, V ^ N> 6^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 873-4503 <»' o fe \ ^ CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques Technical and Bibliographic Notas/Notes techniques et bibliographiques The institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilieur exemplaire qu'il lui a M possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exiftmplaire qui sont peut-Atre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent r lodifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la m6thode normale de filmage sont indiquAs ci-dessous. □ Coloured covers/ Couverture de couieur □ Covers damaged/ Couverture endommagie I I Coloured pages/ Pages de couieur Pages damaged/ Pages endommagies D D D D D D a Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaurie et/ou pellicul^e I I Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque Colourrd maps/ Cartes g6ographiques en couieur Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encre de couieur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couieur Bound with other material/ Relii avec d'autres documents r~~| Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion along interior margin/ La re liure serrie peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion le long de la marge intirieure Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajouties lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela 6tait possible, ces pages n'ont pas itd filmies. D y n n n Pages restored and/or laminated/ Pages restaurdes et/ou pelliculies Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ Pages ddcolories, tacheties ou piquies Pages detached/ Pages ddtachdes Showthrough/ Transparence r~] Quality of print varies/ Quality indgale de I'impression Includes supplementary material/ Comprend du materiel supplimentaire Only edition available/ Seule Edition disponible Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc.. have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont 6t^ film6es A nouveau de fa9on d obtenir la meilleure image possible. Additional comments:/ Commentaires supplAmentaires; Wrinkled pages may film slightly out of focus. This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est film6 au taux de reduction indiqu6 ci-dessous. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X 30X y 12X 16X 20X 24X 28X 32X The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: York University Toronto Scott Library The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or Illustrated Impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol -^ (meaning "CON- TINUED"), or the symbol y (meaning "END"), whichever applies. L'exemplaire filmA fut reprodult grAce A la gintrositA de: York University Toronto Scott Library Les images sulvantes ont AtA reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition at de la nettet* de l'exemplaire film*, et en conformiti avec les conditions du contrat de fllmage. Les exemplalres orlglnaux dont la couverture en papier est imprimie sont fllmte en commen^ant par le premier plat et en termlnant solt par la dernlAre page qui comporte une empreinte d'Impression ou d'lllustratlon, solt par le second plat, salon le cas. Tous les autres exemplalres orlglnaux sont fllmte en commen^ant par la premlAre page qui comporte une empreinte d'Impression ou d'lllustratlon et en termlnant par la dernlAre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. Un dee symboles sulvants apparaltra sur la dernlAre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbols -^ signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbols V signlfle "FIN". Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included In one exposure are filmed beginning In the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent Atre fllmte A des taux de rAductlon diff Arents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reprodult en un seul cllch6, 11 est film* 6 partir de Tangle supArieur gauche, de gauche d drolte, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'Images nAcessaire. Les diagrammes sulvants lllustrent la mithode. \ . ** ^ • 1 ; , *• • : 32X \ % : ; ! « • L • • 4 S 6 'P^'^ -^4^ - CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. M J]XV <].(] 4; Yi \ miiiK'O, i^ii^aaic oiruk ma; \- I / CONTENTS. / PHTIIOAL HUIOBT OF MAN — ■THMOUMIT, .i.^lLAN00iOI, .... OONBTITOTION OF 800IRT— OOTKRNMKMT, UinOHY AND NATUKI OF LAWS, BISTORT OF ANOinra NATIONS, BISTORT OF ORBIOl, ... BISTORT OF ROm, BISTORT OF TBB MIDDLI AOB, amORT OF ORRAT BRITAIN AND IRBLAND, OONRITDTION AND RB0UBCB8 OF THK BRITIBB RBFIRB, KUROPX, .... ■NOLAND AND WALBS, ... SCOTLAND, .... IRELAND, .... ASIA — HAST INDIES, ... AFRICA— OCEANIA, ... NORTB AMERICA, ... SOUTB AMERICA — WBgT INDIES, .^TBE BDMAN MIND, ... PBRBNOLOOT, .... __LOOI0, .... NATURAL THEOLOOT— ETBICS, BISTORT OF THE BIBLE — CHRISTUNITT, PAOAN AND MOHAMMEDAN RBLIOIONS, 8UPEIUTITION8, MET TO TBB CALENDAR, - TBE PRITATB DUTIES OF LIFE, PUBLIC AND SOCIAL DUTIES OF LIFE, POLITICAL ECONOMY, ... COMMERCE — MONET— BANKS, POPULATION — POOR-LAWS — LIFE-ASSURANCE, SOCIAL ECONOMICS OF THE INDUSTRIOUS ORDERS, POPULAR STATISTICS, ... EDUCATION, .... RNRLISB GRAMMAR, ARITHMETIC — ALOGBRA, • O^MBTRT, .... DRAWING — PAINTING— SCULPTURE, 0TMNA8TIGS — OUT-OF-DOOR RECREATIONS, IN-DOOR AMUSEMENTS, ... ARCBiBOLOOr, ... RHEIORIO AND BELLES LETTRES, - PRINTING, .... BNGRATINU LITHOGRAPHY — PHOTOGRAPHY, MUSIC— MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, HOUSEHOLD HINTS, ... INDEX, AND GLOSSARY OF TERMS, Ko. Pacb Al 1 53 17 88 88 54 40 55 65 56 81 57 97 58 113 - 59-61 129 62 177 68 198 64 209 65 225 > . 66 241 67 257 68 273 69 289 70 805 71 821 72 837 73 358 74 369 75 385 76 401 77 417 78 433 79 449 80 465 81 481 82 497 83 613 84 629 85 645 86 661 87 677 88 693 89 609 90 625 91 641 92 667 93 673 94 689 95 706 96 721 - 97-98 737 99 769 100 785 INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN-ETHNOLOGY. The moit ■uporficial lurvoy of the earth nhowi itt huinan iuhabitanta to be greatly ilivcrtificd in exter- nal qualitlei— oa coin])lcxion, itaturo, the form of the head, and the cait of the features. It also exhibita these dIveraUiw as all more or less localised, whence of course tl^' inference is drawn, that they attach to races or ni^tioas, with whom thoy form permanent cha- racteristics. Modern times saw the rise of a science, which, under the name of the Physical JJtMtory of Man, observed these external qualities as zoological facts — facts both iit themselves interesting, and of some value aa means of determining certain points in the early history of the roce. Latterly, the various languages of mankmd have been added to the subjects embraced by the science; and as these are not to be comprehended under the term physical, a new name has become necessary, and that of £t/mology, as implying simply the science of national distinctions, has been adopted by many. It appears that we are now to look to this science not merely for a view of the natural history of man, and of the Hundry questions connected therewith, but for light regarding that obscure but interesting portion of his social history which preceded the use of writing. As yet, however. Ethnology is only in its infancy, and mr much which it advances, wo arc to expect that corrections or modifications will come ere many years arc passed. rUIMARY DIVISIONS OV MANKIND. The observations of naturalists have shown that, while it is true that a certain species of animals, re- maining under certain conditions, exhibits unifonuity of characters from one generation to another, a change of conditions will, in the course of generations, produce a corresponding change in the organic characters of the species, and even in its mental habitudes. Thus, for example, while the wolf is everywhere the same animal, because everywhere passing a wild life in desert places, the dog, distributed over the whole civilised world, and subjected to a great variety of conditions, haa passed into numberltJss varieties of form, colour, and disposition. It appears, however, that these results are only efibrts of nature to accommodate herself to ciroumstances, for the purpose of maintaining the existence of the species under the new conditions, and that there are limits beyond which change cannot be carried; so that, after all, a particular type is constantly preserved, towards which the animals would return if the original con- ditions wero restored. Thus the domesticated pig of Europe, allowed to run wild in America, has recovered the tusks and other extenial features of the wild boar ■~that original state of the species from which domes- No. 51. tication had brought it. On such grounds it ii tint naturalists hold the distinction and persuverane* of fuecies as facts in nature. It has been found, indeed, tnat species nearly allied, as the horse and aai, will produce an otispnng in which the parental qualities are associated or blended ; but such hybrids haVe never been known to continue a race manifesting this union of qualities, and accordingly they in noway afliict the conclusion, that specific character is a determinate thing in nature, only liable to temporary modifications. Under the light thus derived from the study of the lower animals, it is now generally held that we are to regard mankind as of one species — a species passinc into an unusual number of^ varieties in aspect and mental character, only because they are more widely diifuBcd than any other animated beings over the face of the earth, and thereby exposed to an unusual variety of conditions, and called to exercise their mental qua- lities in an unequalled variety of ways. In the group of human beings commonly called a nation, there is always some set of characteristics more or less peculiar, and by which it can be distinguished from all others; though even in this association, especially if civilisa- tion have made any considerable way, we shall find great difTorencos in complexion, form, and mental cha- racter. Nations, again, are generally capable of being grouped under; eome denomination which expresses a more comprehensive set of characters, and marks an afiinity of a wider kind. We may go on classifying in this manner, by more and more comprehensive chamc- ters, until we arrive at a small number of leading varietiti, in which nothing remains in common but the general forms and powers of the humAi organisation. It is difficult, in the present state of the science, to say how many such varieties there are; but it may be con- venient to describe the five into which the venerable lUuinenbach has divided mankind. Caucasian (Indo-European and Byro-Arablan) Race. The many nations extending from India westward through Soutliern Asia into Europe and Northern Africa, and which recent times have seen sending out ofi^shoots into the western continent, are comprihen- sively grouped by Blumenbach and Cuvier under the term Caucasian, because tradition seemed to point to the mountains between the Caspian and the Black Sea as the region where the race had originated. The pro- priety of the designation is denied by many, and it is now believed that two distinct varieties of mankind are grouped under it. These Dr Prichard describes as the Indo-European or Arian race — comprehending the Hin- doos, Persians, Afighaus, and Armenians, Msides the 1 CHAMBEBS'S INFORUATION FOB THE PEOPLE. gttAi Imlk of the Kurop«an nntloni — ami the 8jrro- Arabittii or Meiiiitic race, iM>m|>riiiin){ tlie Syrian ami Arabian ntttiuim. liotli Brou|>i liuve the generul cha- racteriitic of a lair coMiplixion (with excc|)tioni to lie •herwanli noticed); and thia ■oouii to juitifv their hc'uig vonnidiired ui one riico; lint, on the other hiuiii, the lan(;un){oa aru now licliuved to have no tort of true ulRnity — a tent wiiich iniidorn othno- j|rrii!>her8 regard ai mora conviuiive. It will iievor- thulviia tio convenient to apoulc of all theao niitiona under the old term Canca- aiun, which hai now been too oxtennively rccogniacd to bo readily diaplacud. The Syro-Arabian ^roup have been found from the earliest timoa of which wo have niiv record, in tlie countriea from which their gene- ral uppvllution ia taken, (They are alio called Stmilic nationa, aa auppoaod to have descended from Slicni, one of the aoni nl Noah.) Diiitinguiahed from nil the rcat of mankind by their liitignu;;o, they iilao stand out in hiatory aa a people of moat remarkable chunictcra, and particularly for their exalted notion of an unseen but almighty Clod, the creator of the world. In thia group we find the founders of the great empire which existed for 10 many agei on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates; the Phooniciana, who seem to have been the first com- mercial people of the earth; the Hebrews, whoso hia- tory ia that of the faith recorded In the aacred Scrip- tures; and the Arabians, among whom sprung un the Moharomedan religion. The Abyasinians probably belong to this race, and the ancient Kgyptians are generally classed with it, though Dr Prichard is of opinion that these were in the main n'l Ethiopian or Negro people. Dr Larrey, the eminent French surgeon, was of opinion that the Arabs furnish the most perfect form of the human head — ' the most perfect derolop- luent of all the internal organi>, as well ai of those which belong to the senses.' Spare but active persons, skins of a light brown, sallowed sometimes by unusual exposure, high foreheads, large dark eyes, oral features, with aquiline noses and small thin-lipped mouths, form the personal characteristics of the Arabs. They have occupied the cqntines of the present Arabia from time immemorial, and their natural habits have ever been pastoral and migratory. The Uedouin Arabs claim descent from Ishmael; and however this may be, it is plain, from physical characteristics alone, that they are ft cognate race with the .Tews. The latter were origi- nally derived from the Chaldeans, an elder branch of the Arab stock settled in Diibylonia, and they were a pastoral and wandering people like their neighbours, until they settled in tlio cities of Palestine, A body of Canaanite Arabs, expelled by the Jews under Joshua, ftre understood to have settled in Africa, and become the nation of the Mauri or Moors, Hoverned by Mo- hammed and his successors, the Arab race rose to high consequence, and, under the name of Saracens, made great conquests of territory in Asio Minor, Africa, ond m Spain. They were afterwards deprived of supe- riority in some of these countries, but left extensive tribes in the African continent and Asia Minor, The Berbers (or Liliyans) are a race who seem of Arab descent, but who probably settled in Africa at a far distant date. They resemble the Arabs in person, but are more darkened in complexion. Under the name of Tuariks, they range both to the north and south of Mount Atlas. They arc wilder in habits than the Arabs, but may be spoken of as the same race, and with the same capabilities. The Indo-European group is described by Dr Pri- chard OS appearing in the earliest ages on the high grounds between the sources of the Indus and Oxus, whence they went off in two great branches, ultimately constituting the Hindoos and Persians. The Zend, the ancient language of the Peraians, and the Sanscrit, the ancient language of the Hindoos, have an affinity which autlicicntly proves the coniinoii origin of the two na- tiona. The complexion being described as of a coU'ee-colour ; but Te ■ Indians are a duaky people, the general whifo the people of the high grounds are comparatively white, many of thoae of the idaina, and caiiccially the cluaaes engaged in out-door lalMiur, are its dark a» Ne- groes. In general they are a feeble and gentle people; but their having attained to eiviiiaed inatitutiona ut an early period, and their ancient diatinction in the aciencea, particularly mathematics, are circumstances which manifest no mean intellectual ehnrnctor. Ethnographers conaiilcr it as eatablinhed that the principal European nationa are colonica from Asia, and descendants of the same people with the Hindoos iiuJ Persians. It is solely to a study of the languages that wc are indebted for this conclusion. According to Dr Prichard, * If we are to eimmerato the ditl'erent na- tions who are to bo considered as ramilications of the Indo-European stock, viewing those as the most ancient which are farthest removed from the centre, or from the path of migration, we must begin with the Celtic mttions in tho west of Europe, including; the two branches which are represented in modern times, one bv the Iriah, Scots, and Manx, and tho other by tho Welsh and Armoricans, or liretons. Next to them, In the north of Europe, is the Uerinanio family. It con- sists, according to the conclusions of the latest and moat accurate ]ihilologers, of two principal divisions: of the Northmen, ancestors of the Icelanders, Nor- wegians, and Swedes and Danes; and secondly, of tho proper Teutonic stock in its throe subdivisions, which are tho Saxon or Western Oerman, the Suevians or High German, and the Oothicor Eastern clan. Tho next branch of the Indo-European stock are tribes who speak tho dialects of the Uld Prussian or Pruthenian language, These dialects are the Lettish, LithuaniaTi, and the Proper Pruthenian, which, of all the languages of Europe, bear by far the nearest resemblance to the original Sanscrit. I'he people who spoke these dialects had a peculiar mythology, and an ancient and very powerful hierarchy, as famous in the north as were those of the Itrahmins and the Druids in tho east and west. The Slavic or Sclavonic race is a fourth Indo- European family: its two great branches are the West- ern or Proper Slavic, including the Poles, Dohemians, Obotrites, and tho tribes near the Daltic; secondly, the Eastern branch, comprehending tho Uussians, the Servians, and other tribes nearly related to them.' Dr Prichard adds, that the Italian nations, excepting only the Tuscans, form collectively another and au early branch of tho same stock, all their various lan- guages, the Oscan, Latin, Sicilian, &c. being but variations of one speech. Finally, ho enumerates the Albanians, Illyrians, and the more celebrated Hellenic or Ureek race. * It would,' he savs, ' be an interesting question, if there wore any data likely to facilitate its discussion, whether the Arian [Indo-European] nations found on their arrival in Europe the different countries already occupied by previous inhabitants, or vacant, and affording them a peaceful and undisturbed admis- sion. The former hypothesis appears most probable, since we know that the most remote ])arts whither these nations ultimately arrived were previously inhabited. The Euskaldunes appear already to have possessed Spain before tho arrival of tho Celtic tribes in that country .... In the north of Europe the German na- tions, or rather the Northmen, found the countries on the Baltic coast already occupied by Jotuns, nations of the Finnish or Ugrian race; a people, like themselves, of Eastern origin, but emigrantsof an earlier age,and from a different part of Asia.' From the appearance, mon^over, of the remains of an earlier language in the Celtic, it may be surmised that the Celts, whose fate it afterwards was to be dispossessed of thegreaterpart of their territory, were originally aggressors upon some still earlier people. The Oermank family prevails, a« has been laid, over PHTBIOAL niBTOIlT OF MAK-ETITNOLOOY. II. Tho Zond, t)i« I tliu Sitiiicrit, tlio .■ mi nfHiilty which II of the two iia- !l«, the general ciillve-colour j but nru oniiiparntiroly and c«i)«cially tho 'o iw ilnrk a* Nc- ukI (roiitlo people; D(l iiiatitutiuti* lit illatiiictiuii ill tho ikre circumst»iicv8 t'liiirnctcr. iblJHhiMl that tho ica friiiii Aaiii, ninl the lliiidool and ho Ian(;uago8 lliat According to Dr tho ditl'ereiit na< inilicntiona of tho I the iiioit ancient 10 centre, or from n with tho Coltiu icludiii;; tho two iiodorn tiinca, ono tho utlier hy tho Next to thoin, in I family. It con- 'f the latoit and incinal diviiioni : Icelander!, Nor- and secondly, of U'oe lubdiviaions, nan, tho Sueviani utem clan. The ck are tribes who an or I'ruthenian itiah, Lithuanian, nil the languages icmblanco to the >ke these dialects mcieiit and very north as were in tho east and a fourth Indo- es arc tho \V«wt- les, Bohemians, Initio ; Bocoiidly, u llussinns, the d to them.' Dr ions, excepting vnother and an icir various lan- &c. being but cnumcrntes the ibrated Hellenic le an interesting to facilitate its ropean] nations ITerent countries uita, or vncant, isturbed ndiiiis- most probable, ts whither those lualy inhabited. have possessed tribes in that he German nn- le countries on uns, nations of Q themselves, of nge,andfroma ance, mon^over, 1 the Celtic, it e it afterwards Ftheir territory, earlier people. been said, over • great pnrt of Conlinl and Northern Europe, filling (lerniany and Hcaiidiiiavia, and partly also Kuasia and Poland. Tho decline of the Roman power brought out tho (lermaiiio tribes from thoir northern aettle- nient.i, and, under various nnmea, they Intruded into tho aoiiMi-wcat of Kurope. Thry likewise piiahed them- selves In powerful nianaes towards the west, and colo. nisod tho principal parts of tho iile of Mrltain. From them cnmo tho chid olnnuMits of the lilalects spoken in Ilcdiand, Utninnrk, and Knglund. Itobuat forma, light linir, blue eves, florid complexions, and large broad- fronted heads, constitute tho chief physical churactor- isli( < of the pure (Itrmaniu family: while, morally and intuUeoiually, they stand nre-ominsnt above all tho other tribes of mankind. They are (.Diispicioiis, in pnr- ticulnr, for what may bo called tho inUiutrial virtwi. exhibiting a degree of iniloniitnblo perseverance in all improving pursuits, which has rendered thein the great invenlon ot the human race. The admixture of llor- ninii and Tartar blood In tho north-eaaterri nntions of Kurope, has givoii to these darker hair and complexions than the preceding section, and has also lessoned their propensity to iiitellectuni cultivation. Tho effects of the Tartar connuest of Russia in tho twelfth century by nhenghis Knnn, whosn successors held the country for 200 years, will probably be obsorvablo in the career of this people for ages yet to come. Tho Celtic family formed extensive settlements at n very eorly period in Western Europe. Tho whole, it may be said, of Italy, Spain, France (called (lallin Collica), and Britain, wns peopled by them. Tho suc- cessive commingling of races, caused by incursions of the Oreoks, Romans, and Oormnna, did much to oblite- rate tho traces of this variety in its pure state; yet the race, language, and name, still remain in their primitive condition on the outskirts of tho original Celtic dominions. These pure Celts show us whnt the physical characteristics of their ancestors were. Their frames are athletic, spare, and wiry; their foreheads narrow, and tho head itself elongated; the noso and mouth large, and tho cheek-bones high ; in all, their features are rather harsh. In character they aro hot and fiery, but generous and brave; nnd they are re- markably patient of fatigue. Intellectually considered, they are acute and ingenious in the highest degree, but are deficient in that breadth and solidity oi under standing which distinguishes tho Qermanic family. The present population of France partakes largely of the Celtic blood, notwithstanding various invasions of the Germanic tribes, from ono of which, tho Franks, came tho modem name of the country. From the Celts, the French people derive their proverbial viva- city of temper, tneir quickness of perception, their dashing bravery, and, most probably, their undeniable inconstancy and flightiiiess of disposition. Britain, again, has retained comparatively slight traces of her early Celtic inhabitants, though the language is con- spicuous in a vast number of tho names of places throughout the island. A brnnch of tho Germans had visited England even before tho invasion of the Romans; and after the latter cnme Dane, and Saxon, and Norman, in such numbers, that the pure aboriginal stock were left only in the Highlands of Scotlnnd, and partly in Wales. The Scottish Lowlands had early Deon colonised by people of Germanic origin ; and sub- sequent intermixtures with the southern inhabitants of the island in time gave tho population still more of the Germanic character. In this manner was formed the root of the existing British nation, one of the most re- markable on the face of the earth. Inferior to none of the Caucasian families in intellectual endowments, and possessed of indomitable courage and unbounded enter- prise, it has scattered its colonies over a large portion of the globe, giving to new regions its language, its genius, and its arts. Much of tne excellence that be- longs to the British character certainly arose from the preponderating infusion of Germanic blood. But the sprinkling left of Celtic blood seems to hare had its use also, in giving a share of vivocity to the compara- tively heavy, massive temperament of the pure Oer« mana. We may Judge so from looking at the character of tho unmixed Gormanio families. The Dutch, for ctampio, would evidently have been an Impmveii race had their gravity of character been lightened by a little infuaioii of Celtic ' 'ercurialiam. Tho Kelgians have a pretty equal share of Celtic and Germanlo blood in thei- "elna; and conaequently, while they display the it. t'ln'/.-ial virtues of the latter race, they also show no sliffht ahil( ' jr* attash less conse- quence to a community of words, thouglf this is not overlooked by them, than to a community of gramma- tical forms. It is remarked that ' a similar construc- tion prevails through whole classes of languages which have few words in common, though they appear to have originally had more.' Tho words, it apiiears, change and perish, but the grammatical structure is permanent. It Is also remarked that ' there is a cog- nate character in words themselves, which sometimes porvad'js the entire vocabulary of a whole family of languages, the words being formed ir. the same manner, and i,ccordiiig to the same artificial rule.'* Common worr'.s, to bo of any service in tho inquiry, should be those which refer to the most simple and domestio things, and the most natural and ordinary acts, aa those denoting father, mother, brother, the various parts of tho body, tho most conspicuous objects of ex- ternal nature, as I ho heavenly bodies, the domestio animals, &c.; also die first few numerals, and the terms for such acts as eating, drinking, sleeping. Gther words, it will readily be apprehended, are more apt to have passed from one people to another, in tho course of commerce or other intercourse. Of these, however, it may bo said that they are indestructible possessions of all nations. ' Tribes and families sepa- rated from each other have been known to have pre- served such similar words for thousands of years, in a degree of purity that admitted of an easy recognition of this sign of a common origin.' Upon these principles, it has been settled that the Sanscrit, the ancient written language of India, besides being in strong afiinity to the Zend, or ancient lan- guage of Persia, forms as it were the type of all the languages of Europe, thus confirming the fact of all these nations being from one original. Old, however, as the Sanscrit is, it is only the last refined form of li language which had long existed in a ruder state. It is likewise on the same grounds established that tho Syro-Arabian family of languages is entirely distinct from the Indo-European; for which reaxon, those who look most to language as evidence on ethnological subjects, set down the Semitic nations as forming an independent variety of mankind. The Chaldee, Arabic, and Hebrew are the chief languages of this family The Inst — which appears to have been also the language * Report on Ethnology to the British Association. By Jamen Cowlcs Frichard, M.D,, F.R.8. IB47. CBAHBEBS'S INFOBMATION FOB THE PEOPLE. of PhoaniolA and of CarUukm— !• memonble u that which has given a fonn of writing to Earope, and aa that through which mankind haTo obtained the laoied Scriptures. MongolUn Race. The hig^ land* of Central Asia, from the southern ■kirtf of which the Indo-European and Semitic races appear to have descended, are thought to be also the original seat of a great cluster 01 nations, chiefly nomadic or wandering, which now people Tar- tary, Mongolia, and Rus- sia in Asia, and of which the Turks are an offshoot. Dr Prichard ranks these peoples together, as exhi- biting a tolerable affinity in features and language, under the appellation of Ugro - Tartarian. With them other inquirers class the vast horde of Chinese and Japanese population, as well as the tribes spread along the shores of the Arctic Ocean, in Asia, in Europe, and America, calling the whole Mongolian, in order to distmguish them as a separate rave. The physical characters -^f the Mongolians vary con- siderably, but the following general description will be found to apply extensively. The skin is commonly of a sallow or olive tint, and in some cases nearly yellow; the hair is black, long, an I straight, seldom curling; the beard usually scanty; the iris black; ,the nose is broad and short, and the cheek-bones broad and flat, with salient zygomatic arches; the skull is oblong, but flattened at the sides, so as to give an appearance of squareness; and the forehead is low. In intellectual character, the Mongolians are by no means defective, but they are more distinguished for imitative than in- Tentive genius. - This faculty at the same time renders them highly susceptible of cultivation. In many cases, however, tribes of this variety have arrived at consider- able proficiency in literature and the arts. Their moral character is decidedly low. The Turkish and Mongol Tartar tribes have been great conquerors in past times, and have often even vanquished the Caucasians ; but in most cases their victories have only been temporary. The Fins and Laplanders appear to be a remnant of some primitive Mongolian people, whom the Caucasians originally pushed to the extreme verge of the Arctic seas, and were content to leave there. The Esquimaux, as well as tho people of Finland and Lapland, have some physical peculiarities distinguishing them from other Mongolians, but these seem to be the effect chiefly of local position. Under the test of language, it would appear that the term Mongolian, like that of Caucasian, comprises in reality two varieties or distinct races. The language of the Chinese, and the nations akin to them, is strik- ingly different in all respects from all others upon earth, ' being constructed of monosyllables which are incapable of inflexion, and do not admit of the use of particles as a supplement to this defect, the position of words and sentences being the principal means of determining f heir relation to each other, and the mean- ing intend^ to be conveyed.' The Janguages of the other nations comprised under the denomination of Mongolians, possess indeed nouns incapable of inflexion, and in which the variations of number, case, and gen- der can only be expressed by an additional word — thus far showing a faint affinity tu the Chinese j but these languages exhibit other features marking a wide diftur- ence, having auxiliaries to composition, such as our particles and prepositions, though always placed after the words whose meanings they affect, and also a pecu- liar euphonic principle, usually called vocalic harmony, (Micordii^ to which only vowels of certain sets can occur in the same words. Ou these giounus Dr Prichard sets apart what he calls the UgrO'Tortarian from the Chi«^ nese family of this race. Ethloptc (African) ftace. The Negro, with his black skin, woolly hair, and peculiar form of countenance, appears as a very dis- tinct tvpe of mankind, and this type is represented generally as occupying Africa, excepting only a certain space bordering on the Mediterraneui, where a Caucasian people has in- truded. Ethiopia, a dis- tinguished portion of the territoty occupied by ihis type, has supplied a de- signation for it, which seemed the more appro- priate as the ancients re- cognised the whole of the African continent under this name. The race has also been described under the appellation of Negro, It appears, however, on a narrow examination of the known parts of Africa, that people ftilly characterised by the popular conception of the Negro features and colour do not occupy a large part of that quarter of the globe. The true Negroes, the people with which the slave system has familiarised us, may be said to be confined to the country of Guinea. Most of the other African nations depart more or less from this character. Obscure as is our knowledge of Central Africa, it is tolerably certain that a great ran^ lof mountains crorses it nearly in the line of the tenoi degree of north latitude, and that the central parts of the continent to the south are occupied by a vast table-land, much like that which constitutes the centre of Asia. The range of mountains makes one pretty decided division among the African nations, all to the north being partially civilised, while few traces of civilisation are observable to the south. The most southern people ore the Hottentots, who are described as * well-proportioned, erect, of delicate and effeminate make, not muscular; their joints and extremities generally small; their face generally ugly, but diflierent in different families, some having the nose remarkably flat, others considerably raised.' It is somewhat remarkable that this population, placed at the extremity of Africa, bear a strong resemblance to the Chinese and Esquimaux, who live at the opposite extremities of the globe. The Bushmen, neighbours of the Hottentots, appear to be the same people in a de- graded and more savage state. To the northward, stretching across the whole continent, are the great nomadic nation of the Caffres. According to Professor Licheustcin, *the universal characteristics of all the tribes of this great nation consist in ^n external form and figure varying exceedingly from the other nations of Africa. Ther are much taller, stronger, and their limbs are much better proportioned ; their colour is brown; their hair black and woolly; their countenances have a character peculiar to themselves, . . . the high forehead and prominent nose of the Europeans, the thick lips of the Negroes, and the high cheek-bones of the Hottentots.' The Caffres have great herds, and also cultivate the ground. They have &e idea of a supreme being and of a future state. Similar nomadic nations, more or less approaching the Negro type, and of warlike character, occupy tho countries of Conco and Loango on the west, and tho region of Mozambique on the east, probably also the intennediato unexplored i-egions. In the whole of these countries there prevail dialects of cognate lan- guages, excepting the district of the Hottentuts. The great region, now pretty well known to Euro- peans, situated to tho north of the Oulf of Guinea, and extending far into the interior to tho eastward, is the grand seat of the Negro ty^. It is from the Gold Coast, a portion of this territory, that the Amerigun n from the Chi. roolly h«ir, and ■8 as a Tery di«- B is repieiented Qg onlj a certain imination of the |r cUaracterited by atures and colour tfter of the globe, which the slave id to be confiued ;he other African character, itral Airica, it is 'fi • of mountains ih degree of north I the contineut to i-land, much like \sia. The range d division among . being partially )n are observable Hottentots, who irect, of delicate their joints and generally ugly, kaving the nose raised.' It is ation, placed at resemblance to at the opposite , neighhours of people in a de- the northward, are the great ting to Professor istics of all the external form le other nations nger, and their their colour is iir countenances IB, . . . the high Europeans, the cheek-bones of herds, and also ea of a supreme 88 approaching ter, occupy the I west, and the )bably also the the whole of f cognate lan- tentuts. mown to Euro- of Guinea, and astward, is the from the Gold the Ameri«!tkn fHTSICAL mSTOBY OP MAN-BTHKOLOGY. ColoDies were for age* supplied with slaves. In some districts are found the pure Negroes, an essentially simple and inoffensive people, of whom no description is necessary. Other large tracts are occupied by nations considerably above those in character s'ad in their social state. We allude to the warlike tribes of the Falahs, the ManOingoes, the Felatahs, and others, among whom a civiluation has been in progress for many centuries in connection with the propagation of the Mohammedan religion. For an example of the characters of these so far advanced nations, M. Ool- berry describes the Fulahs as *fine men, robust and courageous. They have a strong mind, and are myste- rious and prudent; they understand commttoe. Their women are handsome and sprightly. The colour is a kind of reddish black; their countenances are regular, and their hair is longer and not so woolly as that of vh° common Negroes.' The Mandingo merchants are well known for their activity and intelligence. We can all sympathise in the surprise of Mr Park on find- ing a city of 30,000 inhabitants (Sego), with many of the usual features of civilisation in titia portion of the earth. It is now undurstood that, as we traverse the African continent northwards, we pass through nations in whom the Negro type becomes less and less conspicuous, as if it were shading off towards the characters of the Sc' mitic race. ' This gradual change,' says Dr Prichard, < is not the result of the intermixture of races on the confines of regions of old allotted to either separately. The interme£ate tribes are not Mulattoes, or at all resembling Mulattoes: they have each their distin- guishing features, which, besides their distinct lan- guages, mark them out as races separate and peculiar, and not less distinct from Negroes than white races themselves. These observations are the results of re- cent inquiries made on the spot by persons well skilled in natural history and comparative anatomy and phy- siology, and aware of the important bearing of such inquiries on the physical history of the human species.' Thus in the great known district adjoining to the Red Sea, we pass through the Gallas, Abyssinians, and Nubians, amongst whom we find these transitions more or less marked. The Berberines of Nubia are said by Dr Prichard to represent very clearly the ancient people of Egypt. It appears, on the whole, that there are as great varieties of national appearances in Africa as in any part of the earth of equal extent and diver- sity of surface, and that the sole ground on which their distinction from the other races can be efiec- tually maintained, is the peculiar character of their languages. The African race are generally admitted to manifest an inferior intellect to the various tribes of Caucasians. They have never invented an alphabet, and their reli- gious ideas are of a mean character. Yet it fully ap- pears that various portions of this race have made a certain way in the arts of life and in a social polity, while we all know that individuals, introduced among a civilised people, and allowed to partake of education, have manii'ested very considerable talents. It must also be remembered that there are great appearances as if some offshoot of the Negro race were at least con- cerned in the origii.ation of that first of all recorded civilisations, that of Egypt. Amorioan Race. The American variety of mankind occupy well-de- fined territorial limits. They were originally spread over nearly the whole of the Americas, south of the 60th degree of north latitude, though their numbers are now thinned, and their territorial possessions cur- tailed, by the colonial incursions of the Caucasians. A reddish-brown complexion, long< black lank hair, deficient beard, eyes black and deep set, receding brow (sometimes from artificial compression), high cheek- bones, prominent aquiline nose, small skull, with the apex high and the back part flat, large mouth and tUQiid iTps, with fine symmetrical frames of middle height, form the diief physical chametefistics of this race. ' In their mental character,' sayi Professor Mor- ton, br whom they have been thoroughly studied, ' the Americans are averse to cultivation, tmd slow in acquir- ing knowledge ; restlew, revengeful, rond of war, and wholly destitute of maritime adventure.' The same writer divides the Americans into two great classes, one of which (Tol- tecans) embraces certain semi - civilised nations — as the Mexicans, Peru- vians, and Dogotese; while the other includes all the hunting tribes of North America, the Brazilians, the Patagonians, the Fue- gians, and other minor tribes, none of whom have exhibited the same capacities for cultivation as the first-mentioned nations. The Americans differ much in colour of skin and stature. Some of them are not brown, but of a perfect copper tint. The Pata- gonians are of almost gigantic size, while the Fue- gians are very short in stature. Yet there are cha- racters commoii to all, which have led accurate In- quirers to set them down as being throughout one and the same people. Their languages have peculia- rities of construction found to be universal among them, from Cape Horn to the far north. By those who, like Cuvier, have not viewed the Americans as an indigenous race, the mode in which the New World was peopled has been curiously inquired into, and it has been conjectured that they either came by Behring's Straits from Asia, or that some small party, in ages long past, was wafted accidentally across the seas to these vast shores. Such an occurrence as the latter has been proved to be not impossible, to say the least of it. But assuredly the weight of evidence is in favour of the opinion that the Americans are not a casual ' offshoot from some other human family, but a people so far indigenous at least, and primitive, as to be de- rived from a common root, endowed with specific and unique physical characters. The American race ia obviously tending to extinction. Malay Race. The Mauy variety of mankind are characterised by tawny or dark-brown skins, coarse black hair, large mouth, short broad noses, seeming as if broken at the root, flat expanded faces, with projecting up- per jaws, and salient teeth. The skull in this race is high, and squared or roundel, and the fore- head low and brood. The moral character of tho Malays, generally speak- ing, is of an inferior order. They are a race differing much in some respects from the Negro and Red Indian, being of peculiarly active temperaments, and fond of maritime enterprise. They exhibit considerable intellectual capacity, and are an ingenious people. Borneo, Java, Sumatra, the Philippine Islands, New Zealand, part of Madagascar, and various Polynesian islands, are inhabited by this variety of men. It is extremely probable, from the fact of their being found in islands surrounded by others in the hands of the Ethiopic race, that the Malays have pushed out the less active variety from these isles, and, in short, annihilated them. It is but too likely, moreover, that the Malaya will in turn suffer extinction at the hands of a superior variety, or a variety rendered superior by civilisation, if not naturally so, 5 OBAMBSBtf S nrrOBMAlFtOlir foil DBS f SOI>t£. smatBimoN of ihk iucbb— aualgahaiions and ex- tinctions. Thif point, really one of the rnort ourioua and im- portant connected with man's physical history, may be illustrat«d by further references to the changes in geo- graphictil position undergone by the five great varieties of mankind now described from the earliest periods. Very few portions of the earth have retaiiied the inha- bitants by whom they are known to have been first peopled. With respect to Europe, it seems extremely probable, as Dr Prichard and otliers admit, that the Celtic and Germanic races were not the earliest settlers upon its territory. They pushed out, from some parts at least, a previous race, of which the Fins and Lap- landers may perhaps be held to give us some idea. As to this early Celtic migration, it may be worth while to adduce the view of its details which is given by one of the more modern and enlightened ethnogra- phers, Dr Charles Meyer. The Celtic nation is regarded by this writer as, ' owing to its migratory habits and instincts, one of the most widely-spread of all the na- tions of ancient and modem history, having at various periods covered with its settlements, and perhaps even simultaneously possessed, a space of country extending from the Pillars of Hercules [Oibraltar] to Asia Minor and beyond the Caspian,' ' It seems to r i,' says Dr Meyer, ' that the Celtic nation transported itself from Asia, and more particularly from Asiatic Scythia, to Europe and to this country by two principal routes, which it resumed at different epochs, and thu^ fanned two great streams of migration, flowing, as it were, pe- riodically. The one, in a south-western direction, pro- ceeding through Syria and Egypt, and thence along the northern coast of Africa, reached Europe at the Pillars of Hercules ; and passing on through Spain to Oaul, here divided itself into three branches, the northern of which terminated in Great Britain and Ireland, the ■outhern in Italy, and the eastern, running aloT'.j; the Alps and the Danube, terminated only near t'.ie Block Sea, not far from the point where the whole itream is likely to have originated. The other streai.-i, proceed- ing in a more direct line, reached Europe at its eastern limit, and passing through European Scythia, and from thence partly through Scandinavia, partly along the Baltic, through Prussia and through Northern Ger- many, reached this countiy, and hence to the more western and northern islands across the German Ocean. Of these two streams or lines of Celtic migration, which, with reference to this country, wo may distin- guish by the names of the weatem and eastern stream ; the former, although the less direct, seems to be the more ancient in history, and to have reached this coun- try several centuries before the other. The principal nations belonging to it are the Kettai of Spain (to whom this name particularly refers) and the Qalli. . . . As the nations and tribes of this western migration are those to which the name of Celts and Gauls more par- ticularly refers, so to them belong moat of those cha- racteristics and institutions of the Celtic race — includ- ing the important one of Druidisra — with which we are made acquainted by .^e writings of CtBsar and Htrabo. The language of the western Celts is in its most dis- tinctive features represented by the British or Gallic branch of the modern Celtic. Of the nations and tribes of the eastern migration, the most celebrated are the so-called Picti and Snoti, who, from the close of the third century of our era, have for a long period held a leading pluiie in the his- tory of this island. . . , The time when the stream of this eastern migration first reached this island seems to have been the sixth century a.c, at which epoch, as we learn from Herodotus (iv. 13), a general commotion took place amongst the difiorent tribes and nations of Asiatic Scythia, similar to that which 400 years later became the primary cause of the great migration of the Teutonic tribes in the fourth and fifth century. This great commotion described by Herodotus, precipitating the eastern on the western tribes, and extending itself | 8 through the Cimmerii, who then inhabited the shorM of the Caspian, to European Scythia, finally brought tlie eastern Celts, in the central parts of Europe, into con- tact with the western, one of the results of^ which event was the incursion of the Galli into Italy.' * It has been seen that this great wave of colonisation, not itself the first, was afterwards followed by another composed of the Germanic tribes. Dr Prichard con- siders it most probable that this new influx also came in two streams, one proceeding through the regions to the north of the Caspian, and the other across the Hel- lespont, Of late years, some curious light has been brought to bear upon the early history of these peoples, from the many tombs and tumuli scattered through the north of Asia, In these are found implements and ornamental articles, with which scholars endeavour to associate different sets of people, referred to three dif- ferent eras, ' The oldest are the relics of a people with round heads, having the transverse diameter of the cranium large in proportion to the longitudinal. The implements and ornaments which are found in the tombs of this race indicate the greatest rudeness. They consist of tools and the heads of arrows and lances made of stone and bone, but nothing indicating a knowledge of the use of metals. Whether these oldest tombs were the sepulchres of a Celtic race, is a question not yet decided. It seems to be the opinion of Retzius and that of Nilsson, who has written a learned work on the antiquities of Scandinavia, that they were the burial-places of a people much, older than the Celts. Similar remains more recently discovered in France have been supposed by MM, Robert and Serres to be referrible in like manner to different eras, but to what successive races they respectively belonged is as yet only matter of conjecture. It seems, however, to have been observed in many parts of Europe, that the skulls which, from their situation, and from the ruder cha- racter of the implements and ornaments buried with them, may be supposed to have belonged to the most ancient class, are of a rounder and broader form than the crania discovered in tombs of a later date ; and this observation tends to support the notion entertained by many persons, that the west of Europe had inhabi- tants previously to the arrival of Celtic cclonies, and that these earliest people belonged to a family of dif- ferent physical characters from those of the Indo- European race, and were more nearly allied to the nations of Northern Asia.' The Celtic population of the south of Europe were in a great measure overwhelmed by the Germanic tide from the north, and though centuries of confusion fol- lowed the collision, the good ultimately effected by the intermixture was immense. It appeared, indeed, as if a savage people there crushed a civilised one, but the result, in reality, consisted in tho infusion of healthy blood into a vitiated frame. At this day there is but one important part of Europe in the hands of the pure Mongolian race — namely, Turkey. But at this very hour the once formidable ])nwer of the Ottomans appears verging to extinction. The Caucasian states around it have gradually seized province after province, and jealousy of each other has alone prevented them, on various recent occosions, from annihilating the petty remnant of the Mongols left in Europe, The power of the empire is not only going to decay, but, as M, La- martine has lately shonn, the Turks are in reality be- coming extinct as a people. They are sinking beneath the pressure of the superior or superiorly - cultivated nations around them. In Africa, the Negroes have already been stripped of a large portion of their continent by the Syro- Arabian and Eurojiean nations, and are likely to be ultimately extinguished by them. If the climate of the same great country had been more favourable to the whites than it is, they would assuredly have taken a larger share in the occupation of it than they have done. As tho case stands, their aggressions have been considerable. * Dr Meyer on the Celtic Langunfc, Dop, Brtt. Assoc. 1847. lited tha ihorti o{ lallj brought tlie Europe, into con- its of which event re of colonisation, lowed by another Dr Prichard con- influx also came igh the rcaions to sr across the Hel- t light has been r of these peoples, icattered through I implements and iars endeavour to irred to three dif- 9 of a people with diameter of the ngitudinal. The ,re found in the it rudeness. They rrows and lances ing indicating a ether these oldest race, is a question ipinion of Retzius L learned work on t thpy were the r than the Celts. >T@red in France and Serres to be eras, but to what longed is as yet however, to have e, that the skulls 1 the ruder cha- ents buried with igod to the most oader form than later date ; and ation entertained rope had inhabi- tic cdonies, and a family of dif- of the Indo- ollied to the of Europe were Germanic tide confusion fol- effected by the cd, indeed, as if ed one, but the ision of healthy "ay there is but lids of the pure ut at this very tomans appears states around province, and anted them, on. iting the petty The power of but, as M. La- e in reality be- nking beneath )rly - cultivated eeii stripped of 5 Syro- Arabian be ultimately the same great itt whites than a larger share done. As the 1 cousidcrablc, t. Assoc. 1847. t>HTSIOAL HIBTOBT OV HAK-ETHKOLOOT. Kot to speak of their coast stations, they have colo- nised the southern extremity of Africa, and the Cafires and Hottentots are falling before them, or are receding to the interior, t'^ be finally crushed between the < i>- posing forces of ' . .\rabs and Europeans. In Asia, xv raering Mongols long held extensive rule; but the >'i-Caucasian power of Russia in the north, and t'.i .'iritish in the south, have torn from them immense territories, and every few years behold addition'tl losses on their part. Even at this time, the a;reat Mongol power of China, which, by a policy cautious to an extraordinary degree, maintained for ages its independence, has been obliged to yield an admission to European settlements, which may be re- garded as only the first footsteps of an invasion by which their power will be overwhelmed. The truth of the view now taken is more remarkably borne out by the history of the Transatlantic continent than by that of any other country. Rapidly indeed have the Red Men of North America fallen before the inarch of Caucasian colonisation. The numerous islands of the Mexican Qulf have been so completely cleared of all traces of native population, that it has become a matter of doubt whether, on several of these islands, any native population ever existed. South America has been largely subjected to the same influences, and would have suffered more from them, had the Cauca- sians who went thither been a branch specially adapted for the business of colonists, and had not a consider- able admixture of races peculiarised that colonisation. As it is, the natives have been thinned, though the amalgamation alluded to, arising from the comparative similarity between the races, renders the truth difficult of discovery. In short, if we look at the whole course of the past history of mankind, we shall find the Cau- casian race through some of its families everywhere gaining the ascendancy, and slowly but surely reno- vating the population of the world. In those instances where an amalgamation of varie- ties of men has taken place to a considerable extent (and there are a few prominent cases of the kind to be observed at present on the face of the globe), a people of a heterogeneous kind has been the result. In parts of South America and Mexico, not only Eu- ropeans and native Americans, but also Negroes and Malays, transported thith3r chiefly as slaves, have contributed to form the existing population. Euro- peans and Negroes produce a race called Mulattoes; the children of Europeans and native Indians are termed Mestizoes; and those of Negroes and In- dians are styled Zamboes. Of course the sub- varieties are numerous — indeed almost numberless. The European and the Mulatto produce Terceroiis; the children of the Terceron and the European are called Quarterons or Quadroon ; and those of Qua- droons and Europeans are Quinterons. In the Qua- droon, little or no vestige of dark blood is visible; but in most countries where these admixtures take place, the rights of pure white blood are only assigned to the Quinteron. Mexico, and the greater part of the states of the South American continent, including Peru, Chili, and Brazil, xrith the colonies and islands of the West Indies, are the chief scenes of these amalgamations of blood. Undoubtedly their immediate consequences are pernicious. The white blood is everywhere haughtily disposed towards the dark, and all the jealousies and oppressions ofcuste are accordingly displayed to a dread- ful extent. Whether, out of the numerous varieties and sub-varieties of species there at present to be be- held, one perfect and homogeneous race shall ever be formed, is rendered doubtful by the urdiminished, if not increased, eagerness with which the purity of the white blood continues to be maintained. If we could suppose that the amalgamations of different varieties of mankind were never to produce happier consequences than in these instances, we might question whether such admixtures be desirable. The experiments of amalga- mation and non-amalgamation may be said to have been tried on great scales in the two American conti- nents, and it is of importance to notice the inne in the respective cases. In North America, we must ere long find the aborigines extinct; and in the place of hordes of savages, stationarily pursuing the wild and warring life led by their fathers from time immemorial, will be found a great and improving race, cultivating the arts of peace, carrying civilisation to the highest pitch, and extracting from their vast continent aU the physical blessings with which the Creator has so libe- rally endowed it, and which He certainly meant not to he unused. niFFERENCEg IN ANATOHICAt STRUCTURE. The Skin. It has been already seen, that the Caucasians are generally distinguished by a white or fur skin, while the Mongolians are yellow, the Ethiopians black, and the Americans red or copper-coloured: — The black races are localised in the warmest regions of the globe, and their skin and constitution are fitted for their allotment. A black man can lie exposed to the hottest sun, without injury, while the skin of the white man, if exposed to similar heat, breaks out in blisters. The black man can labour under a burning sun with impunity; but the white sinks under exertion made in such circumstances; and this is well known to be the cause why slaves were introduced from Africa into the settlements of Euro- peans in tropical America. Sir Everard Home, who made some laborious investigations into this subject, was puzzled by the obvious physical fact, that the black skin must absorb more heat than the white. But it has since been suggested by Dr John Davy that the black perspires most readily. ' In the Negro,' he says, ' the blood flows more readily through the vessels, so as to promote perspiration, and by that means contributing to the cooling of the surface, it contributes again, when it flows back to the heart, to the cooling of the internal parts.* After quoting this remark, Dr Olover of New- castle says — ' Were the inhabitant of the tropic not possessed of this organisation, his system could not re- spond to the stimulus of heat, by a determination of fluid to the surface of the body ; and the heat absorbed by the skin being prevented from entering the system by the perspiratory process, the greater radiating power of a dark skin must be beneficial in cooling. Again, the dark skin places the Negro in the conditions of his climate, by causing him to radiate heat at night, and become at that time cooler than a w^hite under the same circumstances.' Hence the love of the Negroes for night dancing and exercise. In former times, when only two varieties, the white and black, were recognised or thought of, it was sup- posed that complexion was simply a result of the ac- tion of the sun's rays. This idea would naturally arise from its being observed that exposure to the sun dark- ened a white person, while seclusion tended to bleach or whiten him; and that the black nations were those which chiefly occupied tropical countries, while the whites were placed in the temperate zone. The views of naturalists on this subject were recently disturbed by the investigations of M. Flourens concerning the actual structure of the coloured skin.* The white was repre- sented as having a skin composed of three integuments. First, the outer or scarf-skin, a thin transparent pel- licle, seemingly secreted by the parts below, and de- void of recognisable vessels or nerves ; next below the rete mucosum, a soft pulpy net-work; next, or under- most, the cutis or true skin, a strong layer, abun- dantly vascular, and very sensible. It was supposed that the colouring matter of the dark races lay in the rete miUtosum, and that the only difierence be- tween the two races in that respect lay in the one having a mucous integument charged with globules of colouring matter, and the other a mucous integu- ment in which there were no such globules. Flourens asserted the difierence to be considerably greater. Ha * On the Natural History of Man. By M, Flourens, Edin- burgh New Philosophicsl Journal, July 1839. 7 CHAMBEBS'S DTFOBHATIOST FOB THE PEOPLE. ■UtM that, In upoD the ikiua a raffieient variety of ex^erimflnti of Negroos and red Aniericani, he found beneath the rete mueotum two distinct additional kyen, capable of being detached, and the outer of which ii the true seat of the colour of those races. The discoverer considers this as a diffe- rence much more important than any depending on form. Being a structural difference, he thinks it should be held as one of the first class, while differences of shape ought only to bo considered as secondary. Without following him in these speculations, we mav readily allow the importance of a peculiarity which consists in a distinct and additional part. M. Flou- rens, it may be remarked, has found the two layers also in Mulattoes. Ue had not had an opportunity of ex- perimenting upon Mongolians or Malayans; but he in- fers from the other cases that in them also the extra integuments would be found. M. Flourens adds, that in the case of Europeans tinged by exposure to the sun's rays, the mucous web is what is affected, becoming, as it were, slightly dyed. No degree of exposure can, he thinks, confer the co- louring layers of the Negro and other dark races. He remarks, that the African Moors, who have lived beside the Negroes for centuries, have never acquired the colouring apparatus of that race ; and it has been observed by travellers (Captain Lyon among others) that the Tuariks, a race of African Caucasians, of a dark-brown complexion, are nearly as white on those parts of their bodies covered up from the sun, as most Europeans. It is also well known that the progeny of a European, however much he may have been tinged by the sun of a tropical climate, is invariably as white u he himself was at first. M. Flourens deems the difference of structure be- tween the white and coloured races as sufficient to prove that they are of different stocks, and he accord- ingly speaks of them as 'essentially distinct races.' But there are some considerations which greatly con- found all such conclusions, as drawn from differences of colour alone. Colours, it is to be observed, are not invariable characteristics of particular races. Most Caucasians, it is true, are white; but then there are also black Caucasians. The Hindoos are undoubted Caucasians, being proved to be so by many characters of form, a« well as by the infallible test of language ; yet the Bengalees and Malabars, varieties of the Hin- doos, are oftien as black as the generality of Negroes. Caucasians of similar colour are spread through Persia and Western Asia, into Northern Africa. It has indeed been said that the Hindoo branch of the Caucasians alone includes every variety of colour, from the deepest black to something very nearly white. There are simi- lar variations in at least one of the other four racos. * Although the Americans,' says Dr Morton, ' possess a pervading and characteristic complexion [which he de- scribes as more brown or cinnamon-coloured than red], there are occasional and very remarkable deviations, including all the tints from a decided white to an wn- equivocaUy black »kin.' The white tribes have been found chiefly in the high regions in the northern part of South America. These facts are themselves suffl. cient to show that the colour cannot be, as represented bv M. Flourens, an essential or specific distinction; and their purport is confirmed by some more recent investi- gations, which result in showing the so-called rete mueo- tum as nothing but an inner layer of the epidermis, liable to continual renewal as the outer is worn away, just like the bark of the tree. The hue of the Negro is now believed to depend on the presence oi' colouring matter in the cells of the epidennis itself, and to be a variable phenomenon, exactly like the appearance of freckles under the influence of sunlight. I Hair and Eyes. The hair is a strong individual characteristic in man. Its colouring principle is evidently the same, speaking comprehensively, with that of the skin. The hairs issue from bulbs or roots beneath the true skiu, where vessels supply them with nourishmont. An external homy covering, and an int(?rnal pith, constitute th« body of each hair, and the pUh ii> to some extent vas- cular, because liable to disease, ^t is doubtless in this vascular pith that the colouring principle lies. The fact of the pith being supplied both with vessels and nerves, is further proved by the effect which great erief can produce upon the colour of the hair. Dr Pricnard had personally observed one case in which the hair grew v-hite in a single night through grief, and many similar cases are on record. One distinguished French anatomist went so far as to assert, that in the bulbs of the hair lay the whole colouring matter of the skin: but admitting that minute hairs exist on the general frame, we could not thus explain the black hue of the inside of the Negro's lip, which is free from hair. However, when we consider that the woolly hair is usually connected with the jetty skin of the Negro, and the lank straight hair with the red skin of the Indian, we must believe in the existence of some strong bond between these physical characteristics. In like manner do we tittce a general correspondence between the colour of the eye and the skin and hair. The hue of the eye depends on a pigment or dye, lining the choroid coat or membrane. According to the tint of this pigment, is the eye blue, gray, brown, hazel, or black. Generally 8peaKinj|, light - coloured eyes are conjoined with fair complexion and light hair, and the converse holds as commonly good. To this rule, it is well known, there are exceptions; yet Mongols, Ethio- pians, Malays, and Americans, in ninety-nine cases in the hundrecf, show the extent of its applicability. The Caucasians display in this respect greater variations. Albinoes are individuals whose peculiarities depend on defects. Rod eyes and white hair < are their chief, features, though these features vary a little according to the race to which the individual belongs; and there are Albinoes to be found in almost all countries. The rednes^of the eye depends on the absence of pigment on the choroid coat, permitting the red blood-vessels to be seen. From a deficiency in the power of absorb- ing the rays of light, which purpose is served by the pigment, the eyes of Albinoes are weak. The Albinoes of the black race are called white Negroes, from the colour of their skin, and they have white woolly hair. Among the copper-coloured natives of the Darien isth- mus, Albinoes are common. Their bodies are of a milk-white tint, covered with a short down; and they have white hair, with red eyes. They love such light as the moon gives, and by night are all life and activity, while by day they are miserable, the rays of the sun making their weak eyes stream with water. The con- nection between skin, hair, and eyes, and the unity of the source of colour for all these ports, is very strik- ingly exemplified by the peculiaritius of the Albino. Skulls and Iloads. As, beyond all doubt, we ought to consider the form of the skull as in some degree indicative of the intel- lectual powers, the distinctions in this organ necessarily become of great importance. The most perfect type of the Caucasian skull was alleged by Blumenbach to be found in the modern Caucasians-proper, such as the Georgians. ' The head [of a female Georgian, described bv the philosopher] is of the most Bvmmetrical shape, almost round ; the forehead of moderate extent ; the cheek-bones rather narrow, without any projection, but having a direction downwards, from the malar process of the frontal bone ; the alveolar edge well rounded ; the front teeth of each jaw placed perpendicularly.' The head of the perfect Mongolian type is described by Blumenbach as 'almost square; the cheek-bones pro- jecting outwards; the noso flat; the nasal bones, and the space between the eyebrows, iieaHy on the same horizontal plane with the cheek-bones; the superciliary arches scarcely to be perceived ; the nostrils narrow ; the maxillary pit sliehtly marked; the alveolar edge in some degree rounded forwards; the chin slightly pro- minent.' PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN-ETHNOlOOY. it. An extemtti 1, coiutitute tha Home extent tm- doubtlera in this iciple liea. Tlie with ve«iel« and nrhich great grief ir. Dr Pricnard which the hair grief, and many Dguished French i in the bulbs of iter of the skin ; t on the goneml >lack hue of the free from hair, i woolly hair i» f the Negro, and n of the Indian, mo strong bond 1 correspondence I skin and hair, nt or dye, lining iing to the tint brown, hazel, or loured eyes are ht hair, and the o this rule, it ia Mongols, Ethio- ty-nine cases iu ilicability. The er variations, iliarities depend >are their chief little according ongs; and there countries. The ince of pigment ^d blood-vessels ower of absorb- served by the The Albinoes ^oes, from the itc woolly hair, he Darien isth- odies are of a own; and they love such light fe and activity, kys of the sun ter. The con- id the unity of is very strik- the Albino. lider the form of the intel- ;an necessarily >erfect type of tenbach to be such OS the ian, described etrical shape, extent ; the rejection, but iialar process 'ell rounded; licularly.' is described ek-bones pro- I bones, and on the same I superciliary ;rilB narrow ; eolar edge iu slightly pro- 'n me Ei'viopic rarietv of men, 'the head la narrow, and comprised at the sides; the forehead very convex, vaulted; the cheek-bones projecting foneardt; the nostrils wide ; the maxillary pita deeply marked at points; the jaws considerably elongated ; tho alveolar edge narrow, long, and elliptical; the front teeth of the upper jaw turned obliquely forwards ; the lower jaw atruiig and large.' In the American skull there is an approach in shape to that of the Mongol, with this difiereuoe, that the top ia more ro:<.nded, and the sides less angular. The sum- mit of tho Malay head is narrowed, the forehead a little arched, and the upper jaw pushed somewhat forward. It would bo superfluous to enumerate here the parti- cular tribes marked by these varieties of skulls, aa this haa been done with sufficient distinctness in tho general classilication of the races. Of course, among Cauca- Mongols, and Negroes, there are considerable individual differences in thn form of the head, but the preceding descriptions give the type of each division. The remarkable contrast in the prominency of the facial bones, conjoined, as H commonly is, with an equally striking difference in the anterior development ot tho skull, has been deemed by some physiologists a feature of the highest importance. Camper founded on these physical characters a scheme for estimating the degrees of intellect and sagacity bestowed by nature on the whole members of the animal kingdom possessing a skull and brain. The facial angle, as he termed the degree of prominency in the facial bones, was measured by him in the following way : — One straight line was drawn from the ear to the base of the nose, and another from the prominent centre of the forehead to the most advancing part 3f the upper jaw-bone, the head being viewed in profile. ' In the angle produced by these two lines,' says tho physiologist, ' may be said to con- sist not only the distinction between the skulls of the several species of animals, but also those which are found to exist between different nations; and it might be concluded that nature has availed herself at the same time of this angle to mark out the diversities of the animal kingdom, and to establish a sort of scale from the inferior tribes up to the most beautiful forms which are found in the human species. Thus it will be found that the heads of birds display the smallest angle, and that it always becomes of greater extent in Eroportion as the animal approaches most nearly to the uman figure. Thus there is one species of the iQ>e tribe in which the head has a facial angle of forty-two degrees; in another animal of the same family, which is one of those $mice approaching most closely to the human figure, the facial angle contains exactly fifty degrees. Next to this is the head of the African Negro, which, as well as that of the Kalmuc, forms an angle of seventy degrees, while the angle discovered in the heads of Europeans contains eighty degrees. On this differeiico of ten degrees in the facial angle the superior beauty of the European depends; while that high cha- racter of sublime beauty, which is so striking in some works of ancient statuary, as in the head of the Apollo, and in the Medusa of Tisocles, is given by an angle which amounts to one hundreil degrees.' Dr Prichard, in quoting this passage, remarks, that * the faculties of each race of animals seem to be per- fect in relation to the sphere of existence for which they are destined;' and hence, in as far as the mea- surement of the facial angle is applied to the detenni- nation of the comparative intellectual chbracters of dif- ferent tribes of the lower animals, he holds Camper's scheme to be imperfect and ineffective. As a method of distinguishing varieties in the shape of the actual cerebral case, moreover, the measurement of the facial angle is not always a safe guide. * I have now before ine,' says Blumenbach, ' the skulls of a Lithuanian Pole and a Negro, in which the facial angles are nearly equal, but the difference between the Bha])e of the two crania ia otherwise prodigious.' Nevertheless, as a general test of the mental capacity of individuals, * I think,' says Prichard, ' wc must allow tLat experience ii in AkTOur of the position assumed by CaibpAf. It is certain that erenr man is struck with the expression of dignity or elevation of mind and character in the an- cient busts, whidi have a great facial angle, and that this expression would be lost if the facial sjigle were contracted. The fact seems indeed to be a general one, that men of great intellvct have fully-developed brains, as indicated by elevated and capacious fore- heads.' Since the time of Camper, it is scarcely neces- sary to tell the reader, the subject of cra.niology has been amply investigated by Dr Call and his followers, who have founded upon their ini^uiries a system of mental philosophy (Phrenology), in a great measure new to the world, and of which the fundamental prin- ciple is, that the size and form of the skull, as depend- ing on the size and form of the brain within, denote, other circumstances being equal, the intellectual and moral character. Having obtained a considerable number of the skulls of the various races of men, Dr Morton measured their internal capacity by means of white pepper seed, and found the following results : — Moan Baces. No. of skulls. internal capacity in cublo inches. Largest in the aeries. Smallest In the series. I. Caucasian, - - S3 87 109 75 2. Mongolian, - 10 AS .93 (a 3. Malay, - - • 18 Ul 119 64 4. Aboriginal Ame- rican, • - 147 80 100 60 S. Kthlopinn, • - 2!» 7U 94 65 It thus appears that the aboriginal Americans rank fourth with respect to the size of their brains, the Ethiopians being lowest and the Caucasians highest. This result is certainly the precise one to be expected, considering the capacity of the cranium as an index of intellectual power. The Caucasian race, which stands highest in the scale, is that which has produced the most civilised nations; while the Mongolian, the next in order of capacity of cranium, has produced a num- ber of nations which remain at a fixed point in semi- civilisation. The Malay is a degree more barbarous, and the American and Ethiopian the most barbarous of all. The physical characteristic now under consideration varies considerably among the white nations or Euro- peans. The Turks, who, though originally a Mongol race, have had their primitive physical attributes mo- dified by continual intermixtures with Greeks, Geor- gians, and Circassians, present a form of skull combin- ing, apparently, the mingled characters of the two varieties. The square Mongolian head has been rounded off in their case, and we find it to be now almost a per- fect globe. The Greek head approaches the same shape. It was loii<,' asserted that the globularity of the Turkish head resulted from artificial compression in infancy, but modem physiologists discredit this notion. 'A single glance at the Turkish head,' says Mr Lawrence, ' at the symmetrical and elegant formation of the whole fabric, the nice correspondence and adjustment of all parts, the perfect harmony between the cranium and face, in all the details of each, demonstrate most une- quivocally that it is a natural formation, and a very fine work of nature, too.' The writer now quoted proceeds also to remark, that, although no sufficiently extensive examinations have yet been made, the pro- bability is, that between the European nations, such as the Germans, Swiss, Swedes, French, and others, dis- tinct differences in the shape of the skull would cer- tainly be found to exist on inquiry. Mr George Lewis observed in travelling on the continent, that the French have the lower and anterior parts of the cranium large, while the upper and anterior region is more prominent in the Germans. The Italian head, though compara- tively small for the most part, is marked by great ele- gance. The Jews have long been noted for the fine Caucasian shape of their heads. CHAHBEBS'S INFOBMATIOK FOB THE PEOPLI!. th Priohud aTowi the opinion that the form of the head ii leu a feature of race*, than an indication of (taf^ee in oiriliiation. He intimatei, but in a very general way, and without pretending to make the ob- servation aa one which holds witliout many exceptions, ' that there are in mankind three principal varieties in the form of the head and other physical characters, which are most prevalent respectively in the savage or hunting tribes, in the nomadic or wandering pastoral races, and in the civilised and intellectually-cultivated divisions of the human family. Among the rudest tribes of men, hunters and savage inhabitants of forests, dependent for their supply of food on the accidental pro- duce of the soil or the chase, among whom are the most degraded of the African nations and the Australian savages, a form of the head is prevalent which is most aptly distinguished by the term prognathous, indicat- ing a prolongation or extension forward of the jaws. . . . A second shape of the head, very different from the last -mentioned, belongs principally to the nomadic races, who wander with their hocks and herds over vast plains, and to the tribes who creep along the shores of the icy sea, and live partly by fishing, and paftly on the flesh of their reindeers. These nations have brood and lozenge-formed faces, and what I have termed pyramidal skulls. . . . The most civilised races, those who live by agriculture and the arts of cultivated life, all the most intellectually-improved nations of Europe and Asia, have a shape of the head which differs from both the forms above-mentioned. The characteristic form of the skull among these nations may be termed oval or elliptical. . . . There are numerous instances of transition from one of these shapes of the head to another, and these alteratiois have taken place in portion, and yet they possess physical powers of the ).' ' 'most perfect kind. The Hottentot and the American nations who have changed their manner of life. It should not be omitted that many of the tribes of North and South America are so partial to low and retreating foreheads, that they have long been in the habit of assisting nature in producing that form of the head. The comparative softness of Uie osseous texture at birth, and the partially mobile state of the cranial sutures, enable them to effect this object. 