tributaries from all sides, the actual surface of the glacier covering about 350 square miles. This glacier has been visited and studied by many glacialists, among them Eev. Geo. F. Wriglit and Harry Fielding lleid. The regular steamers from Juneau to Kadiak and the Aleutian Islands pass the foot of this glacier, and it has become one of the best known of the many scenic attrac- tions of Alaska. Upon the Alaskan peninsula and many of the Aleu- tian Islands are volcanoes, some of which are still active, while many others have shown signs of volcanic activity since the time of settlement of this region. During llie ALASKA 435 This iseuce )roved jrtions T SUi ing Its lositioii. evident siniili^i' east of because aaska,is lied after s fartlier adjoining ssion in 6 to 10 ibutaries coverin;j; n visited Kev. (^'Co. I and tiie lud it bivs lie attrac- the Aleu- Itill active, Ic activity )uring t\\e salt half of the eighteenth century, the period of early occupancy of the region by the liussians, records of eruption in this region are very frequent, and scores of mountains are known to have shown signs of volcanic activity. Tn recent years they have become less frequent, showing that their activity is diminishing. Northward from these higher ranges the country gradually descends in a succession of lower ranges, trend- ing in a general way parallel, that is, nearly east and west, to the valley of the Yukon. In this region there are reported to exist several groups of very high moun- tains, among them one between the forks of Copper Eiver, LLq highest summit of which, known as Mount Wrangel, is reputed to be 19,400 feet in lieight. Another group of very higli mountains is reported about the head of Sushitna Kiver, with a summit, Mount M'Kinlej', said to be upwards of 20,000 feet high. The region lying be- tween the Yukon and the Arctic coast is, in a bvoad, general way, a plain, although it is broken by ranges and groups of hills of no great elevation. Along the coast, especially about the mouth and lower course of the Yukon, and in the neighbourliood of the Arctic coast, are vast areas of tundra, frozen marsh, covered with mosses, wliieh in the summer time melts at the surface, making travel almost impossible. It is only in the winter time, when hard and covered with snow, that travel through these regions is at all expedient. The Yukon Tlie great river of Alaska is Die Yukon, 2000 miles in length ; indeed, this river in len,<;th, drainage area, and volume of water, is worthy of ranking among the great rivers of the globe. Its head is in Britisli Columbia, 1 ! Ji !:P '5 Mm friH 436 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TKAVEL near latitude 59°, thence it flows north- west with a very sinuous course, rapids alternating with long stretches of comparatively dead water, until it reaches the Arctic Circle. There, being joined by the Porcupine, its largest branch, it turns to the south-west, and, still with the same crooked course, finally reaches its moutli in Bering Sea in latitude 62^°. Its mouth is one of the largest deltas which is yet known, having numerous long and intricate downward branches, ranging in length Irom 50 to 64 miles. The Yukon is navigable for canoes and mackinavvs from very near its head to its mouth. Steamers ascend it to the upper Eamparts, some distance above the eastern boundary of Alaska, a distance of approximately 1500 miles. Owing to bars at the mouth of the river, making the entrance shallow, vessels of small draft onlv have as yet been used upon the stream. The following description of the Yukon is taken irom a recent publication by the U.S. Geological Survey : — "The Yukon is generally a broad and muddy stream, flowing with a current of three to nine miles per hour. Occasionally it runs in a narrow, rocky canon, cut tlu'oiigh lava, or across low mountain ranges, and such places are locally called * ramparts.' For the most part, however, its valley is wide, and the stream often spreads out into many channels, with low, wooded hills between, the whole covering a width said to reach ten miles in places. Although it is frozen up during eight months of the year, from October until June, its imptjrtance as a means of transporting supplies can liardly be over- estimated." Tlie principal tributaries to Yukon Eiver within United States territory are, from the north. Porcupine Eiver, which heads near the mouth of Mackenzie Piver ALASKA 437 L very stches Arctic le, its I, still mouth one of nierous length ;kina\vs ascend eastern y 1500 making have as ien from stream, 3er hour, ^"lon, cut nd such st part, preads jetween, miles in lonths of tance as be over- within ^orcupin*' Izio Kivei' I 31 and flows south-westward, joining Yukon River at Fort Yukon ; and Koyukuk lliver, which heads far north of the Arctic Circle, and, after a long south-western course of 500 or 600 miles, joins the Yukon at Nulato ; from the south the principal tributary is Tanana River, which heads in the high mountains, with Copper River, and flows north- westward, joining the Yukon near St. James Mission. This territory contains several other rivers (jf importance. Among them are Copper River, wliich heads in the high mountain group about Mount Wrangel, and flows into the Pacific near Prince William Sound ; Sushitna River, which heads in the high mountain group of which Mount M'Kinley is the sunmut, and flows south into the head of Cook inlet ; Kuskokwim River, which heads, according to native accounts, near the head of Sushitna River, and flows by a long south-east course into Bering Sea. In South-eastern Alaska the rivers are generally short, and are navigable only near their m">uths. Two of tlieni only, the Stikene find the (laku, are known to head beyond the crest of the mountains immediately joining the coast. The Chilcat River is a considerable stream, which flows into the head of Lynn Canal after a course of perhaps one hundred miles in length. Climate — Temperature , Alaska extends from latitude 52° nearly to 72, and from the l.'JOth meridian west to tlie 187th, inchuling the chain of the Aleutian Islandh The mainland, however, is limited on tlu west by the i.ieridian of 168°. Extending over such a vast range of latitude and of longitude it is natural to expect a correspondingly wide range in the elements of climate, temperature, and rainl'all. m M V- \ [i I ■ ■! ii i !; %-' ii'i, I'r i 438 COMPENIVIUM Ob GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL The shores of South-eastern Alaska are bathed by the Jajjan current, and are thereby made much warmer, especially in the winter time, than is the corresponding latitude on the Atlant " side of the continent. Moreover, the temperature is remaikably uniform summer and winter, as is naturally to be expected, since it is almost an insular climate. The mean annual temperature at Sitka, the capital of the territory, is 45° Fahrenheit, the mean tem- perature of summer is 55° and of winter 35°, showing a range of but 20° between winter and summer months. These figures represent very well the temperature of this part of the territory. At Kadiak, in the same latitude, and 18° farther west, the mean annual temperature diminishes to 38°, while that of the summer falls to 50° and that of the winter to 26°. Farther northward more Arctic conditions prevail, the temperature diminishing much more rapidly than would be expected from the increase in latitude. In the interior the mean annual temperature is, of course, lower than on the sea coast, and, moreover, the extremes of temperature are much greater, the winter colder, and the summer lieat more intense. Rainfall Little is known regarding the rainfall of any part of the territory excepting South-eastern Alaska. Here it is lieavy, partaking of the characteristics of the rainfall of the Pacific coast, with a long wet season and a short dry season, lasting from May to the first of September. The rainfall at Sitka averages 80 inches per year. The entire southern coast of Alaska is a very foggy coast ; indeed, fogs prevail there during at least nine months of the year. Of the rainfall of the interior of Alaska little or nothing is known. It is, of course, much less than ALASKA 439 by the rarmer, londing )reover, winter, insular ka, the an tein- owing a months. > of this latitude, perature LS to 50° evail, the would be lire is, of over, the [Q winter upon the south-eastern coast, and probably less than upon the Arctic coast. History The original sources of information concerning this north-west coast are shrouded in obscurity. Indeed, it was for a long time not known whether America and Asia were connected or not. The first definite information which the world obtained regarding the coasts of Alaska was derived from the first expedition of Bering, a German who was connnissioned by the Emperor of Itussia, Peter the Great, to undertake an exploring expedition. Travel- ling across Siberia on foot, he arrived in Okhotsk about 1739, and constructed at that point two vessels in which lie sailed northward to Xamschatka and through the Straits of Bering, thus demonstrating the separation of the two continents. Shortly after, in 1741, followed his second voyage in two ships, which were piously christened the >S'^. Peter and St. Paul. The ships were separated early in the voyage ; one in command of Chirikof discovered the mainland of Alaska, while the other, under Bering, discovered and landed on Kayak Island and other islands of the Aleutian chain. Toward the close of this voyage Bering died and was buried on the island, which has since borne his name. The discoveries of Bering were at once utilised by scores of Kussian traders, who visited the coast in their vessels, purchasing furs and shipping them at first with great profit ; but the competition became so intense that the profits were reduced, and one after another the various traders combined or succumhed to the competition. Finally, in 1797, the Kussian American Fur Company was formed, and it secured a monopoly of all the trade of Alaska. The liistory of that region hum that time until i . I '1; II 1 1 .'I i m Wit V^ ^! i ■ ■' "1 i : , n a 440 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL it was acquired by the United States in 1867 is little more than the history of this great company. The first manager of this company after it attained to importance was Baranof, who took charge of it in 1790. Meantime, however, in the years which had elapsed since the discovery of the country, its fur trade had been vastly developed, many trading posts had been established, and, perhaps the most important of all, the fur seals had been traced to their summer homes on the Pribylof Islands, St. Paul and St. George, and an extremely profitable trade in fur seal skins had been established with China and Japan. Baranof established a station, which has since grown to importance, on the island of Kadiak, which was one of the earliest and most important of all trading stations on this coast. From the Aleutian Islands and the Alaskan peninsula Baranof extended his operations south- eastward into the archipelago of South-eastern Alaska, and in 1800 founded the station at Sitka. Not contented with this he pushed the liussian frontier soutliward, even down to tlie California coast, although