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 30NO.T 3a C9 33SnVWaON 3TnWMOd 
 
I 
 
 LECTURE NOTES 
 
 W 
 
 GEOLOGY 
 
 AMD 
 
 Outline of the Geology of Canada. 
 
 Jfor lljc ust of Stub cuts. 
 
 WITH 
 
 Figures of Characteristic Fossils. 
 
 BY 
 
 J. ^V. DAWSON, LL.D., F.R.S. 
 
 MONTREAL : 
 DAWSON BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS. 
 
 188 0. 
 
Entered according to Act of Parliament of Cannda, in the year 1880, 
 by Dawson Bkotueus, in the Olliee of the Ministev of Agnculture. 
 
 ■ vj «s 33snvwa<5N annwMOd 
 
CONTKNTS. 
 
 I. LiTiror,ony. Pagf. 
 
 Chemistry of Bocks 4 
 
 Mineralogy of Rocks 5 
 
 Litliology proper 18 
 
 II. STIiATiriUAI'UV. 
 
 Origin of Rocks 25 
 
 Hardening and Metuniorpliism 20 
 
 Concretionary action 28 
 
 Colours of Rocks 29 
 
 Markings on Rocks ;U 
 
 Arranegenient on the large scale :u 
 
 Joints and Sliity Cleavage 34 
 
 ^ Inclined Position of Rocks 35 
 
 Faults ' ^ 38 
 
 Unconformability 39 
 
 . Denudation 40 
 
 Massive Rocks 41 
 
 Veins 41 
 
 Chronology of Rocks 43 
 
 Maps and Sections 44 
 
 III. Pal/Eontology. 
 
 Preservation of Organic Remains 4.5 
 
 Classification of Animals 51 
 
 Classification of Plants 52 
 
 IV. Historical Geolo(1y. 
 
 Eozoic Period 54 
 
 Palajozoic Period 57 
 
 Mesozoic Period G3 
 
 Kainozoic Period 66 
 
 Figures of Fos.sils 73 
 
r..-, —u BH dasnvwbON annwHOd 
 
LECTURE NOTES 
 
 OK 
 
 GEOLOGY, 
 
 FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS. 
 
 Geology, or, as it has been sometimes termed, Geognosi/, is the 
 scientific knowledge of the earth; or more particularly of that 
 rocky crust of the earth on which its superficial features depend, 
 which affords to us mineral products and soils, on which animals 
 and plants exist, and in which are preserved the monumental 
 records of the changes which our planet has experienced in past 
 time. 
 
 Geology may be studied with reference to its practical pursuit 
 as a method of scientific investigation, or with reference to the 
 theories of the earth deducible from its facts, or with reference 
 to its applications to the arts of life. These several aspects of 
 the subject may be termed — 
 
 1. Practical Geology. 
 
 2. Theoretical Geology. 
 
 3. Applied Geology. 
 
 The first is that which should engage the attention of the 
 student at the outset, as being preliminary to the successful cul- 
 tivation of the others ; but in studying it reference may be made 
 to its bearings on the second and third. 
 
 Practical geology may be arranged under the following general 
 he.ids : — 
 
 I. LiTiioLOUY — or the study of Rocks as mineral aggregates 
 and as materials composing the earth's crust. This study is 
 best carried on with the aid of properly named hand specimens 
 of minerals and rocks, and is much aided by chemical tests and 
 by the examination of sections of rocks under the microscope. 
 
i 
 
 II. St II AT 10 iiA I'll Y — or the consideration of the nrrangomcnt 
 of the rocky mas»8C8 of the earth on the larj^o scale. This 
 study ro((uires the aid of maps and sections of the structure of 
 portions of the earth, and is carried on in nature by the exami- 
 nation of natural 8ection,s and cliffs, quarries, mines, and otlier 
 exposures nf rocks, 
 
 III. Palicontolooy — or the study of the fossil remains of 
 animals and plants imbedded in the earth's crust, in connection 
 with the succession of deposits ascertained by stratij^raphieal 
 investiuiition. This subject requires some preliminary knowledge 
 of zoological and botanical classification, and is studied by cc>m- 
 parison of museum specimens and by collecting and determining 
 
 Is. 
 
 IV. Historical Geology is the application of all the above 
 to the geological history of the earth, and connects the elements 
 of practical geology with the theory and application of the 
 subject. 
 
 [In the. regular University curriculum the student is supposed to 
 have given some attention to tlic elements of Chemistry, Botany and 
 Zool()fj;y. He is tliUH ])rcpared in the ordinary course in Geology to 
 enter on the study of Litholoj;y, Strutigrapliy and Paheontology, and 
 in the honour course to go more fully into the determination of rocks 
 and fosHils, and into local stratigraphy and descriptive and theoretical 
 geology.] 
 
 I. LITHOLOGY. 
 
 i 
 
 (1.) Chemistry of Rocks. 
 
 Of about sixty-three elements or simple substances known to 
 chemistry, only sixteen enter into the composition of the more 
 common rocks which constitute nearly the whole of the earth's 
 crust. These are, in the order of choir relative importance : — 
 
 Non-Metallic Elements. 
 Oxyyen. 
 Silicon. 
 Sulphur. 
 Chlorine. 
 Carbon. 
 Hydrogen. 
 Fluorine. 
 Phosphorus. 
 
 Metallic Elements. 
 Iron. 
 
 Aluminium. 
 Calcium. 
 Magnesium. 
 Sodium. 
 Potassium. 
 Barium. 
 Manganese. 
 
 " ^?»'-'VwaON 3-In^^dOd 
 
5 
 
 Of the iibove only Oxyj^en, Sulphur, Carbon anJ Iron can 
 exist in niituro in a puro or (inconibined Htiito. Tho more com- 
 mon mineruli) are all coinpoundi:* of two or more clemontH. 
 
 Oxygen is the most important clement in the crust of the 
 cnrth, since in the ordinary rocks the other elemci\ts almost 
 always occur in combination with this as oxides. Thus Silica 
 or flint is Oxide ot Silicon, Alumina the earth of clay is Oxido 
 of Aluminium, Jjime is Oxide of Calcium. The ordinary ores 
 of Iron are oxides of the metal. 
 
 Next to Oxyu;en the most important element is Silicon' 
 Coiflbinin^j; with Oxyf:;on this forms Silica, and Silica has tho 
 property of combining with many other elements to ibrm Sili' 
 caivs, which are the most common constituents of minerals and 
 rocks. Of these Silicates the most abundant are those of Alum- 
 inium, Calcium, Miiunesium and J*ota,«sium ; and these arc 
 variously combined and mixed with one anotlier to constitute 
 the more complex minerals and rocks. Silicates sometimes con- 
 tain water as an essential constituent, when they are termed 
 Ili/drous Silicates. 
 
 Other important Oxygen compounds are tlic Carhonafes, Sul- 
 pluites and Phosphates. Thus Calcium Carbonate is common 
 Limestone, Calcium Sulphate is Gypsum, and Calcium Phos- 
 phate is Apatite or Bone-earth. 
 
 Some important constituents of rocks are not Oxides, as Sodium 
 Chloride or common Salt, Calcium Fluoride or Fluorspar, Iron 
 Bi-Sulphide or Iron Pyrite. 
 
 There is a peculiar group of minerals and r ' of organic 
 origin into which Carbon enl^.s as a principal ingredient. 
 These are the Coals, Asphalt and Bitumen. 
 
 (2.) Mineralogy of Rocks. 
 
 Of the chemical compounds above referred to, those which 
 constitute the majority of rocks are the following : — 
 
 1. Quartz or Silica. 
 
 2. Felspar. >^ 
 
 3. Mioa. 
 
 4. Hornblende. 
 
 5. Pyroxene. 
 
 Anhydrous Silicates, 
 

 6. Talc. 
 
 7. Serpentine. 
 
 8. Chlorite. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 
 Calcite. 
 Dolomite. 
 Gypsum. 
 Apatite. 
 Fluor Spar. 
 Rock Salt. 
 
 15. 3Iagnetite. 
 
 16. Hematite. 
 
 17. Limonite. 
 
 18. Pyrite. 
 
 19. Coal. 
 
 20. Bitumen and Asphalt. 
 
 21. Graphite. 
 
 Hydrous Silicates. 
 
 Carbonates, Sulphate, 
 Phosphate, Fluoride, 
 and Chloride. 
 
 ( Oxides and Sulphide 
 ( of Iron. 
 
 I 
 
 Carbonaceous Minerals. 
 
 1. QUARTZ. 
 
 As familiar examples, Flint and Rock Crystal may be taken. The 
 former, occurring in concretions in chalk and other calcareouR rocks, 
 was probably one of the first mineral substances used by man ; being 
 the material of the flint implements of the "Stone age." A.** quartz 
 is the most common of minerals, and occurs in most silicious rocks, 
 it may serve as a typical mineral whereby to illustrate the terms used 
 in other cases. 
 
 Composition. — Quartz when pure is Silica, a compound of the ele- 
 ments Silicon and Oxygen. The former is an element not unlike 
 carbon or charcoal in many of its properties ; the latter a gas and 
 the most important ingredient of the atmosphere. Silica is thus an 
 Oxide of Silicon, and containing two proportions of Oxygen to one of 
 Silicon, its chemical name is Silicon dioxide. 
 
 CiiYHTALMZATioN. — Its usual form is a six-sided prism, terminated 
 by a six-sided pyramid. It thus belongs to the Hexagonal system of 
 crystallization. When mineral substances solidify from the state of 
 vapour, from solution in water, or from a state of fusion, their part- 
 icles tend to arrange themselves along certain lines or axes, and thus 
 to prodnce crystals of detinite geometrical forms. The law in the 
 case of Quartz is, that its particles arrange themselves along three 
 horizontal axes, or lines of attraction, at angles of sixty degrees with 
 each other, and along a fourth axis at right angles to the other three. 
 The six-sided plates and six-rayed stars of snow are formed on the 
 same principle. 
 
 •• ^?»'irwyoN annwMOd 
 
Perfect crystals of Quartz arc found lining Geodes or cavities ia 
 rocks, also the sides of fissures and veins, and sometimes imbedded 
 in tlie substance of rocks. Small crystals confusedly a^^regated, 
 and imperfect, owinji; to pressure, give Granular varieties. Crystals so 
 small that they canr ot be discerned by the naked eye give Cryplo- 
 crysUdline rarklies. 
 
 Its Hardness is 7, raeasurc-d by a scale in which Talc is 1 and 
 Diamond 10. The hardness of Quartz is sufficient to enable it to 
 scratch glass, to resist the action of steel, and to feel gritty in the 
 teeth. 
 
 Its Specific Guavity is 2-5 to 2'8, measured by a scale in which 
 water is the unit. It is thus two and a half times heavier than water. 
 Quartz being one of the most common minerals, and entering very 
 largely into the composition of rocks, in which also it is associated 
 ■with many other substances not very different in specific gravity, it 
 follows that its specific gravity is about that of most ordinary rocks j 
 all of which are thus suflicicntly heavy to sink readily in water, but 
 when immersed in water lose between one half and one third of their 
 weight. 
 
 OPTiCAii Characters. — Quartz is rolourlru, but becomes coloured by 
 mixture with other substances, especially Oxides of Iron. The 
 Protoxide (Ferrous Oxide) gives dull green and blackish colors — the 
 Peroxide (Fcric Oxide) red colours, and the Hydrous Peroxide yellow 
 and brown colours. The Lmtre of Quartz is, with reference to its 
 kind, Vitreous or that of broken glass. With reference to its degree, 
 it varies from sphmdent, the lustre of perfect crystalline faces, to 
 dull or lustreless. The vitreous lustre is a good character whereby 
 to distinguish the mineral. The pure and crystalline varieties arc 
 transparent; the crypto-crystalline and coarse varieties translucent to 
 opaque. 
 
 Quartz is llritilf. and its fracture Conchoidai in the pure varieties. 
 It is Infusible and Insoluble in water and ordinary acids ; but may be 
 fused or dissolved in water, when combined with Alkalis, as Potash 
 or Soda. 
 
 Varieties or Quartz. 
 
 Quartz presents many varieties, whii h may ije arranged under the 
 heads of (a) Crystalline or vitreous, and {!>) Crypto-crystalline. 
 
 ((/). Vitreous Varieties. 
 Rock Crystal. — Transparent and colourless, often in the (h'finitc crys- 
 talline form. Used for lenses, for ornamental purposes and to 
 form imitation gems or doublets. 
 
 Amethyst. — Purple and violet varieties, coloured by a ipinute quantity 
 of Manganese, or perhaps in some casos by Iron and Soda. 
 
 Rose Quartz. — A more <lelicately tinted nink variety. 
 
mmmtam 
 
 8 
 
 Yellow and Smoky Quartz. — Culled C"-"»'ngorm or false Topaz, of smoky 
 or rich yellowish and brownish hues ; coloured by Titanic Acid, 
 or by organic matter. 
 
 Cat's Eye. — Transparent Quartz, containing fibres of asbestus, which 
 give it a lustre resembling that of satin. 
 
 Aventtirine is translucent quartz spangled with bn'""' scales of 
 yellow mica. 
 The glassy varieties of quartz pass into common milk;/ quartz. 
 
 {I)). Crypto-cnjstalUne Varieties. 
 
 Chalcedony is the general name for colourless varieties having a 
 glistening and somewhat waxy lustre. 
 
 Carnelian is a tlcsh-coloured or red chalcedony coloured by iron. A 
 deeper red variety is called Sard. 
 
 Agate is chalcedony M'ith bands or spots of different textures and 
 colours. When these are in parallel layers it is called Onyx. 
 Some of the hiyers being absorl)cnt, colourless agates of this kind 
 can be arlifuially coloured. When some of the layers are of car- 
 nelian or surd it is luUed Sardonyx. These banded varieties are 
 the nuiterial of Cameos. When translucent Chalcedony is pene- 
 trated with n»(iss-lik(? or dendritic filaments of Oxide of Iron or 
 Manganese it is Moss nyale or Morlui stone. 
 
 Chrysoprase is a p.ili' green variety coloured by Oxide of Nickel. Green 
 varieties coloured merely by Iron are common Prase. 
 
 Flint and Chert are names for coarse Chalcedonic varieties, usually 
 impure and of dull colours. A cellular variety is Buhr-stone, 
 used for millstones. 
 Agates are produced by the deposition of Chalcedony in the ca- 
 vities of rocks, usually those of volcanic or igneous origin. When 
 this process is slow or intermittent, bands bf various textures and 
 colours art! formed in succession. Flint and Chert are formed by the 
 slow collection of silicious particles around centres, by concretionary 
 action. Hence they often have fossil sponges, shells, &c., in their 
 interior. Wood imbedded in rocks is often fossilized by silica, or 
 silicified, so as to ; esemble Agate. 
 
 ■Jiusper includes those varieties which are opaque and more or less 
 deeply co'oured, usually by Oxide of Iron, lied Jasper is one of 
 the most common varieties ; a brown clouded or banded Jasper is 
 called Egyptian Jasper ; green and red or green and yellow banded 
 varieties, are Riband Jasper ; a green variety with bright red spots 
 is Bloodstone or Heliotrope. 
 
 Quartz occurs very largely in the earth's crust as sand, sandstone 
 and ((uartz-rock or ijuartzite. and also as a constituent of many com- 
 pound rocks. 
 
 ■ « •« aawnvwaoN annwMOd 
 
9 
 
 2. B^ELSPAR. 
 There are several Rpecies of Felspar ; but wc may take as an 
 exiimple the most abundant and mxjst important species, Orthoclase or 
 common Felspar. 
 
 In Chemical Composition it is a Silic ;o of Alumina and Potash. It 
 ie not acted on by acids and is fusibJ ; with difficulty. 
 
 Its Cnjutallim form is monoclinic : its particles beinf^ arranged in 
 accordance with tliree axes of crysti'lization — the two liorizontal 
 ones at ri^ht angles to each other, the third at an angle of 63o53' to 
 plane of the others. It lias a perfect cleavage parallel with the 
 base. These deivage faces aid in distinguisliing it from Quartz. 
 
 Its IlardneKH is 6, being tluis next to Quartz in the scale of hard- 
 ness. Tliough scratched by Quartz it is liard enough to scratch glass, 
 but feebly. 
 
 Its Specific Gracitji is 2-5 to 2-(). 
 
 Its Lusire is vitreous, but with a tendency to pearly on cleavage 
 surfaces. It is white when pure, Init often lias rod tints due to the 
 presence of Ferric Oxide. 
 
 Kaolin, or the liiicst Cliiiia Clay, proceeds fnun the dccomi^osition of 
 Felspar; tlie Potash being dissolved by rainwater and leaving 
 tlie Silica and Alumina in a fine state of division. 
 
 Of till' other Felspars the most important are Oliijuclasc and AUtite, 
 Soda Felsjiars. in wliicli Soda replaces tlu' Potash of the Ortliociase, 
 and ]j<tbriiiloriti' and Anorthite, Lime Felspars, in whicli a large propor- 
 tion of Lime is present as well as Soda. Albite sometimes [iresents a 
 beautiful pearly opalescence upon its cleavage faces, and Labradorite 
 is remarlvable for the sph^ndid play of colours observed in some 
 specimens. Labradorite, Anoriliitc and Oligoclase are basic, or have 
 an excess of base relatively to tiicir silica. All beside Ortliociase are 
 triclinic. 
 
 The Felspars are extremely important in Geology as constituents 
 of the Silicious Crystalline roclis, as Granite, Syenite, Gneiss, Doler- 
 ite. Porphyry, &c. 
 
 They enter very largely into the composition of the lavas of Vol- 
 canoes : those called Tnichjlif Lnins or y'/•(^(7l^^.•(, consisting princi- 
 pally of Felspar. 
 
 3. MICA. 
 
 Of this also tliere are several Species : Common Mica or Muscovite 
 is the most important. 
 
 It is a very complex Siiiiate, containing Silica, Alumina, Potash, 
 Iron, Magnesia, Lime and Soda. 
 
 Its crystJils are inclined rlK)mbic and rectangular prisms (mono- 
 clinic.) The angles of the rhombic prisms arc 120° and tJU^^ It is 
 remarkable for its very perfect cleavage parallel to tlie base of the 
 
10 
 
 prism. In this direction it may be split into cxtrtnicly thin laminae 
 which are flexible and elaKtic. When cryistiiUized in small radiating 
 plates it is called Plumose Mien. 
 
 H.— 20 to 2-5. Gr.— 2-7r) to 3-1. 
 
 ItK lustre on the faces of tlic cleavage planes is metallic pearly, 
 and its colours range from silvery white to greenish, yellow and 
 black. They are due to Oxides of Iron. 
 
 Along with Quartz it forms Mica-schist, and in a very fine state of 
 divisi(jn it is largely concerned in giving cleavage to roofing slate. 
 It also gives a flaggy character to sandstone. In general when scales 
 of Mica are arranged in parallel layers in rocks they give to these 
 more or less of their own fissile character. 
 
 Biotite, a mica containing much magnesia and iron, and of a dark 
 colour, is next in importance to Muscovite. 
 
 4. PYKOXENE. 
 
 The name of this mineral, implying that it is a " Stranger to fire," 
 is a reminiscence of the old controversies as to the origin of rocks 
 from water or heat, and is curiously contrarj' to the fact that Pyroxene 
 is one of the largest constituents of volcanic rocks. 
 
 Composition. Silica, lime, magnesia and iron. Some of the varie- 
 ties have much more iron than others. 
 
 CryntaUiiie form monoclinic or like that of Orthoclase, but the 
 angles dii^erent, the inclination of the j)rincipal axis lieing 7:5° oO'i 
 and tlie acute angle of the rhombic prism, 87° J', so that it is nearly 
 square. It occurs also in granular and fibrous forms. Its cleavage is 
 not perfect, but may be obtained parallel |to the faces and bases of 
 the prisms. 
 
 H.— 5 to C. Gr.— 3-2 to S"). 1 1 
 
 It is thus almost as hard as Felspar, and somewhat heavier than 
 that mineral or quartz, so that rocks containing much Pyroxene are 
 usually somewhat heavy. 
 
 It is colourless, but assumes the colours due to Ferrous Oxide^ 
 ranging from dull green to black. Its lustre is vitreous inclining to 
 resinous, and in some varieties it becomes pearly. 
 