'The Caribbs,' says Labat, in his account of a voyage to the isles of the Caribbean Sea, ' are all well made and pro- portioned ; their features are sufficiently agreeable, excepting the forehead, which appears rather extraor- dinary, being very flat, and, as it were, depressed. These people are not bom so, but they force the head to assume that form, by placing on the forehead of the newly-born child a small plate, which they tie firmly behind. This remains until the bones have acquired their consistence; so that the forehead is flattened to that degree that they can see almost perpendicularly above them without elevating the head.' The conse- quence is, that the heads of these people, naturally somewhat depressed in front, become hideously so; and unnatural bulges behind show that the cerebral matter has been forced into nev positions. The possibility of changing the foi-m of the skull has been doubted by some physiologists, but the cireumstaiice is authenti- cated beyond all question. In Morton's Crania Anu- ricana are delineated many specimens of skulls thus altered in form, some so greatly changed by a pressure which has been applied both before and behind, as to lesemble half-moons. It is not necessarily to be in- ferred that injury results either to the mental constitu- tion or the general health of those who submit to this process. _ Supposing the pressure to be slow and gentle, the ductile organs will easily accommodate themselves to it, and it is probable that the brain, as far as its size or volume is concerned, will remain unaffected. A skull in _ Dr Leach's possession, bearing the marks of extraordinary compression, is known to have been that of a Caribb chief distinguished for intelligence and prudence. The Teeth. The general differences of features, accompanying these variations in the shape of the skull, were pointed IP out in going over the great divisions of the human ratio. The teeth of mankind differ very little in shape or posi- tion. < The oblique position,' says Mr Lawrence, ' of the anterior incisors m the Negroes, and some other tribes who have prominent jaws, is the only national difference I know of in teeth. Their size and form exhibit merely individual differences.' The peculiarity here alluded to appears very distinctly to be only an effect of certain conditions, as it is found amongst our own population, where the diet is low and defective, and the general condition is unfavourable to the full development of the human being. PHYSICAL CHARACTEB. The differences which exist among the races of man> kind, with respect to Figure, Proportions, and Strength, form a branch of the present subject not less interest- ing than any yet noticed. It has long been attempted, in the civilised regions of the world, to ascertain and fix a standard of physical perfection for the human body; and there certainly does seem to be a model, the closest approach to which combines the quality of pleasing the eye^with the possession of the greatest degree of corporeal power and activity. Artists have usually looked to the model-figures of the Caucasian! of Greece, or, in other words, to their ancient statues, aa exemplifying the finest possible proportions of the human frame. But the taste of man varies so much, and habit modifies to such an extent his physical powers, that any standard of the kind alluded to must be open to numberless objections and exceptions. If judgea of by the common artistical standard of the civilised world, certain races of men would be set down as out of pro- perfect savage will outrun wild animals, and hunt down the deer ; the slim and ' effeminate Hindoo,' as we call him, will keep up with the horse for days; and the South Sea islander feels himself at home in a raging surf, which would whelm a boat or vessel. Yet these races depart widely in many cases from the Grecian model. Such facts show that physical power is at least not confined to men moulded after the Grecian artistical standard, though it may be that individuals so moulded would surpass in the exercises mentioned, with equal training, those otherwise fashioned. Stature and Proportiona Different races of men exhibit considerable diversi- ties of stature, though there are no varieties of stature in different nations so remarkable as those which fre- quently occur in the same family. The tallest race of men, authentically known to exist, are the Patogonians, a tribe occupying the coast of South America, between the Rio de La Plata and the Straits of Magellan. The territory occupied by them is of immense extent, and they are probably migratory in habits ; hence a consi- derable degree oi discrepancy in the accounts given of them by different writers. Magellan's companions de- clared the Patagoniaiis to be commonly about seven feet four inches in height, English measure. Commo- dore Byron saw and conversed with many companies of them, and states that few were under seven feet, while others were considerably above it. Nearly six feet high himself, he could barely touch the top of a chief's head, though standing on tip-toe. Captain Wallis, again, having probably examined a different tribe, says that the majority of the Patagonians seen by him averaged from five foet ten to six feet, and that he only saw one man so tall as six feet SRvon. By later and accurate measurements, made by the Spaniards, we learn posi- tively, that there are at least Patagonian tribes reach- ing the average height of from six and a-half to seven feet. Were they even somewhat less, they would be decidedly the tallest race of men existing on the face of the earth. All voyagers admit them to be large and muscular in proportion to their height. A people situated in the polar cireles of the north, stand nearly at the other extreme of the scale as re* t^HtBlOAt BIBTOBY OF HAK-ETHKOLOOY. the ham&n raeo. in (hape or poii> Ir Lawrence, ' of and lome other le only national ' size and form The peculiarity y to be only an nd amonnt our r and defoctire, ible to the full le races of man. i, and Strength, at less interest, been attempted, > ascertain and for the human to be a model, I the quality of of the greatest . Artists have the Caucasians incient statues, iportious of the varies so much, ihysicai powers, must be open . If judged of civilised world, 1 as out of pro. powers of the I the American ' liunt down the )o,' as we call ; and the South a raging surf, et these races Grecian model, at least not cian artistical lis so moulded )d, with equal arable diversi- ties of stature ose which fre- tallest race of ! Patagonians, jrica, between agellan. The e extent, and lence a consi- unts given of mpanions de. about seven re. Commo- corapanies of :n feet, while six feet high chief's head, ^allis, again, >e, Buys that lim averaged only saw one md accurate B learn posi. ;ribc8 reach. alf to seven ey would be on the face be large and f the north, scale as re. Iptcts stature. Th* Esquimaux, or at least some tribes of them, are for the most part between four and five feet in height, and their congeners the La]>s are also a dwarfish race. The Ethiopio variety also numbers some Tery small tribes, and in particular the Bosjesmans, a race said to be also very commonly deformed. Among the American nations there are also dwarfish tribes, and in particular the natives of Terra del Fuego, near noighbolirs of tho Putagouians, These iiations only present us with the extremes of the human race, as respects stature. The subject is worthy of more minute investigation. It would '— ■• highly interesting, and indeed instructive, to know the coinparative average stature of each of the ordinary varieties and subvarieties of mankind. Unfortunately, the observations of naturalists resijecting stature have not been carried far. Quetelet and others have atten- tively examined the relative heights of individuals of tittgle nations, at different ages, with a view to deter- mine the general phenomena of man's growth ; but few observations have been made upon the respective heights of different races or nations. The stature of the Caucasian has not been fully compared with that of the Mongol, or the Negro, or the Red Indian; nor have single nations belonging to any of these great Taricties been satisfactorily contrasted with one an- other, as respects height. No accurate comparisons, for example, have yet been made of German with Spaniard, of Briton with Frenchman, or, in fact, of My one European nation with another. The follow- ing table, exhibiting the comparative heights of a small number of Englishmen and Negroes, is given in the work of Mr Lawrence upon the ' Natur^ History of Man.' The Negroes were from various regions. An EnRllshman, Ditto, Ditto, . Ditto, Ditto, . Ditto, Ditto, . The Caucasian here has considerably the advantage of the Negro, the average height of the former class being nearly 5 feet 9 inches, while the black averages little above 5 feet 6 inches; and the advantage would still be on the same side, were we to leave the first Englishman, certainly a man of uncommon height, entirely out of the reckoning. But it must be admitted, that from such an insignificant amount of examples no satisfactory conclusions can be draMm. The accounts of recent travellers in Africa would lead one to ima- pne that the majority of the Negro nations, excepting in the case of a few particular tribes, such as the Bos- jesmans, are not below tho Europeans in average height. The Caucasians have indeed the advantage in one re- spect; no tribe or section of them sinks so low in the scale of altitude as some of the other races do. The stature of the Chinese, who must be regarded as amongst the purest specimens of the Mongol variety, was accurately and extensively measured by Mr Rollin, the surgeon who accompanied La Perouse. He found the ordinary height of the natives of the great Isle of Tchoka, on the east coast of China, to be Jive French feet.* The natives of the mainland, near the same region, measured 4 feet 10 inches (French). This examination places the pure Chinese below the average height of Europeans, and, we believe, correctly. Other Mongol races have not been itccurately examined, with a view to the point under consideration. In that variety of mankind, however, as in the Ethiopic division, there are individual races which stand much lower in the scale of height than any Caucasian tribe. The Esqui- maux and Fins prove this assertion. The Americans also present great difibrences In height; so much so, that it would be vain to attempt * Tlie French foot slightly exceeds that of England, the pro- portions of tho former to the latter being as 1066 to 1000. to discover or itrike an vwtngp for the whoU Tu4«ty — a variety which comprisM the giant Fatagoniant and the dwarfs of Terra del Fuego. For determining the heights of individual tribes of Americans, wo have at present no better authority than the loose reports of travellers. The same may be raid of the Malays; and, such being the ease, it would be a waste of time to attempt any comparative estimate having reference to these races. Une conclusion may be drawn from the little which we do know, and that is, that civilisa- tion equalises the stature of mankind, and keeps it near a steady mean. All the less cultivated races present -^.'tremes not to be observed among the Caucasians. Professor Forbes of Edinburgh haa made a series of experiments upon the physical differences between English, Scotch, Irish, and Belgians, the results of which constitute the most interesting information we are able to lay before the reader, wiUi respect to the comparative heights of sub-varieties of the Caucasians. The following is a table drawn up by Professor Forbes, to exhibit the relative heights, at difierent ages, of the students attending his class during a series cf years, and belonging respectively to England, Scotland, and Ireland. The Belgian measurements were probably derived from other sources. The number of individuals subjected to examination wai; very considerable, so many as eighty Scotch and thirt;,' English being occa- sionally measured at once. ' > HeighU—FuH dimeniiont uiit,\ thoct,* Stature. Stature. Feet. In. Feet. In. B 4i A Negro, . loi 6 1 Ditto, . fi m . 6 Ditto, . a u fi 01 Ditto. . 5 . fl 7 Ditto, . a 74 5 4i . 5 Age. English. Bcotoh. Iriah. Belgians. Inches. Inchea Inches. Inches. . 13 64-4 647 ... 618 16 66S 66-8 ... rw 17 87« 679 661 18 8»1 68S 68-7 678 19 6H-5 689 69-4 677 SO 68-7 691 698 67-9 21 688 693 7(10 61H) 2j 68 9 69-2 701 681 83 6«-9 69-3 70-8 68-8 S4 68-9 69-3 70-8 68-8 25 68-9 69-3 70'8 68-3 This table places the Irishman "ppermost in the scale of stature, the Scotsman second, the Englishman next, and the Belgian lowest. The comparison seems to be fair as regards the parties taken, for, if there were any peculiarity in their condition as students, it must have been common to all. As a comparison of national heights, therefore, the table perhaps exhibits conclusions pretty generally applicable, and we shall find it borne out by similar comparisons of weight and strength. Professor Forbes's observations are con- firmed, in one point at least, by the following passage in Quetolet's work upon Man: — ' When in England, we chose the terms of comparison from rather higher classes of socibty [ho has been speaking of English fac- tory chUdrerk] : we find the stature of man rather higher than in France or the Low Countries, at least for young persons between eighteen and twenty-three years of age.' Quetelet then alludes to eighty different mea- surements of Cambridge students, taken in groups of ten each. The average height of every ten was fiS feet, or 5 feet 9 inches and 3-5th8 to each man. This is above Professor Forbes's average; but as the English universities are chiefly attended by the aristocracy, who are undeniably a section of the people above the average naticnal stature, it is probable that, as a na- tional comparison. Professor Forbes's table approaches nearest to the truth. The table alluded to indicates the cessation of growth to take place at twenty-two, the case of the Belgians being the only exception. We learn from another of the valuable inferences made by Quetelet from his in. vestigations, thut the stature is materially influenced by residence in town or country. ' The stature of the * Half an inch may be reckoned as equivalent to tho shoe, U CHAUBEBS'S INFORMATION K)H IflE PBOPtfe. inkkbituitt of towni, At the kg* of nineteon, ii gmttif thui that of the country reeident bv 2 or 3 centimetrei.' An exuninatiou, Mcompanied with vast labour, of not lets than 3500 iudividuaJs living in towni, and (iOOO re> aiding in the country, brought Quetelet to this conclu- sion, which if therefore in all probability correct, aud wilt be found to hold good in all tituatlonB. It wai only at the age of nineteen, however, that the itature of the towntmau waa found by (juetelet to exceed that of the ruitic; and he conceives it possible, though it was not in his power to obtain full proof on the subject, that ' the inhabitant of the country may attain to u greater height than the inhabitant of the town before the completion of the full growth.' The truth is, that circumstances greatly modify the rate at which the vrowth is developed. The law of nature on the subject IS thus stated by Quetelet : — ' The growth of the human being, from several months before birth up till the perlml of complete development, follows such a law cf continuity, that the accessions of growth diminish regu- larly in amount, in proportion to the age.' Here, of course, eaL*h successive addition of growth is considered relatively to the growth previously acquired. < Wo shall fijid,' he says, ' that the child increases in size 2-5ths from birth to the end of the iirst year; l-7th during the second year; 1-llth during the third year; 1- 14th dur- ing the fourth year; l-15th during tho fifth year; 1-1 8th during the sixth year, and so on; the relative growth always decreasing from the time of birth.' This simple law of nature, however, is liable to be greatly affected in its operation by circumstances. * Dr Villemie remarks,' says Quetelet, ' that the height of man becomes greater, and the growth takes place more rapidly, other circum- stances being equal, in proportion as the country in- babitud is richer, the comfort more ceneral, houses, clothes, and nourishment better, and labour, fatigue, and privations less during infancy and youth; or, in other words, the circumstances accompanying misery put off the period of the complete development of the body, and stint human stature.' There can be no doubt of the accuracy of these remarks. The simple exposure to the action of cold, not to speak of toil, ma- terially Influences the growth of man ; and we see this proved, conversely as well as otherwise, in all the ex- treme climates of the world. The warmth and luxury of cities develop rapidly the growth of all but the lowest classes. Our British gentry bear out fully the conclusion of Quetelet, that ' individuals who onjoy affluence generally exceed the mean height : hard la- bour appears to be an obstacle to growth.' Professor Forbes extended his inqulriei amonff hll students, English, Scotch, and Irish, to bodily weight, adding examinations of similwr, and also of mixed classes of Belgians. The results were as follow : — Weight in Poundi, iiteludiiv CMhei. Weight of the Human Body. The stature, weight, and strength of the human body, form but parts of one and the same subject. P^aoh of these properties or characteristics, if not dependent on, is at least closely related to, both the others. As the object here is to make the view of the species compre- hensive rather than minute, it were to be wished that the teeight of the body, among the various races of men, hrA been inquired into with some attention by natu- ralists. But, as in the case of the stature, this has yet been done only to a very imperfect extent. Quetelet has fully examined the comparative weight of the hu- man body at different ages, and of differently placed individuals in a single nation ; but no attempts have been made to determine the comparative weights of Mongol and Caucasian, or American and Negro. The endeavour to do so would l>e attended undeniably with vast trouble, and some may think the matter not worthy of it. This, however, is not a correct view of things. In all undertakings that require the exertion of physi- cal energy, and more particularly in war, bodily weight, it has now been clearly shown, is a most important element; and, wherever the superiority in this respect lies, thithaf will success, other circumstances being eqaal, almost infallibly tend. An observation of the various collisions of troops on the field of Waterloo, whether of horse or foot, has been found to substantiate this proposition. i Belgians Age. EnglUh. Sootob. IrUlt. (not mixwt olawe*). Iba. lbs. . lbs. lbs. Ill lU'S IIS • •• 109 lU W m-a I9» 117-5 17 Lwa 133-5 13H 197 lU 13U lau 141-5 134 IB Ml 143 145-5 1395 SO 144 146'5 149 143 SI 140 1495 151 14ii'5 n 147-5 150 153 147 S3 149 151 154 148-5 34 ISO 159 155 1495 SS IM 159-5 155 ISO Hero, again, the superiority lies with the Irish, the others holding the same relative positions as in the case of stature. The mixed classes of Belgians, in whose case the weight of clothes was deducted, ranked exceedingly low — 134 lbs. being about the average. We have it in our power, fortunately, to compare the con- clusions of Professor Forbes with those of other in- quirers, in as far as the English and Belgians are con- cerned. The eighty students of Cambridge, weighed (with the clothes) in groups of ten, gave an average, as we are informed by Quetelet, of 151 lbs. — the pre- cise mean, it will be observed, of the Englishmen of twenty-five years of age weighed by Professor Forbes. The Cambridge students, however, were between eigh- teen and twenty-three years old, and therefore the Cambridge estimate is a little higher than that of Pro- fessor Forbes, as it also was in the case of stature. With respect to the weight of the Belgians, as examined by Quetelet, he states that the mean weight of the Cambridge students of eighteen and twenty-three much exceeds that of Belgians of the same age, being nearly the same as that of men of thirty in Brabant and the other departments of Flanders. The superiority of the Irish in point of stature and weight is remarkable. We shall find it borne out by a corresponding superiority in physical power, as shown in the table of Professor Forbes having reference to that characteristic. Quetelet's conclusions respecting the weight of the human being at various ages, and the general laws regulating his growth in this particular, are nearly as follows: — The mean weight of mole children at birth is 3*20 kilogrammes.* The weight of female infants is less, being 'J'Ol k. A child loses weight for the first three days after birth, and does not make any decided increase until about the seventh day. Ages being equal, man generally weighs more than woman; but at the age of twelve this is not the case. The sexes are then nearly equal in this respect. The period of complete development in man, as respects weight, is the age of forty; woman, again, does not attain her maximum till the age of fifty. According to observations made on the most extensive scale in Belgium, the menu weight of man at twenty-five is 62*93 k.; at the age of forty (the maximum period), it is 63*7 k. The niean weight of woman at twenty -five is S3'2 k.; at fifty (the maxi- mum period), it is 56'I(i k.f The maximum weight of the human being is nearly twenty times the sum of his weight at birth. The mean weight of the human being, neither sex nor age being taken into account, is 45*7 Ic. From the ages uf forty and fifty, men and women begin respectively to sustain a decrease of weight, from six to seven kilogrammes being the usual loss before the close of life. * A kilognunme is as nearly as possible 9 l-5th lbs. English. t The mean weight, therefore, of man in Belgium, at the maximum period, is little mora tlian 14U lbs. liogKsli. This 1$ much below the average of moo in Britain. iiiriti ftroonff hli o bodily weight, i alio of mixed tut follow : — olhti. PHYSICAL HI8T0BY OP MAN-ETHNOLOGY, . Belglus . (not mlxMt • olawett. lb*. loa 117-fi 187 I 134 1395 143 14ii'S 147 148-5 1495 IJU 1 the Iriih, the itions M in the of Belgians, in educted, ranked ie average. We mpare tne con* BO of other in- elgians are con- >ridge, weighed avo an average, lbs, — the pre- Gnglishmen of rofessor Forbes, between cigh- ' therefore the ui that of Pro- ise of stature, IS, as examined weight of the tj-three much ), being nearly abant and the vf stature and borne out by )wer, OS shown ; reference to weight of the general laws are nearly as dren at birth >ale infants is i for the first 3 any decided B being equal, i; but at the exes are then of complete is the age of maximum till >ns made on mean weight age of forty iiiean weight Y (the niaxi- im weight of the sum of ' the human account, is y, men and decrease of ig the usual bs. Engliab. glum, Bt the [lioli. TblsU BtrtDgth of Hon. The strength of the human frame is a sul^ect which has received much more attention than has been paid cither to its weight or proportions. It is obviously, indeed, a subject of the utmost momert, whether we view it with reference to the comparative physical powers of different races, or simply as u question inte- resting to civilised man from its bearing on practical mechanics. Various methods have been proposed for determining accurately the strength resident in the loins and arms of the human frame; and the instrument called the d;/namometer, invented by Regnier, is that most generally approved of and emplovea for the pur- pote. The dynamometer, however, though used bpr Quetelct, Professor Forbes, and others, in their experi- ments, is allowed to be far from perfect, and it is only by uncommon care and caution that results can be obtained from it worthy of being depended on. It is an instrument which cannot well be described in mere words, and all that may be said of it hero is, that it is so contrived as to indicate to the experimenter, on a dial-plate, the physical power resident in the loins and orms of the parties subjected to trial. Observing the extraordinary displays of physical power and energy frequently mode by savages, scientific men were long of opmicn that civilisation diroininhed the strength of the human frame. Other circumstances tended to foster this belief. The Negro is possessed of longer arms, or at least forearms, than the Caucasian, holding in this respect, it is worthy of remark, a middle place between the white and the ape, which latter crea- ture has arms of great length. ' I measured,' says Mr White, * the arms of about fifty Negroes, men, women, and children, bom in very different climes, and found the lower arm longer than in Europeans, in proportion to the upper arm and height of the body,' The same writer says that whites of 6 feet 4 inches, whom he measured, hod shorter arms than Negroes of middle size. Similar sources of physical superiority appeared to voyagers to be posgexsed by the Pacific Islanders, the Malays, and many other uncultivated races. But more attentive observation has disproved the supposi- tion. The voyager Peron took with him to the southern hemisphere a dynamometer, with which he experimented on the following number of individuals: twelve natives of Van Diemen's Land, seventeen of New Holland, fifty-six of the island of Timor (a fine race of men), seventeen Frenchmen, and fourteen Englishmen, The following, numbers express the mean result in each cose, the strength of the arms and loins being respectively put to the test. It is by lift- ing a weight that the strength of the loins is tested with the dynamometer: — JlfMii Slrenglh. Arms. Loins, KUognunmcs. Myriogrammes, SO-0 , ana lo-g fiB7 u-6 , 69'9 IS'9 71'4 lC-3» The highest power of arm shown by any of the Van Diemen natives was 60; by the New Hollanders, 62; while the lowest in the English trials was 63, and the highest 83. In lumbar power, or that of the loins, the highest point reached by a New Hollander was 13; the lowest of the English was 127, and the highest 21*3. * These results,' says Mr liawrence, ' offer the best answer to the declamations on the degeneracy of man. The attribute of superior strength, so boldly assumed by the eubgists of the savage state, has never been questioned or doubted. Although we have been con- soled for this inferiority by an enumeration of the many precious benefits derived from civilisation, it has * Peron— Corrected Edition of his Voyages. (Tbemyriogmmnie U nearly » lbs. EngUslii.) 1. Van Diemen natives, 2. New Hollanders, 3. TimoTlani, 4. Frenchmen, 5. BlnglUhmen, . always been felt as a somewhat degrading disadvan- tage. Bodily strength is a concomitant of good health, which is produced and supjiorted by a regular supply of wholesome and nutritious food, and by active occu- pation. The industrious and well-fed middle cloAei of a civilised community may be reasonably expected to surpass in this endowment the miserable savages, who are never well-fed, and too frequently depressed by absolute want and all other privations.' Such is the case, as Peron's experiments show. Rut indeed the same thing is shown by a hundred historical facts. The Spaniards, on their first visits to the New World, ibund the natives much weaker than themselvei; and this was proved not only by hand-to-hand struggles, but by the labour of the mines, in which the Indians were far deficient. The backwoodsmen of the States have always shown themselves stronger in single com- bats than the Indians. The Russians of Europe, also, are said by Pallas to excel the Mongol tribes of the empire to a remarkable extent in physical power. Proper and extended comparisons are yet to be mode of the relative ph vsical power of the various Caucasian nations. The following table of Professor Forbes gives us At least a glimpse at the oomparative strengths of English, Scotch, Irish, and Belgians : — Lumbar Strength eaks of as * gay, volatile, and precipi- tate, prone to rush to action, but without the power of lustaining adversity and the tug of strife; and this is the character of the Celtic portion of the French people down to the present day. He represents the Britons ai oool, considerate, and tedate, poMctsed of inlellee. tual talent, and says that he prefers their aptitude to the livelier manners of the (lauls. The same mental qualities charnoteriso tho English of the nineteenth centurr, and they and lae French may still be con< traited in similar terms. He describes the Germans, allowing for the state of their civilisation, at a bold, prudent, self-denying, and virtuout people, pottetted of great force of character ; and the tamo featuret dls> linguish them still.'* It is scarcely necessary to re- mark, that the blue eyes and fair hair which the Roman hiatorian attributet to tho Germans, are still widely- prevailing features of their external physiognomy. The perseverance of national types is supported by circumstances favouring the same conclusion with re- gard to individual families. It hat been repeatedly observed, in (i;alleries of family portraits, that a parti- cular style ot face, or some shape of feature, is handed down from one generation to another, or, passing per- haps over one or two generations, revives in a third. A certain thickness in the under lip hat been thus hereditary in the royal family of Austria for several centuries. The face of the British royal family hat experienced nothing but minor changes since tho Elec- tress Sophia, if not from earliur generations, Mr Wil- liam Howitt, in bit work entitled ' Visits to Remark- able Places,' gives a portrait of a school-boy who was pointed out to him at Stratford-upon-Avon as a de- scendant of Shakespeare, and it is unquestionable that tho face has a considerable resemblance to that of the great dramatist, Tho present writer may be allowed to state, that be has seen a claimant of the Wintoun peerage in humble life, bearing precisely tho peculiar physiognomy of two or three of the children of the baron of Queen Mary's time, as represented in a family group painted by Antony More, and engraved in Pin- kerton's Scottish Gallery, The likeness in this case was as great as is ever seen between brothers. Another circumstance, in which tho writer was personally con- cerned, will perhaps be considered as a curious illus- tration of the same point. He was one day, while walking in the country, struck by the appearance of a middle-aged gentleman who passed in a carriage, and who strongly reminded him of the common portrait of Sir William Wallace, He had previously, as might be supposed, no inclination to attach any credit to that portrait, but he could not help being greatly surprised when, upon inquiry, ho learned that the fentleman who had just passed was General Dunlop of )unlop, whose mother he well knew to have been the daughter of Sir Thomas Wallace of Craigie, the last lineal descendant of a branch of the family of the Scot- tish hero. It may bo added, that the rencontre took place sixty miles from the seat of General Dunlop. As Wallace is now known to have visited France, it it not iinpossible that hit visage may havejteen painted; or, supposing the portrait not his, it is likely to be that of some early member of the Wallace-Craigie family, in which case the anecdote would not be much less valuable at a proof of the long descent of a family face. EiTccts of Local CIroumstanves in producing Changes, On the other hand, there are proofs: of great alte- rations having been produced in tho external fea- tures of races by peculiar local circumstances, Tho descendants of the English settlers in the American states di8])lay a considerable variation in general fonn and aspect from the parent nation. The children of European settlers in New South Wales, are tall, thin, and weaker than their progenitors. In the West Indies, some distinct new peculiarities of structure have been observed in the descendants of English settlers. Their cheek-bones are higher, and their eyes deeper set in the head, than those of the English nation generally. In these respects, they approximate to the form of the aboriginal races of the American continent and islands; * Essay by Mr Combe In Morton's Crania Americana, U CUAMBEIUS'S INFORMATION FOR TUB PEOPLE. Mid U hM bMn (Kiliiteil nut that luch • form l« uieful ill |irot«ctin(( the evv-iljiht frnin the ulan of tlio tropical •uii. The CroolcR have aUo cooler •lilni, aiiccomiiiff imal iind' iparlilins, the note higher in the ridge', and the people, the mouth ■mailer, the eyes liveljr hair coniiderahly loiiKor and leM criip Analosouii clrcumiituncee are ohicrvod nmon^it the lower anlmali. For example, the woolljr thocp, brought into a tropical climate, loNi iti Hee<'e, and retaini only n thin coat of hair. The hogi of Cuba, all of which are dcicended from a Kuro|H)aii itock, are twice ni large ui modern Kiiropeati hogi. The hone* which run wild in I'araguay, though all dciconded from vuricgatetl Kuropean races, are now of one peculiar colour, which we cannot doubt In the ott'ect of «oino peculiar local circumitancoi. ' On coniidering tlieao and analogous phenomena,' says l>r I'rivhanl, * we can hardly avoid concluding that the variations of animals proceed according to certain laws, by which the struvturu is adapted to the necessity of local circumstances.' If such be the case, it must bo held as evidence favour- able to the supposition that nil the rucos are sprung from one stock. The variations might in that case be regarded as altogether produced by external conditions operating during a long course of ages. That the inha- bitants of certain regions should be stamped with cer- tain physical characteristics, is indeed nothing more than what may be expected ; and hence the absurdity of laying hold of every little difference of dialect, every tint of skin or colour of hair, every mould of nose or contour of skull, as a warrant sufficient for a new type or lubdivision of the human species. CONCLUSION. From all that has been written or learned on the subject of inan'ii physical and social history, it appears evident that the constitutional character of the human being admits of a very high degree of culture and im- provement. Nature ushers him into existence moic weak and helpless than any of the lower animals, nii Under an All-wiw P\..-.'lencp .aan has assuredly been placed on t!<:'. eiir<:hiy ojor : perform . iiart im- measurably more fU." inc I :: ■.; that assij.'i'-d to the lower orders of tu.i.ttlii, ,»'w'i of whoso gei.ei.itious is in no respect adwn.ijd, aa i -,\nnot possibly advance, beyond the precise a .J humule station which was first occupied by its race. * In this point of view," to use tho language of Lawrence, ' man stands alone : his fa- culties, and what lie has efiected by them, place him at 16 • a wide interval (Voin all other animals- at an interval which no animal hitherto known to us can fill up. The man-like monkey, tho almost reasoning elephant, tho docile dog, tho sa>j^<:ious beavrr, tho industrious bee, cannot Imi coiu|)ar<" i to him. In none of those instanret is thoro any pro^>>vis either in thu individuals or the species.' Kluvated, howwer, ns Is the inenncst among human beings above the higher of tho animal tribes. It i» evi- dei\t that for the proper performance of his part 'i* •nuit einplov moans fi advanoenient, eUo I e iv'.m in a condition of ignoraiuo and barbarism m "t deploi'a>>le to contemplate. I'luced In a largo and hen itiful world, abounding with animal, vegetable, and mineral exist- ences at his command, and accountable for hin conduct, it liehoves him to pursue such a course of activity as will enable him to enjoy the full l>eneflts of his situa- tion. I)y pursuing that line of policy which leads to social melioration, he rises step by step to a high degree of civilisation, and bequeaths to posterity almost im- perishable monuments of his greatness. Attaining this enviable height, should he pursue or be the victim of » contrary line of policy, he sinks in the same ratio, and f)erhnr)B with greater speed, down to tho original and tumble level from which he had formerly arisen. To be assured that these are not merely conjecture' speculations, we have only to direct niir attrition «<• hintory, wherein examples are offered of the gni'1' t rise, the eminence, tho decline, and the ultimo i ^ • tinction, of civilisation. Again, like the ^'.-owth of .1. new order of plants on the soil of an < terminated forest, we find on the spot once oonsecratod by deeds of human greatness, a diflbrcnt branch . *' the family of mankina, pursuing by toilsome steps a similar riso from barbarism, and asserting in their turn the exalted capacity for improvuiueut common to all the varieties of our race. Although i( is established both by Kcriiitural record and geological discoveries, that man was placed on earth loiit in the series of animal existences, his race pos- soHses a sufficient antiquity to embrace various instances of the rise and decay of nations at a iteriod so remote .' to be beyond the reach of ordinary history, and only idiown by the wreclts of man's inveutivq genius. Thus, in the Fast, are found remains of architecture and si'Mlpture, of thu origin or meaning of wliich the oldest icii'iwii nations were altogether ignorant, and which are a puzzle to modem archoeologists. Thus, also, throughout North and Central America, tboro aro found vast monuments of antiquity and objects of art, of a date long anterior to that of the earliest recorded nations, and which these nations looked upon with awe and wonder. The valley of the Mississippi, in parti- cular, abounds in an immense quantity of artificial mounds of various shapes and sizes, and forts of dif- ferent kinds, the origin of which is altogether unknown, but which are doubtless tho remains of an extinct civilised race. This country-, as is well known, was found, in the earlier perioi* ' ' Ai'^oricav discovery, in the possession of those red ..t.\d \\: 'ai!v called Indians, .40 are now retiring befor 'he :< it u, '' known ton* thing iliffereiit from thsniMlvei. I tie m fiiijT °' * ^l- th« hiiiitiii){ of » flag, the m>\n)'\\na of i iriin-ot, aw »cU IMJrforuied not for their own ike, but toi h. J/'if poee of conveying loine nieetagi! or oonimunicstion which Km iMen connected or Mioci»ted with them. There ii a well-known irower In the huuinn mind, c»ll«d the Power of Aiwiciution by C'ontigullv, which eukblep ui to retnin ooi^oint IniprotiionB ol object! or occttrroiico» that have been experienced together, and to revive the entire image of an aggregate whole hro igh the preionce of any one of it* individual parti. ' '/ *!>'• iwwer wo can faitcn together the notion! of a i|u and of a thing •ignihod so llrmlv,that byieeing or b" .4lng the iign we are reminded of the thing, anTby ivttaMiing the thing wo can recall the »ign; by what h mm wu can be awaro uf what ii unseen; and thus the operations of the human mind arc extended from a narrow to a boundlesi sphere. Language, however, properly means the particular system^ of signs universally employed and understood in the intercourse of human society, and applicable to every case of the communication of meaning or thought. Articulate speech, extended in civilised countries by the art of writing, is the contrivance everywhere an- swering to this description. The signs made by human beings through their hodilj organs are usually divided into Natural and Artykial, The natural signs are the instinctive and untaught movements of the body which arise out of the effort to express feelings, passions, or desires, and are what the lower animals are to some extent capable of producing. They consist of the tones of the voice, the play of the features, the movoinents of the limbs, and the gestures of the body. Every conspicuous paaeion or emotion gives a distinct expression to those rarious organs, _bv putting them into the state most in har- mony with Itself; and each different expression tends, by an instinctive operation of fellow-feeling, to coll forth its proper emotion in those who witness it. The howlings and contortions of pain, the quakings of terror, the fixed gape of aHoniihment, the waitings and teai-s of wounde than aii.\ >f these, and includes Cniverinl Oram- mar together v th the explanation of the ori^ i and proj H of langwiij* cotuidtred a» a part of the n rittM- Mon I 'iiikina. Oiii xmar showH how to arrange words into sontei '°e* in all cases when several different named >ve to e brought together in < lor to express a in >ing. , classifies an' descril'' the different kindn >!' names, such as noil verb, uiiective, fcc; expUinn the exact meaning aii<. ise < the changes or inrioct ms that some of them indor(.>c;; and teaches the propci mode of joining them ii wh - all circumstances. The inlleution* and arrangonic it^ i languages, «aclj i ' itself. Thu« w< : mar, Arabic gran peculiar to each I which may l use words for tho purposes of exposition, persuasion, id pleasing, and for composing the works of art that . o rounded on speech, Huch a* the various forms of )/ Hry. Logio views lan^'uage solely as an instrument < inference or reasoning' -that is to say, for extending knowledge wider than <*xpo- rienco, for discovering tl > post, the future, ami tho distant, from tho present Ueneral terms, cliMBifica- tions, and propositions, b< ong to the word-machinery of logic, t/niversal grmm (ir is founded on a compa- rison of languages in goiu ral, and treats of the ports of speech and peculiarities common to them all. It distinguishes the primitive classes of names from such 0* are derived, and explains 'he process of derivation. But a still wider inquiry is requisite, in order to de- scribe the manner in which tlie entire body of language ha* grown up and ;;raduall v shaped itself into the various forms which we find among the different lan- guages of the globe. I universal grammar, coupled with this further investigation, furnis the subject of the preient treatise. It sometimes receives the name of Philology. The branches of knowledge comprised under gram- mar, logic, and rhetoric, are of the greatest utility in the business of daily life; but philologpr is chicly to be considered at present a* a subject of high specula- tive curiosity. It gives a wide field for the human intellect to explore, and it derives a deep and myste- rioui interest, from touching on things transacted bcforo the dawn of history, and from its attempting to search ont the ancient leats of nations and the affinities of remote peoples. We •hall consider the subject under the following heade: — 1. The human voice, and the formation of letten and word*. 2. The parts of speech, and their relationships according to tne doctrines of universal graamar. 3. The origin and progress of language in ^neral. 4. The languages of the globe, their arrange- ment into families, and the peculiarities which distiu- guidt them from each other. 17 CHAMBEBS'S INFORMATIOK FOB THE PEOPLE. THE HCMAN VOICE — ^FOBMATION OP liTIEKS AND VOROI. The Tocal organi of man are formed by certain ad- ditioni being made to the organs of chewing, iwallow- jng, and breathing. For the purposes of sound they are set in action by the lungs, or rati er by the chest compressing the lungs, and driving a current of air through the windpipe. The windpipe, instead of being a simple tube, is mounted inside with two flaps run- ning from before backwards, and leaving a narrow slit between them. These flaps are attached to movable pieoM of gristle or cartilage, that seem, as it were, to islasp the windpipe between them; and by muscles attached to these, the flaps or vocal chords can be tightened or relaxed at pleasure. In their relaxed state, the air passes through the windpipe with no other noise than we hear in simple breathing, or at most in whispering. But if they are tightened by muscles drawing the cartilages asunder, and are thus connected by firm muscular bands with the bones of the head, and if the ' ^th is sent through the wi:id- piiie strongly, an auu. ' and powerful sound is pro- 9d, dependuig on tht. .'esonance of the skull, in the vame way that the sound of a violin depends on the vibrations being communicated by the strings to the whole solid mass of the instrument. By varying the tightness of the vocal flaps, and the size of the slit between them, and also by changing the strength of the blast from the lungs, tones of different strength and pitch may be produced. The whole of the musical apparatus of the human voice is contained in the windpipe with its cartilages and vocal chords. It is found, however, that the sound in passing through the mouth may have its character altered, not in respect of musical pitch or strength, but in a way to give it a distinguishable effect on the ear. If a person singing any one note of the musical scale with the mouth gaping open, were to continue the same note with the mouth nearly shut, the sound would be iden- tical in its musical effect, but in respect of character or expression, it would appear to be different. There would seem to be a change of shape in the sound itself This peculiarity of sounds, which is dependent on the form and movements of the mouth during their utter- ance, is termed their articulate character; and sounds strongly marked with it are called articulate sounds. The musical and the articulate characters of sounds arise from difl^rent organs, and are governed by totally diSerent principles. Their connection with the gene- ral framework of body and mind is also totally diffe- rent. The windpipe sounds are combined into melo- dious successions, according to one class of feelings, while the mouth sounds are connected under tie guidance of sensibilities which have very little in com- mon with musical taste. For articulate sounds, therefore, we have to refer to the construction and movements of the mouth. Every one knows its general form and parts, and we need only call attention to the movuments performed in it. These are — \st, The movement of the lower jaw, which enlarges or contracts the height of the cavity, or itd dimensions from above downward, and opens or cl .es the aperture of the teeth; 2d, The movements of the cheeks, which distend or lengthen the mouth in the cross direction, and, along with the lowering of the jaw, open the cavity to its fullest dimensions; 3rf, The con- traction of the ring of the mouth or lips, as exemplified in the whistling position; 4th, The elevations and de- pressions of the .pper and lower lips, which combine with and modi { the other movements; 6th, The move- ments of the V -wue. The^e are veiy various : — 1»/, It may be protrudet^ outwards, or drawn in to the back of the mouth; 2d, It may be bent or curled either up or down; ad, It has a free motion from side to side. Bjr these motions the tongue can come into contact with any point in the cavity, and make the touch by diflferent parts of its own surface. All these movements tend to altor the shape of the axouth, and with this vUe exptcwion of the sound which 18 issues from it. Hence the possible varlet;^ of sounds that may arise is unlimited. The distinguishable sounds, however, are not very numerous. They are arranged into various kinds : — l)t. We have what are called the voioel sounds. When all the parts of the mouth are in one fixed posi- tion, giving a free opening outwards, and remain flxci during the emission of a sound, so as to exercise no other influence than arises from the mere shape of the cavity, a vowel is produced. Thus in sounding ah, the mouth is opened, and the javrs, cheeks, lips, and tongue are fixed dead in one posture; ^o in sounding uuh, the posture, though different from the former, is still a quiescent or dead posture. By altering the shape, the sound is altered; but so long as it is an unalterable shape, a vowel is'the result. The vowels that are most markedly distinguished from each other, are such as arise from the most widely different arrangement of the parts of the mouth. The five vowels, ah, ee, ay (sap), oh, uh, are the five most distinct sounds result- ing from the various extreme positions of the organs, and may be called the five fundamental vowel sounds, having a greater difference from each other than any one of them has for any other sound distinct from them. Thus the English vowel sound awe, arises from a middle position between ah and oh. The English sound of i, as in sit, is very little different from the fundamen- tal ee ; set is very near say ; and even u in hut is but one remove from the same sound. The a in sat is a modi- fication of the fundamental ah. Every one of these sounds can be varied by a slight shading, so as to pro- duce several that a fine ear can distinguish. In fact, no two nations pronounce similar vowels exactly alike, and even in the individuals of the sam^ pation slight differences are very common: sometimes the people of one province can be distinguished by the shade thai; they give to the fundamental letters of the alphabet. Thus the Scotch sound of short «', as in sit, is often too near the ay sound, whereas in correct English pronun- ciation it should be nearer the ee. But tho varieties of vowel utterance can be im- mensely extended by combinations of vowels, or by changing from one to another within the same breath, as in boy. , This gives rise to what are called diphthongs. There are some of these diphthongs so natural and easy, that they are adopted as regular alphabetical sounds, on which differences of words are founded. In English there are three proper diphthongs: these are the sounds in ligh, now, boy. The &«t is a combination of ah and ee; the second of oh and vh; the third of oh and a sound approachiiig to ay. There are other diphthongs less perfect than these, or in which the sounds do not run together so completely. Thus the ua in quake, the we in Tweed, are regarded as diphthongs less pure than the others. 2eing formed md k a gut- 11 the conso- one of these if thcin into ;lnct labials rs of souiid- losire p has been mentioaed; next to it is 6, produced by a less violent closure, which Ulows the voice to be heard during the act, as any one will feel by sounding oup and cub. The third labial is m, which is still farther removed from the sudden extinction occurring with thep; a free communication is opened with the nose for the egress of the air, and the sound can be made continuous like a vowel ; in other words, we have the hamming sound; this is the nasal labial, while h is called the vocal labial. The fourth labial is /, pro- duced by the upper teeth and the lower lip coming together, and the breath passing through them without voice; this is the whispered or aspirate labial. When the vocal chords are tightened up, and the hard sound of the voice sent through this closure^we have v, or a second vocal labial, called the vocal aspirate. Lastly, a sound may be sent through the closed lips, making them vibrate or shake like a reed, as in the sound prr; this is the vibratory labial, or the labial r. A similar series can be described in the palatals. The mute being t, the vocal is d; the nasal are / and n; the aspirates are th (rtumb), », sh, arising from slightly- differing positions of the tongue in its contact with the palate : the vocals, or audible forms of these, are th (thy), z, j; the vibratory palatal is the common r. The gutturals likewise show the same list of varieties. First, k mute; then the vocal ^; the nasal ng, a simple sound, though spelt in our language with two letters ; the aspirate ch, as in loch, together with the fainter form h; the vocal aspirate gh unknown, and almost unpronounceable by us; and the vibratory ghr occur- ring as a burr in some people's utterance. This classi- fication, which was first proposed by Dr Arnott, may be summed up in the following table : — Labials, Palatals. Gutturals. Mute, P t k VOORI, b d 9 Nasal, . m l.n "9 Aspirate, / th, t, ih ch.h Vocal Aspirotc, . V th.zj ffh Vibratory, . in- »• ghr Besides these there are two letters essentially of the nature of vowels, but having in many cimcs the force of consonants. These are w and y ; the one a pro- longed or double u, the other a prolonged e. The peculiar effect of each is brought out when followed by another vowel, so as to make a diphthong. The to has a labial character, the y a guttural. The nasal letters may bo so attenuated as to lose the character of consonants, and merely give a nasal twang to the vowel adjoining. This is the case in the French pronunciation. Speech is generally a mixture of vowels and conso- nants. The utterance most easy to sustain, and most agreeable to the ear, is formed by a vowel and conso- nant alternating. Vowels alone produce too feeble an impression to make a distinct language. As a general rule, abrupt sounds have the most marked effect on the ear; so that a mixture of these is necessary to make a clear and intelligible series of sounds. Hence the mute consonants p, t, k, have a high value, as charac- teristic and unmistakeable letters ; but the hissing sound of s is remarkable for its piercing effect on the ear, and for its being so peculiar and distinct, that no other sound can be confounded with it; and it is there- fore an exceedingly useful member of the alphabet. The same remark, in a less degree, applies to r, which loaves a vivid impression, and is not easily mistaken for any other sound. The aspirates generally, /, sh, ch, h, have a certain amount of the hissing peculiarity, but none of them are so intense as the pure s. They have all, however, a distinct and sharp effect on the ear The three mutes, p, t, k, and the three vocal sounds corresponding, h, d, g, cannot be pronounced without tlie help of some vowel; hence in their pure form they are abstractions rather than realities. Almost all the others permit of themselves a constant passage of the breath, and can therefore be sounded without the addi- tion of Toweli. Thus m, n, I, r, ng,f, «, &o. can all b« sounded each by itself alone, although the addition of a vowel will in general make the exercise more easy. Thus mmee is easier and pleasanter than mmm. The passing into a vowel is a passing from a forced to a free posture of the parts of the mouth. But as these letters can be sounded with more or less difficulty by them- selves, a number of them have been called semivowels, or we might call them thick or viscid vowels. They have a middle character between the vowels and the six con- sonants above-mentioned. They demand a less violent exertion than the abrupt consonants, but a greater exertion than the vowels. Each of the vowels, standing alone, may have a dis- tinct meaning attached to it, or be an intelligible sound — the name or expression of an object or thing. But, in general, intelligible sounds are made up at the very least of a vowel and consonant. The vowels alone would yield very few names, even if each were made significant; and no consonant by itself is the name of anything. So essential 4s the union of a vowel and consonant to make an intelligible sound, that it has been proved that the letters of the Hebrew alphabet (which used to be reckoned an alphabet of consonants without vowels) have really the force of a vowel and consonant taken together; hence in writing with them vowels were unnecessary, but when the letters came to be accounted pure consonants, it was requisite to ima- gine vowels to complete the spelling of the words. A single articulate union of a vowel and consonant makes a syllable, as ab, be, up, vie ; but it is possible to have a greater number of letters, and yet make one unbroken sound. A consonant can be sounded with a vowel be- fore or a vowel after it; hence a vowel may be set between two consonants, as bad, making no more than one syllable. A syllable can be extended still farther by joining a semivowel consonant with another, it being possible to sound both along with a vowel, as in blend; and in some cases three consonants can be joined, as in strength. The letters /, m, », r, have a great facility in going along with the more abrupt consonants to make single syllables; and from their effect in softening down the sudden harshness of the mutes and vocals, they were called by the Greeks liquids, and were very much employed in their language, for the sake of melody and softness, both as the single consonants of syllables, and in union with other consonants. The power of making syllables begin or end with double consonants enables us to increase to a manifold extent the number of dis- tinct syllables which it is possible to form out of the letters of the alphabet, and thus enlarges the scope of articulate language. Each distinct vowel may be the basis of a range of syllables, by being bedded in all the different varieties of consonants and their combinations. Thus we have a, e, t, 0, u, &c. syllables. Each diphthong may also yield a train of syllables. It is possible further to vary some of the vowels without changing their essential expression, so as to produce a new class of syllables that shall be distinct from those founded on the ordi- nary form of the vowel. For example, there may be a long and a short form of several of them; as in the case of not, nought, where the vowel is the same, but short in the first word, nut, and long in the second, nought: so also in meet, mete, where we have the short and long e. '. If we revert again to the table of consonants, we may remark that, as regards ease of pronunciation, the labials are before the palatals, and these before the gutturals. It is easier to perform the articulate move- ments of the lips than it is to perform the movements of the palate and throat. Children can sound m very early; and before being able to pronounce thumb, they say /umb. But looking at the table in the other direc- tion, or according to the classes, mute, vocal, &c. it may be observed that the mutes and aspirates, p, t, k, and/. A, ch, &c. are more easy than the same letters made vocal, b, d, g, and v, dh, gh, &c. and also more easy than the nasals m, », ng. Hence some nations use the mutes 19 CHAMBERS'S INFOKMATIOK FOR THE PEOPLE. and asplratw whore olhere employ the toc«U in Bound- iug the very same wordi. Home Tooke gives a Welih- luan's Tenion of an English sentence, which exemphfiei thia change throughout: — I vow, by God, eep will seem as natural to most people as poop. Uut it is possible that this principle may have acted to some degree in the early formation of languages. We have already spoken of certain cases of the union of consonants, and have described the classes of consonants which can most readily go together in the same syllable. A different case of union arises when syllables are joined together in words. The union of (ufierent syllables is apt to be less perfect than the union of vowels and consonants in the same syllabic; but the endeavour of all highly-improved languages is to make the one as perfect as the other. The 6 reek and I>atin uniformly adopted the plan of changing the first or last letters of syllables to make them join easily with others. The preposition in becomes im in Latin when it has to go before a word beginning with m : thus we have imminent instead of innwvmt, which would have been a harsh combination, fjo the word syllable itself, which is Oreek, begins with the preposition syn, which would have mode synlable; but the n has been changed into an I, and the sound of the word becomes much more melodious. The most perfect of all ways of unit- ing two syllables is to make them join upon the same letter; the union in this case oven exceeds the union of the most nearly related vowel and consonant ; in fact, it is a complete fusion. When the two touching letters are not the same, the next best fusion is when they are of the same class, as mutes, vocals, aspirates, &c. Thus in picture, the k and ( sounds being both mute, make a much more natural succession than if one had been mute and the other vocal, as pikdwe; the change from the guttural mute A to the palatal mute t, is far less violent than the change from the guttural mute to the vocal palatal. So the word diphthong, whose proper pronunciation is dipthong, would be more easy to utter if it were dif*hmg, which is in fact a very common way of pronouncing it. The Greek word for seven is hepta ; but in the word hebdomadal, derived from it, there is a change from the mute to the vocal fonn of both conso- nants: such a combination as iu:bloniadal is not to be found in the Greek language. For mere shortness of pronunciation, the Aisiou of syllables is had recourse to, as well OS the omission of letters (hat can be f^parcd, 20 or whether they can be spared or not; and this prac- tice, which prevails in all languages, has the greatest sweep in those which have not been fixed by alpha- betical writing, written literature, and a code of grammatical rules. Thus in English the proper name Saint Clair becomes Sinclair ; the ancient termination like has been universally shortened into ly; goodly, tntly, are instead of goodlihe, truelike. Additional syllables are, moreover, swamped entirely by breaking down the middle barrier of consonants, or by absorbing the vowel of one of them: the first is common in the ancient languages, the last is seen abundantly in Eng- lish, as in clefi for cleaved, learnt for learned. The interval between word and word is of course more decided ^an between syllable and syllable. There is supposed to be something like a distinct pause of the organs 1)etween one word and another. But there is a sufficient closiiness in the articulation of suc- cessive words to demand a certain degree of attention to the harmonising of the letters that are concerned in the transition. It so happens, however, in this case, that a harsh transition is formed by the very succes- sion which is the most flowing of all between two syl- lables — that is, when one and the same letter ends one word and begins the following: as when we say — has seen, run now, call low. This successioji is too flow- ing to admit of the necessary pause, and hence the awkwordness of it. In langua^s where vowel endings of words are common, there is a regular practice of eliding or sinking one when two come together — one of them at the end of the first word, and the other at the beginning of the word following; it being in general not 80 easy to sound two vowels in close and yet dis- tinct succession, as when a consonnni divides them'. In English, this principle is observed in the use of the indefinite article, which is a before a vowel, but an before a consonant. The vowels and consonants which are allowed to go together, and the laws that govern the succession of the various letters, are different for different languages, and have to be stated among the peculiarities of each. This is called the vocalic harmony of a language, and we shall see examples of it afterwards. Words are sometimes of one syllable, sometimes of two, three, four, five, or upwards. When a word has several syllables, it is usual to put more stress on some of them than on others in the act oi pronunciation; the superior stress being called emphasis or accentva- tion. In English, the singling out of one syllable for especial stress is carried tu a very great length, perhaps farther than in any other tongue; and the effect of this is to make uur speech the extreme opposite of singing or chanting, which lays equal stress on all syllables alike, and varies only the time and the musical note of each. Thus our pronunciation of the word difficulty, is as far removed from the action of singing as any utter- ance can be. The Latinised languages of the conti- nent — the French, Spanish, and Italian — Lave a more near approach to the sing-song; and we are taught to believe that the ancient Latin and Oreek hivd still more of the same peculiarity; at least wo arc accus- tomed in our pronunciation of these languages to ab- stain from the discriminating emphasis of our own speech, and to drawl the successive syllables of the words, keeping as closely ns we can by the sole distinc- tion of long and short. In English, it does not always happen that each word has an emphatic syllable. The monosyllabic particles, a, an, the, to, and, &c. are rarely emphatic; they usually fall in with the uneniphatic syllables of the adjoining words. Thus when we say, ' Beauty is a thing to be sofight for and admired,' there are only four svllables that receive a full emphasis. Among the others there is a slight diflierence of accentuation, but at best it only rises to a secondary emphasis ; as in the word it, coining between the short syllables y and a, and in the first syllable of admired ; it being impossible to pronounce a train of short syllables with- out increasing the stress on every second or third. LaKguaoe. It it probable that one of the changes gradually coming over human ipeech has been from the music of tone to the music of syllables and varied emphasis ; in other words, we have advanced more and more into the proper qualities of speech as distinrruished from song. To produce a succesaiou of articulate vowels and con- sonants that harmonise in their utterance and effect on the ear, and vary the stress of the voice in pronouncing them, has nothing whatever to do with the art of giving pleasure by a succession of musical notes ; and conse- quently the perfection of each follows its own peculiar laws without interference with the other. UNIVERSAL ORAMHAR. Under this head we have to consider what are the essential parts of speech common to all languages, and how far they seem to be formed out of one another. Notwithstanding the innumerable varieties of dialect that we find in the peopled earth, there are some re- spects wherein all languages must coincide, from the identity of human nature and the external world. The things to be expressed are in a great measure the sume everywhere; the organs of human speech and hearing, and the structure of the human understand- ing, have an essential similarity throughout the human family. The purposes to be served by speech are very much alike ;«nd the attributes of perspicuity, clearness, brevity, strength, 'oauty, &c. which give it all its effi- ciency, are attained by very much the same devices. 1. In the first place, language must be governed by the nature of the things tolbe named and described by it. If the world around us were very different from what it is, all our sensations, thoughts, reasonings, and modes of discourse would be different. In a dead frozen universe there would be no need for active or passive verbs; if no two things were alike in any re- spect, there would be no such thing as general terms ; if every object had only one single quality, or affected the human mind in only one way, adjectives and ad- verbs would be wholly unknown. The same depend- ence holds between the partd of speech and the wants, desires, purposes, and peculiarities of human nature. If there were no dependence of one man on another, and no common action, we should not have an impera- tive mood nor a plural number. If God had not made man male and female, the three genders would have been reduced to two. The tenses of the verb are a device expressly adapted to a being who looks both before and after. Mr John Stuart Mill, in his great work on logic, has given an account of the fundamental kinds of names and of nameable things, which serve as a basis of universal grammar as well as of logic. A name may be defined as an articulate utterance associated with a thing, for the purpose of recalling the thing to our- selves or suggesting it to others. Articulate utterances, we have seen, are divided into letters, syllables, and words ; these last being identical with intelligible names. It is not, however, universally true that each word is the name of a single thing, and neither more nor less : it often takes several words to name a single thing, as when we say, • a burial-ground,' * a wolf in sheep's clothing,' ' an officer that distinguished himself at Watc-loo.' The most perfect scheme of naming which has yet been devised for any class or species of things — that is to say, the nomenclature of natural history — employs uniformly two names to each object, as populus alba, the tehite poplar. The first division of names, according to Mr Mill, is into indiydual and general; the second into con- crete and abstract; the third into positive and negative; and the fourth into absolute and relative : but for the detail of these we must refer the reader to the number on Louie (73). The things denoted by names fall under two great rlasses, which it is equally important to rewgnise both in grammar and in logic. The one class refers to objects considered simply as existing, or as conceivable, each by itself apart; the other class contains the names of affirmation, which uniformly connect together two or more objects. Thus the various feelings, thoughts, passions, volitions of the human mind, the mind itself, the things without us, fortning the external universe, niay each have a name appropriated to it, and connected in our minds by association, so as to recall the thing or convey the notion of it at pleasure. For example, when we simply pronounce the names sweetness, recol- lection, anger, resolution, star, pint, horse, John, we do nothing more than fix attention upon the objects named : beyond assuming their existence, and reviving the idea of them, we do not say or affirm anything about them. This class of names is well known in grammar as the noung. But when we bring two objects together, and declare some invariable connection to exist between them, we make an additional effort of mind, and we require a mode of marking it. Thus when we say, ' honey is sweet,' we name two objects — one an external substance, the other a sensation: but we do something more — we bring them together in such a way, that a listener would not merely have the notions of both brought to his mind, but would be in- duced to put himself into a train of actions in conse- quence. Sweetness is a thjng to excite human desire; and if a peculiar object is declared invariably to possess it, and if that object is accessible, it is sought after and used for the sake of the sweetness. Now a word that connects two different things with go secure a bond, that we feel sure of finding both if we find one, is a totally different thing from a mere name of an isolated object: the one indicates only a conception, the other causes belief, trust, confidence, and the readiness to pursue a train of actions in consequence. This second class of names is termed in grammar verbs, or words by pre-eminence. Action resides in them, whereas in the nouns there is nothing but mere contemplation. All the powers, properties, activities, and laws of na- ture require verbs in order to express them; there is no such thing as truth, or its opposite, falsehood, in any set of words not containing a verb. Hence verbs are essential to knowledge, belief, and action ; and they grow out of the effort to express or indicate these. All the sciences have verbs for the connecting links of their propositions; all history and narration demands the use of verbs ; all commands, purposes, desires, voli- tions, must be expressed by their help. ' Circle ' is a mere thing, exciting only a notion; 'a circle contains the largest space of any figure with the same circumfe- rence,' is a proposition, a truth, a law of nature, a thing that human beings can rely and work on ; and a verb is essential to its expression : omit the word * contains,' and the adamantine link is dissolved out of it; it is neither a truth, nor a law of nature, nor a groundwork of human action: it is two notions set loose from one another. As nature has bound bodies and properties together by the ties of creative energy, so verbs bind them together in human thought and confidence. The distinctions of names into individual or general, concrete or abstract, positive or negative, absolute or relative, do not so uniformly apply to verbs. Verbs can scarcely be individual to the extent of being proper names, like the names of persons among nouns; but they may have various degrees of generality. Thus * bum ' expresses a certain action; * combine chemically' ex- presses a mere general and comprehensive action. The auxiliaries have, do, shall, may, may be reckoned verbs of a highly abstract nature. The most general or ab- stract of all verba is the verb 'to exist,' or 'to be.' The distinction of positive and negative applies more directly to verba than to nouns, inasmuch as these terms imply affirmation, which is the essence of the verb. Thus we have to make, to unmake ; include, exclude ; bum, quench; is, is not, &c. Verbs are absolute and relative when they correspond to absolute or relative nouns: thus when we make the noun 'father' a verb (to father), it is still a relative word. Since all possible information or knowledge could be expressed by means of nouns and verba, it has been supposed by many grammarians that these are the two 91 CHAMBERS'S INFOttMATTON FOB THE PEOPLE. ftmdamental purti of ipeech, and that all the other parts mentioned in grammani — the adjective, pronoun, •drerb.. preposition, and conjunction — may bo resolved either into nouns or into verbs, and actually grew out of them in the progress of human speech. Thus Home Tooke pointed out the verbs which he conceived to be the originals of the words — and, but, unleu, that, &c.; and it is generally admitted that his analysis was to a great extent very successful. But recent philologists, German and English, have decisively shown that the pronouns and the leading prepositions had an origin quite independent of any other class of words, and were not derived from either nouns or verbs. Although it is true that nouns and verbs may serve all the logical purposes of speech — that is, may suffice to ex- press all kinds of truth, and all matters of knowledge and fact — ^yet the dramatic nature of speech demands something more. Language is in its very origin the system of forms observed between two intelligent beings when directing their common attention to some third object; and it must act so as to enable the one person to indicate to the other what and where is the thing to be attended to. It is impossible t) divest human speech of this character of a threefold reference. It is only in the most advanced stages of the human reason that truth assumes a logical, to the exclusion of a dramatic shape, or that the personality of the speaker and the person spoken to is omitted from the forms of statement. ' Do t/iou give me to eat ' is a genuine expres- sion of primitive man. ' The planets move in ellipses' is an expression of the human understanding after ages of scientific and logical cultivation. Hence among the earliest terms of language are to be found words for denoting — me, the speaker ; thee, or you, the person spoken to; and him, her, it, or that, the person or thing flpoken of. The advance of ceremonial politeness, as well as of scientific cultivation, causes a departure from the most direct mode of representing self and addressing others: thus I passes oflien into we even for a single person, or into the indefinite pronoun one; and in writing, to the writer, the author, or the undersigned: and thou or thee passes into pou, or is substituted by the proper name of the individual; and you, in a case of plurality, is converted into some generic name of the assembly — as men, brethren, countrymen, &c. In like manner the thiid person comes to be dismissed in favour of the actual name of the object, and is then employed only to save too many repetitions of this name. In consequence of these substitutions, and the throwing of the pronouns into a secondary position, it was not unnaturally supposed that names were in- vented first, and pronouns afterwards; but it is now ascertained that the contrary is the fact. The celebrated German philologist Bopp, who was the first to discover the distinct origin of pronouns and prepositions derived from them, states that, ' From the dissection of the pronouns, and of the prepositions con- nected with them, we pet the following monosyllabic stems, partly consisting of a mere vowel, which either occur in Sanscrit only, or are found in the connected European languages with more or less exact correspon- dence in form— namely, o, i, m, e ; ka, Af, ku ; na, ni, nu ; ma, mi (-/it/), mu ; ya, yu ; va, vi : ta, da, sa. The compound proiiouns- -meaning thereby not deri- vatives like la-vat, "so much;" but primitives, which the grammarians consider as simple, but which we have endeavoured to reduce into their real elements — show as their first member in Sanscrit a stem con- sisting of a single rowel; they are the following — a-va, i-va, i-va, a-na, f-na, a-da, i-da, t-ta, c-ka, i-fha.' Mr Donaldson,* who has followed up and extended this discovery, maintains that the three distinct, persons and positions essential to an actual dialogue are ex- pressed in the InJo-EuroptMii languages (which include Sanscrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, German, English, &c.) * dee Donaldson's New Crstylus, a very able and important philological work, from which the above exposition of prono- inlaal roots, 4c. baa been chiefly derived. 28 by words that may be reduced to the three mute eon< sonants, as their characteristic sounds, variud by the vocal, nasal, and aspirate forms of each : thus the labial p he ascribes to the first person, with its corres- ponding mute alid vocal aspirate, which yield with a connected vowel, ma, mi, mu, va, vi. The guttural class of consonants he considers the originals of the second personal pronouns, giving ka, ki, ya, yu, i, u : and the dentals furnish the third person, or the remainder of Bopp's roots, ta, nu, ni, na. It can be shown that tbefie forms prevail in one or other of the languages of the Indo-European class, and are at the foundation of all the pronouns, and many of the prepositions and nume- rals, as well as of the.inflecting syllables of nouns and verbs. As they are the most simple, they may be reckoned among the very first and most essential ut- terances of human speech: they are the earliest auxi- liaries of inarticulate signs and gestures, and the first sounds that become significant and intelligible. Being in existence from the very beginning, they would be extensively mixed up and combined with the other classes of names — the nouns and verbs proper — and would give the means of varying these to suit variety of position, circumstances, and other particulars. The first person denoting self would be extended to mean here, as distinct from there, which would be marked by the third person ; and the second person would be con- nected to denote something intermediate, near here, as distinct from both here and there. Such is the expla- nation given of the common origin of the pronouns and the prepositions of place — such as to, from, near, kc. Mouns, verbs, and pronominal words, being consi- dered thus the primitive classes of names, or the pri- mary parts of speech, we have next to show how the other parts of speech, as well as the varioui kinds and inflections of the primitive words themselves, are formed from these. According to the usual classification, in- vented by the Greek grammarians, and adopted by the modem nations, the parts of speech are — the article, noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, participle, adverb, pre- position, interjection, and conjunction. But for our present purpose, it is more convenient to arrange the parts of speech according as they fall under the three great divisions — of pronominal words, nouns, rnd verbs. Under the first, Mr Donaldson classes personal and other pronouns, numerals, prepo- sitions, negative and other particles; under the second, nouns, certain of the prepositions, and adjectives ; under the third, verbs and M their tenses, moods, con- jugations, auxiliaries, and participles. I. The personal Tiro/iouns are the words, /, me, we, iu, thon, thee, for the first and second persons; and he, she, it, for the third person, which are also what is called demonstrative pronouns. The oUlest form of the first person in all the languages of the Indo-European stock is me, or an utterance whose essential part is the labial consonant m. This sound we must regard as the na- tural and primeval expression of our common progeni- tors for denoting one's self; it is perhaps among the very first efforts of human speech, or one of the first sounds that was connecte with a meaning. The nominative case of the proiiuun /, used when an action begins with one's self, as the cause or mover, is of secondary origin: when its forais, as seen in the San- scrit and classical languages, are examined, they seem to show that it was formed out of the m, with certain additions. It is in Sanscrit, aham, which is resolved into three parts a-ha-m, each with separate force : the first a is supposed to bo a form of the demonstrative pronoun, corresjjonding to our that; Ao is a relative, like u'ho, and m, the radical of me; the whole expres- sion, therefore, is an emphatic me, that which me, me as distinguished from all other agents, movers, or causes of the act in question. The plural we, when we ascend to its most primitive form in Sanscrit, is supposed to be resolvable into ' I and von here;' it is va-ya-m: va being one of the labial utterances of tho first person; pa, a faint gut- I tural, stauduig for the second person; and m, a first tANGUAQE!. MHonal root, meaning alio th« here. By a like analysii of the moit primitive form of tw, it hae been ■uppoied to mean the here taken together; in Suiscrit it i« aim&n: the < sound ihows the prewnce of a primi- tire meaning which came to have the force of together, as in the preposition «yn, inth, which we find in many of our words obtained from the Oreek ; for example, eyntheni, eynonyme, sytUax, &c. A wmilar method^ is applied to show how the second personal pronoun, with its plural and cases, arose out of a primitive guttural consonant, which had the force of thm and ttxre, but which in our language has be- come a dental vocal aspirate. The r sound, in our there, is also a primitive element of the Indo-European stock, and indicates motion: it is of great use in form- ing words of motion like from, fro, by combining with the sounds of mere position; from being like the Greek para, and being -^oiisidered as made up of a labial, or first personal word, and a sound containing r, its literal meaning would be as we find it, tnotion ateay from tne or from here. The third personal pronoun, and the demonstrative element, or the thing by which the person speaking points out to the person addressed the subject that he is speaking of, is in Sanscrit aa; in Zend or ancient Per- ■ian, ho; in Greek, ho ; in Gothic, *a ; with us, he, hit (old form of it). Like the first and second persons it is a primitive utterance, and the source of various other words. It gives birth to the reflex pronoun se, ae^; Ainuei!/ being of the force of Aim where you are. The relative who appears likewise to be derived from it; and the turn of thought leading to the transition seems not unnatural. The Latin qui, kui, contains the most primitive sound of the second person — the mute gut- tural k. The interrogative pronoun who, quit, and the indefinite pronoun any one, which in Greek and Latin are the same as the interrogative, must also be sup- posed to spring from the same source. The numeralt have been shown to be derived in the first instance from the pronouns. The vulgar expres- sion of * number one,' meaning one's self, is the coun- terpart of the 'original derivation of one from the first personal pronoun, as is proved by examining the old languages. Another derivation of one has been traced from the word moon or month, as one of the divisions of the year; it being found that, besides the decimal nota- tion derived from the fingers, there has also been used a duodecimal notation from the courses of the moon and sun. Number two is the second personal pronoun, thou. The third numeral has in all our tribe of lan- guages the two consonants t and r; the first being the simplest root of the third personal pronoun, and the othtir the sound for motion away from : it is something like it away there. The four seems to have been a combination of the original' forms for one and three. The only others of the ten numerals supposed to be formed from pronouns are tix, seven, and eight : of these it is thought that the first has been originally formed of three Uiree, and the second of three fottr. For five and ten, and their multiples, it has been proved that the same root as signifies the hand haa been extensively employed ; the only one of them where it appears in our language is hundred. Ten can be shown to come from two hands. The nine is a form cut down from one less ten, just as eleven has been one more ten. The large numbers thousand and million seem to be names of vast aggregates. The Greek for thousand is derived from chilos, a heap of fodder; for ^n thousand it is m,yriad, or a flood of water. The ordinals first, second, third, &c. are derived from the cardinals in the early languages by means of a ter- mination also used as the superlative termination of adjectives (in Greek, tos), meaning apparently the last of a series going on from the speaker. The word muldle, medius, is one of the many deriva- tives from the tne, the here. The prepositions have been analysed down to pro- nominal stems combined with one another, and with the syllable ra, aignifying motion. Our Jrom, fro^ the Latin and Onek fro, it an obrioui iTottuioe of the combination, being a labial for the fimt person or the here, and an r for motion away from. In the classical tongues and Sanscrit, a like analysis has been made of the others. Thus me-ta, here-there, expresses with, and also close succession and chance. One preposition in Greek, dia, in English through, is derived from the second numeral two, which gives it its meaning of divi- sion into two parts. Of the parts of speech called particles, the most pro- minent is the negative no, not. The consonant n ia the chief sound of thi» negative through all the Indo- European tongues ; and it is supposed to be a strong form of tho third personal pronoun, an emphatic there, in contrast with here, or an expression of not here. Yee is a form of the second personal pronoun. The dis- junctive or is derived from the expression of removal or separation belonging to the r sound. II. Under the head of the noun we include also the adjective. In both we have a system of genders, caMi, and numbers; and in the adjective the comparative and superlative degrees. III. The verb presents the varieties of persons, num- bers (singular and plural), tenses, moods, voices, and conjugations. Both nouns and verbs are compound words — ^that it. any word coming under either of them may be divided into two parts : one is called the root, and the other it an addition to it before or after. The root may be sup- posed to express the naked thing for which the word stands; the additions are for the purpose of expressing circumstances regarding it, such as may attach to it ia common with any other object. By these additions the cases and numbers of nouns are formed, and the tenses, &c. of verbs. Thus if the English word pwe were supposed to be a root, the words formed by adding syllables to it — such as purity, purifieatixm, impure, purest — would present examples of the addition of new general meanings to the original idea; that is, mean- ings that may be added to a great number of difierent primitive ideas; for the same terminations ty, fieaiion, est, and the prefix im or in, may qualify adjectives at large. One of these terminations, fication (itself a compound), is seen at first sight to come direct from a word that can act a separate part — namely, the Latin verb for • to make,' seen in faction, fact. The English word mo/te is used in exactly the same way, as in merry-making (compared mthjoUifieation). This example will show the nature of inflected words, such as >Xe cases of nouns and the tenses of verbs. These are made up by adding tc the root one or more syllables, which are themselves significant names, al- though often cut down, for the sake of rapid and easy pronunciation, so as to become difficult to be identified or traced to their original. Where the original was a syllable of several letters, the inflected syllable of the compound may be only a single letter, or may dis- appear altogether, while leaving its meaning behind it. The Greek, Latin, and Sanscrit languages were in- flected to a very surprising degree. For ' they might have written,' the Latin can say in one word, seripsis- sent, which is a coagulation or conglomeration of words expressing four ideas, each having a separate word in English. It is still possible to trace each of them, not- withstanding the shortening and other changes that have taken place. The bare root, or word for • write' in the abstract, is scrib ; all the rest of the letters are employed in giving the circumstances of conditionality, past time, and action, by a plurality of persons. The noun in English has only three cases, and of these the nominative and objective are spelt the same. The possessive is formed by an inflection containing the letter ». The plurals are in great part formed by adding a syllable, also marked by the presence of s. In the Greek language there are five cases, in Latin six, in Sanscrit eight ; that is, besides being inflected to signify possession, a noun in these languages is in- flected to signify other relations, such as those we denote by our prepositions to, by, icith, from, &c. If 23 CHAMBEBEPS INFOBUATION FOB THE PEOPLE. «r« take th« L»tto noun homo, a man, we ihall find it to be declined thui — Noml.^Sw?.'^' homo. •"•"'••!"'•:"?■«??