his occupation of posts in this region was but temporary. During the early part of the present century many land explorations were made by Russians, by which the course of the Yukon was pretty well determined, the Copper and Tanana Rivers, and the leading features of the Alaskan peninsula and the country immediately eastward, together with most of the coast of South-eastern Alaska, became pretty well known. After the death of Baranof the management of the company was in indifferent hands for several years, but finally it was taken by Baron Wrangel, whose name is almost as prominent in early Alaskan annals as Baranof's. He it was who finally adjusted the differences which had arisen between the Russian American Fur Company on U' I ALASKA 441 little first tance itime, overy Loped, DS the ed to il and ir seal grown as one tations id the south- ka, and ntented cd, even ition of many ich the ed, the nres of ediately -eastern of the ars, hut lame is iranof's. ich had any on the one hand, and the Hudson Bay Company on the other, on a basis which prevented further trouble during the existence of these two great fur companies. His successors have left their names upon the natural features of the territory, but have left few other signs of their regime, until we come to Tebenkof. Tebenkof is princi- pally known from tiie fact that he collated the results of all the explorations which had been made in the territory up to his time, and published them in the form of an atlas of Alaska, which is even to-day the principal source of information regarding the territory. Although much of its coast-line had been explored or surveyed by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, and although numerous expeditions have traversed the interior, still the sum total of the information furnished by them is by no means equal to that collected by Eussian expeditions and collated by Tebenkof in his classic production. In the last year of the Civil War, 1865, the Western Union Telegraph Company conceived the plan of con- structing a telegraph line through what is now British Columbia and Alaska, across to Asia by way of Bering Strait, and thence through Siberia to Kussia. In pur- suance of this project explorations were carried on on the Lower Yukon and in South-eastern Alaska, and the work of construction commenced, but the success of the trans- atlantic cable, which o curred in the midst of this work, put an abrupt stop to it. Then came the transfer f the territory to the United States, and as a consequc e of this transfer the disposal of the rights and privileges of the Eussian American Fur Company. These were purchased by Mr. H. M. Hutchinson, who subsequently l)ecame one of the leading spirits in the Alaska Fur Company, which for many years had control, under the United States Government, of the fur seal trade in Alaska. 11 \r :! n'l ( 442 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAl'lIY AND T1JAVP:L m .i'l§\\. Ill i s Fauna hen Alaska was acquired by the United States the ritory was ahnost in a state of pristine wildness. .llthoii«fh the llussians liad in a way occupied it and utilised its resources for more than a century, they had induced little change in the habits and customs of its people, nor liad they made serious inroads upon the life of the region. At that time the fur seals were numbered by millions. The sea otter and silver-gray foxes, whose skins in those days were worth their weight in gold pieces, were extremely abundant. The latter frequented tlie whole southern coast from Dixon entrance to the western end of the Aleutian chain, while land otters were found over ,'dl parts of the territory excepting the northern coast. The range of the silver-gray fox included nearly the whole territory. Besides this species, the white, or Arctic fox, l)lue fox, cross fox, and red fox, were everywhere common. The mink and marten were also extremely abundant, their range being almost coincident with the territory. The polar bear was and still is abundant on the Arctic coast, while everywhere in the territory, and especially on the southei-n coast, are found black and brown bears. The last is the largest species known to naturalists. Almost fabulous stories are told of the brown bear of Alaska. The sea abounded in fish, codfish, halibut, and salmon, and in the spawning season the rivers were choked with multitudes of the latter. The low grounds along the coast of }3ering Sea, especially in the neighbourhood of the delta of the Yukon, were the nesting-places of countless millions of sea birds. Indeed, the animal life in this region, especially in the summer, was most numerous and varied. Scarcely a generation has passed but a great changti ALASKA 443 ,es the Idness. it aiul ey had 1 of its the !ifc inhered J, whose 1 pieces^ ted the western •e found irn coast. lie whole rctic fox, common. .hundaiit, territory, le Arctic cially on rs. The Ahnost aska. sahnon, iked with ting Bea, lie Yukon, sea birds. lly in the lit changt' has been produced during tliat time by the infhix of Americans. Tlie fur seal is tlireatened with extinction. Foxes, sea otter, mink, and marten, whose skins have been eagerly sought for, have become very scarce. Bears are comparatively seldom met, owing eitlier to a great reduction in their numbers, or possibly to a wliolesome respect among them for repeating lire-arms. The sea- fowl have notably diminislied, and the catch of salmon is becoming smaller year by year. The reindeer, which during the Russian occupancy were very abundant, being found in herds in the interior, have become almost extinct, and an effort is now being made by the United States Government to domesticate this animal upon the i.slands of the Aleutian chain. Several importations have been made I'rom the Siberian side of Bering Sea, the eflbrts apparently being successful. The Fur Seal The only fur seals known to exist in the northern hemisphere at present inhabit, during the breeding season, certain islands in the Bering Sea. These islands are in two groups, one of which form a part of Alaska, and are known as Pribylof Islands. It consists of the two islets of St. Paul and St. George, and these were by far the most important in the number of s(;als which frequent them. The other, known as the Commander Islands, belong to Russia, and are situated in the western part of Bering Sea. During the i'all, winter and early spring, the seals are in the open sea, their range extending as far south as San Francisco Bay. They return to the islands in June, where the females bring forth their young and remain with them until they are able to undertake the long annual journey southward, upon which they start generally in September. Shortly after the „-''1" fi Itiiiife'i 444 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKArilY AND TKAVEL United States ol)ti lined p( session of Alaska it proceeded to make regulations regarding the seal life upon the Pribylof Islands, in order to preserve it, while at the same time oljtaining a supply of seal skins. In pursuance of this it entered into a contract witli the Alaska Fi.r Com]>any, by wliich it gave that couipany a monopoly of the fur seal, in exchange for which the company paid into A yvn SEAL RitOKEUY, I'RIIiVLol-' ISLANDS, ALASKA. the Treiisurv of the Ignited States a certain amount for each skin, and bound itself to kill annually not more; tlian 100,000 seals, all of which were to be males above a certain age, the liollusclnckie, as the young, full-grown males are called. For many years, indeed, up to 1890, this contract was carried out, and both parties to the agreement profited greatly thereby, while the seals remained (piite as inunerous as e\er. I I;: ALASKA 445 ;eded I the t the nance I Fur oly of d into i3l«»« The seals upon landin*;- on tlie islands ,uronp them- selves, the females occui)yiiig certain rookeries year after year, to which they are accompanied hy the old males, each of which had a liarem consisting of several females. On these rookeries frecpient combats take })lace for the possession of the females, so that these old males are FAMILY OF FUK SEALS, PHIBYLOF ISLANDS, ALASKA. lunt for )t more- ls aV»()Ve ll-UTown 1800, to the le, seals covered with scars, recording famous struggles in which they had been engaged. The young males, wlio are, un- al)le to cope with tlie older males, occupy rookeries by themselves at some distance, and it is from these rookeries, thus occupied exclusively l)y young males, tliat the annual kill is taken. AVlien the time arrives tliese rookeries are surrounded by natives, and the seals wliicli are selected for slaughter are driven inland, care being .* V rPi • it F •i i i L t; ! 446 COMPENDIUM OF GEOl^RAPHY AND T15AVEL talcen not to overheat them by rapid driving. Finally having reached a point out of sight of the rookery, where the fate of their fellows could not be seen by the survivors, they are knocked on the head and their skins removed. The skins are salted, dried, baled, and shipped to San Francisco, thence to London, to be plucked and dyed and thus made ready for the market. It is a singular fact that all this preparation of skins is carried on, not in the United States, where it would be natural to expect it, but in London, so that the greater part of the work involved in the preparation of seal skins is done in England, and, it may here be added, the greater part of the profits of the fishery go to that country. During this period of shore life of the seals both males and females make short excursions into the sea for the purpose of feeding, but seldom of more than a day's duration, the cares of her family requiring the almost constant presence of the female, while the responsibilities of his harem require the presence of the male. A few years ago it was discovered that seals could be captured in the open sea, and immediately numerous vessels were fitted out, both by Americans and Canadians, for this fishery. This business has played great havoc with the seals, their number having been reduced thereby from 4,700,000 to about 200,000 in the past five years. This mode of catching them is extremely wasteful of seal life, as for every seal caught several are injured or destroyed. Moreover, this mode of slaughter does not discriminate between sex or age. Females are killed quite as freely as males, and thus the chances of increase of the herds are reduced. Furthermore, the mothers of pup seals are killed, entailing the loss of the young. Early in the progress of this slaughter the United ALASKA 447 lally ^here ' tlie skins and be arket. :ins is lid be rreater 1 skins id, the ,0 that Is both sea for a day's almost ibilities iould be PJLinerons Ing. United States protested to the British Government against per- mitting Canadian vessels to engage in it, taking the gronnd, first, that the Bering Sea was a closed sea, over which the United States and llussia had jurisdiction ; second, that tlie seal herds which frer^uented the Pribylof Islands were United States property, on the same tooting as the cattle which range upon large w'estern ranches. To consider this matter a joint commission was formed, which sat at Paris in 1893. The conclusions it reached were that Bering Sea w^as not a closed sea, and that the United States could not