 Varieties. 
 
 These are very numerous and have received different names. We 
 shall notice only a lew of some geological importance. 
 
 Auffite or common Pyroxene. This is of dark colour, usually black ; 
 and is the form in which the mineral most commonly occurs as 
 an ingredient in rocks. 
 
 Sahlite and Malacolite are light green and white varieties, also occur- 
 ring sometimes as considerable ingredients of rocks. 
 
 Diullage is a variety with a very distinct cleavagj, and strong metal- 
 lic pearly lustre on the surfaces. 
 
 "" • "^ «» a^BTTvmwinPWwBST 
 
n 
 
 
 
 5. HOENBLENDE. 
 This is a mineral closely allied to Pyroxene. Its ordiiiury varieties, 
 however, contain more mngnesia and less lime than the latter. 
 Crystallisation monoclinic, but its rhombic prism is much flatter than 
 that of pyroxene, its obtuse angle being 124o 30', and it has a 
 distinct cleavage parallel to tin; sides of the prism. It thus 
 forms flat blade-like crjstals, and these being often long and 
 slender, it assumes fibrous forms. 
 
 H.— 5 to 0. Gr.— 2-9 to ?,-4. 
 Its range of colour is similar to that of the last species. 
 
 Varietief!. 
 
 Common Uoruhlende or Amphibole includes the dark and more massive 
 varieties. 
 
 Actinolite is green, and columnar or fibrous. 
 
 Tremolite is white or gray, and finely fibrous. 
 
 Asbestus includes the finest fibrous varieties, wjiirli from the slender- 
 ness and flexibility of the fibres, may be woven into fabrics 
 which have become celebrated as incombustible cloths. 
 
 Mountain Wood, Mountnin Cork and Mouninin Lculher are fibrous and 
 lamellar varieties resembling the substances whose names they 
 bear. 
 
 C>. TALC. 
 
 Is a silicate of Magnesia, with water. It is thus an example of a 
 Hydrous .Silicate. 
 
 Crystallization trimetric, and usually occurring in fidiated or cleav- 
 able masses, the ch!avage being similiar to that of Mica. It also 
 occurs massive or crypto-crystalline. 
 
 H.— 1. (Jr.— 2-5 to 2-8. 
 
 The low hardness of Talc aff^ords a ready means of distinguishing 
 it from other foliated minerals. It has also a soapy or unctuous feel, 
 and its laminie are not elastic. 
 
 Its colour is usually light green, th(mgh sometimes a silvery white. 
 Its lustre is pearly. 
 
 Soapstone and Potstone, arc compact or confusedly crystalline varieties, 
 used for fircstones for furnaces, or vessels required to stand the 
 fire. 
 
 French Chalk is a variety used for marking. 
 
 Meerschaum is closely allied to Talc, but has a larger proportion of 
 water. 
 
 Talc is an ingredient in Talc Schists, to which it communicates its 
 own foliated character. 
 
12 
 
 I 
 
 m 
 
 i t^i 
 
 7. CHLORITE. 
 
 This reprcHentH a group of several species or sub-speoies. Chlorite 
 may be regarded an a Hydrous Silicate of Alumina, Magnesia, and 
 Iroii. It occurs in foliated masses and Hat crystals, of a greenish 
 colour and slightly pearly lustre. It is harder than Talc, and its 
 laminae are not elastic. It is the leading ingredient of Chlorite 
 Schists. 
 
 8. SERPENTINE. 
 
 This is a Silicate of Magnesia with water, the latter in larger quan- 
 tity than in Talc. It usually occurs massive, and sometimes fibrous. 
 It sometimes constitutes considerable rock masses. 
 
 H.— 2-5 to 4. Gr.— 2-5 to 2-G. 
 Its colour is usually green, and its lustre somewhat resinous or 
 wa.xy. 
 
 Preciom Serpentine, includes varieties of a rich green colour and 
 translucent. Common Serpentine, includes the more dull-coloured 
 and opaque varieties. Ficrolite and Chri/solUe are librous varieties. 
 Ophinlile or Verde Antique Marble, consists of a mixture of Serpen- 
 tine and Calcite, and is usually of grcc^n and white colours. 
 
 9. CALCITE. 
 
 Is Calcium carbonate, or common Limestone. Its effervescence 
 with acids, owing U) the disengagement of gaseous Carbonic Acid, 
 is oni! of the rciidy ways of distinguishing it. Its inferior hardness, 
 enabling it to be easily scratclied with a knife, aids in distinguishing 
 it from (juartz. Felspar and other hard silicious minerals. 
 
 Cri/stallizalion hexagonal. It occurs in many forms belonging to 
 this system ; especially the six-sided prism, tlu) rhomlxdiedron and 
 the scalenohedron. It has very distinct cleavage parallel to the faces 
 of the rhombohedron. It occurs also in granular, fibrous and crypto- 
 crystalline states, as well as in earthy conditions. 
 H.— 3. Sp. Gr.— 2'5 to 2-8. 
 
 It is colourless, but is often coloured oy other substances, especially 
 O.xides of Iron and Carbonaceous matter. Its lustre is vitreous, in- 
 clining to pearly on the cleavage faces. It varies from transparent 
 to opaque. The transparent varieties known as Iceland Sp'ir possess 
 double refraction. 
 
 Varietien. 
 
 Calcareous Spar, includes the perfectly crystalline forms. 
 
 Satin Spar, is a ttbrous form occurring in veins, and having a silky 
 lustre. 
 
 Calc Sinter, is a general name, which may include the imperfectly 
 crystalline conditions occurring in Stataetiten and Stalai/mile. Con- 
 gealed water, Giljraltar Spar, and Calcareoun Tufa. All these 
 varieties are deposited from solution in water, aided by au excess 
 of carbonic acid. 
 
 r««w T HTTW ^TSnvwdO* 
 
 N annwMOd 
 
13 
 
 10. DOLOMITE. 
 
 'J'liis is Ciilchini and Magnesium carbonate. It effervesces less 
 readily witli acids tluin Calcitc. ItH crystal lizntion is rhomboliedric 
 like tliat of Calcite, except that the nngles of its rhombohedron are 
 sligbtly different, and it is a little harder and heavier. It lias also a 
 more pearly lustre. 
 
 Dolomite occurs in nature in the same manner as Calcite, but often 
 
 contains ferrous carbonate, whicli causes it to assume a rusty colour 
 
 in weathering. 
 
 n. GYPSUM. 
 
 Sulphate of Caliium with a large proportion of water (about 20 
 per cent). Its crystallization is monoclinic, and it has a very distinct 
 cleavage, parallel to the larger faces of the rectangular ])rism. It is 
 found in foliated, fibrous and granular crystallizations, ond sometimes 
 occurs in thick beds. Finely granular and translucent varieties are 
 used for ornamental purposes, under the name of soft or gypseous 
 alabaster. Its softness, enabling it to be scratched with the finger 
 nail, and its i)early lustre, are distinguishing characters. 
 II.— 1 '5 to 2. Gr.— 2-:U to 233. 
 
 Its lustre is pearly upon the cleavage faces. It is colourless, but 
 frequently stained red by Peroxide of Iron, and sometimes black by 
 carbonaceous matter. 
 
 Selcnile is a lamellar variety of gypsum. Fibrous varieties are used 
 to imitate Cat's eye. 
 
 The readiness with which Gypsum parts w itli its water when heated, 
 and resumes it, becoming solid or setting, when mixed with water, 
 gives tlic substance imj)ortant economical uses for casting, plastering 
 and cements. Jt is th<! cheapest means of sup])lying Sulphuric Acid 
 to the soil, and to manures, and thus is of some value in agriculture. 
 
 AnhjdrUe is gypsum without water. It is found with the previous 
 species, from which it differs in its greater hardness and specific 
 gravity, and its trimetrie crystallization. It is sometimes used as 
 un ornamental stone in tlie same manner as marble. 
 
 12. APATITE. 
 
 This is Calcium Phosphate, and is of great interest as represent- 
 ing tlie earthy part of tlie bones of animals. 
 
 Its ( lystallization is hexag(mal, and its usual form, is the hexa- 
 gonal prism. 
 
 H.— 5. (Jr.— 3- to 3'2. 
 
 Its lustre is resinous, and its ct)loiir usually greenish. 
 
 In the crystalline state it occurs largely in veins and beds in the 
 Laurentian formation in Canada. It is also found in concretionary 
 masses, in beds of various geological ages, and is the principal ci n- 
 stituent of the harder varieties of Guano. 
 
 
 m 
 
14 
 
 Calcium Pliosplmto is au CHHential ingredient in soils, in which 
 it is usually present in very small (luantity, and it is rapidly removed 
 by those crops which produce the greatest amount of animal food. 
 This fiives to it a vi-ry jriciit importance in a^'riciiltmc and it is much 
 sought for in every civilized country, and largely usee} as a means of 
 improving the soil. 
 
 13. FLUOR SPAR OR FLUORITE. 
 
 This is Calcium Fluoride. Its crystalline form is monometric, 
 and it often occurs in beautiful and regular cubes, with a t leavagc 
 paiallel to the faces of ti'.e octahedron. 
 
 H— 4. Gr.— 3-1 to 3-2. 
 It is colourless, but is of blue and purple colours, and sometimes 
 red or yellow. 
 
 It freiiuently occurs in metallic veins, more especially with the 
 ores of load. It has been used as a llu.v in reducing metallic ores, 
 hence its name Fluor. 
 
 11. HOCK SALT. 
 
 Common Salt is Sodium Chloride. It crystallizes in the mono- 
 metric system, usually in cubes. 
 
 H.— 2. Gr.— 2- to 2-7. 
 
 It furnishes an excellent example of a soluble native Salt. It 
 occurs not only in great <iuantity in the sea and in salt lalces, but also 
 in extensive beds in tin- crust of the earth, whence it is mined for 
 use. These beds have probably been formed by the drying up of salt 
 lakes, and of isolated portions of sea water, and the subsequent 
 covering by sediment of the beds of salt thus formed. Copious salt 
 springs often rise from such deposits. 
 
 15. MAGNETITE. * ' 
 
 Is an Oxide of Iron intermediate between the Monoxide and Sesqui- 
 oxide. Crystallization monometric, usually in octahedrons. 
 
 H.— 5-5 to 65. Gr.— 5. 
 Colour black, Lustre metallic. It occurs in Canada in large beds, 
 in the Laurcntian, and also in layers as Iron Sand, and is the most 
 valuable of the ores of Iron. It is attracted by the magnet, and it 
 sometimes has itself magnetic polarity, constituting the natural load- 
 stone. It is distinguished from tlie other species by its black powder 
 or streak and its magnetic properties. 
 
 16. HEMATITE. 
 
 Also called Specular Iron, is Sesquioxide of the metal. Its crys- 
 tallizatioTi is Hexagonal, and it often occurs in thin plates or scales, 
 and also in fibrous forms. 
 
 H.— 5-5 to 6-5. Gr.— 4-5 to 5-3. 
 
 ill 
 
 ~^--mv nV, I J Ufff"g?SI1VVNBbN 3 1 H IfN (i O J 
 
15 
 
 Its colour is black or steel grey, but its streak or powder is deep 
 red. It i« not usually attracted by tbo Magnet. 
 
 Foliated varieties constitute Micuceous Iron Ore, compact or fibrous 
 ■dull r> (1 vaiictioH are called llematUf, and earthy varieties are Red 
 Ochre.. It is a very valuable ore of Iron. 
 
 17. LIMONITK. 
 
 This is Hydrous Sesquioxide of Iron. It occurs in fibrous and 
 ■concretionary masses. 
 
 H.— 5- to Sf). Or.— 3 G to 4. 
 
 Its colour is dark brown, and its strt^uk or powder yellow. Com- 
 pact and fibrous varieties are called Brown HematUe. Concretionary 
 varieties found in modern deposi's are lioi/ Iron Ore, and earthy 
 varieties are Yellow Ochre. It is a valuable ore of Iron. 
 
 18. PYRITE. 
 
 Is Disulphido of Iron. Crystallization monometric, usually in 
 cubes and octiihcdrons. 
 
 H.— G- to ()-5. (!r. — 1-8 to 5. 
 Colour, bronze yellow. It is a very common mineral, and is often 
 mistaken for gold and for valuable metallic ores. When mixed with 
 metallic )re8 and with coal it is a troublesome impurity ; but it is 
 used as source of Sulphur and Sulphuric Acid, and of the Ferrous 
 Sulphate. 
 
 19. COAL. 
 
 Coal essentially consists of compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen, 
 with variable amounts of Oxygen, of Nitrogen and of earthy matter. 
 It presents many varieties, which shade into each other and differ 
 much in composition and physical properties. This results from the 
 fact that it is not a definite chemical compound, or crystallized mineral 
 species, but rather a product of the partial decomposition of vegetable 
 matter buried in the earth. 
 
 Its vegetable origin is proved by the remains of plants imbedded in 
 it, and often showing their structure distinctly under the microscope, 
 and by its resting on under-clays containing roots of trees, overlaid 
 with shales filled with impressions of plants. It is of different geolo- 
 gical ages, but the greater part was formed at a particular part of the 
 earth's geological history, known as the Carboniferous period. 
 
 Its hardness varies from !• to 2-5, and its sp. grav. from 1- to 1-8. 
 Its colour is black, or dark brown, its powder either black or brown. 
 Its lustre is resinous or sub-metallic, and its fracture conchoidal or 
 fiat. It usully presents a laminated structure, with layers of mineral 
 charcoal, or of vegetable debris, or of earthy matter, between tho 
 laminiu, which often consist principally of flattened trunks of which 
 the coal has been made up. 
 
 The principal varieties are the following : — 
 
w 
 
 I.' 
 
 16 
 
 Brown Coal, is iin iinpurt'ctt toiil foiindin tlic muro luoilciii formiilidiiH. 
 It IH ofk'ii merely ii conHolidutod j)ciit, but when eoniposed of tlat- 
 tened tnuiks of trei^H, it ussuiucs tlie compact form of Jet It in in- 
 termediate in composition between Coal and Wood. It containH 
 from 47 to To per cent of carbon, and from f) to 18 per cent of 
 Hydrogen, the remainder being Oxygen and aKhes. It is nKually 
 an inferior kind of fuel. 
 
 Bituminiiiin Coal, or ordinary black coal, i)rocecds from a more perfect 
 carbonization of vegetable matter, and is the coal of the true Car- 
 boniferouHHyHti^m. The coking varietioH beconK^ soft when heat- 
 ed, and burn with much llamc. The non-coking varieties do not 
 softi.'n, and contiiin less gaseous matter, liitnmiuoiiscoal contains 
 from 7.1 to (to per cent of Carbon, and from ;'. to (i per cent of Hy- 
 drogen, the remainder being prini'ijuilly Oxygen and ashes. The 
 Bituminous vaiieties are used for (he production of gas. 
 
 Anthracite, proceeds from the alteration of Hitundnous I'oals, and is 
 sometimes of the nature of natural coke. It is harder and heavier 
 than the Bit uminous coals, and cont;iins from H.') to !1'2 piMcentof 
 Carbon, and from 2 to ii iier cent of Hydrogen. It gives little or no 
 flame in burning. In some coal deposits, Anthracite passes by a 
 further {jrocess of idterati<ii) into (Jraphite or Plumbago, which is 
 however regarded as a distinct mineral species, owing to its very 
 different physical pro[)erties. 
 
 20. BITUMEN. 
 
 Jlineral oil and mineral pitch arc; mi.\tures of different hydro-carbons 
 ditVering fnmi coal in their liquid, viscid or easily fusible character, 
 and in being soluble in oil of turjx'iitine and ether. Lik*; coal, these 
 substanciis are derived from the chemical <'hange of vegetable matter 
 buried in the crust of the earth ; but they result chietly from marine 
 vegetation, or from that which has been buried and excluded from 
 the air while still recent. 
 
 Petroleum, or mineral oil, includes the 1ii|uid or viscid varieties which 
 tlow from natural oil wells, or are obtained by boring into the 
 beds of rock containinir this substance in their pores or tissnrcs. 
 It has been known and used from tlie most ancient times, but 
 has recently acquired greater importance from the abundance of 
 it obtained by bt>ring, and the means discovered for its puriti- 
 cati(m. Petroleum often contains more than 12 per cent of 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 A.iplialtam, includes the solid and semi-solid varieties, having a 
 sjiecific gravity similar to tliat of coal, and jiitcliy lustre with a 
 black or brownish black colour. It contains from 7 to 9 per 
 cent of Hydrogen, and sometimes a considerable i)roportion of 
 Oxygen and some earthy impurities. It is found in veins and 
 beds, and has proceeded from the alteration and hardening of 
 petroleum, owing to the loss of its more volatile ingredients. 
 
 m-Tre~e6 a^«i5iJlNMON aTowMOd 
 
17 
 
 Afhfrlitf. nnd '• Lrvig Coal," iirc uHplialtic mincriilM utill ftirthor «.l- 
 tfieil, until tlioy nHsume nearly tho iippoaranct; iind mmpoHition 
 of the bituniinoiiH roiilH. Tliey arc found ' in veinH or tiHHurcH, 
 nntl not in IhuIh like tho true coalH, juul hnvo no vogctablo 
 fitriictiUT. In Horn*! ulttTod rocks matorials of thin kind have 
 been converted into Antliraeite and proiiably into Graphite. 
 
 EuTtlnj /Jiliimen, and Cannel Coal are niatcrialH of tliiw Hcries, mixed 
 witli much earthy matter, and hardened until they rcKemblo true 
 coa's. They are found in hcciH aHHociated with tin- ordinary coals, 
 and are much UHed in gan-making and for the diKtillation of 
 Coal Oil. 
 
 Tt will he seen that the Coals and Bitumens form two parallel series, 
 according to the amount of chemical change which they have ex- 
 perienced, thus : — 
 
 COAL HIRI8H. 
 
 Vegetable Matter. 
 Peat. 
 
 Hrown Coal. 
 Bituminous Coal. 
 Anthracite Coal. 
 Graphite. 
 
 lUTlTMKN REEIKR. 
 
 Vegetal)le Matter. 
 
 Petroleum. 
 
 Asphaltum. 
 
 (Jannel Coal. 
 
 Antliracite. 
 
 Graphite. 
 
 21. GEAPHITE. 
 
 This substance is Carbon with its molecules arranged in a peculiar 
 manner, constituting an allotropic form. Its crystalline form is 
 hexagonal, in fiat six-sides tables. 
 
 H.— 1. to 2. Gr.— 2. 
 
 Colour black and steel grey ; Streak black. Lustre metallic. 
 Divides into thin lamina;, flexible and greasy to touch. 
 
 (jraphite is probably in most cases a coal or asphalt, altered by heat, 
 and in this way it is often formed accidentally in furnaces. It is 
 largely used in making crucibles for melting metals, in coating iron 
 castings, in lessening the friction of machinery, and in drawing and 
 writing. Its common names of " Black Lead" and Phimbago are in- 
 appropriate, as it contains no lead. The name Graphite is derived 
 from its use in writing. 
 
 [For the numerous other species of minerals occurring dissemi- 
 nated in rocks or in veins and other repositories, the student is re- 
 ferred to t«xt books of Mineralogy.] 
 
 B 
 
18 
 
 ,1 I 
 
 il I 
 
 (3.) LlTIIOl.nOY I'ROl'Ktt. 
 
 Some rocks, iia (|uart/, rock and limostonc, arc dofinito chonii- 
 cal compounds, and coiiHist of onu mineral t^pccies only ; but 
 even thcHO arc often mixed with foreign niattors; and tl>o jircuter 
 part of rocks ar(! mixtures ol' dift'erent mineral substances in 
 various proportion)*. As these mixtures are rej^ulated by no 
 definite law ot' proportion, it follows that such roeks [»ass into 
 each other by indelinite <:;radatioiis. Hence the nomenclature 
 and cla«sitieation of rocks arc attended with many difficulties. 
 
 For purposes of practical geoloi^y it is important to uouHidcr 
 the classification of rocks under three aspects. 
 