•''• OmiUra or PoHNdre, hominU, of or belonging to aiiiMi. DatlT*, homtni, to* nun. AoouMrtive, homiotm. .mnn (m.ln 'I.»w»m«i ). Tooattre, »«»«'. ; a perwn). AbUttTo, homint, by, with, or from a man. Now grammarianB hare been able to show what the words are that hare nioit likely been added to, and fused with, the roots of nouns, to raake these ditterent cases. For example, the accusative is supposed to be formed by the locative particle, whose characteristic letter is m, signifying in a place, or placed, fixed, ■ituated, which is itself of pronominal origin. The dative is supposed to be filled up by the addition of an ending signifying in or on, and the ablative by a word derived from'the second personal pronoun (the thou, or near here) with motion, so as to come to mean away from; the genitive or possessive is considered as merely another form of the ablative, and made up on a similar idea. In the Indo-Germanic to-.igues, the « is a prevail- ing letter in the genitive tenaiuatirn, as we see in English. The plurals, which are also frequently in «, have not been very distinctly accounted for. With respect to the genders, which c'o^ect both nouns and a(\jectlves — and in the classical languages have each a separate termination — it is supposed that the neuter is merely a diminution of the masculine, whereas the feminine is formed bv a separate addition, which in Sanscrit is the long i sound, mostly changed in Greek and Latin to a and e. The terminations of the mascu- line and neuter are apt to bo short, while the feminine is long. Bonus, bona, bonum, are the masculine, femi- nine, and neuter of the Latin adjective for good; honum, the nominative and accusative of the neuter, is the accusative of the masculine. The adjective is merely a form of the noun, express- ing in a somewhat abstract way the class peculiarity of the things designated by the noun. A noun, if not an individual or proper name, is the name of a class of objects that have some common features — as man, lion, water ; that is to say, there are ceri-.ain constbnt pecu- liarities attached to each object that we name — a man, a lion, water; and when we wish to speak of t!ie pecu- liarities by themselves, we alter the form of the noun, o; use it without alteration to signify these : thus nuin- l^e, human, express simply the attributes of man, and not the object — man. These words are in the form that may be used in predication or affirmation, as when we ■ay ' forgiveness of injuries is manlike,' or that ' such a one !s lionlike.' This class of names is what we call adjectives : they qualify nouns, or help nouns to make out a desired meaning — as 'fair hair;' and they make the predicates of propositions. But a great number of adjectives are derived not from nouns, but from verbs, or from the words expressly adapted for making affir- mations or propositions : thus jiul is from the Latin Terb to order; right from the verb rego, to rule; A// is from the verb to leave. These adjectives are of the kind called participles, and are reckoned a part of the verbs they come from, being one of the regular pro- ducts of the verb, which in all languages makes pro- vision for supplying one or more adjectives having its meaning, and capable of qualifying nouns. We say, * he has given me a torn book,' where the word torn, derived from a verb, seems merely to assist in defining the character of an object that we wish to express. So * a ruined man,' * a/alien house,' ' a blown bladder.' Adjectives in qualifying substantives, in the inflected languages, become masculine, feminine, or neuter to harmonise with the gender of the substantive. This is ■till seen in French : in English it is unknown. The comparison of adjectives is one of the earliest products of language. In the Indo-European languages the letters I r, one or both, are almost the invariable cooBonantg of the comparative degree; they may be derived from la and ra, the third penonal pronoun, and the particle of motion, as if implying one thing farther on than another. The superlative in its oldest form is ta-ma, the third and first personid pronouns, interpreted to mean the last in a series; in Greek it is lot, in Latin miw, in English it. We have already described the intrinsic character of the verb. We must now endeavour to show how its various parts are built up by such additions to the root OS serve to express all the differences of person, num- ber, time, condition, and action, which may attach to any one verb. The person endings of the verb, or the syllables for expressing /, thou, he, singular, plural, and dual, have been done away with in modern languages, if indeed they were ever used in all of them, and in their stead the actual pronouns are used. We say, ' I give,' when the Greeks would have said didomi ; and for the other persons a single word expresses verb and person in Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin. On examining the syl- lables which distinguish the persons, it is found that they are the three personal pronouns in their original form as used in the objective case: in their oldest shape they are the syllables mi, «i, ti : dido-mi, I give; dido-»i, thou givest; dido-ti, he gives. Great modifica- tions and abridgments came to be made on these pri- mary forms, but they still continued to be traceable. Thus in Latin, m, s, t, are the ending letters of the three persons singular in most of the tenses of the active verb dabam, dabat, ddbat — /, thou, he, viaa giving. The tenses of the passive voice — as didomai, I am given- are supposed bv some to have had originally for their terminating syllables a stronger form of the same pro- nominal syllable as makes the endings in the active voice : the mai may be an abridgment of mami or mama, a doubling or more intense expression of the me. The oldest form of the ending of the first person plural is met, which may be regarded as made up of me and se, the first and second pronouns, or * I and you,' which is not an improbable derivation of the ex- pression for we. In the passive voice this person con- tains in Greek a th sound (methon), which is thought to belong to a locative particle, or a particle of place, and to furnish some contribution to the passive mean- ing — that is, the meaning of being acted upon, or being fixed in a position, and therefora passive, or capable only of being exposed or subjected to action. This idea of adding a locative particle to make the passive voice generally, is a supposition thought to be confirmed by the use of the letter r to make the passive tenses of the Latin verb. The second person dual and plural in Sanscrit and Greek is evidently derived from a repeti- tion of one of the forms of the second person singular. In the third person plural termination, a syllable equiva- lent to t/ieg has been traced through several languages. Next to the formation of the persons is the making of tenses, or forms of the verb, to signify the varieties of time and action. An act may be considered, and requires to be expressed, as present, past, or future; as complete or incomplete; as momentary or continued; and all these properties are expressed in the inflected languages by syllables added to the naked root. Mr Donaldson has shown that, in the Greek, continuance is denoted by a reduplication of the chief syllable of the root. Thus do is the root of ' give;' and the pre- sent tense, meaning ' I am now continuously giving,' is didomi ; and the perfect, ' I have been |;iving up to the present time,' contains the same repetition, ckdoka. For past time thn letter e is prefixed to the verb, a particle signifying what is remote or at a distance. For future time the letter s of the second pronominal element is mostly what is used, and may be interpreted ' the near,' or ' the coming.' The position of the particle of past time at the beginning, and of the particle of future time at the end of the root, serves to assist each in pointing out the direction that it has to express; the prefix is most proper for the past, the suffix for the future. The future, the indefinite past (as I gave), and the perfect, have all for their terminations some LANGUAOE. fbnn of the second personal pronominal word. In French, an indefinite past tense is regularly derired from the future — as lirait, from lirai. In English, the system of intlccting is very liraitee art, artistit: genius, the capacity of making harmonies, and many other phrases, which signify that there is such a thing as a common eflwt upon the intellectual and artistic faculties of man, by objects that are very different to the outward sense, and that the human mind has the power of recognising and of producing such harmonious concords of the unlike. Sound and motion are very different sensa- tions, and yet it is well kdown that a eet of souiuls can 2G harmonise with, and coincide with the effect of, a let cf motions on the mind, aa we see in much and dance music. So there are strains of music that suit each different kind of outward spectacle or scenery ; the impressions of sight and sound, however different on their first entrance through their respective senses, may have a closely -agreeing or harmonious effect on the inward mind. So it is with all the senses; there li scarcely an impression made on any one of them that would not be suited or harmonised by some one im- pression on every other. The finer the organisation of the mind, the more keenly alive it is to such harmonies, and to their contradictions or to discords. But man can not only feel these harmonies of things sensibly unlike, he can also create them; at least some men, who are gifted above their fellows, are able to do so. An artistic genius cau make objects of a totally different outward form and character agree in produc- ing a harmonious feeling. They may be things of the same sense, as the parts of a temple, or the objects of a picture; or they may be objects of different senses, as when music is compooed for marching, dancing, or sta^e spectacle; or when words are used to celebrate actions, events, and natural grandeur. Present any visible object to an artist of genius, and he will, accord- ing to the turn of his genius, either find another visible thing to chime in with it into a beautiful whole, or utter a sound that is felt to accord with its impression on the mind. Suiting the sound to the sense, the word to the action, is well known to be one of the charac- teristics of the poetic faculty. The following stanza from Keats's ' Ode to the Nightingale,' exhibits this quality in a degree that has probably never been sur- passed. The language descriptive of each abject is felt almost to realise the object itself — ' Oh for a draught of vintage, that hath been Cooled a long age in the deep-delved earth. Tasting of Flora and the country green. Dance, and Provencal song, and sunbumt mirth I Oh for a beaker full of the warm south, Full of the true, the blushful Hlppoorene, With beaded bubbles winking at the brim. And purpla-3tained mouth ; That I might drink and leave the world unseen, And with thee fade away into the forest dhn.' Now there is no difference between efforts of human genius such aa this, and the invention of the^ first sounds used in connection with nameable objects; ex- cept that in the one articulations already formed are made use of to make new combinations, whereas, in the other, the articulations themselves are struck out for the first time. But this makes no difference in the nature of the effort itself. All our poetic geniuses could create original words at pleasure, if that were still necessary and allowable; and in fact they occa- sionally do so. Any one acquainted with the works of Burns will remember many such instances, which it is not necessary to quote here ; and it will be easily seen that it was quite within tbe range of the poet's genius, and was even a tendency that it had to deal more largely in this kind of creation. If Bums had been produced among some of the weak-minded African tribes, he would have given them not merely a new poetry, but a new and expressive vocabulary ; and would have been delighted with an opportunity so con- genial to his faculties. The same remarks might be applied to Chaucer, Shakspeare, Keats, or any other poet whose genius lay strongly in power of diction. What we assert, therefore, is, that the words not derivetl by direct imitation could have been formed by the genius of man through the deeper harmonies of things, and through the power of creating such har- monies. Moreover, it can be shown that every language does tend to harmonise with the things expressed by it, and did so perhaps still more at an early period of its growth. For it must also be taken into account, that when a name has a felt harmony, or mental coincidence with the thing, it ii easily retained iu the tiANGtJAORi Korae one im- m«morjr, and euily diftViied and caught hj th« rarioui indiriduals of a tocietv; in fact, every luoh name it a iiroke of art, reoeiTed and relished a* luch, as well as being a handle to an object, and useful in social intercourse. It would be impossible, by any power ever eiercised over a multitude of men, to ^et them to adopt a set of insipid, inexpressive, or discordant vocables; and it would be equally impossible for human nature to produce them ; nor can it be supposed that the Creator, granting Him to have been the direct author of speech, would have inspired such a species of sounds; it is more likely that He would have sur- passed the genius of man, and made our languages more harmonious than we find them, which they could very well afford to be. The highest genius being but rare in all ages, this work must often have been done, or leil undone, by an inferior order of minds. It will not require many examples to show how deeply the principle of harmony enters into the vocables of speech. The * ohoi' of sailors is a familiar instance of an articulate accompaniment to an action, and prepares us to expect that the current name of it and similar actions should contain the same sound, as we actually find la • hoist,' ' heave,' * haul,' * hurl,' * hurry,' * high,' and in • h^ad,' if this be derived, as Home Tooke suggests, from 'heaved.' The Scotch words 'sich' (sigh), and 'pech' (pant), show the same suiting of the word to the action. The words •bound,' 'burst,' 'quick,' are obviously suggested by the character of the movements they ap^ly to ; * strength ' and * stress' are the natural accompaniments of strong exertion, like the 'ohoi.' The word 'vast' is an ex- pression of the speaking organs suited to the effect of a certain kind of spectacle on the organs of sight, • Rough ' and • smooth ' are the harmonies of peculiar sensations of touch; 'smack' is a word accompanying a peculiar flavour or relish. The word ' fresh ' has a very strong coincidence of effect with the quality which it represents. ' Raw' is albo a very expressive utterance for one of our sensations. The r sound, from its vibrat- ing character, is the natural expression of any effect that causes a shivering or tremor of the flesh. Many more examples of the same kind will suggest them selves to the reader. We have been able to give but a very limited illustration of such a wide ranging principle. It might be shown, in addition, how every emotion of the mind which objects can produce inspires an appropriate articulate harmony. Mr Richardson, the author of the English Dic- tionanr, has made an ingenious attempt to connect a few of the letters of the alphabet with extensive classes of allied meanings. Thus the labial sounds 6, m, v, f, are the first uttered by children, and enter largely into the terms for the parental relations, and into the ex- pression of life, mind, motion, &c. Thus we have father, mother, JUial, babe, boy, mind, motion, vital. So he finds in the gutturals q, k, the notion of eke, or in- create', in the n, one, union, unite, and the general idea of these. R is much connected with the expression of motion, and frequently gives the force of before; st has a wide application as a disjunctive syllable. Having illustrated the origin of sounds by imitation and harmonious creation, we have next to trace the extension of these primary sounds by the force of the associating principles of the human intellect. The two fundamental laws of association are expressed by the terms contiguity and similarity, and both are of extensive operation in the growth of language, III. When two things frequently accompany one an- other in our view, the one comes to be able to suggest the other. The name of a person may be formed by ihe creative faculty direct, or it may be the name of some adjunct inseparably connected or associated with him, as his territory or land, his office, or some of his deeds or attributes. In this last case there may be no essen- tial harmony between the sound and the aspect of the person. Many objects are named by contiguity in this way: churches are named from saints, and parishes and Tillages from churches. Towns are named from w»lli, riren, mountabi, or other adjoining objects that have been able to originate a name for themselves. Objects discovered for the first time are called after their discoverers; eiT^cts are named from their causes; and causes from their effects. Rhetoricians have an express designation fo) '-is process of naming: it is said to be by meUmomy^ y accompaniment, IV, Equally extensive >.. .be operation of limilarily, or the extension of a name from one thing to another resem- bling it; which will in some cases tend to preserve tho harmonious character of the original name. Thus the word mouth is applied to a great number of objects that are supposed to have the character of an opening: so yawn is extended to outward things, analogous to the original action. The whole range of what is called metaphorical terms, of which every language is full, are formed on the same principle, V, Sometimes names are constructed out of several words or syllables takon from different objects, it beins necessary in some cases to apply the names of several qualities to describe what is meant ; as when we say, * a coat of many colours,' ' black beetle,' ' moss rose,' ' steam- boat.' The commonest case of construction is when a noun is qualified by an adjective, as 'green fields;' in the systematic naming of objects of natural history this combination is adopted. Another extensively used instance is the addition of qualifying terminations to words — good-neat, god-like or godly, fiam-ing. The class of inflected words already alluded to exemplify the same principle : they result from the desire of the human mind to give a unity to each compound name, and for that purpose to fuse the syllables into one con- tinued utterance. The creation of compound names is a work of human genius not unlike any other effort of constructive combination. It has been repeatedly shown by writers on language, that individual and concrete names are the .first in- vented, and that general and abstract names are sub- sequently formed out of them. There is a word in- vented for some one river before there is a general name for rivers; and the term for some particular white object would be likely to give the abstract terms tehite, and whiteness. We see this still exemplified in a few of the names of colours — as 'claret,' 'orange,' 'sky- blue.' The very abstract property of 'electricity' is named from amber, one of the first objects that the property was observed on. ' Geometry' is the measur- ing of land, to which particular case the science was originally applied. With respect to the fonnation and 'growth of the several parts of speech, we have already seen that nouns, verbs, and pronominal words, are the original stems, and that all the others are derived from these. The pronominal words are the direct suggestions of the human faculties in the circumstances that they express. The nouns and verbs are the names of objects at largo; and it would happen sometimes that the first name that an object suggests is a verb, and at other times it would be a noun. Verbs express action, and, as such, they are most in harmony with the articulate expren- sion of man, which is itself an action. In fact, when a thing perfectly lifeless and motionless suggests a har- monising utterance, it must be in consequence of some secondary impression that it produces, relative to mo- tion or force, such as the effect of a heavy mass, a con- fined cavity, or an open space. Perhaps in the greater number of cases a verb is the first form of the word, which is subsequently turned into a noun. Thus the word 'stamp' is evidently the harmonic of an action, and is primitively a verb; being afterwards used as a noun to express the thing left or produced by the action. It has been remarked that many of the roots of the Hebrew language are impersonal verbs, or verba that express merely the action without the person or object, like our verbs, ' it rains,' ' it snows,' The impera- tive mood of the verb is generally the least inflected, and it may be supposed that some of the earliest ex- pressions of action would be in the form of command. But with respect to the derivation of nouna from verbs, 27 CHAMBSBffS INFOHMATION FOR THE PEOPLt!. Horn* Tooke hu pointed out » mat numbar of in Engliih where the pMt participJei of verbe are con- rerted Into nouni; and many of thoee eo derired are among tho nioit important in the language. Thue faint, gift, joint, cltfl, drift, ihtifl, want, drauaht, rent, 'mall, Mtem, /naven, daim, yam, aro all of tbii character; and it ii eoiy to tee that the objecti they expreie are, or are luppoied to be, the reeulti of the actioni desig- nated by the verbe they proceed from. On the other hand, thoie are undoubtedly many coeei where the noun hai been the primitive form, and hoe given birth to A verb; a proceii we itill lee exempliftod, ai when we ipcak of tabling, flooring, housing, kc. The Bsio- ciation of iiieai ii very obvious in these instances. Of the formation of the other parts of speech, to- gether with the inflections of verbs and nouns, we have already spolcen. Tho laws of the human intellect can fully explain the tendency to make inflected or com- pound words ; that is to say, the process is one of the well-known operations of the human mind. VVe fre- quently require to construct an object that will have many qualities, or serve many purposes: every ma- chine, every plan of complicated operations, every dis- course, is such a construction. When we wish to ex- press an idea that has many particulars, we seizen number of separate names, and join thom together in tho best way we can, or according to our taste, so as at once to include what we moan to affirm, and exclude what is foreign to tho purpose. We may at tho same time desire brevity of utterance, and in that case we fuse and contract the separate words as much as pos- sible; wo may wish for melody or fine cadence, and as our ability servos us, we impress this character on tho combination. Different peoples have had different fan- cies and very unequal capacities in respect to this con- structive operation. Some, like the Chinese, have not been able to combine elementary words into perfect compounds that sound as flowingly as a single syllable; while the Grockd and their ancestors could do so to the utmost perfection. Our own language is about midway between the Chinese and the Sanscrit, or between the system of tho eternal separation of roots, and the system of harmonious aggregation into inflected words can-y- ing multiple meanings. Inflected languages, if the inflections aw subject to the laws of harmonious utterance (which in many coses they are not), servo tho purposes of oratory and poetry in a very high degree. Uninflected languages may have the superiority as tho medium of prosaic com- munication and scientific analysis, if they ore well formed in certain other respects. Sentences or successions of words naturally follow the order of the things to be expressed: if they relate to events, it will be in the order of time; if actions, the order of cause and effect. But the natural order may be reversed from the feelings of the speaker, or from a wish to make a certaiq musical effect on tho language, in addition to the communication of the thought. The progress and development of a language are influenced by many causes. Besides enlarging the hiiMia by inventing new words, and extending the appli- cations of the old, there is a constant tendency to abbre- viation which goes on modifying the original sounds. A people's language is expanded by their discoveries in the material or mental world, and by their advance in science, arts, and civilisation in general. It is also made an object of /express cultivation for its own sake in all improving nations, and is controlled by artistic genius, and by artificial laws of pronunciation, gram- mar, rhetoric, and criticism. The love of novelty will cause innovations, and produce fiishions in speech as in other matters; but being a thing impressed upon the minds of men at their most susceptible season, and being intensely riveted by daily use, it comes to be among the most permanent of human acquisitions. Language is also exposed to many changes and riodifications by the intercourse of difierent nations. Tills cause has sometimes gone so far as t'j suppress one language almodt entirely, and to substitute a foreign 2U tongu* in its it«ad. But the amount of this Influence may be more or less, and it has been exemplified in many different degrees in the history of the world. If one nation merely trades with another at some dis- tance, it will import, with the foreif;ii commodities, the names that are given them by the other nation; if the opportunity of intercourse leads to the exchange of customs, ideas, and institutions in general, the names of these may also be acquired, just as the French use many of the Knglish phrases for tho steam-engine. Colonisation in a country already peopled is a further step, and has a still greater influence; but the peculiar effect that takes place will depend on the characters of the two peoples. If the one is more intellectual and more advanced, more resolute and more wedded to iti practices than the other, the language of the stronger will be likely to be imposed more ur less on the weaker. But if the colonists are not accompanied by women, and are obliged to adopt wives from the inhabitants that they settle among, the next reneration will have more of the la< guage of their mothers than of their fathers, and a modified form of the aboriginal speech will be maintained. The same fact holds true of invasions and conquests like the Saxon and Norman settlements in Kngland. On the other hand, in the German conquests of the Roman Empire in tho fifth century, which were made by nations migrating in mass, the tongue of the invauers was more likely to be sustaiuid. It would then depend upon tho relative numlerii of conque- rors and conquered, and their relative « nerey, gene- ral superiority, and self-will, which of ifie mngungei should give way, and to what extent. In genemi, in every invoaion, the portions of the conquered people's language which are most liable to alt°vitt(on are the names of ranks, oflices, forms of admini&knvtion, and everything connected with the general government of the country. The spreotl of religion among a people afl'ects their laTigua^o along with their whole manner of thinking and feeling. The same obtains in a minor degree in any new sciences, arts, knowledge, doctrines, or institutions that may be communicated to a nation in anvway whatever. If cont^iiest or intercourse change the character of a p« o^'o* >t will by that fact alone change their language Any other circumstance modi- fying national character, such aa emigration to new settlements, .rill have the same effect. Among the circumstances which act in modifying the use of speech, none is more important than the art of writing. It would be interesting to imagine the origin and progress of written languaj;e, in the way we have endeavoured to explain the career of spoken language. We might, in so doing, show the action of the same laws of human nature in a different class of circumstances. Every people of superior character would, in addition to their spoken signs, create an independent class of written signs, which last would, in fact, in some respects be the easier effort of tho two. Mere imitation, or picture-drawing, would suffice in this case, for there is no object but what has a visible form, or may be easily associated with such ; and after the mechanical art of drawing has been once acquired, the means of indi- cating the objects of communication and thought would be unlimited. The weak point of picture-writing is seen in attempting the expression ul' action and chains of events; but this difficulty has not been found in- superable. Examples of successful picture-writing have been funiished by many nations — such as the Egyp- tians, Mexicans, and Chinepe. The abbreviations that would necessarily be made for the sake of saving time would very much diininiih the exactness of resem- blance; but so long as the meaning was understood, this would be of littlo moment to the people them- selves. This, however, renders it difficult now to trace each mark or sy'tnbol to its original imitative form ; but not so much so as to obliterate altogether the evidence of the fact. The invention of an alphabet is a totally distinct step from the formation of a picture language. It is a vast stride in advance, arising out of the simuUaneoua LANOVAOE. UM of both ipoken aiid ptotured •Igni ft>r tb« Mme objeoti. To illuitrftto thii proooM we ihalt imagine on iiiitonoo of a famtliiir kind. Huppoie the Mund Am wen Mlopted m the hnnnonio articulation, or tpoken name of tiie inwet to called with u*; and luppoM alio that, ouite independent of the epokcn name, a pioturad iroltatioh had neon formed of^ the lanio object, and abbreviated or limnlified as much a« waa coneiitent with characteriitic diatinctneu. The object would thui have two niarki, one to the ejre and one to the ear; and by the aaaociation of idea*, the two marki would b« con- nected in peoples' minda, §o that on leeins the picture they would be reminded of the eound, and on hearing the sound they would be reminded of the picture. Sup- pose, next, that some other object had acquired a name where the b sound occurred, without liaving yet ac- quired a pictorial representation. In such a case it would be very natural, instead of making a new draw- ing, to employ the one already corresponding to the sound in a well-known instance: this would not picture the object to the eye, but it would suggest its name to the ear, and be at least as effectual as the mention of the name in speech. If the word contained two cha- racteristic sounds, aa bed, and if the character for a bee were joined with another character derived in the same way lor the d sound, an alphal)etic representation of bed would be the result. In the first stages of the alphabet, the vowels and consonants were not perfectly distinguished; each letter was a simple syllable, having the force of a vowel and consonant joined. This expla- nation of the origin of the alphabet is completely con- firmed by tho structure of the Hebrew letters, which are the originals of all the Kuropean alphabets. Tho art of writing tends to fix a language, and erect for it a standard of grammar and spelling, by placing it under the control of tho learned classes of a nation. THK LANOUAOES OP TIIE OLOBE. .\fter expounding the essential structure of language, and the principles of the human mind that determine its origin and growth, the next object should be to enumerate and classify thj actual languages of tho human race, to specify their distinctive peculiarities, and to illustrate by means of them the general prin- ciples previously laid down. Out, not to speak of the limits of this treatise, the complete examination of the languages of the globe is at present very for from being complete, and the analysis of such as are known is spread over many hundreds or thousands of volumes. We must be content, therefore, with stating the usual classification that has been adopted, with a few remarks on a limited number of individual tongues. The grand divisions correspond with the divisions of races uid nations described under Ethnolooy. Indo-European Languages. The names Indo- Germanic and Indo-European are given to a class of languages that prevail from the East Indies, through the west of Asia, and across the whole of Europe to the Atlantic, They are also called Ira- nian, from Iran, the ancient name of Persia, and the name of the lesser of tho two table-lands of Asia, nearly coinciding with the empire of the ancient Modes and Pcrsiaus. This Persian table-land ij supposed to have been the original scat of the Indian and Euro- pean nations, from which they migrated and conquered, some eastward upon Hindoostan, others westward upon Europe, giving rise to the chief of the moderu Euro- pean nations. ThcbO languages and nations have been divided into High and Low, from the supposed primitive geogra- phical position of the different peoples. The high languages are belioved to have sprung more imme- diately from the high land of Persia, and the low from the adjoining lower country of Media, The Classical, tiermanic, and Celtic stocks of the tribe, are each divided into a high and low division; and there is found to be a closer analogy between the high and the low divisions respectively of each stock, than between a high division ol . « low divis . of anothor W» diall first state tli< lUviduals of e tribe iu «»> graphieal order, ami uext iudloM* ihe hi|^ & >«ff divisions ; — I. The •9'.— Sanscrit, pitar; Zend, paitar; Persian, pader; Greek aud Latin, pater; Slavonic, bat; Gothic, fadrein; Low German, fader; Old High Gcnuan, vatar; Erse, athair. ■29 CHAMBERS'S INFOBMATIOir FOR THB PEOPLE. MoiKtr.—6eH. m»Ur; Z. tMUti Pm. ni»d«r; Omk, mtler: Uiin. iu»t«r; Li»hu»iiUn, inoUr ; Utiiih, matfl ; Did Pruiiiwj, n-uU j U* iii. inuol*', inuUer, AtMuAter.-Mor. duhlUrj Z.dughdiuuri Pen.dokhUr; OmikTthuRater; Hl»». dochler; l-i»b. dukUri O. Pr. duokti: tloth. diuhlw; Heriii. lochtor; hrN, dew. i»ro. IT. brftUi Oo'k. brothwi Scwiduiftvim, brwlur; O. Hish (lerinMi, pruodw; 0«nn»u, brudcrj En», b»th»lr; Welsh, br»wd, (iod.~»i:r. dcTMj Z. dairMi Pert, and Rum. diw (tb* e»il M)lrU); Lilh. dieww; Lett, dwwi) (>. Pr. d«i«ri; L»t. daui; UrMk, tteo»i Erte, din; VVelili, duw; ScundinftTiwi, ty-r. „ , . , . . „ „ j,y_Scr. aki'i; Z. M'i ; Lith. nkii; O. Pr. «okU; IiDlt. Mi; MUt. oko; I.«t. uoului; (loth, augo; derm. TouM.— Scr. daiitae; I'er*. dendan; Lith. dantii; Or. o-dontei (teeth); Ith. futus ; liurtu. fuH. Sun, — Scr. hailii ; dr. holioi ; Welah, haul, heol ; Lut. lol; SUr. kolnxe; Lith. laule; Lott. »:jautu; dotli. cauil; Scand. loel; Ene, laiile. Water, — 8or. uda; Lat. udua, unda; Or. hudor; Slav, voda; Lith. vandu; Lett, udeiia; (>. Pr. unda; .Sciviid. iidr ; Goth, vato; O. 11. derm, wa/.ar; (ierni. wusavr; Krae, dour; W. dwr. LigKt. — Scr. aluka; Or. lukO; Lat. lux, luuia; Slav. luo'; Lett, lukuteca (to look around); Ooth. liuhatb; derm, licht; W. Ihwej; Krac, loos. Door, — Scr. dwara; P. dar; Slav, dwer; Lith. durrya; Lett, durrii; doth, daura; dorin. thur; dr. thura; Kritu, dorai ; W. dor. Ox, Cow. — 8cr. go, gaua; Z. gaoa; P. gau; Sabine, pviui; Lett, gowi; Krae, geo; Scantl. ku; O. 11. dunn. chuo ; derm, kuh; Or. boua ; Lat. boa; Slav, bulk; \i, buw. Worm. — Scr. kirniia; P. kirm; Lith. kimielo; Lett, zehrrai ; Lat. vermia ; doth, vauniia ; Scand. ornia ; dorra. wurm. Thin.— Scr. tanus; P.tonuk; dr. tanua; Lat. tenuia; Slav, tanok, tanan ; Scand, thunur,tunn; derm, dunn; VV. donau. New. — Scr. navah ; P. nu ; Lat. novua; Or. neoa ; Slav, novii; Lith. naujaa; (). Pr. nauna; doth, nivia; denn. neu; Erae, nuadh; W. newydh. Red, — Scr. rud'ira; Lat. ruber; Slav, rditi (to redden) ; Lith. ruddaa ; Scand. rod ; Engl, ruddy, rud ; Erae, ruadh; dr. eruthroa; 0. II. denn. rot; dorm. roth. First (fominiiio singular). — Scr. prat'anin ; Z. fra- thcma and paoirya ; dr. prota ; I.At. prima ; doth, fruraa; Lith. pinna; O. Pr. pirmoi; Slav, pervaja. To know. — Scr. g'na, ganami, gnotaa (known) ; Or. ginosko; Lat. gnosKo. gnarua; Slav, znati; Lith. zinoti; Lett, ainnat; doth, kanu, J know; U. H. derm, chnata, / knew; derm, kennen ; Engl, to ken, to htow ; W. gwn, / know. Stand. — Scr. st'a ; Z. hiatami ; Or. hiatemi ; Pcrs. astaden; Slav, stati; Lith. stoweti; O. Pr. staiiinti (standing), po-stat; doth, standan; U. II. derm, stan- tan; Erae, stadaui; W. cistedh. to rit. Bear. — Scr. b'ar; Z. baraiti; P. berden; Ooth. bairan; Haxon, boaran; O. H. d. peran; Krse, bhcirim, bcaradh; (irj)hero; Lat. foro. Eat. — Scr. ad; dr. edo; Imt. cdo; Slav, jodmi; Lith. edmi; Lett, ehmu, ehde; O. Pr. idi8,yoorf; doth, itan; O. II. O. izan; derm, esaen; Erae, itheadh; W. ysu. Be. — Scr. b'u; Z. bu; P. bu-dcn, to be; Slav, bu-ti; Lith. buti; Lett, but; O. Pr. bout; Low (Jerm. boon, to f>c ; O. 11. denn. pim, / am ; Erse, bhith, to be, bu mi, y wai ; \V. bod, to be ; Greek, fuo; Lat. fui. Mind. — Scr. manyati, he thinks, manaa, mind; Z. man, to think, mans, mind; Or. mnaomi, / raiutnber, think; Lat. moneo, memini, mens, mind; Slav, mjeniti, 30 to think, po-iqjanu, / rmntmber ; Lith, menfM; IM* pe«-miune, / mdmonieK ; O. Pr. po-miuisna, (/iimghi , doth, munaii ; O. H. d«rm. niauou; Germ, umumu; Engl, to meant VV. menw, miml, Ihe Muount of ooinoidencu which may b«thutob*«rvea a certainty upon the etymological tracing of worda which could not othorwiae ha attained. It ia not enough that one wonl in ono language ahould Bound very like a word in another language; they must (litter according to the laws eatabliahed between the two languagea, and in no other way. There are thus for each member of the Indo-Euro- pean family certain general principlea of tho formation of wonla, which, though not without accidental devia- tiona and exceptions, govern it* mode of pronouncing auch of the worda as are common to the whole family. Tho determination of theae lawa, therefore, enablea tlie vocabulary of one to be immediately applied to inter- pret the vocabulary of another. VV e ahall cite a few more example* of pervading peculiaritiea attaching to individual tonguca, in touching briefly upon tho lead- ing roembera of the family in auccession. The Sansorit, which can be moat immediately com- pared with the Greek, wanta entirely tho two vowels e and o, having only the three a, i, u, and certain vibra- tory vowel modific;vtiona of r. These throe are the most atrongly marked of the vowel utterances, and arc there- fore the primary vowels; the e and o being evolved from them at a subsequent stage. Tho Sunacrit has uaually a where tho Greek or Latin has a, e, or o, which gives an imnienae predominance to the ah aound in the Indian languagea. The Sanscrit has also some- times a guttural, which is transmuted in the clasaic languagea, but remaina in the Gothic, as laghu, lux, leicnt, liijht, A somewhat unexpected change is occa- sionally made from d to / — as dtpa, lamp. The Zend language is remarkable for wanting the I, OS the Chineae wants the r, and hence all its forms muat be subject to this omission; but in modem Per- sian the letter ia found. The a in Sanscrit is apt to be replaced by h in Zend — as »&, h&, they ; sapta, hapla, seven; sva, hva, his. This corresponds to an ii.ter- chango that is frequent between Latin and Greek — as sue, hus, a auto ; and also between (iaolic and Welsh; and it is worth remembering that Latin, Sanscrit, and Gaelic arc of the low division, while Zend, Greek, and Welsh are of the high division of languages. The Zend also difi^er* from the Sunacrit in possessing the vowels e and o. The couiparisou of the Gtrman languages among LANOUAGV. (h•> trucabulary Uilt'ereiilly artiou- UUd; one ot whii h, iiu'la'Ung the low dialaoti, ii tbo older .iiul mtflfi ' ' '»<> AUliouj(h the two itocki branch out i/iti ouih ImiaI* 4i\isioiii,tho churiMiteriitia diJftrenoe of pronm . wtt>»» foUowi them throughout. Thue where wo »ay -ifof, th* High (lerinMi myn tae, lag I where we eay tl4tj>, tliev imj ilaftnt, ichUi/a». The 8c»ndinB?iaii tonguei rMik with Dutch, Fleniiih, Kriii*.-!, Anglo Suxon, and our own languftge, among the low (iernmn i^Ium. Kach of thcM tonguei liaa its dUtiuotire anl MHignable peculiaritiei of vocables and grammar, ihowii an independent growth iiibeefiucnt to their leparati ji from the parent item, and doubt- leM detcnniiicd by the character! and furtunet of the ■oparate [>eo]iloi. The only uoint touching on their connections or difTerencoii to wnich we can here allude, ii that relating to Anglo-Saxon and English. It ii cuntoraary to aiiert that Anglo-Saxon wiii the only < iothic language in this country prior to the Nonnan invasion ; and that shortly after this event, it became transmuted into English, a language differing from it in some of tho most durable peculiarities of grammati- ual structure. Uut vhen we consider tho difficulty there would be in inducing a whole people accustomed to say, to bear, to die, &c. as the infinitive forms of the verb, to change to the form btaram, where the pre- position is at the end, there being no assignable motive for making such a change, we mav safely assert that no sufficient proof has hitherto been adduced that tho opposite change took place within a century, and that a largo class of other changes of a kind equally difficult and uncalled for was niiulo within tho same period. Hitherto, tho growth of Knglish out of Anglo-Saxon has been tacitly assumed as a thing hardly requiring any evidence farther than tho affinity of the languages, and the known tlisappearance of ono of them ; the steps adey rowels, evi- deiitiv to suit a <, the mute being ruiicler«ii into an aapirate. t he Welsh mnrw (dead) linoume* di-varu (immortal), the laMal w being changt'd Into ire vocal aipirato. Thia is the reverie of a Cockney pevi. .iarity, which niakaa diviiie, di-mdf. I(r Meyer roncluiUi, from a ««reful etaniinati'rtt -jf the Celtic tongues, that while they are »f %\iv Sanscrit class, they have decidwl artiriitiea with the ligyptiun, tho Semitic, and tho Kinnish languages, and may be regarded as more primitive ur ancient than any uf the otner I niln. European tongues; that is to say, they broke off from the parent stem, and took a ttxed set before any of tho others bad reached their charac- teristic development. Tartar, Tttnr, ox Turnnlan LanRuagci. Those languffes belong to the va«t group of nations that have ri:cnivod the name of Tartars, and are com- monly understood to lend a pastoral and mi;,'ratory life. They h.ivo never attained a hij^h degree of civilisation, and what they have seems only in part their own. Their colebritv in the world has been owing to the con- quest!) that tlioy have achieved over civilised imtions by tho bruto force of nunibcrs. They cover tlie im- nienso plains of Central mid No-thcrn Asia, and extend into the I'olar regions of Europe. The name Turanian h:is reference to tho high table-land of Asia, called Turan, as tho lower table-land is called /ran. M. Abel Ucmusut, in his work on the Tartar Ian- giiagpi, divides them into four great tribes radically distinct from each other. Ileginnlng at the oast, tihore t)iov are in contact with the Chinese, the first division is the Tongous. Their territory is divi>l< e the most natural, or the most accordant with the operation of the human faculties in the invention of articulate sounds. What is more re- markable about these roots, is their being dissyllabic or trisyllabic; that is, they arc made up of tliree conso- nants, or cousouautial syllables. The intiections are formed by internal changes in the words, more than by affixes and prefixes, as in the Iranian tongues, being similar tio the strong conjugation in English — as conie, cani«, brake, broke. There is no verb of general affir- mation like our verb is, arc, ivere. The Hebrew language has been found capable of the highest order of poetry, and the Arabic hus served the purposes of scientific expression, as well as literary uses in general. The ancient Phuciiiciaus and Carthaginians spole a Hebrew dialect. African Languages. These languages are still a subject of active research, and are far from being completely known. The fullest account of them appears to be what was given by l)r Latham to the British Association in 1U47. Dr Latham divides them as follows: — I. The Coptic class, containing the extinct dialects of Egypt. II. The Berber class, embracing the Mon- Arabic lan- guages of Northern Africa. III. The Hottentot class. IV. The CafTre class, extcudiiig from the limits of tho Hottentot count./ us far northward us Loango and the river Juba, west and east. V. An uunained class fallin; , eleven subordinate groups: — I. Tho Nubian Rroup. 1. The Oallit ([">>>?• ■1. Tho RorgliM Kroiip. 4. The licfiliiirriii gruup. fi. Tho lUiTu Rroiip. 6. Thu Hiutlara group. 7. Tlio Hawma group. U. Tho MandinKO gruup. t). Thu Wiilnff grioip. ID. Tho Kiilah group. 11. Tho Ibo-ABhantfO group. In ac^lition to these are six other languages ctill unplaced. Dr Latham gives copious lists from the voca- bularies of these various tongues, and discovers a great many cases of coincidence, such as to show the proba- bility of the common descent of many of the remotely- situated tribes. The ancient Egyptian language is perhaps the most celebrated and interesting of tho African tongues. The study of its structure has led some to the belief that it has a midway position between the Indo-European and Semitic languages, and forms a connecting link between the two, as if it were a branch from a very old and primitive language from which both these great tribes alike sprung. The affinities and resemblances of the Celtic, the most ancient of the Iranian tongues, to the Egyptian, have been brought forward to sup- port this view. It is one of the points respecting ancient Egypt especially urged in the recent erudite work of the Chevalier Buns^. The Malay Languages form a class by themselves. They are spoken in Malacca, and the islands of the East Indian Archipe- lago (Java, Sumatra, &c.), and arc also found, in close proximity with Africa, on the island of Madagascar. The dialects of the Polynesian Islands in the Pacific Ocean have been lately identified with the same class; thereby furnishing an iioportant clue to the peopling of these remote localities. A difficulty still remains with the Papua language, spoken by the black and woolly-haired tribes in Australia and New Guinea, who are also the aboriguies of the island of Borneo, and who occupy a few small Polynesian islands. Chinese Language. Like other portions of their civilisation, the language of the Chinese is peculiar, and contrasts with all other nations. It has been called monosyllabic, not only to distinguish it from the trisyllabic roots of the Semitic tongues, but to shov\ that it has not adopted the expe- dient of adding syllables to one another in the way of inilections, as in the Iranian languages. For denoting the connections, and relations, and circumstances ex- pressed by inflections, it uses separate words; and in showing the exact force of these words, dependence is placed on their arrangement in the first place; and in the second place, on the tone and accent of their pro- nunciation. The words are all names of objects, and they require to stand for nouns, verbs, adjectives, or prcjjositions, as the case may be. There are said to be no more than a few hundreds of these syllable words to compose the language; these being multiplied three or four times by variety of accent. The writiiig of the Chinese is wholly independent of their speech, and is the only language universally understood over the whole empire. It is exactly in the predicament of our numerals 1, 2, .1, &c., which are of no particular language, and have a diflieieut sound in each; being universal to thu rye, but not to the ear. The process of comparing picture - marks with sounds, which gave rise to the alphabet, has never been performed by the Chinese. American Languages. These languages received the name ' Polysynthetic,' from their excessive tendency to agglutinate syllables into long words; and this being sup|)08tid to be a kind of inflection like the (ireek or Sanncrit forms, it was thought to indicate a high order of speech. But in fact nothing could be farther from regular inflections than such a process ; it being nothing but an indis- criminate huutiling of syllables; sometimes two or three put on for the same meaning, evidently caused by a habit or instinct of flowing articulation. No satisfac- tory attempt has yet been made to classify these lan- guages, or to truce an affinity between them and the other great families above-mentioned. Alleged af- finities are denied by those most intimately acquainted with the languages themselves, CONSTITUTION OF SOCIETY-GOVERNMENT. perhaps the moBt :aii toiiguea. The o the belief that le Indo-Europeait connecting link li from a very old both these great .nj resemblauces Iranian tongues, forward to sup- loints respecting le recent erudite ' are spoken in Indian Archipc- 30 found, in close . of Madagascar. Is in the Pacific 1 the same class; to the peopling Ity still remains f the black and id New Guinea, aland of Borneo, n islands. ion, the language its with all other abic, not only to ts of the Semitic loptcd the expe- ler in the way of 8. For denoting rcumstances ex- e words; and in 8, dependence is st place; and in ut of their pro- of objects, and 8, adjectives, or icre are said to these syllable )eiiig multiplied In the two preceding numbers we have drawn attention to the physical and mental constitution of man, and to the great instrument of thought by which he is enabled to give scope to the development of that constitution either in an individual or in a collective capacity. We devote the present sheet to a review of man's social nature — to that condition in which he lays aside the sole consideration of self, and enters upon a scheme of union and co-relation, whereby he finds his own happi- ness in the happiness of those with whom he is asso- ciated ; and advances in civilisation and refinement not as an individual only, but as a nation or race, and that in proportion to the perfection of the social system he has been able to eliminate. CONSTITUTION OP SOCIETY. Man is a gregarious animal ; that is, he loves to herd together with his fellows — to live in society. There are, indeed, instances of men fleeing society, and spending existence in solitude, but these unhappily- disposed individuals form only an exception to a ge- neral rule. * Man,' observes Dr Thomas Brown in his Philosophy of the Human Mind, ' is bom in society, and dependent on it, in some of its most delightful forms, for the preservation of his infant being, which, without the protection of those who love him the more for the very helplessness that is consigned to their protection, would seem thrown into the world only to suffer in it for a few hours, and ceasing to suffer, to cease also to exist. If man be dependent on society for the preservation of his early existence, he is not less dependent on it for the comfort and happiness of his existence in other years. It is to be the source of all the love which he feels, of all the love which he excites, and therefore of almost all the desires and enjoyments which he is capable of feeling. There is not one of his actions which may not, directly or indirectly, have some relation to those among whom he lives; and I may say even that there is scarcely a monifnt of his existence in which the social affection, in one oi' other of its forms, has not an influence on some feeling or resolution, some delightful remembi-ance of the past, some project of future benevolence or resentment. Uf a society to which man thus owes all his strength, as well as all his happiness, it is not won4erfuI that nature should have formed him desirous; and it is in harmony with that graciouE provision wh{ch we see realised so efl'ectually in our other emotions, that she has formed him to love the society which profits him, without thinking of the profit^ which it sriBTords; that is to say, without regard to this benefit as t)ie ]>rimary source of a love that would not have ariseii but from the prosjiect of the selfish gain. We exist in society, and have funned in it innumerable affections, long before we have learned to sutp and calculate the con- sequences of every separate look and word rogre8s of life; because tnere ii no uionieut to the leart in which the principle of social union is oold or powerless. The infant dues not cling to his nurse more readily than the boy hastens to meet hit play- mates, and man to oommunioate his thoughts to man. What is every language but a proof of the agencr of that feeling which makes it delightful to us to speak and to listen, because it is delightful to us to make No. S3. our thoughts pass into other hearts, or to share the thoughts of those other hearts ! We use speech, indeed, in its vulgar offices to express to each other the want of bodily accommodations, which can be mutually sup- plied by those who know each other's necessities; and as a medium by which these wants can instantly be made known, it is, in these vulgar offices, unquestion- ably an instrument of the highest convenience, even though it were incapable of being adapted to any other purpose. But how small a part of that language, which is so eloquent ap interpreter of every thought and feel- ing, :n employed for this humble end 1 If we were to reflect on all those gracious communications, and ques- tions, and answers, and replies that, in a little society of friends, form for a whole day a happiness which nothing else could give, the few words significant of mere bodily wants would perhaps scarcely be remem- bered in our retrospect of an eloquence that was expres- sive of wants of a very different kind; of that social impulse which, when there are others around who can partake its feelings, makes it almost impossible for the heart, whether sad or sprightly, to be sad or sprightly ' alone ; and to which no event is little, the communi- cation of which can be the expression of regard. In that infinite variety of languages which are spoken by the nations dispersed on the surface of the earth, there is one voice which animates the whole — a voice which, in every country and every time, and in all the changes of barbarism and civilisation, still utters a truth, the first to which the heart has assented, and the last which it can ever lose; the voice of our social nature bringing its irresistible testimony to the force of that universal sympathy which has found man everywhere, and pre- serves him everywhere, in the community of mankind.' Family Relntionship— Marriage. Human society is composed of families. A family consists of husband, wife, children. This is not an accidental or arbitrary arrangement. The family com- pact originates in the necessities of our nature; has existed since the creation; and, by the good Tovidenco of Uod, will continue till the end of time. Accordingly, all attempts to encroach on the obligations, as well as the privileges of the family relationship, have proved less or more nugatory, and must ever inevitably do so. What is the fundamental object of the family com- pact is abundantly evident : a due provision for tho affections, and for the nurture and education of chil- dren. This latter is insured by the matrimonial en- gagement — a solemn covenant between a man and a woman to attach themselves to each other through all the contingencies of life till the death of either dissolve the union. In every nation removed from barbarism, marriage is a recognised ordinance, guarded by law and custom. Ill sunie eastern countries, jpolyyamy, or the marriivgc of a man with many wives, has long been tolerated; but that loose instances of this kind are a violation of a just and reasonable principle, is testified by the fact, that polygamy is not favourable to the rearing of children, and that it ia inconsistent with the due equality of the sexes. In all countries in which polygamy is tolerated, woman occupies a degraded po- sition, and society is rude and unexpansive in its cha- racter. Nature has designed woman to be the equal of man as a moral and intellectual being; and confined to the exercise of her own proper duties as a wife and mother, she it ^aced in a favourable position as relates to her own hapless and the happiness of her husband. And all this ean only be realised by moHogamy — the marriage of a man with but one wife. We have deemed it necessary to state thus unequivocally at the outset .33 CHAMBEBS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. what appears to bo the primary principleB of human relationship; for there are not wanting parties who would endeavour to rear systems of society in which the family compact is to have no place, and parental care is to be absolved from its duties— a dream of the imagination, which the common sense of mankind will ever reject as visionary, ond consider, for all good and enduring purposes, to be utterly impracticable. Society, as has been shown, is necessarily composed of distinct families. The manner, however, in which these families sho'ild associate with respect to each other, is a question which has been often agitated, and here deserves some degree of notice. The true expla- nation, we think, lies in an appeal to nature. It would appear that from the beginning of the world every nation has consisted of a certain number of families, and that each family, in its general cir- cumstances, has been independent of others. Families, as in the patriarchal times, may have been less or more dependent on or connected with the head of a tribe ; but we nowhere read of families yielding up their in- dividual identity, and living in private community with each other. Each family has always had its own house, its own joys, sorrows, hopes, and fears. Each father of a family, a sovereign within his own domain, has been left to govern his little realm, and to under- take the obligation of finding his wife, children, and domestics in the means of daily subsistence. A practice so universal cannot be supposed to be a violation of cither nature or convenience. It has Bp'^ung up from the wants and feelings of mankind, and may be said to be a spontaneous result of unalter- &ble circumstances. Tracing it to its true source in the mental constitution, we find that the independence of individual action affords the widest scope for per- sonal enterprise, perseverance, and other useful emotions. No doubt it iv. seltish in principle, but selfishness may be productive of good as well as bad ends, and is ac- knowledgedly allied to some of the nobler aspirations. It is at least certain that indixidual independence, so far as family government, location, and industrial pur- suits are concerned, is the basis of all which commands respect in civilised society. In reply to this, it is urged that, by leaving society to spontaneous arrangement, there comes a time when each nation is consumed by its internal disorders. The clever, the industrious, and the persevering, become wealthy; vast numbers, either from lack of capicity or opportunity, sink into a state of extreme indigence ; and a number become criminals, and prey on the others. There is truth in this severe statement of facts; for in every nation there are rich and poor, good and bad. Nevertheless, such a mingled tissue is only an inevitable consequence not of the mere structure of society, but of human nature, on which society is founded. If there be anything wrong, we must seek a remedy in the im- provement of man's moral and intellectual constitution, not in subverting the whole organisation of society, and attempting to reunite it on fantastic, or, at all events, new and untried principles. Nor should any alarm be entertained respecting the lamentable evils which aecin to be the doom of society as it at present exists. These evils, and they are great, will never utterly disappear, because human perfection is unat- tainable, but they will in time be much modified. In every region society goes through a period i.f infancy, during which many cruelties are perpetraicd and pri- vations endured; after this, as men become enlight- ened, the worst kind of evils gradually disappear, und ethers of lesser severity remain. At present, society in (Ireat Britain and most c'vilised nations is in a tran- sition state from barbarism to enlightenment. Within even the recollection of men now living, the steps in advance have been considerable, and every year adds to the number of both physical and social amoliora- tiong. Can there be any reasonable doubt that society will continue in all respects to improve, and that much that IS now matter for regret and reproach will be amended or r«moTed f 34 Utopian Communities. Ingenious men have at different times conceived to themselves the idea of a state of society, or republic, in which vice, sorrow, indolence, poverty, and other evils shall either be unknown, or at least reduced to a scarcely perceptible amount. None of these theories has gained so much celebrity as that announced by Sir Thomas More, under the name of Utopia (from a Greek word signifying no place). The author was chancellor of England in the reign of Henry VIII., and' was a man of the highest and most honourable character. Ilia work on Utopia was written in Latin, and the elegance with which he propounded his apparently benevolent but really satirical scheme, has made the name of his ima- ginary republic to be adopted in our language as a current expression to denote any plan of social economy which is founded on too favourable views of human nature to be practicable. The work was written not long after the discovery of America, near which continent, south of the line, the island of Utopia is supposed to lie. The story of dis- covering this island is represented as being told by a venerable traveller whom the author met at Antwerp, and may be condensed as follows : — * Among other countries through which the traveller with his companions passed, there was one which ap- peared particularly worthy of attention; this was an island situated not far from the mainland, and called the Utopia, from an old chief of the name of Utopus. The island was about five hundred miles long, and about two hundred in the broadest part; but it lay in the form of a crescent, bent together at the ends, which were narrow, and not more than eleven miles apart; so that there was a large bay of the sea, as it were, in the very centre of the country. The entiauoe to this vast natural harbour was, however, obstructed by rocks, and hardly safe to any except natives, who were acquainted with the landmarks in view. The other side of the island had a number of harbours; but the coast being generally rocky, the roads leading from them into the country were steep and difficult. There are in the country twenty-four largo towns, all magnificently built, and spacious ; the situation of each is chosen so like that of the rest, that in the very arrangement of their streets, and their general appearance, when you see one, you have a complete idea of all the others. The same language is spoken over the whole island ; and the laws, institutions, and manners of the towns are similar throughout. There are none of them above a day's walk from each other, and several only about twenty-four miles. The chief town is Amaurotum, which has been chosen on account of its central situa- tion, as being convenient for the general meeting of deputies, of whom three are chosen from each town, ge- , nerally men of some age and of experience in business, for deliberating on the public afl^airs. The cities arc so situated, that each has a large cou'itry district lying around it, which is well stocked with farm-houses, and all the materials of a thriving husbandry. The land is cultivated by the townspeople themselves, who take it in turn, one set going to labour in the country, while another remain at their occupations in the town. The cultivators are arranged, while in the country, into families of forty free persons and two slaves ; with each family there is an elder and a matron of respectable characvcrs ; and over every three hundred families there is an officer called a I'hylarch. Of the forty persons who compose a family, twenty return each season to the town, and are replaced by twenty others sent from thence; so that each person remains on the farm two years together, where by this means there is always a moiety acquainted with country la- bour, and able to instruct the others; numbers, how- ever, rei|ue8t to remain a longer time, from the pleasure they take in farming and field-work. Their business ii to attend to the crops, to rear domestic animals, and to prepare wood, and take it to the towns. They rear immense flocks of chickens, which, however, they CONSTITUTION OP SOCIETY. hatch not in the usual way, but by the heat of an oven — tt process in which they are very expert and success- ful. They raise com for bread on I not for brewing or distilling ; and for drink they hii o the vine, as we hare, as well as the liquor of apples and pears. In laying out their land, they calculate how much com, meat, and other produce will be wanted for a city and its dependent territory, and take care always to have a much larger quantity than is necessary, that after each district has supplied its own demand, they may be able to afford a portion in any quarter where there may be a deficiency. Whatever articles of the manu- facture of the towns are wanted, the cultivators receive them on demand, without offering anything in ex- change ; and when the crops are ready for harvesting, the country phylarchs or overseers give notice to the authorities in the towns, upon which the whole popula- tion is set to work, and the crops are secured almost in a single day. A description of the city Araaurotum will give a complete idea of all the others, which are as exactly like each other as may be. This place, then, is situ- ated on a gentle slope, with a river flowing along the bottom of the declivity, which is navigable, with the waters of the tide, as far as the town; and there is a stone quay all along the bank, at which vessels lie to for delivering their cargoes. The town is of a square form ; the streets long and straight, with a row of well-built houses on each side, before which there is always a paved footpath; in the rear, every house has a garden, with a door opening into it. The doors, both in front and behind, are made in such a way as to open readily with the hand, and to shut again of their own accord; but they are never locked, so that no one has any place of secrecy. They pay the greatest attention to their gardens, in which they raise abundance of the finest fmits, flowers, and herbs. Nothing can be more splendid or useful than the trea- sures of vegetable beauty exhibited there ; and the founder of the town seems to have paid particular at- tention to the laying out of the gardens and garden- grounds, which the successive generations of inhabi- tants have continually improved. With regard to their magistrates, every thirty fa- milies in the towns elect yearly a representative, who is called a Syphogrant ; and to every ten syphogrants, with their constituencies, there is an oflicer or repre- sentative, who is styled a Tranibor. Lastly, the whole of the syphogrants, who arc two hundred in number, after taking an oath to select the most useful candi- date, choose by secret votes a chief magistrate, who is always one of four, of whom a list is given them by the people, each quarter of the city naming one. This chief retains his office during life, except there be rea- son to suspect his aiming at arbitrary power; but the tranibors, and all the other officers, are elected yearly. The chief meets with a council of the tranibors every third day, or oftencr, if there be occasion, to deliberate on public business, or the suits of individuals ; and there are olways two of the syphop -ants (or inferior representatives) present. It is a capital crime for the magistrates or chief to discuss public business any- where except in the senate or great assemblies; a re- gulation which is enforced, that the authorities may not conspire in secret against the public liberties. In matters of great moment, a communication is made to the syphogrants, who consult their families (consti- tuencies), and give in their opinion to the senate. All the people are acquainted with farming, which they learn from their infancy, partly by instructions in the schoole, and partly from practice, when their families are in the country. Dosides this, every ono is taught seme other business — such as weaving, car- pentry, or smith-work ; and these constitute the most of their crafts. There being little variety of dress used in the island, except that those of the men and women are different (and both of them are very be- coming), each family makes their own clothing. But of the other businesses, every person, male or female, leams some ono, the women generally performing the lighter portions of the work; and every person for the most part following the profession of his an- cestors. Their labour is not heavy ; for if the day he divided into twenty -four hours, there are only six of these devoted to work — three in the forenoon, and three in the afternoon. All the remainder of the time they have at their own disposal, not for idleness or dissipation, indeed, but for any rational amusement, such as reading, or hearing lectures on various sub- jects, delivered by persons who make literature their business. It may be supposed that, if they labour only six hours a day, they must be very poor, and that the country will be ill supplied with everything: but this is far from being the case; and the few hours which they devote to work are quite sufficient to pro- cure all that is wanted for the necessaries and com- forts of life; of which you may be convinced, if you have remarked in other countries what immense mul- titudes of people go entirely idle, and produce nothing; or what a vast number, again, are employed 'n arts which are mere luxury and superfluity, or which in- jure the community instead of benefiting it: and yet these idle people and triflers consume much more of the labour of others than those who exert themselves to produce something really useful. In Utopia, on the other hand, there are but a very few persons in each city who are not employed in useful labour; even the syphogrants themselves, though exempt fmin work- ing b) I he law, give what time they can spare irom the public business to some profitable occupation, that they may aflTord an example to others. Students, who have been selected by the syphogrants and priests, and -p- proved by the people, in order to follow the pursuits of literature, are exempted from manual labour; but if any of them disappoint the hopes entertained of him, he is returned to his work; and, on the contrary, any tradesman who in his leisure hours displays a talent for learning, is admitted into the class of students, and enjoys all their privileges. It is only from this class that ambassadors, priests, the senate (or tranibors), and the chief magistrate are selected. Another circumstance contributes to the abundance of everything useful in Utopia; which is this — that no more labour is employed upon any matter than is necessary to make it useful. In other countries, the pulling down, remodelling, or rebuilding of houses, which have no fault but that they do not please the heir of the person who originally built them, occupies an immense number of workmen: among the Uto- pians, however, such waste of labour would be held ridiculous. In respect to dress, also, each person while at work wears a suit of clothes made of leather, or other stout materials, which will last for several years; and when they go abroad, they wear an upper garmont, which is everywhere of the same- colour and fashion; so that the only attention required for their clothes is to keep them clean, and in good repair. That waste of labour which is elsewhere expended upon the changing of fashions and different colours of dress, is never wanted in Utopii,; and no one would either feel himself more comfortable, or be more esteemed by his neighbours, by having those endless changes which occupy so much idle time and expense in other countries. I must now tell you about the way in which they c.'irry on their intercourse with each other, and how the labour of one set of tradesmen ptocures them the necessaries which are manufactured by others. The whole peoi)le, as I mentioned, is divided into faiuilies, or small clans: and I should add, that when marriages take place between members of different clans, the females, who are not allowed to marry till the age of twenty-two, leave their own, and live with that into which they are married ; while the sons, who must not marry till twenty-six, remain in the paternal family, under charge of the oldest surviving parent: no family, however, is permitted to have more than sixteen members, or fewer than ten. The city being 85 CIIAMBEBS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. divided into four quarters, there is a market-place for each; to this rendezvous every family brings the pro- duce of its labour, for each species of which there is a separate storehouse. At the same time that they thus deposit what ilioy have produced, they take away with them what they have occasion for at home; and there is no danger that they should either bring too little or take away too much. Why should they be indolent when they have so little lubourl or rapacious, or greedy, when they know that there is abundance, and to spare, for all < Throunh the diiferent parts of the town there are public halls, where the iniiabitauts eut together, every thirty families having a common table. They are summoned to their meals at stated hours by a trumpet or conch; but every person has liberty to eat at home if he pleases — a permission of which very few avail themselves, since the dishes at the public table are prepared by far more skilful cooks than they are them- selves. The old and young are intermingled together ai table, so that the latter may hear and profit by the conversation of their seniors. For the sick there are public hospitals in pleasant airy situations without the walls, where they are nursed with all care, and where every person is sure of meeting with mure attention and skill than he could command at home, so that no one is reluctant to go and reside there wLile af- fected with any disease. The Utopians have but a small number of laws, society being so regulated among them by their ex- cellent customs, that a very few are sufficient to pre- serve order. They think that there is nothing more absurd among other nations than the innumerable multitude of volume? wliich are occupied with laws ; and they ask with great reason, how can people obey rules which are either so obscure that no one can un- derstand them, or so imraerous that they cannot be read ) With regard to their own laws, they think them useless if they seem obscure to the dullest pea- sant ; and none but the plainest and most obvious meaning is admitted, all subtle and refined interpre- tations being cast aside. They never make war but for some gross injury done to themselves, or morr especially to their allies ; but they carry on their hostilities in a very singular manner. A Utopian ^'eneral would gain no credit by a bloody victory, how* ver complete : if he cannot over- come his enemies by iitratajrem and artifice, with little loss of lives, he is reckoned an unskilful commander. There are difi^ereut kinds of religion in Utopia ; sometimes there are even difl'brent forms of worship in the same city. The sun is adored by some, and by others the moon ; while a third class pay adora- tion to some of the planets, reckoning these as in some sort images or representatives of the Deity. When they were informed by us of the nature of the Chris- tian religion, it is impossible to conceive the eager- ness with which many among them listened, and made inquiries. A goodly number became Christians, and no one belonging to the old religion offered the least hindrance or obstacle to any of the converts. I recol- lect, indeed, no instance of any person being molested on account of his religioii, it being an ancient law in the state of Utopia that no roan's religion shall be made a reproach to him. _ The stranger recounted to U8 a number of other circumstances regarding Utopia, which cannot be inen- timied now. 1 was much inclined to dispute the pro- priety of a number )f the regulations of the commu- nity, which appear' d to me exceedingly absurd ; such as their mode ol carrying on war, and some of their ideas as to religion ; but more especially that which seemed the keystone of the whole, their custom of pos- sessing all things in common, and prohibiting the use of money — two regulations which would overthrow, according to the common opinion at least, everything which makes the splendour aud power of a common- wealth desirable to its subjects.' Such is au account of the far-famed Utopia of Sir 36 ' Thomas More. In later times, schemes not rcry dis> similar have been seriously proposed by benevolent speculatists for the reconstruction of society, and partly carried into practice, though with no prospect of per- manent continuance. At the head of this class of pro- jectors stand Robert Owen and Fourier, the latter a religious enthusiast in France. The plan aimed at consists in causing fifty or a hundred families, as the case may be, to live in one community, in which all are to labour for the general behoof, and all to be sup- ported on equal terms out of the common stock. In- dividual property is to be unknown ; all personal feel- ings are to be sunk in that of the community. How it is proposed to meet difl^erences as to the education of children, religious belief, and other important matters, how evil passions are to be universally extinguished, or what is to be the consequence of the idle pr«ying on the industrious, has never been satisfactorily explained. According to Fourier, we believe, members seriously transgressing the rules are to be expelled the com- munity, which amounts to a giving' up of the whole principle : if the community cannot reclaim and retain its evil-disposed members, the scheme is confessedly worthless. Defective as ordinaiy society is allowed to be, it does not eject the most vicious or the most im- provident of its members — for the criminal it finds prisons aud penitentiaries, and to the poor and starv- ing it offers workhouses ; even the most dissolute can pick up au alms. Patriarchal Boclot}*— Clanship. The patriarchal condition of society has prevailed in Arabia and other Eastern countries from the most remote periods of history. It is the most simple kind of social union. A patriarch, so called from a word signifying father or head of a family, is the head or governor of a tribe, who obey his orders, aiid depend iit a great measure on his judgment. Generally, the office of patriarch is hereditary, but it is also sometimes elective. The most distinguished of the ancient patri- archs was Abraham, the great progenitor of the Hebrew nation, and who va» originally a dweller in Arabia. The leaders of tribes in these pastoral regions are now known by the title of Sheiks — the word sheik in Arabic signifying the elder or eldest. In this rudimental state of society, the tribe has usually no fixed residence, but wanders from place to place ntaa n (-i/l nTrVivila (ill n •-> i\ta >• ■> 1 mrmA»A** >*!i..> ^^ .!!_ ... ..1 1 1 1 T1..1. i.. j.1.*— ? ;_l- i :__ x1 exercise, and affords all an equal opportunity of dis- tinguishing themselves. It likewise ought to point out the duty of establishing systems of universal education, by which we should be assured that every one at least possessed the elements of instruction, and means of •elf-advanccraent. With respect to those who, from absolute incapacity, and other unavoidable circum- stances, become poor, it is now a generally settled prin- ciple that ihey have a claim in law, as well as on principles of humanity, for support from their more fortunate fellow-creatures. The organisation of civil society, though possessing a general resemblance, difl^ers in a few particulars in every country. TI^, chief difference consists in the ddfusion of prinlegos. To understand distinctions of this nature, it is necessary to peruse a course of history, ancient and mc'eni. Little can be learne'l from look- ing at the present aspects of things; we require to 8S equal privileges. But to this principle, true in the abstract, there are some practical ortjections, which will afterwards engage attention. Meanwhile, we desire to fix attention on the vast impulse given to civilisa- tion by the erection of cities. Cities. It is to cities or large towns that mankind chiefly owe the blessings of civilisation, and the valuable insti- tutions which they now enjoy. 'With cities, everything that is great and glorious — arts, science, literature — began, and after beginning, was duly fostered. Through their means civil society began to assume a more syste- matic cliaracter. The division of labour, the refine- ments of social intercourse, the development of laws caused by the conflicting interests of many people living closely together, the idea of equality of rights, the growth of patriotism, springing fcom tha stuso of CONSTITTTION OF SOCIETY. hdvantagei enjoyed, and the exertions neceaaar^ to luaiiitain them, were the salutary cousequeuces ol the eatablishmeut of cities. Under the mild sky of Asia, Africa, Greece, and Italy, cities were built iSrat, and in the greatest num- ber. The Phoeuiciana and Egyptians particularly dib- tiiiguished themselves by the erection of cities, which goon attained a high degree of wealth, and conse- quently of civilisation. The Egyptians considered their city Diospolis (Thebes) older than any of the Uruek cities; and Pliny says that Cecropia (erected in Attica by Cecrops, 15B2 d.c, and afterwards called Athens) was tho oldest city of Greece. Several ucn- federatious of cities existed in the ancient world; for instance, the Phoenician, consistin' if the cities of Tyre, Sidon, &c.; and the Achaean leag>.e, formed by the most important citiea of Greece, in order to strengthen themselves against the power of Macedon. Under Augustus and hia successors, the Uojiana began to establiali colonial citiea in Germany, having done tho aame long before in Gaul, Spain, Africa, &c. In Switzerland, they first erected citiea about a.d. 70, which, however, were moatly laid waste by the Ale- i^anni, and subsequently rebuilt under the govern- ment of the Franks (a.d. 496). The Germans, accustomed to a wild, rambling life, did not show any disposition to live in cities, until Charlemagne laboured to collect them together in set- tled abodes, from hia desire to civilise them. Henry I. distinguished himself particularly iu this way, and on this account has been called by some Henry the City- builder. He gave the citiea great privileges, in order to induce hia subjects to live in them, and thus laid the foundation of that power which at a future period contributed most to break down the feudal ayatem. In many citiea, imperial castles were erected to protect the inhabitants; and the insupportable oppressions and even cruelties exerciaed by the feudal lords upon their peasants, or by the wandering knights and robbers, drove many people into the cities. The attacks of the neighbouring lords gave firmness to their union, and compelled them to cultivate theit resources. Com- merce, and the various arts and trades, were soon culti- vated within their walls, and their wealth and respec- tability increased. They soon became sensible of the want of a better system of laws and administration than that which prevailed around them, and the priu- ciple of equal rights and laws was quickly developed. One of the most important remnants of the great fabric of ancient civilisation, was the cities of Italy. What the world would hi:.ve become without them is not to be calculated. In s^ ite of their bloody contests with each other, and the vices to which these gave rise, they must be considered as having lighted the torch of modern civilisation. It was not the monarchiea, it was not the courts of the great princes, it was the citiea of Northern Italy, which opened the way for the pro- gresa of improvement; and the petty princes of Italy caught from them the spirit which prompted their eiforts to promote it. Under the reign of Conrad III. (113U-52), the cities of Lombardy, and particularly Milan, which stood at their head, had acquired a high degree of wealth and power, and had formed them- selves into a confederation. The struggles between the emper srs and these cities form one of the most impor- tant portions of the history of the German empire and of Italy. Frederick I. in vain demolished the powerful city of Milan. It was aoon rebuilt, and the cities of Lombardy, in alliance with the pope, obliged the em- peror to conclude with them a very disadvantageous peace at Constance. Two other confederations of cities, highly important, were formed during tho interregnum of the German empire, between 12.56 and 1272. One of them was the poweri'ul league of the Hana tovvns ; the other, the confederacy of the High German and Rhenish citiea, from the foot of the Alpa to the mouth of the JIaine, established by Walpode of Mentz, in 1255. A similar confederacy, and a very important onc; was that of the Suabiau cities, instituted iu 14)1U, to repel the outrages of the feudal lords and knights. Uy degrees, groat cities arose in the different countries ; and wealth, industry, knowledge, and equal laws, spread from them through Europe. Much has been said and written against the immo- rality of large towns and cities, and the fact cannot be denied; but immorality is not confined to them. The petty vices of small places, though leaa glaring, ar« perhapa equally injurioua, making up in constant re- petition for their comparatively less degree of noxious- ueaa. It is much more difficult, moreover, to preserve one of the most important possessions — independence of character-^in a small place than in a large one. The cry against the immorality of large cities should not make us forget the many great and admirable things which mankind have been ?nabled to perform by means of the collected strength of talents and re- Bourcea combined in large citiea, and their influence in forming the character of great men, who could not have acquired elaewhere their variety of accompliah- ments, and the well-proportioned cultivation of their various faculties. At the aame time, we muat allow that it is a very injurious policy to strip a whole coun- try of all which illustrates and ennobles it, iu order to swell the treasures of the capital. Capitals, in the modem meaning of the word, can hardly be said to have existed in ancient times ; at least they were then only the seat of the sovereign, but not the centre of all the national activity, Rome only perhaps excepted ; but this city was for a verjr long time, the state itself, and, at a later period, the tyrant of the whole empire, rather than the head of a well-organised body. In Asia there existed, indeed, in ancient times, capitals of very large empires; but they are not to be compared to the capitals of large modern empires, since the channels of communication and intercourse had not then reached that degree of perfection which enables them in our daya to bring mto close connection all parta of a country. Each pro- vince was therefore left much more to itself. It would be difficult to determine whether the good or evil con- aequencea of large capitala in modern times are greater, and such an examination would far exceed our limits; otherwise it would be very easy to point out, in every department of civilis..tion, in science, social intercourse, arts, &c. both ealutary and pernicious effects resulting from the influence of capitala. It seems to us a matter of little doubt that it must be regarded as disadvanta- geous to any country if th^ capital ceases to be tho concentration of the skill, genius, and strength of a nation, for the benefit of the whole, and by a dispropor- tionate superiority destroys the importance of the rest of the country, as we find to be the case with Paris, which, as has been often observed, contains France. In Germany, the state of things is quite the reverse. There is no city which may boast of being the point of national concentration. The consequences have been very advantageous to science, and somewhat disadvan- tageous to literature. In politics, this want of a central point has had melancholy consequences for Germany. London never exercised that degree of influence over England which Paris has over France; one reason of which may be, that the institutions for the difl'usion of knowledge are not iseated in the metropolis. The system of concentration has, there is little doubt, been carried to an extreme in Europe — the best of everything having been collected in the capitals, and the provinces hav- ing been almost stripped of pictures, libraries, &c. In many countries this fault is acknowledged, and a re- turn to a more equitable system is perceptible. The injury done to the provincial towns in Britain by the concentration of institutions of various kinds in the capital, is likely soon to be greatly modified, by tho establishment of railways and oi,her improved means of communication, which will tend to give all parts of the kingdom an equality of advantages.