claim ownership in the seals. This commission provided, however, for regulations regarding the destruction of seals in the open sea, w-hicli regulations were put into effect the following season, but proved to be of absolutely no avail. The destruc- tion is still going on, and before the end of the century it is probable that fur seals will be as scarce in the North Pacific as they are now in the southern seas. Flora South-eastern Alaska, as the narrow strip of coast and fringing islands on the south-east are called, having a comparatively warm climate and abundant rainfall, is covered with a dense forest growth up to an altitude of 2500 or 3000 feet, which in this latitude is the timber- line. This forest belt extends north-westward, gradually diminishing in luxuriance, as far as Kadiak Island. Here it suddenly stops, the country to the westward being practically treeless. Inland the forests extend to timber- line, while in the low country on the north of the mountains, where the rainfall is much less, the timber growth becomes scattered and interspersed with great areas of tundra. The stream valleys in the interior are .a mmn j ! J ■ . - .. . f '.i I 448 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL commonly well wooded, but timber is scaut upon the liigher ground. The prevailing tree of Alaska is what is known as the Sitka spruce. This covers most of South-eastern Alaska, and is found in the main body of the territory for some distance north of the Yukon, although among its forests are interspersed large areas of tundra. Tlie latter forma- tion, upon' which mosses grow most luxuriantly, covers much of the low country of the main body of Alaska, in- cluding the northern part of the Alaskan peninsula, most of the coast region of Bering Sea, especially about the mouths of the Yukon, where it covers a vast area, while tlie whole northern slope, to the Arctic Ocean, is one huge field of tundra. In South-eastern Alaska there are some areas of more Viduable timber, as the yellow cedar, but altogether the timber resources of the territory are not great, and it will probably never figure as a source of supjJy for other regions. Population The population was enumerated in 1890 by the eleventh census of the United States. The total popula- tion of the territory, including whites and Indians, was 32,052, of which 19,248 were males, and 12,804 were females. Of the total number only about one-eighth, viz. 4298, were white, and of these nearly nine-tenths were males; 1823 were of mixed blood, and 23,531 comprise the entire Indian population. The remaining inhabitants were mainly Chinese and Japanese. The Indian population is mainly scattered along the coast and upon the Lower Yukon. They inhabit the coast even as far north as Point Barrow on the Arctic Ocean. The whites are mainly found in Soutli-eastern Alaska, Indeed, out ALASKA 449 n the as the Jaska, • some forests forma- covers ika, iii- a, most )ut the I, while ne huge of move her the 1 it will )r other by the popula- ans, was 4 were •eighth, ^e-tenths 23,531 imainiug se. The last and jell as far |e whites leed, out of the whole nuinber 1738 were found in this part of _Jaska, 1105 in the Kadiak district, wliich includes the remainder of the southern coast, while the rest of the whites were scattered widely over the west coast and the interior. Tiie principal white settlements were Juneau, population 671 ; Sitka, population 280 ; Douglas, popula- tion 356, all situated in South-eastern Alaska; Karluk, population 391, and Kadiak, population 127, upon the southern coast, farther to the west ; and Topof Island, population 135, one of the Aleutian Islands. This was the condition in 1890, eight years ago. Since then the situation has greatly changed. The discovery of placer gold upon the Yukon and its tributaries, in the neighbourhood of the boundary line between the United States and Canada, has drawn tliousands of people to that neighbourhood I'rom all over the earth, has built up a number of mining towns ; while upon the coast, at the terminus of trails to the in- terior, are thousands of people, as at Dyea and Skaguay, in tciuporary towns, waiting for the opening of the trails in order to make tlieir way to the mining regions. The population of the territory has probably been increased by 10,000, and during the coming summer in all probability scores of thousands will be added to its inhabitants. Resources The fur trade in Alaska has fallen off greatly in recent years, and is rapidly becoming a matter of little importance. Its fisheries are very valuable, and on the whole bid lair to liold their own for many years to come, alt\..ugh in all probability the cream of the salmon Hsiier) '-IS already been skimmed. Tliere are several 2g 1 ! i ; 1 i' I;'}!'":. r .. ! v.; ( iri: ^1' iii^^ ■wk 450 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGEAPHY AND TRAVEL ; • If-,-. . canning establishments upon the southern coast, which are carrying on a large business. Mineral Resources — Coal The principal mineral resources of Alaska consist of coal and gold. The former is found in many and widely separated localities, but i"- 'nined mainly near the coast. It is of Eocene or early lertiary age, and consists of varieties of lignite, or brown coal, and glance coal. That north of Bering Strait, in the vicinity of Cape Lisburne, whose existence has been known for some years, is believed, however, to be of greater geologic age, although not so old as Carboniferous. The coals of Alaiika are of inferior quality, but occurring in a region far removed from other sources of supply, they will doubtless prove of incalculable benefit to the territory when it shall become settled. Their location is as follows : — Upon the east side of Admiralty Island, at the head of Davis Creek, some forty miles north-east of Sitka, is a deposit from which perhaps some 100 tons of coal have been taken out. On Cook inlet is the Kenai coalfield, the largest and most important known in Alaska. It is situated on the Kenai peninsula, where the coal seams are exposed in high bluffs, and in all cover an area seventy miles long by thirty wide. From this deposit several shiploads of coal have been taken. Upon the south s'ul-^ of the Alaskan peninsula, at Amilik harbour, is a small coal seam of excellent quality. Coal seams occur on tlie north side of the island of Unga, in the Shumagin group, which have been worked to some slight extent since 18G5. This coal is of poor quality, but it has been utilised for local purposes. A coal seam has been mined ALASKA 451 lich st of idely wast, its of That 3i\rne, ieved, not so to a small extent upon a stream flowing into Chignik Bay, on the south side of the Alaska peninsula. Upon a point which separates Herendeen and Moller bays, on the north side of Alaska peninsula, is a small coalfield about four miles square, from which several tons have been taken out. In the Alexander archipelago, as the islands of south- eastern Alaska are collectively called, coal occurs in many places ; also upon the coast between Cape Spencer and Cook inlet, and at many points in the Aleutian Islands ; and upon the coast and islands of Behring Sea. Coal is also found at several localities in the lower valley of the Yukon within United States territory. ) .. ! i^ y, but cces of benefit Their Gold Gold has been mined for several years in south- eastern Alaska, most of it being derived irom vein deposits. The principal centres of mining this class of deposits are at Juneau, upon the mainland, and upon the west side of Baranof Island, not far from Sitka. At the latter point is located the well-known Treadmill ndne, from which has been taken some seven million dollars worth of gold from an ore carrying but $o'20 per ton. These deposits are in metamorphic slates and granite, similar to the auriferous rocks of California. During the past few years prospecting has been going on actively in the interior of Alaska, and the pi'ospectors have been rewarded by discoveries of constantly increas- ing value. The early discoveries were made in the valleys of tlie Yukon and the small branches of that river, near the boundary line lietween the United States and Canada, some upon one side, some upon the other. It was not, however, until the fall of 1890 that any I' .'ft!;,' .! !! mi n ■ I ! J I I •ill li > 452 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL great discoveries, sufficient to attract the attention of the world, were made. At that time a discovery was made of an extremely rich placer ground in the lower valley of Klondike Eiver, which enters the Yukon a short distance above the boundary in Canadian territory. Steamers returning to the States in the summer of 1897 brought news of this great discovery, and with the news came millions in gold dust. This news created a great excitement, and, in spite of the lateness of the season, which made it well-nigh impossible to reach the mines before frost should close navigation upon the river, thousands of people left their homes for this new El Dorado. Outfitting in San Francisco, Portland, or Seattle, they took steamer, most of them, for the head of Lynn Canal, whence are the shortest routes to the gold- fields. A few of them succeeded in getting through. Many of them returned, but the larger part of them remained at the landing-places, which became known as the towns of Dyea and Skaguay, awaiting opportunity to cross the mountains. Meantime, the excitement has not expended itself upon the Klondike, but prospecting, stimulated by these discoveries, is being carried on with great energy in all parts of Alaska. The placer grounds, so far as known, in this region are upon Klondike Kiver and its branches. Forty Mile, Sixty Mile, and Birch creeks. They are found near the base of the river gravels, covered over by detritus for a greater or less depth, even to twenty or more feet. To get to the bottom of this gravel deposit, or gold-bearing strata, is an operation of great difficulty in this region, owing to the fact that it is constantly frozen from th? top to the bottom. Upon such a mass gunpowder and dyna- mite make no impression, and the only feasible way so far discovered is to build fires upon it, and by this slow ALASKA 453 f the nade alley short itory. 