 1. With reference to their Origin, rocks may be: — 
 
 (a) Aqueous or Sf-(fimcntari/, that is, they may have becQ 
 deposited as sediments, as sand, clay, &c. in water, and such 
 deposition may have been aided or modified by accumulations of 
 organic matter, as shells, corals, drifted plants, &,c. 
 
 (b) Igneous or A queo- igneous — products of the action of heat 
 in the interior of the earth. Of this kind are lavas, scoria), 
 pumice, and volcanic ashes. 
 
 (c) Metamorphie — that is they may bo sediments or volcanic 
 beds which have been so modified by heat or pressure as to as- 
 sume a crystalline condition accompanied in many cases by some 
 chemical change. 
 
 2. With reference to their Preihminant Chemical Ingredients, 
 rocks may be regarded as (a) iSilicious, (b) Argillaceous, (c) 
 Calcareous, (d) Carbonaceous, (e) Ferruginous. The Silicious 
 rocks, which are by far the most abundant, may further be di- 
 vided into those that are Acidic or have an excess of Silica, and 
 those that are Basic or have an excess of the elements with 
 which the Silica is combined. 
 
 3. With reference to their Texture, rocks may be : — 
 
 (a) Fragmental, or composed of broken-up remains of older 
 rocks. Of this kind are conglomerates, sandstone and clay. 
 
 (b) Crystalline, or composed of crystals of one or more mine- 
 rals united together. Of this kind are granite and crystalline 
 marble. 
 
 (c) Organic, or retaining the structure of organic bodies, as 
 coral and crinoidal limestones, and coals. 
 
 itr.-i 3a ee aasnvwaoN annwHOd 
 
If) 
 
 Tho iibovo ^roundu of olnshificiition iiro of course allied with 
 cnch other. TIiuh fragiijentHl rockH are for the most part a(|UoouH. 
 The cryMtalline rocks are for the most part ol" igneous or iiieta- 
 iiiorphie orii^iii, thoti;^h moiih;, like gypsum and rock salt, aro 
 aqueous. We may thus adopt one of the above urranj^enieiits as 
 the dominant or general one, and use the others in Hubordination 
 to it; and tlie lirst conHideration or that of origin is probably at 
 present the most available for the lari^er groups. Our general 
 division of rocks may therefore be as follows : — 
 
 Class I 
 I0NEOU8 
 
 '• I includin- H*) Volcanic or Superficial. 
 
 R00K8. J . "(.(-) Jfupoijiiie. or Nether. 
 
 Class II. ) . , ,. \ (X) l/nalfereA, 
 
 } iiicludiD<; i ^ ' 
 Aqueous Rocks. ) i (2) Altered or Metamorphic. 
 
 C;i..\HS I.— lUNFOlS IIOCKS. 
 
 Section 1. Volcanic. 
 
 These aro superficial products of Ihiicouh action. All of them aro 
 Silicates, having tisiiiilly Alumiiiiitni, ('alciiini and Ma^iicsiinu as the 
 principal Itascs. They nuiy lie divided into Hult-sections, in accord- 
 ance with the proportions of acid and base, as follows : — 
 
 Huh-section 1. Rasic Volcanic Ilocka. 
 Doleritic Lava is poured forth in a molten state by modern volcanoes 
 and consists of Pyroxene witli basic Felspars. It j^eneraily presents 
 a vesic ulur appearance, caused by the expansion of inclu I'-d vapours 
 and gases, and it has usually a dark colour caused by the presence 
 of iron in low states of oxidation. In ancicait lavas the vesicles 
 often become tilled by aqueous infiltration with various minerals, 
 when the texture of the rock is said to be Amygdaloidal. 
 
 liaaalt is a dark-coloured finely crystalline compact lava which 
 often exhibits columnar strut tare. 
 
 Sub-section 2. Acidic Volcanic Jtockn. 
 7'rac/ii/tic Lava is a light-coloured lava containing an excess of 
 Silica, and producc^d by volcanoes in the same manner with ordinary 
 lava. It is vesicular, and wlicn highly so pusses into I'umice. 
 
 Trachyte is a more compact rock of tho same character, consisting 
 chiefly of orthoclase, usually with a little hornblende and mica. 
 When quartz is present it becomes Quartz-irachi/te. It is more or loss 
 finely crystalline, and sometimes has imbedded crystals of orthoclase 
 felspar, giving it the texture known &h porpliyritic. 
 
20 
 
 Obsidian and Pitchstone are volcanic glasses of similar ((imposition 
 to trachyte but vitreous in texture. 
 
 To this section belong volcanic Agglomerate and volcanic Tuj^. 
 These are fragmental deposits made up of the stones and dust ejected 
 from volcanic orifices. Their materials may either be those of the 
 basic or acidic lavas or a mixture of both. They are strictly volcanic 
 roclts, though their materials are often arranged in beds and subse- 
 quently consolidated by the action of water. 
 
 Section 2. Plutonic 
 
 These are the nether or underlying products of igneous action. 
 Being slowly cooled they are more highly crystalline than the rocks 
 of the previous section, and having been consolidated at great depths 
 below the surf.itie, they do not become visible till after the removal 
 of the more superficial volcanic products. Hence the rocks of this 
 section visible at the surface are usually of greater age than the vol- 
 canic rocks. 
 
 Sub-section 1. Basic Plutonic Rocks. 
 
 Dolerile consists of the same material with Doleritic lava, and passes 
 into it i but its more crystalline varieties may be regarded as Plutonic. 
 When it contains hydrous minerals, as chlorite, it constitutes the 
 variety Diabase. 
 
 Diorite or Greenstone is acrystallinemixtureof Hornblende, usually 
 dark coloured or greenish, with a tridinic felspar. Tiiis and the pre- 
 vious rock present great varieties of coarse and fine crystallization. 
 
 Syenite is a crystalline mixture of Hornblende and Orthoolase or 
 
 Potash Felspar. By the addition of quartz it becomes an acidic rock 
 
 and passes into Hornblendic Granite. 
 
 I 
 Sub-section 2. Acidic Plutonic Rocks. 
 
 Granite is a crystalline mixture of Felspar (Orthoclase with Oligo- 
 daso, or Albite) with Quartz and Mica. It may be coarse or fine 
 grained, and sometime-^ becomes porphyritic by the admixture of large 
 felspar crystals. Hornblendic or Syenitic Granite contains hornblende 
 with or instead of mica. Protogine contains talc as well as mica. 
 Graphic Granite is a variety found in veins. It is destitute of mica, 
 and has the quartz arranged in plates in accordance with the cleavage 
 of the felspar. 
 
 Felsite is a hard, finely crystalline or compact mixture of Felspar and 
 Quartz. It is sometimes called Petrosilex and Felstone. When distinct 
 crystals of orthoclase felspar are developed in it the porphyritic tex- 
 ture is produced. This is ordinary or Felsite porphyry, but other 
 igneous rocks may assume the porphyritic structure. 
 
 The above are only a few of the more ordinary igneous rocks which 
 should be known to the student by specimens and if possible also by 
 their microscopic structure. 
 
 w.T 3a 6» aacnvwaoN annkNaoj 
 
21 
 
 Class II.— AQUEOUS ROCKS. 
 
 Section 1. Unalteued Aqueous Rocks. 
 
 These may be produced either by the mechanical distribution of 
 sediment in water, by chemical precipitation, or by the accumulation 
 of the remains of animals and plants. The principal kinds are the 
 following : — 
 
 Conglomerate consists of pebbles of hard, usually silicious, rocks, 
 united by a paste or cement which may be silicious, argillaceous, cal- 
 careous or ferruginous. Conglomerates are beds of gravel, and they 
 indicate the somewhat powerful action of water as an abrading and 
 removing agent. They have often been formed along old lines of 
 coast, and are consequently irregular in their bedding and limited in 
 their horizontal distribution. The terms Volcanic Breccia and Agglo- 
 merate are applied to rocks composed of angular fragments. V(jlcanic 
 agglomerate has already been referred to ; but besides this Breccias 
 are accumulated by aqueous agencies in caves and fissures, and are 
 also derived from the debris of hard rocks disintegrated by frost, and 
 spread out by water without rounding of the edges. 
 
 Grit is a rock composed of coarse sand or small Htones, and is in- 
 termediate between the last rock and the ne.xt. 
 
 Sandstone is composed of grains of sand, more or less firm, and either 
 anpular or rounded, cemented together. When mixed with clay it 
 becomes argillaceous sandstone. When cemented by carbonate of 
 lime it is calcareous sandstone. Its grains are often superficially 
 stained of red or brown <_()lours by the oxide of iron. Fvestone is a 
 term applied to the softer and more easily worked sandstones ; 
 Flagstone to the laminated varieties. The harder varieties pass into 
 Quartzite. Greensand is a variety coloured by grains of the hytirous 
 silicate named glauconite. Sandstones with the surfaces of bedding 
 and lamination covered with plates of mica are micaceous sandstones 
 
 Shale is hardened clay or mud having a laminated texture, due 
 either to original deposition in layers or to subsequent pressure. On 
 the one hand it passes into soft clay, on the other by mctamorphism 
 into slate. Arenaceous shale is mixed with fine sand and passes into 
 sandstone. Carbonaceous shale is mixed and blackened with coaly 
 matter. Jiituminous shale or I'yroschist is impregnated with bituminous 
 matter. Calcareous shale contains limestone in a line state of division 
 and effervesces with an acid. Fireclay is a soft variety rendered in- 
 fusible by the absence of alkaline matter. It is often associated with 
 beds of coal. 7i'rto//n is a fine clay resulting from the decomposition 
 of felspar. Loess is the alluvial mud deposited in lakes and rivers. 
 Loam is a mixture of sand iind clay. 
 
 lAmestone includes all the unaltered rocks composed of calcium 
 carbonate, or calcite. It is distinguished by its softness as compared 
 with quartz and most of the eilicioua stones, and by eflervescing with 
 
22 
 
 'iil 
 
 ' ; I 
 
 an acid. It may be earthy, compact, crystalline, massive or laminated 
 in Btructure ; or with reference to matters mixed with it, argillaceous, 
 bituminous, ferruginous, or cherty. Oolite is a variety composed of 
 minute rounded concretions, which often shov under the microscope 
 a radiating prismatic structure as well as joncentric lamination. 
 Travertin or Calcareous Tufa is a limestone deposited by calcareous 
 springs. Stalactite and Stalagmite are similar matter deposited on the 
 roofs and floors of caverns. By mixture with fragments of limestone 
 or of bone. Stalagmite may become a calcareous or bone Breccia. 
 
 Coral and Shell Limestone and Crinoidal Limestone, or more generally 
 Organic Limestones, are composed of fragments of calcareous organisms, 
 sometimes apparent to the eye, in other cases visible only under the 
 microscope. Chalk is an organic limestone made up of tests of Fora- 
 minifera mixed with the minute organic bodies named Coccoliths. 
 
 Dolomite is a double calcium and magnesium carbonate. It may be 
 distinguished from common limestones by its higher lustre, slightly 
 greater weight, failure to effervesce with cold acid, and by often 
 weathering of a rusty colour in consequence of the presence in it of 
 ferrous carbonate. 
 
 Marl is an earthy mixture of calcium carbonate with clay or sand. 
 The calcareous matter is sometimes iu a tine state of division and 
 sometimes as fragments of sliclls (shell-marl). Marl is distingulslied 
 from ordinary clay by effervescing briskly when treated with an acid. 
 
 Gypsum^ '-A- Calcium Sulphate, is of less common occurrence than 
 limestone, but sometimes constitutes thick beds of great purity. 
 Anhi/ilriij is often associated with tiie ordinary hydrous variety. 
 
 Coal and carbonaceous rocks have already been referred to under 
 the heailing of Minerals. 
 
 Iron ores have also been noticed under the same heading. 
 
 l\ 
 
 
 Section 2. Mktamoupiiic Rocks. 
 
 These are rocks originally a(iueous or aqueo-igneous, which have 
 been subjected to the action of heat and pressure, along with chemical 
 agencies, until their particles have so rearranged themselves as to 
 give a crystalline cliaracter accompanied by differences in the state 
 of ct)ml)ination of the contained elements. 
 
 The metamorphic rocks are intermediate in character between the 
 unaltered aqueous and the plutonic series. On the one hand they 
 pass into ordinary aqueous rocks, on the other by becoming highly 
 crystalline and losing their original bedding, they graduate into plu- 
 tonic rocks. The principal varieties of these metamorphosed rocks 
 are the following : — 
 
 Quartzile or Quartz Rock is a result of the alteration of sandstone 
 whereby its grains of sand become inseparable and sometimes indis- 
 tinguishable. 
 
 =jt»wo,1 50 ik Sasn'vwMON annwaoj 
 
23 
 
 Gneiss is a product of the alteration of sediments, containing Hufti- 
 cicnt basic matter for the production of felspar and hornblende or 
 mica. It thus resembles granite in composition, and is distinguished 
 by its laminated structure and stratilied arrangem»;nt. Many gneisses 
 may have originally been bedded trachytes or voli'anic tutfs. 
 
 Mica Schist is a crystalline mixture of quartz and mica. It is a pro- 
 duct of the alteration of shales. It often contains disseminated 
 minerals, as pyiite, garnet or chiastolite. By addition of felspar it 
 passes into gneiss. By increase of quartz it becomes micaceous 
 quartzite or quartz schist, and by diminution of its crystalline charac- 
 ter it passes into Argillite. 
 
 Aiyillile or Clay Slain is a product of the alteration and hardening 
 of clay or shale. It is remarkable for the development in it of slaty 
 structure, which arises from the forcing by lateral pressure of all flat 
 particles in a soft mass into positions- in which they lie at right angles 
 to the direction of pressure. In this way the most perfect lamination 
 is often produced in planes quite different from those of bedding. 
 
 Jlornldende Schist is a laminated mixture of hornblende with quartz, 
 and sometimes with mica. 
 
 Talc Schist is a slaty rock in which talc takes the place of mica. 
 
 Chlorite Schist is a similar slaty rock consisting largely of that 
 mineral. 
 
 NacreouK or ITydro-mica Schist is a nanu! which has been given to 
 crystalline slates in which a hydrous mica takes the place of the 
 ordinary mica. 
 
 Marble or Crystalline Limestone and Crystalline Dolomite include the 
 vari(;ties of these rocks in which a perfect crystallization and often a 
 wliite colour have been developeil by metamorphisni. OphioUtc is a 
 marble containing grains or streaks and patches of serpentine. 
 
 Anthracite and Graphite result from the alteration of coal or of 
 bituminous matter. Thus ordinary coal passes, under alteration, into 
 anthracite, and finally, in certain cases, into graphite, and bituminous 
 shales pass into graphitic slates. 
 
 Maynetile is very often a product of the metamorphism of ores con- 
 sisting of the sesquioxidc of iron. 
 
 Local metamorphism can often be ob.served at the contact of 
 aqueous rocks with the hirger i;^neou8 masses, and a study of 
 these ca.ses aifords a key to the explanation of those larger ex- 
 amples in which no obvious cause of alteration is present. 
 Metamorphism is induced or favoured by heat, by pressure, and 
 by the percolation of heated and mineral waters ; and rocks of 
 complex character and containing basic and acidic mineral ' ^ter- 
 mixed are those which present the most remarkable met i m .do 
 
24 
 
 ( ^ 
 
 changes. Such rocks liavo abounded more especially in the 
 oldest rock formations, and in those partly made up of igneous 
 ejections. At the same time the older deposits and those nearest 
 to igneous foci have been the most exposed to metamorphio 
 agencies. Hence certain metamorphio or crystalline rocks are 
 characteristic of the older formations though not absolutely con- 
 fined to them. 
 
 
 'I 
 
 Metamorphic rock (Gneiss) intersected by Igneous dykes. Lake of 
 the Woods, (i) lied Felspar, (ii) Greenish Diorite. (lu) Horti- 
 blendic Diorite. (iv) Red Granite. (G. M. Dawson.) 
 
 Scale — 6 feet to an inch. 
 
 JiiiMU, I SO ii iashvwbON an 
 
 niNuod 
 
25 
 
 1 
 
 II. STRATIGRAPHY. 
 
 1. Causes concerned in the Production op Rocks. 
 
 This and the four following sections may be rei,'arded as inter- 
 mediate in their character between Lithology and Stratigraphy, 
 or as introductory to the latter. 
 
 In nature there is a constant struggle between aqueous and 
 igneous agencies in modifying the materials of the earth's crust. 
 The deeper portions of the crust arc being slowly softened and 
 crystallized under the influence of heat and pressure, and are 
 thus being converted into metamorphic rocks, and these finally 
 into plutonic masses, portions of which being erupted constitute 
 volcanic produces. On the other hand the waters and the atmos- 
 phere are constantly decomposing and wearing away the crystal- 
 line rocks at the surface, and depositing their detritus in the 
 bottom of the waters. These processes seem to- have been active 
 throughout the whole of geological time in producing igneous 
 and aqueous rocks. Since however the latter are the more im- 
 portant in geology, on account of their greater relative abund- 
 ance, their regularly bedded character and the fossils they con- 
 tain, we may direct our attention principally to them. 
 
 Atmospheric Erosion. — We have seen that the most common 
 crystalline rocks are composed largely of silicates, as the Felspars, 
 Hornblende and Pyroxene. When these are exposed to the 
 action of the atmosphere and of rair water, which always holds 
 carbon dioxide in solution, the soda, potash, lime, and other 
 bases which they contain in combination with silica, are gradu- 
 ally removed in the state of carbonates, leaving the alumina and 
 silica behind in an incoherent state. Thus from the decay of a 
 hornblendic granite there may result ((uartz-sand, clay, lime- 
 stone, and iron oxides, which when sorted and variously de^ 
 posited by water, may assume the aj j)carance of distinct alter- 
 nating beds, while the alkaline matters removed in .solution are 
 washed into the sea or into lake.s, wIhtc they may aid in chemical 
 changes leading to other kinds of deposition. 
 
I 
 
 26 
 
 To the atmospheric a<;encies we may also add the disintegrat- 
 ing power of frost, which by the expansion in the act of freezing 
 of the water contained in rocks, chips off sand and fragments, 
 and rapidly reduces very hard rocks to ruins. In mountains 
 and the polar regions this action of frost is aided by the mechan- 
 ical movement of glaciers, which removes to lower levels or into 
 the sea the material disintegrated by frost, and which also exer- 
 cises a polishing and abrading effect on the subjacent surface. 
 The action of coast ice, which is also very powerful, may rather 
 be classed witli aqueous agencies. 
 
 Aqueous Erosion. — This takes place by the abrading action of 
 rivers and torrents, by the beating of the waves on coasts, by 
 tidal currents, by the action of cold heavy currents on the sea 
 bottom, and by the solvent action of springs and other subterra- 
 nean waters. As these agents are constantly at work, the changes 
 which they produce in the lapse of ages are very great. It has 
 been estimated that the atmospheric and aqueous causes of 
 erosion at present in action, would suffice to remove the whole 
 of the dry land into the sea in about six millions of years. 
 
 Deposition. — Tiie materials thus set free by chemical cecom- 
 position and meclianicul abrasion arc deposited in layers ii the 
 depressed portions of the earth's crust occupied by the waters. 
 The coarser materials, as pebbles and sand, may be thrown down 
 along coasts and at the mouths of rivers ; the finer materials will 
 be carried farther out to sea, and those held in solution may be 
 ultimately fixed in the organisms of coral animals and other 
 marine creatures, and may form coral limestones and similar 
 organic deposits. 
 
 In any given locality all these agencies, whether of erosion or 
 of deposition, may be greatly modified from time to time by 
 changes of level or of climate, whether arising from movements 
 of the earth's crust, or from astronomical causes ; and also by 
 volcanic paroxysms breaking forth from time to time. 
 
 2. Hardening and Alteration of Aqueous Deposits. 
 
 Aqueous deposits thrown down by crystal'.' «<ation may be hard 
 from the first ; but sedimentary beds are usa^tily at first soft, and 
 are hardened by subsequent processes, such as the following : — 
 
 (a) By Pressure of a great thickness of superincumbent ma- 
 terial. In this way, for example, soft clay is hardened into 
 
 .•wu. I na «» SatnvwyoN 3^ 
 
 nwaoj 
 
27 
 
 ehnle, and peat into brown coal ; and there is reason to believe 
 that lateral pressure, occasioned by folding and settlement of the 
 earth's crust, may produce still more powerful eflFects in harden- 
 ing and crystallizing rocks. Pressure may act by condensing 
 soft sediments to a fraction of their original thickness, by arrang- 
 ing flat particles in the same plane, thus causing lamination or 
 cleavage, by causing minute particles to adhere by contact and 
 by developing heat. 
 