* * Tho above observations on oitiea are abridged from an ia« structivu article in the ' Conversations Iiezicou.' 89 CHAMBERS'S INPOBMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. it GOVERNMENT. " If all mankind were naturally virtuom, and diiposed to act justly and kindly towards each other, there would be little use in establishing any kind of government. According to ancient poets, there was once a period called the (iolden Age, in which there prevailed uni- versal peace and loving-kindness, and vice had no exist- ence, Never was there such a period. The farther back we go in history, we find that society was the more rude. Civilisation has been a plant of slow growth, often retarded, and oAeu springing up afresh. The world never was better than it is at this moment. According to all er.perience, society cannot exist with- out some spt-i'ius of government. It must posaess a power to enforce order, to prevent the strong from op- pressing the weak, to chastise vice, and perform many other necessary functions. The government luarbe good or it may be bad, but a governnient of some kind there must be. There will always, in every society, be aome who have a desire to rule over others — to make others work out their purposes — and some who are ■atisfied to submit to the domination of those who are more ambitious. There will always be among those who are ambitious of governing, some who unite to the desire the talents necessary to enable them to attain their ends, and others who do not; some who seek to found their power upon their own force, or upon the prejudices of others, or upon their power of persuading or convincing men that they know better what is good for them than they do themselves. The propensities and faculties which induce and enable some men to aspire to be leaders, others to contest the leadership with them, and others, again . contentedly to follow the lead, are implanted in them by nature; they cannot help having or exei-cising them. But it is with these elements of our nature as it is with our instinctive propensities to eat and drink, to love or hate; by the proper use of their knowing and rejecting powers, men may so control and direct them, m to render them in- struments for producing great good and happiness to the whole human race. FORMS OF QOVERNSIENT. The patriarchal and clanship systems of government have been already adverted to. With these mankind may be said to have made a beginning. The next step in progress seems to have been a government by kings. The origin of kingly power is fighting. lie who was the bravest warrior, assumcL', or was given, the office of king, with a supreme dictatorial authority. In some ancient nations, a government of priests superseded that of kings. This species of government was called a theocracy, from Theos, the Greek word for God ; it being represented by the priests that they ruled only according to the decrees or will of God. Although to a great extent based on superstitious fears, the priestly governments were an advance on governments of mere fighting men, because they preserved tranquillity, and, on the whole, were for the benefit of the people. Out of these early systems of government, iv con- junction with the experience of ages, all existing governments have sprung. Although, however, there is nothing of which mankind has had so extensive or so varied a knowledge, it is till this hour undetermined whether there be such a thing possible as a perfect government. Much has been written on the subject; but the result of all inquiry seems to be, that nothing Is certain, except a fev/ general principles. Those, therefore, who contend for any particular model of goveniiuent, without a duo regard to circumstances, only pursue a delusive fancy. No species of govern- ment that could be devised will a])ply universally. Schemes the most brilliant on paper come to nought when tried by the rude shocks of daily events. Forms of govenimeut, in short, are as yet arbitrary and un- settled ; and the only practical jirinciplc of any value whicli we know is, that every nation should possess a 40 government ia harmony with its state of civilisation, and the tastes and habits of the more enlightened por- tions of the community. As there is, in the present condition of the world, no such thing as a universally suitable form of govern- ment, so the form of government of any particular country requires to vary and alter its character in adaptation to the advance or retrogression of society. In proportion as the people ara ignorant and turbu- lently disposed, the government requires to be strong and arbitrary; and according as the people are enlight- ened, and disposed to live peacefully, the goveniment may be mild and liberal. The ambition of kings and emperors no doubt is observed to sustain an arbitrary rule in circumstances where greater freedom should be accorded; but as a general principle, it is evident that arlitrary military governments can only exist perma- nently where the people at large are incapable of guid- ing and enjoying free institutions. Sooner or later, the government of every country must bring itself into harmony with the society it overrules, otherwise it will suffer the risk of being overthrown. The cause for this is evident. It cannot escape notice that every govern- ment acts upon its subjects by means of themselves; it employs its subjects to keep its subjects in obedience. The consequence of this is, that in every country, and in all ages, the most seemingly despotic government is kept in check by the opinions of its subjects. No government has ever with impunity set at defiance the opinions, be thejr well-grounded or be thev prejudices, moral and religious, of its subjects. The Ottoman sultan, at the time when his power was greatest, never dared to act contrary to the law of the Koran. Henry II. of England was obliged to humble himself before the religious sentiments of his age, outraged in the person of Thomas-a-Becket. Civil govornment-«-poli- tical action — is human Ingenuity working by human means. It is this necessity under which ?very govern- ment lies, of governing its subjects by its subjects, which puts the whole community in possession of an engine, by the proper application of which, government may be obliged to work for the general good. Government being thus compelled to a certain degree to make justice and the good of the community its aim, it is important that the community be so enlight- ened and organised in opinions and wishes that it will easily and unobtrusively act on the controlling autho- rity. There ir another object to be gained by thus enlightening and organising the people, besides that of making them an efficient check upon government when it goes wrong; it is only by enlightening ana organising the people that they can be rendered capable of lending due force to the operations of government, when these are what they ought to be. An unenlightened people is quite as likely to entertain mistaken notions of what is for its good as correct ones; it is quite as likely to oppose government when it tries to do what is right, and to support it when it tries to do what is wrong, as the reverse. Government was in the right when, about the year 17R0, it repealed some of the worst enactm>>p^r> against the Catholics; but tha people were so far from heartily approving of this act of justice, that Lord George Gordon's riots in London, and the buniii. g of Catholic chapels in Edinburgh, had nearly frightened government out of its good intentions. The first step, then, in making such arrangements as are necessary for keeping government in its just and useful I'ae of action, is to enlighten the people. There goes ir jre towards enlightening the people than merely giving them school instruction, however thorough and extensive that may be. The people require to take every opportunity of acquiring knowledge, of extend- ing their stock of ideas, of elevating their tastes, and of cultivating a brotherly benevolence. The great retard- ing influence in every nation has been less the arbitrary will of governnient, than the mass of ignorance which haa nestled in the bosom of society. A consideration of this circuiustancL ought to temper observations on the strictly monarchical and aristocratic forms of government. CONSTITttlOif OF SOdEtY-QOVERUMfiNf. Arlttooncht. An arulocruci/, n cluss of privileged nobles, hiw Its orijrin in the wrcuinitaiice that greater skill, enterpune, intelligence, and peweverance, at first threw a com- paratively great an\ount of wealth and ])ower into the tianda of a few families; that the management of that wealth, and the exercise of the power and in- fluence, were occupations calculated to give a greater practical development to the propensities and faculties of their descendants, than tho routine drudgery of those who earned their daily food by their dailpr labour. We have no desire to jjalliate the • '» of aristocratic government. That degree of oi..igiitenment which enables men to lord it over others, is not necessarily accompanied by that hisher enlightenmeat which teaches the beauty and utility of self-control, and the exercise of justice to all. But we nmst not, therefore, shut our eyes to the fact, that aristocratic govern- ment is one of the stages through which all societies must pass in their way to something better; that so- ciety advances as man walks, by putting one part of tho body foremost, and dragging tho rest up to it; that the love of power, and skill in acquiring and exercising it, must be realised in the few, in order to excite the desire of a share of it in all. That inequality of dvi- lisation which gives rise to aristocratic power and influence, exists in many dift'erent forms and modifica- tions. Even in our own country an uncivilised class is found — that unfortunate class which supplies the precarious demand for the lowest kinds of unskilled labour, and which fills our police-oflices and other courts of justice with the greater number of the victims to the security of society. In a rude society, there is wanting that enlighten- ment which is necessary to confer upon the subjects or citizens the power ot keeping their government in the path of its duties. In a partially-civilised society ' — a society in which some classes are considerably ad- vanced in civilisation, while others are still rude, nelp- less, and ignorant — onl^ a portion of the citizens will be able to exercise this control. They will exercise it to their own advantage, neglecting the interests of the powerless classes, roost frequently from thought- lessness, but sometimes at the impulse of motives still less excusable. The onl^ guarantee men can have for good government, is their power to exact it ; and the foundation of that power is knowledge or intelligence — intelligence imparted by civilisation, and heightened by teaching — knowledge ditfused through every section of the community. Wherever there is an ignorant class, it will be weak; and wb'^rever men are weak, they will be oppressed. No chain can be stronger than its weakest link ; no society more powerful tnan the most ignorant section of its members. Experience has shown to bola governors and governed that the preservation of rights from attempts at inva- sion is a paramount duty. The Roman plebeians, as measures of self-defence, obtained from their rulers, at difl!erent times, tribunes invested with power to gur.rd their rights, the right of "lecting one of their own number to be consul, and various other concessions, all which at the time appeared to thein to be sufficient to assure them o'l' just government in tiine to come. In our own country. Magna Charta and the Bi!l of Rights were bargains struck betweeu the governors Mid the governed for the same puqiose. AH these arrange- ments, whether well adapted to promote the end in view or not, are what are called constitutions, or con- stitutional governments. They are bargains struck between the government and the people at large, award- ing to each party certain powers or privileges, which the other becomes bound to respect. The object in view is to render it possible to check those evils at the very outset, which, if allowed to go on, lead to revolts and revolutions — to enable the people, by keeping a steady watch over the motions of their rulers, to mark their first aberrations from the right, to remonstrate in time — to prevent injustice, instead of revenging it. Constitutions of government have been detiied and adopted as various as the habits, opinions, amount of wealth and knowledge, and distribution of them among the people who have devised them, A constitution is adopted in the belief that it will secure the enjoyment of their just rights, alike to the governors and the governed; it is an avrangement by which the privileges of all are equally secured; or, to use a familiar ex- planation, it is A bargain made between the governors and governed, or- among the whole members of society mutually, as to how the ^oveniment shall be conducted, so as to insure civil and religious liberty — liberty of action, and liberty in the expression of opinion, within certain legal limits. A constitutional is thus the highest form of government — the only kind of govern- ment worthy of a civilised community. DeapotlsmB. At the present time, the greater proportion of the governments throughout the world are of the character of deipotismt, -.nd comparatively few possess what are called coMtitMioM, Uf the multifarious class of des- potisms which exist among barbarous nations, it is hero needlees to say anything; for the question of form of government only becomes interesting when applied to a wholly or partially -civilised people. The three great despotisms in Europe are Russia, Austria, and Prussia — though the latter is now perhaps entitled to be removed from this class, in consequence of the king having granted a modified constitution. Austria and Russia are rigorous despotisms, each being governed exclusively by an emperor. In these countries, any one can be leeally seized, without previous notice, and transferred to a dungeon for life, or sent as an esile to a distant part of the empire. The press is under a rigoi'ous censorship, travelling is regulated by pass- ports; and the whole people are under the eye of a strict military police. We may be sure that the com- munity which submits to all this is still in a transition and unsatisfactory condition. Constitutional Monarchies. Europe abounds in constitutional governments, but many of them are scarcely entitled to the name. Sar- dinia, Saxony, Sweden, Hamburg, and all the smaller German states, have constitutions of one kind or other; that is to say, the king, grand-duke, chief ruler, or by whatever title he is called, is restricted in his designs by estates composed of delegates from diflTerent orders of the people. We should consider it quite useless to present detailed explanations of these constitutions, be- cause all, or ncirly so, are little better than a mockery. The reigning monarch can either directly neutralise the will of the estates, or he and they, together or sepa- rately, are under the influence of armed intervention. The Dutch have a constitution, but they have no right of public meeting for political objects; their press is under a censorship ; all must carrv passports; andp^ery citizen, in any kind of trade ov profession, is required to pay for a license. The icfant and still disorganised constitutions of Spain and Portugal it is unnecessary to notice. At present, Germany is making eflbrts to establish a constitution of the difi%rent states collec- tively ; the probability is that these aims will not be realised without much disorder and suflTering. British Constitution. — From the raw and ill-regulated constitutions of most continental nations we ascend to the old-established and well-guaranteed constitution of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, The government of this large empire (which we need not here particularise, as it will be fully treated of in our article Constitution and Resouuces of the Dritimh Empire) is a perfect anomaly, and, though frequently imitated, has never, in a monarchical form, been excelled. The legislature, as is well known, con- Eists of a hereditary sovereign (king or queen, as the ca.10 may be), a hereditary House of Peers, and an eloctpd House of Commons. A Parliament is the terra used to express the coUectivo bodies of King, Lords, CHAMBBBffS INFORMATION FOR THU PEOPLK. ftnd Cominoni. EUctow of memben of the IIouio of Common* must be imtire or iiaturellied »ul)jecti, malei of twenty -one yeari or upwMdi, of »»iie mind, not con- cerned in the management or collection of the revenue, not lioldint; any oftce in the metropolitan police, and wot legally convicted of perjury, subornation of perjury, or bribery. In counties, an elector must bo possossed of property in perpetuity or liferent to the value of A'lO yearly, or lands held at a yearly rent of i'50. In cities or boroughs he must ))e proprietor of a house or shop valued, along with the land attached to it, at illOjfearly and upwards; or must occupy lyremises for which he pays a rent of at least ;£ 10 por annum. Such, with certain moditications, is the prhiciple on which members are elected. In practice, it is found ii'.at nmch of the elective privilege is exercised by, or under the inilucncj of, the landed gentry, in which we include the titled aristocracy "f the country. At no time have what are called the lower or working- classes (freemen excepted) possessed the elective privi- lege; and it has only been since the Reform Act of 1(131 that the middle classes (shopkeepers, master trades- men, manufacturers, farmets, &c.) have had the sem- blance of direct re])resentation. With this alteration, however, it cannot be said that the legislature has un- dergone much material improvement. Too frequently the members are still nominees of the landed gentry, or of corporations; and so much time is usually spent in electoral intrigues, parliamentary debates which lead to nothing, as well as the conciliation of parties, that the business of the nation is continually falling behind, or but indifferently exncuted. In whichever way it is viewed, the legislature of the United Kingdom is essentially the reflex of the landed gentry t^d aristocracy, nnd consequently the interests of these classes are uriformly the chief matter for con- sideration. The next great interest cared for has till lately been the West India interest; next the shipping interest; next the military and naval interests; and lastly, the commercial interest, and the interest of the people. The executive, reposed in the hands of a re- sponsible ministry, takes its character from these com- peting interests. The execution of any project of law or government is, to all appearance, rarely a result of principle, but in almost every case an immediate con- sequence of temporary ex )ediency. Power is attained by skill in gaining a numb jr of supporters, and recained by skill in keeping them together. So much of the British statesman's effoi'ts, during his apprenticeship to power, and his exercise of power, arc devoted to the getting and keeping of power, that he is necessarily deficient in natural and acquired administrative talent. The manner in which the administrative functions of government are executed, depends upon the industry and honesty of officials not responsible to public opinion, not liable to be dismissed unless convicted ol gross dereliction of duty, and of whom their chiefs ask little mo'e than sufficient attention and skill to save them from saccessful criminations by opposition. This kind of organisation weakens the direct pressure of public opinion upon administration; and, at the samo tiiue, by encouraging personal canvassing for political sup- port, and the cultivation of impressive oratory, diverts public attention from the dry business of goveniiiient, to sympathise with personal squabbles, and attention to abstract questions, more imposing, but less immediately important, than practical details. The consequence is, that the British government, more than any other in Europe, has been characterised by the expenditure of immense energy, with very disproportionate results. Whether any further iiUroduction of the democratic principle (lowering the elective franchise) into the constitution would improve its qualities, is extremely doubtful. The people, taken in the mass, are still far from being instructed. A vast number can neither read nor write ; and such is the distressing state of po- verty and wretchedness of large communities in towns, that, with their small knowledge of public affairs, oud liability to be corrupted, it is to be feared they | 42 would appoint men of inferior qualification!, or who* ever i>aid them most liberally. The freemen voter* (working men) of Norwich, and some other towns, make a regular sale of their votes on the occasion of olectioni. In tuis strangely-complicated condition of aiikirs, tha only real restraint on government is public opinion, expressed through the me.>iilu which it can hardly emerge without the iit, the stoppage to speculation, the cuiilriu:tic)n to expen- diture, is so cxcetyivc, that the lower orders are iiiiiiie- diately involved in distress; and the same causes which increase their discontent, and augment their dispo! are usually the most ignorant, gain the aiicendancv and, under colour of constitutional privilege, tyraiiinise over tho more quietly disposed and intelligent. This is exemplifled to a considerable ex- tent in the I'nited States of America, and on a smaller scale in many popularly-constitutcci bodiet in Great IVitain. Among these bodies, a handful of noisy demogugues is often observed to carry measuroa by the mere force of clamour; and as the measures so carried are publicly announced as the doings of the whole body, it actually happens that men, under the shelter of an usociation, may bo exempt from responsibility, aiiU >inmit the most tyrannical actions. In the pres- byters meetings of tho Scottish church, mcasuro' are fr(«i|iieiitly carrie«red that goveniui..nt is a complex umchiac, fultilling a CONSTITUTION OF SOCIETY-aOVBRNMENT. will* vni'Ioty of |)ur|inieri, •ml thnt It li to ha Judged of lull from the prcclto iiuturu of it« coiiitructioii, thiui thu i|uiility of the work it |ierfortiii. Another coiiclu- ■ioii wu nrrivu iit U- Thut uood )tovflriiinciit, »lthou/eriiied are excluded. There is, in short, no dis- tinctly-settled ministry in England. The whole affair ia a matter of arrangement at each change of ministry. The Secretary of Statu for the llomu Department may be said to stand at the head of the executive as far as the internal ail'airs of the country are concerned, The appointment of judges, sheriff's, and other function- aries la in his hands, Mili(tM\ aHi< rs come under the jurisdiction of the Srii' .»rj at \\ nr and Commander- in-Chief, Tho royal «<«>> is similarlv regulated by tho First Lord of thi; Vdimralty, and other members com- posing his council. U > French, with leas civil liberty than the English, enjoy n aystem of adiiiiiiiatration the most perfect in the world; it poaaoaaca aoiiie popular olemeiita, but ia thoroughly central. Tho miniatry, uh uxiating uniler tho monarchical regime, conaiated of I. Tho Miiiiator of the Interior ; 'i. Miniater of Finance ; 3. Kovpcr of the .Seala and Minister of .luatice; 4. Minister of I'ublio Instruction and Ecclesiastical Afl'iiirs ; A. Minister of Commerce and Public Worka; (i. Trade and Agricul- ture; 7. Miniater of Marine aiiden> times, in England, coats of arms are graatod only by the eovercign, through the agency of the Herald's Colle)i^; in Scotland, by the Lord Lyon, king-at-arms, or hia officers: an(* in either case, only on cause shown, and on payment of a fee. Latterly, the science hni so Mucft degenerated in the hands of the above functionwies, that little discrimination is oxereised in dispoMing either crests or escutcheons; what is worse, figurea of ordinary objects are sometimes allowed to be displayed, having reference to the pro- fession of the bearer. This is a perversion of heraldry, which is the science of emblems, not the blazonry of vulgar representations. In Britain, the use uf armorial bearings in any form ronders the wearer liable to a special annual taxation. Ranks— Titles. In Great Britain, society is composed of three estates, called the three estates of the realm — l,The sovereign; 2, The nobility or peerage; 3, The commons or people. This division, which originated under feudalism, gives a character to British manners and institutions, and admits of a considerable variety in rank and title. To the sovereign, whether king or queen, is given the title of Mt^esty — as, Ilis Majesty the King. This epi- thet is derived from the ancient Romans, by whbVn it was applied first to the whole people in a collective sense, and afterwards to the consuls and dictators. It was not used in modem Europe till the treaty of Cambray, 1526, when it was given to the Emperor Charles V. Since that period, it has been applied to nearly all Emopean monarchs. By the pope, the title of Catholic Majtttjt was given to the king of Spain ; Apostolic Ma- jetty to the king of Hungary; Mott C/iriilian Afqjtsty to the king of France; and Most Fait/^ftd Majesty to the king of Portugal. Previous to the adoption of the term Majesty in England, the title of Highnett, or His Grace, was taken by the monarchs. To princes is now usually given the title of Highness, or Royal Highness. The nobility conuists of five degrees — dukes, mar- <)uises, earls, viscounts, and barons. The title of duke is from the Latin dux, a leader, and signifies the leader of an army. It is as ancient as the early German tribes previous to Charlemagne. Of old, dukes were set over provinces or districts to regulate the military afl^irs, OS lieutenants of the sovereign. Under the Oennan empire, the dignity and power of the dukes became heieditary. In England, the first hereditary duke was the Black Prince, created by his father Edward III., in 1336. The rank and title of duke hate long since been disconnected with office. To dukes is now given the title of Hi* Grace. Marquis is the next lowest rank. The title of mar* 48 quis, equivalent to margrave in Germany, was origi- nally given to those officers whose dut^ it was to pro- tect the firontiers or marches of the kingdom. It has long been only honorary. To marquises is given the title of Most Noble. Karl is the next degree ot nobility. The title is from the old Saxon word elhel, or ear-etkel, (gei.'^le and noble), abbreviated to ear-el or earl. It was the duty of an earl to exercise civil, and also military jurisdiction over the district committed to his charge; and as count is an equivalent term for earl, the districts superintended by the earls carie to be called couiUiM. To an earl is given the title of Right Honourable, and he is addressed as His Lordship. Vis- counts were the earl's deputies — inec comes in Latin. To a viscount is also given the title ot Right Honourable, and he is addressed as His Lordship. The office of earls and viscounts has long since passisd into the hands of lord lieutenants and snerifls. Barons occupy the lowest degree of rank among the nobility. The title of baron implies manly power, and after the Norman Conquest, was given to possessors of domains held of the sovereignty by feudal tenure: these domains were called baronies. A baron has the title of Right Honourable, and he is usually spoken of as a Lord, The dignity of baroii or lord is now given irrespective of territorial holdings. Among the commons of the United Kingdom are likewise degrees of rank — baronets, knights, esquires, and the people at large. The title of baronet was created by James I. in 1611; the design of the king having been to institute an inferior order of nobility. No gentleman was admitted to the rank of baronet without becoming bound to maintain ' thirty foot soldiers in Ireland for the space of three years, after the rate of eightpence sterling of money of England by the day.' It was by this assistance that James was able to effect the plantation of Ulster with English and Scotch settlers. A similar order of baronets was projected by James for Scotland, called the Nova Scotia baronets; his design being, to reclaim the province of Nova Scotia with the money they paid for toe dignity. This order of baronets, however, was not instituted till 1625 by Charles I. Baronets, as in the case of the nobility, are now created at the pleasure of the sove- reign, and their rank is hereditary. There are. never- theless, differences in the terms in which these honours are held; sometimes the (uitent creating a nobleman or baronet confines the honours to heirs male direct, and sometimes allows their transmission to heirs iu collateral brunches, through heirs female. A baronet places the prefix of sir to his name; his wife is legally styled Dame, but in ordinary speech she is called Lady. Knighthood was a military distinction of the middle ages, conferred only on )>erson8 of honour, truth, and fidelity. Afterwards, difi'erent degrees of knighthood were created. In the present day, knighthood is an honour bestowed on civilians or others, in compliment, as is understood, for some distinguished service in lite- rature, arts, or anus. It is not hereditary, A knight has the prefix of ^ir to his name. The title of esquire was originally given to the shield-bearers of knights — young candidates for the honour of knighthood. It is now so generally assumed, as to have pretty nearly lost all value as an honourable distinctive appellation. Master, or its contraction Mr, is the title given by courtesy to all i>er8on8 whatsoever of an ordinary staiid- ing. Master is from the French mattre, which is from the Latin magisler. Mistress or Mrs is from the French mailresse. Miss, applied to an unmarried woman, is only a contraction of mistress, which used to be applied to young unmarried women as late as the beginning of the eighteenth ceiitury. In England, with the advancement of intelligence, wo may expect a gradual disuse of titles. At present, however, they do not appear to be on the decline; and what is more remarkable, there seems to be a strong love of titles, and even of heraldic insignia, among the citir.ens of the North American republic. How deeply are such fancies imbedded in human nature 1 >rtn»ny, was origi- ut^ it was to pro- kingdom. It has uises is given the degree of nobility. 1 etiiel, or ear^hel, ear-el or earl. It se ciril, and also I committed to his ent term for earl, earls vane to be the title of Bight fia Lordship. Vis- it comes in Latin. 'Right ffoHourable, The office of earls into the hands of if rank among the manly power, and in to poHsessors of ly feudal tenure; A baron has the usually spoken of lord is now given ted Kingdom are knights, esquires, e of baronet was esign of the king order of nobility. rank of baronet tain ' thirty foot three years, after ley of England by I that James was iter with English r of baronets wus d the Nova Scotia n the province of d for the dignity, aot instituted till the case of the «ure of the sove- I'here are, never- ich these honours ting a nobleman eirs male direct, ision to heirs iu lale. A baronet is wife is legally le is called Lady. on of the middle lour, truth, and of knighthood nighthood is an in compliment, service in lite- tary. A knight title of tsquire irs of knights — ighthood. It is retty nearly lost tppellation. title given by ordinary stand- which is from rom the French Tied woman, is d to be applied lie beginning of >f intelligence, s. At present, ic decline; and to be a strong ntft, among the . IIow deepljr urcl HISTORY AND NATURE OF LAWS. Law may be defined as a system of regulations adopted in social communities for the general advantage, and on that account binding upon all the individuals con- stituting a community, tiuch regulations being abso- lutely essential to the existence of a social state, we may safely infer, that as soon as any portion of man- kind advanced into that state, law began to exist. Its origin, being thus early, is necessarily obscure: we know extremely little of its history in any of the nations of antiquity besides Greece and Itome. 1. 1 Grecian history we find more than one well-known codt of laws; but so limited and simple was their ope- rati'>n, and so little are they adapted to the wants of a complicated state of society, that they are to be looked upo!i rather as municipal regulations for the tem- porary government of a small knot of men, than as systems from which any additional hints are to be ob- tained to aid modem jurisprudence. It does not appear to have been in Greece — the source, as it was, of philo- sophy, literature, and art — that useful laws, applicable to the business of life, had their origin. The Phoenicians, of whose history and institutions we unfortunately know so little, seem to have been among the first to establish a general system of mercantile law, which theirexten- site commerce distributed abroad. To Rhodes, which can scarcely be considered a province of Greece, we owe the earliest regulations applicable to shipping. The law of average, or that by which the loss occasioned by throwing goods overboard to relieve a ship in dis- 1:. • ■'< 'aid proportionally on the whole property saved ^- I '.. important branch of the commercial code of ^i.r..U-th lations), had its origin iu that state, and is still '.liO Rhodian law. There is the less importance, however, in the inquiry into the laws of early nations, since all of ancient law which continues to have any force in civilised Europe, has come to us through one channel — namely, the Roman law. ROMAN LAW, AND THE SYSTEMS DERIVED FROM If. Most European nations, being, as it were, the re- moulded wrecks of the Roman Empire, have obtained the basis of their laws from that source. The Roman la^v is, therefore, by the common consent of Europe, deno- minated The Civil Law. In Europe there was but one other system at an early period, to combine with it. This was The Fetidul Law, or that code of usages which had sprung up in European nations before they re- ceived the civil law. It is, after all, only in some countries that the feudal law exists: in other cases, the civil law has established a proportionate, and in some a preponderating influence. In Holland and Germany, the original purity of the principles of the civil law have been preserved with such zealous core, that the writings of the lawyers of those countries are quoted as authorities on the law of Rome. In Spain, the system has been grafted on the feudal law, and on some pecu- liar customs derived from the Moors. In France, pre- viously to the Revolution, the civil and the feudal law were united, as in most other nations of Europe; and in the Code Napoleon, to which we shall hereafter more particularly advert, there are many regulations from the jurisprudence of Rome allowed to exist, or revived, while many of the feudal customs which were formerly so prominent ai-e abolished. England distin- guished herself from the other nations of Europe by rejecting the civil law as authority, but many of her institutions were derived from its spirit and practice. * Vvith all its imperfections,' says Sir William Jones, 'it is a most valuable mine of judicial knowledge; it gives law at this hour to the greatest part of Europe, and though few English lawyers dare make such an acknowledgment, it is the true source of nearly all our No. ,54. English laws that are not of a feudal origin.' In Scot- land, the Roman law has always been a special subject of study ; and though the number of native decisions, the extent of statute-law, and the necessary adaptation of the system to a state of society very different from that in which Justinian promulgated his code, have rendered references to this source comparatively un- frequent, the civil law is still authority where the par- ticular law of Scotland does not contradict it. It is a special object of study by the legal profession, and ia the subject on which the members of the bar are first examined before they are admitted to practice. To complete the general outline of the influence of this system in modem Europe, it must be mentioned as the source of the canon law, which was created into a system by the Church of Rome, and still exists more or less, either separately or incorporated with other systems, in all countries where the papal authority was acknowledged. The law of nations, or international code, has been, by the common assent of civilised nations, derived from the law of Rome. Writers have divided the legislative sources from which the laws of Rome spring into five. Among the first of these is genevally classed the people, and the laws sanctioned by them are techni( ;lly divided into the Lex or Populiscitum, and the Ptet 'scitum ; the for- mer including the acts of the whole p ople, the latter those of the plebeians convened by their tribunes. It would appear that, in the earlier periods of the monarchy, the authority of all classes was in this description of legislation tolerably equal. Servius '''ullius, however, the sixth king, introduced the well-Known divisions into centuries and classes, by which ninety-eight votes were secured to the first class, while ninety-five only were allotted to the remaining five, of which the lowest and most numerous possessed onb one. The tribunes, who were officers chosen for the istensible purpose of protecting the people from the tyranny of the aristo- cracy, were, by the exclusive end important power they possessed, again the means of restorinc popular election. They procured the assembling of '^'^a people by tribes, in which their votes were given ind' vidually, and with- out the necessity of a property qualification. All popu- lar legislation, however, soon disappeared with the authority of the emperors. Augustus, except in one instance, found the popular assemblies profoundly obedient, and under his successor they ceased to exist; so that long before the Roman laws had become the grand system of jurisprudence which they constituted under the auspices of Justinian, the popular source of legislation had been dried up. The decrees of the senate {Scnatus consulta) are an- other source of the Roman law. The legislative power of this body seems to have grown out of its judicial, which was at first its proper province. By the original constitution, the people alone were understood to be the makers of the laws, and their authority seems to have been gradually engrossed by the senate, the inter- ference of which, from having been confined to mere advice and paternal ussisiance in legislation, gradually extended itself to that of !.uukiiig laws. It was not till the days of Tiberius that thsse decrees were publicly promulgated a° I.vns; out ih', senate had by that time lost its independent authnlty, and become merely au instrument in the hands ii the emperor. The proceed- ings of the senate were generally suggested by some public officer, as a ii;inister of the crown now introduces u bill into parliament, and a m^ority decided for past;, ing or rejecting. Iu later times it became the practice for the emperor .''o propose a new law, either by a mes- sage or letter lain bofcve the senate, or by an oration delivered; and as therr wus no opposiiion intended or 49 CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. permitted, the legislative body became the mere regis- trars of the monarch's wiJ!. Another source of th i civil law is the constitutions and rescripts of the empe.< rs. At what time they com- menced the practice of making Iftws vrithout the nominal concurrence either of the senate or tu9 people, is not very distinctly known. A passage in the Pandects, the authenticity of which, long doubted, has been con.'irmed by late discoveries, states that the will of the emperor is law, and that by a particular act, the people had con- ferred upon him all their own power, which was thence- forth absolutely tfl remain in his hands— one of those transactions under the guise of which rulers are so fond of concealing their lust of power, by representing as a free gift that which no one can venture to refuse, Hadrian is believf' i-i he the first emperor who exer- cised the author: t a supreme legislator. The im- perial laws were jjued in a variety of forms. Some- times there was a new constitution springing from the monarch's own creative mind — on another occasion he would give his imperial judgment on some nice specu- lative question of law dutifully submitted to his wisdom. Many of the imperial laws, however, were the deciuions of the monarch in particular cases, the spirit of which was piously preserved by the lawyers of the aga, as the best criterion for a general rule of action. In modern times, we associate with despotism a horror of Inno- vation, and a desire to leave all institutions, whether expedient or hurtful, untouched. It was different in imperial Rome. The emperors were never tired of displaying the legislative product of their own genius, or those which the prudent and courteous discoverers did not coropet; with them for the merit of suggesting. During four centuries, from Hadrian to Justinian, the manufacturing of legislation was in almost constant operation. Diocletian alone enacted 1200 new laws — a number that would do no discredit to a moderately long reign of a British monarch. Edicts of the proetors are another, and not the least important source of Roman jurisprudence. Of these high magistrates there were different numbers at difie- rent times; but the supreme authority vested in two, one having jurisdiction over the city, the other over the proviii'-c:. The pnctor held his office for a year; and as a provision against bis adapting his judgments to his own personal views, the Cornelian law obliged him to issue a sort of proclamation at the commencement of his magistracy, embodying the general principles to which he should adhere in his judgments; and thus, at the moment when he was least acquainted with the duties of his office, he had to fix the plan on which he w^ to execute them. The prtetor was not originally Tested with legislative power — it arose in the ext-rcise of his judicial authority. He was merely the inter- preter of the laws; but when they seemed to him to be Lard, or otherwise erroneous, he to sanction — received what might be called the royal assent, and was incor- porated with th3 other portions of the civil law as a distinct branch of the system. In almost every nation which has pasred gradually from barbarism to civilisation, many Taws will be found to have come into existence without the direct inter- ference of any legislature, and from no better d^iined origin than a habit on the part of the people of sub- niitting to certain rules, or obeying tY". commands of certain individuals; it is, indeed, generally in this manner that legislatures have originated, A consider- able portion of the Roman law was of this kind : it arose in custom, was handed down by tradition and prac- tice, and called consuetudinary law. It is a disputed question, how far it was necessary that some compe- tent authority should certify that the principle actually was an established portion of the ancient customs of the nation, before it could be B«f«ly acted upon as law. It is a peculiarity of the civil, as distinguished from the English jurisprudence, that, according to the for- mer, a law may be tacitly abrogated by lo ig disuse. In Eiig^nd, no law, however long forgotten, ceases to exist till it be repealed by the legislature. The last fountain of Roman jurisprudence which we shall notice, is the Responia Prudentum — literally, the answers of the wise men — the opinions of the sages of the law. It is difficult to conceive a state of society in which the opinions of legal writers, as to the interpre- tation of the law, will not have an influence. If a case occur in which the judge is uncertain as to the proper application of soi. le enactment, where can ho find a more suitable or a safer <,'uide than in the opinion of some far-seeing lawyer, v. ho has anticipated the case without knowing the parties, and who, consequently, cannot have proceeded on a bias to one or tL^ other — a defect of which the judge, if he be the first to interpret the iaw, will be at least suspected 1 Even in England, where interference with the doctrines of the common law is so jealously opposed, the early commentators are the only authority for its provisions; and there is no doubt that they gave the hue of their own opinions to the doctrines they laid down. In Rome, however, where the profession of the law, instead of being a trade, conferred a high rank in society, the opinions of leading counsel had a much more extensive range. They not only interpreted, but they could create law, by suggesting how the decisions should proceed in imaginary cases. At an earl} period, the relation of lawyer and client was that of patron and dependant. Patricians alone could act as lawyers, and the scirnce was involved in riddles to which they only possessed the key. Tho poor client was dependent on the good will of his lordly jiatron for such protection from op- pression, whether through the law or otherwise, as the influence of the latter might enable him tu afiTord. When population and transactions increased, and the laws, insteail of a mystery, became a serious study, which depended more on laborious application than simple initiation, the profession was opened to plebeians. It became not an unusual case, at a still more advanced period, for the patron and lawver to be separated; the former being chosen for his influence, the latter for his skill. Tue forms which regulated the intercourse between patron and client, however, still retained some relics of their origin ; and it is a striking illustration of the influence which Roman jurisprudence has exer- ciseU over the human race, to find these still existing. raSTORT OP LAWS. To th!« day, it i8 against all etiquette to bargain with a barrister for his work. The law gives him no claim for remuneration, which it kindly views as unworthy of the dignity of his profession ; and it is usual to pay him beforehand for his legal assistance. On the other hand, though he has been paid beforehand, he cannot be compelled to perform any duty in return, for he is presumed to assist the client from his own free good will. In most other professions, it is the custom for the person employed to feel under a sort of obligation to the employer who has preferred him to others. This principle is reversed at the bar ; for *he person employed is the patron, and the employer tue client. But to return to the legislation of *'.« sages of the law. During the commonwealth, whoever, by his supe- rior sagacity or knowledge, could obtain deference for his opinions, might be said to be a manufacturer of laws. Unde- the earlier emperors, the privilege of pro- mulgating authoritative opinions wa? confined to a limited number of lawyers, of equestrian rank, licensed by the government; but the profession was againi^brown open to the public by Hadrian. The most brilliant era of legal wisdom commences within a short period of the decline of the republic, and terminates with the reign of Alexander Severus. Mucius Scaevola, the tutor of Cicero, was one of its earliest ornaments; and it in- cluded the celebrated jurisconsults Paul, Ulplan, Papi- nian, Capito, and Labeo. The two last of these, who lived in the age of Augustus, were the founders of the two sects — the Proculians ond Sabinians — into which the Roman lawyers were divided. The former advo- cated the doctrine that the laws should be amended at discretion, to meet circumstances as they occurred; the latter maintained the theorv of their strict interpre- tation, be its inexpediency in the particular instance ^hat it may. Capito, applying his doctrines to the inroads which the emperors were gradually making in the freedom of the republic, was a supporter of this species of innovation, and his followers were enrolled among the ready tools of despotism. Labeo sought to support the aiicient freedom of the republic by an adnerence to the letter of the old laws, and his sect became the champions of what may be termed consti- tutional freedom. The conflict is not unlike that which at one time existed in Britain between Lord Mansfield and Lord Camden; the former supporting, to a certain degree, an equitable, the latter, in all cases, a strict interpretation of the law. H. 'ing now enumerated the principal sources of the Kuman law, we may notice its reniarLable epochs. The laiTS enacted during the reigns of the kings, although a curious subject of inquiry among antiquaries, exercised too little influence on the civil law, as handed down to modem Kurope, to be of much practical importance. During the administration of the decemvirs, the cele- brated laws of the Twelve Tables were adopted. The traditionary history connected with this code is, '' t the Roman government, conscious of the want of a prop*"" 'egal system, sent commissioners to Greece, who, after jtudying the laws of that comparatively civilised nation, produced the Twelve Tables for the acceptance of the Romans. The tradition, like many others con- nected with the Roman history of the period, has not suflicient historical evidence to support it against its natural improbability. These laws, of which specimens are professed to be preserveu, are written in a language so difl^srent from that of the classical writers of Rome, thot they were to Cicero an object of much the same curiosity as the old Scottish acts were to Bacon. Like the first laws of other rude states, they are simple and brief in their enactments. The bankruptcy system — which has so sadly phocked several benevolent scholars, that they have endeavoured t.. explain it as a merely symbolical provision — is peculiarly sharp and effective. It enacts that the insolvent debtor shall be cut in pieces, and that his body shall b« distributed among bis credi- tors. When law became a science openly studied, the Twelve Tables became the subject of many comraen- tariei. It was not, howerer, till the Romans had been for some time degenerating, that those gre; t collections of legislative wisdom which have come down to modem times were commenced. The first attempt to construct a code seems to have been the Perpetual Edict of Hadrian, already alluded to. Two private individuals, Oregorius and .lermogenes, appear to have collected the imperial constitutions into a system, or code, of which some fragmc its are still preserved. Nothing whatever is known of the biography of these compilers: it has not even been discovered in what reigns they re- spectively lived, though their labours received high commendation ^t the hands of Theodosius the Younger. Under this emperor the celebrated Theodosian Code was promulgated, in the year 438. The compilation of this body of laws was committed to eight individuals, who were allowed considerable latitude in explaining and a.brideing, and even in supplying deficiencies. It contains the legislative acts of sixteen emperors, from the year 312 to 438, Fragments of this code have been rescued from oblivion inch by inch, by modem scholars, whose labours, it may safely be calculated, have amounted to some twenty or thirty times more than those of the original compilers. The celebrated Oode- froy of Genera spent thirty years in the task; and within the last thirty years the discovery of some fur- ther fragments induced the celebrated Angelo Mai to study the Roman law for the purpose of editing them. We may now notice those great collections of the legal wisdom of the Romans, to which the above may be considered only preparatory. In 629, ten commis- sioners, appointed by Justinian, prepared The Code or Codex, as it is termed, from the collections previously made, and the intermediate enactments. Soon after its promulgation, the emperor issued several new con- stitutions, and the whole were consolidated and reissued in 534, This great task was superintended by the cele- brated Tribonian, whose eminent learning and discri- mination, allied with untiring industry, but stained by the vices of corruption and partiality, have afforded a fruitful theme of praise anc' oblo(iuy. This was by no means Tribonian's only labour. In the year 530, he was appointed the chief of a commission of sixteen, whose duty it was to cull the choice and useful passages from the authors of comments and opinions. The various authorities, which, we are told, would have mode several camels' loads, were thus reduced within a compkss which, if it do look somewhat formidable to the consulter, is still manageable. Such are the fifty books which constitute the celebrated * Pandects,' or 'Digest' of the Roman law — a work without which modem Europe would have known but little of the subject. Along with Theophilus and Dorotheus, the indefatigable commissioner was able to prepare, in con- junction with this rreat digest of the law, an abridg- ment or manual of its leading principles, which bears the well-known name of ' The Institute,' This con- densed and elegant little work was sanctioned by the emperor in 533. It has become the subject of innu- merable comments, and has afforded the model on which the legal writers of most modern nations have desired to prepare their treatises. Justinian continued, during the remainder of his life, to pr'^Tr.ulgate new laws; and thbac, collected together under the title of ' Novella,' or ' Novels,' form the remaining department of the ' corpus juris,' or body of the civil law. With Justinian we reach the climax of the Roman law; and to trace Hs farther progress in the Empire has been more a subject of curiosity to the antiquary than of importance to the lawyer. Some fragments by later commentators, chiefly in the Greek language, have been disentombed by zealous searchers. The Roman law was nominally respected by the northern con- querors of Rome, Alanc, king of the Visigoths, in- deed, caused a compendium to be prepared for the use of his dominions, consisting chiefly of an abridgment of the codes of Oregorius, Hermogenes, and Theodosius. Towards the end of the ninth century, Basilius, empe- ror of the East, issued a new code, intended to supersede the labours of Tribonian, termea the ' Basilica,' 51 CHAMBEBS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. In the dark ages, however much cf the Roiuon law way have remaiiieil in practice, it had died away in literature, and was neither studied nor commented on. At the taking of Constantinople in the fifteenth cen- tury, only one copy of oae of the Justinian labours, the Novelf, seems to have been discovered. It was long believed, indeed, in the learned world, that from the period of the Basilica to the twelfth century, the very existence of the Roman law was among the things for- gotten. The circumstances of its resuscitation wore found in a traditional anecdote, that at the siege of Araalphi in ]137, some Pisan peasants discovered a complete copy of the Pandects among the plunder, the melodious language, comprehensive philosophy, and clear definitions of which, so charmed the readers of that barbarous age, that its contents were immediately devoured with avidity and p'opagated with zeal. In Florence, a manuscript ' "'1 pre3er>'ed, said to be the identical book with "hi' lis anecdote is connected, taken at the siege of P.; 1^%. The essence of the tradition has been di^pr. ^d uy late discoveries, which show that the civil liw was kiiown previously to the siege of Araalphi. The real revival of the civil law is to be traced in the history of the universities. Of these, Paris, Bologn;*, and Leyden, took the lead in the department of juris- prudence. Contemporary with, or nnmediately after the siege of Amalphi, lectures were given on the Pan- dects in the university of Oxford, by a teacher of the name of Vacarius. For reasons which we shall have to state whe.i we come to treat of the laws of £ngland, the civil law, thus early commenced, never made much progress in England. Nor, altbrnigh the civil law was so prominent a subject of profess. ,nal study in Scotland, has that part of the empire done much to elucidate the science. Doth England and Scotland, indeed, have produced writers on the civil law; but with one or two exceptions, the British jurists are not among those . names which become familiar to the readers on the subject, from the frequent refevence made to them by subsequent commentators. The earlier modem civi- lians followed three oracles — Bartolus, Ualdus, and Accursius, whose works, it is believed, the most enthu- siastic admirer of the study would not now peruse, and who probably retain their chief celebrity from having been targets for the wit of Rabelais. In the seventeenth century, moi-e elegant and philosophical commentators followed, and the subject was pursued with zeal to the middle of the following century. A prodigious number of civil law books issued from the press during that period ; and we have heard it asserted, that a complete collection of all the books published on the civil and canon law would make a library of two hundred thou- sand volumes. The labours of Oodefroy alone are sufficient to damp the ardour of a modem literary col- lector; and there is perhaps no surer mode of compre- hending what human patience and perseverance is capable of, than the contemplation of a civil law library. Holland has been profuse with great autho- rities — Grotius, Matthosus, Schulting, Noodt, Voet, and Huber, belonged to that country. Germany pro- duced the philo80])hic jurist I'^ ffendorf, and Ileinec- cius, whose elementary wor! -as the clearest and most methodical of the comnu utaries — have been popu- lar as class-books of civil law. Among modem in- Testigators in this laborious science, the Germans have taken the lead. To give a general outline of the Roman law, would he to describe the ooinniou principles of the majority of the codes of civilised mankind. Although the pro- gress of commerce and manufactures has introduced a quantity of transactions— such, for instance, as bills of ezchcjige — which the Roman lawgivers could never have contemplated, yet their system is the foundation of all the commercial laws of Europe — a circumstance which has probably facilitated the unifomiity so ne- cessary in transactions which involve inhabitants of different countries. From the same source, Scotland and the greater part of continental Kuroi)e hare de- 52 rived a marriage law so difiTerent from the ceremonioua system that prevails in England. Its leading prin- ciple is, that the consent of the parties alone is neces- sary to a valid marriage, and that when that is proved, nothing more is necessary ; and that a child born between parties who are subseauently married, becomes legitimate by that act. The law of tmsts and of tho mutual rights and obligations of guardian and ward, have found their way more or less into every modern system, and even into the statute-law of England. Prescription, or tho principle that claims are limited by the lapse of time, has come down to us from the Romans. The law of testaments, and the descent of movable property, is niainlpr derived from the sanio qr.arter. It is in the case ot the tenure and transmis- sion of land, indeed, that the person versed in modern systems will find himself least at home in the Roman, from the effect which the feudal institutions of the various nations of Europe have produced on that branch of the law. The subjection in which children were placed to their parents is apt to create surprise, even when compared with the strict filial etiquette of our own ancestors. A revolting feature of the corpus jurij? is the portion of legislation devoted to the subject of slavery and the property in slaves. The Roman law has already been mentioned as the source of the law of nations, or, as it is more justly called, the intarnational law, in modem Europe. It was quite natural that a syitem voluntarily adopted among nations for regulating their mutual intercourse, should be founded, to as great an extent an might be expedient, on the system of the internal laws which the majority of tho nations had chosen to adopt. But the law of nations is pei-pctually varying with circumstances, and it is impossiblo to draw that distinct view of its nature and provisions which may be given of the laws of any particular state. It has been argued, indeed, that the term 'law' is improperly a])plied to the system. Where- ever the term law is used, there is understood not only a regulation laid down, but a means of enfoi-cing it in the hands of a su|)erior power. The civil and criminal laws are enforced by the ordinary courts; the military law, by courts martial; the law of the church, by the ecclesiastical courts, kc. But who, it is said, is to bo the judge to enforce the Ia<'' between nations I When two nations have a dispuf ;id their power ig equal, it remains undecided ; if the one is much superior in strength to the other, it has matters its own way. In the late war, Great Britain maintained that she had a right to search all neutral vessels, for the purpose of ascertaining if they contained contraband goods or sheltered deserters. The smaller states were bound to submit ; but America resisted, and the dispute occa- sioned a bloody war. So it probably will be again when tho same claim is urged. Instead of being a fixed law applicable to all, the weak will have to obey, and the strong will resist. For the enforcement of any rules that may be call< - narch of England, and the IJukes of Burgundy wen- little less powerful. From these high personages, vassalage went through many gradations, till it reached abject slavery. There were the vavauors and chatelains, dependants on the higher nobility, but who themseh cs had large estates and fortified their houses. There were the burghers of free towns, whose privileges have been already men- tioned. Of rank corresponding in the rural districts, were the toeage-holdera, and the class so well known in England by the designation yeomen. The lowest gra great reason to believe that they wera written soH!^ cjni'trles after the Conquest; while the fragments of Angio-Svxon legislation which they contain refer chiefly to the arrangement of the military force, the- clergy, and other matters of general or police regula- tion, which, in the present instance, are less interesting than a little insight into the laws relating tu private rights would be. Alfred and Edgar have acquired much fame for having collected and ananged the laws of their predecessors, reformed them where they were aegreeollrwholderswhocrossedthem— a system which impolitic, and completed them where deficient; but placed impediments in the way of vassals escaping from it would be difficult t<. determine their exact merits, piace^^o place. He obtained tolls and dutiei, too, on I Edward the Confessor enjoys a simJliir reputation. To- HISTORY OP LAWS. him, indeed, hiitnry luppliei ui with good ground for rcferrinf; equitable lawi, for wo liiid that wlien the people complained against tlie oppreiiion nf the Nonnan Vingi, they demanded ' the good old lawa nf Kdward the (.'onfeMor.' It ii probable, however, that the conipli- iiient did not apply to him lo much in the capacity of a legivlator ok that of the loat of the Maxon klngi. Whatever niav havo been the exact nature of the lawi of the \ngrn-Knxona, the Conqueit efleutually in- corporated thom with the feudal syitem, and the con- uectiun between vamal and BU|terior became one uf the moat important featiirea of the common law. It is not to be Buupoaed, however, that thii was the earliest visit uf feudal inatitutions to Uritain, The Saxons could not well escai>c the influence of a system which Lad deeply rooted itself among the kindred nations of the continent ; and many feudal institutiona are to be found exjating under the Saxon kings. The increase of the spirit of feudalism under the swav of William the Conqueror was, however, so groat, that many authors have attri- buted its origin in England to the era of the Conquest. It was then, indeed, that it became oppreasive. The Conqueror brought with him the system of his own pro- vince, for which he wa« a vaasal to the king of France, and could not admit the possession of landed property in England, except as held from himself in the capacity of loi^ paramount. The greater nobles — chiefly the Conqueror's companions in arms — naturally hold the lands he liberally bestowed on them of him ai superior, and they compelled all who lived upon their lands, oi- even in their neighbourhood, to acknowledge them as liege lords. The forcible increase of such a system tvs the feudal law could not but be attended with acts of great oppression. These were added to by the selfish magnificence of the princes, who cleared large trivets of country of inhabitants, that they might enjoy the regal pleasures of the chose in undisturbed tranquillity. The Saxons had their own county courta, but the greater part of the causes were, atler the Conquest, removed from them to be pleaded in the court of the monarch, which attended on his own person. Legal proceedings were conducted in the Norman dialect of the French, which wag afterwards changed into Latin. The use of a tongue unknown to the people at large continued down to the days of Oliver Croiuwoll, and at the Restoration was restored, with somo other ab- surd practices. It was aboliahed in as far us respects the proceedings nf the courts in 1730. The charters that were so often granted by the ear- lier kings to the importunity of their subjects, were partially restrictions of the tyranny of the feudal law, and partially promises to adhere to the old Saxon cus- toms — promises which would not have been so often exacted if they had not been continually broken. The most celebrated of these is that conceded by King John, called Magna Charta, or the Ureat Charter. Its privi- leges are in a great measure constitutional, and it has often been said that it was procured for the advantage of the aristocracy, and not of the people; but it is not without stipulations in favour of the latter, protecting them both from the crown and from the nobility. It restricts the tyrannical forest laws, and the arbitrary exactions by feudal lords from their vassals. The clause which has attracted chief interest, however, is that which says that no freeman shall be affected in his person or pro|)erty, save by the legal judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land. Legal writers have found a stately tree of liberty growing out of the seed planted bv this simple sentence. They discover in it the origin of that judicial strictness which has kept the English judges so close tc the rules laid down for them in the books and decisions of their predecessors. The judgment by peers is said to refer to jury trial, and it is urged that the whole clause strikes against arbitrary imprisonments, and invulrvs the ])rinciple of the habetu corpus, by which every man, whose liberty is restricted, may demand Co be brought before some com- petent court, in order that he may be either convicted or liberated. The Oreat Charter htM always been a favourite object of veneration Imth with the aristocrat and the people, and 8ir Kdward Coke reckons no lese than thirty dift'erent occasions on which it was ratifieil. Civil libertT may be n«uurW for mtbling » omditor to nt noMOMlon of hit dabtor't iMid In p*vni«iit of hi* d«bt. How oppoftd luoh » nmodjr would b« to ftud»l prin- olplM nikjr tMily b« eoneeiT« thoritT whioh the olemy arronted regarding will*— already mentioned under the nead of the canon law, Edward allowed them the charge of the deceaaed'* eftot*, but compelled them to employ the money in paying hi* debt*. From the period when we diicorer anr branch of the common law In exietence, we And it* obierrance rigo- roudy enforced by the Judge*. Of course, they had Tery firequently, a* (ocleti^ progreieed, to apply it to the want* of an age very dim-reut from that in which it wa* inrented; bdt, in doine so, iuitead of directly alter- ing the law, which they always riewed a* beyond their power, they accomplished the change by a manoeuvre almoet peculiar to the law of England, called ' a fiction.' A fiction may be define*! to bo the taking for granted that a thing ha* been done which ha* not been done, and acting accordingly. For instance, if a man had taken an article in loan or on hire, and refuted to giro it up to the owner, the legal remedy, by the common law, wa* a Tery complicated one. In the case, howerer, where a man had found another'* proMrtr which he refused to restore, there was a very expedi- tious and distinct remedy. It occurred to lawyers, that the kind of process used in this latter case was the very thing that would be most suitable for the other; and therefore, when they brought an action against a person who thus wrongfully detained the goods of another, they stated that he had found them, and the judges, agreeing in the propriety of the form of action being applied to the purpose, would not allow the party to show that there was no finding in the case. Hence the well- known action of trover, from the French trouver, to find. Some carious illuttrationt of fictions of law will be given when we describe the method in which the courts acquired their juritdiction. Fietlons were not, however, the only means by which ihii judges, while art* of deeielon*. Of the fonner, there are eeveral of the thirteenth and fourteenth centurie*— Olanvil, Braoton, Hengham, and the book called Fleta, the authorship of which 1( un- known. Lyttloton's treatise on Tenures, the work of a more matured system, wa* long the text-book in the practice of the feudal law. It wa* in the humble form of a comment on thi* work, that the mat Chief-Juetice Coke issued the vatt treasury of legal learning to famU liarly known a* ' Coke upon Lyttleton,' a book whioh i* in ittelf an almott inexhauttible tubjeot of itudy to the lawyer. The next great nam* it Blackttone, a man who brought elegant accompliihment* to bear on the austere drudgery of tho law, and wrote a book, the clear perspicuity of which ha* made many men acquainted with the law* of their country who would have •Hher- wite remained profoundly ignorant of them. The book ha* one great Jefect, that, profe**ing to be not merely un expotltion of the lawt but an eitimate of their worth, it bettowt inditcriminate eulogy on all the vioet of the system as well as its advantages. The reverential eye with which English lawyers look upon whatever ii ancient in tho common law, is singularly apparent in the mi^oritr of law-books. If any great authority, such a* Coke or Blackstone, ha* treated of a particular *ub- ject, whoever afterwards write* upon it seems to be held bound to incorporate all that he ha* *aid, not only in spirit, but in words. As the passage* are not marked u* quoted, the efiisct 1* a very peculiar one ; for the reader, after perusing a few sentence* in tho ea*y flow of the nineteenth century, find* himself unexpectedly entangled in the quaint language of the reign of Jamee I., without the slightest hint that he is going to set, not the statement of the author himself, but something taken from Coke or Spelman. Of the reports of case* thero is now a vast collection. From the time of Ed- ward I. to that of Henry VIII., thoy were annually col- lected by oflicer* appointed for the purpose, and were called year-books. They have latterly Men published by private reporters. As they are all precedents fbr guidance in succeeding cases, and therefore the source to which the public look for the interpretation of tho laws they must oliey, it may be questioned whether they should not be officially recorded by persons re- sponsible for the accuracy of their reports. This plan ha* to a certain extent been adopted iii America. Law of Equity. The peculiar strictness with which the common law was aduiiniitered, gave rise to the other great divi- sion of English jurisprudence — the law of equity. This was originally a system by which relief was given in case* where a strict interpretation of the common law would have produced injustice. It could look to the influence of accidents and frauds when common law could not. A deed, for instance, was lost. The common law court* could hear nothing about what might have been its contents. They could see nothing, know nothing, act on nothing, but the express words of the deed as set before them ; and as that could not be found, the party must suffer. Here the court of equity came to his relief, by compelling a ' discovery ' of the contents of the document. When a trustee was put in possession, common law could not l(«k at him iii any other light but as holding for hit own behoof; but equity compelled him to do hit duty to his employers. Where an obligation wat to pay, common law could comprehend its nature and exact performance, but if it was to perform any other act, the assistance of equity wot generally necetsary. Again, the courtt of lair might give a remedy for a mischief after it had been perpetrated, but they could not interfere to prevent it. This necessary branch of legal administration came likewise within the juritdiction of the Judge in equity, who, on cauie thown, could isiue hit ' injunction.' The origin of thla lystem is as obscure as that uf the UnfOBY OF LAWg. •emmoB Uw, ttioufk It ti t?id«itly of » mora motUrn (UU, hkTiug baan introduoad m • rtinadjr to th« tviU of th« Utt«r. Tb« ttaUt Uw-bouki do not mention it, •nd it WM prob»l>ljr lonn in opcnliou m • lort of ax- wption to tht ordinary cuune uf iair, bafora iawyara would Mknowledga it m a lyitem. Its nioit plauitbla ori(ln ia limply thii — that wiien a perion lufTarad a nauifaat injury wbich tlia ordlnarv courti could not ramadr. ha appliad for radraia to the lovaraigii in par- ion. Tha king's oonicisiioe-kaaper, ur chaplain, bacaiua tba refaraa on theaa oi-canioni, and what ha did ba laalad, br way uf tsitinioiiy of tlie royal authority, with tha king's laal. Hence the origin of the lord chancellor with hij great loal, whoH office, in thin furtn, has been traced, or imagined to be traced, lo far baclk as the dayi of Kdward the Confeuur. lu early tiiiiei, the chauoallori were eccleiiaiticf, and they thiii ware in the habit of adiuating their rquitr, and the form in which they adininittered, it to llie ciril law. This occa- lionad great feuda with the common law courta, which at the oomnienoement of the lerenteenth century raged 10 fierce, that in a caie where a remedy win sought in equity from the proceedings of the Court of King's Bench, the lawyers who conducted the proceeding, and a master in Chancery, were indicted fur an onence. With the assistance of King James, whose legal no- tions were derived from the civilians, the courts of aquity triumphed. The great Sir Kdward Coke was then at the nead of the King's Bench — a man who, notwithstanding his harsh and tyrannical acts, must ■till be admiied for the bravery with which he sup- ported the strict administration of the law, however nigh might be the personage who wished to evade it. whatever may have been the origin of equity, it be- came at last a fixed system of law. It is a popular mistake that a judge in equity gives his decision ac- oording to what is called 'the general principles of equity and Justice,' without reference to strict rules. He is bound down by precedents and rules, and there are many acts of parliament wbich regulate his pro- ceedings ; so that in reality equity is but a depart- ment of the general qrstem of law. Statute Law. We have now to speak of the third branch of the law — statutes, or acts of parliament. The constitu- tion of the legislature by which they are passed doe* not belong to the present subject ; it need only be observed, that to be law, every word of an act requires to hare the consent of the three branches of the legis- lature — the sovereign, the lords, and the commons. In very early times, acts of parliainrnt seem to have been petitions by the parliament acceded to by the sovereign. The parliament was convened to supply the king with money, and while it kept him in suspense, it sometimes prepared a petition agamst grievances, to which a needy monarch found it prudent to accede. It became a firactice for the judges, at the end of a session of par lament, to convert the substance of the ' petitions,' or ' bills,' which had been acceded to by the king, into acts. This practice was fraught with manifest danger, the judges having the power, when parliament had ceased to sit, of altering the intended provisions. To remedy this, the plan now followed was adopted, of making the bill contain the exact words which it was intended should constitute the act. Singularly enough, the bill is still in the form of a petition, and when it is made an act, the only alteration which takes place is, that the words * May it therefore please your Majesty ' are struck out. A bill may be introduced either in the House of Commons or in the House of Lords. It is a rule that all bills affecting personal station — such as bills of attainder for treason, bills for naturalising foreigners, &c. — shall make their first appearance in the House of Lords. The commons possess the more substantial privilege of originating all bills of supply, or for the levying and appropriation of taxes. The privilege is jealously guarded, and it u usual, should tha Housa of Lords ammd lucli a luaaMre, for tha lluusa of Commons to rafusa to take it into oonsidara* tiou again, and to authorise their spaakar to throw it over tha table. About aaventy years aj^o, in the caaa of a bill for the protection of game, the liousa of Lords thought fit tn raiaa tha peualtiee higher than those sanctioned by the lower housa, and as tha mousy went to the exohsouer, the commons considered this au in- fringement ot their privileges, and acted accordingly. All measures involving taxation originata in what la called ' a committee of supply,' in which tha huusa ia Presumed to be sitting, not to debata great questions, ut simply to transact pecuniary business. In tha easa of the introduction of any ordinary bill, amending tha law, into the House of Commons, the first stage is, to obtain leave from the house to ' bring it in.' lu the House of Lords, a member may move a bill without previously obtaining leave. Uu a bill being brought in, the next step is the first reading. A iiiemMr moves that it be read a first time. If thera ba a party in the huuso bitterly opposed to the principle of the mea- sure, it may be opposed in this stage, and a debate and division will of course ensue. If the objections be merely to the details, they are reserved for a future opportunity. Un its passing this ordeal, the bill ia ordered to be printed. The next and princi. - i ordeal is the second reading, aA»r which the bill Is referred to a < >mmittee of the whole house to be examined. In this committee, as in a (Ximmittee of supply, th( body « the same in every respect as that whl< V constitutes the Housa of Commons, but the membei are com ;red as hs ' ig assembled, not to debate general questions, but to jter on a business-like examination of the various ol . m of the measure. When the committee have ( • t. ued all the clauses, the next formality is, that tht, '.import to the house, and that their report ^ received. It ia then moved that the bill be read :!■.> 1 time. This stage is, in disputed measures, ger >rall^ 'he lost trial of party strength. If tha third reauing is carried, there is still another motion, to the effect ' that the bill do pass,' and this motion is seldom opposed. On the bill pauing one house, it is conveyed to the other, where it has to pass through the same succession of readings. When amendments are made on a bill after it has passed through one of the houses, in that to which it IS then sent, it must be re-transi. itted to the house where it first passed. That house may accede to tha amendments, and so let the bill pass; or it may reject the whole measure in consequence of them; or it may, adhering to its first opinions, hold a conference with the other house, with a view to a settlement of diffe- rences. When a bill has passed both houses, its next step is the royal assent, which may be ^iveu either by the sovereign personally, or by commission. A bill that h .\. > '"''xved the royal assent becomes a law, the operati . > -. i ich commences from the moment when the conseul >£ adhibited, unless another point of time be stated in the act. All the statutes of a session are ranked in order, according to the date at which they have r*r.eived the royal assent; and the whole set are distin^/aished from others by the year of the reign i". whict they have been passed. Technically, the wl ok legislation of a session is called one act, and each statute or act, according to the common accep- tation of the term, is called a chapter of it. The privi- lege of printing the statutes in their original state, without note or comment, is reserved to the king's or queen's printers. In the printed edition of the statutes, each chapter is divided into sections. This arrange- ment has been adopted by the printers for convenience of reference, but in the original copy of the act there is no such division — the whole is a continuous manu- script without break. Nor is the division into chapters even authoritative. The consequence is, that when a new act is passed, makin| alteration on some part of a previous one, instead of specifying the chapter and section that is altered, it describea the act vaguely, as an act passed in such a session, for such a purpose, 00 CHAMBERS'S imPORMATIOK B'OB THE PEOPLE. 