1897 news great eason, mmes river, 5 new lid, or lead of i gold- [irongh. f them lown as uity to has not pecting, Dn with region y Mile, lear the lis for a let. To ibearing region, th3 top id dyna- ly so far ki3 slow process soften the ground. Still, even under such adverse circumstances, the deposits are so rich that miners have made fortunes in a single season. Routes to Goldfields There are several routes to the Alaskan goldfields, which differ in length and practicabiHty. The easiest route is by steamer from Pacific ports to St. j\Iichaels, at the moutli of Yukon Eiver, and thence up the river by steamer. Its length is about 4000 miles, including about 1300 miles up the Yukon to the goldfields, and the time required is about forty days. As may be supposed, this route is not a popular one, owing primarily to its length, but most of the freight for the gold country takes this route. The Skaguay, or White Pass, route is by steamer through the inland passages of south-east Alaska to Skaguay, at the head of Lynn Canal, thence by trail. In passing, it may be said that there are at present, it is estimated, 8000 people at Skaguay, waiting for opportunities to cross the mountains. From this place a trail crosses the mountains at White Pass, 2400 feet above sea-level, and 18 miles distant from Skaguay. From the sumndt to Lake Bennett, where the traveller can take to the river, is 17 miles, making a total of 35 miles of travel on foot. Over this distance all baggage must be packed, either by man or beast, and the supply of beasts is at present utterly inadequate, and the trail was, in the autumn of 1897, well-nigh impassable by reason of mud. At Lake Bennett, or Lake Lindeman, close by, boats are built, and the remainder of the journey is made by the river. This is a vastly more direct route than that via St. Michaels, but the length of time occupied in mm " i: : I:' II' 1 1 i';-' 1 i! ; t'h • -■» ^f 454 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL travelling it depends entirely upon the condition of the trail and of the upper river. It requires but three days to reach Skaguay from Seattle, and the land trip may be made in an equal time, with good luck. The journey down the stream may be made in a fortnight. The Dyea or Chilcoot Pass route uses an old trail which has long been used by the Indians, and is the shortest route to the headwaters of the Yukon. Dyea is situated at the head of Lynn Canal, four miles from Skaguay. From this point the trail goes up Chilkoot Pass, at an elevation of 3500 feet, a distance of 13 miles. From the summit to Lake Lindeman is 15it miles, making a total land journey of 28^ miles only. Although the elevation of the Pass is considerably greater than that of White Pass, the trail is in much better condition, and at ordinary times of the year it is much more passable. A suspended tramway for the trans- portation of goods over the Pass is now (1898) under construction. From Lake Lindeman the rest of the journey is made by boat. A fourth route is via Chilkat Pass, or the Dalton route. Tins route is from a point near the head of Lynn Canal, thence over Chilkat Pass, at an elevation of 3000 feet, thence overland in nearly a direct line to the Yukon at Fort Selkirk. It is largely an overland route, and possesses no especial advantages. The Stikine route is by boat up Stikine Paver for 150 miles above Fort Wrangell, to Telegraph Creek, thence an equal distance north-westward to the head of Teslin Lake. The ascent of Stikine Eiver is difficult, owing to the swiftness of the current and frequency of rapids. From Telegraph Creek to Teslin Lake the trail passes through a countiy easy to traverse. The remainder Jli! !000 THE i. ^''■ Jlii f m I L I ? m ffljfe/. LaiulaD :' THE TERRITORY OF L^H ! li ALASKA 455 of the route, with the exception of two or three short carries, is by boat. The Taku route ascends Taku inlet, in South-east Alaska, and thence crosses directly to Lake Teslin, a distance of 185 miles. From that point on, it is identical with the Stikine route. Still another route has been proposed, which is entirely inland. From Edmonton, the terminus of a branch of the Canadian Pacific Railroad, on the Saskatchewan liiver, the route is by stage, 40 miles, to Athabasca landing, and thence, by canoe, 1850 miles, down Athabasca, Slave, and Mackenzie rivers, to Fort Macpherson ; thence by I'eel liiver, and then a long journey of several hundred miles, through an unknown country, between Peel Paver and the Klondike, packing one's outfit. Another projected route follows up Copper Eiver for a short distance, then, leaving it, crosses overland in a north-easterly direction. From what is known, this route has little to recommend it. Of all the routes above outlined the two by the White and Chilkoot passes are unquestionably the most practicable, as well as the shortest, and doubtless will be those most used in the immediate future. In the coming year there is every probability that these trails will be traversed by the feet of scores of thousands of persons bound to this new El Dorado ; indeed, it is probable that the scenes of 1849 in California, and the early days in other puts of the west, will be repeated, on an even greater scale, in this region of Arctic snows. {[■i : 1 i 1 ■ 1 1 ■ . ' ■■"i ( il. (1 if' 1 . i 1 p V ! Is ' ■ 11 .1 I: i y.-.. - INDEX t I Absaraka Range, 35 Accessions of territory, 2S4 Adams, John, administration of, 304 Adams, J. Q., administration of. 308 Adirondack Mountains, New York, Adoption of the constitution, 301 Adventists, 201 Agassiz Glacier, 431 Agricultural implements, 3S7-i)l Agriculture, 355 Agriculture, department of, 338 Alabama claims, 330 Alal)ama iron mines, 133 Alabama privateer, 324 Alabama river, 400 Alaska, 427 area, 427 boundaries, 427 coast, 428 purchase of, 286 topography, 429 Albany, 224 Albemarle Sound, 3 Algonquins, 254 Alleghany plateau, 9 geologic age of, 120 Alleghany river, 401 Allen, Prof. J. A., 114 Alluvial region of Mississippi river. 121 Altamaha river, 400 Amagosa Range, 84 American Bell Telephone Companv, 421 * ^ American Fall iu Snake river, 37 Animal mounds of Wisconsin, 27 Antelo])e, 110 Anthracite coal, 129 Antietani, l)attle at, 323 Apaches, 252 Apalachicola river, 400 Appalachian mountain system, 4 Appalachian valley, 7 geologic formations of, Hi) Api)omatto.\-, surrender at, 329 Archean area, 118 Area of Alaska, 2 Area of the United States, 2 Arkansas river, 18, 21, 401 Army, 351 Asses, 3(31, 370 Assinaboins, 256 Atchafalaya Bayou. 19, 401 Atlanta, Georgia, 237 Atlantic plain, 13 geologic formation of, 119 Austriaus, 176 Aztec spring, ruins at, 280 Bad Lands, 30 Baker's Park. 60 Balance of trade, 415 Baltimore, 228 Banks, 422 Bannocks, 257 Baptists, 199 iJar Harbor, Me., 217 Barley, 360, 368 Barlow Fork, 36 Bears, 111 Bear's Paw Mountains, 32 |i! l^ ■! ;' :f- i ! j ■ I ! 1 Ik ■ ,( 458 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Bear river, 81 Beets, 379 Bennett, Lake, 453 Bering Strait, 4 Berkshire Hills, Mass., 13 Bighorn Mountains, Wyo., 39 Bighorn river, 39 Big Moccasin Gajs Va., 9 Big Sandy river, 401 liitter Root Mountains, 33 Hitiiniinous coal, I'iO Black CaTion. 78 Black Hills, S,D., 29 mines of, 144 structure of, 122 Blind, 211 Blockade of southern pm'ts, 319 Blue Ridge, 4 Bohemians, 176. 181 Bonneville, Jiake, 84 Hook cutis, 07 iidot and shoe manufacture, 387, 393 Boroughs, 345 Boston, 224 Jioston massacre, 296 Boston, Mass., harliour. 3 Bridal Veil Fall, Ynsemite, 94 Brighani Young, 204 British, 170, ISO liryn Miiwr College, 19G Buckwheat, 300, 309 Bud^'et, 347 Jlndalo, 111, 112 Butlalo, N.Y., 242 JiuHalo F(nk, 30 I'.ulVah. Peaks, 57 Bull Klin, battle at, 317 Bnnker Hill, battle of, 293 Bureau of navigation, 338 CAinNKT, 337 Cacti, 109 Caddoes, 257 California (Jnlch, Colorado, 137 Califiirnia gold mines, 1 l(t Caldbrnia, ITnivtrsity of, 195 Canadians, 170, 180 Canals, 402 Canons of Green and Colorado rivers, Ot> Cape Fear river, 400 Capitol, Washington, 230 Carolinas, settlement of, 293 Carrying trade, 398 Cars, manufacture of, 387, 390 Cascade Range, 32, 87 Cataract Canon, 68 Catholics, 198 Catskill Mountains, N.Y., 13 Cattle, 361, 370 Census otfice, 338 Central park, N.Y., 223 Centre of population, 155 Clianeellorsville, battle at, 326 Charleston, S.C., 235 Chattahoochee river, 400 Clierokees, 255 Ciiesapeake Bay, 3 Cheyennes, 253 Chicago, 238 Chicago University, 195 Chickasaws, 256 Chilcoot Pass, 454 Chilkat Pass, 454 Chinese, 103, 172, 176 Choctaws, 256 Church couMnunicants, 197 Cincinnati, 0., 242 Circuit courts, 342 Cities, 344 improvements in, 161 names of, 116 plans of, 100 ruined, 102 Civilised tribes of Indian territory, 263 Civil service, 340 Civil war, 313 Clark Fork of Columl)ia livcr, 32 Cleveland. 0., 212 Clitr-.hvellings, 2Sl Climate of Alaska. 437 Clinton, Sir Henry, 2'.>n Clothing, manufactuie of, 387, 38ii Coal, 128 Coal in Alaska, 450 ( 'oa^t, 2 Coast and geodetic survey, 338 C'oast ranges, 32, 94 Co-education, 193 College's, li)3 Ctdleges for women. 106 Colonies, union of, 295 Colonisation, 292 INDEX 459 33 ,390 13 ,328 97 ian territory, I liver, 32 ) of, 387, 38!t ,'ey, 338 •6 Colorado Chiquito river, 62 Colorado Desert, 8-1 Colroado Range, 53 Colorac'o river, 27, 402 Coiuanches, 257 Commerce, 395 CoiTistock Lode, 136 Coney Island, 218 Congress, 311 Connecticnt river, 15, 400 Constitution, adoption of, 301 Consumption, 208 Continental Divide, 60 Continental Olarier, 12 1 Columbia College, 195 Columbia river, 402 Copper, 146 Copper river route, 455 Cordillera, 26 Cordillera, geologic formation of, 121 (.'ornwallis, surrender of, 300 Cotton, 360, 361 Counties, 344 Coyotes, 112 Creeks, 256 Crime, 299 Cripple Creek, Colo., 144 Crows, 256 Cultivated land, 358 Cnnilierland i)lateau, 9 geologic age of, 120 Cumberland river, 401 Daiiiy products, 376 Dalvotas, 252, 256 Dalton route, 454 Deaf and dumb, 211 Deatli rate. 208 Death v'allcy, 84 Deer bodge Pass, 33 De Lacy, Capt. W. W., 40 Delaware Bay, 3 Delaware river, 15, 400 Denver, Coin., 244 Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, 408 Deseret, Utah, 204 Detroit, Mioh.. 242 Detroit river, 23 Dirty Devil river, 62 Disciples of Christ, 200 Discovery, 291 District courts, 343 District of Columbia, government of, 343 Drummond, Lake. 15 DuluMi. Minn., 24 i Dunkards. 201 Dutton. Maj. C. E., 69 Dyea, 454 Eads, J. B,, iiiiiirovement of Mouth of Mississij)pi, 20 Edmunds Bill, 206 Education. 192 Bureau nf, 338 nigher. 193 Eggs, 377 Elbert Peak, 59 Election districts, 344 Electoral coiiiniission. 331 Elevation of United States, 95 Elk, 111 Elk Mountains, 59 Emancipation proclamation, 324 Episcojtaliaiis, 200 Erie Canal, 403 Erie, Lake, 22 Evans Tass, Wyo., 53 Executive, 3.'i(! Executive dejiartiiients, 337 Ex|iendiLure of government, 347 Exports, 414 Extent of country, 284 Faihohoind circle at Newark, 0., 275 Fair Oaks, battle of, 322 Fall Line, 14 Farm products, value of, 359 Farms, area of, ;556 number of, 35() ownership of, 358 size of, 356 value of, 359 Far Hockaway, L.I., 21 Fauna, 110 Fauna of Alaska, 442 Feeble-minded, 211 Firehole river, 4S Fish Cominissi,,;i. 339 Fisheries of Alaska, 449 Flagstaff, Ariz., 80 Flint river, 400 I" i',' f: \ : mf • 1- j 1 ip; 460 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Flora, 107 Flora of Alaska, 447 Florida i)urclia.se, '285 Florida, topography of, 16 Flour milling, 387, 38'J Foreign-born population, 176 age, and sex, 183 eonunerce, 413 distribution of, 178 illiteracy of, 183 moral and social conditions, 183 occujiatious of, 182 Forests, 102 Forests of Alaska, 447 Forests of north-west coast, 104 Fort Selkirk, 454 Fort Sumter, 314 Fort Wrangell, 454 Forty Mile Creek, 452 Fredericksburg, battle at, 323 Fremont, T'apt. J. C, 35 French, 176 Settlement, 294 Fruit, 380 Fur seal, 443 GALr.ATix river, 33 valley, 34 Galveston, Texas, 238 Gasconade river, 402 (ieological survey, 338 Geology, 118 Georgia, Settlement of, 203 Germans, 176, ISO Gettysburg, battle at. 329 Geyser Basins, 45 Geysers, 42 Gila river, 62 Glacial plienomcna, 124 Glaciers of Alaska, 131 Glen Canon, 68 Goat Island, 23 Goblin citv, Colo., 31 Gold, 13'.r lields of Alaska, 452 routes to, 453 in Alaska, 451 Government, 334 (irand Canon of the Colorado, 69 (Jraud Canon of Yellowstone, 49 Grand Island, 23 Grand river, 56, 62 Grand Wash, 77 Grapes, 380 Grassy Cove, Tenn., 9 Gray Peak, Colo., 53 Great Basin, 32, 80 structure of ranges of, 123 Great cities, 159 Great Dismal Swamp, Va., 14 Great Falls of the ^lissouri, 34 Great Lakes, 21 Great Northern Glacier, 17 Great Pedee river, 400 Great Plains, 17, 20 geologic age of, 121 Great Salt Lake, 27, 82 Great Vallej', 16 Greenhorn Mountains, 54 (rreen Mountains, Vt., 13 Green river, Ky., 401 Green river, Utah, 61 Green river basin, 67 Greylock, Mt., Mass., 13 Gros Ventre Creek, 36 Gulf of Mexico, coast of, 3 Guyandot river, 401 Hamptox Roads, naval battle in 320 Harvard, Mount, 59 Harvard University, 194 Hay, 377 Haydcn, Dr. F. V., 35 Haden (41acier, 431 Heart, Lake, 48 History, 291 History of Alaska, 439 Hoback river, 36 Hogbacks of Colorado, 123 Hogs, 361, 375 Holy Cross Mountain, 58 Homestead laws, 287 Horses, 361, 369 Hospitality, 215 Mot springs, 42 Howe, Sir Wm., 29S Hudson river, 15, 400 Humboldt river, 28, 82 Humidity, 100 Hundreds, 344 lluiigariaas. 