 (b) By Injiltration of mineral matter in solution. Subtcr- 
 terranean waters usually contain calcium bicarbonate, soluble 
 silicates or other mineral substances in solution, and depositing 
 these in the interstices of sand, gravel, fragments of shells, &c., 
 may ultimately cement such materials into a compact rock. 
 (Fig. 1.) 
 
 Fig. 1. — Fragment of Trenton Limestone, mnpiiified. It is composed 
 of broken pieces of corals, crinoids and sliells cemented 
 together by transparent calcitc. 
 
 (c) Bi/ Heat. When sediments are buried to so great a depth 
 that they are acted on by the earth's internal heat, or when heat 
 is developed by the movement and crumpling of great masses of 
 rock, or when sediments are invaded by intrusive molten rocks, 
 they become baked and hardened, and in some cases their par- 
 ticles are enabled to arrange themselves as distinct crystalline 
 
 [| 
 
28 
 
 minerals or to enter into new chemical combinations. The re- 
 sult is metamorphism, which as already stated may change mud 
 or volcanic ashes or similar incoherent material into the hardest 
 and most crystalline rock. It is farther to be observed that the 
 heat to which sediments are subjected at great depths, is not dry 
 heat, since their substance is saturated with water, and this 
 being prevented by pressure from escaping, remains in a heated 
 state, and must greatly promote chemical and molecular changes. 
 
 3. Concretionary Action. 
 
 An important modification of these hardening processes results 
 from concretionary action. This is an unequal hardening of the 
 mass, whereby certain portions of it become indurated into balls, 
 nodules or grains. It depends on molecular attractive movements 
 collecting together certain constituents of the mass, and may pro- 
 duce the following kinds of concretionary structure : — 
 
 (f/) The whole mass of material may assume a concretionary 
 structure, aggregating itself into nodular grains. This is the case 
 with Oolitic limestoiws and Oolitic ores of iron. A similar change 
 sometimes occurs Tu the cooling of igneous masses. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 Fig. 2. — Magnified section of Oolitic Limestone (after Sorby), showing 
 concretions with radiating and concentric structure, and 
 Home of them enclosing fragments of shells, &e. 
 
 ^u w u. I a o t» l^«!-rvwM6N 
 
 ainwyod 
 
29 
 
 (h) Foreign materials diffused through the mass may be col- 
 lected into limited spaces, and thus form concretions. This is 
 the case with Jiints in chalk and with cl<ii/ ironstone in beds of 
 shale. 
 
 (c) The cementing substance of the mass may be unequally 
 collected in certain portions at the expense of the rest. This 
 occurs in the hard concretions in clays and in "bull's-eyes" in 
 sandstones. 
 
 Fig. 3. — Rounded concretion confining a fossil fish, split open. 
 Post-pliocene, Canada. 
 
 Any foreign body, as a fossil or a grain of sand, may form a 
 nucleus for a concretion. (Fig. 3.) Concretions have often a 
 concentric lamination n- irking their stages of increase. They 
 are sometimes hardened at the surface while the interior remains 
 soft, and the latter may subsequently crack from shrinkage. 
 When these cracks are afterwards filled with other mineral 
 matter, septaria concretions result. Concretions often assume 
 very fantastio shapes, and have been mistaken for fossils. 
 
 Geodes, which are cavities in rocks lined with crystals, are 
 distinct in their mode of formation from concretions, though 
 sometimes confounded with them. 
 
 4. Colours op Aqueous Rocks. 
 The most abundant colouring matter in rocks is iron. 
 
 Its 
 
 monoxide and sulphide when difi'uscd through sediments produce 
 green, gray and blaekish colours. Its sep<"'Moxide produces red 
 colours. Its hydrous sesquioxide gives ;> jW, buff and brown 
 shades. Peroxide of manganese is sometimes a cause of black 
 colours in rocks, and coaly matter is also a not infrequent cause 
 of the blackening of sediments. 
 
30 
 
 I. 
 
 ti 
 
 The followinj; fncts are important with reference to tlie colours 
 produced by iron : — 
 
 («) In the subaeriul docompoHition of most rocks a sufficient 
 quantity of sesquioxide of iron is produced to colour the result- 
 ing sands or clays. In ordinary circumstances it is the brown 
 or hydrous oxide that is produced in this way ; but in warm 
 climates, under the influence of volcanic heat and in the presence 
 of saline waters, the red oxide is produced. Thus the subaerial 
 decomposition of crystalline rocks coloured gray, green or black 
 by sulphide or monoxide of iron, gives rise to brown and red 
 sediments. 
 
 (/>) If the sediments thus coloured are rapidly washed down 
 and deposited in the sea, or in limited areas of fresh or salt 
 water, they may retain their colours, and thus the red, brown 
 and purple sandstones and clays so characteristic of certain for- 
 mations are produced. 
 
 (o) If the sediment is long abraded by moving water, the 
 clay is separated from the sand, and the superficial red coating is 
 washed from the latter so that it loses its colour. In this way 
 gray or white sandstones are often found to alternate with red 
 or reddish shales. 
 
 (fZ) When sediments coloured with iron are deposited in fresh, 
 water along with organic matter, as peat, &c., the latter deprives 
 the iron of a portion of its oxygen, reducing it to monoxide, and 
 this being soluble in the acids naturally produced by the decay 
 of the vegetable matter, is removed, leaving the sand or clay in 
 a bleached condition. 
 
 (e) When the deoxidising process occurs in sea water, the 
 sulphates present in the latter being decomposed at the same time 
 with the iron oxides, a black iron sulphide is produced, which 
 gives a gray colour more or less dark to the sediment. Material 
 coloured in this way becomes buff or brown on weathering, and 
 becomes red when heated in the air. This is a useful mark of 
 marine clays. In this case or the last, scattered organic frag- 
 ments deposited in red sediments and not in sufficient quantity 
 to affect the colour of the whole, produce gray or white stains. 
 
 (/) If organic matter be present in large quantity, it not only 
 removes the red colour but communicates its own black or dark 
 brown colours to the whole. 
 
 The above considerations serve to show why red rocks have 
 
 ^unxj. I JO tt a'ltinvwMON i-rtfWa- 
 
81 
 
 been dcpo.sitod in large quantity in tiujcs of pliynioal distmbanco 
 and volcanic activity, and generally when deposition is rapid and 
 organic mutter absent. Tiiey also serve to explain the presence 
 of red beds with rock salt deposited from the waters of saline 
 lakes or lagoons. They also explain the rarity of fossils in red 
 rocks, since the retaining of the red colour implies scarcity of 
 organic remains, and an excess of peroxide of iron tends to 
 oxidise and destroy such as may be present. On the otlier hand 
 they show why gray and dark coloured beds are those which 
 most abound iu fossils. 
 
 5. Markings on tub Surfaces of Aqueous Rocks. 
 
 The circumstances under which aqueous beds have been de- 
 posited arc often indicated by the markings seen on their surfaces, 
 
 (a) Ripple murks, caused by the motion of currents throwing 
 up slight ridges and hollows at right angles to the direction of 
 the current, 
 
 (b) Current lines, caused by the driftage of sand, organic frag- 
 ments, or sea-weeds and drift wood, in the direction of the current. 
 
 (c) ^(7/ marks, caused by the running of drainage water 
 over inclined surfaces of mud and clay after recession of the 
 tide. These arc often so complicated as to simulate foliage. 
 
 (d) Shrinkage cracks, produced by the drying and shrinkage 
 of muddy surfaces when loft bare to be acted on by the sun and 
 air. 
 
 (e) Ruin marks, or rounded pits produced by rain drops, or 
 washed surfaces produced by continuous rain, afterward covered 
 up and preserved by subsequent deposits. (See figures at end,) 
 
 These markings belong for the most part to shallow water and 
 to the vicinity of the shore and to tidal estuaries. They are often 
 of muci, interest as indicating the conditions of deposit and the 
 changes which have taken place in these, 
 
 6. Arranuement of Rocks on the Large Scale. 
 With reference to this, the materials of the earth's crust exist 
 iu three different conditions: — (1) The Stratified ; (2) The 
 Massive or Unstratified ; (3) The Vein-formed. The rocks of 
 the second and third classes are however subordinate to those of 
 the first, which vastly predominate in those parts of the earth 
 open to our inspection. We may therefore consider first and 
 principally the Stratified rocks, (Fig. 4). 
 
32 
 
 I 
 
 ! 
 
 V* 
 
 ¥i? 
 
 I » 
 
 " g 
 K .2 
 
 M bo 
 ^ I 
 
 4> 
 
 bo 
 o 
 
 (1 
 o 
 
 
 d 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 43 
 
 >o 
 
 4<i 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 1-1 
 
 ! 53 •;? 
 
 o 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 o 
 
 
 J3 
 o 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 ja 
 
 &1 
 S 
 
 - » 
 
 
 •» 
 
 ^ 
 £ 
 
 uawu. I jq tt a^„-,vwMeN ^-,nwBo7 
 
All ordiniiry utiucous or sediineiitury rooks arc RtratiKod, or 
 urrungcd ir bodH more or Ichs nearly, when undisturbed, npprouch- 
 ing to a ho.'izontal position. 
 
 A Lamimi or Lai/er is the thinnest sheet into which u strati- 
 fied rock is divisible. 
 
 A Stratum or Bed is of ^rciitor thickness, or may consist of 
 several laminn) — e. g. u bed of laminated sandstone consisting of 
 several layers. 
 
 A FomintioH consists of several beds deposited consecutively 
 and under similar gonoral {'oiulitinns. A formation may thus 
 include beds of rock of difl'orcnt kinds, thoujjh usually there is a 
 certain litholoirleal similarity in the beds e»»ristituting a forma- 
 tion — e. g. tli(! coal formation, which includes many beds of 
 sandstone, shale, coal, &c. (Fig. 5.) 
 
 cRtyauicn'SHAU 
 uoMin 
 
 CUPf k YEL1.0W 
 SAN01 5HAL£ 
 
 IflONBrONC 
 ORCTCLAY 
 
 owBONAecaua awu 
 
 oner SAN OSTONC 
 
 UCNFTt 
 
 SANQVOLAT 
 
 moHerroNE 
 
 CARBOMMEOUt WMB 
 
 uoNm 
 
 OREY SANOyCUY 
 
 LICNITt 
 SANDY OLKT 
 
 LioNrri, 
 
 aRErsANinr 
 
 WtTHMOTS 
 
 Fig. 5. — Section of Lignite Tertiary formation, west of Manitoba. 
 The whole of the beds shown, except the soil and drift, 
 belong to one formation, though differing in mineral charac- 
 ters. Some of them, as the shale beds, are laminated. (Q. M. 
 Dawson.) 
 
Hi 
 
 A Systeini or Group of Fomiatinns includes all the formations 
 of one of the larger geological periods — c. g. the carboniferous 
 system, which includes with the coal formation other formations 
 belonging to the same great geological period. 
 
 Inasmuch as formations and systems of formations imply the 
 lapse of time, they may also be designated by terms relating to 
 time. Thus wo may speak of the carboniferous period, the coal- 
 formation epoch. 
 
 The term Sedvi is often used by minci-s for beds of useful 
 minerals; and when such beds are considerably inclined, they 
 are sometimes called veins, though not of the nature of true veins. 
 
 
 7. Joints and Sl.\ty Cleavage. 
 
 These appearances are important, because it is necessary to 
 distinguish them from planes of bedding. 
 
 Joints are planes of division cutting beds at various angles, 
 though usually approaching to vertical. They often divide the 
 bed into oblique-angled blocks by the intersection of two sets of 
 cleavage planes ; and when the cleavage planes of one set are 
 close together they often simulate true bedding. Joints some- 
 times facilitate the operations of the quarryman by enabling 
 blocks of stone to be more readily detached ; but when numerous 
 they injure stones otherwise useful. 
 
 When joints occur in beds of igneous rock they sometimes give 
 origin to a columnar structure, as in beds of basalt. 
 
 Joints are often slickensided, that is they have their surfaces 
 polished by friction which has occurred during movements of the 
 beds. 
 
 Joints are sometimes widened into fissures, which being filled 
 with f(iroi|in matter, constitute veins. The joitits of rocks thus 
 connect themselves with the vein-condition afterwards to be 
 noticed. 
 
 Jointed structure sometimes weakens otherwise enduring rocks 
 so as to permit them to be worn into ravines and valleys. 
 
 Sloty structure is a lamination not caused by original deposi- 
 tion but by pressure subsequently exercised, whereby plates of 
 mica and other flat bodies present in the material, maybe induced 
 to assume positions parallel to the plane of pressure. Such slaty 
 structure or slaty cleavage has been effected in many regions over 
 
 
35 
 
 great thicknesses of beds, and while it is of practical importance 
 as giving the best roofing slates, it is somewhat puzzling to geolo- 
 gists as masking the true bedding. This can however usually 
 be ascertained by noticing the bands of colour and structure 
 which represent the original planes of deposit. In eomc cases 
 the planes of bedding and of cleavage coincide, but in very many 
 they are altogether different. 
 
 8. Inclined Position of Beds. 
 
 Aqueous strata have been originally deposited in a position 
 approaching to horizontality. The only exceptions to this are 
 where these beds have been uniformly disposed over uneven or 
 inclined surfaces, or where material has been washed over the 
 edge of a bank, giving rise to oblique stratification or false bed- 
 ding. Movements of the crust of the earth, and especially move- 
 ments of folding or bending which have apparently arisen from 
 the shrinkage of the mass of the earth as compared with its 
 crust, have however caused the originally horizontal beds to 
 assume various degrees of inclination. Aqueous erosion has 
 further caused the broken edges of bent strata to protrude at the 
 surface. The degree and direction of such inclination afford 
 most valuable data for ascertaining the relative positions and 
 ages of beds. The most important facts of this kind are the 
 following : — (F'g- 6.) 
 
 Fig. G. — Inclined jiosition of roi ks. Beds of slato ((/), iind iron 
 ore (/)) diiipiiii; to tlic nortliwiird ut an iiiiKli' of 41°. 
 
 (a) Dip, or the angle of inclination to the horizon as measured 
 by the clinometer. 
 
 (b) Direction of dip as ascertained by the compass. 
 
 (c) Strike, or the horizontal line at right angles to the dip. 
 
 (d) Outcrop, or the line of intersection of the plane of the 
 bed with the surface of the country. On perfectly level ground 
 this is of course identical with the strike. Otherwise it is diffe- 
 rent. 
 
36 
 
 Observations of these, facts can bo made in natural cxposurea, 
 as cliffs, shores, «!kc., in artificial exposures, as quarries, cuttings, 
 mines, &c. The harder rocks usually project in ridges and the 
 softer are cut into hollows. Hence the lines of ridges and val- 
 leys often form very useful guides in tracing the outcrops of beds. 
 The harder rocks are also more likely to crop out at the surface 
 than those which arc softer, and the latter are more liable to lie 
 in low ground and to be covered with soil. 
 
 A line drawn across the strike of a series of beds gives a sec- 
 tion of those beds, and in proceeding along such a line in the 
 direction toward which the bods dip wo obtain an <txccn(Ung 
 scries. In the opposite direction we obtain a descending series. 
 Thus we can ascend or descend geologically in proceeding along 
 the surface of the ground, and geological ascent and descent do 
 not coincide with topograpliioal, except where the bods are hori- 
 zontal or nearly so. 
 
 The thickness of beds is always measured at right angles to 
 their dip. For ordinary purposes it may bo assumed that the 
 thickness is eijual to ^.^ of the distance across the outcrop at 5° 
 of inclination, and so oa for every additional 5^. 
 
 When we follow a series of beds in ascending or descending 
 order, we at length arrive at a line in which their dip changea 
 to the opposite direction. When this takes place in the descend- 
 ing series it constitutes an onticUndl line or axis, sometimes 
 called an antieline. When it takes place in the ascending series 
 it constitutes a synclinal line or si/nclinc. 
 
 When the anticlinal and synclinal axes are not horizontal, or 
 when the surface of the country is inclined, the bods may be seen 
 at the surface to bend around the ends of the anticlinals or syn- 
 clinals, so that on a map these appear as more or less abrupt 
 bends or loops of the strata. 
 
 In those regions where the beds have been slightly inclined, 
 the anticlinals and synclinals are low and wide ; but in disturbed 
 districts the folds are often very abrupt, causing the beds to 
 approach to vcrticality, and in some places to be overturned. la 
 such cases also the anticlinals or synclinals are sometimes very 
 steep on one side and less so on the other, and they are not in- 
 frequently accompanied with minor flexures and foldings of the 
 beds as well as with fractures or dislocations. In such disturbed 
 districts great caution is requisite lest abruptly folded and re- 
 
 woxrasinvwM 
 
 ON anniNMOd 
 
37 
 
 peatcd beds should be roparded as constitutin^j ji continuous 
 Bcrics, and lest overturned beds should be regarded a.s in their 
 natural positions. (Figs. 7, 8, 9.) 
 
 IS 
 
 
 .S ^ 
 
 a ^- 
 
 o 1- 
 
 
 +i 
 
 
 
 a c 
 
 a 
 I 
 
 a jii 
 
 is 2 
 
 o •- 
 
 c O 
 
 t- d 
 
 '^ '■§ 
 
 Oh 1> 
 
 a, 
 
 « a, 
 
 is ;^ 
 
 5 ^ 
 
 O ^ 
 
 ■/' ^* 
 
 ? 2 
 
 = S > 
 
 i o 5 
 
 o 
 
 
38 
 
 Fig. 9. — Beds of Limestone, Sandstone and Shale of Lower Carbon- 
 iferous ago in a vertical position. Smith's Island, Cape 
 Breton. 
 
 9. Faults. 
 
 When movements of beds have been accompanied with frac- 
 ture and slipping of the beds up or down, faulting or discontin- 
 uity of beds is produced. 
 
 Faults traversing inclin-^d beds may displace them laterally as 
 well as vertically. The vertical displacement is sometimes des- 
 ignated by the term slide, the lateral displacement by the term 
 heave. A downthrow is said to take place on that side toward 
 which the beds are sunken, and an upthrow on that side toward 
 which they have risen. When the plane of a fault is inclined, 
 the inclination is usually called by miners its " hade," and is 
 measured from a vertical plane. The downthrow is almost al- 
 ways found to have occurred on the side toward which the plane 
 of fault inclines. When the contrary occurs the fault is said to 
 be reversed. This fact is often of great importance in estimating 
 the effects of faults. (Fig. 10.) 
 
 In observing faults, the facts to be noticed are the directions of 
 the planes of fracture, their hade and the amount and direction 
 of movement, with its effect on the beds traversed. When these 
 facts are obtained, all the effects of the dislocation can be readily 
 worked out, though, when several lines of fault cross the same 
 beds, the appearances are often very deceptive, leading to incor- 
 reot estimates of the thickness and number of the beds. 
 
 
39 
 
 Fig. 10. — Fiiult, Lignite Tertiary series, Porcupine ('reel<, N. VV. T. 
 (G. M. Dawson.) The bed of lignite (a) lias been thrown 
 down, and lias been removed by denudation from the 
 otlier side of the fault. 
 
 As the inequalities cau.sed by faulting have usually been 
 rounded or smoothed off, and the line of u fault is often a weak 
 place where the rocks have been worn down and covered with 
 debris, faults can very rarely be distinctly seen, and their nature 
 and direction can usually be ascertained only by inference from 
 the dislocation observed in the beds on their opposite sides. 
 They are very numerous in di.sturbed districts, and there are 
 often two or more sets of them crossing- the beds in different 
 directions. In most cases, however, the amount of movement 
 which they produce is not great. 
 