11iu§, in 1839, an act was paised to alter a section of the Patents Act, paased in 1837. For any ordinary purpoie, this would have been called an act to amend the seventh section of the act 5 and ti William IV. chapter 83; this would have led to tho exact pomt at once: but as there are no such things as chapters and sections known in law, the legislature could only give a roundabout description, thus—' An act to amend an act of the fifth and sixth years of the reign of his late Majesty William IV., intituled an act to amend the law touching letters-patent for inventions.' Sometimes there is a series of acts, the latter ones amending those that have preceded thorn, so that the titles are involved in almost inextricable confusion. Even where the acts are divided into sections, as they are by the printers, it is found very difficult for lawyers to unravel their meaning, and to unprofessional people they are often a sealed book. A section generally consists of but one sentence; and as it Las often to give a long narrative of things that must be done, independently of circum- stances, and others that must be done in particular cases, and others that may be done, but are not im- perative, and others that must not be done, &c., the comprehension of the full meaning of the sentence requires a strong mental effort. Among the statutes, there are individual sentences which, if printed in the type and form of an ordinary three- volume novel, would fill a hundred pages. There are some acts which are passed every session in the same terms, such as the Mutiny Act, the indem- nity for neglecting to take the oaths, &c. Indepen- dently of these, the statutes now passed in a single year generally fill a quarto volume of about .500 pages, very closely printed. Besides these acts, which gene- rally either apply to the whole empire, or to some one of the great national divisions of it, there are annually passed several folio volumes of statutes, called ' Public Local Acts,' consisting of the police acts of the various towns, and acts for the construction and management of harbours, turnpike roads, bridges, gas-works, water- works, railways, kc. It is by virtue of legislative autho- rity only that monopolies can be constituted in such coses, and that individuals can be compelled to sell their property for the uso of public works. Ucnce, this is a separate branch of the statute law, comprising several hundred volumes. The necessity of consolidating together the various statutes on different subjects, has from time to time been felt and expressed by the tiriit legal statesmen of Britain. Lord Bacon, in whose days the statute law did not occupy a twentieth part of its present bulk, spoke with alarm of its overgrown size, and recommended that the whole ought to be abiidged before it should become unmanageable. Already something hae been done. The revenue acts, which occupy a large por- tion of the statute-book, were partially consolidated in 1826. About 400 acts relating to the customs, and similar matters, the prevention of smuggling, regis- tration of vessels, &c., were repealed, and the new regulations on the various heads were consolidated in eight acts. To these acts each subsequent session has generally made some addition ; but to prevent confusion from this source, a very simple remedy has been devised. When there have been several addi- tions made to an act, a new one is framed, embodying the whole contents of the old act, as altered by the nib»9quent ones, and then a^ i ^ ?eviou8 legislation on the subject is repealed. Thus, in 1833, all the custom- house acts were a second time consolidated; that is to say, the acts of lU'iO', with the additions and altera- tions made to them by later acts, were embodied together in a set of r.uw acts, so that no one, in con- sulting the cuEtom-house lasvs, cau ha^'e to go farther back than 1833. Measures, we believe, are in active preparation to extend this principle to other departments. At this moment there are upwards of 12U stamp-acts in operation, one of them as old as the reign of William III. The existence of these confused masses of legis- lation effectually prevents people from being able to aci up to the laws, however willing they may be, and their protection is frequently in other people being equally Ignorant of the laws that are broken. Invidious inves- tigations into antiquated laws are thus occasionally the means of subjecting individuals to ^reat hardships, by bringing punishment upon them which no foresight could have averted. Hence the trade of what are called common informers, whose vindication of the law has too often the effect of merely heaping calamities on individuals, instead of producing a uniform obser- \a,pr^ of the laws. The pursuit is a very unpopular one; but when laws are in every respect just and good, it is difficult to see how the enforcement of them can be other than an advantage; and it would appear to an unprejudiced stranger to be a somewhat contradictory practice, first to make laws, and then teach society to hate and punish those who put them in force. As society advances in iutellJ!;ence, the necoEsity for the reform of tho whole system of '".w, and its simplifica- tion into one comprehensive co-e, will become more apparent, while the mode of administering the law in courts will also bo seen to require revision. Every- thing at present indicates that we are approaching the point when these important steps nmst be taken. GO English Law Courts. Wo have now to notice the various courts of law in England. The House of Lords must be men- tioned as a general court of appeal from the whole kingdom. There is only one set of superior judica- tures from which a reference may not come before it in some form or other — the criminal courts of Scot- land. The origin of parliament is connected with tho great council of the feudal kings, which gave thqm advice both in legislative and judicial matters. Wh^n parliament was separated into two houses, the judicial business adhered in general to the up]>er, and, pro- bably at the instigation of tho bishops, the Lords adopted the power of administering oaths, which was not possessed by the Commons — a circumstance which more distinctly marked their judicial character. To bring causes which have passed through the hands of learned judges under the direct cognisance of a body consisting of clergymen, soldiers, and young men of fashion, would be too preposterous to bo practically adopted ; and though the appeal is nominally taken to the House of Lords, it is heard and decided on -by one of the emi- nent lawyers, of whom there are always several in the house, and generally by tho Lord Chancellor. Inde- pendently of their powers as judges of appeal, the Peers act as a criminal court in all cases where a peer of the realm is tried for a capital crime. They are formed into a temporary tribunal for the occasion, pre- sided over by a judge called the Lord High Steward. This official is properly the judge, the peers acting as a jury, and giving their verdict on the question of guilt. The directly feudal origin of this rule of ancient prac- tice will bo at once recognised. The principal courts of first resort are naturally divided into courts of common law and courts of equity. The former are three in number: the King's or Queen's Bench, the Common Pleas, and the Exchequer. Each has a chief, and four assistant judges, called puisne or junior judges. These courts date their origin to the Conquest. Un feudal principles, the Norman kings called all the principal causes which had, under the Saxons, proceeded before the county courts, to be decided in their own hall, or court, by their own great council, which was presided over by an officer called the Justiciar. This court, called the Aula Segis, or King's Court, at first followed the king's person— a great inconvenience, removed by Magna Charta, which fixed it permanently in Westminster. Under Edward I., the system was adopted of sending deputations from the court twice a year to try cases in various parts of the country. Under the same monarch, the jurisdic- tion of the court was split into three parts. To the justiciar, afterwards called Chief- Justice, were assigned HISTORY OF LAWS. the pleas of the crown, as they were terraed, involving all offeucei; and being the highest judicial officer ju point of rank, his court was appointed to have cog- nisance over the two others. The matters connected with the exchequers— namely, the regulation of the royal domains, the collection of duties and other taxes — were committed to judges called Barons, presided over by a Chief- Baron. All questions about the posses- sion of land, and other litigations between one citizen and another regarding matters of property, were called •common pleas,' aJld were committed to certain jus- tices, presided over by a chief-justice. The King's or Queen's Bench is thus the chief crimi- nal court, and the Exchequer is the principal tribunal for revenue matters; but these courts are by no means restricted to the departments to which they are so assigned — they possess, concurrently with the common plens, a jurisdiction in all ordinary questions of com- mon law. The manner in which they obtained this power is one of the most extraordinary circumstances in the history of the laws of any country. The instru- ments made use of were, as has been hinted, the fictions, described as a peculiarity of the English law. To get at the real motives which were at work, it is necessary to recollect that formerly not only the judges, but all the officials connected with the several courts, were paid by fees, the amount of which depended on the extent ofbusi- ness. transacted. They were thus like so many trades- men keeping shops for the sale of justice, each anxious to keep a large supply of whatever was most wanted, and to serve the public on the most tempting terms. In this manner the courts of law undersold the courts of equity by not demanding any sanction, such as an oath, for the truth of what litigants declared in their pleadings. An arduous run for business was carried on between the three common law courts, the accounts of which, as given in the legal histories and law-books, are infinitely grotesque. The extent to which a court could carry its jurisdiction by these means, depended less upon reason than upan thf> muscular power of those officers of the court who enforced its decrees. The Exchequer, when it attempted to levy taxes, was told occasionally that the person charged with them could not pay, by reason that his debtors had not paid what they owed him; while he hinted that if the Exchequer wished his money, they had better assist him in reco- vering it. On this, it became the practice of the Ex- chequer to assist those who wt e in debt to the crown to get payment of the tuoney due to them. It occurred to some ingenious lawyers, em]>loyed to recover debts, that if they stated to the Court of Exchequer that cer- tain clients were debtors of the crown, and could not pay by reason of their own debtors not satisfying their demands, the court would make very little inquiry into the truth of the statement, but would adjudicate m the case, and lev^ the money forthwith. The court made so little inquiry as to the truth of the case, that it would not allow the statement to be contradicted, however inaccurate it might be; and down to the year 18<)'3, when one brought an action in the Court of Exchequer, it was a matter of form that he should say he was a debtor to the king, and that he could not pay his debt, unless an obligation, incurred in his favour by the defendant, were fulfilled. The jurisdictior of the King's Bench was limited to coses that were either purely criminal, or had some connection with offences. When any one, however, happened to be in the prison of the King's Bench for an offence, there was no means cf getting at him but through that court; and so the plan was de- vised of stating that a man was in the King's Bench prison when he was not. ' And in process of time,' says Blackstone, * it [the Court of King's Bench] began, by a fiction, to hold plea of all personal actions what- soever, and has continued to do so for ages: it being surmised that the defendant is arrested for a sup- posed trespass, which he never has, in reality, com- mitted; and being thus in custody of the marshal of the court, the plaintiff is at liberty to proceed against him for any other personal Jnjury, which surmise of being in the marshal's custody the defendant is not at liberty to dispute.' These mischievous fictions were not abolished until the year 1832, when, by act of parliament, a uni- form process was established in the three common law courts. An appeal lies from the decision of any one of these courts to the judges of the other two, who, when met to decide on such appeals, constitute a court called the Exchequer Chamber. Fourteen of the fifteen judges who form these common law courts hold the assizes in the various county towns — in some of them twice, and in others thrice a year. Here they act both as civil and criminal judges. Ofilences committed in London and its vicinity are tried by a tribunal lately created, called the Central Criminal Court. The origin of the authority of equity tribunals has been already considered. The principal establishment of this description in England is that of the Chancer^'. It has in it three distinct courts, and three judges — the chancellor, the vice-chancellor, and the master of the rolls. Formerly, all proceedings in bankruptcy centered with the lord chancellor, but the increasing importance of this class of business rendered it necessary to appro- priate a separate court to the purpose. This was accom- plished in 1832 by Lord Brougham's act. The term Bankruptcy is in England confined entirely to persons engaged in commerce; and the jurisdiction of the court is so limited. Previous to its formation, however, it had been found expedient to create a court for the relief of insolvent debtors who might not be engaged in trade, on their giving up their property to their creditors. By a, late act for restricting imprisonment for debt, the practice of relieving insolvent debtors was improved, nearly on the model of the Scottish system of cemo, and a bankruptcy code was applied to debtoi-s who might not be tradesmen. The utility and importance of the Insolvent Debtors' Court were thus materially enlarged. Another court was lately brought into existence, called the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. It consists almost entirely of the judges of the other courts. Its principal jurisdiction is in appeals from the colonial courts, and the Cou' t of Admiralty'. This Court of Admiralty has jurisdi :- tion in maritime contracts, and crimes committed on the high seas. Having to deal with matters in wl .ch the inhabitants of this and of other countries are jointly interested, it professes to follow, not the special law of England, but the general commercial law of modem Europe, founded on the Roman law. In time of war, the court receives a commission to adjudicate regarding prizes taken from enemies, or from neutrals committing breaches of neutrality. Besides the tribunals mentioned, there are ecclesias- tical courts in the two archiepiscopal provinces of Can- terbury and York. In the former there are the Court of Arches, the Prerogative or Testamentary Court, and the Court of Peculiars; in the latter the Prerogative Court and the Chancery Court. There are also many inferior ecclesiastical courts. The chief jurisdiction exercised by these tribunals, besides questions of eccle- siastical discipline, is in matters relating to succession to moveable goods. If we were to complete the list of English tribunals, it would be necessary to include the Justices of peace, who, besides many special powers in revenue and other matters conferred by act of par- liament, sit, at the general and quarter-sessions, as judges in minor oflTences. In addition to all these, there are various courts, of greater or lesser jurisdiction, con- nected with cities and boroughs; and in some places establishments called Courts of Requests, for adjudi- cating in cases of petty debts. Having thus detailed the legal system of England, it is unnecessary to describe that of Ireland, which is almost in all respects a model of it. English Legal Caagcs, The legal usages of England, though sanctioned by inveterate custom, are generally clumsy, expen- sive, and to all but lawyers, unsatisfactory. The very 61 CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. education of lawyers ,at the inn* of eowt in Lon- don, where they are supposed to .jceive instruc- tion, and pursue certain studies, is a burlesque. The whole machinery of executing writs, or orders of court, is equally objectionable. Impriaonment of the person for the sake of safe custody is the ordi- nary means of enforcing claims in the civil law, and of punishing in criminal cases. The largest jail for the reception of debtors is the Queen's Bench prison, situated in Southwark. From the marshal or governor of this prison, however, a rule, or permission, may be obtained on payment, for liberty to go out of the prison for a day, or to reside within certain exterior bounds. In other words, a debtor possessing the means (ab- stracted from his creditors) may, while nominally in prison, be living at his ease and in the enjoyment of theeeneral society of the neighbourhood. lYial by Jury is a remarkable legal usage, which, in reference to criminal accusation, is of great antiquity, having its foundation in certain Anglo-Saxon forms fa- vourable to individual liberty. It is alluded to in Magna Charta, wherein it is provided that all persons accused of crimes shall be tried by the judgment of their peers according to the laws of the re^lm. A jury is there- fore presumed to consist of persons in a rank as nearly as possible analagous to that of the party charged with an offence. Practically, it is composed of individuals miscellaneous in rank, so as to insure impartiality in decision. In England, the jury may be said to be of two species, the grand and the petty jury. The grand jury consists of twenty-four persons summoned by the sheriff, to attend the court and present all offences committed within the county; that is, determine whe- ther the cases of criminal accusation shall go before the petty jury. The jury so called examine witnesses on oath, and receive other evidence; if satisfied that there are grounds for trial, they find a linte bill, as it is called, and the trial proceeds. The object of this in- stitution is to prevent the oppression or damage of innocent persons; but in practice it is so clumsy as a method of investigation and deliberation, and so liable to error from the vast quantity of business to be hur- ried through, not to speak of being so burdensome to the lieges, that it would long since have been abolished, but for the rooted prejudices of the English in favour of old usages, however absurd and valueless. The time seems to have arrived when it will require to be superseded by the more efficient institution of a re- sponsible public prosecutor. The petty jury for the trial of those against whom a true bill is found, consists of twelve men, drawn by lot from a larger number summoned. This jury is the sole judge of the fact or facts charged, and its decisions require to be unanimous. In many instances a jury cannot conscientiously arrive at an unanimous convic- tion, in which case either one or more must yield to the majority; or the whole, after experiencing the pangs of hunger for one or two days, require to be discharged, when a new trial must ensue. Trial by jury is usually considered io be the pala- dium of our rights and liberties; but thin favourable view of its character evidently needs modii ition. It is principally useful as a safeguard against vindictive attempts at oppression on the part of the crown or other powerful accusers; yet even in this respect it has on various occasions proved faulty. If, however, it really shelters the subject, it can scarcely be said to be capable in all circumstances of protecting the crown. In Ire- land, for example, where the English forms of grand and petty jury have been introduced, it is observable that there is scarcely a possibility of procuring a con- viction where the state is the complaining and injured party, although the facts charged be proved beyond the possibility of cavil. Thus trial by jury can com- mand respect only where there is a deep sense of recti- tude, end a disregard of public clamour. J/abent Ccrptu. — Only the law, not the sovereign or any functionary of government, can imprison the per- ■on of a subject, who can reclaim against wrongful or 62 unconstitutional seizure and incarceration by an action of habeat corpus; that is, an action before a competent court to be released, or have the custody of his own person. In periods of civil commotion, the habeas corpus, as it is called, or power of replevin, is occasion- ally suspended by an act of the legislature; by which means the state can imprison without challenge, and dismiss without trial. As may be supposed, this serious infringement of the constitution is resorted to only in extreme coses. LAW OP SCOTLAND. From what has been already said, it will bo gathered that the law of Scotland was chiefly composed of tho feudal system and the Roman law. The former was in practice according to the form in which it had adapted itself to tho peculiar customs of the country, the latter was taken from the doctrines of the civilians. The origin and progress of feudalism in cotland are very obscure. The clironiclers attribute the foundation of the system to Malcolm II., in the eleventh century, but with little probability. It is more likely that, with the resort of foreigners, Saxon and Norman, to the court of the Scottish king subsequently to the conquest of England, the system was imperceptibly and gradually introduced. The monarchs, who were ambitious of presiding over a distinguished court, gave particular encouragement to the Normans, to whoit. they granted large fiefs or lordships; and it was natvral that they should return the same homage to which they were accustomed in the country of their origin. The whole of the Lowlands, indeed, and a great part of the High- lands, became nearly as thickly adorned with Norman aristocratic names as the broad plains of England; and it was this alien aristocracy that submitted with so much indifference to the claims and encroachments of Edward I. There appear to have been many points on which the earlier laws of the two divisions of the island were identical. In England, however, as we have already seen, the feudal system received many checks, while in Scotland it was allowed to grow rank; and the deference paid to the civil law in the north served to widen the distinction. The alliance and continued intercourse with France, moreover, naturally drew the legal practice in the direction of tho example set by that country. There is little information to be derived concerning the practice of the law in Scotland previous to the six- teenth century. Edward I. probably destroyed some vestiges, through which its history might have been traced; but he seems to have been charged by some antiquaries with the destruction of more than ever existed. He did more, probably, by fabrication than by destruction to poison the sources of Scottish juris- prudence. Tho earliest alleged collection of the laws, commonly called the Regiam Majeslalem, bears so near a resemblance to the English work of Glanvil, noticed above, that it is naturally supposed to have been a digest, not of what the laws were, but of what the conqueror wished them to be. The earliest Scottish legal writer whose works are quoted is Balfour, who prepared about the latter end of the sixteenth century, a com- pendium, chiefly derived from the Regiam Maiestatem, the acts of parliament, and the decisions of the court. In the reign of James VI., a commission was appointed to make inquiry into the laws, of which the celebrated Sir John Skene was a nieinber. The commissioners collected and published many acts of parliament, tho Regiam Majestatem and other consuetudinary laws, such aa the customs of the royal burghs; and Sir John Skene wrote an interesting treatise on the meaning of tecKnical legal expressions. The first really scientific writer on tho law of Scot- land, however, was Sir Thomas Craig, whose book on the feudal law was published in 1655. It is a work of great learning and thought, in which the reader is somewhat surprised to find that, though the work pro- fesses to be a Scottish law-book, it should derive so much of its learning from the practice of continental HISTORY OF LAWS. by an action a competent [j of his own , the habeu I, is occasion- re; by which lalienge, and I, this serious ed to only in 1 be gathered posed of the e former was rhicb it Lad the country, the civilians, cotlaud are le foundation snth century, likely that, irman, to the the conquest nd gradually ambitious of 'e particular they granted al that they h they were The whole of the High- rith Norman ngland; and tted with so mchments of .ny points on of the island as we have aany checks, nk ; and the th served to i continued lly drew the mple set by 1 concerning s to the six- Toyed some ; have been ;ed by some ! than ever ication than ottish juris- of the laws, tears so near ivil, noticed een a digest, e conqueror legal writer 10 prepared ury, a com- Mujestatem, f the court. 8 appointed B celebrated nmisaioners lament, the inary laws, nd Sir John meaning of aw of Scot- se book on is a work of e reader is e work pro- d derive so continental nations. The ne.xt great authority is Lord Stair, the equivocal statesman of the reign of James VII., whose Institute, on the model of that of Justinian, is remarkable for the breadth of its legal principles, and the acuteness with which they are practically applied. Soon after the middle of the eighteenth century, a second Institute was prepared by Mr Erskine, professor of Scottish law, more suited to the knowledge of the age than that of Stair, but more dry and formal. Sir Walter Scott has justly denominated Erskine's Institute the Scottish * Coke upon Lyttleton,' There were formerly few opportunities of acquiring a legal education in Scot- land, and it was the practice for the youth studyine the Scottish law to repair to ono of the continental univer- sities, among which Leyden and Paris were preferred. On the occasion of the appointment to a chair of law in Aberdeen, in the seventeenth century, Spalding the Chronicler says, it was * strange to see ane man ad- mitted to teach the lawes, who was never out of the countrie studieing and learning the lawes ; ' thus ex- pressing his astonishment that any man could be pre- sumed to become acquainted with a system of law on the spot where it is administered. The civil law is still Erofessedly studied in Scotland, but its ancient influence as sunk beneath the progress of commerce, and the increase of statutory regulations, which compel the lawyer to spend much of his time with acts of parlia- ment and reports of decisions. Scotland has a considerable quantity of early statute law, but not nearly so much as England. Down to the time of the Revolution, the general principles only of the acts had the assent of the assembled parliament — the details were all prepared by a committee called the Lords of the Articles. The older acts are remarkable for their brevity and precision, in which respects they greatly excel the clumsy and wordy acts of parliament of the United Kingdom, which, since the ITnion, has legislated for Scotland, often with little regard to the peculiarities of Scottish practice. According to a usage derived from the civil law, acts of parliament become repealed by disuse in Scotland, technically, get into desuetude — a principle unknown in English laAv. The earliest superior tribunals in Scotland, were either the parliament, as the king's great council, or a committee of it, acting with the delegated powera of the whole body. There was likewise, as in England, a kine's justiciar, whose authority was vast, and not very welt defined, especially in criminal matters. Committees of parliament were, in the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth century, sometimes formed into regulai- courts of justice, in which, however, a certain degree of fluctuation could not be avoided. In 1532, the pre- sent Court of Session was constituted, on the ntodel, it is believed, of the parliament of Piiris. The chancellor, whose principal duties disappeared at the Union, was chairman of this body. It consisted of fifteen judges in- cluding a president, who was chairman in absence of the chancellor. In 1830, the number of judges waS reduced to thirteen ; and about the same time, the authority of some other tribunals, the chief of which were the Courts of Admiralty and Exchequer, was transferred to the Court of Session. It consists of two divisions, which are separate tribunals. Some of the judges also act as individual judges in courts of their own, in which capa- city they are termed * lords ordinary.' An ordinary case, on coming into court, is discussed before a lord ordinary, from whose decision there is a reference to one of the divisions of the ' Inner House,' as it is termed, where the remaining judges sit collectively. From them there is an appeal to the House of Lords. There is no such conventional distinction as that between law and equity known in Scotland, and hence English lawyers, who are apt to measure all other systems by their own, absurdly enough speak of the Court of Ses- sion OS a court 'both of law and equity.' Besides the usual adjudication of litigated cases, there are two very useful descriptions of action peculiar to this court. The one is called an action of ' declarator,' which a person who ii puzzled about any difficulty, and is afraid of committing an illegal act, may bring, to havo the law as to the point declared, and his course of action made plain ; another is called a ' multiplepoinding.' which may be raised by a man having money in hi« hands which more than one person is claiming, that he n)ay know to whom he can legally pay it. Trial by jury was not, until very lately, added to the jurisdiction of this court. It is limited to certain descriptions of cases, and is far from popular. The judges in the Court of Session, the advocates or barristers, the writers to the signet or practising attor- neys, and other functionaries, form an institution styled the College qf Juttice. The principal criminal court is the Court of Justiciary, consisting of seven of the judges of the Court of Session, who sit in Edinburgh, and commission some of their number to hold circuits in the country. The most remarkable peculiarity in Scottish legal usages, is the practice of criminal prosecution, which is clear, simple, and effective. All crimes of a high class are prose- cuted at the instance of the Lord Advocate, or chief public prosecutor, at the expense of the country. Lesser crimes are prosecuted by Proeuratm-a Fiscal, of whom one is attached to each sheriffdom. In no case is the party injured put to any trouble or expense. The Lord Advocate, who is appointed by the crown, along with crown-counsel, alone judge of the propriety of pro- secuting for crimes, there being no grand j ury. The j ury before whom cases ibr trial are brought consists of fifteen persons selected by lot from forty -five summoned jurors, and ihe decision or verdict is by a majority. Th" " ' ' tish criininal law is partly statute, partly fnunde long usage. There are many offences which, b' ' latter portion of the law, are punishable with dent, f the prosecutor do not restrict the extent of punishi \.t to be awarded, which he now does in almost every case except murder. The sheriffs, or local judges of coun- ties, have important judicial powers, both civil and criminal. The former extends to every description of dispute regarding property, except what refers to land. The powers of these judges have lately received exten- sive additions, especially .'n matters of insolvency and bankruptcy. They do not employ a jury, except in criminal cases, in which their power of inflicting punish- ment does not exceed imprisonment. The slieriffa of the Scottish counties are advocates, practising before the supreme courts, not honorary functionaries, as in England. In each county there is, besides, a resident sheriff, or shmff-subatitute, who issues warrants and holds civil and criminal courts. To this useful class of functionaries Scotland is much indebted. In Scotland, there is a usage as absurd as that of granting rides in the Queen's Bench prison. A debtor from any part of the United Kingdom may take the benefit of sanctuary in Ilolyrood, a suburb of Edin- burgh, including some fine open grounds. While in this sanctuary, and having a written protection, pro- curable for a fee, the debtor is sheltered against all writs for civil claims, those of the state alone excepted; and he is at liberty to quit this sanctuary during the whole twenty-four hours of Sunday. This is the last existing relic of the privilege of sanctuary in Britain, perhaps in Europe, There has latterly been some indications of the assi- milation of the le^al usages of Scotland to those of England, and it is highly desirable that an end should speedily be put to all existing diversities. THE FRENCH CODES, The ancient laws of France were a mixture of the civil, feudal, and canon law. Partly they were the doctrines of the authorities on the civil law, and partly they were the ordinances issued by the various mo- narchs. By far the greatest portion, however, in bulk, consisted of the peculiar feudal customs of the various provinces. In these the feudal system was sometimes retained in so iiigh a state of purity, that the collections of provincial customs are esteemed excellent authorities on the subject. But it was not merely in each province 63 CHAMBERS'S IKFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. that there was a local custom. The power of the crown, or any other paramount legislature, was so feeble, that wherever an assembly of men were held together by one common tie, as where they were co-vaasals of one lord, or members of the same civic community, they had in some measure a code of laws of their own. The royal codes, which existed en a large scale, are estimated at about 300, but of the number of inierior local customs it would be impossible to make an estimate. Voltcire observes, that a man travelling through his country has to change laws as often as he has to change horses, and that the most learned barrister in one villnge will 'a a complete ignoramus a few miles off. The seiguorial courts were divided into three grades, according to the extent of the penal authority exercised by them. The principal courts of law were the purliaments of the re- spective provinces. Seats in them were generally hr'd by purchase, or were in the hereditary sucoessii f great families, who thus constituted a species of pro- fessional nobility. The deciees of these bodies 'rrtc i Such were the laws issued under the government of Napoleon, commonly called Les Cinq Coats, or the Five Codes. There are other collections of regulations, which should be added to make up a complete body of French laws — a military code, issued by Wapoleou; regulations CQnceming woods and forests, issued under Charles X. ; various laws as to the press and theatrical exhibitions, and alterations of the penal code, issued under the government of Louis-Philippe ; and lastly, the enact- ments under the existing republic. It is simply iu the Five Codes, however, passed under Napoleon, and confirmed at the Restoration, that the modern laws of France are known to Europe at large. They are gene- rally published in a small, thick, closely-printed volume ; and for the conciseness, clearness, and elegance of their language, and their intrinsic merits, they are a favou- rite sutyect of study with many British lawyers, while there are few places in civilised Europe in which the^ are not generally known. Independently of the divi- ,. , sion into books and sections, the paragraphs in each often baffled or reversed by the royal authority, -.xer- ! ';odc are numbered straight on from the commence- cised in the weli-known form of leUre* de cachet. « iiee;. alterations of the decisions of the courts, however, were performed not as a judicial revision, but by the simple authority of the king; and thus the parliaments, being subject to no judicial control or responsibility, adhered but slightly to fixed rules of law, and often acted accord- ing to their o>vn will and discretion. The jury, even ao much of it as may have existed under the old feudal form, had entirely disappeared, and proceedings were conducted iu secret. Criminal investigations, instead of tenninating in a conclusive trial as in England, were protracted through a lingering succession of written pleadings and secret investigations, from which the accused could never calculate on being free. The tor- ture was extensively employed; but in the general case, , only when there was as much circumstantial evidence as would justify a conviction in this country. The whole of this system was swept suddenly away before the tide of the Ilevoluti- ', but amid the troubled times that succeeded, it was long ere rulers could find peace and leisure for the erection of a substitute. In 1800, Naprleon appointed a commission to draw up a project of a civil code. The project when prepared was circulated for comment and suggestion, and was afterwards, along with the observations made on it by the difierent courts of law, discussed in the council of state and the tribunate. Thus was formed the Code Civil, or civil code of France, more generally known by the term Code Napoleon, whicli was applied to it under the Empire. Nearly at the same time, and in the same manner, was framed the Code de Proccdwe Civile, or code for regulating the form of process in civil actions, and specifying the jurisdictions of the various courts. Deing a subject more connected with technical detail, and involving less of general principle than the civil code, its provisions weiti left almost entirely to the arrangement of the lawyers. Resides the technical directions in which lawyers aro'almost wholly interested, there are in this manual many which concern the ordi- nary proceedings of citizens at large, such a« directions for the order to be taken regarding th6 effects of a de- ceased person, &c. This code is generally accompanied by a table of fees in law proceedings. In 1U07, another code was promulgated, called the Cods de Commerce, consisting of (iHi sections. This is the commercial code of France, regulating partnership, bills and notes, banking, shipping, bankruptcy, ic. Dv this code pro- vision is made for merchants choosing boards or courts from among their own number, called Trilmneauai de Commerce. The jurisdiction of these courts, which are very numerous, extends to questions between mer- chants, and disputes arising out of commercial trans- actions. In criminal legislation, a different order was pursued from that adopted in the "ivil ; the procedure code was prepared and adopted before the crimes to which it was to apply, and the punishments it was to enforce, were defined. The Code d'Irulruction Criminelle was promulgated in 11(08, and the Coiie I'liuil in 1810, 64 niont, an arrangement which gives peculiar facilities for reference. Thus there are in the civil code 2281 consecutively numbered paragraphs. In a country where the material of the law is so gigantic as it is in England, it is of the highest interest to mark the prac- tical working of this grand effort at simplification. , To an unlearned person in this country, it is a much easier thing to know the law of France on any particular point, than the law he is living under. If an English law}-er is asked a question, his answer involves refe- rences to commentaries, decisions, and statutes innu- merable ; but in the general case, the answer of a French lawyer bears simple reference to such a para- graph of such a code. The Frencli codes adopt the phraseology of the Roman law and many of its principles. The most striking deviation from the previous law of France, and the present system of other countries, is perhaps in the rules respecting succession. The children succeed to equal shares of the parents' property, whether it consist of land or movables ; and if there be no legiwiuate children, illegitimate children may succeed. The parent is limited in the disposal of his property by will. Ho can only bequeath the half if ho have one legitimate child, and the third if he have two. Kestrictious suincwhat similar arc to be found iu other countries with respect to movable property, but not as to land. The effect which the extensive partition, naturally occasioned by this law, has effected, and may effect, in France, is a subject of great interest to political economists. In the mercantile law there are several provisions unknown in this country, such as registers for hypothecs or securities held over movable goods or merchandise, and docieties ' en commandite,' or partnerships in which certain managing members are responsible for the obligations of the company to the extent of their whole property, while the sleeping part- ners who advance money are not raspousible l)eyond the .-unount of their shares. The chief improvement in the criminal law effected during the Revolution, and sanctioned by the code of instruction, was jury trial, to which Napoleon was much opposed: the system, as finally settled, bore more resemblance to the Scottish than to the English form, prosecutions being conducted by public prosecutors, there being no grand jury, and the jury of final trial deciding by a minority. In other respects, the criminal law is more remarkable for its austerity than for its subserviency to the general good of the public. With Napoleon, though that object was not neglected, it wivs made secondary to the con- solidation of his own power; and offences are measured less by their pernicious effects on society at large, than by the trouble or danger they might occasion to lulcrs. lience was adopted in many cases the stern and simple method of putting arbitrary power over criminals into the hands jf the administrators of the law, while punishments of the highest Kind were reserved for offences against the authorities. HISTORY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. of the As the memory of a man extends back only to some point in his early boyhood, so the memory of our race extends back only to about 3000 years from the present (late, leaving an indefinite space before that, during which the infancy of the species must have been trans- acted. Nor does the Scriptural account of the cre<>tiuu settle this point. As many as two hundred different calculations as to the age of our species have been founded, by different divines, on the statements of the sacred records — the discrepancy arising from the un- certainty of those te^tts of the Old Testament in which numbers occur. The longest of these calculations dates the crertiou of man at about 8800 years from the pre- sent tit.ie, or about 7000 years befo.'e the birth of Christ; the "hciiest at alwut 5300 years from the pre- sent time, or 3500 years !)efore the bi.tli of Christ ; *.he system usually adopted by histoiians is that of Arch- bishop Usher, which fixes the event at b,c. 4004, or 5853 years from the present date. The general consent of mankind points to the region of Central Asia as having been the original seat from which the human race dispersed itself over the globe; and accordingly it is this region, and especially the western portion of it, which wo find to have been the theatre of the earliest recorded transactions. In short, it was in Central Asia that the first large mass of ripened humanity was accumulated — a great central nucleus of human life, so to speak, constantly en- larging, and from which emissaries incessantly streamed out over the globe in all directions. In process of time this great central mass having swollen out till it filled Asia and Africa, broke up inti three frag- ments — thus giving parentage to the three leading varieties* into which ethnographers divide the human species — the Caucasian, the Mongolian, and the Ethio- pian or Negro — the Caucasians overspreading southern and western Asia; the Mongolians overspreading north- ern and eastern Asia; and the Ethiopian overspreading ♦ In tho Physical HisTonv op Man (No. B1), wo admitted tlio live varieties as doscrllvd Iiy niumonbach — namely, tho C'uiieaBian, MnngoUnn, Ktliiopian, Malay, and American; but in ns far as the xoclul or lii»torical proKrosa of tho race is con- corncd, the two latter may bo connidored as hnvlns no oxistonco. No. 55. Africa. From these three sources streamed forth branches which, intermingling in various proportions, have constituted the various nations of the earth. Differing from each other L physiological character- istics, the three great varieties of tho human species have differed also widely in their historical career. The germs of a grand progressive development seem to have been implanted specially in the Caucasian Variety, the parent stock of all the great civilised nations of ancient and modem times. History, therefore, con- cerns itself chiefly with this variety: in the evolution of whose destinies the true thread of human progress is tc bo found. Ere proceeding, however, to sketch the early development of this highly - endowed variety of our species in the nations of antiquity, a few observa- tions may bo offered regarding tho other two — tho Ethiopian and Mongolian — whi jh began the race of life along with the Caucasian, and whose destinies, doubt- less, whatever may have been their historical functions hitherto, are involved in some profound and beautiful manner with the bearing of the race as a whole. ETHIOPIAN OR NEGRO lIISTOnY. A Cennan historian thus sums up all that is known of Ethiopian history — that is, of the part which the great Negro race, inhabiting all Africa with the excep- tion of the north-eastern coasts, performed in the gene- ral affairs of mankind in the early ages of the world:— ' On the history of this division of the species two remarks may be made : the one, that a, now entirely extinct knowledge of the extension and power of this branch of the human family must have been forced upon even the Greeks — their early poets and historians; the other, that the Ethiopian history is interwoven throughout with that of Egypt. As regards the first remark, it is clear that in t 'j earliest ages this branch of the race must have played an important part, since Meroe (in the present Nubia) is mentioned both by Herodotus (o. c. 408) and Strabo (a. d. 20) ; by the one as a still-existing, by the othe> as a formerly-existing seat of royalty, and centre of the Ethiopian religion and civilisation.* To this Strabo adds, that the race * Some years ago, a traveller, Mr O. A. Ilosking, visited tho site of this capital state of ancient Ethiopia, an island, if it may be 80 called, ..bout 300 miles long, enclosed within two forking branches of the Nile. Ho found in it several distinct groups of magniilccnt pyramidal structures. Of ono ruin he says — ' Never woro my feelings inoro ardently excited than in ap- proaching, after so tedious a journey, to this magnlflcent nccro- I>olis. Tho appearance of tho pyramids in tho distaneo on- nuunccd their importance ; but I was gratified beyond my most sanguine cxpoetations when I found myself in the midst of thorn. T!io pyramids of Oizch are magnittcent, wonderful from their stupendous magnitude; but for picturesque offeot and cleganeo of architectural design, I inflnitely prefer those of Meroo. I expected to find few such remains here, and certainly nothing BO imposing, so interesting, as these sopulehree, doubt- less of the kings and queens of Etliiopio. I stood for some time lost in admiration. This, then, was the necropolis, or city of tlio dead! But where was the city itself, Meroo, its temples and palares ? A large space, about 2000 feet in length, and tho samo distance from the river, strewed with burnt brick and with some fragments of walls, and stones bimllar to those used in tho erection of tho pyramids, formed, doubtless, part of that cele- brated site. The idea that this is the exact situation of tho city is strengthened by the remark of Strabo, that tho walls of tho habitations were built of bricks. These indicate, without doubt, tho site of that cradle of the arts which distinguish a civilised from a barbarous soelot]'. Of t\e birthplace of tho arts and Bclenoes, tho wild natives of tho adjacent villages have made a miserable burylng-placo : of the city of the learned — " its eloud- ciipt towers," Its "gorgeous palaces," its "solemn temples," 05 C/IAMBEBS'S INFOBMATION FOB THE PEOPLE. ■preiKi from tUj boiin-Iaries 0/ Keypt over the moun- taiui of At'.Ab, as >rtK the b. vthiu.n,, as the most mighty and numerous peoples of th« knowh earth. Already in Strabo-s time, however, their ancien? power had been gone fur an indefinite period, and tku Negro states found themselves, arier Meroe had ceated to be a religious capital, almost in the same fituutiun iM that in which they still continue. The second re- mark on the Negro branch of the human race and its history, can only be fully elucidated '.vhon the interpre- tation of the inscriptions on Egyptiaii monuments shall have been farther advanced. The latest travels iin'o Abyssinia show this much — that at one time the Egyi'- tiau religion and civilisation extended over the prin- cipal seat of the northern Negroes. Sing'o iiiuiMiniod and monumental figures corroborate what iierodotus exprer a considerable time. Tbn S)ature of the HI "ount-i '.;i which we riust found dues nol permit ud ti. jT've as. acciiras.i statement; we vomark, however, thai the Indiiius, the Kgyptians, ftiid the Babylonians, are not iho only ■ . 'tdes which aimed at becoming world-conquerors befo :- ! Le his'.'^ri': iige, but that also to the Kthiopiau stocK w;^.Iiki: i^iwgs wen- iiot wanting in cho aarly timesi. T;.') jMmh^o';! tiloiie ■eem to have enjoyed a happy repose «':''.iu their :<>vn ■eats in iiie primitive hiatoiiu tiiiwn, 'v.i;' thise ante- cedent to tiiiiiu ; they api'uai iiriit very i itt- as oouqucrurs and destroyere in the historv i,t' Ihc went. If, indeed, the hero-king of the Ethiopi.^ns, lcari;h;>, were one and the same with the Tirhakah of the Book of Kings (2 King*, xix. 9), then the wonder of those stories would disappear which were hv tided down by tradition to the O'leeks; but even Bochau kas combated this bolief, and we eunnot reconcile it with the circumstances which ar« r.,'A\ted of both. It remiinis for us only to observe, by wav of summary, that in aa age antecedent to the histork'. the Ethiopian peoples may have been asso- ciated togother in a more regular manner than in our or Orecian .■r.d Roman times; and that their distant expeditions ij:vv have been so formidable, both to the Europeans as tar as the i^gean Sea in the east, and to 'rve ht-i-e and there an Ethiopian influence, and espe- tiilly ii the Egyptian history; but as concerns the general progress of the human species, the Negro race never acquired any vital importance.'* The foregoing observations may be summed up in th's proposition : — That in the most remote antiquity, Africa was over«prea('. by the Negro variety of the hu- man species; that >a those parts of the continent to which the knowledge of the ancient geographers did not extend — namely, all south of Egypt and the Great Desert — the Negro race degeneratcu, or at least dispersed into tribes, kingdoms, &c. constituting a great savage ■ystem within its own torrid abode, similar to that which even now, in the adult age of the world, we are vainly attempting to penetrate; but that on the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, the race either there Is " left not a rack behind." The aepulchras alone of hor departed kings have Aiinilod their destination of surviving the habitations which their phlk'suphy taiight tlieni to cuDsider but as inag, nnd nre now laiit inoulderliiK into duHt. Hcurecly a tmco of a palace or a t«mp)e i«to be seen.' • Schloucr'i (F. C.) UnivenalhlstoTiKhe Vebersicht dcr Qcschlchto der Altcn Welt und ihror Cultur. 6« preserved its c, „ nal faculty and intelligence longer, or was so improved by contact and intermixture with its Caucasian neighbours, as to constitute, under the name of the Ethiopians, one of the great anti-historic dynasties of the world; and that this dynasty ebbed and flowed against the Caucasian populations of western Asia and eastern Europe, thus giving rise to mixture of races along the African coasts of the north and east, until at leneth, leaving these mixed races to act their part awhile, the pure Ethiopian himself retired from historic vicw_ into Central Africa, where he lay concealed, till again in modern times he was dragged for'./, to become the slave of his Ca>ioa*i.u\ brotliev. Thus Negro history, hitherto, has exlioid.il a lotmj.'r-t'.i- sion from a point once occupied, rath .r tHua a pro.;;rt'»f, in clvilisAUon. Even this fact, lu n .,vev, r/.ust som^t.. how be subordinate to a great law \n' ge'.<..iit otogretir, and it is gratifying to know that, oti Uici :,<,r.:.it if Afric.i, a settlement has recently been foriii :d culleJ l.iheria, peopled b» libereUid negi" slaves ft"i;; N >rt;« ^...leriv..; and who, bringing with tueii the Aigl'-Amtncan i vi- iisation, give pr 'luiso of foriidinf a cilured and pros- peromooniPiuiii'y. KOKtKiI, l.i HISTOHY— TUB CHINESE. A> from the grnat central mass of mr,.\kind, the first acoumulation of life on tu; nlsvnet, ti^eie was partf ■! -jtY iuon AAriot a fragiufint oalltd the Nc^ro rariety, eo iiito eastevii Asia there .vav detached, ly i.hv>de cau.'«s which we seek in vain to disooroi', a si tin.j hu«* iii»Uii' ; ''.0 which has been given t*:^' iii.-ua of Sv Mon^^ '■. 'i variety. Ovenpreitding ti'; gnht plains ei Asia, from fhe lilmalehs to tLe Sea <>f Ukiiot.ik, thiii detach- ment of the human species may he supposed to have (i-oKsed into Japan; to have reoclied the other islands of the Pacific, and cither throu^jh these, or by the access at Oehring's Straits, tc have poured themselves through the great American contiiient; their peculiari- ties shading otf iu their long joui'.'ivy, till the Mongolian was converted into the American isidian. Blumenbach, however, erects the American j'iTal Ethiopic matis breaking up there under the operatitjii of causes con- nected with climate, soil, food, &c. iiit<> vast sections or subdivisions, presenting marked diflferences from each other; and precisely so was it with the Moiigolia..8. In Central Asia, we find them as Thibetiaus, Tun- gusiaus, Mongols proper ; on the eastern coasts, as Mantchous and Chinese; in the adjacent islands, as Ja- panese, &c.; and nearer the North Pole, as Laplanders, Esquimaux, &c. ; all presenting peculiarities of their own. Uf these great Mongolian oranches circumstances have given a higher d^ree of development to the Chinese 8. id the Japanese than to the others, which are chiefly nomadic hordes, some under Chinese rule, others independent, roaming over the great pasture lands of Asia, and employed in re.\ring cattle. There is every reason to believe that the vast popu- lation inhabiting that portion of eastern Asia called China, can boast of a longer antiquity of civilisation than almost any other nation of the world; a civilisa- tion, however, differing essentially in its character from those which have appeared and disappeared among the Caucasians. This, in fact, is to be observed as the grand diflerence between the history of the Mongolian and that of the Caucasian variety of the human speciea, that whereas the former presents us with the best pro- duct of Mongolian humanity, in the form of one great permanent civilisation — the Chinese — extending from century to century, one, the same, and solitary, through a period of 30UU or 4000 years ; the latter exhibit'^ a succession of civilisations — the Chaldtean, the Per- sian, the Grecian, the Roman, the modem European (subdivided into French, English, German, Italian, &c.), and the Anglo-American; these civilisations, from the remotest Oriental — that is, Choldeeau — to the most HISTORY OF ANCIENT NATIONS. ifenco longer, mixture with e, under the anti-hiscorio ^nasty ebbed pulations of ^ivini; riae to of tuo north id races to act inself retired ivhere he lay I was dragged .«i u\ brothM". II ii a pco^ress , tj.uBt aoiuO' L;(il orogrotii; *i:it 'if AtHcv, »Ued l.iheria, )rt!« ^Meriv.-...; .nii.Tican t -.vi- red and proa- SE. kind, the first ivas part* •! -JY kriely, eo into cai>Hei wUich '■ i;'i«uii*' ; ''^0 .f Monfi li..a ci Alia, from tb:d of a vast literature; respeotuil of usage to such a degree as to do everything by pattern; attentive to the duties and civilities of li^, but totally devoid of fervour, originality, or spirituality ; and living under a form of government which has been very hap- pily designated a pedantoomoy — that is, a hierarchy of erudite persons selected from the population, and ap|)ointed by the emperor, according to the proof they give of their capacity, to the various places of public trust. How far these characteristics, or any of them, are iniejxtrahle from a Mongolian civilisation, would appear more clearly if we knew more of the Japanese. At present, however, there seems little prospect of any reorganisation of the Chinese mind, except by meant of a Caucasian stimulus applied to it. And what Caucasian stimulus will be sufficient to break up that vast Mongolian mass, and lay it open to the general world- influences! Will the stimulus come from Europe ; or from America, after its western shores are peopled, and the .\nglo-Americaug begin to think of crossing the Pacific i CAUCASIAN HISTORr. While the Ne[;ro race seems to have retrograded from its original position on the earth, wnile the Mon- golian has ailbrded the spectacle of a single permanent and pedantic civilisrtion retaining millions within its grasp for ages in the extreme cast of Asia, the Cauca- sian, as if the seeds of the world's progress had been implanted in it, has worked out for itself a splendid career on an ever-shifting theatre. First attaining its maturity in Asia, the Caucasian civilisation has shot itself westward, if wo may so speak, in several successive throes ; long confined to Asia ; then entering northern Africa, where, commingling with the Ethiopian, it ori- ginated a new culture; again, about the year b.c. 1000, adding Europe to the stage of history ; and lastly, '2500 prears later, crostiing the Atlantic, and meeting in America with a iliifusei and degenerate Mongolism. To understand this beautiful career thoroughly, it U neces- sary to observe the manner in which the Caucasians dis- seminated themselves from their central home — to count, as it were, and note separately, the various flights by which they emigrated from the central hive. So far as appears, then, from investigations into language, &c. the Caucasian stock sent forth at different tinves in the remote past five great branches from its original seat, somewhere to the south of that long chain cf mour vns which commences at the Black Sea, and, 1 . a'.ering the southern coast of the Caspian, terminates in the Hima- lehs. In what precise way, or at what precise time, these branches separated themselves from the parent stock and from each other, must remain a mystery; a sufficiently clear general notion of the fact is all that we ca'^ pretend to. lit, The Armenian branch, re- maining apparently nearest the original seat, filled the countries between the Caspian and lUack Seas, extend- ing also round the Caspi u into tho territories afler- wuds known as those ol j Parthians. '2d, The ludo- Persian branch, which extended itself in a southern and eastern direction from the Caspian Sea, through Persia and Cabool, into Hindoostan, also penetrating Bokhara. From this great branch philologists and othnographen derive those two races, the distinction between which, although subordinate to tiie grand fivefold division of the Caucasiau stock, is of immense consequence in modem history — the Celtic and the Germanic. Pounng through Asia Minor, it is supposed that the Indo-Persian family entered Europe through Thrace, and ultimately, through tho operation of those innumerable causes which react upon the human con- stitution from the circumstauces in whicli it is placed. HISTORY OP ANCIENT NATIONS. West«m portion of Europa — nnmoly, northern Italy, France, Spain, and Qreat Britain — Htill undergoing lubdiviiilon, however, during their diapen'.on into Ibe- rians, Oaeli, Cynri, tic; tn« Uermanr being a later o attend to war and govern- ment; the Vaisyas, whose duties are connected with commerce and agriculture; and the Sudras,OT artisans and labourers. Of these four castes the Brahmins are the highest; but a brood line of distinction is drawn between the Sudraa and the other three castes. The Brahmins may intermarry with the three inferior castes — the Kshatriyas with the Vaisyas and the Sudras; and the Vaisyas with the Sudras; but no Sudra can choose a wife from either of the >'.Lree superior castes. As a general rule, every person is required to follow the profession of the caste to which he belongs: thus the Brahmin is to lead a life of contemplation and study, subsisting on the contributions of the rich; the Ksha- triya is to occupy himself in civil matters, or to pursue the profession of a soldier; and the Vaisya is to be a merchant or a farmer. In fact, however, the barriers of caste have in innumerable instances been broken dovra. The I'araifications, too, of the caste system are infinite. Besides the four pure, there are numerous mixed castes, all with their prescribed ranks and occu- pations. A class far below even the pure Sudras is the Panah* or outcasts; consisting of the refuse of all the CUAMBIBM rarOBMATION VOR THS f EOPLS. othw OMicf, and which, in prooMi of tlmt, hj* grown •o Iwgo M to inclttdo, it ii Mid, ona-flfth of the popu Ution of Hlndooitan. The P»ri»ht porfomi the me»iieit kind* of mhauhl labour. Thif iyrtom of CMtei, of which tho Dr»hmlni theniiolrei, whom ioiae nuppoie to h»T« b««n origin»llr • coutjuorinj} race, are the architMto, if not the founden, is bound u\) with the nligion of tho Hindoo*. Indeed of th» Hindoo*, more trulV than of any other people, it raaj bo wiid that a knowledge of their religiou* •jr»te'u i« a knowledge of the people thcnueWe*, The Veda*, ur ancient *aored book* of the Hindoo*, dlfttnctlv let forth the doctrine of the Iiitiuite and Eternal Supreme Being. According to the VcUm, there i* ■ one unknown, true Being, all pretiont, all powerful, (he creator, preterver, and deatroyer of tho unirerie.' Thi* Supreme Being * i* not ooin|>rehenaiblu by viiion, or by any other of the organ* of Benie; nor can >>e be conceived by mean* of devotion or virtuou* practice*.' .Me if not space, nor air, nor light, vot atoms, nor «cul, Lor nature : he ii above all these, and tho cauae of them all. He 'has no ftiat, but extends uverywhere; ha* no hand*, but hold* everything; ha* no eyca, yet •ee* all that iu; ha* no ear*, yet hear* everything that pas*e*. Hi* existence had no'cauio. He is the aiualleat of the *mall and the greatest of the great; and yet i*, in fact, neiiher aniall nor great.' Such is the doc- trine of the Vedaa in it* piires* and most abstract fonii ; but the prevailing thcolopy which run* throu.i^h theui i* what ia nailed Pantheism, or that ayatem which speaks of God a* the soul of the universe, or aa iho universe itself. Accordingly, the whole tone and lan- guage of the highest Hindoo philoroiiiiy is Fantueistic. A* a rope, lying on the ground, and niistakun nt first view for a *uake, is the cause of the i<^oi' or conception of the snake wliich exist* in the mind of the person looking at it, so, say tho Vedaa, is tho Deity the cause of what wo call the universe. ' In him the iv! >le world is absorbed; from him it issuer; ho is ont\\,'iud and interwoven with all creation.' ' AH that exidCa is Ood ; whatever we ainell, or taste, or see, or hear, or feel, is the Supreme Being.' This one inconip'ehenBiblo iUing, whom the Hindoo* designate by the mystical naniti (/m, Tut, and yM/,and Dometime* also by the ."ord Brahm, is declared by tbc Veda* to be the only proj er olyec*: of worship. Only a Tery few persons of ert aordinur/ gifts and virtues, however, are able, it is said, to t.aore \he Supremo Being— the great Om — directly. 1. great majority of mankind are neither so wiso nor m holy as to lie atile to approach the Divine Being himself, and wur- ihip him. It being alleged that persons thus unfor- tunately disqualified for adoriuf; the invisible Deity should employ their minds upon some visible thing, rather than suffer them to remain idle, the Vedas direct them to worship a tmniber of inferior deities, reprttgenting particular acta orqualitiuit of the Supreme Being; a>, for instance, Crishnu or Vishnu, the god of preservation ; Muhadev, the god of destruction ; or the ■un, or the air, or tho sea, or the human understand- ing; or, in fact, any object or thing which they may choone to represent as (jod. Seeing, say the llindocis, that Ciod pervades and uniinatcs the whole universe, everything, livinjL'or dead, may bo considered a portion of God, and as surh, it may be selected as an ol>|vct of wonliip, provided always it be worshipped only as con- atituting a portion of the Divine Substance. In this way, whatevkir the eyo looks on, or tliu mind caTi con- ceive, whether it be the sun in the heavens or the great river Ganges, or the crocodile on it* bank!!, or the cow, or the fire kindled to cook food, or the Ved^ia, or a Brahmin, or a tree, or a serpent — all m'"v be legiti- mately worshipped a* a fragment, so to speak, of tlie Divine Spi.-it. Thus there may be many millions of gods to which Hindoos think themselves entitled to pay divine honours. The number of Hindoo gods is calculated at 330,000,000, or about three times the number of their worshippers. Of theie, tho threo principal deities of tho iiladoos 70 •r« Drahma the crMtor, Vishnu the pratcrvur, and Seeb or Siva the destroyer, Thea« three of cour*« war* originally intended to represent the three great attrU bute* of thd dm or Invisible Supreme B«inx— namely, hi* creating, hi* preaerving, and hi* deatroying attri- butea. Indee rertuln occa«ion* when tli? threo are worshipped conjointly. There are ulnu sculp- tured ruptesentationH ot the Trimurti, in which thd busts of Brahma, Vi.Lilinu, and Siva are cue out of the vane mas* of stone. One of those imagea vif the Tri- murti ia found in the celebrated cavern temjile of Klephanta, in tho nsighbo.irhood of Bombay, perhaps the most wonderful remnant of ancient Indian archi- tecture. Vi*hi>j and Sivn are more wnrahipped *epa- rately than Brahma — each having hi* body of devotees speciully attached to him in particular. llindooisinv like oth'^r I'anthoiatic syiteni*, teaches tho doctrine of the traniimigration of souls : all crea- tion, anim.ite and inaniirate, being, according to the Hindoo ayslein, nothing «Ue but the deity Brahni him- self parccUrd out, a* it were, into innumerable por- tionm and fornis (when these are reunited, the world will be ui an end), just us u quantity of quicksilver mar be broken up into innumerable little balls or globules, which all have a tendency to go together again. At long intervals of time, each extending over aoine thousand millions of vMrs, Brahtn does bring the worhl to an end, by reabsorbing it into hi* ipirit. When, thert-fore, a man dies, his soul, according to the Hindoos, must either b<- absorbed immediately into the soul of Bmhm, or it must pass through a ieries of transmigrations, waiting for the Anal absorption, which huppens ut the end of every univorso, or at least until such time as it shall bo prepared for being reunited with the Infinito Spirit. Tne former of the two is, according to the Hindoos, the highest possible reward: to bo absorbed into Brahin immediately upon death, and without having to under^ro any farther purification, is the lot only of the greateut devotees. To attain this end, or ai least to avoid degrivlation after docih, the HindooM, and especially the Brahmins, who are natu- lally the most intent upon their epirituiil interksts, practise a ritual of tho most intricate and ascetic dc- *cription, carrying religious ceremonies and antipathies with them into all the duties of life. So overburdened i* the daily life of the Hindoos with superstitious obser- vances with regard to fooil, sleep, &c. that, but for the speculative doctrines which tho more elevated minds among the Brahiain* may see lecogiiL-ied in their reli- gion, tho whole Dvstcm of Hindooisiu might seem a wretched and grotesque polytheism. A hundred millions of people professing this system, divided into castes as now, and carrying the Brahnii- iiical ritual into all the occupations of lazy life under the hot sun, and amid the exuberant vegetation of Hindooatan — such was the people into which Alexander the Great carried his conquering arms ; vuch, doubt- le??, they had been for ages bemro that period; and- such did they remain, bhut out from the view of the rest of the civilised world, and only communicating with it by means of spices, ivory, &c. which fouml their way through Arabia or the Red Sea to the Mediter- ranean, till Vasco dc GaiiKi rounded the Cape of Good llopo, and brought Muropi' and India into closer con- nection. Meanwhile a Mohammedan invasion had taken pla e (• d. 1000); Mohammedans from Persia hml miii^iod themselves with the Hin to see wherein theiw two primeval and contemporaneous consolidations of our species — the Mongolian consolidation of eastern Asia, and the Caucasian consolidation <>f the central peninsula of southern Asia — differ. * Whoever would perceive the fuU physical and moral differsuce,' says Klaproth, HI9T0RT OF ANCIENT NATIONS. lance back primeval (pecies — and tbo uinsula of rcoive the Klaproth, ' b«twMn the Ch>n«M and Indian nationi, murt con< tr>Kt th« pvuuliar culture of the Cliineie with that of the Hindoo, fathiunnd aliiKint like a Kuronean, even to hit complexion, lie will itvidv the buundleii religioui ■jriteiu of the Brahniini, and oppow it to 'ho bold bellet' of the original Chinoee, wliich can ' ^y be named rt'livion. He will remark the rigoMi iiion of the Hiiiilooe into caitet, lecti, and denoim nationi, for «rhioh tlip inhabitaiitt of the central klnifdum have eren no expiMiion. He will compare the ur/ pn/ialc spirit of the Chineao with the higD ]>oetic lout of the dwellen on the Uangei and the Diumnah. Me will hear the rich and blooming Hanaurit, and contract it with the unharmonioui ipeech of the Chinese. He will mark, Anally, the literature of the latter, full of matten of fact and thin);g worth knowing, ai contraited with the limitli'M philosophic-otcetic writing of the Indiaiii, vi lui have made evoD tho highest poetry weari- iomo by perpetual length.' lIlHtorjr of the Hastern Nations till thtir Incorporation in the Fenian Empire. Leaving India — that great fragment of the original Ciiiicasian ciTillsation — and proceeding westward, we find two large masses of t>- . nunian species Ailing in the earliest times the cou'. tries lying between the Indus and the Mediterranean — namely, an Indo-1'eriian mass filling the whole tract of country between tho Indus and the Tigris ; and a Semitic- Aramaic mass Ailing the greater part of lesser Asia and the whole peninsula of Arabia, and extending itself into the parts of Africa adjoining the lied Hca. That in the most remote ages these lands were the theatres of a civilised activity is certain, although no records have been transmitted from them to us, except a few fragments relative to the Semitic nations. The general facts, however, with re- gard to thcso anto-historic times, seem to be: l»t. That tho former of the two masses mentioned — namely, the population between the lnd>is and the Caspian — was essentially a prolongation of the great Indian nucleus, possessing a culture similar tu tho Indian in its main aspects, although varied, as was inevitable, by the operation of those physical causes which distinguish tne climate of I'ersla and Cabool from that of Hindoos- tan ; '2d, That the Semitic or Aramaic mass divided itself at a very early period into a number of separate peoplex or nations, the Assyrians, the llabylonians, the Phoenicians, the Jews, the Arabians, kc. and that each of these acquired a separate development, and worked out for itself a separate career; '.id, That upwards of a thousand years before Christ the spirit of conquest appeared among the Semitic nations, dashing them violently against each other; and that at len^'th one Sesnitio fragment- —that Is, tho Assyrians — attained the supremacy over the rest, and founded agreat dominion, called tbeANsyrian empire, which stretched from Kgy pt to the borders of India (n. c. 800) ; and 4tian civilisation are derived chiefly from the Oveek historian Herodotus (d. c. 40U), who visited Kgyp- and digested tho information which he received fium the priests an to its ancient history; and Manetho, u native Egyptian of later times, who wrote in Greek. From their accounts it is inferred that the country was anciently divided into thirty-six lections or provinces called names — ten In Upper, six- teen in Middle, and ten in Lower Egypt. ' Many of the separate nomes were of considerable siibstantive importance, and had a marked local chanu-ter ea(^h to itself, religious as well as political ; though tho whole of Egypt, from Elephantine to Pelusium and Kanopus, is said to have always constituted one kingdom.' Of this kingdom, the population, according to a roush estimate, may have been about seven millions. Tho government was a monarchy based on an all-powerful priesthood, similar to the Itrahminical system of India; and, as in India, the most striking feature in tho Egyptian society was the division of the people into hereditary castes. 'The population of Egypt,' saya Mr Grote in his History of Greece, * was classified into certain castes or hereditary professions, of which the number is represented differently by different authors. Thvi priests stcnd clearly marked out as the order richest, liiost » -*erlul, and most venerated, dis- tributed all over Ik- ''ountry, and possessing exclu- sively the means o< rea;! •;, and writing,* besides a vast amount of narrat'.a v oHv: treasured up in the me- mory, the whole ''.ucV >f medical and physical know- ledge then attaiiu 1 lOi .tiiu those rudiments of geometry (or rather land-mtasuring) which were so often called into use in a country annually inundated. To each god and to each temple throughout Egypt, lands and other properties belonged, whereby the numerous band of priests attached to him were maintained. Their ascendancy, both direct and indirect, over the minds of the people was immense; they prescribed that minute ritual under which the life of every Egyptian, not ex- cepting the king himself, was passed, and which was for themselves more full of harassing particularities thiin for any one else. Every day in the year belonged * Mr Groto subjoins tlio following importnnt note:— "TTio wiml prieit convcj s to a modem reader «n idea voiy difierenll from that of the £|ryp^'»n <<;:<(, who were not a profession, but an urdev, comprUing manji ocmpatiom and prq/cssiont.' 71 CHAMBUIS'S IHFORMATION FOR THI PEOPLE. to lomc ptrtlcular god, »nd th» priwU alone kntw to which. Th«r« wi-ru dilliirenl go.!* in «*»rjr noine, thouffh Iili »ud <>«irU wore oomriion to all; aii.l (ba prlMti of each ko<1 coiirtitutad a nicitty apart, more or Um important, according to th* ooiuparatl»e o«l«l.r,ty of the toiuple. Th« property of enth temple included truopa of dependenti and •laree, who wore »tftnip«d with •' holy inarkii," and who niuit have been nuiniirou*. in order to iuffleo for the lervico of tho largo buildinKi Mid their conitant viiitort. Next in irnportaiicu to the lacenlotal caito were tho military oaate or onlur, whole native name indicated that they ttood on the left hand of thu kinji;, while the prieeti oovupieil tho riK'it. They wuro claiaiflod into Kalaeiriei and ilerniutybii, who ocvupied lanilit in •i{{hteen particular nomei or prorincoi, prinripullv in Lower Kftypt. 'I'he Kala«>Tiea had once uniountud to ItiU.OUU men, the Hermotybii to 'JA0,OUU, when iit tho maximum of their population; but that hij(hci«t point harty, and exempt from all burdeni ; while the remaining loil was conaidered oa the property of the king, who, however, received from it a fixed pro- IMirtioti — one-fifth of the total produce — leaving the rr.Ht in tho handa of tho cultirnton. Tho aoldisra wore interdicted from every deacription of art and trade.' The other cattei are differently given in different authon; tho moat probable account, however, ia that which osaigna thorn a« three — tho custo of the huaband- inen, that of the artificer*, and that of tho herdsmen, which laat coite included a variety of occupations held in contempt, the lowest and most dcgralished than the placing of them in elevated situations in the buildings. They were raised by the power of lovers and inclined planes at immcuM trouble uud cost. The waste of 73 human life in these gigantic works must har* b««n enormous. About I'.'U.UUO man are said to have |>«rished ill tho digging of a canal, which was left i^ilinished, jietwoen the lied Soa and an ami of 'ii« ^lin; and according to llerutlotua, thu i-^gyutian i ii«st* '•« a'* day deaoribed thu liiiildiiig uf th* i'yraniidi •■ •. tl>n« "^f oxtrunie exhaustion and hardship to thn w ' 'Urtiy. Th« religion of the higyptiana seems to 'in irtvu, in it* popular iuriii at leuat, a mere gross Ketiahiam, whoMi principal characteristic waa u worship uf teeming animal life- the bull, the eat, tho ibla, the crcM'odite, Sic; dillcront animala in ilitt'urunt numes. Whatever prufoundor uieaiiing lay hid under this gross ceremonial tho priest-caate reaorved to theinaaUm, aa one of the mysturiea, the poasusaion of which severed them from thu reat of the population, Amomg theae mysteries was the art of writing, which was practised both in the alphabetical iiii'l the hioroglyphio form ; the latter being useii fur apoclal ]>urpuM»s, Homo vague notion of the immortality of tho soul, reaembling the llindou tenet of trauamigration, seems to have |>crvaded tho Kgyptian religiuu; and tliia belief appears to havo lain at the foundation of tint Egyptian practice of embalm- ing the (lead. The buiinoaa of ouiliulming waa a very dignified uno, ^nd was aided by a boat of inferior functionaries, who made and painted cotfins and other articles which were required. The bodies of the poorer classes were nieroly dried with salt or natron, and wrapt up in coarso clutlis, and deposited in the cata- combs. The bodies of the rich and great underwent the most complicated oponvtioiis, wrapt in bandages dipped in balitam, and laboriously iwlorned with all kinds of ornuinunti. Thus prepared, thoy were placed in highly-decoriited cases or coffans, and then consigned to sarcophagi in the catacombs or pyramids. Bodies so prepared have been citlled mummies, cither from the Arabian word moiuiii, or the Coptic mum, signifying bitumen or gum-resin, Althuugli the Egyptians carviedon from early times a caravan-coinmerco with the adjacent ccuntrios of Phiu- nicia, Palestine, and Arabia, importing such articles as wine, oil, and spices fur embalming, yet exclusivencss and self-sufficiency were characteristics of their civilisa- tion. There, on the banks of the Nile, those millions lived, changeless in their methods through centuries, each individual mechanically pursuing tho occupation to which ho was boin — millions cultivating the soil, and producing wheat, &c. for the subsistence of tho whole ; others tending the cattle necossarv for food or sacrifice; millions, again, crowded into the nunivruiia towns, occupied in the various handicrafts necessary to provide articles of clothing, luxury, &c. — a largo pro- portion of this class being available for stupendous architectural works; and lastly, diffused through these country and town populations, two other proprietor- castes — the one a militia, occu]iied in gymnastic exer- cises alone ; the other a sacerdotal or intellectual order, within whoso body was accumulated all the spe- culative or scientific wisdom of the country. Relations existed between Kgypt and the adjacent countries ; and rumours of the nature of its peculiar civilisation may have sprca), rivalled Psammetichus in liberality of policy. ' Besides grant- ing permission,' says Mr Grote, * to various Grecian towns to erect religious establiahmcnts for auch of their citizens aa visited the Greek port of Naukratia, he also aanctioncd the constitution of a formal and organiacd emporium or factory, invested with commercial privi- leges, and armed with authority exorcised by presiding ofiicera regularly chosen.' To thia important establish- ment waa given the name of the IlelUnion; just aa if, at a hitherto close port of China, an institution were to be permitted to be called * The Uritish Factory.' Under Aniaais, Egypt attained to a great degree of prosperity, which was remembered tho more that immediately aRar hia death the countnr wai lubjufatad by Carti- byioa, and aiinased to tha Pariian oiupln (ikC. A'JA), AraMai Tho groMt paninauU of Arabia waa In (ha Mrllaat tinica inhablttid by a population of thu Semitic atoek, in all aaaential r»ap«rta aimllar to that which inhabita it now, partly concuntratad in citiea, partly wandering in tribea through tho oxtenaivo ilaaerta which mark tha •iirfaca of tha country. The inhabitanta of the tiiwna aubiiit by agriculture and commerce; tho waniloriiifc tribea by eattla-rearing and pillage. In ancient tiniea, aa now, the Araba were colebrated for their export horae- maiiahiii, their hoapitality, their eloquence, and their free indumitablo apirit. In religion, however, the mo- dern Araba, who are Mohaniine'Una, ditfer from tha ancient Araba, who were idolaters, chieHy worahippera of the celeatial liiminarlaa, nowhere ao beautiful aa in the akv of an Arabian deaert. The Araba theinaelvea trace their hiatory back, the older tribea to Kahtan (tha .loktan of tho loth chapter of Geneaia), the later to Adiian, a deacondaiit of lahmacl tho offspring of Abra- ham. It ia unneceaaary, however, to enter Into thia hiatory, oa Arabia waa not incorporated with the Par- aian empire, an whom they were allied in race, and whose language was radically identical with the'.' own — theirs was essentially the merchant type of ch»:acter. Standing as tha Phoenicians did as the people by whom the exchange between the East and the West was managed, a complete view of their life and manner of activity should eiahtace first, their relations with the East — that is, their overland trade with Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, Persia, and India; secondly, their rela- tions with the West — that is, their maritime trade with the various nations of the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts; and thirdly, the peculiar character of mind which either accompanied or resulted from the consciousness of such a position in the great family of mankind. With regard to the overland trade of the Phoenicians with the Eastern countries, little requires to be said except that it was one attended with great risks — the journey of a caravan across the deserts, and through the roaming' tribes which separated Phoenicia from interior Asia, being a more serious enterprise than a long sf't voyage. It is probable that the Phceniciaus mauag d this commerce not in their own persons, but as wealthy speculative merchants, dealing in a skilful manner with the native Egyptian, Assyrian, or Ara- bian cara>°<\n-proprietors, with whom they maintained rn understood connection. At the same time it is likely that they stimulated and regulated the Eastern commerce, by means of Phoenician agents or emissaries despatched into the interior with general instructions, just as in later times European agents were often de- i-jiatched into the interior of Africa to direct the move- ments of native merchants. It was in their maritime trade with the West, however, that the Phoenicians chiefly exhibited the resources of their own character. Shipping the Oriental commodities, as well as their native products, at Tyre or Sidon, they carried them to ftll the coasts of the Mediterranean aa far as Spain, selling them there at immense profit, and returning with freights oi Western goods. With some of the nations of the Mediterranean their intercourse would be that of one civilised nation with another ; with others, and especially with those of the West, it must have been an intercourse similar to that of a British ■hip with those rude islanders who exchange their valuable products for nails, bits of looking-glass, and other trifles. Whether their customers were civi- lised or sav'tge, however, the Phoenicians reaped profits from then-j. Their aim was to monopolise the com- merce of the Mediterranean. ' If at any time/ it it { 74 said, 'their ships bound on a voyage observed that • stranger kept them company, or followed them in their track, they were sure to get rid of him, or de- ceive him if they could ; and in this they went so far aa to venture the loss of their ships, and even of their lives, so that they could but destroy or disappoint him ; so jealous were they of foreigners^ and so bent on keeping all to themselves. And to add to the dangera of the sea, and discourage other nations from trading, thev practised piracy, or pretended to be at war with such as they met when they thought themaelvea strongest.' This policy succeeded so far, that hardly a merchant ship was to be seen in the Mediterranean not manned by Phoenicians. From this extension of the Phoenician commerce throughout the Mediter- ranean resulted, by necessity, an extensive system of colonisation. The distance, for instance, of Spain fri;m Phoenicia, rendered all the greater by the ancient cus- torn of always sailing close by the coast, made it neces- sary for the Phoenician traders to have intermediate ports, settlement", or factories, to which their vessels might resort, not to say that such settloments were required for the collection of the produce which was to be taken back to Phoenicia. Accordingly, in process of time, Phoenician colonies were established at all avp.ii- able points of the Mediterranean — on the coasts of Africa, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain, and in the Bsieario Islands; the rising maritime spirit of the Greeks ex- cluding the Phoenicians IVom the i£gean and the coasts of Asia Minor. Among the most ancient of the colonics from Tyre were Carthage and Utica on the African coast, and Gades (Cadiz) in Spain ; all of which were founded before the first of the Greek Olympiads (b.c. 894). From these afterwards arose smaller settlements, which diffused the Phoenician agency still more exten- sively among the uncivilisehaeniciaa aoUerementi waa the circumnavigation of Africa b.o. 600 — a feat undertaken by Phoenician sailon at the command of the Egyptian king Nekos, one of the immediate suc- cessors of Psammetik; and, aa is now believed, really performed — the course pursued being from the Red Sm round Africa to Spain — the reverse, therefore, of that followed by Vasco de Gama 2000 yean later. About the time that Phoenicia began to wane, her colony, Carthage, assumed her place in the aflain of the world. Carthaginian civilisation waa essentially a mere repetition of the Phcenician, although under a dif- ferent form of government: Carthaginian history inter- weaves itself with that of the Romani. (See No. 67.) Palestine— the Jews. Palestine extends from north to south a length of about 200 miles, and 50 in breadth ; and is therefore, in point of size, of nearly the same extent as Scotland. The general character of the country is that of a hilly reeion, interspersed with moderately fertile vales; and bemg thus irregular in surface, it possesses a number of brooks or streams, which for the most part are swollen considerably after rains, but are almost dry in the hot seasons of the year. The present condition of Palestine scarcely corresponds with its ancient fertility. This is chiefly attributable to the devastating effects of perpetual wars; and some physical changes have also contributed to the destruction of agricultural industry. Yet, after all, so excellent would the soil appear to be, and BO ample its resources, that Canaan may still be characterised as a land flowing with milk and honey. The history of the extraordinary nation which once inhabited this land, must be so much more familiar to our readers than that of any other ancient nation, that all that is necessary here is a brief sketch, such as will assist the imagination in tracing with due complete- ness the general career of the East till the establish- ment of the Persian empire. According to the ac- counts given of the Jews in Scripture, and in their history by Josephus, they were descended from Abra- ham, the tenth in descent from Noah, through his second son Shem. According to Josephus, Abraham, who was born iu the 292d year (according to other authorities, in the 352d year) after the Deluge, * left the land of Chaldea when he was seventy-five years old, and, at the command of God, went into Canaan, and therein he dwelt himself, and left it to his posterity. He was a person of great sagacity, both for understand-' ing of all things and persuading his hearers, and not mistaken in b.'j opinions; for which reason he began to have higher notions of virtue than others had, and he determined to renew and to change the opinion all men happened then to have concerning God ; for he was the first that ventured to publish this notion, that there was but ONE God, the Creator of the universe; and that as to other gods, if they contributed anything to the hap- piness of men, that each of them afforded it only accord- ing to His appointment, and not by their own power. For which doctrines, when the Chaldteans and other people of Mesopotamia raised a tumult against him, 1.