176 Huron, Lake, 22 Hydraulic mining. 142 IXDCX 461 Illinois river, 402 Illiteracy. 191 Iniiiiigratioii, 1(55, 173 Imiiorts, -114 limuguration of governiiu'iit, 302 Income of government, 347 Indianapolis, 239 Indian corn, 360, 367 ollice, 338 policy, 260 reservations, 262 area of, 272 territoi'y, 264 wars, 250 Indians, 250 characteristics of, 258 classirication of, 254 number of, 271 progress of, in civilisation, 273 sniijiort of, 272 Industrial j)eriod, 307 insanity, 211 Interior building, Washington, 232 Interior department, 338 Intermarriage between whites and Indians, 274 Internal commerce, 416 Interstate migration, 184 lowas, 256 Irisn, 176, 180 Iron, 132 manufacture, 387, 390 mines of Lake .Superior region, 132 Iroquois, 254 Irrigation, 381 Italians. 176, 181 Itasca, Lake, Minn., 18 Ives, Lieut. J. C, 64 Jack Rauhit, 115 Jackson, administration of, 308 James river, 16, 4(iO James river campaign, 322 Jamestown, Vii., 292 Japanese, 103 Jell'erson, administration of, 304 Jetferson river, 33 Jews, 201 Johns Hojikins University, 195 Johnson, inipeacliment of, 330 Judiciary, 342 Justice, department of, 338 Kaihai, plateau, 69 Kanawlia river, 4ol Kansas city, Mo., 24 1 Katahkin. Mount, Me., 13 Kaws, 256 Kendall Green, Washington. 234 Kennebec river. Me., 15, 400 Kentucky river, 401 Killingtou Peak, Vt., 13 King, Cla-ence, 37 LATtorn, department of. 339 Lafourclie Kayou, 19, 4(il Lake Superior region, iron mines of, 132 Lan.l o!iice, 338 Language, 213 La Data, Mount., 59 Laramie plains, 52, 55 Larande range. 53 Lassen Teak, 90 Lava fields, 124 Lead, 146 Leiidvillc. Colo., 137 Leland Stanford, Jr., University. 195 Lexington, skirmish at, 297 Liberty caj), 44 Licking rivcr, 401 Life-saving service, 338 Lighthouse Board, 338 Lincoln, Abraham, 313 assassination of. 329 Lincoln, Mount. 57 i^inileman. Lake. 453 Little Rocky Mountains, 32 Live .stock, 361. 369 Llano estac ido. 21, 30 Locomotive. . 387, 390 Lnng Island, battle of, 298 Long peak. Colo.. 53 Lookout .Mountain, battle of, 326 Los Angeles. California, 249 Louisiana purclia-e, 284 Louisville. Ky.. 239 Lower Fall of Yellowstone, 49 Lower Ceyser l?asin, 47 Luigi, Prince, 431 Lundier manufacture, 387, 388 Lumber regions 104 i B w tl'- ■til: WW 462 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGKAPIIY AND TRAVEL H--- :ii,' Liiray caves, 9 Lutlieraiis, 200 Lynn Canal, 453 M'Clellan, Gen. G. B., 318 M'Kinley, Mount, 435 Mackinac, Straits of, 22 Madison, administration of, 305 Madison river, 33 Magisterial districts, 344 Maize, 3f)0, 3(37 Males] lida Glacier, 431 Mammoth Hot Springs, 43 .Manassas, liattle at, 323 Mandans, 256 Manhattan beach, 218 Mansfield. Mount, Vt., 13 Manufactures, 384 Marble Cafion, 08 Marcy, Mount, N.Y., 11 Marvine Glacier, 431 Maryland, settlement of, 293 Massachusetts Bay Colony, 292 Massive, Mount, 59 Mauvaises terres, 30 Maximilian's Coiujuest of Mexico, 330 Meat-i«acking, 387, 388 Mrrrinuw, iron ship, 320 Methodists, 19!) Mexican ('essions, 286 Mexican War, 310 MeZ(|uite, 110 Michigan lake 22 Michigan State University, 195 ^Middle Park, 55 Milk river, 21 Militia, 352 Militia districts, 344 Milwaukee, Wis., 243 Mimlius Mountains, 60 Mineral resources, 126 Minneapolis, Minn., 243 Mississippi river, 17, 401 Mississipjii vallev, geologic age of, 120 Missouri compromise, 303 Missouri iron mines, 134 Missouri range, .32 Missouri river, 18, 20, 33, 402 Mitchell, .Mount, 5 Mobile, Alabama, 237 Mobile river, 400 Moki Indians, 257, 266, 270 Molasses, 379 Money, 349 Monitor, 320 Monongahela river, 401 Monroe, administration of, 307 Monte Diablo, 95 Mormons, 202 Mortality, 207 Monnd builders, 275 Mounds at St. Louis, 277 Mountain sheep. 111 Mount Desert, Me., 217 Muir Glacier, 434 Mule i\^(ir, 111 .Mules, 361, 370 Murfi-eesboro, battle of, 325 .Muskingum river, 4U2 Muskogees, 256 N.\TloNAL banks, 350 National debt, 347 Native-born whites of foreign parent- nge, 187 Nativity of population, 173 Natural ga,s, 149 Nauvoo, Ills., 203 Navigable streams, 399 Navy, 352 Navy Department, 338 Neches river, 401 Negroes, 163 characteristics of, 1C6 distril)ution of, 166 illiteracy of, 168 moral and social conditions of, 170 mortality of, 169 occupations of, 168 Neuse river, 400 Nevada Fall, Yosemite, 94 New England Coast, 2 New Orleans, La., 235 New Orleans, battk. at, 319 Newport, 11. 1., 217 New York City, 220 New York harbour, 3 New York iron mines, 133 New York, settlement of, 293 Niagara Falls, 23 Niagara river, 23 Niekajack cave, 9 ? ; INDEX 463 Norfolk, Va., 234 Norris basin, IS North America, 1 N(jrth Anna, battle of, 327 Northern Aiipahiuhians, 11 North Park, 55 Nullification, 309 Oats, 360, 368 0<,'(leii river, 81 Ohio river, 18, 21, 401 OJos ('alieiites, N.M.. ruins at. Okefinokee Swamp, Ga., 14 Old Orcliard Beach, Me., 217 Omaha, Neb., 244 Omahas, 256 Ontario, Lake, 22 Orange dill's, 67 Oranges, 380 (Jriginal area, 284 O.sage river, 402 Osages, 256 (Hiacliita river, 401 ')uray. Mount, 59 Ozark lulls, 16 Pacific coast, 3 Pacilic valley, 94 Paiiites, 257 Pamlico river, 400 Pamlico Sound, 3 Paiiamint Piange, 84 Paria river, (i2 Parishes in Louisiana 344 Park Range, 57 I'arks of Colorado, 55 Parochial sclmols 193 J'atent Office. 338 PaniiciisMi, 210 Peak', Dr A. 0. 50 Pearl river, 401 Pension Oflice, 338 Pensions, 353 Pennsylvania iron mines, 133 Pennsylvania, settlement of, 29'' Penobscot river. Me., 15, 400 Petroleum, 147 Pliiiadeli)liia, 225 Pig-iron, 134 T'ike, Maj. Z. L., 53 Pike Peak, Colo., 53 Pittsburgh, Pa., 242 li 280 Placer mining, methods of, 142 Plateau region. 32, 61 Platte river, 21 Plymouth, 292 Pneumonia, 208 Pocosins, N. C, 14 Poles, 176, 181 Political i)arties, 345 Poncas, 256 Population. 151 density of, 152, 154 elements fif, 152 rate of increase uf, 152 Pojiulation of Alaska, 448 Porcujiine I'iver, 436 Port Hudson, capture of, 325 Portland, .Me., harliour, 3 Portland, Oreg., 249 Postal Service, 420 Post Oftice Department, 339 Potatoes, 378 Potomac river. 1 6, 400 I'ottery manufacturi', 393 Poultry, 377 Powder rivei', 3!' Powell, Maj. ,). W., 64, 66, 73 Praiiie dogs, Hi' Precious -nictal mining, results of, 145 Pre-emptiim laws, 287 Prehistoric remains, 274 Presbyterians. 199 President, method of electing, 337 Princeton, battle of, 299 Princeton, Mount, 59 Printing, 387, 392 Prisoners, 209 Private schools. 198 Privateers, Confederate, 324 Providence, 225 Provo river, 81 Public lands, 286 Pueblo Indians, 266 Puget Sound, 3 QUAKEHS, 201 Quandary Peak, 57 Qua] aws, 25t) Quicksilver, 149 Railuoad land grants, 287 Railroads, 403 tl i| ill i nk •f''1 I - i f i ■1 ' ; I , !(■■■ I m HI ii i :%.:, Jl 464 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL IJiiilroads, ownership of, 405 Piaihvay statistics, 412 Railway travel, comforts of, 406 Railways, scenic, 407 Rainfall, 96 Rainfall of Alaska, 438 Rainier, Mount, Washington, 88 Ranches, 370 Rajjpahannock river, 400 Red river, 18, 21, 401 Reli-ion, 196 Religious denominations, 198 Representatives, House of, 341 Resources of Alaska, 449 Revenue Marine, 338 Revolution, 296 Rice, 379 Richmond, Va., 235 Rio Grande del Norte, 56, 401 Roan Mountain, 5 Roanoke river, 16, 400 Rochester, 224 Rocky Mountains, 32, 52 Rocky Mountain goats. 111 Round-up, 373 Rubber numufacture, 387, 393 Ruins in south-west, 279 Russians, 176, 181 Rye, 360, 369 Sabine river, 401 Hacraniento river, 402 Sage brush, 108 Saginaw Bay, 22 St.' Clair Lake, 22 St. Clair river, 22 St. Klias, Mount, 430 St. Frain'is river, 401 St. John river, Florida, 400 St. Louis, 240 St. Marie river 22 St. Michaels, 4.'')3 St. Paul. Minn., 243 Salmon River Mountains. 33 Salt, 149 Salt Lake City, 245 Salton lake, 86 Samovar hills, 432 San Antonio, Texas. 237 San Diego harbour, 4 San Francisco. 245 San Francisco Bay, 3, 95 San Francisco forest, 105 Sangre de Cristo Range, 54 San Joaquin river, 402 San Juiin JMountains, 59 San Juan river, 62 San Louis Valley, 56 Santa Fe, N.M., 248 Santee river, 400 Saratoga, battles at, 299 Sault Ste. Marie, 22 Savannah, capture of, 329 Savannah river, 16, 400 Sawatch Range, 58 Scandinavians, 176, ISO Schools, common, 192 Seattle, Washington, 248 Sfcininale war, 251 Senate, 341 Settled area, 156 Seven Pines, battle of, 322 Sevier river, 82 Seward Glacier, 431 Sex, 157 Shakers. 201 Shasta, Mount, California, 88 Shavano, Mount, 59 Sheep, 361, 375 Sheridan, Mount, 48 Sherman's march to the sea, 328 Shiloh, battle of, 319 Shipbuilding, 422 Shipping, 395 Shoshone Falls, 37 Shoshone Lake, 48 Shoshones, 257 Sierra Blanca, 54 Sierra Magdalena, 60 Sierra Mateo, 60 Sierra Nevada, 32. 89 structure of, 123 Silver, 135 coinage of, 331 Sioux, 256 Six nations, 251 Sixty Mile Creek. 452 Size of families, 157 Skaguay, 452 Slaughtering, 387, 388 Slavery, 31] Slaves, 164 Smith, Joseph, 202 Smithson, James, 339 n INDEX 465 Smithsonian Institution, 339 Snake river, 33, 36, 402 Snake river plains, 36, 38 Social conditions, 191 Social customs, 212 Soldiers' Home, Washington, 232 " Soo " Canal, 402 South Park, 56 South Pass, La., 20 South Pass, Wyo.,35 Spanish bayonet, 109 Spanish Peaks, 54 Spottsylvania, battle of, 327 Squaw man, 265 Staked Plains, 30 Stamp Act, 296 State debts, 349 State department, 338 State govennueut, 343 States, areas of, 290 States, formation of, 288 States, subdivisions of, 344 States, union of, 300 State, War and Navy Building, Washington, 232 Steel, 135 Stikiue Route, 454 Stillwater Canon, 68 SutlVage, 345 Sugar, 379 Summer resorts, 216 Superior. Wis., 244 Superior, Lake, 22 Supreme Court, 342 Suscpiehauna river, 16 Sweet potatoes, .'