 10. Unconformahility. 
 
 When one series of beds has been disturbed and another de- 
 posited upon the upturned edges of the first, the upper series is 
 said to rest unconformably on the lowt>r. This indicates not 
 merely a difference of age but an interval of time between the 
 dates of the two series, [t often happens also that the edges 
 
 Fig. 11. — Unconformable superposition of (c) Silurian beds on (b) 
 Cambrian, and of the latter on (a) Eozoic. West of Scot- 
 land. (After Murchison.) 
 
: 
 
 i 
 
 40 
 
 of the lower series show evidences of c^reat erosion, or that 
 the beds of the lower series have been hardened and altered 
 before the deposition of the upper. A false or simulated want 
 of conformity occurs when a bed has been cut unequally by water 
 before the next bed is deposited. When con<rl inerates or coarse 
 sandstones rest upon finer beds such apparent unconlbrniity is 
 oft€n produced. (Fig. 11.) 
 
 11. Denudation. 
 This is the removal of matter by atmospheric or aqueous ero- 
 sion. It has already been referred to as a source of the materials 
 of aqueous deposits. We must now consider it as concerned in 
 giving relief to the surface of the earth. That denudation has 
 taken place to a great extent may be inferred from such facts as 
 the following : The projection of hard beds and massive rocks in 
 consequence of the removal of softer material from around them ; 
 the existence of synclinal elevations in consequence of the erosion 
 of anticlinals which once were higher but must have been more 
 perishable owing to their fissured condition ; the planing away 
 to a low level of rocks which testify by their dips or by the 
 existence of extensive faults that they once rose to much greater 
 height and were very uneven ; the cutting of deep ravines 
 through table lands, and the quantity of stones, gravel, sand, 
 and other detritus of older formations, employed in the building 
 up of those which are newer. (Fig. 12.) 
 
 i 
 
 .1 
 
 Fig. 12. — Denudation of liorizontul beds, Great Valley, N. W. T. 
 (G. M. Dawson.) 
 
 » W«in vwMON annwiio J 
 
41 
 
 Geological observation has ^hown that the inequalities of the 
 earth's surface are due to denudation more than to any other 
 cause. 
 
 It has been estimated that the areas drained by the rivors of 
 our continents are losing by denudation at rates varying from 1 
 foot in 1500 years to 1 foot in 6000 years. At these rates, were 
 no counteracting elevation to take place, our continents would be 
 levelled with the sea in from four millions to nine millions of 
 years. 
 
 12. Massive Rocks. 
 
 These are in almost all cases of igneous origin, and can be 
 readily distinguished both by their mineral character and their 
 mode of occurrence, from the stratitiod rocks. Such irregular 
 masses may represent either (1) the remains of the bases of old 
 volcanic cones, the looser parts of which have been swept away ; 
 or (2) exotic or intrusive materials ejected among other rocks 
 from beneath ; or (3) portions of the aqueous crust so much 
 altered that their stratification has been obliterated. 
 
 If the stratified rocks have been adhered at their contact with 
 igneous masses, or are penetrated by veins proceeding from them, 
 we know that the masses are newer than the beds. On the other 
 hand, if the massive rocks have been eroded before the deposi- 
 tion of the beds, if the latter are unaltered, and if they contain 
 debris derived from the massive rocks, we know that these are 
 older. (Fig. 4.) 
 
 ii 
 
 13. Vein-formed Rocks. 
 
 The most common veins are fissures filled with material intro- 
 duced either in a molten state or in aqueous solution. 
 
 Igneous veins or dykes are often of great size, and extenu 
 through the stratified rocks for long distances. They are filled 
 with some of the kinds of igneous rock ; sometimes present a 
 jointed structure at right angles to their sides; often have the 
 surface in contact with the adjacent rock of different texture 
 from the interior ; and have often, by their heat, produced con- 
 siderable alteration in the adjacent rock. They are especially 
 numerous in the vicinity of igneous masses and of volcanic foci 
 ancient or modern. (Fig. 13,) 
 
 Ii 
 
T 
 
 42 
 
 Fig. 13. — Igneous dykus or veins, extenKion reservoir, Montreal. 
 (a) Fulspatliic dyke traversing beds of limestone. 
 {I/) Fl<»or or liorizontnl vein of Dolerite cutting (a). 
 (r) Tliick dyke of Ftlsitc eutting (/;). (d) Inclined 
 dykes of Dolerite cutting all the others. 
 
 Aqueous veins, which are also often mineral veins, are usually 
 filled with crystalline minerals deposited in them by water. 
 They often present a laminated appearance, owing to the deposi- 
 tion of successive coats of matter in the walls of the vein. Occa- 
 sionally the walls of veins present margins or "selvages" con- 
 sisting of decomposed rock or decomposed veinstone. 
 
 In the case of mineral veins, the mass filling the vein is called 
 gangue or veinstone, as distinguished from the ore associated 
 with it. (Fig. 14.) 
 
 £1. C 
 
 Fig. 14. — Metallic veins near the contact of slate and granite. (After 
 Von Cotta.) (a) Fissure vein, (b) Horizontal or bedded 
 vein sending off a branch (e). (c) Contact vein at the 
 junction of the two formations, (d) Lenticular or inter- 
 rupted veins, sometimes called by miners " pockets." 
 
 Veins are often very irregular in their forms. This arises not 
 only from the original irregularity of cracks traversing rocks, 
 but from subsequent shifts of the containing walls, from the do- 
 
 iTaa ct aati-ivWwoN a-inwMoj 
 
43 
 
 tachment of loose pieces or " /torses " from the sides, and from 
 erosion of the walls by subterrimcan wiitors. They also differ 
 very much in their contents in passinu from one kind of rock 
 into another, and are often decomposed and changed by atmos- 
 pheric action at their outcrops. 
 
 There is reason to believe that some veins have been filled 
 simultaneously with their opening, so that they have never 
 actually been open fissures. Such veins, which present many 
 peculiar appearances, are called segregation veins. 
 
 14. Chronology of Beds. 
 
 Superposition, — The great leading fact as to the ages of aque- 
 ous deposits is that the upper of two beds is necessarily the 
 newer. Wherever therefore the actual superposition of beds can 
 be ascertained, there can be no doubt as to their relative ages. 
 In mines and borings, and in cliffs and quarries, we can thus 
 easily ascertain the ages of the beds exposed. In the case of 
 inclined beds this is equally obvious as in those wiiich are hori- 
 zontal. In these however we must be careful not to be misled 
 by overturns and by beds repeated by faults. 
 
 No one exposure, however, can show anything more than a 
 limited portion of the series of rocks occurring in any district of 
 considerable extent. Hence in extending the results of our 
 observations it is necessary to have recourse to other data. 
 
 Tracing of beds. — Having ascertained the sequence of beds in 
 one locality, we endeavour to trace them along their outcrops. 
 We thus bring them into relation with other beds not seen in 
 the original exposure. 
 
 Mineral character. — Where the tracing of the beds fails, we 
 have to compare them in different sections, and to endeavour to 
 recognize them by their mineral character — a .succession of like 
 beds in two not very distant sections giving us fair evidence of 
 identity. Here however we must remember that in tracing any 
 given bed for a long distance, it cannot be expected to retain 
 precisely the same character, but may be represented by some 
 different material. 
 
 Fossil remains. — When we can obtain from any of the beds in 
 question fossil organic remains, these afford us a new means of 
 testing identity of age. Experience has shown that in the 
 course of the earth's history the facies of animal and vegetable 
 life has been constantly changing, so that the fossils of one for- 
 
' 
 
 44 
 
 inatioD ure diflorcnt from tliose of unotlior. Whoa wo have in 
 any one looality ascertained this succes-sion, wo arc safe in apply- 
 ing it to olherH. The evideiiee of fossils is thus at present held 
 to be one of the best criteria for the ages of stratifit'd rocks. 
 
 In employing fossils as evidence of age, we have however to 
 bear in mind certain necessary prceuutions. There are other 
 difterences than those of age ; as for example, the difference be- 
 tween animals of the sea, of freshwater and of the land ; of 
 different depths in the sea, and of different climates. It is neces- 
 sary, tlierefore, to compare animals or plants of like habitat and 
 conditions of existence. It is farther to be observed that certain 
 forms of life have been of longer duration in geological time than 
 others, and therefore do not .«o definitely mark the lapse of time. 
 Again, oirtain forms of animal or vegetable life may have begun 
 earlier or continued later in one locality than in others. Oa 
 these acccounts the evidence of fossils is more certain with refer- 
 ence to the greater geological periods than with referonco to the 
 minor subdivisions of these. 
 
 15. Geoi.oqical Maps and Sections. 
 
 The facts and generalizations obtained on the above grounds 
 are represented to the eye on maps and sections. On the former 
 are indicated by spots or lines of colour or by differences of 
 shading the different formations and their precise boundaries as 
 far as ascertained. To these may be added marks indicating 
 dip and strike and other arrangements. (Fig. 15.) 
 
 -f- 
 
 l-^ 
 
 c d 
 
 + 
 
 4- 
 
 i 
 
 BMg. If). — Marks used in mapping. (a) Horizontal beds, (b) In- 
 clined, (p) Undulating, (d) Contorted, (e) Vertical. 
 (/) Anticlinal, (g) Synclinal. 
 
 While maps exhibit the horizontal distribution of formations, 
 sections show more clearly the relations of age and superposition. 
 Lines of section observed on the ground may in the first instance 
 afford materials for the construction of a map, and when a map 
 has been drawn these lines may be marked on it, and the sections 
 along these lines may bo drawn to accompany it. Such sections 
 are usually named horizontal sections. But vertical sections 
 may be obtained in shafts and borings, or may be constructed 
 with the aid of the horizontal sections. 
 
 kiivwuON a -I twiHOd 
 
45 
 
 III. pal;i<:ontology. 
 
 1. PRESEUVATrON OV OkOANIC Il£MAIN8. 
 
 TIiIh (Icpcnd.s iti tlic first itiHtfince on tlic nccidontil imbedding 
 of aiiiinalN and plantn or of portions of them, in deposits iu pro- 
 cess of fbrniatioM, or on the accumulation of remains of animals 
 and plants on the surfaces on whicli they live, as for example of 
 shells and corals on the sen bottom, or of vegetable matter in 
 bogs and swamps. In one or other of these ways most aqueous 
 deposits become more or less eharged with organic remains. 
 These are sometimes entire and sometimes fragmentary, and as 
 already stated some beds contain so great abundance of organic 
 fragments that they may be regarded as organic rocks. Often, 
 however, the presence of organic fragments can be detected only 
 by the lens or the microscope. (Figs. 10, 17.) 
 
 Fig. 16. — Fine grained Trenton limestont;, Montreal, showing organic 
 fragments x 10- 
 
 'j^Jls^ 
 
 Fig. 17. — Chazy Limestone, Island of Montreal, showing fragments of 
 shells and Stenopora X 10. 
 

 I 
 
 1 ii 
 
 46 
 
 Organic rcmninH may occur in an unchnngcd condition or only 
 more or loss altered by docuy. Tiiis is often the case with such 
 enduring substances as shells, corals, bones and wood, especially 
 in the more recent deposits, in which such remains occur little 
 modified or perhaps only slightly changed by partial decay of 
 their more perisJiablc parts, us lor instance of the animal matter 
 of bones. In the older formations, however, organic remains are 
 usually found in a more or less mineralized condition, in which 
 their original substance has been wholly or in part replaced by 
 mineral matter, or has been chemically changed. The more im- 
 portant of these changes are the following: — 
 
 (a) Lifiltration of mineral matter which has penetrated the 
 pores of the fossil in a state of solution. Thus the pores of fo.ssil 
 wood arc often filled with calcite, quartz, oxide of iron or sulphide 
 of iron, while the woody walls of the cells and vessels remain in 
 a carbonized state. (Fig. 18.) Bones, shells and corals in like 
 manner have their cavities tilled with mineral matter, and are 
 rendered hard and heavy thereby. In the sea bottom the filling 
 material is not infrequently composed of Glauconite or other 
 hydrous silicates. (Fig. 19.) We sometimes find on microscopic 
 examination that even cavities so small as those of vegetable 
 cells and vessels have been filled with successive coats of difi'erent 
 kinds of mineral mutter. 
 
 Fig.'lS. — Dis('igerus tissiui (a, i), and Scalaviform tissue (c) from car- 
 bonized plants of the Devonian system, highly magnified. 
 
 (b) ^Organic matters may be entirely rep^acec/ by mineral sub- 
 stances. In this case the cavities and pores have been first filled, 
 and then, the walls or solid parts being removed by decay or 
 solution, mineral matter either similar to that filling the cavities 
 or difl'ering in colour or composition, has been introduced. Silici- 
 fied wood and silicified corals often occur in this condition. In 
 the case of corals and similar calcareous structures included in 
 limestone, it sometimes happens that the walls of the corals are 
 
 w 
 
 r. 1 aa t* a^Bi-iVMiMON 
 
 anoMMOji 
 
47 
 
 Hilicificd while tho ooIIh arc iillod with liincstoDC. FossilH thui) 
 preserved often uppoar with u;roat distinctness projectin;^ from 
 the weathered surfaco.s of the oontainint;; rock. (Fip. 20.) In 
 the case of silioiticd wood, it Kometinie.s happens that tho cavities 
 of tho fibres have bciMi filled with silica and the wood has been 
 afterwards removed by decay, leavinj^ the casts of tho tubular 
 fibres as a loose filamentous subst:mce. The more important of 
 the foregoing modes of preservation are represented in Fig. 21. 
 
 Fig. li>. — .Joint of a (Jrinoid having tbt* poros filled with a hydrous 
 Hilicato allied to Glauconitc. Upper Silurian, New Hriins- 
 wick. Muguiiied. 
 
 Fig. 20. — SiliciCifd corals, Petraia pygmea, 
 and ( riiioidul joints weathered 
 out on a rock surface. (After 
 Hillings.) 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 » 
 f 
 
 ♦ 
 « 
 
 f 
 
 ini 
 
 If 1' 
 
 I |77T« I • 
 
 Fig. 21. — Sections of part of a cell of a Tabulate coral in different- 
 states of preservation. 
 (a) Cell-wall calcite, cavity empty, 
 (i) Cell-wall calcite, cavity filled with the same, 
 (r) Cell-wall calcite, cavity filled with silica or a silicate, 
 (d) Cell-wall replaced by silica, cavity filled with calcite. 
 {e) Cell-wall replaced by silica, cavity filled with silica. 
 
!V:J:^'^"!^,jfSmf" 
 
 ■ 'mfi<^vv::s;:r!":v 
 
 t 
 
 4t 
 
 (c) The substnnoe of organic remains may be wholly removed, 
 leaving mere moulds or impressions of their external forms, or 
 perhaps moulds of the external forms and casts of the interiors. 
 This frequently occurs on the surfaces of rocks, where for ex- 
 ample calcareous fossils have been weathered out from a harder 
 matrix, but it also occurs in the interior of porous beds, owing to 
 the solution of the fossils by percolating waters. In the case of 
 fossils in this state, it is always necessary to consider whether the 
 impression observed is that of the true exterior surface, of an 
 inner layer, or of an interior cavity. 
 
 (d) The cavities left by fossils which have 
 decayed may be filled with clay, sand or other 
 foreign matter, and this becoming subse- 
 (juently hardened into stone may constitute a 
 cast of the fossils. Trunks of trees, roots, 
 tStc, are often preserved in this way, appear- 
 ing as stony casts, often with the outer bark 
 of the plant forming a carbonaceous coating 
 on their surfaces. (Fig. 22.) 
 
 Fig. 22. — Trunk of Sigillaria represented by a 
 .sandstone cast of the interior of the bark. 
 _^ Coal formation of Nova Scotia. Kcduced. 
 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Fossils preserved in the two first modes usually show more or 
 less of their minute structures under the micro.scope. These 
 may be observed, (1) By breaking oif small splinters or flakes 
 and examining them either as opaque or as transparent objects. 
 (2) By treating the material witn acids, so as to dissolve out 
 the mitieral matters or portions of them. This method is applic- 
 able to some fossil woods, silicified corals, &c. (3) By grinding 
 thin sections. These are first polished on one face, then at- 
 tached to glass slips by a transparent cement or Canada balsam, 
 and ground until they become so thin as to be translucent. 
 
 Ichniti's or fossil footprints and similar markings constitute a 
 peculiar and sometimes interesting kind of fossils. Animals 
 walking over muddy shores may leave impressions, which being 
 partially hardened by the air and sun, may not be obliterated 
 by the succeeding deposits of sand or mud. Once so covered 
 up, they reu aia for an indefinite time, and if the beds be har- 
 
 rT' 
 
 tOMMOjl 
 
49 
 
 dcned into stone, the footprints appear distinctly as the layers 
 arc removed by the quarrymcn. In this way the footprints of 
 some land animals, not known to us by other remains, have been 
 preserved, and important information has been obtained as to 
 their affinities and habits. (Fi|:;. 23.) 
 
 Fig. 23. — Footprints of a Batracliian (S,niri>/,ii.'<). Coal-field of Capo 
 Breton. 
 
 Not only land animals, but aquatic creatures, as ti-shes, crus- 
 taceans, worms, and uioUusks, have left impressions and trails on 
 the .surfaces of beds, and these thouajh less definite than the foot- 
 prints of land animals, are of some importance as fo.ssils. Such 
 impressions have .sometimes been mistaken for fossil plants ; but 
 they can be distins^uishcd by the ab.sencc of carbonaceous matter, 
 by their clo.«e connection with the substance of the containing 
 beds, by their being in relief on the under side of the beds, and 
 by their forms. (Fig. 24.) 
 
 The geological observer in examining any section or exposure 
 of rocks, while noting all the facts respecting stratigraphical 
 arrangement and relations, carefully collects the fossils of each 
 bed, and labels them in such a manner that their order of suc- 
 cession can be preserved. The study of these fossils may be 
 expected to afford important information respecting the age and 
 conditions of depo.sition of the beds. Should the observer not 
 
50 
 
 possess the special knowledge nccessjiry to interpret the fossils 
 obtained, he has recourse to palajontolouicjil specialists, either 
 experienced in the fossils of the formation in question, or of the 
 ^oups of animals or plants represented in the collections. 
 
 Fiff. '^4. — Tracks probaMy of a (.'ni.staccan (NimichiiileK). Coal- 
 foriuiition of Cape Uroton. 
 
 The most abundant and characteristic fossils available to the 
 palaDontolopist are those of aquatic animals, having hard shells, 
 crusts or cells. Thus practically the most important elementary 
 knowledge of the study of fossils is that relating to the characters 
 of invertebrate animals, and especially those of the sea. The 
 student should therefore have .some familiarity with this subject, 
 and should have for reference some good zoological text-book, 
 and il" possible some work on the special pahvontology of the 
 districts or ibrmations he is studying. 
 
 In some geological formations, especially the middle and newer 
 members of the ocolonical series, a knowledue of vertebrate 
 animals becomes important ; while in others, as the coal-forma- 
 tion, an acquaintance with fossil plants is necessary. 
 
 The following tables indicate tlie groups of animals and plantji 
 most important to be known in connection with the study of 
 fossils : — 
 
 BSt •— «. I -u II ■i.i»nv»r»ioN iinwMo^ 
 
51 
 
 of 
 
 a 
 
 >. 
 c 
 o 
 .J 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 ■J 
 •< 
 
 I— ( 
 H 
 
 < 
 
 C6 
 O 
 
 fk 
 
 'o s 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 1^ 
 
 o n t> 
 C «- o 
 
 
 a> 
 
 CO 
 
 oT 
 a> 
 
 CD 
 
 of 
 
 
 Ol 
 
 .2 X 
 
 — , dj 
 
 cs 
 
 c/: 
 
 to 
 
 1= *53 ^ 
 
 -T5 O 
 
 M O O O 
 
 
 1.i 
 
 a JO 
 
 '3 •« 
 
 3 
 
 «i ^ O 03 !i^ 
 
 I 
 
 a, 
 
 as 
 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 ID rs 
 
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 O 
 
 o 
 
 c< t-c a 
 
 N 
 
 s 
 
 •2 % ^ 
 
 o 
 
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 r« O "^ 
 
 c 
 
 l-J 
 
 tf ^ a 
 
 <I1 
 
 a 
 
 O) 
 
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 □ 
 
 IS 
 
 
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 CO 
 
 1 2 
 
 o •- 1=: 
 o i, n 
 
 2 2 
 
 p , e9 
 
 o « 
 
 a ft" 
 
 
 5^ 
 
 o 
 
 w Oh m h:? cB 
 
 2 rn M ro t' «re o t-" crj oi 
 
 O g 
 
 S3 -^ 
 " a. 
 