- thought fit to leave that country, and at the command of God he came and lived in the land of Canaan. And when he was there settled, he built an altar, and per- formed a sacrifice to God.' After the death of Al'ii- ham's son Isaac, his younger son Jacob remained for a number of years in Canaan, surrounded by a family of twelve 3on8, one of whom, Joseph, as related in Scrip- ture, became the cause of the removal of his father and brethren, and all belonging to them, into Egypt. The Hebrew emigrants were seventy in number, and formed at the first a respectable colony among the Egyptians. Jacob died after having been seventeen years in Egypt, and his body was carried by Joseph to Hebron, and buried in the sepulchre of his father and grandfather. Joseph also died in Egypt at the age of 110, and at length hix brethren died likewise, f^h of the twelve sons of Jacob became the progenitor of a family or tribe, and the twelve tribes, personified by the term 76 CHAMBERS'S INFOBMA.TION FOR THE PEOPLE. Imukl, continued to reside in Egypt, where they in- OKOsed both in number and in wealth. Their rapid increase and prosperity soon excited the jealousy of the inastera of the country ; and from being in high favour, the different tribes gradually fell under the lash of power, and came to be treated as public slaves. The entiit! body of Israelites, guided by Moses, lied from Egypt in the year 1490 before Christ, at a time when 'thebes, Me-nphis, and the other magnificent cities of that country, were in all their glory. Pro- ceeding in a north-easterly direction from lUmeses (near the site of modem Cairo), they went through the level region of the land of Goshen (now a barren sandy plain) to the head of the Oulf of Suez, the western bruich of the Red Sea. Here they crossed in a mira- culous manner to the opposite shore, to a spot now called the Wells of Moses, where, according to the Scripture narrative, they sang their song of thanks- giving for their deliverance. The country in which they had now arrived was a portion of Arabia Petnea, consisting of a dismal barren wilderness, now called the Desert of Sinai, from the principal mountain which rises within it. From the point at which the Israelites had crossed the Rod Sea from Egypt, they were con- ducted by a most circuitous and tedious route towards the Promised Land of Canaan. Their tiresome journey extended over a period of forty years, and was not completed till all the Hebrews who were above twenty years of age when they loft the land of Egypt (except- ing Caleb and Joshua) hod died, and a new genera- tion, possessing greater courage and confidence in the Almighty, had succeeded them. In the trackless wilder- ness through which they were led, their multitudes, as we learn from Scripture, could neither have traced their way nor procured subsistence without a con- tinued miracle. The hand of God brought for them streams of water out of the flinty rock; rained manna or bread from heaven ; and gave a pillar of cloud to direct their journeys through the day, and a pillar of fire by night. He delivered the tables of a moral law, comprehending the ten commandments, to Moses their leader ; and promulgated a set of regulations for the ceremonies of wors^in, the establishment of a separate order devoted to religion and learning, nnd fur the civil government of the nation. The Hebrews had thus a regular polity and written laws when most other nations knew only the law of the sword, or of savage animal superiority. The country on the shore of the Mediterranean which was allotted as a scttlomcitt to this peo|)le, was at that time occupied by many wail ike tribes, who had grown strong in its fertile plains and valleys; and the generation of the Hebrews who were conducted into it were compelled to fight for its possession. The struggle was not of long continuance. The whole land was con- quered in the year n.c. 14.50. Accord!. ig to the account given in the '2Gth chapter of the book of Numbers, the Hebrew nation thus brought out of the laud of £g}'pt and settled in Cuiioan amounted to GDI, 730 souls, unto whom the land wns divided for an inheritance, according to the number of individuals in the respective tribes. The tribes, and their fighting men above twenty years of age, were reckoned iis fol- low: — Tribe of Reuben (the eldest son of Jacob) 43,730; Simeon 2'J,200 ; Gad 40,500 ; .Judah 76,500 ; Issachar 64,300 ; Zebulun 60,500 ; Mauasseh .'J2,70(t ; Ephraim 32,500 (the tribes of Manosseh and Ephraim were both from Joseph); Benjamin 45,600; Dan 64,400; Asher .'>3,400 ; and Naphtali 45,400. Among these twelve tribes the land was divided. The tribe of Levi (to which bciongcd AIoscs, Aaron, and Elea^ar tlie high priest), amounting to 23,000 males from a month old and upwards, received no share of the laud : l>cing set apart for the priesthood, the tenth or tithe of the general produce was assigned them as their perpetual inherit- ance. By makins a special ap;reenicnt with the other tribes that they should assist thcni against the conimon enemy, the two tribes of Gad and Reuben, and the half tribe of Manaweh, wore permitted to appropriate land 7C for their inheritance in Gilead and Boshan, on tlie Arabian side of the Jordan. Moses dying before the inheritance wm entered upon, was succeeded by Joshua as a leader, and by him the Israelites were conducted across the Jordan. The poli- tical government of the various tribes, after their con- quest and settlement of Canaan, appeals to have been republican, with military leaders called Judges; but these acted by the direction of the priesthood, who were immediately counselled by the Deity within the sanctuary. This period of separate government in tribes, called the Period of the Judges, lasted oOO years (b.c. 1427-1112), and was one of daring actions and great deliverances — the heroic age of the Jews, The epoch of kings succeeded that of judges. The reign of Saul, their first monarch, though the people were stronger by being united, was gloomy and troubled. David, who succeeded, was a soldier and a conqueror. He rendered the Hebrews formidable to the whole of their enemies, and save them a regular and defensible position, expelling their old antagonists from every part of the country, lie left an empire peaceful, respected, and strong; and, what was of as much importance, he selected from among his sons a successor who was able to improve all these advantages, and to add to the progress which his countrymen had already made in prosperity. Under Solomon, the name of the Hebrew government being able to protect its subjects in other countries, the people and their king began to employ themselves in commerce. Their trade was at first en- grailed on that of the Phoenicians of Tyre. A greater contrast cannot be imagined than between the troubles of the time of the Judges (only 100 years before), and the peace, security, and enjoyment of this reign. 'And the king made silver to be in Jerusalem us stones, and cedars made he to be as sycamore trees that are in the vale for abundance; and Judah and Israel were many; as the sand which is by the sea- shore for multitude, eating, and drinking, and making merry.' (1 Kings, x. 27.) After the death of Solomon, the country fell into the same divisions which had weakened it in the time of the Judges, I'^ach of the districts of North and South Israel was under :i, separate king, and the people were exposed both to the attacks of their enemies and tu quarrels wich each other. Their history is a succession of agitating conflicts for independence, and of unex- pected and remarkable deliverances, of a similar nature to those of the earlier jierioJ, and they continued for about the same length of time (3I!0 years); but they are marked by fewer of those traits }f heroic devotion which distinguished the epoch of the Judges. The backslidings, errors, and inisgovernment of their kings, is the chief and painful subject which is presented to us; and though these are relieved at times by the ap- pearance of such monurchs as Josiah, Jehoshapbat, and llczokiah, yet the whole history of this period is over- cast with the gloominess of progressive decline. By far the most delightful parts of it are those which relate to the lives of the prophets, who were raised up at inter- vals to warn the nation and its rulers of the iute which they incurred by forsaking the religion of their fathers. These inspired men sometimes sprang up from among the humblest classes of the community: one from 'the herdsmen of Tckoa,' another from ' ploughing with twelve yoke of oxen ;' several were of the priestlv order, and one (Isaiah) is said to have been of royal lineage; but the works of all are marked with the same sacred- ness, force, and authority. They reprehend their coun- trymen, in the most eloquent strains, at one time for idolatry, and at another for hypocrisy ; and their in- dignation is expressed with the some freedom and dig- nity against the vices of the highest and the lowest. Of the two kingdoms into which Palestine had di- vided itself after the death of Solomon (u. c. 975), the northern, called the Kingdom of Israel, was conquered by the Assyrians of Nineveh (». c. 722), who earned off many thousands of the people into captivity. Little is known of their fate. By some tbuy are supposed to HISTORY OP ANCIENT NATIONS. hare been civrried to India, by others to Tartary : * what became of all the Israielites of the ten tribes,' is still a question with historiann. The southern kingdom, called the Kingdom of .ludak. retained its independence till B.C. 688, when it waa invaded and subdued by Ne- buchadnezzar, kiiif; of Habylon, who destroyed Jerusa- lem, and carried away a great number of the principal Jews into captivity at Babylon. On the subversion of the Babylonian dominion by Cyrus, seventy years after- wards, the captives, to the number of 42,360, were permitted to return to their own land, and rebuild Jerusalem. At this period, the whole of Palestine merged in the growing Persian empire. The Assyrians and Babylonians. That large extent of level country situated between and on the banks of the two great rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris, was, in the earliest antiquity, the seat of a Semitic population living under an organised government. The origin of the Assyrian state is thus related in Scripture (Genesis, x.) — ' And Cush (the son of Ham, the son of Noah) begat Nimrod: he began to be a mighty one in the earth. He was a mighty hunter before the Lord : wherefore it is said. Even as Nimrod the mighty hunter before the Lord. And the be- ginning of his kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accod, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar. Out of that land went forth Asshur (translated in the margin, " Out of that land he — Nimrod — went forth into Assy- ria")! and builded Nineveh, and the city Rehoboth, and Calah, and Besen between Nineveh and Calah: the same is a great city.' There are two interjireta- tions of this passage, according ns the text or the marginal reading is adopted. The one is, that a mighty conqueror of the race of Ham (primitive Ethiopic influence ?) made an irruption into Mesopo- tamia, which belonged to the children of Shem, and built there Babylon on the P^uphratcs, and other cities; becoming, as the Eastern authors say, the first king in the world, and the first man who wore a crown ; and that, driven out of their possessions by this conqueror, a part of the children of Shem proceeded farther east, and built Nineveh on the Tigris. The other is, that Nimrod himself, going from Babylon, built Nineveh. In either sense^ the passage represents distinctly the early condition of this part of the world — an extensive plain fertilised by the two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates ; Mid with great cities scattered over it, gathering the population together at points, if we may 80 speak, into large solid masses. Of these cities, the most important ultimately were Babylon, built, ac- cording to the above account, by Nim'od, n.c. 2217; and Nmeveh (called Ninos by the Greeks), built, ar- cording to the same authority, either by Asshur or Nimrod about the same time, but afterwards rebuilt and enlarged, according to ancient tradition, by a great king, Ninus, u.c. 1230, down to which period it had been inferior in size to the Rcscn mentioned in the Scriptural text. With these two cities as capitals, the country divided itself into two corresponding parts or kingdoms — the kingdom of Assyria proper, including, besides part of Mesopotamia, the country io the right of the Tigris as far as Mount Zagros ; and the kingdom of Babylonia, including the western part of Mesopo- tamia, together with the country to the left of the Euphrates as far as Syria proper. The two kingdoms, however, are often included under the joint name of Assyria ; a word which, as well as the shorter form Syria, was often employed by the ancient Greek writers to designate the whole region lying along the courses of the two great riv<;r8 from the Blaclt Hoa to the northern angle of the Persian Gulf, Although Babylon was, according to Scripture, the earlier of the two powers, yet the Assyrians of Ni- neveli attained such strength under their hero Ninus, as to reduce the Babylonians to a «pei;io8 of depen- dence. Under Ninus, and his wife and successor the groat coiiqueress Sumirai lis, says ancient mythical history, the city of tV^e 'I'igris extended its doniiuions far and wide, from Egypt to the border of India. This empire, known in the common chronologies by the name of * The Assyrian Empire,' lasted, according to the usual accounts, Ave or six centuries, during which it was governed, in the absolute Oriental manner, by the successors of Ninus and Semiramis. Of these several are mentioned in Scripture — Phul, the contem- porary of Menahem, king of Israel (b.c. 761), and Tiglath Pileser (b. o. 730), both of whom were mixed up with the affairs of Israel and Judoh; Salmanassar, contemporary with Hezekiah, king of Judah, and Hosea, king of Israel, by whom it was that Samaria was taken (b. c. 722), and the Israelites led into capti- vity (n.c. 722) ; and Sennacherib, or Sanherib (d. c. 7 U>, who attacked Egypt, and whose fruitless invasion of Judah forms the subject of the striking narrative in the 18th and 19th chapters of the second book of Kings. The last of the great line of the Assyrian kings of Nineveh was the luxurious Sardanapalus, in whose reign the empire was dissolved, through the instru- mentality of its revolted subjects the Medes (b.c. 626). After Nineveh, the greatest city in the Assyrian dominion was Babylon. Even while under the domi- nion of the kings of Nineveh, Babylon appears to have possessed a special organisation under its own chiefs, several of whose names — such as Belesis (n.c. 888), ond Nabonassar (b. c. 747) — have been preserved ; and, together with the whole province of which it was the capital, to have pursued a special career. The peculiar element in the Babylonian society which distinguished it from that of Assyria proper, was its Chaldecan priesthood. ' The Chalda:an order of priests,' says Mr Grote, * appear to have been peculiar to Babylon and other towns in its territory, espocially between that city and the Persian Gulf; the vast, rich, and lofty temple of Belus in that city served them at once as a place of worship and an astronomical observatory ; and it was the paramount ascendancy of this order which seems to have caused the Babylonian people generally to be spoken of as Chaldeeaus, though some writers have supposed, without any good proof, a conquest of Assyrian Babylon by barbarians called Chaldseans from the mountains near the Euxine. There were exagge- rated statements respecting the antiquity of their astro- nomical observations,* which cannot be traced, as oi definite and recorded date, higher than the era of Nabonassar (n.c. 747), as well as respecting the ex- tent of their acquired knowledge, so largely blended with astrolo&:ical fancies and occult influences of the heaienly bodies on human affairs. But however incom- ptfite thci- i,' wledge may appear when judged by the Htandard c* ■ ier-times, there can be no doubt that, i;'^>raparcd with any of their contemporaries of the sixth oer.tury b.c. — either Egyptians, Greeks, or Asiatics — they stood pre-eminent, and had much to teach, not only to I'hales and 'Pythagoras, but even to later in- quirers, such as Eudoxus and Aris*otle. The concep- ti- . ' f the revolving celestial sphere, the gnonior, and the division of the day into iwelve parts, are affirmed iiy Herodotus to have been iirst taught to the Greeks by the J^abylonians.' This learned Chaldecan class sreins to have pervaded the general mass of Babylonian society, as the corresponding priest-caste in Egypt per- vaded Egyptian soricty, with this difference, that Bahy- Ionian society does not appear to have been parcelled out like the Egyptian into a rigorous system of castes. On the dissolution of tlie Assyrian empire of Nineveh by the Mfdes (b.c. 626), the Chaldecan fragment of it rose to eminence on its r'.'ns, chiefly by the efforts of Nabopolassar, a viceroy of the last Assyrian king. Establishing Babylonia as an independent power in the east, Nabopolassar canio into collision with Nekos, king of Egypt, who was at that time extending his empire into Asia. It was in opposing Nekos (Pharooh- Necho) on his march to Babylon that Josiah, king of * When jMexniider the Oreat waa in Babylon, the Chaldmans told .ilin their order had bojrun their astrooomloal observatloua 4y»,i,"other, to the enormous height, it is said, of a furlong. Without the citv were numerous canals, embank- ments, &c. for the purnose of irrigating the country, which, as little o- no ruin fell, depeude(4 nn the river for moisture. ' The execution of such .olossal warli' as thoKe of Babylon and Egypt,' it has been remarked^ 'demonstrates habitc of regular industry, a oouoen- trated population under one government, and above all, an implicit submission to J.e legal and !iingly Bwuy — contrasted forcioly with Lhf. small self-govern- ing communities of Ureace snd wef5ttm Europe, whe:-e the will uf the individual citii«n was ho much more energetic' in tbe latter countries only such public works were attempted iw were within the limits of mo- derate t««t«. Nineveh is said to have licen larger even than i,abylon, and is described as an oblong, thre« divya' journey round— that is, upwards of 60 luiles. 78 The Medei and Persians. Extending, as we have said, from the Mediterranean to the Indus, the Assyrian empire had included not only the chief Sumitic nations f western Asia, but also that portion of the Indo-Oermanio far.iily which was contained between Mount Zagros and the river Indus. Essentially a prolongation of the great race which in- habited Hindoostan, the nature of their country — a vast table-land, here and there rising into hills, or present- ing spots of great fertility — had made them quite diflfe- lent in character and Labits from the settled and stereotyped Hindoos. All parts of this plateau of Iran, as it was called, including the present countries of Persia, Cabool, and Beloochist;in, were not alike ; in some portions, where the soil was fertile, there existed a dense agricultural population; iu others, the inhabi- tants were nomadic horse-breeders, cattle-rearers, and shepherds. All the tribes, however, were bound to- gether by the ties of a common Indo-Persio language, quite distinct from that spoken by their Semitic neigh- bor rs and masters, and by a common religion. Tnis religion, called the Religion of Zend, a modification probably of some more ancient form, from which Hin- dooism may also have sprung, was taught by Zerdusht or Zoroaster, a great native reformer and spiritual teachei, wno II-"pd six or seven centuries before Christ. The principal docrine of his religion was that of the existence of two great enanations from the Supreme and perfect Deity — ti.. oi.o a good spirit (Ormuzd), who created man, and fitter. bgether, constituted little nations. ThuH adjacent to Assyria, and separated from it by Mount Zagros, was an agglomeration of seven tribes or villages, under the special name of the Medes, the country which they in- habited beiii;;' iaencc calle7), who effected some iuiportant changes in the constitution of >hr nation, and founded the Median capital Ekbatana in one of the most plea- sant sites in the world. His son, Phraortes (h.c. 657- 635), pursued a career of conquest, subjugated Persis and other districts of Iran, and perishe>'. in xi invasion of Assyria. He was succeeded by his son Cy,i,xare8, who continued hisdosigne of conquest, and extended the Median dominion as far westward into Asia Minor as the river Halys. He was engaged in a repetition of his father's attempt against Nineveh, when he was called away to defend his kingdom against a great roving population, belonging, as is most likely, to the Scythian branch of the Caucasian race (althougl. some reckon theiu Mongols), who, bursting with their herds of .'lorses and juarej from their native seat in '..'entral Asia, had driven the Cimmerians, a kindred race, before them into Af'.A Minor, and then had poured themselves over the plateau of Iran. Defeating Cyasaros, they kept him from hia thvoiie for a period of twcnty-ciglit yetrg, during which they ruled in savage fashion over Media, Persia, jtc. At length, having oMAssiuatcil their chiefj HISTORY OP ANCIENT NATIONS. com- by a itratagem, Cyaxares regained his dorainioni, and drove the invaders back "uto the north. He then renewed his attempt agaiuit Nineveh ; took it ; and re- duced the Assyrian empire, with the exception of Baby- lonia, under his dominion. The Median empire, thus formed, he bequeathed (b. c. 595) to his son Astyases. Astyages having given his daughter Mandanc in marriage to a Persian chieftain named Cambyses, the issue of this marriage ivrs the famous Cyrus, the founder of tbo Persian monarchy. The circumstances which led to the revolt of the Persians under Cyrus against the Medoj, and the dethronement by him of his grand- fatlicr Astyages (b.c. 560), had been woven into a romance resembling the story of Romulus, even so early as the age of Herodotus (b.c. 408), so that that accurate historian could not ascertain the paiiiclars. ' The native Persians,' says Mr Grot'-, ' whom Cyns" conducted were an aggregate of seven agricultural and four nomadic tribes, all of them rude, hardy, and brave, dwelling in a mourtainous region, clothed in skins, ignorant of wine or fruit, of any of the coromcnest luxuries of life, and despising the very idea of purchase or sale. Their tribes were very unequal in point of dignit}'; first in estimation among them stood the Pasargudse ; and the first clan among the Pasargadoe were the Achoomenidee, to whom Cyrus belonged. Whether his relationship to the Median king whom he dethroned was a fact or a politic fiction we cannot well determine, but Xenophon ^ives us to understand that the con- quest of Media by the Persians was reported to him as having been an obstinate and protracted struggle.' Master of Media, the Persian chief in his turn be- came a great Oriental conqueror ; indeed all the Oriental conquests bear the same character. A no- madic race, led by a chief of great abilities, invades the more organised states, and conquers them; the chief assumes the government, and founds a dynasty, which, after a rule of several generations, becomes enervated, and gives way before some new nomadic incursion. The first power against which Cyrus turned his arms, after having cubdued the Modes, was the famous Lydian kingdom, which then subsisted in Asia Minor under the great Croesus. And here, therefore, we must give some account of the ancient condition of Asia Minor and its principalities. Btates of Asia Minoiv-The Lydians. The river Halys divided Asia Minor into two parts. East of the Halys, or near its source, were various nations of tl:>t Semitic stock — Cappadocians, Cilicians, Pauiphylians, &c. — each organised apart, but all in- cluded under the Assyrian, and latterly, as we have seen, under the Median empire. West of the Halys, the inhabitants were apparently of the Indo-Germauic race, although separated by n\any removes from the Indo-Gerraans of Persia. Overspreading this part of Asia Minor, as well as Thrace and other parts of south-eastern Europe, this great race ha portion of tho Asiatic Greeks proposed a uni- versiti emigration to the island of Sardinia — a striking design, whicn, however, was not carried into execution. All Asia Minor ultimately yielded to Cyrus. The Persian Fmpire. Having subdued Asia Minor, Cyrus next turned his arms against the Assyrians of Babylon. His siege and capture of Babylon (b.c. 53!)), when he effected his entrance by diverting the cou.'se of the Euphrates, fonu one of the most romantic incidents in history ; an incident connected with Scriptural narrative through its result — the emancipation of the Jew? from their captivity. Along with Babylon, its dependencies, Phoenicia and Palestine, came under the Persians. Cyrus, one of the most remarkable men of the an- cient world, having perished in au invasion of Scythia (B.C. 529), was succeeded by his son Cambyses, who annexed Egypt tP the Peraian empire (b.c. 525), hav- tmm^m^^m. CHAMBERS'S INITOIWIATION FOR THE PEOPLE. inir defeated Piammanitui, the fon of the i»har»oh AmMii. Foiled in hi« intention of penetrating Libya and Ethiopia, Camby»e« wa« dethroned by a Marian bysei during a fit of madncM. A con»i)iracy of aeven great noble* hamg been formed againat the false Smerdia, ho wae put to death. He was iucceoded by one of the conspiring chiefs called Darius Hystaspes, who reigned— oTer the immense Persian empire, ex- tending from the Nile to the Indus, and beyond it— from B.C. 621 to B.C. 485. 'The reign of Darius,' says Mr Orote, * was one of organisation, different from that of his predecessor — a difference which the Persians well understood and noted, calling Cyrus " the father," Cambyses '* the master," and Darius " the retail trader or huckster." lu the mouth of the Persians this last epithet must be construed as no insignilicant compli- ment, since it intimates that he was the first to intro- duce some methodical order into the imperial adminis- tration and finances. Under the two former kings there was no definite amount of tribute levied upon the subject provinces. But Darius probably felt it expedient to relieve the provinces iVom the burden of undefined exacrions. He distributed the whole empire into twenty '';<'.. ivuents (called Satrapies), imposing upon each a l v(>r| .mnual tax. This, however, did not prevent each satrap (the Persian governor appointed by the kinp' 'i. ^-'s own province from indefinite re- quisitions, 'f I ': .atrap was a little king, who acted neavl; an he {ii:"!Beu in the internal administration of hie , ince, rt;bject only to the necessity of sending up t ' ..;.'eT■» „,ii:d a royol secretary or comptroller of the revenue, who probably managed the imperial fi- nances in the province, and to whom the court of Susa might perhaps look as a watch upon the satrap him- self. The satrap or the secretary apportioned the sum payable by tho satrapy in the aggregate among the various component distrirts, towns, or provinces, leav- ing to the local authoriiies in each of these latter the task of assessing it upon individual inhabitants. From necessity, therefore, as well as from indolence of temper and political incompetence, the Persians were compelled to respect the authoritieu which they found 8t.anding both in town and country, and to leave in their hands a large measure of genuine invluence. Often even the petty kings who hiwl governed separate districts during j^heir state of independence, pxior to the Persian conquest, retained their title and ilignity as tributaries to the court of Susn. The empire of the great king was thus an aggregate of heterogeneous ele- ments, connected together by no tic except that of common fear and subjection — noway coherent nor self- supporting, nor pervaded by any conimon system or spirit of nationality.' Continuation tlirougb Greek and Roman History. How Darius, m conEC([uence of the assistance rendered by the Athenittim to the Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor, who ha<) rovf-lted against him (d.c. 503), sent a vast I'ersian army into European Greece; how this army was defeaied by the Athenian general, Miltiades, with only ll,0(Mt men, in tho glorious battle of Marathon (B.r. ■1.00); liow, ten years later, Xerxes, the son and successor of Darius, undertook an expedition against Greece with a hont of several millions, and was defeated bv Theniistocles iti a noval buttio at Salamis (b.c. 4110), which wos f 'howed by two conteniporaneous defeats of his lieutenants at Pla b»h, and Mvcalt^ (n.c. 479); how the Persians were thu finally driven back into Asia ; how for ;v century a: d a- half rrlatioiis, sometimes hoxtilo and sometime, friendly, woie maintained be- tween the Greek stated and the Persian monarchs, the d<*t.'enerate successors 7f Darius and Xerxes, under whom the empire had began to crumble; bow at length, in the reign of Darius Codomannus (b.c. 334), Alex- ander the Great retaliated on the Persians the wrongs the^ had done the Greeks by invading and destroying their decrepit empire, and organising all tho countries between the Adrl;itic and the Indus under, not a Semitic, as in the case of the Assyrian empire, nor an Indo-Oermanic, as in the case ot the Persic empire, but a Greek or Pelasgio system ; how, on Alexander's death (b.c. 323), this vast agglomeration of the human species fell asunder into three Ortek monarchies — the Macedonian monarchy, including the states of European Greece ; the Egyptian monarchy . of the Ptolemies including, besides Eg^pt, Pha-nicia, Pales- tine, and Arabia ; and the Syrian monarchy of the Seleacidse, comprehending, although with a weak grasp, Asia Minor (or at least parts of it which had be- longed to the Lydian and Assyrian empires), Syria, Assyria, and Babylonia; with the loss, however, of tlie countries between the Tigris and the Indus, whore a germ of independence arose (d.c. 236) in a native nomad dynasty, which ultimately united all the tribes of iron iu one empire, called Ihe Parthian Empiit ; and how these three Iragments dragged on a separate ex- istence, full of wars and revolts : all this belongs to Grecian history — that is, to the history of the Hellenic portion of the Pelasgians, whose career is fully detailed in the following number. How, about two centuries ar.i! p.-half before Christ, another, but more mixed j-tiitu.!! of this Velasgic family, which hod arisen 'v\ Italy, and in the course of several centuries rendered itself co-extensive with that peninsula — began to assume consequence \v. the wider area of the Mediterranean world: how it fir^ii grappled with the power of the Carthaginians (b. c. 264 -JOl), who for several centuries had been pursuin^r the career of world-merchants, formerly purfioed by their fathers the Phoenicians ; how it then aibailed and subdued the crumbling Macedonian monarehy, itx'orporating all Greece with it3<^lf (b. c. 134); how, retrograding, so to speak, into Asia, it gradually ate up tho Syrian and Egyptian monarchies, till it came into collision with the Parthian empire at the Euphrates (b. c. 134 — b. c. 60); how, advancing in^o the new regions of northern and western Europe, it compelled the yet uncultured races there — the Celts or Gauls, the Iberians, &c. — to enter the pale of civilisation (b. c. 80-60) ; how thus, from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, was founded a new empire, called • The Roman,' retaining, with vast additions, all that portion of humanity which the fonner em]: ires had embraced, with the exception of what had lapsed bock to theParthians; how this empire subsisted for several centuries, it. great mats of matured humanity girt by comparative barbarisiu — that is, surrounded on tlie cast by the Pnrthians, on 'ihe south by the Ethiopiaii.<), on the no"th by tho Germans and Scythians, and on the west by the roar of tte Atlantic; and how at last (a. n. 400-475) this great rxass, having lost its vitality, fell iisundcr before the inuption of the barbaric ele- ment — that is, the Germans, the Scythians, and the Arabs — giving rise t(j the infant condition of the modem world : all this belongs to Roman history, which forms the subject of a separate treatise. With one gener ' remark we shall conclude; namely, that the progress oi history — that is, of the Caucasian development — has evidently been, upon the whole, from the east westward. First, as we have seen, the Assyrian or Semitic fermentation alfected western Asia as far as the Mediterranean ; then the Persian movement extended the historic stage to the y^gean ; after that the Mace- donian conquest extended it to the Adriatic ; and finally, the Romans extended it to the Atlantic. For fifteen centuries humanity kept dashing itself against this barrier; till ut length, like a groat missionary sent iu "carch, the spirit of Columbus shot acrose the Atlantic. And now, in the fonn of a dominant Anglic race, though ^ith large intermixture, Caucasian vitality is working in its newest method, with Ethiopian help, oil the broad and fertile fiei'l of America, HISTOKY OF GREECE. Greece is a peninsula situated on tho northern shore of the Mediterranean, between the Ionian and ^Egcai. Seas. As a country, it is br i tifui ly diTersified by hills and yalloj 3, like Wales oi le Highlands of Scotland. Some of tho hills are bo high as to be constantly covered with snow ; while the low districts enjoy a mild cli- mate, and are of extreme fertility — several of them, as Tempe and Arcadia, being spoken of with rapture by the poets of ancient times. As the country is much divided by hills and indentations of the sea, it was partitioned, from an early period, into a number of petty states, which were under separate governments, and often at war with each other. The southern part of the peninsula, anciently styled the Peloponnesus, and now the Morea, was divided into Laconia (con- taining Sparta), Argolis, Achaia, Arcadia, Elis, and Messcnia, each of which was only about tho size of a moderate English county. Middle Greece (now Liva- dia), to the north of the Peloponnesus, and connected with it by the Isthmus of Corinth, on which lay the city of that name, contained Attica (in \^ 'ich was the city of Athens), Meguris, Boectia (in which was the city of Thebes), Phocis, Locris, Doris, JFAoVui, and Acarnania. Northern Greece contai;ied Thessaly (now the district of Jonuina), Epirus (now Albania), and Macedonia (now Filiba Vilajeti), the last of which did not, however, belong to (ireeoe till a comparatively late period. To the east of (ireece proper lay the numerous islands of the -/Figcan Sc, otherwise denominated the Archipelago; with which may be included certain islands lying in the Mediterranean Sea in the same direction, tho principal of which were tlhodes, Cyprus, and tlie Cychides. To tho south lay Cythera (now Cerigo) and i Crete (now Candia). To iue west, in tho Ionian Sea, lay Corcyra (Corfu), CVphalonia, Ithaca, and others, | now constituting the distinct confederacy of the Ionian \ Islands, under protection of Great Britain. Besides Laving possession of these various districts on tho mainland, and islands on both sides of the peninsula, the Greeks in the course of time acquirtd colonies in Sicily and Soutliern Italy, as well as on the coast of Asia Minor, adja-.'eiit to tlic islands in the JEge&n Sea. The principal of these Asiatic possessions was Ionia, a beautiful and fertile country, the cajtital of which Wivs Ivpheius, No. 66, In consequence of Greece having been divided into a number of petty states, each of which maintained its own political independence, the history of the country necessarily assumes the character of a number of sepa- rate narratives. The Greeks, in the different states, did_ not consider themselves as constituting a single nation or people, although they were in some measure united by similarity of origin, language, religion, and manners. It was not, indeed, till a comparatively late period that they had any name for the entire country ; the name tnen assumed was Hellas. The term Grecia (Greece) was conferred by tho Romans, and has since been generally employed. EARLY HISTORY AND UYTHOLOaV. The history of the Grecian states commences about 1800 years before Christ, when the Egyptians on the opposite side of the Mediterranean were in a high state of civilisation ; but the portion of history which pre- cedes 084 n.c. is understood to be fubulou8,-and entitled to little credit. According to the Greek poets, the original inhabitants of the country, denominated Pelas- gians, were a race of savages, who lived in caves, and clothed themselves with the skins of wild beasts. Uranus, an Egyptian prince, landed in the couutry, and became the father of a family oi' giants, named Titans, who rebelled ngainst, and dethroned him. His Sim Saturn, who reigned in his stead, in order to pre- vent the liko misfiirtune from befalling himself, ordered all his own children to l)e put to death as soon as they were bom. But one named Jupiter was concealed by the mother, and reared in the island of Crete, from which in time he returned, and deposed his father. The Titans, jealous of this new prince, rebelled against him, but were vanquished and expelled for ever from the country. Jupiter divided hie .ominions with his brothers Nep- tune and Pluto. The countries which he reserved to himself he governed with great wisdom, holding his court on Mount Olympus, a hill in Thessaly, 1)000 feet in height, and the loftiest in Greece. Any truth which there might be in the story of the Titans and their princes was completely disguised by the poets, and by the j)opular iraagiuation. Saturn, Jupiter, Neptune, and I'luto, were looked back to, not as murculs, Ijut as deities ; and the top of Mount Olympus was supposed to be the heavenly residence of thj gods, by whom the affairs of nini-tals were governed. And Ibr ages after the dawn of philosophy, these deified sons ot ^^'uru, and numberless others connocred with them, were the objects of the national worship, not only among ti'.o Greets, but also among tho Koiu«iis. At an uncertain but very early date an Asiatic people named the Hellenes immigrated intu Greece, in some coses expelling the Pnlatigl, and in others intermingling with them, so that in process of time all the inhabitants of (.ireece came to be called Hellenes. They were, however, divided into several tribes, the principal of which were tho Doriana, JEolians, and I >nian8, each of whom spoke a dialect diilbring iu 801 ic respectii from those made use of by the others. Thfc^» dialects were named the Doric, ^olic, and Ionic, in t' ference to the tribes which used them ; and a fourti , which was aiterwards formed fi-om the Ionic, was named the Attic, from its boiug spoken by the inhabitants of Attica. In -he yeor 1056 B.C., Inachus, a Phoenician adven- turer, is said to have arrived iu Greece at the hsad of a small baud of his countrymen. PhtEiiicia, a (letty state on tho coast of the Mediterranean, in Asia Minor, wos at this time one of a '".■w countries, includirjg Egypt and Assyria, iu which some degree of civilisation ^ro- CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. railed, while all the reit of the peope of the earth remained in their origiualbarUrfim, like the Pela*- giani before the luppoeed arrival of nrai.ui. Naviga- tion for the purpose* of coniuierce, and the art ot writ- ing, are laid to have originated with the Phconicians. On their arrival in Oreece, Inachu» and his friends founded the city of Argos, at the head of what is now called the Gulf of Napoli, in the IVloponnesui. Three hundred jeare after thie event (1666 B.C.), a colony, led hy an Egyptian named Cecrops, arrived in Attica,* and founded the celebrated city of Athene, for- tifying a hig>< rock which rose precipito'uly above the ■ite afterward* occupied by the town. Egypt is situated in the north-eastern part of Africa. It is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, and is watered by the great river Nile, the periodical overflowinge of which, by supplying the moisture neces- sary for vegetation, render the soil very fertile. From this country, which had at a very early period made considerable advaiu'es in some of the arts and sciences (see Ancirnt History), Cecrops imported much valu- able knowledge to the rude inhabitants of Attica, whom he had persuaded or obliged to acknowledge him as their chief or king. Ho placed his rocky i. 'ness under the protection of an Egyptian goddess, from whose Greek name, Athena (afterwards changed by the Latins into Minerva), the city which subsequently lose around the eminence was called Athene. About the year 14!)3 b. c, Cadmus, a Phoi^nician, founded the citv of Thebes in Havitia ; and among othur useful things which he communicated to the Greeks, he is said to have taught them alphabetical writing, although it is certain that that art did not oon\e into common uso in Greece until several centuries after this period. Th- city of Corinth, situated on the narrow isthmus which .onnects the Peloponnesus with the mainland of Greece, was founded in the year 1520 d. c, and from its very advantngeous position on the arm of tho sea to which it anciently gave a name, but which is now known as the Gulf of Lepanto, it very soon became a place of considerable commercial importance. Sparta 01 L.icedromun, tho celebrated capital of Laconia in the PeloponnesuH, is said to have been founded about 1520 B. c. by Leiez, an Rgyptian. In the year 1485 B.C., an Egyptian named Danttus, a>»;ompan>ed by a party of his countrymen, arrived at Argos, tho inhabitants of which must have lieen at that period in an exceedingly rude state, since it is said that he excited their gratitude so much by teach- in:; them to dig wells, when tho streams from which thev werp supplied with water were dried up with the heut, that tiiey elected him as their king. Fully nior« than a century after this period (about 1.150 B.c.'r, I'elops, the son of a king oi" Phrygia, a country in Asia Minor, settled in that part of Greece' v.h'ch was afterwards called from him Peloponnesus, or the islam! of Pelops, where he married the ilaughter of one if thn native princes, whom he afterwards suc- ceei'ed on. the throne. In the course of his long reign, he founi. mei'iis to strengthen and greatly extend hig inftuenoe in (ircet'c, liy forming raatriinonial alliances between inrious branches of his own house and the other niyal families of the Peloponnesus. Agamemnon, king of MyceniB, in .\rgolis, who wan, according to the poet Homer, the commandcr-in-chiel" of the (frccks at the ■isgu of Troy, and MenelSus, king of Sparta, on uc- oouiit of whose wrongs that wa; was uodertaken, were desceiidofl from this Phrygian adventurer. Hercules, a Theban prince, was another of the de- acendaiits of Pelops. The numerous and •extraordinary fiwts of strength and valour of Hercules excited the admiration of his contemporaries, and being afterwards es«ggerated and «ml)elliahed by the poets, caused him at knigth to be regarded as a person endowed with supcr- nMuntl powers, and even to be v^orshipped as a god. According to the poets, Hff ^iles was the son of the god Jupiter, and of Alcmena, daughter of Eiectryon^, king of MyceU(». tiefore his birth, Lis mother luarned 83 Ampbitiyon, kins of Thebei, ^■^ whom tho infant Her- cules was adopted as his sr<'. While yet a child in the crndle, he is fabled to Lav crushed to death two inakei which the goddess Juno had sent to destroy him. Af\'er he grew up, he performed many heroic and extraordi- nary actions, commonly called his * laboura.' Among these was his killing a dreadful lion, by clasping hi* arms round its neck, and so choking it. Another of tho fabled labours of Hercules was his destroying the Hydra of Lerna. This was a monstrous seven-headed serpent, which haunted the small lake of Lerna, now Molini, in Argolis, and flUed with terror the inhabitants of the wholo of tUat part of the coun- try. Hercules dauiiMessljr attacked it, and struck off several of its heads with his club. But these wonderful heads rvere no sooner beaten oif than they n«w on again, so that it seemed an inipoasibility to kill a monster whose injurlM were so quickly repaiied. At last, one of the companions of Heroulei havinc, at the hero's request, seared with a hot iron the necks of the hydra as fast as each decapitation wai accomplished, it was discovered that the heads did not spring again, and Hercules was thus enabled to complete the dettructioa of this terrible reptile. Another achievement of this hero, to which allusion is often made by modem writers, was tho cleaiisins of the stables of A igtfus, king of Elis, in ivhicli three hundred cattle had been kept for thirty vearii, without any attempt having been made during all that time to remove the accumulating filth. This much-required purification tbe hero •c'iomplished by tumiiig into the stables a river which flo>''ea in the vicinity. Hercules also undertook an expedii ion for the purpose of carry- ing off the cattle of tJery in, king of Oades, now Cadiz, in Spain. Geryon is '.epresented as having been a monster with three b^ads, and a proportionate supply of arms and legs, ead to have ruled over the greater part of Spain with the utmost cruelty. He was killed by Hercules, who brought away his valuable flocks in triumph. In this expedition he is said to have formed the Strait of Gibraltar, in order to open a communica- tion between the Mediterranean and Atlantic, by rend- ing asunder Spain and Africa, which had until then been united. Two mountains, Calpe and Abyla (one on each side of the Strait), raised by him in the execu- tion of this task, were called the Pillars of Hercules, and the appellation is not unfrequently made use of by authors even at the present day. After many adventures in toreign countries, he re- turned to the Peloponnesus, where he took to wife li laJy named Dejanirii. For a while they lived happily together; but at last, believing that Hercules had Ite- come less attached to her than formerly, hig consort presented him with a tunic steeped in a mixture, which she expected to operate as a charm in regaining for her his affections, but which was, in reality, a deadly poison, artfully placed in her hands by an enemy. As soon as Hercules had put on this fatal garment, he was attacked with the most excruciating pain, .viid being anxious to put a period as speedily as possible to his agor'as, he stretched himself upon a funeral pile, and causing a friend to set it on fire, was burned to ashes. His spirit is said to have ascended to heaven i.i a chariot drawn by four horses, which Jupiter, the king of the gods, transmitted to earth for the purpose, and Juno, the celestial queen, ;,'avo him her daughter Hebe as his wife. Dcjanira, on learning the uui'ortunato result of her attempt to recover her husband's lore, put an end to her own life in despair. Such are the wild fictions which have been handed down respecting Hercules, who was in reality nothing more than a (ireek prince of great valour and bodily strength. Having been expelled from Mycenie by a rival claimant of the throne of that state, ue appears to have spent the greater part of his life in wandering over (ireece at the head of a band of military followers, sometimes attacking and destroying the robber chiefs and petty tyrants who at that rude and unsettled pe- riod aboun'' i iu all parts of the country, and on other HISTOBY OF GREECE. oeeu!oivi engaipiig in predatory expeditioni himMlf. Ili> obaraoter be«n no alight rewrobl&noe to that of the military chiefr.ains wlio tlouriahed in our own coun- tr/ a few hundred yeara ago, and who, with (omewhat confuted notion! of right and wrong, were equally ready 1 1 auboour the weak ngaiuat a powerful oppreaaor, and to attack and plunder an enemy, or ereu, in many cawa, an unoifending neighbour, whoae numerous flocki offered a tsropting booty. During the lifetime of llerculei (12C3 b.i\), Joaon, a prinro of Theualy, made a voyage to Colchia, a country on the o&atern aide of the Euxine or Black Sea. Hia enterpriae wae afterwards greatly celebrated under the name of the Argonautia Expedition, from Arso, the reaael in which ho aailed. Thia ihip ia gene- rally referred to by the ancicnta as the fint thai ever ▼ensured on a long voyage. It ia uncertain what waa the real object of tne Argouautio expedition, ivlthough It aeems probable that, a« Colchia was rich iu uiinea of gold and ailror, Jaaon and hii companions, among whom '^ere Herculea and aereral other penona of dia- tinction, >Tere actuated by a deaire to roD the country of aomo of ita valuable inetala. The poets, however, tell us a different atory. Phryxus and Hell^, the aou and dia^uter of Athamus, king of Thebea, being cora- pelleU, according to the poetical account, to quit their native co'-ntry to avoid the cruelt|V of their stepmother, mounted o" tlie back of a winged ram with a fleece of gold, and were carried by this wonderful animal through the air towards Colchia, where an uncle of theirs, named JEt^s, was ^ing. Unlortunately, as thev were passing over the strait now called the Dardanelles, which con- nects the iGgean Sea with the Propontis, or Sea of Marmora, Helle became giddy, and falling into the water, was drowned. From her, says the legend, the strait was named the Hellespont, or Sea of Helle. When Phryxud arrived in Colchis, he sacrificed his winged ram to Jupiter, in acknowledgment of divine protection, and deposited its golden fleece in the same deity's temple. He then married the daughter of ^tes, but was afterwards murdered bv that kiii^' who wished to obtain possession of the golden fleect. To avenge Phry xus's death, Jason, who was his relation, under- took the expedition to Colchis, where, after performing several marvellous exploits, he not only obtained the golden fleece, but persuaded Meilea, another daughter of King ^tes, to become his wife, and to accompany him back to Greece. One of the persons associated with Jason in the Argonautic expedition was Theseus, a hero almost as celebrated as Hercules himself. His father, JEgiua, was king of Athens, and his mother, ^.thra, waa the daughter of Pittheus, king of Troezen, in Argolis. An insurrevttion which broke out in Attica obliged ^geus to leave j^thra at her father's court, before Theseus was born, and to repair in haste to Athens. Before his departure, he conducted his wife to a lonely spot in the vicinity of Troezen, where there stood a large rock with a cavity in the centre. In this hollow he placed a pair of sandals and a hunting-knife, and after cover- ing thorn over with a piece of marble of great weight, he addn'ssed ^Ethra in the following words : — * If our child s'jall prove a boy, let his removal of this stone be OIK. day the proof of hia strength; when he can do this, inform him of his parentage, and send him with the toirens it covers to me in Atiiens.' When Tlieseus had arrived at iianhood, his mother, remembering vL - words of AijeuB, took Lira to the rock where the tokens were deposited, and desired him to try to lift off the mass of marble which his father had placed aboT- them. Being a youth of uncommon strength, he acubmplished this with ease, upon which JEthra coriimunicated to him the rank of his father, and giving him the sandals and the hunting-knife, charged Lim to bear them to iFigeus at Athens. Troezen, where the young prince of Athens was nur- tured, lay on the western shore of the gulf which sepn rates the Peloponnesus from Attica. As the journey to Athens by laud waa both circuitous and dangerous, Th^iMus was advised to oroM to Attioa by watnr. But his .'ofty spirit coiild not brook the idea of shrinking from danger, and he resolved to proceed n his desti- nat.on overland. Hercules had before Uiin time de> atrofcd many of the robber chiefs who infested Cireece, but .-xotwithttanding all his exertions, there were num- bers Bi'li remaining; and as Theseus proceeded along the coakts of the Saronic gulf, he encountered and dii- comflted not a few of these marauders. Among others, he is said Ic have destroyed a cruel chieftain named Procrustes, who had a bed on which he stretched his captives, ihortRnin^ or lengthening their bodies to cor- respond with the «ixe of the bed, by either barbarously cutting off a portion of their limbs, or racking them out, as the case mi^ht be. After many toils and perils, Theseus arrived safe in Athens; and iEgeus, recog- nising him by the tokens ho brought, presented him to the people as the heir to the throne. The fame of his warlike exploits rendered Thoseua m favourite with tiio Athenians; and soon after his arrival among them, ho took a step which greatly added to hia popularity. In consequence of their want of success in a war with Minos, a celebrated king of Crete, the Athenians had been obliged to scud to that sovereign an annual tribute f seven young men and as many young girls, Thcst vict "13, it is probable, were, on their arrival in Crete, coziiemued to slavery; but the popular belief of those superstitious times was, that they were thrown into a labyrinth constructed by an ingenious person named Daedalus, where they wer« devoured alive by a monster called a Minotaur {tauru$, a bull), one-halt of whose body resembled a man, and the other a bull. When the time came round for selecting by lot the annual victims, Theseus, observing the horror of those on whom the lot fell, and the deep sympathy which was universally felt for their unhappy fate, resolved to make a bold eftort to obtain the abrogation of the cruel tribute. For that puroose he voluntarily enrolled himself as one of the victims, and was sent to Crete along with the othorii. On his arrival there, he wag well received by Minos, who had already heard of his heroic deeds, and who admired the warmth of that patriotism which had led the Athenian prince thus to offer himself up a voluntary sacrifice for the benefit of his country. On further acquaintance, Minos conceived so high an opinion of Theseus, that he gave him his daughtev Ariadne iu marriage, and relinquished his claim to the humiliating tribute which he had hitherto exacted from the Athenians. Theseus then returned to Athens, where he was received with overy demonstration of public respect. Annual siiorifices and festivals wera instituted iu. commemomtiuu' of his patriotic con- duct, and the vessel iu which he had made his voyage to Crete was carefully preserved for many centuries, being from time to time repaired, until at last it be- came a question, which was gravely discussed by the learned, whether it was or was not to be still regarded as the vessel of Theseus, after ita several parts had been so frequently renewed. Theseus succeeded his father on the Athenian throne (1234 B.C.), and by his wise regulations greatly conso- lidated the strength and increased the prosperity of his kingdom. Cccrops, the founder of Athens, had divided Attica into twelve districts, each of which possessed its own magistriicy and judicial tribunals, Atthc country advanced in wealth and population, these districts be- came less closely connected with each other, and at the period of the accession of Theseus, they cou.ld hardly be regarded in any other light than a.) so many little independent communities, whose perpetual disputes kerii. ihe whole district in broils and confusion. But Tl esrus had influence enough with all parties to obtain theix consent to the abolition of the separate jurisdio- tirns, and to th^ fixing of all civil and judicial authn. iity in the capital. He at the same time voluntarily- resigned into their hands a portion of his own power. Having divided the people into three classes — the nobles, 83 CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR TITB PEOPLE. tbo trtlfani, and the cultiTaton of the ioU-he Intrurted tho ftrit of thoM wit: ths »dminLitr»tJon of publw affain, and the diipeii.«tiun of juitioe, whUe ho con- fened upon every freeman ov citizen, irlthout diitino- tion of olaaa, a vote in the leffiiiative aiMmblief. Tho ooniiaand of the a. uv. and the prewleucjr of the gtate, he retaine Thin foetival he denominated I'annthenam, or the I •.mi of all the Athenian!, tho name by which the wliolu of tlio people of Attica were thenceforth called. The wile and litjeral policy of Theieus caused Attica to adrance considerably bevoud the other Btatei of Greece in prosperity and civilisation; and tho ancient historian, Thucprdidee, informs us that the Atheuiiuis were the first ot the Greeks who laid aside the military dress and arras, which till now had been constantly worn. The example of Athens was not lost on the other Grecian nomiuunities, all of which gradually adopted, to a greater or less extent, those political institutions which had conferred so uanv advantages upon Attica. Notwitbstuiulins the judicious and exemplary con- duct of Theseus ui the early part of his reign, )iu appears to have afterwards allowed liis restless and adveuturoui disposition to hurry hiui into many cxtra- ragauccs, and even ciitnes, by which he forfeited the respect of his people, and brought disgrace and suIIlt- ing on his latter years. If wo may believe ths tradi- tionarv accounts, be accompanied Hercules in some of his celebrated expeditions, and assisted by I'irithoUs, a king of Thesbaly, engaged in many martial and pre- datory adventures, conforuiably rather with the very inipcnect morality and rude manners of the age, than '.rith his own previous character. There reigned in T/acedasmou at this jicriod a king named Tyndarus, who had a beautiful daughter called Helen, and ac- cording to the ancient historians, Thoseus and his friend Pirithous formed the design of stealing anay this young lady, and a princess of Epirus nun ed Proserpine. They succeeded in carrying off Helen , Smi in their attempt to obtain Proserpine, they fc'.i ni^' :.ie hands of her father, by whom I'irithoUs wa» yui .» o-' tth, and Theseus thrown into prison. Mea^i^KlAt, tiujtor and Pollux, the twin-brothers of H,!..; , .;>,i> n re after- wards deified, and whose namet iiiitc U;'.'n bestowed upon one of the t'lgua of the Zodiac ((')^.llil i), rescued their siste: from iw men to whom Theseuu had given her in '^btTge, and ravaged Attica in revenge for the injury thi;' 'lad received from its king. Theseus was afterwarus released from imprisonment by the assistance of Hercules, and returned home; but the Athenians had become so offended with his conduct, and were so angry at his having exposed them to ill- treatment from the Lacedesmouiaus by his wicked attempt upon Helen, that they refused to receive him again as their sovereign. He therefore 'vithdrew into exile, and soon after died in the island of Scyros. The Athenian people, however, never forgot the benefits he had in his wiser days conferred upon the state; and many centuries after biH death, his bones, or some which were supposed to be his, were conveyed to Athens with great pomp, and a splendid temple was erected above theiu to his memory. The Lacedaemonian princess who was stolen away by Theseus afterwards became the occasion of a celebrated war. The fame of her great beauty having spread far and wide, many of the princes of Greece asked her from her father Tyndarus in marriage; but he, being fearful of incurring the enmity of the re'ecttd suitois, declined showing a preference for any of them. Assembling them all, iio bound them by an oath to acquiesce in the solcc- tiou which Helen herself should make, and to protect her against any attempts which might afterwards be Diatle to can'y her off from the husband of her choice. Jielcn gave the preference to Menelausi a grandflou of U4 Pelop*. and this successful suitor, n nkc ^'ftth of Tyn- darus, was raised to the Spartau t* ne. At this period, in the north-western part of Asia Minor, ou the ' lorci of the Hellespont and the ^llgenn 8uas, there existeU a kingdom, the ca'iital of which waii a largo and woll'fortilieu citv named Troy, or Ilium. Pria::i, the king of Troy, had a sun whose name was Paris; and this young chief, in the course of a visit to (Irrecc, remded for a time in Sparta at the court of Muiielaus, who gave the Asiatic stranger a very friendly reception, (Jharmed with HuIku's beauty, Paris em- ployed the opportunity afforded by a tted between her and two other female deities. When Mcnelaua returned homo, he was naturally wroth at finding his hospitality so ill reqi^ited; and after having in vain endeavoured, both by renioustrunces and threats, to induce the Trojans to send hiia back his queen, he applied to the princes who had fonuerly been Helen's lovers, and called upoi\ the>vurcuuio. They tell ui that tbo Oreeki coniitruct«d u, v.oodeu horae of prod!, gioui (!xe, in the body of which tJiey ooncealed u number of armed men, and then retired towanls the ti A-ihoro, to induce the enemy to believe tliat the besieger* Uud siven up the «nter]>riie, and were about to return home. Pi-'oeiTed by thii manocuTre, the Trojuni brought the gigantic horro into the city, and the men who had been concealed within it, stiraling out in the night-time, unbarred the gates, ami admitted the Grecian army within the walla. The aicge of Trov forme the subject of Ifdmor'a sublirao poem, the 'Iliad,' in which th», real events of the war are intermingled with many fictitious and supematuriU inc.denti. Theflreok princes diacovered that their triumpli over Troy waa dearly paid for by their subsequent suiirri'"- and the disorganisation of their kingdom* at ' Ulyascs, if we may bt- iievo the poets, spent ten yt ,. wandering over te-M and lands before arriving in L island f Ithaca. ' Ithoi-a of the leaders died or wei shipwrecked on thvi" way honie, and several of thoHt who succeeded in rcnching their own dominions, found their thrones occupied by usurpcra, and were compelled to return to their voasela, and seek in distant lands a plact! of rest and security for their declining; yecrs. But the fate of Agamemnon, tiie renowned gcEiorui of the Greeka, was the most dr[>'urable of all. On his re- turn to Argos, he waa assasninated by his wife Clytem- nealra, who had formed an attachment during; his absence to another penon. Agamemnon's son, (Jrcstcs, was driven into exile, but afterwards i furned to Argos, and putting his mother und her occui plicea to denth, establisbtxi hiiuself upon the tlirone. About eighty years sfter the termination of the Trojun war, an extensive revolution took place in the alfairs of Greece, in consequence of the subjugation of nearly tho whol^ Peloponnesus by the descendnnts of llt-rculuD. It has already been mentioned tbut that would appear, gave AfTen ee to the new mien of th* I'eloiMinnesiaii states, and war was commenced between the Dorlana and the Athenian:i. In the yfar 1070 u.c., Attic^ w«s invaded by a numerous unny of the Pelu- poiinesians, and Athens Itself seemed menaced with destruction. This emergency produced a disjday of nacriotic devotion on the part ot Codrus, the Athenian king, which has rarely been paralleled in the annals of mankind, and de*erTee to be held in everlasting remei' lirance : — At 'utphl in I'hocin there wni a temple of Apollo, to the prieils of whiili the (IrookH were wont to apply for information regardiiiK future event*, in the *ame manner r.« the people ol (comparatively recent timei were accustomed to rons'ilt astrologers, noothsayen, and other artful impostcrH on similai' questiona. Now Codrua had learned that the Peloponnesiu.ia had re- coivei' at Delphi a prophetical reaponse, to the effect tliat they should not be irictorioua ir. the war, if they did not kill the Athenian king. Determined to save i)ia country at the expenio of his own life, Codrus dia- t' d himself in a peasant's dreaj, and enterine the ■nnesian camn, provoked a o jarrel with a soldier, e republic for life; the office to be here- ditary in hia family as long as its duties should be per- formed to the satisfaction ')f the assembly of the people. And as Attica was ovcrcr-iwded with the Peloponne- sinn refugees, these, together with a large body of Athe- nians, were Bcni; into Asia. Minor, under tho charge of hero, who was a member of tho royal family of Mycenir Androclus and Nelcus, the younger sons of Codrus, to thqr or Argos, had been driven into exile by some more suc- cessful candidate for the throne of that state. After the hero's death, his children sought relugo in Doris, the king of which became subsequently so much attached to Hyllus, the eldest son of Hercules, that he consti- tuted him the heir of his throne. Twice the Ilcradi- duean princes unsuccessfully attempted to estai-liiih themselves in tho sovereignty of tlie Peloponi\c8U8, which they claimed as their right ; but on the third triul, they accomplished their object. In tho year i 104 B. c, three brothers named Temenus, Cresphontes, and Aristodemus, said to have been the great-grandsons of Hyllus, invaded the Peloponnesus at the head of the Dorians, and conquered the greater part of it, with the exception of the province of Arcadia, tlie nu'untaiiious character of whicu enabled its inhabitants to defend it with success against tho invaders, Temenus obtained the kingdom of Avgoa, Creephontes' established himself in Messenia, and as Aristodemus Lad died during the war, his twin eons Eurysthencs and Proclcs shared between them the thro'je of Sparta, The thrones of Corinth and Elia were occupied by other branches of the Heraclidtran family. The Dorian troops were rewarded with the lands of the conquered inluibi tivnts, who were driven out of the Peloponnesus, or re- duced to slavery. Great numbers of the Peloponnesiaus, who wore expatriat^^d by the Dorian invaders, passed over into Asia Minor, where they fo"r V y /^ Photographic Sciences Corporation ' .V .^ 4^. f/. .^ .d> ^ OHAUBSBCra IMfOBlUftOir fOB IBS PlEOPtlS. EwTtUienM wd PiodM, the deiend«ito ot whom oontinuod for NT«ml ocnturiei to Nign jointly in IiModMmon, though, prMtiokUy iMaking, no tme of Oreooe wm mora thoroughly lepublioan in omdj im- portftnt reqxots. Oneoe bad twen all along dirided into a number of independent itatei, and aitier the abolition of kingly gorerument, leveial of theie were iplit up into m many ciitinct npublioi ai the state contained of towna. Theie diTinoni of the country, and the obttaolei which the almoit incenant wan interposed to a ftee oommu- sication between the inhabitants of the different dis- tricts, necessarily prevented the advancement of the Greeks in knowledge and civilisation; but fortunately, a king of Elis, named Iphitus, at lencth devised an institution by which the people of ul the Orecian states were enabled, notwithstanding their quarrels and wan with one another, to meet periodically on £riendly terms, and communicate to each other such information as might be useful for the improvement and welfare of the whole. This institution was the Olympic Festival. From a veiy remote period, the Greeks had been accustomed to engage in contests of strength and agility during their times of festivity, and also at the funerals of distin- guished personagep. Iphitus conceived, the idea of establishing a periodical festival in his own dominions for the celebration of these ancient games, and of re- ligious rites in honour of Jupiter and Hercules; and having obtained the authority of the Delphian oracle for carrying his design into execution, he instituted the festiTal, and ap^Miuted that it should be repeated every fourth year at Olympia, a town of Elis. To this festival he invited all the people of Greece; Wtd that none might be prevented from attending it by the wan in which any of the states might be en- gaged, the Delphic oracle commanded that a general armistice should take place for some time before and after each celebration. The date of the establishment of the Olympic Games (884 b.c.) was afterwards as- sumed by the Greeks as the epoch from which they reckoned the progrcos of time; the four yean inter- venine between each recurrence of the festival being styled an Olympiad. Three other institutions of a similar nature were afterwards established — namely, the Isthmian Games, celebrated near Corinth ; the Pythian, at Delphi; and the Nemean, in Argolis. These took place on the various yean which intervened between the successive festivals at Olympia; but although they acquired con- siderable celebrity, none of them rose to the importance and splendour of that of Iphitus. The games which were celebrated at the festivals consisted of foot and chariot races, wrestling and boxing matches, and other contests requiring strength and agility, together with competitions in poetry and music. The victon were crowned with an olive wreath; an honour which it was esteemed by the Greeks one of the highest objects of ambition to attain. M:rtIiology and RdURions Rites. The religious beliefs and observances of the Greeks, constituting their mythology, are intimately connected with the fabulous and poetical portion of their history. It has alreadv been stated that Uranus, his son Saturn, and his nanasons Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, appear to have been the chiefs of a colony of Egyptians who settled in Greece at an exceedingly remote period, and that after their death their ignorant posterity came in course of time to regard them as gods, and to pay them divine honoun accordingly. Some, however, are dis- posed to think that the Greeks borrowed their notions respecting these and several othen of their deities fh>m i^gypt and Phoenicia, where they had been worshipped long before their introduction into Greece by the colo- nies from these countries. But whether this war really the case or not, it is certain that the Greeks greatly embellished the history, and augmented the number, of their fabulous divinities, so that at last they amounted to many thousands, of Tarioof degn • of dignity ttd importance. According to the poets, who were the prinoipal framen and expounden of the Grecian mythology, Jupiter, the chief M the gods, and the ruler of heaven and earth, was the son of Saturn, a ^od who had been compelled by a powerful and tyrannical brother, named Titan, to promise that he would destroy all his male children. This promise Saturn for some time ftilfiUed by devouring his sons as soon as they were bom; but at last Rhea, his wife, contrived to conceal the birth of Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, who thus escaped the fate of their bnthren. On discoveringthat Saturn had male offsprins alive in contravention of his engagement. Titan deposed him from his authority, and cast liim into prison. But Jupiter, having gro?ra up to manhood, overcame Titan in turn, and restored Saturn to his throne. These vicissitudes, it is to be observed, and othen that befell the early divinities, were the result of the decrees of Fate; a power ever which the heathen gods are repre- sented as having had no control. Notwithstanding this filial nonduct of Jupiter, he afterwards quarreUed with his father, whom he de- throned and chased into Italy, where Saturn is said to have passed his time in a quiet and useful manner, occupied solely in teaching the rude inhabitants to cul- tivate and improve the sou. He was afterwards known (under the name of Chronos) as the god of Time, and was usually represented under the figure of an old man, holding in one hand a scythe, and in the other a serpent with its tail in its mouth, in allusion to the destructive influence of time, and the endless succes- sion of the seasons. The rule of Saturn in Italy was productive of so much happiness, that the period ever afterwards was called the Golden Age. After Saturn had been driven mto exile, his three sous divided his dominions amongst them. Jupiter reserved to himself the sovereignty of the heavens and the earth, Neptune obtained the empire of the sea, and Pluto received as his share the sceptre of the infernal regions. Jupiter did not, however, enjoy unmolested his supreme dignity, for the offspring of Titan, a race of terrible giants, set the new deity at defiance, and by piling the mountains named Pelion and Ossa on the top of one another, endeavoured to ascend into heaven, to pluck him from his throne. The gods, in great alarm, fled from their divine abode on Mount Olympus into Egypt, where they concealed their true character by assummg the forms of various animals; but Jupiter, assisted by Hercules, at last succeeded in destroying the giants, and reasserting his sovereign sway. Jupiter is always represented on a throne with thunderbolts in his right hand, and an eagle by his side. Jupiter took in marriage his sister Juno, who is de- scribed as a beautiful but ill-tempered goddess, and is usually depicted as seated in a chariot drawn by two peacocks. Neptune, the brother of Jupiter, and god of the ocean, is painted as a half-naked man, of mi^estio figure, with a crown on his head, and a trident or three- pronged fork in his hand, drawn in a car over the sea b^ water hones. Pluto, the remaining brother of Ju- piter, and god of the infernal regions, was painted as seated on a throne, with his wife noserpine by his side, and the three-headed dog Cerberus before him. Nine of the most important of the deities were con- sidered as the children of Jupiter. Apollo was the god of music, poetry, painting, and medicine; he is represented as a young man, of great elegance of person, with a bow in his hand, and a quiver of arrows at his back. Man, the god of war, is drawn as an armed m.%n in a car, with an inferior female deity, named Bellona, bv his side. Bacchus was the god of wine, and was UBuallv represented as a young man with a cup in one hand, and a spear called a thynus in the other. His name has eiven rise to many phrases in our language expressive of circumstances connected with drinking. Mercury was the messenger of Jupiter, und the god of oratory, of merchandise, and of thieving. He was represented at a youth flying along the air, BlSfOfiT 09 GBBEOE. Witk wtngt at )>!