{78 Sweetwater Valley, 39 Swiss, 176 Tacoma, Washington, 248 Taku Route, 455 Tejon Pass, 89 Telegraph, 421 Telephone, 421 Temperature, 100 Temj)erature of Alaska, 437 Tennessee iron mines, 134 Tennessee river, 401 Ten-itorial government, 343 Teton Range, 36 Texas, accession of, 285 Textile manufacture, 387, 392 Timber-line, 104 Three Buttes, Idaho, 39 Tobacco, 360, 363 Tobacco manufacture, 387, 393 Toledo, Ohio, 242 Tond)igbee river, 401 Tongue river, 39 Towns, 344 Townships, 344 Transportation, 395 Treasury, Washington, 231 Treasury departnumt, 338 Trenton, battle of, 299 Trinitv river, 401 Tundra, 435 Uinta Basin, 67 Uinta Range, 28, 67 structure of, 123 Uinta river, 61 Union Pacific railroad, 407 Union of the States, 300 Unitarians, 201 United States, 1 area of, 2 geological survey of the territories, 42 Universities, 193 University of Pennsylvania, 195 Upper Kail of Yellowstone, 48 Upper (leyser Basin, 45 Urban population, 158 Utes, 257 Van Bphen, adnnnislration of, 309 Vassar College, 196 Vernal Fall, Yosemite, !t4 Veto power, 342 Vicksiinrg, capture of, 325 Vigilance cnnimittees, 141 Virgin river, 62 Virginia city, Nevada, ^ ^7 Virginia iron mines, 1' Volcanic action, 121 Warasm river, 401 Waccamaw river, 400 War department, 338 War of 1812, 305 Wards, in I/iiiisi;ina, 344 Wasatch ilauge, 27, SI structure of, 123 2 II I mm ^Bf''- i II ': 1 ■ '■\ % 4G6 COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL Washbuni party, 42 Wasliington, 229 Washington, administrations of, 303 Wasliington, George, 297 Washington, Mount, N.H., 13 Water gaps, 9 Wealth, 423 distribution of, 424 Weather bureau, 338 Weber river, 81 Welland Canal, 402 Wellesley College, 196 Western Union Telegraph Company, 421 West Virginia iron mines, 133 Weyer Cave, 9 Whalebacks, 397 Wheat, 360, 364 White House, Washington, 232 White Mountains, N.H., 13 White Pass, 453 White Pine, 104 White river, Ark., 401 White river, Utah, 61 Wliitney, Prof. J. I)., 90 Wilderness, battles of, 327 Willamette river, 402 Williams river, 62 Wind river, 39 Wind river range, 35 Wine, 380 Winnebagoes, 2.56 Woreester, 225 Wrangell, Mount, 435 Yalk, Mount, 59 Yale University, 195 Yanipa river, 61 Yazoo river, 401 Yellow Pine, 104 Yellowstone Canon, 49 Yellowstone Falls, 49 Yellowstone Lake, 33 Yellowstone Park, 40 Yellowstone river, 21, 33, 402 York river, 400 Yosemite Fall, 94 Yosemite Valley, 90 Yucca, 109 Yukon river, 435 Zinc, 147 Zones of elevation, 95 Zuni Mountains, 60 THE END Printed by R. & R, Ci.akk, I.imitkd, lidinbinxh RE-ISSUE OF STANFORD'S COMPENDIUM OF GEOGRAPHY & TRAVEL RE-WRITTEN AND ENLARGED WITH NEW ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS In course of publimtio,,, ami to be compleled in , 2 Vols. r 'it [ 2 ] Large Cnnvu ^vo^ Cloth, 15.V. AUSTRALASIA VOL. I. AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND BY ALFRED R. WALLACE, LL.D., D.C.L., I'.R.S. AUTHOK OF "the MALAY AKCIIII'ELACJO," " GEOGRAI'HICAL OlSTRlliUTION OK ANniALS," ETC. IVITH 14 MAPS AND 69 ILLUSTRATIONS Contents: — Australasia — I. Introduction. Australia and New Zkaland — II. The Physical Geography and Climate of Australia — III. The Natural History of Australia — IV. The Geology and Past History of Australia — V. The Australian Aljorigines — VI. The British Colonisation of Australia ; The Discovery and Exploration of the Country — VII. Material Progress of Australian Colonies — VIII. The Colony of New South Wales — IX. The Colony of Victoria— X. The Colony of South Australia— XI. The Colony of West Australia — XII. The Colony of Queensland — XIII. The Colony of Tasmania — XIV. Physical History of the New Zealand Group — XV. The Colony of New Zealand. Maps : — A Chart of Australasia, showing the Depth of the .Sea — Physical Map of Australasia — Geological Map of Australia — Australia and Tasmania, with Explorers' Routes — New South Wales — Victoria — South Australia, •Southern Part — South Australia, Northern Part — Western Australia, Southern I'art — Western Australia, Northern Part — Queensland — Tasmania — New Zealand, North Island — New Zealand, .South Island. Illustrations : — New Zealand Chief — A IJurial in the Australian Steppes — Mount Kosciusko — An Australian River Scene — A Woodland — Eucalyptus aniygdalina — Eucalypti — Kangaroo — Bass River Opossum — Native Pear with Young — Wombat — Varri — Duckbill — Lyre-Bird — Emu — Laughing Jackass — Que(>nsland Native — Australian Aboriginals and Hut — Native Woman — Junction of the Murray and the Darling — Cooper's Creek — Entrance to Port Jackson — The Godarigby Caves near Kiandra — Eish River Cave — A Sharp Corner — Zigzag Railway in the Blue Mountains — The Heads, Sydney Harbour — Town Ilall, Sydney — Near Murrurundi — Summer on the Plains — Ealls in the Dividing Range — In the Mountains, Eernshaw — Railroad through the Gipps Land Eorest — -Houses of Parliament, Melbourne — Government House, Melbourne — Ballarat from Black Hill — Walhalla — Currency Creek — Mountain Pass in the Elinders Range — Peake Overland Telegraj)!! .Station — Cave, Mount Gambler — Perth — Government House, Perth — (jovernment Cottage, Rottnest Island — .Squatter's .Station, Darling Downs — Parliament House, Brisbane — Mount Wellington — -Hell's Gate — On the South Esk — Hobart — Launceston from Cataract Hill — Huka Ealls — (icysers on the River Waikato— White Terrace — Rotomahana — Mount Cook — Lake Scenery of the South Island — The Glacier .System of Mount Cook — The City, Milford .Sound — In Milford Sound — Nikau Palms — Carved New Zealand Chest — A Maori Dwelling — War Club of New Zealand — The Wharf, Auckland — Tongariru and Ruapehu Volcanoes — Waterfall at Wairau — The Avon at Christchurch. London: Edward Stanford, 26 iS: 27 Cockspur Strekj', S.W. Geographer to Her Majesty the Queen, D 5. S," ETC. Nkw [I— III. story of uion of Vlatcrial A'ales— '!5i-.i;.t' -V EUO ml m [ 4 I Large Crown Svo, C7o//i, i^s. AUSTRALASIA VOL. II. MALAYSIA AND THE PACIFIC ARCHIPELAGOES EDITED AND GKKATI.Y EXTENDED FROM DK. A. K. WAI.LACK'.S "AL'SI UAl.ASI A." BY F. H. H. (iUILLEMARI), M.A., M.D. Cantah. i,a1 k i.ectukek in rieookapiiv at tiik univeksity of camilmikie; author ok "the ckuise ok the 'makchesa,'" "life of ma(;ei.i.an," etc. W/7'// i6 A/JPS AND 47 ILLUSTRATIONS Contents: — Australasia — I. Introduction. Malayslx— II. General Features — III. The Philippine Tslands^ — IV. The Dutch Kast Indies — V. Java— VI. Sumatra— VII. Borneo— VIII. Celebes— IX. The Moluccas— X. The Le.sser Sunda Islands. Melanksia — XI. New Guinea — XII. Other Melanesian Islands — XIII. The Fiji Islands. IPolynksia- XIV. The Friendly and other Islands. MlKRONKSlA — XV. The Mikronesian Archipelagoes. Maps: — A Chart of Australasia — Chart of Submarine Bank of S.E. Asia — The Volcanic .System of Malaysia — Philippine Islands — Settlements in Malaysia — ^Java — Sumatra — Chart of Effects of Krakatau Eruption — Borneo — Celebes — Moluccas— Lesser Sunda Islands — New Guinea — The Solomon Islands — Fiji — The Pacific Islands. Illustrations. — Sultan of Sulu — A Negrito of Luzon — Manila Ilemj) {Miisa textilis) — Hut at Maimbun, Sulu Island — Native House, Java — Temple of l^oro-bodor, Java — Street in European Quarter, Batavia — Residence of Governor-General, Buitenzorg — Rajflesia Arnoldii — Palace of a .Sumatran Prince — Dyak Village — .Sandakan — Brunei — Kuching, Sarawak — Mt. Klabat, from Kema Bay — The Anoa {Anoa deprcssicornis) — The Babirusa {.Stts babirusa) — House of Raja of Goa, S. Celebes — Menado, N. Celebes — Moluccan Cuscus (C ornatus) — ^Wallace's Bird of Paradise — Coco-nut Grove, Ternate — Peak of Tidor from Ternate — Banda Volcano — Fruit of the Nutmeg — Royal Palace, Bali — Sultan of Bima, Sumbawa — Spiny Ant-eater {Proechidna)^\io\\ct of Amblyornis — A Papuan of Dutch New Guinea — A Papuan of Dorei Bay^ — Korowaar — Native of Heath Island — View in Waigiu Island — Papuan House, Dorei Bay — Natives of New Caledonia — New Caledonian Flute-player — Suva Harbour, Fiji — A Native of F'iji — A Native of Tonga Islands — Tongan Woman — Trilithon at Maui, Tonga Islands — Didunculus — View in Tahiti- Peak of Moorea, Society Islands — Ancient Stone Images, Easter Island — Head of Hemignathus. London : Edward Stanford, 26 & 27 Cockspur Street, S.W. Geographer to Her Majesty the Queen, [ 5 ] Specimen of the Page lilitstratio/is in Stanford's Compendium ^^ Malaysia.'' r,. , General ncUes— V. loluccas — Lll. Olhei le Friendly agoes. E. Asia— n Malaysia —Celebes Islands— hila IIcni\' ]a- -Teml'le ;sidence of Sumatran lit. Klabal, \is babiriisa) lean Cuscvis [e— Peak of ral raUice, Bower of lorei Bay— lan House, lyer— Suva ,s— Tongan in Tahiti— .nd— Head s.w. c 'A H ■Ji ■n ■J o H H [ ^ ] Larij^e Crown ^V(\ Cloth, Price 15^. AFRICA VOL I. NORTH AFRICA «i; ! »v A. H. KEANE, F.R.(;.S. WITH ^ MAPS AND 77 ILLUSTRATIONS Contents : -\. Introductory — II. Tlic Atlas kci^ion (Marocco, Algeria, Tunisia) III. Tripoiitana~-I\'. The Sahara — \'. The Hlack Zone : Wot, ("entral, and East Sudan — VI. Inlialiitants and .Stales uf Sudan — \'II. Italian Norlli-Kast Africa— \TII. Kyyi)t and Nuliia. Maps: — I'olitical Map of Africa -Marocco, Algeria, and Tunis — Tripoli — Egyptian Sud.an — French Sudan — lirilish Sudan — Italian North- East Africa- Egypt — Nubia. Illustrations: — Eruit- Seller of Cairo — Great Atlas — El Kantara — The Site t)f Carthage -Palms on the Tensift — I'.erher \'illage— Marocco Dwars — Street in Fez Tangier — Rabat — Kasbah Mogador — Tetuan — Tiie liardo— Tripolis — \'ie\v in the Libyan Desert — Murzuk — African MoulUon — Mizda — Tugiirt— Metlili -Tind)uktu Kabara Sandstorm (lazelle — Tuareg Berbers ^Trading Factory at Idda — The Niger at .Say Kong — Ilond)ori Hills — \'iew oil the Ui)per .Senegal -Conlluence of Niger and Henui — Lake Chad- Ant Hill Floating Islets on the Nile -Kola Nuts — Hananas -Hakvniceps Kex — Afric: Mumped Ox Hand)ara and Fulah Types — Sokoto — Hausa ToHce — Freeto, .1 — Krunien -Vain — Cape Coast Castle — L )s — EI Obeid- -A Miltu Woman — Hongo \'il!age — Makaraka Warrior — Massowa — Cape (iuardafui — The Sycamore — Coflce — Civet — Frankincense —Somali Man — .Sumali Woman — llamran Hedouin — Adua (Jondar Magdala -The Nile al Khartum — (ireat H.dl of Columns, Karnak— In the Nubian Desert Khartum — Port Said — Fennecs and Jerboa — Rock Temple of Abu-Simlwl — Fei!ah Ploughing Sawakin -( leneral \'iew of Cairo Tombs of the Califs — Slre<.t in Cairo — Nile near Assuan- Temple al I'hil.v Kasala. LoNnON : EdWAKIi SIANIOKI), 26 A: 27 COCKSI'I'K SlUKKI, S.W. Ceoj^raphcr to Her Majaty the Queen. [« ] /.(i/Xd C/'07i'fi .S7v>, Cloth, Price \ 5.V. AFRICA VOL II. SOUTH AFRICA I'.v A. \\. KKANK, F.R.d.S. Willi II MAI'S .IN/) 92 ll.l.USTKAThhWS Contents : I. i'lic Ciiiiutdoiis and Soiitli-l-'ast Atlantic Islands II. I'rcncli K(|iiatorial Africa ((ial)0()n and O^uway iJasins ; Lower Con^o) — III. Tlie Conjjo I'lcL- Stale \\ . I'oitiiL^iiosc West Africa (.\ni;f>la — Mon^^'ucla Mnssa- nifdes 1 linlcriand) \'. ( icrniaii Smilli - West .Africa (()vainiiu, Damara. and (Ireat iSi'aina(|ua Lands) \'l. ("ape Colony \'I1. South- I'iasl Africa (Xatal with Zuiidand ; < )rani^e {'"rcc State and Transvaal) -\' II I. I'.ritisli .South Central Africa IN. Portuguese Last Africa ((ia/aland ; .Mo/and)i(|iie) — X. Cernian Last Africa XL liritish Last Africa — XII. Islands in the Indian «)cean XIIl. The West African Archipelat^oes. Maps: ( )roj;ra|)hical .Map of Africa -( iernian Cameroon ('on};o I'ree Slate and I'rench Con^o ( iernian .SoutliAN ist .\frica Cape (,'oloiiy. Natal, < )ran}^e Lree .Slate Soulli .\frican Kepulihc, I)e<'huanalan(i, etc. — Rhodesia, I'.rilisii Ceniral Africa, and I'orlui^uese l'!asl Africa Cernian Last Africa — l>rili>h Last .\lrica .Mad;ii;ascar, Mamilius, etc. -West African .■\rchipe]at;oes. ///iistititions : " Chunia," Livingstone's Servant The ( ameroon Mountain lernando I'o janieslown, .St. lleU'iia Rapids of liie Oi^oway- I'alls of the l\indo Head of a ( iorilla Hippopotami Isho^os — .