 
 
 on 
 « 
 
 ^ to -g TS 
 CO o Sr *- 
 
 • -I 1. OJ .-. 
 
 fe fe 35 5Q 
 
 eS 
 
 o 
 a 
 a 
 
 § S 2 
 ^ £ Si' c 
 <J o hi; <5 
 
 
 ^ es 
 
 2 « <n 
 
 rj qj t* 
 
 m rt <1 
 
 m 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 S3 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 S5 
 O 
 
 <^ "-H c>i p^' 
 
 JO -^ »n CO t^ go" oi 
 
 ■"^ ^~ --^ 1—1 r-( rH r- 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 § -^ 
 
 
 ft 
 
 o 
 
 -I 
 
 o 
 
 §■ 
 
 J I 
 
 < 
 
 PS 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 2S 
 
 ei 
 
 M 
 
mtm^mMAimmm&mmm^ 
 
 I 
 
 52 
 
 ^ 
 
 :! 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 O 
 H 
 
 O 
 «^ 
 
 •< 
 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 en 
 o 
 
 Em 
 H 
 
 ai '=^ 
 
 a 
 
 
 2 
 
 4) X 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 hi 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 •/J 
 
 hi 
 
 0) 
 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 • 1-4 
 
 a^ 
 
 Pm o S 
 
 to 
 
 s 
 
 8 
 
 so 
 
 a 
 
 <1 H? PM 
 
 « 
 
 tfi o 
 
 ,-3 
 
 o 
 
 ai 2 « 
 
 • ~ » 3 
 
 P^ H^ ix; 
 
 o a 
 >> o 
 
 ■T3 
 
 
 »« 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 tri* 
 
 TS 
 
 
 OQ 
 
 a 
 
 
 bl 
 
 6)0 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 <a 
 
 
 —5 
 
 fcfi 
 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 
 a, 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 <u 
 
 
 C|-i 
 
 C<-| 
 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 
 en 
 
 QQ 
 
 
 « 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 
 3 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 cS 
 
 Ol 
 
 CO 
 
 Ol 2 
 
 S 
 
 a 
 
 s a 
 
 p 
 
 c4 
 
 o rt 
 
 b 
 
 
 !- rs 
 
 O) 
 
 a. 
 
 a> P- 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 
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 I 
 
 00 
 
 CO 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 s 
 
 It 
 
 o 
 
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 •< 
 
 t4 
 
 '"-. . -u «• ..tnvwMON annwMo- 
 
53 
 
 IV. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY. 
 
 The application of the facts and principles of lithology strati- 
 graphy and palaeontology to any given district, enables us to 
 work out the geological succession of formations or geological 
 Jiistory of the district in question, including not only the physical 
 changes but the changes in living beings that may have occurred 
 Ihe comparison and grouping of such local results enables us at 
 length to frame a table or chart of the geological history of the 
 whole earth. This we shall now proceed to construct, beginning 
 with the oldest formations, and giving what may be regarded as 
 typical examples of each from those regions in which it may be 
 best developed and most fully studied. 
 
 The whole geological history of the earth may be included in 
 four great Periods, the names of which have been based on the 
 progress of animal life. They are, beginning with the oldest- 
 
 1. The Eozoic Period, or that of Protozoa. 
 
 2. The Paleozoic Period, or that of Invertebrate animals. 
 H. The Mesozoic Period, or that of Reptiles. 
 
 4. The Kainozoic Period, or that of Mammals and of Man. 
 
 They are farther subdivided into Ages, or if we regard the 
 rocks themselves rather than the time occupied in their deposi- 
 tion, into Systems of Formations. These arc represented in 
 the following table, beginning as before with the oldest : 
 
 Eozoic f Wentian. 
 
 ( Huronian. 
 
 Palaeozoic . 
 
 Mesozoic 
 
 Kainozoic 
 
 f Cambrian. 
 j Siluro-Canibrian. 
 J Silurian. 
 ■ "j Erian or Devonian. 
 I Carboniferous. 
 (Permian. 
 
 Triassic. 
 
 Jurassic. 
 
 Cretaceous. 
 ( Eocene. 
 I Miocene. 
 . \ Pliocene. 
 
 Pleistocene. 
 [Modern. 
 
In noticing these systems of formations and their subdivisions 
 in detail, we shall begin as far as possible with Canadian repre- 
 Bsntatives of them, and shall then notice their foreign equivalents 
 and characteristic fossils ; concluding the notice of each system 
 with a statement of its geographical distribution. Since Canada 
 embraces about half the area of North America, and includes 
 portions of all the geological formations of the continent, we 
 shall in most cases be able to obtain within its limits typical 
 examples of rocks and fossils ; and when these fail, shall have 
 recourse to other regions. 
 
 EOZOIC PERIOD. 
 
 I. Laurentian System. 
 
 1. Lower Laurentian. In Canada — Orthoclase gneiss of 
 Trembling Mountain (Logan), Ottawa gneiss (Geol. Survey), 
 lower part of Lqwer Laurentian of Logan. European equivalents 
 — Bogian gneiss, Ur gneiss, Lcwisian gneiss. Consists mostly 
 so far as known of beds of orthoclase gneiss destitute of fossils 
 constituting the " fundamental gneiss" of some geologists. 
 
 Fig. 25. — Section showing- the mode of occmrenrt^ of Eozoon iu Middle 
 Laurentian at St. Pierre, (a) Gneiss ; (i) Limestone : 
 (c) Dioritc and Gneiss. 
 
 2. Middle Laurentian. In Canada — Gneiss, diorite, lime- 
 stone, pyroxene rock, &c., of Grenvillo, Petite Nation, &c., 
 being the upper part of the Lower Laurentian of Logan. 
 European equivalents — Ur gneiss in part, Lewisian gneiss in 
 part, Etage A of Bohemia in part, Dimetian of Wales f Gneiss 
 and crystalline limestone of Brittuny. 
 
 Fossils. — Eozoon Canadense, and graphitised plants. (Figures of 
 many of the fossils named in this and following pages will he found 
 in the plates at the end.) 
 
 - « a»nvwuoN annwMoj 
 
36 
 
 3. Upper Lauftntian. In Canada — Labradorito and Anor- 
 thosite series of tho Ottawa district, &c. European equivalents 
 — Etage A of Bohemia in part, Dimetian of Wales? Norite 
 formation of Scandinavia. No fossils known. 
 
 Distribution in Cancda, <!•(•. These formations constitute an 
 extensive angular belt extending south-westward, north of the 
 St. Lawrence valley, from Labrador to the Western coast of Lake 
 Superior and thence north-west to the Arctic ocean. At the 
 Thousand Islands this belt is connected with an extensive penin- 
 sula in the State of New York. Minor areas protrude through 
 the Palaeozoic rocks in Newfoundland, New Brunswick, and the 
 Atlantic coast of the United States, and also probably in the 
 mountainous belt fringing the Pacific coast. Iron ores, Apatite 
 and Graphite abound in the Laurentian. 
 
 : 
 
 II. HuRONiAN System. 
 
 1. Lower Iluronian. In Canada — Chloritic slate, jasper 
 conglomerate, slate conglomerate, quartzite, limestone and bedded 
 diorite of Georgian Bay. Similar rocks in Newfoundland, New 
 Brunswick and possibly also in the Eastern Townships of 
 Quebec. European equivalents — Ur.schiefer of Scandinavia, 
 Etage A of Bohemia and Pebidian of Wales (Hicks). 
 
 Fossil. — Eozuon /Jitviiricinii. (iumbel. 
 
 2. Uppjer Iluronian. In Canada — Conglomerates, slates and 
 grits of Eastern Newfoundland ; Kewenian group of Lake Supe- 
 rior. European equivalents not certainly known. 
 
 Fossilx. — Asjii.Mht Tfrrii-noricii. liilling.s ; Arenicolites. 
 
 DistrihutioH. — The Iluronian is extensively developed on the 
 north side of Lake Huron and south and west of Lake Superior. 
 It occurs also in Newfoundland and New Brunswick, and prob- 
 ably in various parts of eastern Quebec and the Atlantic States. 
 It contains extensive deposits of iron, copper and silver. 
 
 Note. — Tlu; precise relations ol' thf Ha.stings group ol Eubtcrn 
 Ontario, and various otlier groups of altered rocks resembling it in 
 mineral character, with the Huronian, are not yet well undorstood. 
 

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57 
 
 PALiKOZOIC PEUIOD. 
 I. Camurian Systeh. 
 
 1. Lower Cambrian, In Canada — Quartzitc and slate ot" the 
 Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, with Astropolithon, ScoHthus and 
 Eojihyton. European equivalents — Longmynd series of Eng- 
 land, Harlech j^rits and Llanbcrris shales of Wales, Etago B of 
 Bohemia, Kophyton shale of Scandinavia. 
 
 Fossils. — Sponges, Worms, Polyzoa, Bmchiopodu, Pteropoda, Trilo- 
 bites, appear first in the Lower Cambrian. 
 
 2. Middle Cambrian. In Canada — Aciidiau group of New 
 Brunswick and Ncwfoundlv.jd, Lower Potsdam in part of Lower 
 St. Lawrence. European equivalents — Menevian slates and flags 
 of Wales, Lower alum slates of Sweden, Etage C of Bohemia. 
 
 Fossils. — I'aradoxides, Cotiocori/phr and oilier Triloliites ciiaracter- 
 istic. Also Lint/ulella, Orthis, JJisciiui, EoriiHites, &c. 
 
 3. Upper Cambrian. In Canada — Potsdam sandstone and 
 lower Calciferous of Quebec and Ontario, fossiliferous Cam- 
 brian of Mird, Cape Breton. European e(|uivalents — Lingula 
 flBgs and Tremadoc slates and sandstones of Great Britain ; 
 Upper alum slates of Sweden. 
 
 Fos-fih. — Scolitfuis, LinyuUi, Dikeloceplidlus antl I'lulic/mile.t charai'- 
 terisso the typical Potsdam. Various Corals, Crinoids, LamellibrancbH, 
 Heteropods, Gasteropods find Cephalopods occur in the upper member, 
 which shows transition to the next age. 
 
 Distribution. — The Lower Cambrian is best developed on the 
 Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, where it constitutes the gold- 
 bearing series. The Middle Cambrian occurs in eastern New- 
 foundland and southern New Brunswick. The Potsdam is ex- 
 t.-^nsively developed in the western part of tiic Province of Quebec 
 jd in New York, where it often rests directly on the Laurentian. 
 
 II. SiLURO-CAMURIAN SYSTEM. 
 
 (Lower Silurian of Murchison.) 
 
 \. Quebec Series. In Canada — Shales, limestones and sand 
 stones of Point Levis, and the south side of the Lower St. Law- 
 rence. In the United States a belt extending southward through 
 Vermont and New Hampshire. European equivalents — Llandeilo 
 
»8 
 
 scricH in part ; Arouij; (Skiddiiw :in(l Bonowdalo) of England ; 
 Kta<;c 1)1, Bohoiniu ; Lower (iriiptolithic slates of Scandinavia. 
 Fossils. — (Jruptolitt'K ol (Jtiiioru GraptolilUm, J'hi/Uoi/rafilus, Ihndro- 
 i/rajitus, Diployriiptus, /)icli/onemii, &c. TrilobitcH of (Jciicru Dikelocf- 
 I'halus, Ai/nostus, Ariotif/hin. Ji<it/ii/iints, kr.. Ijiiid pliintH? I'ToUmniilnrin 
 of Skitidiiw scritfs. 
 
 Kig. 2H. — Snporpo.sitioii of Siluio-ciimbriiiii liiiicstnuf on (Hiai(/-ilc 
 iiiul Klati' iif !lastiiiu;n scries, Ho^; I,aUc. Outarin. 
 
 2. Trcvton /S'ertV.s. In Canada— (!liazy, Black River and 
 Trenton limcstoiicH of Quebec and Ontario. Corresponding 
 rocks of the New York sericH. European eciuivalents — Bala 
 Formation of Enfj;land and Wales; Etage 1)2 of Bohemia; Regio 
 C, or Ooland limestone of Seimdiiiavia ; Graptolite and Calymene 
 slates of France — Second Fauna ol' Biirrandi!. 
 
 Fosxi/x. — Itich invertebrate Fauna of Conils, Criuoids, liraeliiopodH, 
 LaniellibiaiK liiates, (Jasteroixxls, ('e|)lial()poiis and CnistaeeaiiK. The 
 fnllowinKare very ebaracteristii' in Canada — Slenoixuftji/nofii, S. Prtm- 
 fiotittiiKi, (ili/ptdcriiiUK niniuloxus, Coliimnuriti dlreolala, Tt'lrmlium Ji/ira- 
 liim, PlilofUclj/a tiriilii. Siro/i/itimciKi alternata, Li'pUtena serici'a, Orthis 
 If/nx, Lini/it/ii i/iiiulrntii, Ciirlndonln /fiiriiiiDnsin. Murchi.ionin hellirincia, 
 PlfUrotDiiunia xnliroiiini. Canuliirin '/'irnliiiii'iiniK, AxiijiIiiik iii/'i/ixIos, Tri- 
 >iur//'iiK coucfiilriciin. 
 
 In Nova Scotia and New Brunswick the Trenton and Quebec 
 series appear to be represented by the Graptolitc slates of North- 
 ern New Brunswick, and by the felsites, agglomerates, slates, ite. 
 of the Coboquid Mountains, &c. in Nova Scotia, which have been 
 named the Cobequid series. They resemble in mineral character 
 the Borrowdalo .series of England. 
 
 3. JJiidsou River Series. In Canada — lltica shale of the St. 
 Lawrence Valley, .shales, coarse limestones and t'andstoncs over- 
 lying the TJtica in various parts of Ontario and Quebec, and 
 extending southward into the United States. European equiva- 
 lents — Caradoc sandstones and shale. Regio D of Scandinavia ; 
 Etages D3, D4, Bohemia. 
 
 Ill 
 
 — — .T«tir«Tra»n^iN86N anhwMoj 
 
5!> 
 
 FosfiU — ('oiitiniialii)ii «( Invcrtebratf FBiinii ii( Tri^ntoii in |mrl, 
 with Home new types, an Favistelln .itellnia, /fuh/nihn i/radlif, Plerinen 
 i{fnii.tiia, AKi/ihim Ciniaili-imH, Triiirt/irim /irckiiiinfl T.xpinmfUK. <!r<i}>t(iUte» 
 fibouiKl in some \itui» ol tiif IMicii, en(M!(iiill.v <!. priftin, (,'. hirornis iinil 
 G. ramonim. KiirlicHt < crtainly known f nnd pliintK — /'mtn.^tignia, 
 Annulariii, Sfihninphyllnm. Koplfris. 
 
 Dixtfihution. — Foniiiitions of this ujj;e on-.m- in patclies alorifr 
 tho northern coast of the Gulf and River St. Ijawrence, on the 
 north side of Auticosti iind on the south side of the St. Jiuwrenee 
 "rom Gaspo. From Bay St. I*aul upward, tliey occupy both sides 
 of the St. Lawrence and the Valley of tho Lower Ottawa, as far 
 up as the Thousand Islands. Westward of this they form a broad 
 bcltext((ii(lin^^acro.ss Ontario from Jiake Ontario to (Jeortiian Bay, 
 They occur in the Islands of Gcorfjian Bay and the North Chaii- 
 ucl, and at lliver St. Mary cross over into the United States. 
 They reappear in tho Valley of the Red River. 
 
 III. Sit.iiRiAN System. 
 (Upper Silurian of Murchi.son.) 
 
 1. Medina Series. In Canada — Sandstones of the West end 
 of Lake Ontario and extending th(!nce into the United States. 
 Lower jiart of Anticosti .series. European Cijuivalents — Llan- 
 dovery formation of W.iles or beds of pas.sa>;e, including tho 
 Mayhill sandstone. Etage El Bohemia. 
 
 Fornix. — Tlic trails i<ii<>wii as .irthrojihi/rii.'<. and IAikjiiIh ('uneatu arc? 
 cliaraeteriatie. 
 
 2. Niayani Scries. In Canada — Clinton and Niagara lime- 
 stone of Ontario, and their extension southward into the United 
 States. Lower Arisaig and New Canaan slates of Nova Seotia; 
 Upper Silurian liine.-itones and slates of Northern New Bruns- 
 wick and Gaspc in part. European e((uivalents — Wenlock lime- 
 stone and shale of England, Etage E2 of Bohemia. 
 
 FoKsiln. — Tlie Niagara liiiit^stone contHins a licli uiarint.' laima ; 
 Astylonpongia praemorm, Stromatopora concenlrira, atul ('oralts, kv. of the 
 jrenera Favo.tilc!'. Hubisiif.^. TldiolilcK, Dicli/niiema ; Crinoids, as Siephano- 
 crinun and C(iri/vciittiis ; MolliiKJis, as Strophomena ruf/um, I'cntntiierun, 
 Spirifer Niaffarrnain. Trilobites of (genera /hdmania, Lichas, Calymene, 
 and Ilhu'iiuK, are churacteristic. (jHyptodendran of the Clinton is probably 
 a Lyeopudiaceous plant. 
 
r.o 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 P 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 Fif?. .10 — Siluriim HhdloH atfcctcd with wluty Hleiivagc, Mfttapciliii River. 
 
 H. Sdlinn .SVrici. In Canada — Sliules, marls, dolonii^os and 
 rock salt of Godcricli in Ontario. This is a local Horios coi\fincd 
 to the interior basin of North Amiirica, and inarkiii}^ a period of 
 elevation and dry climate with deserts and salt lakes. The 
 Guelph or the Gait limestone of Ontario is a transition deposit 
 between thij and the Niagara. The fo.ssils are few — Megalomus 
 Cauiufinsls, a larjjfo laniellibranchiate, is characteristic of the Gait 
 limestone. There are also species ol' Ahtnhino n in, Ci/clonema, &c. 
 
 4. Helderberg Group. In Canada — Limestone of St. Helen's 
 Island, Montreal ; Oriskany, &o., of Ontario ; Cape Gaspc lime- 
 stone; Upper Arisaig series, Nova Scotia. European equivalents 
 — Ludlow Series of England ; Etage F, G, of Bohemia. 
 
 Fossi/n — J'entamiTUx ya/catus, J', pseuilu-yaleatun, Rhynchoinlln aenlri- 
 rom. fSpocicK oi Mvrnstti, Cho/ietes, Eatouia and Strirklandinia, TentaculUeis 
 tt/jd Jiuryplerw, urc rhiiracteristic. FoKsil plants of genus I'silopkyton 
 occur. Earliest foKsil fishes — Placoganoids and Selachians. 
 
 Distribution. — The Silurian rocks are well developed in the 
 district extending north-westward from the Niagara river to Lake 
 Huron. They occupy a large area in Quebec and Northern New 
 Brunswick, extending S.W. from Gaspe and the Bay de Chaleur; 
 and isolated areas occur in Nova Scotia and Southern New 
 Brunswick. 
 
 IV. Erian System. 
 (Devonian of English Geologists). 
 
 1. Coriiiferous Series — Corniferous limestone and associated 
 .sandstones in Ontario, Lower Gaspe sandstones. European equi- 
 valents — Plymouth and Linton groups of Devon ; Eifel lime- 
 stones, spirifer sandstone of Germany ; old red sandstone of 
 Scotland and West of England. 
 
 ivnwoN a-iONuo^ 
 
61 
 
 fiomils — IMiU'dgiinoid iiiid Unnuid fiHhos iibouud. AbtindHiit coralt* 
 of Konera Favoxitm, Hf.liophyllum, h'rido/thi/llum, CyMiphyllum, Xophritnlis, 
 Ac. I'liintH — I'rototatili-x f.oguni htu\ I'.iili)f)hj/t(in jirinrepit. 
 
 3. Ildvillton /SVrics.^IIuinilton shales of Western Ontario, 
 Middle part of Gaspc saudHtoncs, Cordaite shales of 8t. John 
 New Brunswick. European equivalents — Middle Devonian of 
 England and Scotland ; upper part of Eifel formation. 
 