• cap and heeli, and a pacnliar wand called a caduceui in hU hand. Minerra, the goddeH of witdom, was painted ae a female of Kvere aapect, armed on the head and breast, and beurins a tpear and ihield, while aa owl lita by her tide. Venue, the goddeu of beauty and lore, waa depicted aa a handsome woman, in undress. Diana, the gMldess of hunting and of chastity, appeared as a beautiful female, with bow and arrow in her hands, buskins on her limbs, and a crescent on her forehead. Heb^, the goddess of youth, took the form of a blooming young gul, and was said to bear the cup of Jupiter. Another of the children of Jupiter was Vulcan, who employed himself as an artificer in iron, and hence he has been assumed as the patron of blacksmiths. Jupiter is said to hare employed him in fabricating his thunderbolts. The workshop of Vulcan was be- lieved to be underneath the burning mountain ^tna, in Sicily; and the modem term volcano is derived firom that circumstance. Besides the other attributes and avocations of Apollo, he was the deity of the sun, having the task confided to him of guiding that luminary in its diurnal course through the heavens. His sister Diana had a similar charge over the moon. Apollo, or Phoebus, as he was also named, had a son called Phaethon, who, being, like many other young people, self-confident and rash, took advantage of the indulgent disposition of his father to obtain from him the charge of the chariot of the sun for one day. But Phaethon had not travelled far on his journey up the heavens, when his fiery steeds became unmanageable, and running away with the sun, they descend^ so close to the earth, that that body was ^t on fire. Jupiter perceived what had happened, and fearine that the universe might be consumed, he struck Phaethon dead with a thunderbolt; then, after a good deal of trouble, he extinguished the conflagration, and Kt the sun once more on its usual course. None of the heathen deities is more frequently re- ferred to than Cupid, the god of love. He was the son of Venus, and bore the aspect of a beautiful boy. He had a pair of wings, and was furnished with a bow and a quiver of arrows, which he shot into the hearts of those whom he wished to inflame with the tender passion over which he had control. There was a number of divinities of minor impor- tance. Hymen was the god of marriage, and was re- presented with a crown of flowers on his head and a lighted torch in his hand. iGolus was the god of the wmds, which he kept confined in caverns, except at ■uch times as he chose to let them loose upon the world. Pan was the god of the country. He was horned, and had legs, feet, and a tail resembling those of a goat. His favourite haunt was the vales of Arcadia, where he attracted the shepherds around him in admiration by the sweet sounds of his rustic pipe. Ceres was the goddess of agriculture, and had a beautiful daughter named Proserpine, who was carried ofi' by Pluto while she was gathering flowers on the plains of Sicily, and installed as the queen of the infernal regions. Ceres, in despair at the loss of her daughter, and uncertain as to her fate, lighted a torch at Mount JEtna, and sought for her over the whole earth. In the course of her wanderings she arrived in Attica, and find- ing its inhabitants ignorant of husbandry, furnished them with grain, and taught them how to cultivate their fields. She at the same time instituted the secret religious ceremonies at Eleusis, which were afterwards known by the name of the Eleusinian Mystertei. Ceres then continued her search for her daughter, and at leneth obtained information of what had happened to her. She immediately ascended to heaven and de- manded redress from Jupiter, who promised to compel Pluto to restore Proserpine, provided she had eaten nothinc since her descent into hell. On inquiry, it was ascertamed that she had eaten some pomegranates, 80 that her return to the upper world was, according to the laws of the infernal regions, impracticable. But Jupiter, ct>mpas8ionating her dUconiolate parent, or- dained that Proaerpine ahould divide her tine between her mother and her huaband, reaiding lix montha with each alternately. Astraea was the goddeaa of ^uatice, and during the Golden Age, when men were virtuous and happy, she dwelt, like man^ other deities, on earth; but after the world became wicked, she bade it » sorrowful farewell, and ascending to heaven, was transformed into the si^ of the Eodiac which is named rit^o, or the Virgin. Themis was the goddess of law, and after the departure of Astrtea, she had also to sustain, as well aa she wai able, the character of the goddess of justice. We see in this, as in some other of these mythic fablea, no small degree of meaning. Inexorable destiny, which governs all things, waa personified by three sisters called the Falei, who repre- sented the Past, the Present, and the Future. Tney were poetically described as constantly employed in spinning the thread of human life. One held the distaflf, another span, and the third cut the thread when it had reached its appointed lensth. To the decrees of these stem sisters even Jupiter niniself was obliged to bend, and his thunders, which afirighted all the other divinities, were heard by them undisturbed. The Furies were also three in number, and to them belonged the task of punishing the guilty both on earth and in hell. Instead of hair, their heads were covered with twining serpents, and their looks were fierce and terrible. Each of the sister Furies waved a blazine torch in the one hand, while the other wielded a plaited scouree. The latter instrament inflicted remorseless punishment on those who had ircurred the anger of the gods. Wars, famine, and pestilence — the penalty of vice and crime — proceeded from these dread sisters, and Orief, Terror, and Madnetg were painted as vheir inseparable followers. These avengers of guilt form a striking contrast to another sisterly trio, to whom the ancients gave the name of the Oracet. The Graces were named Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyn^, and their aspect and attri- butes corresponded with the common name they bore. They were the daughters of young Bacchus and Venus, and were usually represented as unattired, and linked in each other's arms. The nine Muses were named Thalia, Melpomene, Calliope, Clio, Erato, Euterpe, Polyliymuia, Terpsi- chore, and Urania. They were the patronesses of literature and the fine arts, and resided on Parnassus, a lofty mountain in the district of Phocis. Thalia presided over comedy ; Melpomene ovei tragedy^ ; Erato over amatory poetrjr; Polyhymnia over lyric poetry; Calliope over heroic or ejiii poetry and elo- quence; Clio over history; Eut-n-pe over music; Terp- sichore over dancing; and Un';ua over the studies of astronomy and astrology. There was a class of demi-gods, who filled imaginary places in every comer both of earth and sea. The shady groves and flowery vales were peopled by Dryads or wood-nymphs, and Satyrs, a species of rural deities, who, like Pan, had the horns, legs, and feet of a goat. Mountains and streams possessed their euardian goda and goddesses, and every fountain had its Naiad or water-nymph. In short, whatever sound or sight in nature charmed their fancy, the Greeks ascribed the pleasure to the agency of unseen, but beautiful and immortal beings. Physical beauty was, nevertheless, much more prominent than moral in the divinities shaped out by the imagination of the Greeks. Their gods were represented as mingling in the affairs of mortals, and frequently lending their superior power and intelligence to the promotion of schemes of vice and villany. They were animated by envy, malice, and all the evil passions to which men are subject, and they did not hesitate to adopt any measures, however base, to gratify their nefarious purposes. Yet, strange as it may seem, most of the Greeks appear to have been impressed with sincere religious feelings, and believed in a future state of rewards and punishments. They imagined that, after death, the 87 CHAMBBBffS INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. Muh of men descended io the thoiei of a diimal and peatilentlal itream called the Stjrz, where Charon, a grim-looking pertonage, aoted as ferrymaii, and rowed the ipiritt of the dead aeroae the melancholy river, the boundary of the dominioni of Pluto. To obtain a pai- aage in Charon'i boat, it wae necesgary that the de- ceased should have been buried. Those who were drowned at sea, or who were in any other manner de- prived of the customary rites of sepulture, were com- pelled to wander about on the bankd of the Styx for a nundred years before being permitted to cross it. After quitting the vessel of Charon, the trembling ■hades adranceu to the palace of Pluto, the gate of which was guarded by a monstrous, dog, named Cer- berus, which had three heads, and a body covered with snakes instead of hair. They then appeared before Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Acanthus, the three judges of the infernal regions, by whom the wicked were con- demned to torments, and the good rewarded with heavenly pleasures. Tartarus, the place of punishment, was the abode of darkness and horror. There Tantalus, for a vile crime done in life, remained perpetually surrounded with water, which iied from his lips whenever he at- tempted to quench his burning thirst, while over his head hung branches laden with the most inviting fruits, which shrunk from his grasp as often as he stretched out his hand to pluck them. There also was Izion, bound with serpents to the rim of a wheel, which, constantly revolving, allowed no cessation of his agonies. Another variety of punishment was allotted to Sisyphus, who wnn condemned to the endless task oi rolling a huge stone up the side of a steep mountain, which he had no sooner accomplished, than it rolled down again to its former place. On one side criminals were writhing under the i.ierciless lasL of the avenging Furies, and on another were > be seen wretches sur- rounded with unquenchable fli ■ .les. Elysium, the abode of the blessed, was a region of nirpassing loveliness and pleasure. Oroves of the richest verdure, and streams of silvery clearness, were to be met with on every side. The air was pure, serene, and temperate, the birds continually warbled in the woods, and a brighter light than that of the sun was diffused throughout that happy land. No cares nor sorrow could disturb its inhabitants, who spent their time in the untiring enjoyment of those pleasures they had loved on earth, or in admiring the wisdom and power of the gods. The Greeks were pre-eminently an imaginative peo- ple, and accordingly both their mythology and their religious rites were calculated rather to amuse the fancy than to interest the feelings or improve the heart. Their public worship was altogether ceremonial. In magni- ncent temples they invoked and offered sacrifices to the gods, and the solemn festivals of their religion consisted of pompous processions, public games, dra- matic entertainments, feasting, and masquerading. To these were added, in the wor^ip of Bacchus, drunken- ness, indecency, uproar, and every species of licentious- ness. It was no business of the priests to inculcate lessons of instruction or morality; the only doctrine taught by them was, that the gods demanded slavish adulation, and an outward show of reverence from their worshippers, who would be rewarded with the divine favour in proportion to the abundance and cost- liness of their offerings. Besides the public services of religion, there were certain secret rites, performed only by the initiated, in honour of particular divinities. The most remarkable of these mystical observances were the feasts celebrated at Elcusis in Attica, in honour of the goddess Ceres, They were called, by way of eminence, the Mysttriet; and all who were initiated in them were bound by the most solemn oaths never to reveal them. The gods were supposed to communicate with men, and to reveal the secrets of futurity by means of oracles, several of which existed in various parts of Greece. One of the earliest, and for some time most celebrated 08 of these, was that of Dodona in Epiiui. Near that place there was a grove of oaks, which, according to the superstitious belief of the ancients, chanted the message of Jupiter to devout inquiren. Black pigeons were also said to frequent this grove, and to give oracular responses. The oracle at Dodoaa is believed to have owed its origin to an artful woman, itdio had been stolen from a temple of Jupiter in Egypt, and sold as a slave in Epirus. To escape from the evils of her de- graded condition, she resolved to work upon the igno- rance and credulity of those among whom she had been brought ; and stationing herself in the grove of oaks, which afterwards became so famous, she gave out that she was inspired by Jupiter, and could foretell future events. The scheme succeeded, and she soon acquired great repute for her skill in divination ; and after her death, other artful persons were not backward in embracing a profession which was rewarded both with profit and respect. But by far the most celebrated of the Grecian oracles was that of Apollo at Delphi, a city built on the slopes of Mount Parnassus, in Phocis. At a very remote period, it had been discovered that from a deep cavern in the side of that mountain an intoxicating vapour issued, the effect of which was so powerful as to throw into convulsions both men and cattle. The rude inha- bitants of the surrounding district, unable to account for this phenomenon, conceived that it must be pro- duced by supernatural agency, and regarded the in- coherent ravings of those who had inhaled the noxious vapour as prophecies uttered under the inspiration of some god. As the stupifying exhalation ascended out of the ground, it was at first conjectured that the nf v\j -discovered oracle must be that of the very ancient goddess £arth ; but Neptune was afterwards associated with this divinity, as on auxiliary agent in the mystery. Finally, the whole credit of the oracle was transferred to Apollo. A temple was soon built on the hallowed spot, and a priestess, nam'-d the Pglhoreu, was ap- pointed, whose office it was to inhale, at stated inter- vals, the prophetic vapour. To enable her to do so without the risk of falling into the cavern, as several persons had previously done, a seat, called a tripod, from its having three feet, was erected for her accom- modation directly over the mouth of the chasm. Still, however, the Pythoness held an office which was neither safe nor agreeable. The convulsions into wiiich she was thrown oy the unwholesome vapours of the cavern, were in some instances so violent a« "-^ cause immediate death, and were at all times so ful, that force was often necessary to bring the o to the prophetic seat. The unconnected words « the Pythoness screamed out in her madness were ar- ranged into sentences by the attendant pnests, who could easily place them in such an order, and fill up the breaks in such a way, as to r\-M^e them express whatever was most suitable to th^ interests of the $hrine, which was the main object. T^est the uracle should be brought into discredit, care was in general taken to couch the response in language so obscure and enigmatical, that whatever c urse events should take the prediction might not bo falsified, or rather might appear to be verified. It may be observed that, in the course of time, some method of simulating convulsions was most probably adopted by the chief agent in these impositions. The fame of the Delphic oracle soon became very extensive, and no enterprise of importance was under- taken in any part of Greece, or of its numerous colonies in the islands and along the coasts of the ^Egean and Mediterranean Seas, without a consultation of the Pythoness. The presents received from those who resorted to it for counsel, not a few of whom were princes, or influential and wealthy leaders, formed a source of great and permanent revenue to the institu- tion, and not only afforde ment. Athens is said to have been founded by Cecrops, 1550 B.C., and in the most ancient times was called Cecropia. It probably received the name of Athene from the goddess Minerva, who was called also Athena by the Greeks, and to whom an elegant temple had been erected in the city. The old city spread from the mount of the Acropolis over a wide and pleasant vale or low peninsula, formed by the junction of the Cephesus and Ilissus. Its distance from the sea-coast was about five miles. In the course of time Athens became populous and surpassingly elegant in its architecture, while its citizens contrived to take a lead in the affairs of the communities around. At first they were p;ovemed by kings, but, as in the case of the Spartan citizens, they became dissatisfied with their existing constitution, and about the year 600 b.c. invited Solon, one of the ^sest men in Greece, to reorganise their political constitution. Solon obeyed the summons, and constituted the govern- ment on a broad republican basis, with a council of state, forming a judicial court, consisting of 400 mem- bers, and called the Areopagus. This court of Areo- pagus, besides its other duties, exercised a censorship over public morals, and was empowered to punish impiety, profligacy, and even idleness. To this court every citizen was bound to make an annual statement of his income, and the sources from which it was derived. ' The court was long regarded with very great respect, and the right was accorded to it of not only revising the sentences pronounced by the other criminal tribunals, but even of annulling the judicial decrees of the general assembly of the people. The regulations of Solon were not maintained for any great length of time, although the republican form of government, in one shape or other, continued as long as the country maintained its independence. Clesthenes, the leader of a party, en- larged the democractic principle in the state; he intro- duced the practice of otiracism, by which any person might be banished for ten years, without being accused of any crime, if the Athenians apprehended that he had acquired too much influence, or harboured designs against the public liberty. Ostracism was so called, because the citizens, in voting for its infliction, wrote the name of the obnoxious individual upon a shell (oslreon). It is said that Clesthenes was the first victim of his own law, as has happened in several other remarkable cases, ancient and modem. For a period of about two centuries after the settle- ment of a '<>publican constitution, there is little of importance to relate in Athenian history. Athens was gradually enlarged, the taste for refinement increased, and various men of sagacious understanding, entitled Philosophers, began to devote themselves to inquiries into the nature of the human mind and the character of the Deity. The principal Grecian philosopher who flourished in this era (550 b.c.) was Pythagoras, a man of pure and exalted ideas, and an able expounder of the science of mind. THIRD PERILA ^F BISTORT. The ^ear 490 b.c. closes the gradually-improving period in Grecian history, or second period, as it has Deen termed; and now commenced on era marked by the important event of an invasion from a powerful Asiatic sovereign. Persian Invasion. Darius, king of Persia, having imagined the possi- bility of conquering Greece, sent an immense army against it in the year just mentioned. Greatly alarmed at the approach of such an enemy, the Athenians applied to the Spartans for aid ; but that people had a superstition which prohibited their taking the field before the moon was at the full, and as at the time of the application it still wanted five days of that period, they therefore delayed the march of their tttSfO&Y OF OfiBEOS. iioopl. fietng ttiui nAiied »U uiiitMioe from thair neighboan, the Athmiuii ware left to depend entirely on their own courage and reaouioea. A more remark- able inttanoe of a imall itate endeavouring to oppoie the wicked aggrcNion of an OTergrown power, haa ael- dom occurred in ancient or modern timet; but the con- stant exeroisei and training of the Athenian population enabled them to prewnt a bold, and hj no means con- temptible front to the inrader. War had been their principal employment, and in the field they displayed their noblest qualities. They were unacquainted with those highly -disciplined evolutions which give har- mony and concert to numerous bodies of men ; but what was wanting in skill they supplied by courage. The Athenian, and alio other Oreek soldiers, marched to the field in a deep phalanx, rushed impetuously to the attack, and bravely closed with their enemies. Each warrior was firmly opposed to his antagonist, and compelled by necessity to the same exertions of valour as if the fortune of the day had depended on his single arm. The principal weapon was a spear, which, thrown by the nervous and well-directed vigour of a steady hand, often penetrated the firmest shields and bucklers. When thev missed their aim, or when the stroke proved ineffectual through want of force, they drew their swords, and summoning their utmost resolution, darted impetuously on the foe. This mode of war was com- mon to the soldiers and generals, the latter being as much distinguished in battle by their strength and courage as their skill and conduct. The Greeks had bows, slings, and darts, intended for the practice of distant hostility; but their chief dependence was on the spear and sword. Their defensive armour consisted (as shown in the fig.) of a bright helmet, adorned with plumes, and co- Tering the head, a strong corslet defending the breast, greavea of brass descend- ing the leg to the feet, and an ample shield, loosely attached to the left shoul- der and arm, which turned in all directions, and opposed its firm resistance to every hostile assault. With men thus organised and accoutred, a battle consisted of so many duels, and the combatants fought with all the keenness of per- sonal resentment. The slaughter in such engagements was correspondingly great, the fight seldom terminat- ing till one of the parties was nearly destroyed, or at least greatly reduced in numbers. It was a people so animated and prepared that the hosts of Persia were about to encounter. Compelled to meet the invader* unassisted, the Athenians were able to march an army of only 9000 men, exclusive of about as many light-armed slaves, into the field. With Mil- tiades as their leader and commander-in-chief, they met the Persians in battle on the plain of Marathon, thirty miles from Athens, and by great skill and courage, and the force of their close phalanx of spearmen, completely conquered them. Upwards of 6000 Persians were slain on the field, while the number killed of the Athenians was but 192. This is reckoned by historians one of the most important victories in ancient times, for it saved the independence of the whole of Greece. To the dis- grace of the fickle Athenians, they afterwards showed the greatest ingratitude to Miltiades, and put him in prison on a charge of favouring the Persians. He died there the year after his great victory. Soon after, the citizens of Athens, on a plea equally unfounded, banished Aristides, an able leader of the aristocratic party in the state, and who, from his strict integrity Mid wisdom, was usually entitled 'Aristides tha Just.' On the banishment of thii eminent individual, Themis* tocles, a person who was more demooratic in his senti- ments, became the leader of the councils of the, Athe- nians. Meanwhile the Grecian liberties were again menaced by the Persians. Xerxes, son of Darius, marched au army across the Hellespont by a bridge of boats ttota the Asiatic shore, and led it towards the southern part of Greece. The utmost force that the confederated Greeks could oppose to the countless host of Persians did not exceed 60,000 men. Of these, a band of Spartans, numbering 8000 soldiers, under Leo- nidas their king, was posted at the pass of Thermopylse, 'to intercept the enemv, and here they discomfited every successive column oi the Persians as it entered the defile. Ultimately, foreseeing certain destruction, Leo- nidas commanded all to retire but 300, with whom ho proposed to give the Persians some idea of what the Greeks could submit to for the sake of their country. He and his 800 were cut off to a man. Xerxes took possession of Attica and Athens, but in the naval battle with the Athenian fleet at Salamis, which occurred soon after (October 20, 480 B.C.), his army was utterly routed, and its scattered remains retreated into Asia. By this splendid victory the naval power of Persia was almost annihilated, and the spirit of its monarch so completely humbled, that he durst no longer undertake offensive operations against Greece. Here, therefore, the war ought to have terminated; but so great and valuable had been the spoils obtained by the con- federate forces, that they were unwilling to relinquish such a profitable contest. The war, therefore, was con- tinued for twenty years longer, less, apparently, for the chastisement of Persia, than for the plunder of her conquered provinces. But now that all danger was over, many of the smaller states, whose population was scanty, began to grow weary of the contest, and to furnish with reluct- ance their annual contingent of men to reinforce the allied fleet. It was, in consequence, arranged that those states whose citizens were unwilling to perform personal service, should send merely their proportion of vessels, and pay into the common treasury an annual subsidy, for the maintenance of the sailors with whom the Athenians undertook to man the fleet. The un- foreseen but natural consequence of this was the estab- lishment of the complete supremacy of Athens. The annual subsidies gradually assumed the character of a regular tribute, and were compulsorily levied as such; while the recusant communities, deprived of their fleets, which had been given up to the Athenians, were unable to offer effectual resistance to the oppressive exactions of the dominant state. The Athenians were thus raised to an unprecedented pitch of power and opulence, and enabled to adorn their city, to live in dignified idleness, and to enjoy a constant succession of the most costly public amusements, at the expense of the vanquished Persians, and of the scarcely more leniently-treated communities of the dependent confederacy. Pericles. We have arrived at the most flourishing period of Athenian history, during which Pericles rose to dis- tinction, and greatly contributed to the beautifying of the capital. The talents of Pericles were of the very first order, und they had been carefully cultivated by the ablest tutorage which Greece could lUtFord. After serv- ing for several years in the Athenian army, he ventured to take a part in the business of the popular assembly, and his powerful eloquence soon gained him an ascen- dancy in the national councils; and his power, in fact, became as great as that of an absolute monarch (445 B.C.). Some of the most interesting events of Grecian history now occurred. After a number of years of general peace, a dispute between the state of Corinth and its dependency the island of Corcyra (now Corfu), gave rise to a war which again disturbed the repose of all the Grecian states. Corcyra was a colony of Corinth, but having, by its maritime skill and enter- prise, raised itself to a higher pitch of opulence than SI. OHAMBEBffS DrrOBUATION FOB THE PEOPLIL it» pttent otty. it ttot only nfuMd to Mknowladge Co- rinthiMi rapremMy, but went to war with tliat state on m quMtion napeoting tlie goTcmmant of Epidamnua, ft colony whiol* tli« Corqrwans liad planted on the ooait of Illyria. Corinth a|ipl!ed for and obUiiied aid from MTeral of the Peloponneiian itatei tu reduce the Coroyieani to lubjection; while Corey ra, on the other hand, concluded a defeniire allianco with Athena, which ■ent a fleet to aHiit the iilaud in vindicating iti inde- pendence. By way of puniihing the Athenian! for uitenneddling in the quarrel, the Corinthiani stirred up a rerolt in Potidiea, a town of Chaloidice, near the confinoi of Macedonia, which hod originally been a colony of Corinth, but was at this time a tributary of Athens. The Athenians immediately despatched a fleet and army for the reduction of Potidaea, and the Pelo- ponnesians were equally prompt in sending succours to the city. The Corintmans, meanwhile, were actively engaged in endeavouring to enlist in their cause those states which had not yet taken a decided part in the dispute. To Laoednmon, in particular, they sent am- bassadors to complain of (he conduct of the Athenians, which they characterised aa a violation of a univer- sally-recognised law of Grecian policy — that no state should interfere between another and its dei>endeucie8. The eflbrts of the Corinthians were successful, and almost all the Peloponnesian states, headed by Sparta, together with many of those beyond the isthmus, formed them- selves into a confederacy for the purpose of goin^ to war with Athens. Argos and Achaia at first remained neuter. Corcyro, Acarnanio, some of the cities of Thes- saly, and those of Plataea and Naupactus, were all that took part with the Athenians. Pericles beheld without dismay the gathering of the storm, but his countrymen were not equally undaunted. They perceived that they were about to be called upon to exchange the idle and luxurious life they were at present leading for one of hardship and danger, and they began to murmur against their political leader for involving them in so alarming a quarrel. They had not at first the courage to impeach Pericles himself, but rented their displeasure against his friends and favou- rites. Phidias, a very eminent sculptor, whom the great statesman hod appointed superintendent of public uildings, was condemned to imprisonment on a frivo- lous charge ; and the philosopher Anaxagoras, the preceptor and friend of Pericles, was charged with dis- seminating opinions subversive of the national religion, and banished from Athens. Respecting another cele- brated individual who at this time fell under persecu- tion, it becomes necessary to say a few words. Aspasia of Miletus was a woman of remarkable beauty and brilliant talents, but she wanted that chastity which is the greatest of feminine graces, and by her dissolute life was rendered a reproach, as she would otherwise have been an ornament, to her sex. This remarkable woman having come to reside in Athens, attracted the notice of I'ericles, who was so much fascinated by her beauty, wit, and .eloquence, that, oftar separating from his wife, with whom he had lived unhappily, he .> married Aspasia. It was generally believed that, for the gratification of a private grudge, she iiad insti- gated Pericles to quarrel with the Peloponnesian states, and her unpopularity on this score was the true cause of her being now accused, before the assembly of the people, of impiety and grossly - immoral practices. Pencles conducted her defence in person, and pled for her with so much earnestness, that he was moved even to tears. The people, either finding the accusations to be really unfounded, or unable to resist the eloquence of Pericles, acquitted Aspasia. His enemies next di- rected their attack against himself. They accused him of einbezzling the public money; but he completely rebutted the charge, and proved that he had drawn his income from no other source than his private estate. His frugal and unostentatious style of living must have of itself gone far to convince the Athenians of the honesty with which he had administered the public affairs; for while he was filling the city with 92 templM, portiooes, and other magnlilMnt works of art, and providing many costly entertainments for the people, his own domestic establishment was regulated with such strict attention to economy, that the mem- bers of his family complained of a parsimony which formed a marked contrast to the splendour in which many of the wealthy Athenians then lived. Confirmed in his authority by this triumphant refu- tation of the slanders of his enemies, Pericles adopted the wisest measures for the public defence against the invasion which was threatened bv the Peloponnesians. Unwilling to risk a battle with the Spartans, who were esteemed not less invincible by land than the Athe- nians were by sea, he caused the inhabitants of Attica to transport their cattle to Euboea and the neighbouring islands, and to retire, with as much of their other pro- perty as they could take with them, within the walls of Athens. Dy his provident care, the city was stored with provisions sufficient for the support of the multi- tudes which now crowded it; but greater difficulty was found in furnishing proper accommodation for so vast a population. Man^ found lodgings in the temples and other public edifices, or in tne turrets on the city walls, while great numbers were obliged to construct for themselves temporary abodes in the vacant space within the long walls extending between the city and the port of Pirssus. The memorable contest of twenty-seven years' dura- tion, called ' the Peloponnesian War,' now commenced (431 B. c). The Spartan king, Archidamus, entered Attica at the head of a large army of the confederates, and meeting with no opposition, proceeded along its eastern coast, burning the towns, and laying waste the country in his course. When the Athenians saw the enemy ravaging the country almost up to their gates, it required all the authority of Pericles to keep them within their fortifications. While the confederates were wasting Attica with fire and sword, the Athenian and Corcyrean fleets were, by the direction of Pericles, avenging the injury by ravaging the almost defence- less coasts of the Peloponnesus. This, together with a scarcity of provisions, soon induced Archidamus to lead his array homewards. He retired by the western coast, continuing the work of devastation as he went along. Early in the summer of the following year, the con- federates returned to Attica, which they were again permitted to ravage at their pleasure, as Pericles still adhered to his cautious policy of confining his efforts to the defence of the capital. But an enemy far more terrible than the Peloponnesians attacked the unfortu- nate Athenians. A pestilence, supposed to have origi- nated in Ethiopia, and which had gradually spread over Egypt and the western parts of Asia, broke out in the town of Piroius, the inhabitants of which at first sup- posed their wells to have been poisoned. The disease rapidly advanced into Athens, where it carried off a great number of persons. It is described as having been a species of infectious fever, accompanied with many painful symptoms, and followed, in those who survived the first stages of the disease, by ulcerations of the bowels and limbs. Historians mentioti, as a proof of the singular virulence of this pestilence, that the birds of prey refused to touch the unburied bodies of its victims, and that all the dogs which fed upon the poisonous relics perished. The mortality was dread- ful, and was of '^■ourse greatly increased by the over- crowded state of the city. The prayers of the devout, and the skill of the physicians, were found equally unavailing to stop the progress of the disease; and the miserable Athenians, reduced to despair, believed them- selves to be forgotten or hated by their gods. The sick were in many cases left unattended, and the bodies of the dead allowed to lie unburied, while those whom the plague hod not yet reached, openly set at defiance all laws, human and divine, and rushed into every excess of criminal indulgence. Pericles was in the meantime engaged, with a fleet of 150 ships, in wasting with fire and sword the shores of the Peloponnesus. At his return to Athens, finding HISTORT OF GREECE. that the enemy h«d haatily retired iVom Attioft, through fear of the contagion of the plague, he despatched tne fleet to the coait of Chalcidice, to awiit the Athenian land foroei who were itill engaged in the sieoe of Po- tidtsa — an unfortunate meaiure, nroductive of no other reiult than the communication of the pestilence to the besieging army, by which the minority of the troops were sneedily swept awav. Maddened bv their suffer- ings, tne Athenians now became loud in their murmurs against Pericles, whom they accused of having brought upon them at least a portion of their otlamities, by in- volring them in the Peloponnesian war. An assembly of the people was hold, in which Pericles entered upon a justification of his conduct, and exhorted them to courage and perseverance in defence of their indepen- dence. The hardships to which they had been exposed by the war, were, he observed, only such as he had in former addresses prepared them to expect; and as for the pestilence, it was a calamity which no human pru- dence could either have foreseen or averteeen !uooe!aiTely tributaries, subjeoti, and !laTes. liut ray father ren- dered you their masters ; and having entered the Peloponueeus, and regulated at discretion the alFairs <^ tnat peninsula, he was appointed, by universal eonsent, general of combined (ireece; an appointment not more honourable to himself than glorious for ^ countnr. At mj accession to the throne, I found a debt of 500 talents, and scarcely sixty iu the treasury. I contracted a fro«h debt of UOO ; and con- ducting you from Macedou, whose boundaries seemed unworthy to confine you, safely crossed the Hellespont, though the Persians then commanded the tea. Uy one victory we gained Ionia, i'Eolia, both Phrygias, and Lydia. Hy our courage and activity, the provinces of Ctlicia and Syria, the strength of Palestine, the anti- quity ot Egypt, and the renown of Persia, were added to your empire. Yours now are Bactria and Aria, the productions of India, the feKility of Assyria, the wealth of Susa, and the wonders of Babylon. You are gene- rals, princes, satraps. What have I resert'ed for myself but this purple and diadem, which mark my pre- eminence in toil and dangers t Where are my private treasures I Or why should I collect them 1 Are my pleasures expensive I You know that I faro worse than any of yourselves; and have in nothing spared my person. Let him who dares compare with me. Let aim bare his breast, and I will bare mine. My bodv, the foro part of my body, is covered with honourable wounds from every sort of weapon. I often watch, that you may repose safely; and to testify ray unremitting attention to your happiness, had determined to send home the aged and infirm among you, loa4 u.c., at that point of Central Italy, nearly fiftMU milei from the Tuican Sea, where the Anio joint the Tiber, there stood on a height, called the Palntine Mount, a little villaf|[o named Boma, the centre of a imall townihip, consiitme probably of 5000 or 6000 inhabitants, all of them husbandmen and shepherds. This Rome was one of the border town- ships of Latium, a territory of fertile and undulating table-land extending from the Tiber to the Liris, and from the sea-coast to the hills of the interior. The whole surface of Latium was under diligent cultivation, and was covered with villages similar to Rome, which to- gether constituted what was called the Latbi nation. EABLY INUABITANTS OP ITALY — THE LATINS— PRIMITIVE ROHAN SOCIETY. The population of Latium consisted of a mixture of Oicans, who are supposed to have been the aboriginal inhabitants of this as of other parts of Italy, with Pelasgians, an invading race, who, obeying the ten- dency of the human species in early times to move westward, had poured themselves out of Asia into the south-eastern parts of Europe, and after filling Oreece, had sought settlements on the Italian coasts. The language of the Latins, accordingly, was a compound of Pclasgic (which was also the radical element of the Greek) with Oscan, the aboriginal tonguo of the dis- trict, and which still lingered among the mountaineers of the Apennines. It was a tradition among the Latins themselves, that thnir nation had been founded, or at least re-organised, by ^neas, one of the mythic heroes of thq 'Iliad,* who, on the destruction of his native city Troy, had sought refuge in Italy. The pro- geny of this hero, it was believed, still reigned over Alba I^iwa, the chief of all the Latin cities, and the capital of the nation. The general affairs of the com- munity were administered by a confederacy of thirty of the principal townships. As regarded its own special government, however, each township, powerful enough to resist encroachment, was independent. The govern- ment in all these petty states or townships, Rome among the rest, was of the primitive heroic model : a king or chieftain, of high lineage, presided over the community, governing by divine right, but in accord- ance with certain time-hallowed customs, one of which was, that of awembling the people for consultation on No. 67. great emergencies. Rocial order within the limits of each little state was furth - tecurod by the natural arrangement into families— (ho authority of the head of a family in primitive society amounting even to the power of llfo and death over all members of that family. Resides the division Into families, however, there existed In the ancloiit states of Italy and (Jreece anotlier natural division, of a kind of which we hav* no exact type in modem times— that into Omtei, or, as it may with some license be translated, IIg could consult as an in- termediate body between himself and the entire Popu- Itu, or People. Thus in Rome, the constitution of which, about the year d. c. 754, sooms to have attabeJ a pretty fixed shape, the heads of the hundred gentes into which, according to the traditional system of round numbers, the little community was divided, constituted a senate or assembly of ciders, acting as advisers of the king, and generally as the chief men of the state. Honest gray-haired old farmers we may suppose these primitive Roman senators to have been, with firm faith, nevertheless, that in their veins flowed the blood of heroes and demigods of the olden time, the duty of remembering whom formed part of their household religion. The gens of the Fabii, for instance, traced themselves up to an imaginary hero, named Fnbius; the gens of thoNautii to on imaginary Nautius, strong- limbed, and nowerfui in battle. Rome, we have said, was a frontier township of La- tium. It was situated precisely at that point where iho territories of Latium adjoined thusc of two other nations — of the Sabines, a hardy Oscan i»<'o of shep- herds inhabiting the angular district betweuu the Anio and the Tiber ; and of the Etruscans, a remarkable people, of unknown but probably Oriental origin, who had arrived in the north of Italy some centuries later than the Pelasgians, and conquering all before thsm, whether Pelasgians or Oscans, by the force of superior civilisation, had settled chiefly in the region between the Amus and the Tiber, corresponding to modern Tuscany. Between these three races — Oacans, Pelas- gians, and Etruscans — either apart, or in various com- binations, all Italy, with the exception perhaps of some portions near the Alps, wss divided: tne Oscans pre- dominating in the interior; the Pelasgians, or rather Pelasgo-Oscans, along the coasts, as in Latium ; and the Etruscans in the parts above-mentioned. While the Italian peninsula was thus occupied but b^ three great races or main stocks; the political divisions or nations into which it was parcelled out were so nume- rous, however, that it would be scarcely possible to give a complete list of them. Situated so near to the Sabine and Etruscan fron- tiers, an intercourse, sometimes friendly and sometimes hostile, must naturally have been carried on between the Latins of Rome and the Sabines and Etruscans, with whom they were in contact. A chain of events, which history cannot now trace, but which is indicated in a poetic manner by a number of early Roman le- gends, led to th9 incorporation of Rome with two neigh- •*7 CHAMBEBS'S INFORMATION FOB TE[E PEOPLE. bouring towns— one of them a waall dependency of the Etruscans, situated on the Cselian Hill, and probably named Lucerum; another a Sabine Tillage on the Quirinal Hill, called Quirium. The Etruscans, or Etrusco-Latins as they seem rather to have been, of Lucerum were received on a subordmate footing; the Sabines of Quirium on one of equality; but the joint city continued to bear its old name of Roma. The population of this new Rome consisted, therefore, of three tribes the ancient Romans, who called them- selves Bamneii the Sabines of Quirium, who called themselves TUiu; and tho Etrusco-Latins of Lucerum, who were named Luoere*. OBIOINAL ROMAN CONSTITUTION — EARLY BISTORT UNDER THE KINOa — ORIGIN OF THE PLEBEIANS. With the enlargement of the population of Rome by the addition of these new masses of citizens, a change of the constitution became of course necessary. The following seems to have been the form ultimately as- sumed:-— Governed by a common sovereign, eligible by the whole community from one of the superior tribes — the Ramnea and the Titles — the three tribes intrusted the conduct of tL°ir affairs to a senate composed of 200 members, 100 of whom represented the gente?. of the Ramnes, and 100 the gentes of the Titles. The Luceres, as an inferior tribe, were not represented in the senate; and their political influence was limited to the right to vote with the other two tribes in the general assemblies of the whole people. In these general assemblies, or Comitia, as they were called, the people voted; not in- dividually, nor in families, nor in gentes, but in divi- sionb called Curia or Curies; the Curia being the tenth part of a tribe, and including, according to the ancient system of round numbers, ten gentes. Thus the entire Populus Romanus, or Roman people, of this primitive time consisted of thirty curies — ten curies of Ramnes, ten of Titles, and ten of Luceres: the ten curies of each tribe corresponding to 100 gentes, and the thirty curies together making up 300 gentes. As the Luceres were an inferior tribe, their gentes were called Gentet Mi- nora, or Lesser Houses; while those of the Ramnes and Titles were called Gentes Majorea, or Greater Houses. The assembly of the whole people was called the Comitia Curiata, or Meeting of Curies. After a measure had been matured by the king and senate, it was submitted to the whole people in their curies, who might accept or reject, but could not alter, what was thus proposed to them. An appeal was also open to the curies against any sentence of the king, or of the judges nominated by him in his capacity of supreme justiciary. The king, moreover, was the high priest of the nation in peace, as well as the commander-in-chief during war. The 300 gentes furnished each a horse- man, so as to constitute a body of cavalry; the mass of the people forming the infantry. The right of assem- bling the senate lay with the king, who usually con- vened it three times a month. Such was ancient Rome, as it appears to the historic eye endeavouring to penetrate the mists of the past, where at first all seems vague and wavering. The in- quirer to whom we owe the power to conceive the con- dition of ancient Rome, so far as that depended on po- litical institutions, was the celebrated German historian Niebuhr. Not so, however, did the Romans conceive their own early history. In all ancient communities, it was a habit of the popular imagination, nay, it was part of the popular religion, to trace the fortunes of the community to some divine or semi-divine founder; whose exploits, as well as those of his heroic successors, foi'med the subject of numerous sacred legends and bal- lads. Now, it was part of the Roman faith that their city had been founded at a point of time corresponding with B.C. 7.54, by twin brothers of miraculous birth, called Romulus and Remus, whose father was the war god Mars, and their mother a vestal virgin of the line of the Alban kings, the progeny of the great ^neas. Romulus, according to this legend, surviving his brother Remus, became the king of the village of shepherds which he had founded on the Palatine; and it was in his reign that those events took place whish terminated in the establishment of the triple community of the Ramnes, Titles, and Luceres. Setting out with Romu- lus, the Romans traced the history of their state through a series of legends relating to six kings, his successors, whose characters, and the lengths of their reigns, are all duly determined. Of this traditionary succession of seven kings, extending over a period of 245 years (n. c. 754-509), history can recognise with certaintj^ the exist- ence of only the two or three latest. It is possible, however, to elicit out of the legends a glimmering of the actual history of the Roman state during these imaginary reigns. Possessed, as all our information respecting the Ro- mans in later times justifies us in supposing, of an unusual degree of that warlike instinct which was so rampant among the early tenants of our globe, the shepherd farmers of Rome were incessantly engaged in raids on their Latin, Etruscan, and Sabine neighbours. Strong-bodied, valiant, and persevering, as we also know them to have been, they were, on uie whole, suc- cessful in these raids; and the consequence was, a gra- dual extension of their territonr, particularly on the Latin side, by the conquest of those who were weaker than themselves. After each conquest, their custom was to deprive the conquered community of a part of their lands, and also of their political independence, annexing them as subjects to the Populus Romanus. The consequence was a cradual accumulation round the original Populus, with its 300 Houses, of a subject- population, free-bom, and possessing property, but without political influence. This subject-population, the origin of which is dated by the legends from the reign of Ancus Martins, the fourth king from Romulus, received the name of the Pldis, a word which we trans- late ' common people,' but which it would be more correct, in reference to these very ancient times, to translate * conquered people.' Besides the plebs, the Roman community received another ingredient in the persons called Clients ; strangers, that is, most of them professing mechanical occupations, who, arriving in Rome, and not belonging to a gens, were obliged, in order to secure themselves against molestation, to at- tach themselves to some powerful citizen willing to protect them, and called by them Patronut, or Patron. About six centuries before Christ, therefore, the popu- lation of the growing township of Roma may be con- sidered as having consisted of four classes — Isl, The populus, or patricians, a governing class, consisting of a limited number of powerful families, holding them- selves aloof from the rest of the community, not inter- marrying with them, and gradually diminishing in consequence; 2rf, The plebs, or plebeians, a large and continually-increaeing subject-population, of the same mixed Etrusco-Sabinc-Latin blood as the populus, but domineered over by them by right of conquest ; 3d, The clients, a considerable class, chiefly occupied in handi- craft professions in the town, while the populus and the plebs confined themselves to the more honourable occupation, as it was then esteemed, of agriculture; and 4lh, The slaves, or lervi, whether belonging to patri- cians, plebeians, or clients — a class who were valued along with the cattle. The increasing numbers of the plebs, the result of fresh wars, and the value of their services to the com- munity, entitled them to possess, and emboldened them to claim, some political consideration. Accordingly, in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth of the legendary kings, and in whose reputed Etruscan lineage historians fancy that they can discern a time when Etruscan influence, if not Etruscan arms, reigned para- mount in Rome, a modification of the original consti- tution took place. A number of the richest plebeian families were drafted into the populus, to supply the blanks caused by the dying out of many of the ancient gentes of the Ramnes, Titles, and Luceres; and at the same time the number of senators was increased to 300, by the admission of the Luceres to the same rights as fflSTORT OF HOME. the other two tribes. Even this modification vm in- safficient; aud in order to do justice to the claimi of the plebs, Serriui Tullius, the Buccessor of Tarqainius, and who ii gratefully celebrated in Roman history ai ' the King of the Commons,' proposed and effected an entire renovation of the political system of the state. His first reform consisted in giving the plebs a regular internal organisation for its own purposes, bj diriding it into thirty tribes or parishes — four for the town, and twentj-six for the country — each provided with an officer or tribe-conTener called the Tribune, as well as with a detailed machinery of local goTcmment; and all permitted to assemble in a general meeting called the Comitia Tributa, to discuss matters purely affecting the plebs. But this was not all. To admit the plebs to a share in the general legislative power of the com- munity, he instituted a third legislative body, called the Comilia Cenluriala, in addition to the two — the senate and the comitia curiata — already existing. The comitia centuriata was an assembly of the whole free population of the Roman territory — patricians, ple- beians, and clients — arranged, according to the amount of their taxable property, in five classes, which again were subdivided into 195 bodies, called Centuries, each century possessing a vote, but the centuries of the rich being much smaller than those of the poor, so aa to secure a preponderance to wealth. The powers of the comitia centuriata were similar to those of the comitia curiata under the former system. They had the right to elect supreme magistrates, and to accept or reject a measure referred to them by the king and senate. The comitia curiata, however, still continued to be held; and a measure, even after it had passed the comitia centuriata, had still to be approved by the curies ere it could become a law. Notwithstanding this re- striction, the constitution of Servius Tullius was a great concession to the popular spirit, as it virtually admitted every free individual within the Roman terri- tory to a share in the government. An attempt on the part of Tarquinius Superbus, the Buccessor of Servius Tullias, to undo the reforms of his predecessor, and to establish what the ancients called a tyranny, or a government of individual will, led to the expulsion of him and his family, and to the aboli- tion of the kingly form of government at Rome, B. c. 509, or in the year of the city 245. Instead of a king, two annual magistrates called Consuls were appointed, in whom were vested all the kingly functions, with the exception of the pontifical, for which special function- aries were created! Otherwise, the Servian constitution remained in full operation. THE COMMONWEALTH TO THE OACLISH INVASION — STRUOOLE BETWEEN THE PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS. After the expulsion of the kings, the little republic had to struggle through many difficulties arising from the attacks of the neighbouring nations, incited thereto by the Tarqninii. Ten of the twenty-six rural parishes were torn away in the contest — a loss equivalent to a full third part of the Roman territory. It would have required a prophetic eye to foresee that, of all the states into which Italy was then divided, this little struggling republic was to obtain the pre-eminence. One would have been disposed to promise the supre- macy of the peninsula rather to the cultured and large- brained Etruscans, already masters of the north of Italy; to the hardy and valiant Samnites, who were fast overspreading the southern interior; or, most pro- bably of all, to the Greeks, who, after adding Sicily to the empire of their gifted race, were rapidly establish- ing colonies on the southern coasts of the peninsula. Nay, clustered round the Roman territories there were various petty states, any one of which might have ap- peared a match for Rome — the Latins, the ^quians, the Volscians, the Hernicans, the Sabines, and the Etruscans of Veil on ihe right bank of the Tiber. Who could have predicted that, bursting this cincture of nations, the men of the Tiber would overspread the peninsula, and, by the leavening influence of their character and institutions, throw first it, and then all Europe, into fermentation) It required a period of 119 years (b. c. 609'-390) to enable the Romans to burst the chain of pettv nations — Latins, Volscians, Vejentes, &c. — which girdled in their strength. This was a period of almost incessant warfare; the last glorious act of which was the siege and capture of Veil by the hero Camillus, B.C. 395, or in the year of the city 369. By this capture part of Etruria was added to the Roman dominions, and the influence of the state considerably extended on all sides. This conquest, as well as the career of victory against .^quians, Volscians, &c. which had preceded it, was greatly facilitated by a confederacy, offensive and defensive, which had subsisted between the Romans and the adjacent nations of the Latins and the Hemi- cans from the year of the city 268, the twenty-third year after the expulsion of the kings, when it had been established by the instrumentality of an able patrician named Spurius Cassius, who was three times, in cases of difficulty, elected to the consulship. This confede- racy with two powerful nations had insured the stabi- lity of the infant republic against all assaults. The second consulship of Spnrius Cassius (year of Rome 261, or b.c. 493) had also been remarkable as the epoch of a formidable civic tumult — the first of that long series of struggles between the patricians and the plebeians which constitutes the most interesting portion of the annals of the early Commonwealth. Not long after the expulsion of the kings, the patrician gentes had begun to show a disposition to tamper with the Servian constitution, or at least to prevent the plebs from obtaining more power than they already possessed. The principal instrument by which they were able to cripple the energies of the plebs was the operation of the law of debt. In primitive Rome, as in other ancient states, an insolvent debtor was liable to be seized by his creditor, and kept in chains, or made to work as his slave. Now, such had been the distress of the first years of the republic, that multitudes of the plebeians, deprived, by the casualties of war, of their little properties, had been obliged, in order to preserve the lives of their families, to become debtors to the patricians, the exclusive proprietors of the state lands. Hundreds had, in consequence, fallen into a condition of slavery; and many more, fearing to offend their patrician creditors by opposing their designs, had be- come mere ciphers in the comitia centuriata. In short, the plebs, as a body, was disintegrated and disheartened. Some instances of oppression, more flagrant than ordi- nary, led to an outbreak, and a clamour for the aboli- tion of all existing debts; and to enforce their demands, the plebeians adopted a method of agiiation which seems singular enough to our modem conceptions : they, or at least such of them as were in arms for military ser- vice, retired in a mass from the city at a time when it was threatened with invasion, and encamped on a hill near, declaring they would st; rve sooner than live in such a place as Rome was. The government was thus reduced to a dead lock ; Spurius Cassius was chosen consul by the patricians ; and by his instrumentality an arrangement was come to, by which the demands of the commons were conceded, existing debts abolished, a treaty of mutual obligation for the future agreed to between the populus and the plebs as between two in- dependent communities, and a new office instituted, under the title of the Tribuneship of the Common People, for the express purpose of protecting the interests of the plebs. The commons then returned to the city; two tribunes of the people were appointed; and their number was subsequently increased first to five, and afterwards to ten. No one could have foreseen how important this office would become. Not content with alleviating the temporary distresses of the plebeians, Spnrius Cassius wished permanently to ameliorate their condition ; and accordingly, in his third consulship, in the year of the city 268, or B.C. 1 486, he boldly proposed and carried what was called an I A!. a mass of these sa/ages crossed the Alps ir>. ;' <<- plunder and settlements, established a permau< -i,bode in the country adjacent to the Po, and pi< i'.. 1 their destruc- tive way through almost the whole length of the penin- sula. Rome suffered more severely than any other city. For several months (364-5, or B.C. 390-09) it was in the possession of the savages — its rightful inha- bitants, routed in battle, having dispersed themselves for safety through the surrounding country. At length, however, the Gauls were bribed to return to their homes in the north, leaving Rome in ruins. ORADUAI. CON(inEST OF THE PENINSULA — ITALY UNDER THE ROHAN RULE. The invasion of the Gauls is a great notch in the line of the Roman annals. From this epoch to the time of the complete subjugation of the peninsula by the Romans (365-490, or b.c. 389-264) is a period of 125 years. Of this period, the first fifty years were spent in repairing the shattered Commonwealth. Her strength having been fairly renewed, the republic shook off all impediments, announced to Latins and Hemi- cans that she required their co-operation no longer, and boldly declared her resolution to conquer centr^ Italy. The series of wars against Etruscans, Latins, Hemicans, Oauls, Volscians, and Samnites, sometimes singly, and sometimes in combination, by which she carried her resolution into effect, is usually known in Roman history by the general designation of 'the Samnite Wars' (412-463), the Samnites being the leaders ia this onset of the nations on Rome, the issue of which was to determine whether Rome or Samnium should govern Italy. Extricating herself by her valour from this confused conflict of nations, Rome, about the year 463, found herself mistress of Central Italy — Samnites, Latins, &c. all her subjects. A consequence of the conduct of the Latins and Hemicans during these Sam- nite wars was, that the famous triple confederacy be- tween these two nations and the Romans was brought to an end precisely when it had fully served its pur- pose, and when its longer continuance would ha^e im- peded the growth in Italy of that Roman unity which it had fostered. ' The Samnite Wars ' were succeeded by a short but brisk war, designated in Roman history * the War with Pyrrhus and the Greeks in Italy.' Pyrrhus was an able and enterprising Greek prince, whom the Greek towns of southern Italy — fearful of being overwhelmed by the conquering barbarians, as they called them, of the Tiber, before whom even the Samnites had given way — had invited over from his native kingdom of Epirus, that he might place himself at the head of a confederacy which they were forming against Rome. Full of enmity towards their con- querors, all the recently-subdued nations of Central and Northern Italy welcomed the arrival of Pyrrhus; and all southern Italy followed his standard. His enter- prise, however, failed, notwithstanding several victories; and about the year b.c. 275, Pyrrhus having withdrawn from Italy, the confederacy against the Roman Com- monwealth crumbled to pieces, and the whole penin- sula lay at their mercy. Before describing the manner in which the peninsula, thus acquired, was laid out and governed by the Romans, it will be necessary to continue our narrative of the gradual development of the constitution within, during the period which had elapsed since the Gaulish invasion. The situation of Rome after tho Gaulish invasion was extremely similar to what it had been after the expulsion of the kings — the plebeians distressed, and many of them in slavery for debt, and the patricians disposed to tyrannise. As on the former occasion there had risen up, as the best friend of the plebs, the noble patrician Spurius Cassius, so on this occasion there appeared as their champion a prudent and brave ple- beian, Caius Licinius Stole, a tribune of the people. His measures were very similar to those of Spurius Cassius — namely, a compromise on the luhjeot of debts (not, however, an abolition of them) ; and an agrarian law, prohibiting any citizen from occupying more than five hundred jugera (about 330 acres) of the public land, and deprivine all who exceeded that (quantity of the surplus for distribution among the indigent commons. To these he added a proposal for constitutional reform — namely, that the military tribunate should be abolished, and that tho consulship should be reverted to, one of the consuls to be of necessity a plebeian. After a hard struggle, these important measures were carried in the ^ear of the city 384, nineteen years after the Gaulish invasion. Under these Licinian Laws, as they were called, the state enjoyed tolerable repose for a long period of years — the principal source of disturbance being the attempts of the wealthy citizens to evade the operation of the agrarian law. The next great move- ment was in the year of the city 416, when, under the auspices of a plebeian dictator (for the dictatorship had also been thrown open to the plebeians), a con- siderable simplification of the constitution was effected. It was now rendered essential that one of the censors should be a plebeian ; and the old patrician body of the curies was struck out of the machinery of the legisla- ture, so as to leave the business of the state in the hands of the senate (itself become partly a plebeian body) and the people. Met in their centuries, the people could only accept or reject the measures pro- posed by the senate; but met in their tribes, they could originate a measure, and oblige the senate to consider it. Thus sometimes in the shape of a matured scheme descending from the senate to the people, sonietimes in the shape of a popular resolution sent up to the senate, a measure became law. From this simplification of the constitution commences, according to historians, the golden age of Roman politics. The extension of dominion in the Samnite wars, by providing a large subject - population inferior both to patricians and plebeians, disposed these bodies to forget their diffe- rences, and to fall back upon their common conscious- ness of Roman citizenship. During the Samnite wars, however, a third party appeared in the field claiming political rights. These were the uSrarians, the name applied to all those residents in town pursuing me- chanical occupations, who, as not belongmg to any of the tribes (now thirty-three in number), did not rank as citizens. The claims of this class — the city rabble, as both patricians and plebeians called it — were sup- ported by a daring and able patrician, Appius Claudius, who, during his censorship, admitted serarians into all the tribes indiscriminately. Eventually, however, a compromise was effected : the serarians were enrolled in the four city tribes, thus obtaining some influence, but not so much as Appius seemed to destine for them. It appears to have been at some period also during the Samnite wars that a modification took place in the constitution of the comitia eenturiata the leading feature of which seems to have been a blending of the tribes with the centuries, so as to accommodate the as- sembly to the altered state of society and the altered scale of wealth. Of the precise nature of this change, however, as of the precise time at which it occurred, we are ignorant. It may be considered, nevertheless, to have perfected the Roman constitution, and to have adapted it for the function of maintaining the govern- ment of the entire peninsula. Italy, once fairly subjugated and laid out by the Romans (b. c. 266), its population may be considered as having been distributed into three political divisions — the Populus Jiomamu, or citizens of Rome, properly so called; the iSbctt, or inhabitants of the allied and dependent Italian states; and the Nomen iMtinum, or citizens of the ' Latin name.' The first of these, the Populus Romonus, included the whole body of the free inhabitants of the thirty-three tribes or parishes north and south of the Tiber, which constituted the Roman territory strictly so called, to- gether with a considerable number of persons scattered over the other parts of Italy, who were also accounted 101 OHAMBBBEPS VffOMIUVIOM fOU THE PBOHiS. (itfiiM* (rttbnr Immmu* tiwr van eolcnitto of VMom dMMsti or UokVM t>M tiuo had b«en oonfined on tlMm M an hononir diatisotien. The total number of adult Somwi ottiaana toward* the end of the fifth oentuiT WM under S00.00O-ft imril proportion, oTidentlT, of the tm* Italian inajii, wWch coniuted, inolading the ikTea, of about 5,000,000. Nor were all theee equal in p<^t of ciril rifhte, many of them hayins the /widUM, aa it wai called, or legal rixhti of oittaeni, without the t^ffraffe, or political nghti. na dtixeni «dth luiBrage, those who voted on public queitioni— the real gorexning power, therefore, hy whole impuliei all Ital/, with ita milliona of inhabi- tante, wae iwajed, aa the bodv ii moved by the beats of the heart— were a mere handnil of men, such ai might be uiembled with eaie in any public parlc or square. The Italian wibjects were the inhabitants of the allied or denendent states. The lift of these was a long one, including, aa it did, the various communities iHdch made up the populations of Etruria, Umbria, the flabino territoiy, Samnium, Campania, Apulia, Lucania, M jsaapia, and Bmttium. All the allies, however, were netween the Roman dtiiena and the Italiaua. The name probably originated in the circumstance, that the original colo- nists of this deaeription were Latins. It is a curious fact, tliat even after Rome had at- tained tlte aupremacy of the peninaula, there did not cziat such a tiling as even a dawning; Roman litera- ture, although the state had now existed nearly five hundred years ; so much earlier than their literary Acuity did tlie native talent of the Romans for govern- ing mankind develop itself. It waa by their niaggivo character, more than by their powera of apeculation or •xpreaaion, that they were to impress the world. •aa PCHIC WARS — gCBJUOATIOH OF FOREIGN NATIONS— ADMINISTRATION OF THE PROVINCES. Masters of Italy, it waa not long before the Romans found themselves in collision with the nations sur- rounding the great basin of the Mediterranean ; and as the uat 125 yeara of the existence of the Roman (tate had been spent in the gradual conquest of the Italic nations, so the next 130 years (r. n. 490-620, or B. c, 264-134) were spent in a series of conquestE, by which various foreign countries were reduced to the oondition of mere provinces of Italy. This aeries of conquests may be designated generally by the title of ' the Punic Wars, and the Wars with tho Greek States.' A bare enumeration of them, with a statement of their results, is all that our limits will allow. The first foreign people with which the Romans came into collision were the Cartha^ians — a people of Phoenician lineage, who, settling in that part of Africa now called Tunis, and buildine a city there, about a century before Rome was founded, had in the interval become a great commercial nation, with ahips •ailiu^ to all parte of the Mediterranean, and with coloniea along the coaata of Algiera, in Sardinia and Corsica, and even in Spain.- They had reoeotly gained a footing in Sicily, and now shuad it with the Oreeki of Svnwuaa; and it was on thia rieh iaUad aa a battle- field that the Bomana firat came into oanfiict with tho merchant peopU of Africa. Invited over by the Mamertinea, a robber people who inhabited the north- eaataxn comer of the iuand, the Roman aoldiera fought the armiea of meroenariea hired bx the Carthagiuiana. The war tbua begun, the * Firat Punic War,' aa it ia called, laated twenty-three yeara (y.r. 490-518, or b.c. 264-241). During it the Romana firat leaned to build ahipa of war, and to fight naval battles; anfd they were soon able to defeat the Carthaginians on their own element. On land they were sure of victory Against mere mercenaries, collected, aa theae were, from all nations, and commanded by Carthaginian generals of ordinary capacity. In 249 b.c., however, the Cartha- ginians sent over the great Hamilcar Barca to com- mand their forces in Sicilv; and his efiTorts checked the Romans, who, meanwhile, had invaded Africa, and been repulsed. A victory or two, however, ^ined by the Romans over other generals than Hamilcar, dis- posed the Carthaginians for peace, who accor^gly agreed (b.c, 241) to evacuate Sicily, and to pay the victors a laree sum of monev. The Romans then made themselves masters of Sicily; and shortly after- trards they found a pretext for wresting Corsica and Sardinia from the Carthaginians. For twenty-two yeara after theae conquesta (b.c. 241-219) the Romana were engaged in wara with the Ciaalpine Oauls and other nations in the north of Italy, the effect of which waa to extend their dominion to the foot of the Alps. Be- yond the Alps, also, Illyria, a country skirting the east coast of the Adriatic, waa at thia time annexed to the dominions of the Commonwealth. Meanwhile the Carthaginians had not been idle. During several yeara they had, in accordance with the advice of Hamilcar, been establishing their dominion in Spain, intending to repay themselves with that fine peninsula for the loss of Sicily and Sardinia. Killed in battle by a native tribe, Hamilcar was succeeded in Spain by his son-in-law Hasdrubal; and on his death, which took place soon after, Huinibal Barca, the son of Hamilcar, and then only twenty-six years of age, waa appointed to the command. The siege by him of Saguntum, an independent Spanish town, wnich had claimed the assistance of the Romans, led to the Second Punic War (b.c. 218-201). Little did the Romana know what a war it was to be ! Crossing the Pyrenees, the young Carthaginian general, the greatest military commander probably, and certainly one of the ablest men the world ever saw, pushed his way through the Gallic tribes, and eflfecting the passage of the Alps, descended into Italy with an army of 12,000 Africans, 8000 Spaniards, and 6000 Carthaginian horse. Rousing the Cisalpine Gauls, and defeating in several successive battles the Roman generals sent against him, he mode his way into the south of Italy (b.c. 217); and having in the following year inflicted on the Romans at CannsB the greatest defeat they hod ever received, he remained in Italy fifteen years (b.c. 217-202), moving hither and thither, keeping seven or eight Roman generals, and among them the wary Fabius and the bold Mar- cellus, continually employed, scattering the Romans like chaff wherever he appeared, exhausting the finances of the state, and detaching the Italian nations from their allegiance. Had he received reinforcements, as he expected, from Spain, where he had left hia brother Haadrubal in command, Rome might have fallen. Fortunately, however, for the Romans, while they were manfully opposing Hannibal in Italy, one of their generals, the great Scipio, was busily engaged in Spain. To prevent Spain from falling into Scipio'a handa, Hasdrubal waa obliged to remain in it ; and it waa not till B.C. 207, when all hope of retaining hia footing in that peninaula waa lost, that he set out to join his brother. He crossed the Alpb in safety, but waa attacked, defeated, and alain on hia march through Italy; and Hannibal was left to his own resources. These, however, were exhaoitlssa ; and with the assist- WmON Of BOIOL tBM of iba Italian nationii w)io. MM0UU7 the unpri- TiltgMl elauM, wtM friandlv to the Cutlia|riniMu, Mtd JtatM Roma, he might itill Iiave ahfttttred the Com- monwealth in ^ieoei, IumI not Soipio paied orer from Spain into Africa, and defeating the Carthaf;iniana in ■ereral battlei, with the help of a Numidiaa prince named Maiiniwa, compiled them to recall their gieateat man for the defence of hia native city. In b.o. S02. or the year of the city 562, Hannibal quitted Italy, where he IumI apent the beet period of hia life. Not long after his landing in Africa, he waa defeated by Scipio at Zama, and nil countrymen were obliged in Goniequenoe to agree to a peace on yery serere terms. The Second Punic War concluded, and Italy once more pacified, the Romans made war on Philip III., king of Macedonia, and rirtual ruler of all the Greek states, who had offended them by entering into a treaty with Hannibal. The war was protracted over seventeen J ears (b. c. 2U-197), but ended in the reduction of lacedonia, and the proclamation by the Romans of the independence of the other Oreek states. Seized with a desire to assume the place which the Micedonian king had been unable to maintain, Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, and representative therefore of the Oreek empire in Asia, crossed into Greece, where he joined the ^tolians against the Romans. Defeated, however, in Greece, and forsakeu by the ^tolians, he was pur- sued into Asia, and after the loss of a great battle at Magnesia, (.bilged to submit to the Romans, who thus became virtual masters of the various kingdoms and states of Asia Minor (b. c. 188). Meanwhile they had been engaged in suppressing various movements among the Ligunans, Boians, Istrians, and other nations in the north of Italy, as well as among the Spanish tribes and the savages of Sardinia. A declaration of hosti- lities by Perseus, the successor of Philip in Macedonia, in conjunction with Genthius, king of Illyria, led to another war acainst these countries, which terminated in their complete subjugation (b. c. 168). |The next twenty years were spent in securine these conquests, and in establishing relations, virtually those of sove- reignty, with various states of Asia Minor, such as Bithynia and Rhodes; and with various others of Africa, as Egypt and Numidia. The whole circuit of the Mediterranean in their power, and their ships re- spected in all its ports, as belonging to the ' sovereign people of Italy,' the Romans at length executed their long -cherished project, and pounced upon Carthage (b. c. 149), whose existence, even in its fallen condition of a mere commercial capital, they could not tolerate. Hannibal had been dead more than thirty years; but under such generals as they had, the wretched Cartha- ginians offered a desperate resistance to the Roman commanders. After a horrible siege, the city, contain- ing a population of 700,000, was taken and sacked by Scipio JEmilianus, the adopted son of the son of the great Scipio (b. c. 146^. The houses were razed to the ground, and the province of Africa was the prize of this third * Punic War.' The fall of Greece was contem- porary with that of Carthage. The Achuan League, a confederacy of cities in Greece proper and the Pelopon- nesus, showing a disposition to be independent of the Romans, provoked their vengeance; and the destruction of Corinth in the same year as that of Carthage extin- guished the last sparks of liberty in Greece. The whole of the Greek countries were parcelled out into Roman provinces, and from that time Greeks l>ecame the slave teachers of the Romans, their secretaries, their syco- phants, their household wits. Yet out of Greece thus ruined there afterwards arose many great spirits; for no degradation, no series of misfortunes, could eradicate the wondrous intellect which lurked in the fine Greek organisation. The last scene in this long series of wars was enacted in Spain, where, roused by a noble patriot called Viriathus— the Wallace of that day — the native tribes had revolted against the Romans. The fate of Spain, however, was waled by the destruction of Nu- mantia by Scipio .^Bmilianus (b. c. 133). By the wars of 130 yean which we have thus enu- merated, the following oountriei had beeonw mhJMl to Rome: — Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the smallsr islands of the Meditenrnaaaii ; Macedonia i Illyrieiim, with Thassaly and Epirus ; Greece, including Greece proper and the Peloponnesus ; Spain ; and the whol« northern coast of Africa. The Romans had likewise established their influence in Asia. The conquered • countries were divided into provinces, so that the de- signation for the Roman dominion IxKiame * Italy and the Provinces.' The provinces received each an 01- (pmisation at the time of its formation, aocordhig to jtM circumstances. Retaining their national habiti, religion, laws, &o. the inhabitants of every province were governed by a military president, sent from Rome, with a staff of officials. Unlike the Italic nations, who Aimished only subsidies of men to the sovereign stato, the provincials were required to pay taxes in money and kind; and these taxes were farmed out by the censors — Roman citizens, who, under the name ot irublieatu, settled in the various districts of the provinces, and proved a great scourge by their avarice and rapacity. To some towns and localities in the provinces, the Italic franchise was extonded as a token of favour. Altogether, the government of the provinces was one which, although it led to beneficial results, in binding together a large mass of the human race, and carrying on various races and languages simultaneously in a career of civilisation, yet gave ^at scope for oppres- sion. Like a network proceedmg from a centre, the political system of the Romans pervaded the mass of millions of human beings inhabiting the shores of the Meditorranean, holding them together by ito mechani- cal tenacity, and slowly working than into union by its own powers of impregnation, as well as by moans of those ideas and moral agencies whose dissemination and operation over large areae at once it so marvel- lously facilitoted. What a caieer was thus opened up for those who occupied the centre of this network — the population of Rome I What a grand thing in those days to be a Roman citizen ; so that, wherever one wuked — in Spain, in Africa, or even in once great Athens — one was followed, feasted, flattered to one's face, and mocked behind one's back 1 What means of money-making in the provinces for the avaricious Ro- mans ! What opportunities for well-doing for the phi- lanthropic I Alas 1 a philanthropic Roman was almost a contradiction in terms. To be patriotic waa the highest virtue ; and if a Roman, alone with his par triotism, possessed a just ditposition, toose who were under his government might consider themselves for- tunate. Nor was the career of administration in the provinces open to all Roman citizens. The following passage, which we translate from a French work — ' Etudes sur I'Histoire Romaine, par Prosper Merimie; Paris, 1844 ' — will give an idea of the maimer in which a Roman citizen attained to public honours, and will illustrate the general spirit of the Roman administra- tion. ' The laws,' says this author, ' opened to all the citizens the career of magistracy; but in realitv it was shut against all but those whose fortune or family credit placed in an exceptional situation. As all public offices were obtained by the suffirages of the people, it was of the utmost importance to make creatures ui every daas of society. In order to muster all these on the great day of election, there were no labours, fatigues, and even meannesses to which Romans of illustrious families did uot submit from their earliest boyhood. Some offered the patronage of their families to embarrassed pleaders; others opened their purse to poor artisans; whoever had a vote in the comitia was flattered and cajoled in every possible way. From the time that the candidate had attained the a^ at which the law per- mitted him to stand for the dignity of the queestorship — that by which he must make his dibvA in public life— he appeared in the Forum clothed in a white robe, shook hands with all the country folks, and with the lowest plebeians, solicited their votes, and often purdiAsed them for money. The qusestor, once ap- pointed, found the doon of the senate open for him, 108 OHAHBEBS'S HTPOBMATIOK VOB THE PEOFUL Oidiauilr h« wm attaoliod to the pmon of » oonwil, or ft niMutrate of wipwior nnJi. b«»ming his lieu- tenwt; lonietimM he oMwned » little eoTommeiit for himielf. In thete o«ce» he oould learn buiinMi h»biti, »nd find ocoaiioni for dirtinguiihin^ himielf, and for eauiina hie name to be mentioned olten «n the senate or the Miembliee of the people. After the quawtorihip came the CurttU EdiletK^, a purely civil m«jgiitracy, \rhoie dutiet cowiited in watching the arriyal of pro- Tiiioni, euarding public monumente, seeing to the em- bellishment of the city, and finally, in preparing the games and solemn shows. This charge entailed enor- mous expense on those ediles who wished to make themselves popular. They built temples and porticos at their own cost, opened roads, constructed aque- ducts; above all, they tried to surpass their prede- cessors by the magnificence of the games which they caused to be celebrated, and the truly colossal ex- pense of which they in part sustained. A happy roan was that edile who had been able to exhibit in tlic arena the deaths of an unusual number of able gla- diators, or who had presented to the people animals of a rare species or unknown before. His name was in every mouth, and all applauded his sprouting am- bition. The edileship lasted a year. After it came the prsstorship. There were six pristors — two presided over the tribunals at Rome, the others governed pro- vinces or commanded armies. Finally, after having successively gone through the three previous stages, one presented himself as a candidate for the consul- ship. Intriguing, corruption, manoeuvring of all kinds was now redoubled; for this was the goal of a Roman's ambition. The consuls presided over the government of the republic, or directed important wars in person. At the expiry of their magistracy — that is, after a year —they were sent to a province with the title of Procon- suls; often to command military expeditions, almost always to administer an extensive government. In turn to amass and expend great wealth, was thus the chief can of candidates for honours. The profits of the queestoiahip enabled one to make a brilliant curule edileship. Ruined by his extravagance, the edile re- paired his fortune in the praetorsUp, and returned to Rome rich enough to buy votes at the consular elec- tion. Frequently he staked his all on this last elec- tion, confident of more than making it up again in the province which would be assigned him after his con- sulship. In a word, the career of public employment was a species of gambling, in which one's profits were proportional to one's stakes.' Such a state of things as is here described, implies that an immense change had taken place in the cha- racter of the Roman society during the rapid career of foreign conquest which had elevated Rome from the position of metropolis of Ital^ to that of metropolis of the civilised world. The distinction between patrician and plebeian was now scarcely heard of (in b.c. 172 both consuls had been plebeians for the first time); it was superseded by that between illustrious and obscure; rich and poor. Although, however, the system of cor- ruption was so general, that scarcely any one could attain to office except b^ unworthy means, yet there were at that time, and in the midst of that system, many men of really noble character. Among these must not be forgotten the honest old censor Cato, the enemy of Carthage, who kept up a constant protest all his life against what he called the growing luxury of his countrymen, and died declaring that they were a degenerate race. Of equal integrity with Cato, al- though of altogether a different form of character, were the two brothers of world-famous name, whose actions wo shall now brieily notice. TnE nEVOLUTIONS OF THE OBACCIU. * A fatal effect,' says M. M^riniie, ' of the Roman dominatiob was the impoverishment and depopulation of Italy. At Rome, where commerce and mdustry were despised, only one way led to wealth — a career of public service. On his return fr(>m his goverumeut, a Roman official bought lands, built villai, and all at once became a great proprietor. If he chuced to have in his neighbourhood an estate to his taste, he caused it to be ceded to him; sometimes he seized it iriiile the lawful owner was fighting far away under the Ro- man eagles. By degrees all tne small proprietors were despoiled, in order to form vast estates for the privi- leged class of public functionaries. Parks, ganlens, and expensive fish-ponds took the place of cultivated fields. Labourers disappeared, and the country was peopled with slaves, dangerous bv their numbers, and also by their robber habits, which they practised with impunity. Some masters, it is said, shared the profits of robbery with these wretches.' The great social evils of the day — the extinction of the old peasant proprietors of Italy; and the vast in- crease of slaves, the danger of which had been already manifested by several servile revolts in Sicily; and the congregation in the towns, and especially in Rome, of vast masses of population, not living as the artisans and traders in modem towns do, by honest industry, but living in noisy idleness upon the alms of the pro- vinces and the sums they received for their votes — these social evils must have struck many generous hearts among the Romans. The man, however, on whom they produced so decided an impression as to lead him to devote his life to their removal, was Ti- berius Sempronius Gracchus, the son of a plebeian of rank who had attained distinction in the Spanish wars, and of Cornelia, the daughter of the great Scipio. Abandoning, in its first stage, the more tempting career which led through the quiestorship, edileship, and pnetorship to the consulship, Tiberius chose rather the office of tribune of the people, which was more- suitable for the purposes of political agitation. Elected to this office B.C. 133, in the twenty-ninth year of his age, he propounded his schemes of reform. His grand project was a revival, with some modifications, of the famous agrarian law of Licinius. which had long fallen into tacit desuetude. All citizens who were in possession of a larger extent of the state land than the 600 jugera allowed by the Licinian law (unless in the case of fathers of two sons, who were to be allowed 250 jugera in addition for each of them), were to be deprived of the surplus; the buildings, vine-presses, &c. which were erected on these surplus lands to be purchased at a fair valuation; and the whole land thus seized was to constitute a stock out of which the pauper plebeians of the city were to be furnished with little farms for the honest support of themselves and families, these farms to be incapable of alienation by the persons to whom they should be allotted. Utterly revolutionary as this mea- sure would seem in modem legislation, and sufficiently sweeping as it was, even in a Roman point of view, considering that, however unjustly the ancestors of many of the large proprietors had come by their lands, yet long possession and frequent transference had in many coses sanctified the ownership — still the measure was strictly in the spirit of Roman law, and one of the supporters of Orvcchus in proposing it was the eminent jurist Mucius Scfcvola. Tiberius and his associates probably thought that the ends proposed— '(die removal of the venal mob out of Rome, and the restoration inltaly of a population of hard-working peasant pro- prietors, instead of the gangs of bandit slaves — were difficult enough to require, and glorious enough to justify, somewhat revolutionary means. Accordingly, advocating by his eloquence in the Forum the scheme which he hod matured in private, he did not cease until, in spite of the most obstinate resistance on the part of the senators, who used as their instrament against him one of his own colleagues in the tribune- ship, he had gained his end. Three commissioners wore appointed to superintend the execution of the law — Tiberius himself, his father-in-law Appius Clau- dius, and his younger brother Caius. Loud and deep were the vows of vengeance on the part of the senators; and Tiberius saw that his only chance of life lay iu being re-elected to the tiibuucship, the dignity of which JEnSTORt OP HOME. WM an inTiolable protection. To prerent thii, the lena- torial party niuittned all their strength; and a tumult ensuing on one of the days of election, Tiberius, along with about 300 of his followen, was killed. For about ten years the excitement caused by the ]a\r of Gracchus continued, FuWius Flaccus and Fapi- rius Carbo acting as his successors in the popular in- terest, and carrying on the struggle against the nobles, who raised up obstacles to the execution of the law. But in the year b.c. 123, Caius Gracchus, who now felt himself old enough to assume the career which his brother had left hira as an inheritance, claimed and obtained the tribuneship. Caius was a man of more vehement character and more comprehensive views than his