\ Iia-Teke Native \\aml)Utti I'yt^niies at Home \'iew of Loanj;o Native of ( ahinda \'illaj;e mi ihe Lower Aruwimi Stanley I'ool -Aellala lalls i'.anana I'liinl — Seventh Cataract, Stanley I'alls -Cascadi's of the Nepoko South iMid nl Lake Tanganyika llenlof I'".lephants liantu Tyjjcs Kavalli- The .'^on^ue Antelope .Sao i'aido di- Loanda Mossaniedes I'aiiks of ( )ranj;e River llithan)' ilill Damara ( )val ' rtro Woman Xama I iuls— ( (kalianja - Talile .Mountain from Taliie Lay The "llmu'nvl l''alls," ( Irai.j^e Ri\er — Zelira — The Secretary Hird .\ Kafn- Kraal Kalirs takiiij; .SiiuffCape 'I'own I'ort Lli/al>eth I )e lieers Mine, Kimlierley The \'aal River at I'aikly West .V /.uhi |oliamiesi)ur^ Pretoria Durlian and I'ort Natal- The Principal Streit o( Durlian Molojiololc Molopo River Pool on the Maritsaiii The Limpoiio River .Masinya'.s Kraal, X^amiland Ruins at Zimliahye - Salisliury Two-l lorned Rhinoceros (iiraOes IJIanlyre Chur* h — /ainhesi a! Shupant^a \'iuein ol Madagascar Tamalave Chanarel l-'alls, Mauritius limchal The liiirnin;; .Mountain, Lan/arole Peak of Teneriffe- Las Palmas. LoNiMiN : IlitUAKh Sr.\M'oKl>, 26 \ 27 C(ii KsriiR Stkkkt, S\V. Cii'Oi;t\ip> r to //.;• Maj<\ty t/ir {hin n. rencli , TIh' niaia, \U\r.\ l)i(Hi') ill llu' ) Irce (xlcsia, .IVica— •laoDcs. llHlonll ( )\\ ay ia-'l' ■ CKC liiixla i;\ I'l'int Vm'\ -'I l-livn ili.inja - IxiviT — II Cai'i' lUlVL' r at NaUil - |1 ..n tlu- Uiins at Chiirtli r Zoa I'alacL', hory at ,aii< ilai;asrai' I'.virnin^; W [9] Specimen of the Pa^^e Illustrations in S/anfonfs Coinpendiuni " South Africiir /.\vaki> Sianiokii, 2O iS: 27 CocKsrt'K Stkekt, S.W. GiOj;^raJ^/ur to Uir Majesty the Qhuh. KTC A-II. A-V. viirca — ■St Siile ',ll)ru/. — Kalch— oinitains n Usl)eR View {■as\M;\n Kia-iKi- ("os^ack Sa\)le— ycdos of -honsU— ('.dim', inn 'I'lx^' i.n lb<' iDioi A l\uai- f lasnj; kevvalory |ll)nl\r <>' [nji-yania 'lifo at Ikishas- .Uoliania [ ^^ ] Specimen of the P(ii;e Illiistratious in StixnforcVs Compendium '• X<)rf/iern and Junfern Asia.'' TlllKTAN VAKDItnr.ll, Willi lU A VKI{-\UI lil.l,. Is.w, ir„ [ 1^ ] Large Crown StV, C/o///, i ^s. ASIA VOL. II. SOUTHERN AND WESTERN ASIA liv A. H. KEANE, F.R.G.S. ALTIIOl; (PK AFKICA 1\ I UK SA.Ml SlsKIK.S ; KA.SIKKN GIloGKA I'lIN', i:ic. ICIC. ,1 llMiI.(i(;V, /r/yy/ 7 j/.-//'.v .-lv/) Sq ii.i.ustratioxs C'c'//A7/A;--S(ii' riiKKN Asi.\— I. AfLjIianistan nml Ualuclii.stun (Kabul and Kclal) — II. The Indian I'.mpiic — III. tndo-Cliina and Malat:ca. Wk.stkkn Asia: Muhammadan Si aik.s— I\'. Asia Minor — V. Tiie Kupluatcs and Tigris Hasin — \ I. Syria and I'akstinc — \'II. Arabia — ^VIII. I'crsia. Maps : — Asia, oro^rapbical — Afj.jlianistan, IJaliicbistan, and I'ersia-Indian I'jnpirc -Intlo-C liina and Malacca — Asia .Minor and the Tigris and Kuphratcs Hasin-Palcslinc — Arabia. Illustrations : — Naiilch (iiris of Ilaidarabad--S\vat River Ferry at Aba/ai — Wild Asses — The Amir - Haluch Woman — I lerat — Kandahar - Kabul — Kelat -The Khail)ar I'ass at Ali-.Mu>iid Rock Pillars, Spiti \'alley-~ F(nit of tlie llispar (ilacicr — Nanj^a-Tarbal — The Indus at Torliela, near (lil^dt — Leh in Ladak — The Kanjat \'alley near Chalt — Chitral X'alley — Kanchinjinga — 'I"he I'alace of Akbar, Ajmir — Harjilint; -Kandy — IJen^'al Titter — Aryan Hralnnan from Kaslnnir -Kashmirian — I'arsi of l)oml)ay Tond) of Runjit Sinj,di, Laht)re — C'ity of SriiK\t;ar Street in lV>]ia\sar- The .Mausoleum of Akliar at Sekandra, a .suburb of A^ra — The Taj-.Mahal at A^ra — Ruins of the Resiliency, Lucknow — The Fort, Allahal)ad — lienares — Calcutta — ( iwalior — Jaipur Trichinoi)oly -Town Hall, l'>ond)ay -Deva-faced Cliff on the Irawadi riain of Hac-ninh, in the Son;4-ka delta — Street in Hanoi — The Jtay of Along — Manijiuii llul (ludalonykorn, KIul; of Siam, and Second (^Hiceii — Aiitjknr Wat — I'ekan in I'ahanj; — liurman Mandalay- — Ava — liangkok : The Royal Palace and (^Hiay — A Native Family at Home, Tonykin — I'lmom-penh — SiuLjapore— Laos — Taurus Ranj^e, near Tarsus— Rock Carvings near ( )lba-- I.imasol, Cyprus - I louse in tiie Taurus .V Cireek of Smyrna Smyrna Ruins of 15abyIon — Fake \'an, and the Mountains to the North— Tatar Nomads — I'lr/erum - Diarbekr — Supposed Tomb of Jonah, Nineveh — Street in Dagdad — \'ie\v of Kerbcla- -Distant view of Mount llermon — Tiberias — The Dead Sea — I'almyra The Lake of (iaiilee Damascus — lleynit — Jerusalem — Ras Sufsafeh, a spur of Jebel-Miisa (the supposed Sinai) — Hajarim, Hadramaut — Harrows on Mahrein Island — Mecca, and the Kaaba — Medina — Maskat — Steamer I'oint. Aden- -The Zard-Kuh in the Hakhtiari country — The Karun River at Shushier — The Diimlak {GalcodiS Araiuoidcs) — Tehran — Kum — Fortress of Tabriz. London : Edward Stanford, 26 ^; 27 Cockspitr Strkei, SAW Geographer to Her Majesty the Qtieeii. [ ^3] Specimen of the Pa\!;e ///usfrafions in Sfan/oni's Compendium '''■Southern and IWstern Asia." l.nCV, lull and tes ami -Indian viphialcs .1 Aba/ai Kabul — ^il— l.ch injint;a — -—Aryan ,t" Kvi'njil ileum .f i(is of tl'iC iwa liov Irawai ,f Alt'nt; Ani;V.iii' Royal .■nh- nc li In- 1 Olba— -Kuin^ ► oni '.at;' rvibs — lad— )cad Sea — Ra^ .■lU lianiaut— iMaskal— Ihc Kavun -Kum— SAV. [ M] Lar};e Cro-vn 8z'(>, Cloth, i 5^. NORTH AMERICA VOL. I. CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND liv SAMUEL KDWARD DAWSON I I n .1). (l.W.M ) I'.K.S.C. \VI in 18 MAI'S AM) 90 II.IA'srRA'riONS Contciiti : -\. Introdiiftniv — II. 'riiix'sholcl of tlio New World -111. Uoiniiiipii ofC'aiiada — IV. History of Acadia — V. The Maritinu" I'rovinccs — VI. Nova Scotia —VII. New Hnmswick— VIII. I'rincc lulward Island — IX. Old Canada-Thc St. Law ri'iicc I'rovinccs — (jcneral ( 'harnctcristics — X. ( )iic1k'c — 'I'lu- .Ancient Province — XI. The Province of ( )uel)ec — XI 1. I'ro\ince of Ontari -XIII. I rovnue of Ontario : Description — XIV. .Manitoba and tlie Xortli-W'est Territories — X\'. liritish Columbia -X\'I. Mackenzie River Hasin — X\II. The Yukon Territory — XN'III. District of Keewatin - XIX. Arctic Canada— XX. The Hudson's Hay IJasin -XXI. Labrador — XXII. Newfoundland. Maps: — Dominion of Canada, Political Divisions — The International Hounilary at Lake of the Woods — Arclia-an N ucieu s of the Continent — Canada, Rainfall I d Temperature -Sault Ste. .Marie Canals — Canada, Railways — Shortest Route, iverp )1 to I''asti'rn Asia — The .Maritime' Pro\iiK -Halifax Harbour —Harbour of ,St. John, .New Prunswick — Parts of (juebec and Ontario — linvirons of (Quebec — Lnvirons of Montreal —Niagara — Manitoba and Western Ontario — Mrilish Columbia and .N.W. I'erritory— The Kootenay District — Newfoimdland. /////.v/;-(^'/()//.> .• —Parliament Piuildint,'s at t)ttawa — Cape Race Mount .St. I'.lias Typical Lainciuian Scene Mai ■vard — Dout I'irs — I adof.Nntelo -Head of !•: The Last of the Uuffalo -Head of kocky Mountain Sheej) Head of Musk-O.v -Crowfoot — WikI Indian Hoy — 'The .same Hoy at a (Jovern- nient School — 'The Variuouth Runic Stone — Halifax— (Irand Pr(5 --Strait of Canso, N.S. — Haddeck - Svdnev, ( "ai Hreton- 'The Hore — Kennebecasis River r— T'.dl of the Lower .St. lohn - Harbour of St. !< N.H.-C K iver— Scene in the Interior — Pownall -Conliuence of the Restigouche and Meta])edia — Tadous- sac — Capes Trinity and Kternity — -Head of Oaspd Hasin — Perc(^ Rock — 'The Metapedia Rivi'r -Quebec — Montreal -V'arennes — Steamer running the Lachine Rapids -At Llora— Lake Craft — Niagara Falls — 'Thunder Ca|)e -drain T'li'vator --\'iew among the 'Thousand Isliinds Cnivcrsity of 'Toronto — Part of 'Toronto- Chaudiere T'alls -Pr.iirie .Scene, .M.initob -Red Rivi-r- North .Saskatchewan - Reajjing, .South .Manitoba — 'Threshing, Manitoba — -Reaping in .Manitoba — l-'arm on the Little Saskatchewan Medicme Hat — I''arm Scene — Calgary — Cattle Ranching Rundle Moimt;i Louise Lake, .\lberta~('anadian Pacitic Hotel- Old T'ort tiarry — Otter Tail Range — MouiU .Macdon.ild — 'The Hermit Glacier — Coast Range — Canon of the Kraser River — The Heart of the .Selkirks — 'The .\sulkan (ilacier 'The CJieat (ilacier — 'The (ireat Loop in the Selkirks — Canon of the I-"raser River-Head of HiUe Inlet — Rossland — Kootenay Lake — ICsquimall 1 i.ubour— 'Tree in .Stanley Park, X'anconver — and ij others. LdNDON : Kdwari) Siamokd, 26 \: 27 CocKsrcu S'Irkei', S.W. Gcos^rapher to Her Majtsty the Queen. [ "5 ] Sprii/iicn of (he Page J II nitrations in Stanford's Compouiinni " Canada and Xrw/onndla/id." \ SD DoniiiuoK iovii Si'iti.i lailiv -'It"' le Ancieiit 1. I'rovim-i' orii's -N.^ • TiTiitoiy— (Isoii's Bay ;,1 U.nindu y da, K.iinf;'" ,iU>st RnlUO, ir— Harbour IS of (,>ufl)ec uul. „U Si. l"li;is )f Anlfloi"' \w Slu'i'l" itof Caiiso, Rivor— l-';ill^ .,- — SiiMK- ill Tadous- RocU— 'I'll'' Uie l.acluiK' lin l'".lt.'vator )t 'roronvo-— katclu-wan " itoha— V';"'ii ,.,ry--t'aUl<- cilic Mott'l— lit Glacu'i" — ks-'l-h. la- hlkir .;_-(anoi» < .1' -ICsciui mai s.w. [ 16 J Larii^c Cnnvn Zvo, Cloth ^ 15. v. NORTH AMERICA VOL. II. THE UNITED STATES Bv HEXRV CANNETT ciiiKK (;i:ii(;raiiiku uv riii-. LMri;i) staiks gi;i ii.nt.icAi, slkvkv WITH 16 MAPS AND 72 1 1. LUSTRATIONS Contents: — I. (leneral View of the Continent — II. Climate, Fauna, and Flora — III. Oeology and Mineral Resources— I \'. i'opulation — \'. Social Conditions — VI. The Great Cities — \II. Indians and their Remains — \'III. Fxtent and Area — IX. History — X. The (Government — .XI. Ai;riculture- .XII. Manufactures — XIII. Transportation and Connnerce — XI\'. Alaska. Maps: — United States. (leneral view of the Continent — (Jeneral Map of North America- — ^\'cllo\\ stone National I'ark-Canons of the Colorado — Vose- mite X'alley — Uroj^raphical Map of United Slates — Rainfall — Temperature — l'"orests — (leological — Coalfields — Population — Race and Nativity — .Accessions of Territory —Naviy;al)ility of the Rivers -Territory of Alaska. //lustrations : — The Capitol, W'ashini^ton, from the Summit of Roan Mountain, N.C. — Hickory Nut \ alley, N.C. — Gajiof the Potomac at Harper"> Ferry -Natural I^ridge, \'r.. — The Southern Catskills — Creat Dismal Swaniji. \'a. — Drumniond Lake, (Jreat Dismal .Swamp — Crevasse in Mississippi River Levee, La. — Rapids above Niagara — American Falls. Niagara, from ( loat Island — Black's Fork, Mauvaises Terres, Wyoming — Shoshone I'alls, Idaho — Upper Fall of the Vellowstone — Mammoth Hot Springs — Old Faithful in i'lruption — Upper Firehoie, from OKI Faithful — Mud ( leyser, \'ellowstone- N'ellowstone Falls — (Irand Caiion of the Vellowstone — Mountain of the Hol\ Cr()ss — Huttes in the Plateau Region- Crested P>utte, Colorado— ( Irand Canon of the Colorado, .Arizona — (jrand Caiion of the Colorado. In the Ciranile — (irand Canon, Colorado River- The Lower Colorado, Arizona — In Death N'alley, California — In the Cascade Range, Washington — Mount Sha>ta, California — Mount Rainier, Washington — Mount Shasta, California — Sierra Nevada, California, from the I'last — S'osemite \'alley. California — Big Trees. Marijiosa, California — \'egetation of Cascade Range in Wa>hington— Desert \'egetation — Cactus — (liant Cactus — Tree Vucca — .Antelope — Mountain .Sheep — Coyotes — Buffalo — Rabbit Drive at Fresno, California — Devil's Tower. Wyoming, a \'olcanic Neck — Hydraulic Mining in California — Oil Tanks and Tank Cars, Lima, Ohio — A Louisiana Negro's Ilonie — New \'ork, with lirook- lyn Bridge — Lil)rary of Congress, Washington — Randolph .Street, Chicago — Bridge over the Mississipi at .St. Louis — River l-'ront of ."