 Fogniln. — Spirijer mucronutun and Alnipu ritirultirin and nx/iera uro 
 ( omnion. Tlio gunus (IimintiUn i\\>\^M\,rH. FIhIu'S of ^,'('n(!ra Diniehlhyi'. 
 TrilobiteH of gcnuH I'hucopn. NiiineroiiH fosHil plantH of the gonorn 
 CalamileSf Lcpidodemlrou, l'sil(>iiliyton, Archacoptcrix, Cordaiten, Ac Tht- 
 carlieHt inHectH, {riatqilifmern^ &c.) appear in the St. .John nhalt'K. 
 Karlicat DecapodB, {PalaeopaUmon). 
 
 4. Clwmung Series. In Canada — Shales &e. of Kettle Point 
 Lake Huron, Upper Gaspe wand.stonc, Upper sand,stone and cou. 
 glomerate of St. John, Now Brunswick. European equivalents 
 — Upper old red sandsttjne of Scotland, Kiltorcan beds in Ire- 
 land, Petherwin group of Devon, Cypridina .shale of Germany. 
 
 Fosni/s. — Many Lanullibrunt')iiatcH of genera I'teronites, Auirula, kv. 
 KisheH of gonus lIoloptychiiiK. ]'l<rie.hthy*, &c. Ferns of genus Archof- 
 optf'ris, Cycloptcrii'. Ac. 
 
 Distribution. These rocks occupy the penin.sula of Ontario 
 between Lakes Erie and Huron. They occur largely in the re- 
 gion south of Lake i]rie and elsewhere in the United States. 
 They are extensively developed in Ga.spe and the Bay de Chaleur 
 and also in Southern New Brunswick. In the maritime regions 
 however, lust mentioned, the great limestones, .so rich in corals in 
 Ontario, are wanting. 
 
 V. Carboniferous Sy.stem. 
 
 I. Iforton Series. Lower Carboniferous Shales and Conglom- 
 erates, Horton Bluff, <tc., in Nova Scotia. Equivalents in United 
 States — Vespertine group of Penn.sylvania; Waverly .sandstone 
 (in part), Ohio ; Kinderhook and Marshall groups of Illinois and 
 Michigan ; lower or false coal measures of Virginia. European 
 equivalents — Tweedian group or Calciferous sandstones of Scot- 
 land ; Carboniferous shale and Coomhala grits of Ireland ; Culm 
 formation of Germany, Graywacke of Vo?ges. 
 
 Fossils. — Fishes of genera Khadinichthys, Rhizodus, Acrolepis, Ctena- 
 i-anthus. Ac. Footprints of earliest known Batraehiuns : Ijepidodendron 
 vorrugatuvi. Cyclopteris Acadica, Cordaites, Ac. 
 
l>2 
 
 2. Windsor Series. In Canada — Lower Carbonif'irous lime- 
 stones and gypsiferous scries of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. 
 Equivalents in United States — Burlington, Kekuk and Chester 
 liftiestoncs of Illinois. European equivalents — Old Mountain 
 or Carboniferous limestone of England ; Caloaire Condrusien of 
 France; Kohlen-kalksteiu of Germany; Fusulina limestone of 
 liussia. 
 
 FomUk. — Marino Invertebrates oi genera Fusulina, Lithostiotion. Cya- 
 /hoi>ht)/luin, Fcnestflla, Proihictus, Terebratula, Athyris, Spiri/cr. Aviculo- 
 fieclen, Macrodon, Conidaria, Nautilut, Orthoceraii, rhillipsia, Ac. 
 
 3. Millstone gri!. Canadian types — Sandstones and conglome- 
 rates between the Carboniferous limestones and the coal forma- 
 tion, in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. In United States — 
 Serai conglomerate of Pennsylvania, Lower Carboniferous sand- 
 stone of Kentucky, Alabama and Virginia, Chester group of Illi- 
 nois in part. European equivalents — Millstone grit and Yoredale 
 rocks of England ; Moor rock of Scotland ; Jungste Grauwacke 
 of the Hartz, Saxony and Silesia. 
 
 Fiinni/n. — Plants siiiiilnr to llmst' of the Coal formation. 
 
 -I. Coal Formation. In Canada — Productive coal measures 
 of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. In United States — coal 
 formation of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois and Michigan, repre- 
 sented in the west by marine limestones, &c. In Europe — the 
 coal formations of Scotland, England, Franco, Germany, &c. 
 
 Fusinl.i. — Land plants of genera Araucaroxylon, Siyillaria, l^epidoden- 
 diou and CaUimiieH. uiul FnuK and allied plants. FIkIk^b of genera 
 FuUteonucus, Rhizodus. Dijilodus, Gyrarnnthus, ,\c. IJatracliians ol 
 ><i!n(!ra liapheteit, IkndrerpeUni. Ilylonomu.%, Anl/iruconaiirus, &i\ Insects, 
 Mjlli'ppdoH, Araehnidanfi and Itccapod CruKtaceans. 
 
 IHntrihntioii. — In Canad:i the Carbonil'crous oceupies con- 
 siderable areas in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and includes 
 the I xtensive and valuable coal fields of Cumberland, Pictou and 
 Cape Breton. Small areas of the Permo-carbonifcrous occur 
 in the south of Prince Edward Island ; and the Lower Carbon- 
 iferous, locally termed the Bonaventure formation, extends into 
 the east of Quebec. A limited area, including beds of coal, 
 occurs in western Newfoundland. In the west^ rocks of Carbon- 
 iferous' age occur in the Rocky Mountains and in British Col- 
 umbia, but without beds of coal. 
 
g:5 
 VI. Permian System. 
 
 1 Lower Fermiun. Cunadian tv|ie — Peruio carboniferous red 
 sar.dstones of Prince Edward Islan I and Kastern Nova Scotia. 
 In United States — Permian sand-slone.s of Virginia and lime- 
 stones of Kansas and Nebraska. Upper Carboniferous beds of 
 Illinois, holding remains of reptiles. European e(|uivalents, 
 Jiowcr Permian sandstones of England, Rotheligcndcs of Ger- 
 many, Lower Permian Sandstones and Jjimestones of Russia. 
 
 /'().•(.«//.«. — For tlio most [lait jii'iicrically similar to lliosc of the Car- 
 boniferous. ']'li(' I'arlicst true reptiles a])pear. 
 
 2. Ujipcv Permian. Not represented in Canada, but marine 
 limestones of this age occur in Kansas and westward. In 
 England it is represented by the important formations of the 
 Marl slate and Magnesian limestone ; in Germany by the copper 
 slate and zechsteiu ; and in Russia by the copper sandstones and 
 gypsiferous limestone. 
 
 FtieMs. — Ueptilos off^enns ProtrruiKiiirn.-'. Fishes of t;enus I'alaeon- 
 dtrux. Mollusks of jrenera I'.ini(/omonotiK. Miialiiin. I'roductiis. Ferwx- 
 
 lella. cfec. 
 
 I 
 
 MESOZOIC i'KltlOl). 
 I. Tri.\sslc Syste.m. 
 
 1. Bunter Sandstone. In Canada — Lower new red sand- 
 stone of the Boy of Fundy and Prince Edward Island, associated 
 with trappean rocks. In United States — Lower red sandstones 
 of Connecticut and New Jer.sey. In the West, red and magne- 
 sian limestones overlying Carboniferous of Rocky Mountain.s. 
 In Europe — Bunter sandstcin of Germany, Lower Triassic red 
 sandstones of England. 
 
 Fomlii. — Conifers and Cycuds. Footprints of DinoK turn. 
 
 2. Muschclkalk. A marine limestone found in Germany 
 and Eastern France, but not represented in England or Eastern 
 America. In British Columbia and the Western United States 
 the Triassic sandstones and slates witli volcanic rocks, and the 
 Monotis rhales, may be partly of this age. and it may also be re- 
 presented in the East by part of the Triassic coal formation of 
 VirLiinia and South Carolina. 
 
mum 
 
 m 
 
 if 
 
 I 
 
 64 
 
 k'osiils (in Europe) — Encrinm monili/ormu, Avicula Koctalix, Crralitet 
 nodosus, Pemphyx Sueri, &c. Fishes — Ilyhodus, Ar. Ueptiles — Xntho- 
 saurns, &c. 
 
 3. Ketiper Sandstone. lu Canada — Upper Triassic sandstones 
 of Prince Edward Island and Bay of Fundy, and probably por- 
 tions of the Trias of British Columbia. In United States — 
 Upper red sandstone of North Carolina, &c. To the Upper 
 Triassic are also usually referred the Mesozoic Coal beds ol' Vir- 
 ginia and North Carolina with their associated Sandstones and 
 shales. In Europe — Saliferous series of England ; Keuper for- 
 mation of Germany. 
 
 Fossils. — Plants, Equisetum, I'lerophif/lum, &r. iloptiles, &f., Iluthyy- 
 niithus horr.alis, footprints of Dinosaurs, LalnjrinUwdoH gigantp.tim. The 
 •■arlicst Marsupial manimuls (^MicrolcsUs, Dromdtherium). 
 
 Distribution of the Trinssic in Canada. — This formation oc- 
 cupies the greater part of Prince Edward Island and the basin 
 of the Bay of Fundy, where its trappean beds form the " North 
 Mountain" of Coruwallis and Annapolis. Rock.s of this age also 
 appear in the Rocky Mountains, in British Columbia and the 
 Queen Charlotte Islands; but in the.se Western regions their 
 mineral character is very different from that which they present 
 in the East. 
 
 II. Jurassic System. 
 
 1. Lidt,, Not represented in Canada, unless some of the 
 shales and sandstones overlying the Trias of Peace River are of 
 this age. Not represented in the Eastern United States, unless 
 some of the rocks referred to the Upper Trias are its equivalents. 
 In England, the gray limestones and shales of Lyme Regis, &c. 
 rich in Saurian remains. Similar beds with marls, &c., are ex- 
 tensively distributed in France, Switzerland, Italy, and Suabia. 
 
 Fossils (in Europe) — This group is riih in murine shells. Ammo)i- 
 itiihti: abound. Ptfroreras. Pahidiun and other modern genera of gastro- 
 pods appear. Jjcpiaena, Sjiiri/'To and other old genera of Braehiopod.s 
 become extinct. Ostrea and other recent forms of Lamellibrancli.>« 
 appear. EnaUosaurs are abundant and crocodiles of the genus Trlco- 
 sauriis appear. C'ycads and conifers are the most abundant fossil 
 trees. 
 
 2. Jurassic proper, or Oolitic Series. Not represented in 
 Canada, except perhaps by porphyrite and other volcanic rooks 
 
 <rrtmOH linnMOii 
 
65 
 
 in British Columbia, and shales and sandstones of Rock Island, 
 Peace River. Limestone and marl of Black Hills and elsewhere 
 in Western United States. In Europe — Lower, Middle and 
 Upper Oolite of England, with the intervening Oxford and Kim- 
 meridge clays. Also very largely represented in France and the 
 Jura Mountains and elsewhere in Europe. The Lower or Bath 
 Oolite of England is remarkable for oolitic structure. The Stones- 
 field slate, a flaggy series connected with the Lower Oolite, is noted 
 for vegetat)lc remains and remains of mammals and insects. The 
 Lithographic slate of Solenhofcn has many interesting fossils 
 and is of the age of the Middle Oolite. It has afforded the ear- 
 liest known bird, Archaoptcri/x mdcniriis. The Upper or Port- 
 land Oolite is overlaid by a fresh-water formation, the Purbcck, 
 which has afforded many mammalian remains and land plants, 
 and also fre.-h-water snails allied to Plunorbis. 
 
 Fossils. — KemarkaMy rich in C'ephalopods, especially Ammonilidm 
 and Jiekmmlidm. AIho in Reptiles, a,n Pterodacftjls, Dinosaurs, Enalio- 
 saurs, Crocoiiileans, Turtles, &v. 
 
 III. Cretaceous System. 
 
 1. Lowir Cretaceous or Nencom'um. In Canada — Tatlayoco 
 lake sandstone and conulomerate, with Aueelht I'iochiL and under- 
 lying porphyries; and perhaps the coal series of Queen Charlotte 
 Island and Quatseno Sound, in British Columbia; Shasta group 
 in California ; possibly Dakota group of Western Territories and 
 its extension north of the 49th parallel ; Lower Cretaceous clays 
 of New Jersey, &c. In Europe — Hastings sand. Weald clay, and 
 lower greensand of England, and their equivalents on the continent. 
 
 Fossils. — DinoKaurian Reptiles, [gnnnodon and Hi/h'.osaurus, kc. 
 Appearance of Tcleost fishes, and of AngiospermouR Exogens of 
 modern types. Criocera.i, Anrt/foceros, and Atiimoniles abundant ; 
 Diceras. 
 
 2. Middle Cretaceous or Cenomaniau. In Canada — Niobrara 
 limestones and clays of Western Territories and Western States 
 of the Union. This is an extensive marine formation, rich in 
 Foramiuifera with Ostrea wngesta and species of Inoceramus 
 and Baculitet. In Europe — the Gault clay, Upper Greensand 
 and Chalk marl of England and the continent of Europe. 
 
 Fostili. — Species of Hamites, Senphites, Turrilites, Lima, Oatrea, kc, 
 are charactcrlBtic in Europe. 
 
I i 
 
 66 
 
 3. Upper Cretaceous or Senoniaa. In Canada — Ft. Pierre 
 and Fox Hill clays and sandstones of the Western Territories, 
 and continuation to the South. Greensaad of New Jersey with 
 associated clay and limestone. White or Upper chalk of Eng- 
 land and other parts of Europe, and white limestones of North 
 Africa and Western Asia, Maestricht limestone of Denmark. 
 
 Fossils. — Vast numbers of Oceanic ForamiiiifL'iii, cspt^iftlly GMii- 
 i/erina; Coccoliths ; Sponges of genus Ventriculites, &t'.; Kilunodcrnis of 
 •genera, Ana ftchites, Galerites, Manttpitts, Gidaris, &c. ; Lumellibninchs of 
 genera Inoceramus, Spondylus, Ostrea, &c., Cephalopods of genera Belem- 
 niteltii, Bartdites, Nautilus, Ac, Reptiles of genera Musasaurus, JliJastei, 
 ffadrosaurus ; toothed birds of genus Icthyornis, Hesjitrornix, &(,. The 
 riora of this period contains a large preponderance of modern types. 
 
 Distribution. — The Cretacoous rocks occupy a broad belt ex- 
 tending on the 49th parallel from near the Red River to the 
 Souris River and thence to the north-west. They also occur on 
 the Saskatchewan and head waters of the Missouri further to 
 the west. Considerable areas occur in British Columbia, the 
 most important being that which includes the Nanaimo and 
 Comox coal-field on Vancouver Island. 
 
 The Cretaceous Period is remarkable, in both the eastern 
 and western continents, for a prevalence of estuarine and fresh- 
 water conditions in its earlier portion, and for a great subsidence, 
 producing oceanic conditions over wide areas now land, in its 
 middle and later portion. It is also marked by the decadence 
 of the reign of reptiles, and by the introduction of the modern 
 flora in the continents of the Northern Hemisphere. 
 
 KAINOZOIC PEUIOD. 
 
 I. Eocene Age. 
 
 1. Lower Eocene (Orthrocene) . In Canada this formation is 
 probably represented by the Lignite Tertiary formation of the 
 Western Territories the Lignitic or Laramie group of the Ameri- 
 can geologists, whit, '^ts of estuarine and fresh-water sand- 
 stones and shales, „ .'.. reptilian remains, lignite and fossil 
 plants of modern types. It is however regarded by many geola- 
 gists as more nearly related to the Upper Cretaceous than 
 to the Eocene proper. Fig. 28, and the section on p. 33, repre- 
 
 — .. -fHllVMMON aiONMOil 
 
6t 
 
 sents parts of this group, which is very extensively distributed 
 ia the region between the Red River and the Rocky Mountains 
 and thence southward. In England the typical formations arc 
 the London clay, plastic clay and Thunet sands, holding marine 
 and estuarine shells and fossil fruits and wood. The Argile 
 Plastique and Sable Brachcux represent it in the Paris basin. 
 In these beds, in Europe, the oldest known placental mammals 
 occur, Hyrnoothennm, Lophiodon, C'tryphodnyi. Marine inver- 
 tebrates of living species also appear, though as yet in small 
 numbers, about three per cent, of the whole. 
 
 cur 
 
 
 MnrBAMNrrvK 
 
 Hi 
 
 Fig. '2S.— Lignite Hod. I'oioupiiu! CiLok. N. \V. T.— ((J. M. Dawson.) 
 
 I 
 ill 
 
 2. Middle Eocene, or Eocene prnper (^iVuminulitic). Not 
 as yet recognized in Canada. In the United States this series 
 is represented by the clays, marls, sands and coarse limestones of 
 the Claiborne series of Alabama, holding marine shells and 
 bones of i/eM^/(K^))i. In the west the great lake basins of the 
 Wahstach have afforded remains of many land animals (Con/- 
 phodon, Tlllndontia, Eohippus, &c.) In Europe the most 
 characteristic and wide-.spread formations are the Calcaire Oros- 
 sier of the Paris Basin and its associated marine sands, and the 
 Nummulitic limestones extending from Western Europe to 
 India, and marking a great subsidence. In England the Brack- 
 lesham and Alum Bay series are of this age. 
 
 3. Upper Eocene (^Proicene.) Not recognized in Canada. In 
 the United States represented by the marine clays and Orbi- 
 toidal limestone of Alabama, Mississippi, &c. (Vicksburg group), 
 
68 
 
 and in the West by fresh-water clays and sands (Bridger group, 
 Ac), containing Dinoceras, [/nitathcrium, Orohippus, &c. In 
 Europe the best known representative is the Gypseous series and 
 Silicious Limestone of the Paris Basin, and the upper beds of 
 the Isle of Wight series in England. These formations abound 
 in mammalian remains (Anchitherium, Faktotherimn, Anoplo- 
 therium, Xijj>hoilon, earliest Lemuridct). 
 
 II, Miocene Age. 
 
 1. Lower Miocrnc. Not recognized in Canada, unless repre- 
 sented by the volciinic rocks, sandstones and shales with lignite 
 and fossil plants of Nicola, 8imilkamecn, &c., in the interior 
 of British Columbia. In America the subdivisions of the 
 Miocene huve irot been distinctly separated, but the age is repre- 
 sented by the New Jersey, Virgini.i, kc. middle Tertiary sands, 
 clays, marls and infusorial deposits ; and in the West by the 
 Middle Tertiary lake basins of White lliver, Ac, east of the 
 Rocky Mountains. In the latter, three subdivisions are charac- 
 terized by Marsh as respectively those of the Brontothirium, 
 Oreodon and Miohippus. The Miocene beds hold a larger per- 
 centage of recent shells than the Eocene (17 to 30 per cent.), 
 and abound in mammalian remains (^Brontotherium, Titanuthe- 
 rium, Oreodon, Muchairodus, &g.) In England — Hempstead beds 
 of Isle of Wight and lignites of Bovey Tracey. In France — 
 Calcaire de Beauce and Sables de Fontainebleau, with equivalent 
 deposits in Germany, Italy, &c. The basalts of Antrim and the 
 Hebrides are of this age. Living genera of mammals, as Rhino- 
 ceros, Tapirus, Mustela, Sciunis, &c., appear in the Lower 
 Miocene. 
 
 2. Middle Miocene. Falunien of France, Middle or marine 
 Molasse sandstone of Switzerland. Genera Mastodon, Dino- 
 therium, Sus, Antilope, Cervus, Felis, Dryopiihecus, Ac. 
 
 3. Upper Miocene. In Europe, MolasE^ of Ueningen in Swit- 
 zerland, L^beroD and Epplesheim beds of France, Pikermi for- 
 mation in Greece. Additional modern genera of mammals, as 
 Camelopardalis, Gazella, Hycena and Hystrix appear. 
 
 A very equable and warm climate seems to have prevailed in 
 the Eocene and Miocene, so that plants of genera now living in 
 temperate climates were abandant in Greenland and Spitsbergen. 
 
 " "vrmoN ainwMoj 
 
69 
 
 III. Pliocene Age. 
 
 1. Older Pliocene. Not recognized in Canada, In United 
 States, Sumter clays and sands of North and South Carolina. 
 In the West, Loup River jj^roup of Niobrara, containing; remains 
 of Camel, Rhinoceros, Horse, &c. In England, Coralline Crag 
 and Red Crag. , 
 
 2. Newer Pliocene. Not recognized in Canada, nor distin- 
 guished in the United States from the older Pliocene. In Eng- 
 land, Norwich Crag and Chillesford Clay. 
 
 In the Pliocene, the percentage of recent shells rises to 50 or 
 more. Mammalia of modern genera are abundant, and a few 
 modern species appear. In the later Pliocene the land both of 
 Europe and America seems to have been more elevated and 
 extensive than at present (First Continental period of Lyell). 
 The climate of the Northern Hemisphere was cooler than in the 
 Miocene. 
 
 IV. Pleistocene Aoe. 
 
 This was characterized throughout the Northern Hemisphere 
 by a great refrigeration of climate, followed or accompanied by 
 a submergence of the land to a depth exceeding in some places 
 5000 feet. The formations of the period are well represented in 
 Canada, and m:iy be taken as types, more especially as from 
 their great extent and uniformity they are free from some of the 
 complications which have caused controversy elsewhere. 
 
 1. Boulder Clay. At the beginning of the Pleistocene the 
 land was higher than at present. At this time the mountain 
 tops were extensively occupied with glaciers, which have left 
 their traces in all the elevated ground. Very deep valleys and 
 ravines were also excavated by the rivers. Beds of peat were 
 accumulated, and gravels and sands in low grounds, in lake 
 basins and on coasts. Gradual subsidence then set in, under 
 which the vall-'ys were invaded by cold Arctic currents laden with 
 field ice and bergs, while the high levels still sent down glaciers. 
 Under these circumstances moraines were formed on the land, 
 and sheets of stony clay with boulders in the sea, forming what 
 has been termed the boulder clay or "Till," and extensively 
 polishing and striating the surfaces of rocks. 
 
 In the deposits of this period Arctic shells are found, though 
 Dot abuDdantly, and also trunks of boreal ooniferous trees. At 
 
I* 
 
 70 
 
 
 Fig. 29. — Houldcr (1 1 feet long) <>» glaciated HurJiuo. 
 Wo<mIh. 
 
 Lake ot tlie 
 
 the beginntn<{ cf the age, however, there were in Europe and 
 America forests of temperate and boreal type, and a groat 
 number of manmals, some extinct, some still surviving, and pre- 
 senting a remarkable mixture of boreal and temperate form!). 
 Remains of these occur in peaty beds under the boulder clay. 
 By the progress of the glacial cold and subsidence, these animals 
 were destroyed or compelled to migrate to the southward. 
 
 2. Leil(i Clay, Erie Glaij. This marks the greatest subsid- 
 ence and the gradual emergence of the land. It is a fine stratified 
 clay, sometimes however with large boulders, and thus passing 
 into boulder clay. It has on the Atlantic slopes of America and 
 Europe numerous marine fossils, especially in its upper part ; 
 and these are mostly of species still inhabiting the North Atlantic 
 and North Pacific. Farther inland it contains some remains of 
 plants and land animals. The Leda clay is equivalent to the 
 Clyde beds and Uddevalla beds of Europe. There is reason to 
 believe that the great subsidence which closed in this period 
 reached to 2300 feet in the mountains of Wales, and to 4000' 
 feet in those of North America. It was probably greatest to- 
 ward the north. At the beginning of the deposit of Leda clay, 
 the shells indicate cold water covered with floating ice. Toward 
 its close (Upper Leda clay or Uddevalla beds) the marine climate 
 must have been little different from that now occurring in the 
 same latitudes on the western side of the Atlantic. 
 
 3. Saxicava Sand and Second Boulder Drift. This marks 
 the re-elevation which ended in a second continental period, 
 raieing the continents to a greater elevation than at present. 
 
 
71 
 
 The climate was Htill somewhat cold, and large boulders carried' 
 by floating ice abound in the Suxicava sand, but are most abun- 
 dant at its base. 
 
 The Pleistocene deposits arc sometimes called Quntirixtry ; 
 but there is no good ground for separating them from the Kaino- 
 aoic or Tertiary. The term " Champlain " deposits has been ap- 
 plied to them in the United States; but the Lake Champlain 
 beds are those of a limited valley among mountains and arc not 
 typical or characteristic. 
 
 Some writers include in the Pleistocene the next or post-glacial 
 age ; but it is more nearly connected in its physical conditions 
 and its animal life with the modern period. 
 
 Dawkins catalogues, for this period in Britain, 1 mammal sur- 
 viving from the Pliocene and still living, 7 surviving from Plio- 
 cene and extinct, 67 new species, ot which 14, including elephants 
 and other large and important species, arc now extinct. 
 
 V. Modern Age. 
 
 This extends from the close of the glacial or Pleistocene age 
 to the present time, and is divisible into two well-marked periods. 
 
 1. Thr Post-Glacial. (Second Continental Period of Lyell.) 
 In this the land of the Northern Hemisphere was more extensive 
 than at present. The climate was temperate but somewhat ex- 
 treme. All the modern mammals, including man, seem to have 
 been in existence, but several others now extinct, as the Mam- 
 moth, the Tichorhine Rhinoceros and the Cavo Bear, lived in 
 the Northern Hemisphere, and many still extant differed very 
 remarkably in their geographical distribution from that of the 
 present time. To this period belong the human remains of the 
 early cave deposits and river gravels of Europe, or of the 
 " Mammoth age " (Palaeocosmic or Palaeolithic age). This 
 period was terminated by a submergence or series of submer- 
 gences which with their accompanying physical changes proved 
 fatal to many species of animals and to the oldest races of men, 
 and left the continents at a lower level than at present, from 
 which they have risen in the recent period. In Britain Dawkins 
 eaUlogues 22 living and 6 extinct species survivors of the Pleis- 
 tocene in this period, and 18 new forms still living. The 6 
 extinct species include 2 species of elephant, 2 of rhinoceros, the 
 
vt 
 
 v: 
 
 cave bear, und the great Irish elk. It is evident therefore that 
 man comes in with a faunu in the main modern, but including a 
 few large and important species which have perished since his 
 advent, and many others which have much changed their range. 
 
 2. The Recent or Historic Period. This dates from the 
 settlement of our continents at the present levels after the Post- 
 glacial subsidence. It is the period of Neocosmic or NcoliUiio 
 men of races still extant. I have culled this the Historic Period, 
 because in some regions history and tradition extend back to its 
 beginning. The historical deluge is in all likelihood identical 
 with the movements of the land above referred to, by which this 
 age was inuuguruted ; though in certain localities, as in America, 
 the beginning of the historic period is very recent. In th's age 
 man coexists wholly with existing species of mammals, und the 
 races of men are the same which still survivi\ The whole 
 forms geologically one period, and the distinctions made by 
 antiquarians between stone, bronze and iron ages, and under the 
 former between paheolithic and neolithic, are merely of local 
 eignificance, and connected with no physical or vital changes of 
 geological importance. , 
 
 - ■ — •» «asi-IVMWON tlOWMOJ 
 
// 
 
 73 
 
 1;. J.>..>,.|, ,• 
 
 
 '^' !"- ." 
 
 ♦ «, 
 
 
 i*.'- «3t y.*v •.•-?/■■• -. ■ v.,^ 
 
 vv- 
 
 l.AUBENTIAN FoHSII.. 
 
 Bo20(yn Canada lue. Portion of a large .spei-iiii.«n. NHture-print-iO. 
 
 1 
 
 *i 
 
74 
 
 '1 
 
 «#^^ ^ 
 
 Laurkntian Fossils. 
 
 Eoxoon Canadtnst. (!) Small specimen disengaged hy weathering. 
 (2) Acervuline cells ol upper part — magnified. (3) Tuberculated 
 surface of lamina — mag. (4) Lamintv of Serpentine in section, re- 
 presenting casts of the sarcode — mag. (5) Section magnified showing 
 canal system at (6) and tnbuli at (<»). (6) Canals highly magnified. 
 
 I 
 
 ^».^. . wj n ■■tn»»ni^6N atnwMOii 
 
 ^vjaai:: 
 
4 
 
 r 
 
 HUIIONIAN K08Sn,8. 
 
 Fig 1. Cast of worm burrowK, Madoc (Hastiugs K^odp) — magnified. 
 a. Containing rock. b. Space tilUd with calcitc. c. Sand agglutin- 
 ated and stained black. (/. Sand uncolonrcd. Fign. 2, 3. Another spec- 
 imen, nat. size, and mag. Fig. 4. Eozoon liavaricumX'^^ (after Uumbel). 
 a, b, calcite. c. tubiili. ci, e. CastK of contorted chambers. Fig. (V. 
 Arenieolilet. Fig. 6. AitpidtUa terranovica — Hillings. The two last from 
 Upper Hutonian of Newfoundland. 
 
^m 
 
 n 
 
 
 ^-'^ 
 
 :mu 
 
 ■ i 
 
 MiDDLi Caubhian Fossils. 
 
 Fig. I. Paradozidet Micmac. 2. Conocephalite^ {Conoeorypke) Mattheui. 
 3. Orthii BilUngti. 5. Diteina Aeadica. 4. Lingulella McUthewi. — AcA- 
 di«n group, St. John, N. B. 
 
 -**»T«r.-r -ananrrHSbfjnVwMON >-inHHOi< 
 
77 
 
 Upper Cambrian Fossils. 
 
 Fig. 1. Protichnittt teptein-notatus, Potsdam. 
 
 2. LiguUUa antiqm. (c) Short variety, (rf) Long variety.' 
 
Sii,uro-cambkianJFo.smii.s. (Quebec (Jroup.) 
 
 Fig. 1 . rh;iUoyiiiplu« typun. '>. Oraptolithui Loffaw. 
 
 3. RrcHliomphn/nf intortiix. 4. Bafhytmii Safordi. 
 '>.\l>ikf.locephalus maifnifieut. 
 
 . . au CI aStt^lVMWON ■TDWMOJ 
 
70 
 
 SlLURO-CAMnitlAN K0NHIL8. 
 
 Fig. 1. OraptoUthus bicornit. 2. I'elraia f>ro/unda. 3. l^tenopora 
 Jibrota. 4. Ptilodictya acuta. 5. lAngula quadrala. ♦>. Orthis lynx. 
 1. (Irthu pectintUa. 8. Khynchonflla incrtbrescini. 9. fHnrina circe. 
 10. Orthin tentudinaria. 11. Strop hometia altemata. 12. HdUrophon 
 Sulcatinut. \'i. Mttrehitonia graeilit. 14. M. bicineta. \^) /'Uurotomatia 
 Hmbilicatula. ItJ. ()rthoeera» a\y 17. Calymene $enaria. 
 
80 
 
 i I 
 
 Upper Silurian Fossils. 
 1 . JfeliolUts fp«eio»u$. 2. FivosiUt Gothlandica. 
 
 3. HalytUti ealenulata. 
 5. PaUtatUr Niagarentit. 
 7. Atrifpa retieularit. 
 
 4. Dtetyonema Webtteri. 
 
 6. Choneten Nova Scotka. 
 
 8. Homalonoltu delphinocephalut. 
 
 'f»i iVMMON minnMOM 
 
81 
 
 
 mm^ 
 
 
 J J ' ' 
 
 Ekian nil Drvonian FoBflbH. 
 
 1. Hap/itentis /iTolijica. 2. Heliophyllum IIiUli. 
 
 ;i. Spirifer mvcTonalw . 4. J'terinm JlaMla. 
 
 f). I'latephevifTU anl\quti. »). Jaw qf Dinivhthyn {TK(\\\ifA). 
 
 7. VfphahnpU /hivHitii (redn* od). («) H«iilptnrf\ 
 
KuiA.N OH Ukvoman I'l.AWr.s. 
 
 1. Archaeo/'terin Jaeksoni, (a, b) porticiiK Khowinx venation. 
 
 2. Sphenophyllum unliquum, (a) lutiifnitlcd, (b) natural nize. 
 
 3. AittrophyUit/"! fixrvula, (a) nut. si/.<% (/<, '•J portionw magDified 
 
 -.^«. n «s«iiVK.yoN .inwMo- 
 
LOWKH OAUHOMFEIiniTS FOSHII.H. 
 
 Fi(,'. 1 . Stenoporn ixili^. '>. Chivtetex ttimida. ;{. LithoUrotiov Pic- 
 toennr. ■\. Spiri/n- acnicoMata. 5. Spirifer criftatn. fi. Cftitronrltd unna. 
 7. Productuf femiri'tinilntuK. 8. Athyrix unltilita. 0. Carilinmorphtt 
 vindohonen»if. 10. At<iculopn-ten simpler. 11. Conidnria quddrimlratti. 
 12. Naticopxis dispnsfa. K!. Mnrchinonia i/i/pten. 14. Loionema aeutula. 
 16. Nautilus at'onenau. Iti. Orlhoeeraiii'indohonfnn. 1 7. PhiUipxin llowi. 
 
rsBos 
 
 84 
 
 'f 
 
 ' CoAL-rORMATION FOHBILH. 
 
 Fig. 1. Pupil oetuita. 2. Conulus pritctu. 3. Spirorbu carhonarius. 
 4. EntomoMtracann, (a) Bairdia, (6) CythtTella, (c) Cytkerf. 5. Millipede*, 
 (a) A'ylobius »igtUari«, (b) Archiuliu Xylobioidet, (c) Xylohiui /arclu*, 
 rt. Blattina liretonftmt. 7. Blattina Herri. 
 
 %W MMWI-tyHHttON nnwMoj 
 
85 
 
 
 (:f?r^T?^ 
 
 CAHUONirKHOtlS (7ALAM1TIIK. 
 
 A (Jalamiten Suckovii rt-Kton-d. H' Lcavih. 
 
 A> FoliiiKt'. 
 
 A!> UibH and HciirH. 
 
 A3 ItootH. 
 
 K* MoHC of Htuni. 
 
 II t'alamites Cialii, rt'tttorud. 
 
 li'i Leaf eiilurgt'<l. 
 (! Leaves of C. nodotun. 
 C» Whorl, enlarged. 
 1) Structure of Htem. 
 K VitHRelH. mttgnifled. 
 
C'AnBONIFBUOUS Lki'idodkndka. 
 
 l!| 
 
 A Itrftiuli iiud Ic'Hvt'H of //. rictoeme, 3 nat. hIzc. A2 Lctif. A-' TwiK 
 iHul l»;a\H'S, 5- A'' Portion of Imrk, |j. A^ Leaf-Hciir. A*" Hark 
 i)f old (Stem furrowed by j^rowtli, Jj. A^ Cone, ]j. 
 
 h /,. ;j<r»i»()M(7tMHi, leafy branch, !{. FVi Portion of bnrk, [f I!-' Ar ole 
 enlarged. H* Leaf. 
 
 C A. yliratum, bark of old stiiin. 
 
 D /y. ri'moaum, old Rteni with furrows, jj. 
 
 K A. andulatum, .diowini;; furrow s and scarn of coneH, 'i- 
 
 
H7 
 
 
 "7, 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 Carbosifkkouh SuMLi-Ani-v:. 
 A SigmariaJIrowHii,TC><toTC<\. li S. rU.,an>. Tvstou-il IW LihI ..t .S. W.j?a»M 
 Ba Portion of d(!Corticatt'd Ftoni, siiowinn one of \\\v u»w\vt>-v Ihukih oi 
 
 fruit-RtiirK. 
 »3 Portion of sti-n antl hniiiihts, mluccd— and Ktarn. nai. m;;<'. 
 (; CrosK Heution of S. /irmniii (?), rr.Iii. ed. an.l portion at (M), ual. Mze. 
 
 (a) StcrnberKia pitli, (/.') Scalariform vessels, (h-) IhKcigcrou^ 
 
 f.dlK, (r) Innor liark. (,f) Outer hark, 
 n K TisKU.'S. inuK. ^' .%i//-iW.' linloiunth, l <! >'• •"r»«/". H >■ '"'(fv.M, 
 r«'dlli>'d. I V. Citfltoidii'. K N. }ilnnirnH,i. I, I,t>iif, 
 
IMAGE EVALUATION 
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 ^ 
 
 
88 
 
 (Jauuonikkuous Kkkns. 
 
 A UdoiitopteriK subcuneata (after Buiibury). 
 
 B Neuroptens cordata do. 
 
 C Alethopteris lonchitica. 
 
 I) Dictyopteris ohliqua (after Bunbury.) 
 
 K Phyllopteria antiqua, mag. (E^) nat. siae. 
 
 K S'l'uropleris cydopteroidfu. 
 
 ! ' 
 
 T«»i , «u !■ aatnvMwoN 
 
 iinwwo.4 
 
89 
 
 Plants ok thk I'sumo-Cahiionikkiioi s. 
 (Princp Kdwftrd Islund.) 
 
 (<«) Walchid yraciliK. 
 
 (b) \y. robmta. 
 
 (J) I'enopteriii arborf.»eitn*. 
 
f-^mtiimiiiimm^v^Hvmbmmm 
 
 '*nVflrwP'\'TT?T^yT'^ rii ;!)' 
 
 ^(\ 
 
 •/ lt>t> 
 
 f 100 
 
 .« )t>0 
 
 Tbiassio Fossils. 
 (Prince Edward Island.) 
 
 Fig, 1. Bathyynalhus borealia (Lower jaw), reduced. 
 
 2. Arancaroxi/lon Edvardianum (Structures magnified*) 
 
 .. a^si-IVHIHON BTOWMOJ 
 
9\ 
 
 JuiUHSrC KOHHILK. 
 
 1. Head of Mei/alosauriui. 
 3. Ichthyosaurus communis. 
 b- Ammonites Jason. 
 
 l. I'terodactylua crasniroilri.'' 
 4. Tail of Archmopteryz. 
 i>. lielemnites (section). 
 
' im^-MuiuM:j.f.iVnaum»3n):;:ta,' 
 
 Tir"->7 V, ■.:'_. .^m 
 
 92 
 
 il 
 
 i 
 
 li 
 
 — X f 
 
 « 
 
 . i : 
 
 r\ 
 
 y too 
 
 OuKTACEous Fossils. (Western America.) 
 
 1.4 2. Scales of Teleost Fishes, N. W. Territory. 
 3. Trigonia Americana. 4. Inoceramus Vancouverervsis. 
 
 5. liaculites ovatus. (i. Foraminifera, Boyne R., Manitoba, 
 
 (O) Terhilaria globuloga, {b) T. pygvuua, (c) Plat irhnlina ariminetuu. 
 
 "»• iitnvNMON ainwwoii 
 
Kainozoic Mammals. 
 
 1 . Coryphodon hamatus (Eocene). 
 
 2. Zeuglodon cetioideg — tooth (Eocene). 
 
 3. Dinoceras mirahilis (Eocene). 
 
 4. Oreodon major (Miocene). (All reduced.) 
 
•M 
 
 m,^..... ... ■■.i..-rr..->r-,-««-.,-..m..- 
 
 I 
 
 
 :i 
 
 I'LKIfiTOt'ENK FoaSIIiM. 
 
 1. Jihynchonella jititlarea. 6. Tellina {Miicoma) calcarea. 
 
 2. Mytilus eduli.%. T. ifi/a tnincata. 
 
 3. Saxicava rugom. 8. Astarte (Nicania) Laurentiana. 
 A. Lcda (Portlandia) arciica. 9. Natica clausa. 
 
 5. 7V/itna (ifacoma) Oranlandica. 10. Fuaus tornatus (Neptunen degprela) 
 11. Scaiaria Oranlandica. 
 
 ••mwn\t, I 
 
 ■« (• afcnvMMON a n nwno ji 
 
»& 
 
96 
 
 iw^rr^m^li^m 
 
 t'l 
 
 Fig. I. Shrinkage t-raclis Carboniferous (reduced). 
 2. Rain-marks, (a) modern, (6 c) CarboniferouK. 
 .'{. Ilill-nmrk8, Carboniferous (reduced). 
 
 — .. MMui-iY¥*n<it4 a-inwuoj