^t. Louis — New City Hall, San Francisco -.Santa Fe, from the College — Sioux Indian — PaiUteIndiar> — Washakie, Shoshone Chief — Shoshone \illage- Puei)lo of Taos, N.M.- Pueblo Indian Women — Pueblo of T.-ios, N.SL— Moki Town, Arizona- Navajo Indians — Mandan \'illage, on Upper .Missouri River — Clift-dwelling>. Arizona — Mule Deer or Blacktail — Wapiti or Flk — and others. London : Fjiwakd Stanford, 26 iV 27 CocKsri'R Strkki', S.W. GtV^ra/'/ur to /Ar Majesty the Queen. [ ^7 1 Specimen of t lie Pii,^c Illiistnxtions in Stanford's Conipendinni " The United Statesr una, and Siicial ,s-VIII. culture— .laska. il Mav> "f lo — Vusc- icraturc— ,\ccession> of Koan ^X Harper' > al S\vam\'. sippi Kivev from ^'-''^t alls I'l'^'"' 1-ailhful in Idwstone— ,1 llic ll'ily anil Canon he C.ranile In Death lull Shasta, nia— Siena Bitr Trees. nn-De'seil nain Sheei' il"s Tower. Tanks and ,vitli r.riioU- fhicago— New City Ulelnaiar> s, K.M.- Arizi>na — ff-ilwellings, s.w. o IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 Ifi I.I 1.25 2.8 2.5 IM M 1.8 U IIIIII.6 V] /# /a e^ > > d? / >^ 4s V % \ 6^ ;;?;. *" ^ [ i8] The folloiving Volumes are in active preparatio7i. EUROPE VOL. I. THE COUNTRIES OF THE MAINLAND (EXCLUDING THE NORTH-WEST) BY GEO. G. CHISHOLM, M.A., B.Sc, Edinburgh Klil.LOW OK THK KUVAl, l ;|-.(l(;i< AI'IUCAI. AND STAI IS TICAI, SIICIKTIES, KXTEKNAI. EXAMIMIK IN rol.lTK.AI. GEOCIKAl'HY TO VICToKlA L NIVEK.SITV WITH NUMEROUS MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS Large Crown 8?y;, Cloth, i ^s. EUROPE VOL. 11. THE BRITISH ISLES, SCANDINAVIA, DENMARK, AND THE LOW COUNTRIES i;v GEO. G. CHISHOLM, M.A., B.Sc, Edinburgh hEl.l.oW OK THE Ko\AI. (iEl KJK Al'HIC Al. AM) S TA TISTICAI. SOCIETIES, EXTERNAL tXAMlNtH IN FOl.niCAl. (ihoGRAI'IIV lo VlcroKlA LMVEKSITV WITH NUMEROUS MAI'S AND ILLUSTRATIONS Large Crown 8zv, Cloth, i 5^. London : Luward Stamokd, 26 \ 27 Cockspur Street, S.W. Geoj^rapher to Her Majesty the Queen. [ 19] Thefolh-mng Volumes are in active preparation. CENTRAL & SOUTH AMERICA VOL. I. CENTRAL AMERICA, THE WEST INDIES, AND THE GUIANAS 1!V A. H. KEANE Edited by Sir CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, K C 13 F R S IKliSlDlCNT OK TH..- i.,,v,, ' *' ■^•*^-'-J- "■'™ NUMEROUS MAPS AND ILLUSTKATIONS i-arge Crmvn &vo, Clotl,, 15,,-. CENTRAL & SOLTH AMERICA VOL. \\. SOUTH AMERICA HV A. LL KEANE KditedbySmCUEMKNTS R. MARKHA.\I, K.C.li KRs ""• K"VAI. e.i;.KiKA,.,.ICAI. .suciirv WITH NU.MEROUS MAPS AND II.I.USTR.M-IONS Large Cnnvn Zvo, Cloth, x^s. (^eographa- to Her Majesty the Q,ncn. [ 2o] iii OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON THE NEW ISSUE. "This new issue of ' Stanford's Compendium of Geography' is a remarkal)lv useful work, which exemplihes in a striking degree the much higher ideal and wider range of information aimed at by modern geographers, as compared with their predecessors of thirty or forty years ago. The first volume, dealing with Australia and New Zealand, neglects no branch of knowledge which may reasonably be brought within the scojie of the subject, the history of early exploration, the accounts of the aborigines, and the summary of material progress lieing especially readable and well arranged. Abundant ma])s and illustrations enhance the value and attractions of the book." — The Times. "Mr. Edward Stanford has acted wisely in reissuing Dr. A. R. Wallace's standard w(5rk on ' Australasia ' in a revised and enlarged form. The volume which has just appeared has for its subject Malaysia and the Pacific Archi- pelagoes, being an enlargement of the part devoted to that region in the original work. Dr. F. H. H. Guillemard is responsible for the new work, and he has performed his task so thoroughly that the present volume occupies nearly twice the numl)cr of pages previously allcjtted to the region with which it deals. The work is certainly the most interesting and accurate account extant on the tropical portion of the Eastern Archii)elago. " — A'ature, "The present volume, which is devoted to Malaysia and the Pacific Archipelagoes, has been so expanded, and, generally speaking, altered, that it may well be regarded as an entirely new work. The history of the islands has been touched upon, and much fuller details of their trade are given than in the former edition. The notes on the natural history of the different islands have been amplified, and the descriptions of the jieople, religious anticjuilies, etc., have been given at much greater length than formerly. The work of compila- tion has been carried out by Dr. Guillemard in a most satisfactory manner, ami he has produced a thoroughly useful book of reference on all subjects connected with Malaysia and the Pacific Archipelagoes. There are numerous well-chosen illustrations, and the book is furnished with some excellent maps." — The Field. "The constant, almost daily, increase in our knowledge of the physical and other features of the interior of Africa has rendered necessary the almost com- plete rewriting of the work on that country in ' Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel. ' At the same time the book is necessarily so increased in bulk that it has had to be divided into two volumes, each somewhat larger than their single predecessor. The volume now issued deals witii North Africa, and has bi-en compiled by Mr. A. II. Keane. It is what it professes to be, a comjiendium of all that relates to Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, the Sahara, Sudan, Egypt, and Nubia, and other extensive regions in the northern half of the continent. Maps and illustrations in abundance are added to the text."— rZ/f Daily News. "The merits of the volume before us ('North America — \'ol. I. Canada and Newfoundlanil ') are immense. In looking through the 700 and odd pages of the book we have not come across an important downright blunder, and the general scope anil execution of the work, like those of the 'Asia," ' Africa,' and 'Australasia' of the series, are admirable." — J'he Atheiucittu. London: Edwaud Stanfork, 26 ..'v: 27 Cocksi'ur Street, S.W. Geoi^ra/ l6. It?- L8. 1*9. The World in Hemispheres. The World on Mercr.tor's Projection. The Kastern World. The World on Mercator's Projection. The Western World. The Countries round the North I'ole. The World, showing the British Possessions. Europe. The liritish Isles. A Stereographical Map. „ A Hydrographical Map. „ A (ieological Map. j ,, A P.arlianientary Map. ,, A Railway Map. ,, .\ Series of Rainfall and Tem- perature Maps. KiiRlaml. 17. Enniand. Counties and Municipal Boroughs. N.K., N.W., S.K., S.W. 21. Central London. N.K., N.W., S.K., S.W. Outer London. City and Metropolitan Police Areas. Scotland. 27. .Scotland. Counties and Municipal Boroughs. N.E., \.W.,S.E., S.W. Ireland. j2. Ireland. Counties and Municipal lioroughs. N.E., N.W., S.E., S.W. The Channel Islands. Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein. Iceland. Sweden and Norway. German Empire, Western Part. ,, Eastern I'art- Poland. .\ustria- Hungary. Switzerland. 'I'he Netherlands and Belgium. The Countries around the Mediterranean Sea. France in I )ei)artments. France in Provinces. .Spain and I'ortugal. The Canary Islands. The Island of Madeir.i. Italy, North. Sardinia. ,, Souih. Greece. The Balkan Peninsula. The Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, The Sea of Marmara. Malta and the Ionian Islands. 55. Sketch of the Acquisitions of Russia. 56. Asia. 57. .Asia Minor, the Cauc.isus, and the lilack Sea. 58. The Euphrates Valley, Syria, Kurdistan, ^c. 59. Central Asia. 60. The North-West Frontier of India. 61. Palestine. 62. India, Northern Part. 63. ,, Soulhe'u Part. 64. Burmah. 65. Ceylon. 66. Siam, Burma, and Anam. 67. China. 63. Japan. 69. Asiatic Archipelago. 70. Borneo. 71. Africa. 72. Egypt. 73. Central .Africa. 74. South „ 75. Madagascar. 76. North America. 77. Newf(jundland. 78. (^uel)ec. New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, vSic' 79. Ontario and Western Quebec. 80. Manitoba. 81. liritish Columbia and the N.W. Territory. 82. 'I"he United States of North America. 83. The West Indies. 84. Jamaica. 85. The Bahamas. 86. The I.eeward Islands. 87. The Windward Islands. 88. South America. 89. The .Argentine Republic, Chile, P.iraguay, Cvc. 90. The Falkland Isi.-iiids. Australia, East. New CJuinea and the Solomon Islands. Queensland. New South Wales. Victoria. .South .Australia. Western Australia. Tasmania. The Fiji .Archipelago. New Zealand. The Pacihc Islands. 91. 92. 93- .94- 95- 96. 97- 98. 99- 100. Cyprus. rK. — Each Plate may be h.id separately, price js. in sheet coloured, or ss. mounted to fold in case, except No. 7 (Stereoyraphical British Isles), and No. 39 (Switzerland), which are 5s. e.ich in sheet, 7s. in case ; No. 6q (N.W. Frontier of India), 7s. 6d. in sheet, los. 6d. in case ; and No. 9 (Geological British Isles), which is los. 6d. in sheet, 12s. 61I. m case. The four sheets of Central London (Nos. 18-21) are not sold separately. London: Euwari) Stanford, 26 & 27 CocKsruR Street, S.W. Geographer to Her Majesty the Queen. [ 22 ] EDWARD SlTANFORD'S ATLASES STANFORD'S FAMILY ATLAS OF GENERAL GEOGRAPHY ; exlnl,iiin the various Physical and Political Divisions of the Chief Countries of the World Fifty Maps, with a List of Latitudes and Longitudes. Imperial Folio, Half Morocci. £S :5s. Size when shut, 17 by 23 inches. Weight, 16 lbs. Stanford's Family Ati.as ok Gknkkal Geocraphv is designed to meet the want of a large number of people who find the larger edition (Stanford's London Atlas of Un versal Geography) too bulky and expensive, and who do not require an elaborate series ( maps of the British Isles, or of the smaller British Colonies. The large scale maps of man; countries and districts are therefore perforce omitted, and only the maps pertaining to moi general geography retained. The list of names with latitudes and longitudes is also retained. It is not an index 1^ the names in the maps, because it is intended to enable a student to locale a place even i it be not sufficiently important to be named on the maps. The list thus serves some of the purposes of a gazetteer and reference-book of localities. STANFORD'S LONDON ATLAS OF UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY. Qimn Edition, containing 48 Coloured Maps, carefully drawn, and beautifully engraved on steel and copper plates, and an Alphabetical List of Names giving latitudes and longi tudes. I' if til Edition. Revised and enlarged. Imperial 4to. Half Morocco, clotli sides, gilt edges, 30s. Size when shut, 15 inches by I2,\. Weight, 4 lbs. 8 oz. 1. Hemisphere, West, Pliysical. 2. Hemisiilieic, Kasl, I'liysical. _j. World Dii Mercator's I'ru- jectioii. 4. Kurope. 5. liritish Isles, Orocrapliical. 6. liritish Isles, Hyilrographical. 7. Knj;laiul ami Wales. S. Scotland. ^). Ireland. 10. Swetlen and Norway. 11. Denmark. 12. Germany, West. 13. (rerniany, East. 14. Anstria-Hinigary. i.S. Switzerland. 16. Netherlands and Uelgiinn. All of the Maps in the 15. 6d. ; mounted in case, 3s 17- 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. •-'.?• 24. 25- 26. 27. 2S. CONTENTS !•' ranee. Spain and Portugal. Italy, North. Italy, South. Ifalkan Peninsul.i. Mediterranean, West. Me| T, S.W,