brother, and the schemes which he proposed embraced a great variety of points, besides a re-enact- ment of his brother's agrarian law. In fact, a reformer by reputation and education, he made it his business to find out abuses, and either declaim i^ainst them or propose remedies for them. Perhaps the most objec- tionable of his measures was a law enacting a monthly distribution of com among the city population at a nominal price — a poor-law, for buch it may be called, which had the effect of attracting all the paupers of Italy to Rome. A more valuable measure was his transference of the judicial power from the senators, who had hitherto held it, and who had been guilty of great corruption in the exercise of it, to the equitet, or wealthy capitalists, intermediate between the senators and the poorer classes of the community. He also proposed and carried the establishment of various colo- nies in different parts of the empire, which afforded room for enterprise, thus relieving Rome of part of its overgrown population. More fortunate so far than his brother, he held the tribuneship for two years, and thus had time for more extensive action. Deserted, however, by the people at the end of the second year, in consequence of the policy of his opponents, who adopted the plan of outbidding him for popular favour, he lost his office. The senators, having hira at their mercy, spared no means of revenge; and Gracchus, and his friend Fulvius Flaccus, having recourse to the anued assistance of their supporters to preserve their lives when they appeared in public, this was construed into a design of sedition. The consul was empowered to resort to force against them ; a terrible fray occurred in one of the quarters of the town, 3000, it is said, being slain; and Gracchus was killed while trying to escape into the country (b. c. 121). He was then only in the thirty-third year of his age. The aristocracy thus triumphed for the time, and the recent measures, of reform were suffered to fall into disuse; but certain portions of the policy of the two brothers had taken full effect, and the agitation which they had originated was not lulled for many years. The seeds of much that afterwards appeared in storm and bloodshed were sown during these movements of n. c. 133-121 ; and as long as the world takes an inte- rest in Roman history, or respects disinterested political courage, it will remember the Gracchi. THE JUOURTHINE, CIMBRIC, AND SOCIAL WARS — HAKICS AND SULLA. In the year of the first tribuneship of Caius Gracchus, the Balearic islands were added to the Roman domi- nion; and six years afterwards (b.c. 117), Dalmatia was reduced to a Roman province. About this time the famous Jugurtha, the illegitimate son of one of the sons of Masinissa, already mentioned as a king of Numidia in the Roman interest, was left heir to that kincdom, in conjunction with his two cousins, by Micipsa, their father and his uncle. Aspiring to the undivided sovereignty, he killed one of his cousins, and drove the other to Rome. Interfering in behalf of the expelled prince, the Romans compelled Jugurtha to Hhare Numidia with him. By bribing the commis- sioners, however, who were sent to effect the division, Jugurtha obtained the best part for himself ; and not long after (b,c. 112), he showed his contempt for the Romans by inrading hil cottsin's dominion!, and pnU ting him to death. Bribes and wily tactics protected him for a while from the vengeance of the Romans ; but at length, in the year a. c. 109, the brave consul Metellus, who was proof against bribes, went over to Numidia to conduct the war which his predeoesiort had mismanaged. After he had carried on the war success- fully for two years, he was supplanted by his second in command, Caius Marius, a man of humble birth, and nearly fifty years of age, who, although almost without education, had raiswl himself to hi^ rank by his military talents, and whose services under Metellus had been so favourably represented at Rome, that he was appointed consul (b.c. 107), with the express in> teution that he should end the Jugurthine war. This ho speedily accomplished, greatly assisted by his quses- tor, a young man of high patrician familv and unusual literary accomplishments, named Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Jugurtha was sent to Rome, where he was starved in prison (b. c. 106) ; and the services of Marius were at the disposal of the Romans for a war of an in- finitely more fonnidable character than that which had been waged against this ill-fated African. About the year B.C. 1 13, a numerous tribe of savages, called Cimbn, but who were most probably Celts, had been set in motion in the south-east of Europe; and emigrating westward, they had communicated their restlessness to the Teutones, an undoubtedly German race, through whose territories they must have passed. Roving about in <|uest of settlements, sometimes to- gether, and sometimes separately, the two barbarian hosts, consisting of men, women, and children, had thrown all Gaul into consternation; and as the Romans had already colonised the portion of Gaul contiguous to the Alps, the duty of checking the savages devolved on them, the more especially as there was some danger that Italy would be invaded. But such a moving mass of human beings, driven by that hardest of forces, hunger, was not easily to be checked; and army after army sent by the Romans to oppose them had been shivered to pieces. All Italy began to tremble, and there was a universal cry among the Romans, ' Make Marius again consul.' Accordingly Marius was chosen consul a second time in his absence (b.c. 104), that he might drive back the Cimbri. Meanwhile the poor homeless creatures had made a general rush towards Spain ; and the Romans, to secure the services of Ma- rius when they should be required, re-elected him to the consulship in b. c. 103, and again in b. c. 102. In the latter year, when Marius was consul for the fourth time, the barbarians, repulsed from Spain, directed their march towards the Alps. Fortunately, they divided themselves into two masses — the Teutones taking one route, the Cimbri another. The former, amounting to about 300,000 men, were met by Marius, and slaughtered, all except 90,000, who were made prisoners, and sold as slaves. Meanwhile the Cimbri had been making progress in their route, and to oppose them, Marius was eiected to a fifth consulship (b.c. 101). Another bloody field, in which about 140,000 were slain, and 60,000 taken prisoners, delivered Italy from its fears. Strange and affecting thought, that half a million of human beings, men, women, and children, should be wandering through Europe for vears, poor outcasts, with their little carts and cooking- kettles, and that a civilised nation should have been compelled, by the necessity of self-preservation, to take means to sweep them out of existence ! Marius was rewarded for his exertions with a sixth consulship (b. c. 100), which, there being now no enemy t3 call forth his military activity, he employed in poli- tical schemes for the humiliation of the aristocratic or senatorial party, to which, both by the accident of birth and on principle, ho was a determined enemy. The efforts of the nobles, however, assisted by the violent conduct of the partisans of Marius, especially a tribune named Satuminus, occasioned a reaction ; and on the expiry of his consulship, Marius withdrew from Rome, and undertook a journey to the East, where thu Roman 105 OHAMBEBS^ IXfOBtUTIOX fOB VBB PEOPLS. iniuWM Wta MtmdiBg itwU: During tlw foUowing t«n yuM th« pollUiml h***"*" wtr» Jnc«i«nt, (h« Ubaral ipirlt of tli»t p»rty of which MmIiu wm the hMd devtloping itietfowiy jn* in fr«h mMiifetU- tioni. ud tho »riitoor»tio p»rtT bwwming orory ye»r moro fioKO and doggwl in thoir oppoiition. On the ariitooratic lide, tho ableit and moit earneit man, although not yet the moit diitinguiihed, waa Sulla— th« fomer qucBitor of Mariui, and who had lince boon •mpIoTod in rarioui oapacitiei both military and civil. At Ungth, in the year b.c. 90, a itorm which had been long gathering bunt out in that war which if deno- minated in hiiJory 'the Social or Mareic War,' or < the War of Italian Independence.' A* early ae the tribuneihip of Caiui Oracchui, a clamour had been raieed for the emancipation of the rarioui Italian itatei from the thraldom m which they were held by the Romane. The progreea of time weld- ing the various Italian nationalities into one common Moiety, and giving to all parti of the peuiniula a com- mon intereit, had made them leniible to the grievancei arising from their subordinate condition. The system of a triple franchise — Roman, Latin, and Italian — inevitable perhaps at first, had now become a source of gross injustice. To put an end to this injustice, the Italians demanded the full Roman franchise. Caius Gracchus wished to bestow it on them ; and from the time of his death, 'Italian emancipation' had been one of the watchwords of the liberal party. Despairing of effecting their end by agitation, and especially pro- voked by a recent persecution of the Italian tradesmen who had settled in Rome, the Italian nations had re- course to arms (b.c. 90). Ten of these — namely, the Pioeni, the Vestinians, the Marrucenians, the Marsiaus, the Pelignians, the Samuites, the Frentanians, the Hir- pinians, the Lucaniaus, and the Apuliaus, constituted themselves into a confederacy for the destruction of Rome, and the foundation of a new Commonwealth, of which Corfinium, under the new name of Italica, was to be the capital, and which was to embrace the whole peninsula. Fortunately for Rome, the Latins (includ- mg the various colonies of the Latin name throughout Italy), the Etruscans, the Umbriaus, and the Campa- nians, did not join the confederacy. The Latins were instantly rewarded with the Roman franchise, and the field was taken against the confederacy. During two years, the war was carried on vigorously on both sides, the most distinguished of the Roman generals being Marius, Sulla, and Cueius Pompeius Strabo. At length (b.c. 89), the Italians having been greatly reduced, and the whole peninsula having suffered much, the Romans saw fit to yield to demands which many even of those whose patriotism led them to fight against the allies believed to be just. The Roman citizenship was extended to all the nations of the peninsula south of the Po, the new citizens being either distributed, ac- cording to one account, among eight of the old tribes, or arranged, according to another, in fifteen new ones. At the same time the Latin franchise was conferred on the Gauls between the Po and the Alps. Sulla had gained greater distinction in the Marsic War than Marius, who was now verging on old age. The public eye was consequently turned to Sulla; and as, ou the appearance of the Cimbric hosts twenty years before, the Romans had placed their dependence on Marius, so now, on the breaking out of a war in the East, they placed their dependence on his younger rival. Mithridates VI., the young king of Pontus, an Oriental by birth, but of Greek education, and a man of splendid abilities, had been for some years silently extending his dominions in western Asia; and the Romans, long jealous of his movements, had at length openly >van.ed him to desist. Mithridates scouted the warning; marched through Asia Minor, putting the Romans to the sword; and was welcomed everywhere by the Asiatic Greeks as a deliverer from the Roman Toke: ultimately (b.c. 88), crossing over into Greece, he menaced the Empire nearer its centre. Sulla, then engaged with the Stvmnites, the last dregs of the Social War, was chosen consul, and invested with the com* roand against the Eastern monarch. He was then in the forty -ninth year of his atfe. Vexed at the pre- ference of his rival, the grim old Marius used all his efforts to have the appointment cancelled, and himself nominated to the Mithridatic command. His political opinions recommending him to many, and a tkibune namod Sulpicius having procured the passing of a pre- liminary measure distributing the new Italian citizens among all the old tribes, which had now attained the number of thirty-five, he at lensth carried his point, and Sulla was superseded. But the aristocratic general was not a man to be trifled with. Marching from the south of Italy, where he was when he heard the news, he appeared with his army before the city, forced his entrance through the rotten walls, dislodged his anta- gonists from the houses from which they were throwing stones and missiles at his men, and compelled Marius and his adherents to save their lives by a precipitate flight. Marius escaped to Africa; Sulla, after settling afiairs at Rome, set out for Greece. Here he speedily retrieved the Roman losses; sacked Athens, which had provoked him by its opposition; and reduced Archelaus, the general of Mithridates, to such extremities, that having crossed into Asia, Mithridates waa glad to con- clude a peace with him (b. c. 84), by which he renounced all he had gained, and agreed to pay the expenses of the war. Meanwhile a terrible reaction had occurred at Rome in Sulla's absence. Scarcely had he left the city (b. c. 87), when Lucius Cornelius Ciuna, one of the consuls whose appointment he had sanctioned, pro- claimed himself on the popular side, and commenced a series of measures directly opposed to Sulla's views. His colleague Octavius drove him from Rome, and the senate deposed him from the consulship. The Italians, however, gathered round Ciuna; Marius and his fel- low-exiles hearing of the movement, hastened back to Italy; all the able military men of the Marian party, and among them a young and eenerous commander named Sertorius, exerted themselves to raise troops; and at length the aristocratic party found themselves besieged in Rome. Famine and a pestilence began their ravages in the city; and the senate, reinstating Cinna in the consulship, capitulated on the understanding that blood should not be shed. But there was little softness in the nature of Marius. Admitted into the city, the stem old man, who was already tottering on the brink of the grave, revenged his wronp by a fright- ful massacre, in which many men of distinction fell. Marius then caused himself to be elected to a seventh consulship (b. c. 86), his colleague being Cinna. He enjoyed the unprecedented honour but a few da^s, dying on the 13th of January (b. c. 86), and Valerius Flaccus was named his successor. Flaccus, setting out with authority to supulur wmief w«r« de&Atad; Ma- riut killed himie >. . ^bo fl«d to Afriua; and Sulla NinaiiiMl master oi .' tMy. Fearful wae hie vengeance. The tuaisacre which luriui had ordered five yean before, wai ilight compared with the butcheries which took place by the commaud of Sulla. In Rome, and over all Italy, every man of distinction implicated in the popular movement was sought out and slain. Pro- scription lists, as they were called — that is, lists of doomed individuals — were published ; and soldien were ready to track them out for the prices put upon their heads. Military coloniei were likewise planted in all parts of Italy — ^lands being taken by force for that pur- pose : thus purging Italy of the Marian leaven, Sulla was resolved to create in it a new population, which should be pliant to aristocratic influence. The work of the soldier over, Sulla commenced that of the legislator. Appointed perpetual dictator u.c. 82, he coutinued for three yean to exercise the sovereignty, making alterations in the constitution, the general effect of which was to lessen the power of the people in political affairs, and reforming the criminal law. In B. c. 79, he surprised every one by abdicating the dic- tatorship, and retiring into private life ; and in the following year he died of a loathsome and incurable disorder, brought on by his debaucheries. Among other evidences of Sulla's literary accomplishments, he left memoin of his own life composed in Greek. POHPEV — CICERO — CAIILINI2 — CiGSAB. After the death of Sulla, the most distinguished man of the aristocratic party was Pompey, who had been engaged in reducing Sicily and Africa to allegiance after his chief had triumphed in Italy. Some attempts were made to revive the Marian cause after the dicta- tor's death, but by the exertions of Pompey and others they were suppressed, and only in Spain had the Marian party still a stronghold. There the brave Sertorius, at the head of the Marian refugees and the native Spaniards, wa« fast establishing a power likely to rival that of Italy. None of the SuUanian generals, not even Pompey, who went to Spain in n. c. 76, could gain an advantage when opposed to his splendid general- ship; and had he not perished by treachery (ii. c. 74), Spain would have become an instrument in his hande for overturning all that had been done by Sulla in Italy. Possibly even Spain might have superseded her sister peninsula as the seat of Roman power. But after the death of Sertorius, Lis army crumbled away; and, conquering his successor Perpenna, Pompey found the pacification of Spain an cosy task. Returning to Italy in the height of the reputation which the discharge of this office procured to him, he arrived (b. c. 71) in time to have some share in another war of a frightful cha- racter which had been desolating Italy in his absence. In the year B. c. 73, seventy gladiators, headed by a Thracian named Spartacus, had broken out of a school, or rather gladiator warehouse, at Capua, where they were kept in training; and, speedily joined by all the slaves and gladiators of the neighbourhood, they had taken up their position on Mount Vesuvius. Finding himself at the head of a large army, Spartacus had given battle to several Roman generals, and defeated them; and the conquering host which he commanded was on the point of crossing into Sicily, after ravaging Italy, when it was attacked and cut to pieces by the praetor Licinius Crassus (a. c. 71). Spartacus died fighting ; such of the gladiators and slaves as were taken prisoners were crucified, or impaled alive ; and the remnant which had escaped Crassue were met and destroyed in the north of Italy by Pompey, as he was returning from Spain. Pompey and Crcssus were chosen consuls for the year b. c. 70, the former being then in his thirty-sixth year. Although both were disciples of Sulla, yet, obeying the necessities of the time, they repealed several of his enactments, and paued various iueasures of a liberal tendency. Pompey was at this time the idol of Rome; and although after hli eonsuUiIp ha retired into privatt Uit, ha was soon called upou to axarciaa hie abilities in a post of graatar dignity and nsponsibility than had ever bean formally oonfarrad on any Roman before him. The Mediterranean was at that time infested with pirates, who had become so numerous and so audacious during the recent convulsions, that the coast of the Italian peninsuht itself was not safe from their attacks* and not a ship could sail from any port in the Roman dominions, even in the service of government, witltout the risk of being captured. To enable Pompey to free the Empire from this nuisance, he was invested (b.c. 67) with supreme command for three years over the whole Mediterranean and its coasts for 400 stadia in- land, with power to raise as many men and ships and as much money as he chose. Thus virtually made master of the Roman world, Pompey exerted himself so vigorously and judiciously, that within the short period of three months he had cleared the sea of every pirate vessel. That his command might not lie dormant for the remainder of the three years for which he had been appointed, a tribune of the people pro- posed and carried a law conferriug on him the addi- tional nommand of Pontus, Bithynia, and Armenia, in order to secure his services in finishing a war which was then going on with Mithridates. This was the third war with that monarch ; for there had been a second short war with him b.c. 83-81. The present war had originated in some overtures made by Ser- torius to Mithridates in b.c. 74; but Sertorius having died in the same year, Mithridates woe left to main- tain the war alone. The general sent to oppose him was Lucullus, who carried on the war very success- fully till Pompey came to supersede him. For four yean Pompey remained in Asia, breaking the power of Mithridates, and negotiating with the monarchs of Parthia, Armenia, &c. He traversed the greater part of Asia Minor, establishing the Roman influence; de- throned the king of Syria, and added it and Phoenicia to the number of the Roman provinces ; entered Pales- tine, where a civil war wag then raging between the brothen Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, declared in favour of the former, besieged and took Jerusalem, and having imposed a tribute on the Jews, commenced his march homewards. On his return through Asia Minor, h<3 found that Mithridates had in the meantime killed himself in despair; and as there was no one to take up that monarch's part, he was able to parcel out Asia Minor as he chose — erecting some portions into pro- vinces, and giving others in charge to tributary princes. With the glory of having thus subjugated and settled the East, the fortunate Pompey prepared to return to Rome in the year b.c. 62. Meanwhile Rome had been the scene of one of the most extraordinary attempts at revolution recurdcd in history — the famous conspiracy of Catiline. Nu pas- sage in Roman history is involved n •• tho flnt or»tor in Rome. Of plabeiM birth, it might h»Te bmn expected ih»t he would »tt*ch hlmielf to the deinoorntic lide ; but ciroumitMicei, uid hii uAtunJ diipoiition, which ^gi we»k, Mid fond of the contidentiun of others, h»d won him oyer to the ^ '■• of the oligarchy, to whom hit t'Uenti were inralual Hftring paned through the quaitonhip, edileihii id prtDtonhip, which lut he held B.C. 66, he now a. J to tho highest dignity in the state. Such was the leader of the oligarchical vmtty. The leader of the aristocratic party was Crassus, tbnnerly the colleague of I'oiupov in the consulship, and now bis personal rival. Uesides Crassus, the sena- tors had an active and most conscientious partisan in Marcus Porcius Cato, who had been tribune of the people — a great-grandson of Cato the Censor, and pos- sessed of all his integrity. The leader of tho third or Marian party was a man six years younger than Pora- fey or Cicero, and who, known during his youth for is accomplishments, his love of pleasure, his firmness of purpose, and the boundless generosity of his cha- racter, had just earned for himself the applauses of all Home by the lavish magnificence of nis edileship (B.C. 65). This was Caius Julius Ccesar, the greatest man that ever Rome produced. He was the son of a man who had died suddenly, without having made any figure in public life; his family was one of the noblest in Rome ; and his aunt had been the wife of Morius. Literature and pleasure had occupied his youth, and only now was he beginning to take an active part in public affairs, although with a force and earnestness which at once marked him out as a man who was to lead. With a chivalrous recklessness of consequences, he had done justice to his uncle's memory at a time when it was hardly safe to mention the name of Marius; and now the relics of the Marian party gathered round him with hope, while the oligarchy and aristocracy, with the presentiment of what he was to become, would fain have crushed him. Nine years older than Ciesar, and three years older than Cicero or Pompey, was the leader of the fourth or military faction — Lucius Sergius Catilina, more commonly called Catiline, a man of illustrious birth, and who had distinguished himself as one of the ablest and most ferocious officers of Sulln. His reputation, owing partly to his haggard ])ersonal appearance, and partly to vague rumours of horrible crimes which he had committed, was one of the black- est; and as he walked along tho streets with gigantic body, but hurried and uncertain step, men pointed, and •aid that that was Catiline. Yet he possessed extra- ordinatT abilities, and a peculiar power of fascinating those with whom he wished to establish a friendly rela- tion. He had already been pnctor (b.c. 67), and there was a large class, consisting principally of debauched young patricians and ruined military men, who looked forward eagerly to his election to the consulship. Prevented, by a charge of extortion brought Lgainst him in his capacity of praetor, from becoming a candi- date for the consulship of the year b.c. 65, Catiline came forward as candidate in the following year. Cicero was his rival ; and the senators mustered in ■uflicient strength to return the orator. Enraged at his defeat, Catiline began to plot a seditious movement with his patrician adherents, among whom were Leu- tulus, Cethegus, Coiparius, Statilius, &c. Rome, it was said, was to be set on fire, and the consuls and many of the senators murdered. Towards the end of the year (b.c. 64), these designs had become ripe, arid emissaries of Catiline were abroad throughout Italy. Meanwhile Cicero had obtained private intelligence of the conspiracy, and on the 8th of November he ad- dressed Catiline in such vehement terms in the senate- house, that the conspirator fled into Etruria, from which he continued to correspond with his accomplices in Rome. Having obtained satisfactory proofs of the guilt of these accomplices, and having been empowered by the senate to act as he chose for the good of the Joe state, Cloero eauMd Lsntulus, Cethegus, Statiliai, and Cseparius to be apprehended ; and these four, notwith- standing the motion of Ctesar for a more moderate punishment, were put to death in prison : Cicero's acti- vity had saved the Commonwealth. Catiline, however, who had raised troops in Etruria, continued to menace the state till the beginning of u.c. 62, when he and many of his patrician supporters died fighting like lions against the troops sent to destroy them. Thus the insane movement of the militarv faction was crushed : there remained, however, mucn of the Catilinarian leaven difiUsed through Italy — men of broken fortunes and profligate characters, to whom turmoil and riot aflforaed the only chance of promotion. TIIK TRIUMVIRATE — CABAR'b GALLIC WARS — WAR BETWEB.<« C.H9AR AND POMPET. When Pompey returned to Rome (b.c. 61), he found the senatorial party predominant, and Cicero inces- santly talking about tne Catilinarian conspiracy, and how he had crushed it. Pompey enjoyed a triumph more splendid than any conquering seneral had re- ceived Defore him ; and the sums which he added to the public treasury were enormous; yet he could not procure from the senate that general ratification of his measures in Asia to which ho thought himself entitled. Cato and other senators insisted on a full investisation of his measures one by one, ere the sanction whfeh ho required should be granted. This conduct on the part of the senators brought Pompey into closer connection with CiBsar; and these two eminent men, finding that they agreed in many of their views, and that at least they were at one in their opposition to the senate, re- solved to unite their forces so as to work for their com- mon ends with double strenj^h. For various reasons, it was found desirable to admit Crassus to this political partnership; and accordingly, in the vear b.c. 60, was formed that famous coalition for mutual support between Pompey, Crassus, and Csesar, which is known in Roman history by the name of the * First Triumvirate.' Elected to the consulship of the year b.c. 59, Csesar infliscd new life into Roman politics, proposing mea- sures of so liberal a nature, and persevering in them with such obstinacT, that the senate became almost frantic, and his colleague Bibulus shut himself up in his house for eight months in disgust. Among these measures was a ratification of Ponipey's proceedings in Asia, and an agrarian law for providing lands for Pompey 's disbanded soldiers and a number of destitute citizens. In the same year Coesar gave his daughter Julia in marriage to Pompey, who had already l)een married twice. On retiring Arom the consulship, he obtained, by an unusual stretch of generosity on the part of the grateful people and the intimidated senate, the supreme command for live years over the two Oauls (Cisalpine and Transalpine) and Illyricum. This was probably tho great object of Caesar's desires; at all events, it was the best possible thing which could have happened for him and the republic. Master of Gaul, and with an army devoted to his will, he could there mature his power silently and undisturbed, and qualify himself for entering, at the proper period, upon the career for which he was destined, and rescuing, by military force, the ill-governed Empire out of the hands of contending factions. The condition of aflTairs in Rome during Caesar's absence in Gaul was indeed such as to prove the necessity of some radical change in the system of the Commonwealth. All was confusion and violence. Clodius, a profligate relic of tho Catilinarian party, having been elec^ to the tribuneship of b.c. 58, pro- cured the banishment of Cicero for his conduct in tho aflair of the conspiracy. In the following year, how- ever, Clodius havin|; m the meantime made himself generally odious, Cicero was recalled. Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls for the year b.c. 55. Mindful of their connection with Caesar, who was of course in constant correspondence with them, they pro- cured a prolongation of his command over the Uauls BISTORT OF BOMI!. for » M"'»*P. nnonf whfch hto femoai itfonn of tho CaUndw dwMrTW MpMilia m«ntion,tk«r* won innainer»bla Mhemot which iMhiui pnrfwtwl for kimMlf. Md fonio of which ho would probnbly h»TO oioeutwi, h»d hii life not been oat thort. To ostond tho ltoin»n dominion in tho Xatt ; to drnin tho Pontint manhei ; to cat through tbo Iithmuf of Corinth; to prepare » complete ra»p of tho Ronnn Empire; to dnw up » new digeit of I(om»n Inw; to eftabliih public librariei in the metrnpolii — •aeh were n fow of the deiignt which thii great man entertained at the time when the coniptracy wm formed which led to hit atMMination. At the head of thii plot, which coniiited of about lixty ]i(trinna of note, were Brutai and Cauiui, both men of tlio highest nbilitiee, and eiteemed hj Cieiar; and the former at leaet actuated br motirci of the pureit character. The immediate occaiion of the coniptracy waa the rumour that Cnmr intended to accept tne title of king, which ■ome of hit adherenti were proMing upon him. When the plot waa matured ^b. c. 44), it wai reaoWed that Caeiar ahould be aaaaaainated in the lenate-houio on the idea ^the 15th) of March, on which dajr it waa understood a motion waa to be brought forward bj iome of hia frienda for appointing him king of Italjr. ' Upon the flrat onaet,' sajs Plutarch, ' thoae who were not prirj to the design were astonished, and their horror at the action waa so great, that thejr durst not fiy, nor assist Ctesar, nor so much aa apeak a word. But thoae who came prepared for the buainesa enclosed him on eret^ aide, with their naked daggera in their hands, and which waj soeror he turned he met with blows, antl aaw their aworda leTclled at hii face and eyea. Bmtua ffare him one stab in the groin. Some aay that he fought and resisted all the rest, an life, Tho Kmpire was now drvidod between Anton > and Octa- vianus, the former maater of the Eail, the latter of tho West. At length, however, political and private reaaont led to a rupture between the two potentate* (b.c. 33). The raah and pleaaure-lovlng Antony, who bad been caught in the toila of Cleopatra, the licontioni queen of F^ypt, and therefore on* of hi* aubjeet aover*igna a* master of the East, waa no match for the canning, ab- stemious, and remorseleaa Octavlanua. D«f*at*d at tho battle of Actium (2d September b.c. 81), h* fled with Cleopatra to Egrpt, where, being hard prea**d by Octa> vianus, they both died by their own hands. Oetavianu* thus remained sole master (n.c. 30) of the great Empire which Julius CsDsar had prenared for him; and under the new name of Augustus, he continued to wield the sovereignty during the long period of forty-four year* (it.c. 8U — A.D. 14). During these forty-four years, tho various races and nations which *o many centuries of conquest had connected together, became consolidated into that great historic entity—* The Roman Empir*.' CONDITION OF THB BMPIM UNDER AVOVSTVI. The Roman Empire under Augustus consisted of Italy and the following countries governed aa pro- vincea : — In Europe, Sicily, Sardinia, and the other islands in the west of the Mediterranean, Oaul as far as the Rhine, Spain, lUyricum, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, and the islands of tho JKgthn; in Aiia,n\l the countries between the Caspian Sea, the Parthian Empire, the Persian and Arabian Oulfa, the Mediterranean, and the Caiicaaus; aud in Africa, Mauritania, Numidia, the ancii nt territory of Carthage, Cyrene, and Esypt. Within theae limits ther* may have bsen included, in all, about 100,000,000 of human beings, of different races, complexions, language*, and degrees of civilisation. Not les* than one-ball of the whole number must h^ve been in a condition of slavery, and of the rtst, >y that amall proportion who, under the envied nnnK oi Roman cituena, inhabited Italy, or were diatvibiiled, in nfficial or other capacitie*, through the cities .)!' the E\u|>ire, enjoyed political inde- pendence. ThcHO 'dtizena,' diffbaed through the con- quered countries, constituted the ingredient by which the whole was kept in union. Working backwards and forwarda in the midst of the varioua popnlationa in which they were thus planted, the Romans aaaimilated them gradually to each other, till Celta, Spaniard*, Asiatics, &c. became more or less Romanised, Thi* process of assimilation was much facilitated by the cir- cumstance that, with the exception of Judea and other {lortions of the East, all the nations of the Roman Em- pire were polytheistic in their beliefs, so that there was no fundamental repugnance in this respect between V. : modes of thought of one nation and thoae of anothet. In fact, the Roman Em|[ <'■: may be defined a* a ONi- pulsory assemblage of polytheistic nations, in o I'er that Christianity might operate over a large (urfac ■ u. once of that polytheism which it waa to destroy and supersede. In the twenty-fifth year of the reint of Augustus, and while that prince vras ruling with un- disturbed sway over 100,000,000 of fellow-polytheists, there took place in that amall monotheistic comer of bis dominiona which lay os the aouthem border of the L«;vr.nt, ai> evrnt, the nxiportanee of which the wisest of t' e RomaiVi could not have foreseen. This was the y .... in an oIa. are Jewish town, of JeeuaChriat. From . '-.itt town, an ' .'rom that obacure comer of the vast Ro- .nan Empire, tm to proceed an influence which waa to <- /erapread the polytneiatic nations, eat out or diaaolve into itaelf all existing creeds and philosophies, and re- novate the thoughts, the habits, the whole constitution of mankind. Waiting for this influence, the various nations— Celti, Greeks, Spanisrdi, ftc— were lubnitted r:£ rosr Of HOME to 4li« pnllninwjr prMiVN of Romkn Inttltutloni, nodlfylDf, Mid In tome omm oh»n|ing, thtir nMWa eh»nMt«n. Th« MHtOTn hM of tho Enipiro, howtror, IumI boon too thoroughly Imprognated with th« < )reek •lenitnt to ylold OMlly to tno nowproMuro; Mid eordingly whiU tho L*tin UngUMo tpread among tti' 1>arb»nkni "f tha WMt, Oreek itill continued to l>« th« language it Eaat. Thii ileniarcation botwof < the wettom i>i ..ntin-ipoKhlng and the eaitorn or > .^k •jwaking portion* of the Kuipire became ezoveUiiifjl^ important «nerwardt. Of th!a raat empire Rome wai the metropolii, n(>« a eity of innumerable itreeti and bulldingf, and oonlu.: ing, it ii calculated, a population of about two millloni and a-hitif. From Itome made branched out in all directione leading to the other towni of Italy, and Sawing through tho rlUa-rtudded eetatei of the rich loman citiMiie. From the coattn of Italy, the Medi' terranean afforded an eaa/ accew to the varioui pro- Tinrei, by whofe in'luitry the metropolii and Italy it- Mif were in » . 'L»t leaiure lupported. The prortncei theTiieb-o* > < m 'f M parts of the Empire open to the ' .ril ai I u. ' ly funotionariee of goTemment. Jlty..i'\/ reviiiina at Home, the will of tno emperor Vibr 1. I r iijn a hivrarohy of intermediate tunc- tionoriei, ■ > >> to be felt throughout the whole of hit 4 nt dominion.'. In effect, thii will waa absolute. In > .iguituf, aa in Julias Ctesar, all the great oflicr* of ■tikte, which had so long subsisted aa mutual checks upon eich .)th«r, were united, so aa to confer on him powr nf t'lie most unlimited description. The senate ■till met, but only as a judicial body in cases of trea- ■on, or leg'ilatiTely to pass the decrees which Augustus had preriously matured with a few private counsollors; Mid the comitia were still held, but only to elect can- didates already nominated bv the emperor. In this ■ystem uf absolute dominion in the hands of a single indiridual, the RoroMis cheerfully acquiesced, partly from experience of the superior nature of the goreni- ment thus exercised to the wretched anarchy from which they had escaped, and partly in consequence of the hopelessness of roTolt against a man who hod the entire military force of the Empire at his disposal. In Rome and Italy, the public peace was preserred by the prmto. rian cohortt — bodies of soldiers of tried valour, to whom Augustus gave double pay. Throughout the provinces, thu people were kept m check by the regular troops, who were accumulated, however, principally in the frontier provinces of the Empire, where they might both maintain tranquillity among the recently. conquered populationa, and resist the attacks of the barbarian racea beyond. The provinces where military force waa required, Auguatus retained in hia own hands, admi- nistering them through legates appointed by himself, usually for several years; the others he intrusted to the senate, who named governors for a single year. The cities of the Empire were the centrea of Roman influence. It waa in them t)»at the Roman citizens were co'igf' rated, that school" were established, and t^At the various agenciea of civilisation operated movt uniformly. In the rustic populations of the provinces, the national individuality was preserved with the na- tional language. It was part of the policy of Augustus to found cities in the choicest situations in the provinces; and so rapid waa the spread of the Roman civilisation during his reign, that '-< -iioaM writers and orators of note began to be produc«>a erea ^it remote parts of the Empire. The Greek language Mid liti'rature began also to penetrate the provinces of the Wem, and to find students among the Celt* Mid I^paulards. TIIK SUCCUaOBS OF Al .ii'HWVH — Di -SEMINATION Of CHRIS- TIAMITV — DIVtuoA OF I'HK kMI'iaK. During a period of nearly three uenturM* »ft«i' the death of Augustus, the Empire remained, so liar ait po- litiotl arrangements were concerned, pretty neat ly as he had left it; and the history of Riome during these centuries is little more thMi an account of the personal (ipefevi. seem to hare haen speeimona of tho utmost doptavity to which human nature could attain; othsra were men of great mind, and worthy of their atation. At first, the Kmnire waa inherited as a birthright bv thosa who '■ould Pialm deacent from Auguatua; out in tho and, tlie r«!al patrons of the sovereign dignity were the »rini< ', ami fapiiflally the praetorian cohorts. To raise favourite g. m f* to the purple, and afterwards to a, ml«r them foi tl' ■'aka of the donations which it was . 'i»«,»>"mry to rn * in the cow* of a ii«w acoae* slot), l><" tlie pani me of the various amii- and sometliueB it >ia|ic«ij> ' that there were aevei, mcnbom at i distance from lUimo, and who, spending r lives in 'o camp, entertained no aifection for the y of the i-sars. M«iinwhile, under all the emnerui >iUke, thu rvat family of na- tions incorporated uiii the Roiu/tn rule were daily advancing towards that dition out of which modem society was to arise. Tli< reader, however, must inia> gine for himself the toil and bustle of the successive Senerations of Celts, Spaniards, Qreeki, I'ricans, and Lsiatics, who were bom and bii -ed duri' these three important centuries In which i dern iMiisation waa cradled: all that we can give li <> is ohronological list of the emperors during that i>«riod : ~~ AuinutiM, • • from . »,c to 14A.0 Tiberius, - • - |4 i.D, to 37 ... CallRiils, - - - • ... .TJ' .. 41 ... CIsudlua, • ... 11 M ... Nero, - - - • . ... M 8i ... Oalbit, Otho, Vltolliua, ■ ... fHI .. W ... 7B ... VaspuUn, • • ... 70 ■ Titui, • « ... 7» 81 ... Uomltian, • • ... 81 08 ... Nerva, • ... 88 , 88 ... Tri^tSD, ... 88 . 117 ... Hadrian, . ... 117 .. 1.18 ... Antoninus Pius, • • ... las ... 181 ... Harous Antoalnus, ■ ... ifli ... IM) ... Commodus, - • ... IHO ... 198 ... Pmrtinu, . ... 19.-1 Beptlmiu* Beverus, - ... 193 ... 11 ... Caraoslla, - ... 811 ... 17 ... llellogabalns, - ... 818 ... L"i8 ... Alexander Beverus, • ... 888 ... 1 't ... Julius Moximinus, • ... 838 ... !i. 1 ... Qordion, • . ... 838 ... »- 1 ... Philip, - ... 8« ... 84 ' ... Oecius, - ... 849 ... 8.'> ... Oollus, • ... SSI ... SA.'i ... Valerian and aolllenus, - ... 8S3 ... 880 ... Galllenus, - . - ... 8R1 ... 868 . Aurellus, - ... 868 ... 870 .. Aurelianiis, - ■ ■ ... 870 ... 87« . Taoltus, > • ... 878 ... 878 .. Florlan, • - ... 878 Probus, - - ... 878 ... 888 ... Carus, . - ... 888 ... 8H4 ... Diocletian and Moxtmlan, ... 884 ... 305 ... The only facta connected with the reigns of these emperors which need be noticed here are, that in the reign of Claudius, Britain was added to the Roman dominion; that under the great Trajan, the Empire waa still farther extended; and that under Caracalla, the Roman franchise was extended to all the free inhabi- tants of the Empire. The vices of such emperors as Caligula, Nero, Commodus, Caracalla, and Heliogabalus, may pass unnoticed^ as may also the military achieve- ments of some of ti e later emperors. The reign of Diocletian, however v \. d. 284-305), constitute an epoch in the history oi' the Empire. Finding the un- wieldy mass too great for the administration of a single individual, he divided it between himself and his col- league Maximian, assigning to Maximian the western or Latin-speaking nations, and retaining the East in his own hands. Under each emperor there waa to be a royal personage called Cseaar, who waa to govera part of that emperor's section of the Empire, and afterwards succeed him in the chief dignity. This arrangement did not last long; wd after yariooa subdiyiaiona of the in CHAMBERS'S DWOBMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. Empire, and itrumles between emperow and Cwwrf, the whole wa. reSnited under Con«tantlne the Great (A.D. 306-337). Under thia wmarkaWe man Chns- tianity wai eataUidied ae the rehrion of the Empire. Dunng the three centuriee wh oh had elapsed be- tween the crucifixion of Chrisv-which took place m the nineteenth year of the reign of Tibenus— and the ac- ceMion of Constantino to the supreme government of the whole Empire, the new religion had been silently but surely spreading itself; first among the Jews, then among the Greeks or eastern, and lastly among the Latin or western Gentiles. It had been subjected to numerous persecutions, some local, and others general, over the whole Empire; but had, nevertheless, made such progress, that it is calculated that in Constan- tino's reign about a twentieth part of the whole popu- lation of the Empire were professed Christians, while even over the nineteen-twcntieths who continued in polythr^isra, the indirect influence of Chridtianity had been immense. Led to embrace Christianity ** ' -uself, although with a . nsiderable tincture of poi. ! aistic superstition, Coustantine -'e his imperial reco,^. .ition to the already fullj -organised ecclesiastical system of the Christians, with ita churches, presbyters, bishops, and metropolitans. The civil ban havmg thus been removed from the profession of Christianity, it began to prevail in form, as it already did in fact, over the heterogeneous polytheism of the Empire. Another important act of Constantino's reign, be- sides his proclamation of toleration for Christianity (a.d. 321), was his removal of the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople. Not long after this was effected, Constantino died at the age of sixty, leaving the Empire divided among his three sons. One of them, Constantius, ultimately acquired the whole, and transmitted it to his successors; but in the year 395, Theodosius, one of these successors, effected a per- manent separation between the East and the West. From that date, the history of Rome divides itself into two distinct histories — that of the Western or Latin, and that of the Eastern or Greek empire. The latter protracted its existence till a.d. 1453, when Constan- tinople was taken by the Turks : the former crumbled to pieces much earlier, before the attacks of the northern barbarians, who finally destroyed it in 476. DOWNFALL OF THE WESTERN EHFIKE. From an earlv period, the Empire had been assailed on its northern frontier by the German and Sclavonian races living east of the Rhine and north of the Danube. Partly by force, and partly by negotiation, the autho- rities of the Empire had been able to keep these barba- rian populations in check ; but towards the end of the fourth century, the growing decrepitude of the Empire tempted invasion, and hordes of barbarians from Scan- dinavia, Russia, and Tartary, rolled themselves towards the Danube. At first, it seemed as if the eastern empire would be the first to fall before them; but the tide of invasion was at length decisively diverted towards the west. Province after province was torn away by Goths, Alans, lluns, Vandals, and others: Italy itself was ra- vaged several times; and at length, a.d. 476, Romulus Augustulus, the last sovereign, was dethroned, and Italy became a prey to the Germans. The various steps in this gradual disintegration of the Empire, the heroic deeds of the two chief agents in the dismemberment — Alaric, king of the Goths, and Attila, king of th>> 'I>..a — and the gradual formation of Ilomano-Genr .iiic kingdoms out of fragments of the shattered Romai society, cannot here be detailed. In the chaos into which the Western Er. pire was thrown by the Germanic invasions, three distinct ele- ments were discemrble — the old Roman or Romanised population ; the Ciiristian church ; and the freshly- inniaed German vitality. Hy the interaction of these three elements, modem European society has been evolved; and to trace this evolution in France, Eng- land, Spain, Italy, kc. is the object of the succeeding number — Tai History of thk Middle Aqes. 112 ROHAN LITElUTUKE. It has already been mentioned, that for the first £▼<> centuries of their existence as a people, the Romans possess' d no literature. A great and conquering nation, and inlieriting from their Etruscan progenitors a large share of the practical knowledge possessed by that singular people, it was not till they came in contact witb the Greeks that the Romans began to develop their faculties in literary compositions ; and then, as was natural, their first productions wcro translations from, or imitations of, Greek writers. Livius Andro- nicus and Cneius Noevius (d.c. 240), the earliest Roman poets, seem to have beeu copyists of the Greek; as were also Fabius Pictor and Cincius Alimentus, the first Roman annalists, and who lived during the Second Punic War. Between the Second Punio War, however (b.c. 202), and the dictatorship of SulU (b.c. 81), there arose a number of writers of no ordinary power, in whose hands thi Latin language acquired force and flexibility, and whose works illustrate the native charac- ter of the Romans. Among these should be mentioned Ennius, the father of Roman poetry; Plautus, his con- temporary, a man of rich comic genius; the elder Cato, the first prose writer of note ; and Terentius or Terence, a comic poet of a less rude style than Plautus, and whose first play was acted in the year b.c. 165. The period from the dictatorship of Sulla (b.c. 81) to the death of Augustus (a. d. 14) is the golden age of Roman literature. Then flourished Cicero, undoubtedly the greatest as well as the most voluminous of Roman prose authors, whose orations and philosophical dis- quisitions are still read with pleasure ; Ceesar, whose brief * Commentaries ' on his own campaigns are among the simplest and most compact of historical writings ; his friend Sallustius or Sallust (bom b.c. 68), who has left us spirited, if not unprejudiced, accounts of the Jugurthine War and the conspiracy of Catiline ; the didactic poet Lucretius ; his contemporary, Catullus, whose lyrical effusions are among the sweetest and most truly poetic things in the Latin language ; and, not to mention a host of others, Virgil and Horace, the two chief classic poets of the Augustan age — the former the author of the celebrated epic poem the ' ^neid,' and if not an original, at least a graceful and pathetic writer; and the latter a sagacious and good-humoured observer of mankind, and the author of many odes, satires, and epistles. Somewhat later were Livy, the great historian of Rome, in 142 books, only thirty-five of which, how- ever, have reached us ; and Ovid, who ranks second to none of the Roman poets for ease and elegance. Under the emperors, the Latin authors became more and more numerous, springing up in all parts of the Empire, and cultivating all depigments. Out of tho long list of authors intervening between the reign of Tiberius and that of Commodus, we may mention the poets Italius, Lucan, and Silius Italicus; Martial, the writer of epigrams; Seneca, the Stoic philosopher, put to death by Nero ; Quinctilian the rhetorician ; Pliny, the celebrated natural historian, who was killed a. d. 79 by the great et. .ption from Vesuvius which destroyed the city of Herculaneum ; Tacitus, the historian of the declining age of Rome; and Juvenal, whose satires re- veal too horribly the immorality of the society in the midst of which he lived. The host of petty rhetoricians, poets, &c. both Greek and Roman, who lived in the various cities of the Em- pire in the second, third, and fourth centuries, may bo passed over. During these centuries Christianity was overspreadiii 4 the Empire, and drinking up all the in- tellect and enthusiasm of the various nations; and no- thing more strikingly marks the decrepitude of poly- theism at that time, as compared with the freshness of the new religion, than the contrast between the miser- able verse-making, which seemed to be the only literary occupation practised in polytheistic circles, and the earnest and powerful writings of the Christian fathers on those great theological t«pics which concerned the Di^due nature and the everlasting destiuiei of man. HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. Undkb the title of (he Middle Ages is comprehended that period of histoiy which succeeded the destruction of the Roman western empire (see preceding sheet), And extended to the end of the fifteenth or beginning of the nzteenth century, when learning was rerived in Europe. This period of about eight hundred yean may be sud to dime ancient from modem times. The earlypoition of the middle ages is sometimes styled the Dark -Ages; for during this time the ancient ciTi> liaation of Rome, a bequest from Egypt and Greece, disappeared, and ancient institutions perished, without anyuung better being substituted. The middle ages altogether difito from any other period in history. They may be generally described as an era of unirersal dis- order, in which was maintained a struggle between force and reason. 0!d goremments were broken up, and new ones took their place, only to be dismembered in turn. Literature sunk into obscurity, and was con- fined to the cells of monks. Slavery was unirersal, and was modified alone by the benign influence of Chris- tianitT. Gradually, as it will be seen, nations assumed a settled character, arts were discovered, and for mili- tary turbulence were substituted peaceful institutions. M>\eh, therefore, as there is to deplore in the history of the middle ages, there is not a little to commend and be 0atefiil for. We must view these ages as being the cradle of modem civilisation, the era whence sprang much that we venerate in our institutions, much that distinguishes modem from ancient manners. THK KASTKRN EHPIIIK TO TBK IWKLFTH CENTURY. It is necessary to begin a history of the middle iues with a reference to the decline of the Roman Empire. This decline was caused by various circumstances, but chiefly by the weakened condition of society. Instead of rearing a respectable lower and middle class, the Roman aristocracy kept the mass of the people in slavery, so that at length society consisted of but a comparatively small number of privileged persons, including the military, and vast numbers of serfs or tlfv-d — the haogers-on of great men — and in efl^ct |>aupers. ' The freedom of the ancient world expired in the course of ages,' says Alison, 'from the small number of those who enjored its benefits. The ruling citizens became corrapted fbm the influence of pros- perity, or by the seductions of wealth; and no innuion of energy took place from the lower ranks to renovate their strength or supply their place.' Besides *lhis general, there was a special cause. In 931, Constabtine transferred the imperial abode from Reme to Bysan- (ium, a city situated en the Bo^horus, and afterwards No. 56. called Constantinople. In his endeavours to make tUi dty the seat of government, Constantino onl^ partially succeeded; for it generally happened after his day that there was one emperor iq. the East and another In the West, and not unfre^uently two or three diiierent indi- viduals in the provinoes, at the head of considerable military forces, chdming partial and even universal empire. Rome itself, and the countries of western Europe, were soon taken possession of by barbarous intraders, and lost all the characteristics and individu- ality of empire ; but Constantinople continued for a thousand years the abode of men who hau still the name of emperors, and reckoned themselves the de- scendants of the Csesars, althoueh they had long ceased to wield anything but the shadow of power. Con- stantino was himself instramental in dismembering his empire, having before his death divided it among no fewer than five individuals — namely, his three sons, Constantino, Constans, and Constantius, and his two nephews, Dalmatius and Annibalianus, both of whom bore in addition the surname of Csesar — a name still popular among a people who wished themselves to be considered Roman. Constantino II. soon fell a sacrifice to the cruelty and ambition of his brother Constans, who in his turn lost his life in attempting to quell a revolt among his subjects; and Constsmtius, the youngest of the sons, having found means to destroy the two Caesars, and five other cousins, and two uncles, found himself at an early period of life the undisputed master of the em- pire. He reigned twenty-four years, but left no monu- ments of goodness or of greatness, having wasted his time in the practice of vice, or in the equuly unprofit- able, if more innocent, emplojrment of disputing with bishops on the abstrusest points of doctrinal theology; while a host of enemies, apparently from every side of his dominions, were engaged in undemiining and lay- ing waste the empire. It was in the West that these attacks were first made, though perhaps it waa in tha East that they were fiei«est. Numberless and powerfiil barbarians now began to pour unceasingly upon Gaul, Spain, and latterly upon Italy itself, from the forests of the north, and in particular from those of Germany — a country whose inhabitants have been remarkable in the history of the world, both as having originated many of the greatest movements in society, and as having laid open more of the sources of human thought than any other people that could be named. The Franks, Saxons, Qoths, and Alemanni, devastated the fine countries watered by the Rhine, and so effectually severed them from the Empire, that from this period their history becomes wholly separate. At the same time the Sarmatians, Persians, Scytliians, and others, made dreadful incursions in the East. All that Con- staiiiius could do to stem this powerful tide was to raise his kinsman Julian, whom ho sumamed Csesar, to command in the anny. Julian had been early iustracted in the Christian religion, but he is not known to have ever given it any credit, although he has been often called apostate. He had imbibed the philosophy of Plato in the schools of Athens; and with this learning, with the elements of a great character in his mind, and with the models of Caesar, of Trajan, and of Marcus Antonmus in his eye, he formed the design, and seemed to have the ability, to raise up and consolidate the glories of the falling Empire, ilis victories over the Alemanni i«. Gaul, although they preserved the Empire, exciteilr«nly the envy of the emperor, and Constantius was about to de- pose him ih>m his command, when his own death saved nim from the ignominy to which the soldiery would certainly have subjeoted him for any attempt to da» Ha / OHAHBIBCrB nrfOBMAKIOK FOB THB PEOPLE. grade their faTOurite commander. Julian wai himMlf declared emperor by the army, and the people had lort both the poilw and the wiU to r<^. Unfortunately for hli fiune, Julian periehed in battle with the Per- only three yeare after hi» accewion. In that iiani abort period he had reformed manv abuiet in the itate; and though perwnaUy hoatile to the Chmtian religion, and though ha u«ed both anumenta and ridicule agabit it, he not only adrocated, but praotieed unirenal tole- ration. It i* creditable also to Julian, that in eitab- liahing the ancient orders of Roman priesthood, he wae at pains to niforee a strict morality in all the re- lations of life. He was succeeded, after the fall of ■ereral candidates, by Valentinian, whose father had been a soldier from the Danube. This emperor took for colleague his brother Valens, to whom he assigned Constantinople and the goTemment of the East. The jeign of Valens was signalised by the irruption into £urope of an enemy tiU then unknown to the Romans; these were the Hutu, a oonfederatioi. of Tartar tribes, ■ome of whom had obtained the aacendancr and control oTcr the rest, and led them on to inrade the nations of Europe, Their numbers and ferocity led the ancient writers to describe them in terms of consternation, which to modems, who are no strangers to Calmucs, Cossacks, Tartars, and other tribes of similar origin, appear sufficiently ludicrous. They never lived In houses, slept under trees, ate raw flesh, and were alto- gether superior in war even to the Goths, who were now in alliance with the Romans, and had b^un to relish the comforts of a settled life. They were, there- fore, driven away before the Huns, and were forced, in search of a home, to invade the Roman territory. Here they were opposed by the Emperor Valens; but they defeated his army, and made his own life a sacri- fice. He was succeeded by his nephew Gratian, who chose for his colleague Theodosius, a general of talents and celebrity. This emperor restoreid the confidence of his own army, and broke the power of the Goths, by hit skill and caution; and was the first of the emperors who practised the mode of dividing the barbarians against one another, by giving money to such of their tnbaa as he imagined would make lueful auxiliaries. This system, which the wealth of the emperors ^from their possession of all the maritime and trading cities) oiabled them long to use against their poorer enemies, often saved the Empire at the expense of its dignity; for though the money was given at first as a gratuity, it was sometimes demanded in times of weakness as a tribute. This Theodosius (commonly called the Great) was the first who made Christianity the established religion of the Empire (390). He procured a senatorial edict in favour of the Christians and their religion, sanctioned the destruction of the heathen temples, and forbade the performance of sacrifices, either in public or private. The Empire under this prince still pre- served its original extent; but he divided it between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius (394), and its parts were never afterwards reunited. From the death uf Theodosius II, (449) to the reign of Justinian (527), the Eastern Empire continued with- out any considerable alteration, though there were many changes and intrigues in the court and army. The reign of the latter prince is memorable on several accounts : it was under his auspices that a knowledge of the silk manufacture was first brought to Europe, where it gave employment to much ingenious industry (900), Justinian also caused certain eminent lawyers to prepare a code of laws, and an abridgment of law decisions, kc. called the Pandects, which were used by all his successors, and have been adopted as the basis of their laws by several countries of Europe. With the ■ingle exception of the Code de Napoleon, these form the only complete and perfect abstract of national law which anr government has given to it;, "sople (see No, 54). Whatever may have been Justinian's errors, his having projected this work, and procured so many able miniatora to execute it, must redound for ever to h.\~ honour. The tale&ti and Tirtaoi of his general fieli- 114 sarins regidned to the Empire Africa and great part of Italy, from the Vandals and Ostrogoths; this conauest, however, only prevented the latter region from being united under one oovemment, and has been the cause of its remaining a feeble and divided country ever since. In the reign of Tiberius shortly after (580), the people of Rome, though they intreated with great earnestness the aid and pity of the emperor, who now claimed to rule over them, were unable to obtain any relief, and remained distracted between their attachment to the ancient head of the Empire, and the claims of his enemies who occupied the rest of Italy, The next emperor who merits attention is Heradius (610), a native of Afiica, The Eastern Eqipiie had till now preserved its ancient boundaries in their full ex- tent, and was mistress of Carthage^ ^^pt, Syria, and Asia Minor, besides Greece, and the countries on the Danube. The Roman armies on the eaatem frontier had, however, been lately driven in by Chosroes, king of Persia, who now occupied all the north of Africa and Syria, This was the first great violation of their territory sustained by the emperors of Constantinople; and Heraulius aven^ it with a celerity and effect which ma<1e the Persians tremble. His triumph, bow- ever, was tiliort, for the latter part of his reign wM dis- turbed by the rise and victories of Mohammed. The suc- cessors of this signal impostor, after breaking the power of Persia (already weakened by i;he victories of Hera- dius), immediately attacked the Roman Empire; then defeated its armies in two battles, occupied all Syria, and obliged the emperor (now an old man) to retire to Constantinople, He died in 641. The continued victories of the followers of Mohammed (called Arabs or Saracens) soon deprived the Empire of Eg^t, Africa, and Syria; and in 668 they followed up their success by attacking Constantinople itself. The city sustained two sieges, m the first of which the S)^*- cens were encamped in its neighbourhood, and carried on the operations of a siege at intervals, for seven years; and in the second, for nearly two. In both the Sara- cens wasted immense resources inefifectually. The Empire had now lost all its provinces eastward of Mount Taurus, and the cities of Alexandria, Jeru- salem, and Antioch, were in the .hands of the Moham- medans. There was little further change in its condi- tion till the year 867, under the Emperor Basil, who gave new vigour both to the internal administration and to the military resources of the government. This prince, and his immediate predecessor Zimisces, made the Roman arms — for they still wished to be called Romans — respected on the Euphrates and Tigris, and asserted th'j ancient warlike reputation and boundiiaries of the Empire. They were now, however, deprived of the resources they had enjoyed in the secure possession of the great commercial cities of the Mediterranean — Alexandria, Carthage, Cwsarea, &c,; and the trade and revenues of those which remained were crippled and diminished, from the want of that free general inter- course which had existed when they were all under one government. Hence the armies were maintained with greater difficulty, and any victories that were gained could not be followed up with eifect. The early enemies of the Empire — the Goths, Vandals, and Huns — had now settled into civilised communities, and were no longer formidable. The foes with whom it contended latterly were the Bulgarians and Seljukian Turks; the former of whom were rather troublesouio than danger- ous, but the latter, who had succeeded the Saracens in the dominion of Asia, aimed at nothing short of the destruction of the Roman name. They succeeded at last by defeating and taking prisoner the Emperor Romanus Diogenes, in tearing away almoet the whole province of Asia Minor (1099); so that the emperors were now confined to their dominions in Europe, which, however, still formed a monarchy not much ■mailer than France or Spain. The manners of the court of Constantinople during 'auch of this period were dissolute and eorrupt. We ate told of one empctor who ordered a plate of humai* re no inded the iDger- insin the sd at mSTOBT OF THB MIDDLE A0E8. BOMf to be brought to hii table; another waa aocui< tomed to seize the deputies of cities whose tribute waa in arrear, and suspend them with their heads down- wards orer a slow fire; a third got up farces in mockery of the ceremonies of religion ; and, in general, the ap- pointment of officers, and even the succession to the Empire (where it waa not seized by some successful general), was in the hands of the women and eunuchs of the palace. The cities and, provinces gene»ll;jr ac- quiesced as to the choice of an emperor in the decision of the capital or army; this circumstance shows that the laws were attended to, and that there was a regular system of government, which was not much disturbed by the personal character of the reigning prince. The countries of Greece, however, which had formerly been tho seat of knowledge and the arts, were now sunk in ignorance; and the little learning that was cultivated in Athens was only scholastic divinity, or the pedantry of law and grammar. There ia no scholar, or philoso- pher, or poet of the empire of Constantinople who is generally known to posterity. A great change took place in the relations of the Empire after the eleventh century. It was still pressed by the Turks on the East, who now occupied Asia Minor, and were only separated from Constantinople by the Hellespont; while in Europe its territories were dis- turbed by the incursions of certain Norman adventurers who had settled iu Sicily. Against these enemies the Emperor Claudius Comnenus, an active prince, and full of resources, made all the rcLl^tance which his di- minished revenues allowed. He applied to the Chris- tian sovereigns of Europe to aid him in expelling the Mohammedans from the territories of the Empire, but above all, to drive out the Turks from the land of Judea, which they occupied and profaned, and where they harassed the Christian pilgruns who desired to visit the scenes of Scripture history. His appeal was received in Europe at a time when many concurring causes had brought the mass of the people to a state of uneasiness which at once foreboded and rendered necessary some extensive change in their condition. Countrymen of their own, pilgrims from the shrine of the tomb of Christ, had returned and filled them with hoi-ror by a recital of indignities which Turkish infidels were cast- ing on those scenes and subjects with which their own most sacred feelings were associated; and the result was that extraordinary outpouring of the inhabitants of Europe upon Asia, which has been termed the Cru- sades, and to which we shall afterwards advert. ABABIA — HOBAMMED — EMPIRE OF SHE SARACENS. It was not before the sixth century that Arabia be- came peculiarly remarkable in the history of the world. The wild Arabs, as they have been generally called, had already signalised themselves by incursions on the Empire of the East, when Mohammed was born, in the year 569 (some say, 671) of the Christian era at Mecca, the principal city of their country. He is said to have been descended from some great families; but it is cer- tain that his immediate progenitors were poor, and he had little education but what his own means and his own mind could give him. Yet this man became the founder of a great empire, and the fabricator of a reli- gion which has continued to our own day to affect greater numbers of mankind than Christianity itself. At an early period of lift, we are told, ' he retired to the desert, and pretended to hold conferences with the Angel Gabriel, who delivered to him, from time to time, portions of a sacred book or Koran, containing revelations of the will of the Supreme Being, and of the doctrines which he required his prophet (that is, Moham- med himself) to communicate to the world.' The Mo- hammedan religion, as the so-called revelations of this great impostor have since been designated, was a strange mixture of the superstitions of Arabia, the morality of Christ, and the rites of Judaism. It was to this happy mixture of tenets, usages, and traditions already exist- ing among his countrymen, and to the applicability of the precepta of the Koraa to all legal transactions and all the buaineaa of life, that Mohumned aaema to hftTO owed hia extiaordinaiy auooeas. Othera, indeed, have attributed thia to certain indulgencea idlowed ia the Koran; but in reality theae indulmncea exiatod before, and the book breathes upon the whole aiv austere apirit. Thia extraordinary work inculcated elevated notiona of the Divine nature and of moral dutiea : it taught that Qod'a will and power were conatantly exerted to- warda the happiness of His oreaturea, and that the duty of man waa to love his neighboura, assist the poor, pro- tect the injured, to be humane to inferior animals, and to pray seven times a day. It taught that, to revive the impression of those laws which God had engraven originally in the hearts of men. He had sent hia pro- phets upon earth— Abraham, Moses, Jesus Christ, uid Mohammed — the last, the greatest, to whom all the world should owe its conversion to the true religion. By producing the Koran in detached parcels, Mohammed had it in his power to solve all objections by new revela- tions. It waa only after he was well advanced in years that his doctrines began to be received. At first, indeed, they were so violently opposed by his fellow-citizens of Mecca, that the prophet was obliged to flee from the city to save his life. This event is called by his followers Jfegyra, or the Flight : it occurred in the 622d year of the Christian era; and they reckon dates from it aa we do from' the birth of Christ (see Chronoloot, Vol. I.). Mohammed took refuge in the city of Medina, and by the aid of his disciples there, he was soon able to return to Mecca at the head of an armed force. TUs enabled him to subdue those who would not be convinced; and henceforward he proceeded to make proselytes and sub- jects together, till at length, being master of all Arabia and of Syria, his numerous followers saluted him king (627). This extraordinary man died suddenly, rjid iu the midst of successes, at the age of sixty-one (632). Abubeker, hia father-in-law and succsssor, united and published the books of the Koran, and continued and extended the empire which Mohammed hod left him (see MOUAMHEDANISH, No. 76). A more powerful caliph (such waa the title given to this series of monarchs) was Omar, the successor of Abubeker (635). Barbarity, ferocity, and superstition seem to have been mingled and to have reached their height in the person of Omar. It was by his order that the most magnificent library of antiquity, that of Alex- andria, consisting of 700,000 volumes, was burned to ashes. The reason which he gave for this act ia worth preserving : — ' If these writings,' he said, ' agree with the Koran, they are useless, and need not be preserved; if they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed.' By himself and his generals this ferocious conqueror added' Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, Chal- dea, Egypt, Lybia, and Numidia, to his empire. Next came Otman, and then Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed himself. The name of Ali is still revered by Mussul- mans. His reigu was short, but glorious. ' After some internal troubles,' says Hallam, ' the Saracens won their way along the coast of Africa, as far as the pillars of Hercules, and a third province was irretrievably torn from the Greek empire. These Western conquests in- troduced them to fresh enemies, and ushered in more splendid successes. Encouraged by the disunion of the Visigoths [in Spain], and invited by treachery, Muza, the general of a master who sat beyond the opposite extremity of the Mediterranean Sea, passed over into Spain, and within about two years the name of Moham- med was invoked under the Pyreneans.' Nineteen caliphs of the race of Omar succeeded Ali, and after these came the dynasty of the Abassydes, de- scended by the male line from Mohammed. The second caliph of this race, named Almanzor, removed the seat of empire to Bagdad (762), and introduced learning and the culture of the sciences, which his successors continued to promote with zeal and liberality. This was some recompense for those indignities which had been cast upon literature by the brutal Omar. Perhaps the obligationa of modem Europe to Arabia at this time have been overstated; but it is not to be denied that 115 CHAMSEBffB INFOBMAHON FOB THE PEOPLE. €■ leaminK, almost totally excluded aad eitinct in Europe during the eighth and ninth centuries found an aaylum hew. It hai been matter of diipnte how the tartw of theae fierce Arabian, became thu. flrrt directed. They probably owed it to the Greek»; but it la certain that what they got they. returned with interest. We are ■aid to deriTO our present arithmetical figures from this itraDge people; and geometry, astronomy, and ^chemy were their farourite pursuits. The graces of light lite- rature were not neglected, as is shown by the One Thou- Mmd and One Ni|pits' Entertainments, a production of this period, which still continues to solace the hours of childhood and old age among ourselves, and attests the extent of fancy and the variety of genius among those that gave it birth. Haroun al Raschid, who flourished in the beginning of the ninth century, is celebrated as a second Augustus. He was contemporary with Charle- magne, and communications of a friendly nature are siJa to have passed between them. Within fifty years from the death of Mohammed, the Saracens had raised an empire, not only temporal, but also spiritual, more extensive and more powerful than what remained of the empire of Constantinople; and within a hundred, they had subdued not only Persia, Syria, Asia Minor, and Arabia, but also Egypt, North Africa, and Spain. It seemed, indeed, in the course of the eighth century, as if Asia and Europe both should yield to their victorious arms, and become one great Mohammedan dominion. But the mighty fabric, of mushroom growth, crumbled into dust with equal speed. After the fin>t extension of their conquests, they ceased to acknowledge any one head of their empire, and the successful generals of the provinces contented them- selves by paying a religious respect to the caliphs of Bagdat, as the successors of the prophet, while they retained the power of conquerors for themselves. In the year 73*2 they sustained a great defeat in France from Charles Martel, who became the father of an illustrious race of kings. No fewer than 375,000 Sara- cens are said to have been left dead on the field of this battle, and it is certain that they never after cherished the hope of subduing Europe. About the middle of the ninth century (U48), they projected the conquest of Italy, and even laid siege to Rome itself. But they were entirely repulsed by Pope Leo IV. ; their ships were dispersed by a storm, and their army cut to pieces. Spain .was the only European country in which they were able to obtain a permanent footing, and in it alone have they left traces of their existence. FBOX TUB DESTRUCTION OF ROME TO THK AOB OF ClIARLE- HAONE — ORIGIN OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. The Empire of the Ceesars fell in the West only by degrees, and the changes introduced by the northern tribes were gradual, though they proved great. Pro- vince after province yielded to the invaders; and before the end of the fifth century, every country in Europe had undergone extensive changes, and received / fresh accessions to the number of its inhabitants. The Visigoths had seated themselves in Spain, the Franks in Oaul, the Saxons in the Roman provinces of South Britain, the Huns in Pannonia, and the Ostrogoths in Italy and the adjacent provinces. And not only had | they been euablsd to take up their abode, but iu general they became masters, and changed the face of all that they touched: 'now governments, laws, languages; new manners, customs, dresses; new names of men and of countries, prevailed; and an almost total change took place in the state of Europe.' That change has been called a change from light to darkness, and it assuredly led to the extinction of that taste for literature and that regular administration of government which were the relieving features of the Roman despotism. ]]ut if it thus produced an immediate evil, it led to an ulti- mate good. The population was reinvigorated by the admixture of the new races, and from the fresli ele- ments it had acquired there sprung institutions which might bo considered as in many respects an improve- ment upon those that formerly prevailed. 116 It was out of these new drcnmstaaoes that what hai been called the Feudal System took its rise. This was a feature in society unknown in former ages. Hitherto men had been the slaves of individual masters, or, as in the more celebrated states of antiquity, they were bound together by the common tie of citizenship, and owed allegiance to none. Patriotism was their highest virtue, and all looked upon the state as a parent, to which, having got support from it, they were bound to give support in their turn. But in these times the rude inhabitants of the north had formed little or no concep- tion of what a state was, and at first they were not prepared to relinquish their much-cherished individual freedom in exchange for rights which they thought they did not need. Changes at length came over them; and society gradually took new forms. Those who had led them on to battle, began to be looked upon as their guardians in peace, Victorious armies, cantoned out into the countries which they had seized, continued arranged under their officers, each of whom had a sepa- rate territory allotted to him, on which he could retain and support his immediate followers, while the princi- pal leader had the largest ; and in this way all were bound in allegiance, both to their immediate superiors and to their chief, and all were in readiness to be called out to arms whenever their services were thought to be required. This 'military chieftainship,' infusing itself OS an element in the barbarian societies, was the first advance to anything like civil or social govern- ment since the extinction of the Roman power. Na- tions, indeed, were still far from having the advantage of a regular government. The method of conducting judicial proceedings, and of administering justice, was still peculiarly unsettled and uncertain. The autho- rity of the magistrate was so limited, and the inde- pendence assumed by Individuals so great, that they seldom admitted any umpire but the sword. It/was then that trial by ordeal became universal, and men's guilt or innocence was thought to be proved by the capacity of their bodies to withstand the influences of red-hot iron or boiling water applied to them, or by their overcoming their accuser in single combat. These observations are applicable, with scarcely any variation, to all the nations which settled in Europe during the fifth and sixth centuries. Speaking of this subject, Dr Robertson says — 'Though the barbarous nations which framed it [the Feudal System], settled in their new territories at different times, came from dif- ferent countries, spoke various languages, and were under the command of separate leaders, the 'eudal policy and laws were estabhshed, with little var'ation, m every kingdom of Europe. This amazing unifor- mity hath induced some authors to believe that all these nations, notwithstanding so many apparent cir- cumstances of distinction, were originally the same people. But it may be ascribed, with greater proba- bility, to the similar state of society and of man- ners to which they were accustomed in their native countries, and to the similar situation in which they found themselves on taking possession of their new domains,' We shall r.ow offer a few remarks respect- ing them individually. No people at this period exhibited a more energetic character than tho Fianks, a Teutonic race originally settled on the Lower Rhino and Weser, and who had acquired their name (freemen) while successfully re- sisting the Roman power iu an earlier age. About the year 486, they were under the rule of Clevis, who achieved the conquest of Gaul by the defeat of tho Roman governor, and afterwards added Burgundy and Aquitaine to his dominions — the former by marriage, and the latter by the forcible expulsion of the Visigoths. This may ue considered as the foundation of the French monarchy, Clovis adopted the Christian faith, and caused his people to follow his example. It is remark- able that while in war he exercised unlimited power over his subjects, they shared with him the legislative authority, meeting annually in the Champs dc Mars to suggest and delil^rate upon public measures, in the native they uew aspect- ergetic inally had ,ly re- ut the who of the y aud riage, igoths. ''rench and Imark- Jiower ative an to in tho raSTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 1 letttetnent of which the meaneit soldier had equally a Toice with hit aorereign. At the death of Clovis in fill, hii four sons dirided the kingdom, which was afterwards reunited, divided again, and again united, amidst scenes of tumult and bloodshed. The line of kings proceeding from Clovis ^called Merovignian from his grandsire Meroveua) dwindled in time into utter insignificance, while the chief power was wielded by an important officer, called the Mayor of the Palace. Among the most remarkable of these was Pepin Heristal, Duke of Austrasia, who ruled France for thirty years with great wisdom and good policy. His son, Charles Martel, who succeeded to his power, distinguished himself by that ereat vic- tory over the Saracens (a. d. 732), which checked their career in Europe. An appeal by Pepin le Bref, the son of Charles Martel, to the pope of Rome, whose authority had by this time become great, ruled that he wh- had the power should also have the title of king, and this put an end to the reign of the descendants of Clovis (762). Pepin remu- nerated the pope for this service by turning his arras against the Lombards in Italy, some of whose domi- nions he conferred upon the Holy See; and these, it is said, were the first of the temporal possessions of the church. Pepin died (768), leaving two sons, Carloraan and Charles, who succeeded him in the empire. Carlo- man died at an early period of life, but Charles (subse- quently Charlemagne) survived to achieve for himself a fame far greater than that of any other individual during the middle ages, with perhaps the single ex- ception of Mohammed. We shall proceed to speak of him and of his times, after making one or two observa- tions on some other European countries. Spain was among the earliest countries lost to the Roman Empire. From about the year 406, this country, in whole or in part, had been successively invaded and subdued by Suevi, Alans, Vandals, and Visigoths. The last-named people were in possession of the greater part of the country before the year 585, and erected a monarchy which existed till 712, when they were sub- dued by the Saracens or Moors. The Saracens made their descent on Spain from Africa, where Muza, li viceroy of the caliph of Bagdat, had already mode ex- tensive conquests. They easily overran Spain and van- quished Don Rodrigo, or Roderic, the last of the Gothi? kings. Abdallah, son of Muza, married the widow of Roderic, and the two nations entered into union. Be- fore the conclusion of the eighth century, Abdalrahman, one of the Moorish generals, had laid aside all temporal subjection to the caliph of Bagdat, and formed Spain into an independent kingdom. His residence was at Cordova, and this city became renowned as one of the most enlightened in Europe under several succeeding reigns. Those parts of Spain which were under the Moorish kings embraced also their religion. The northern provinces never owned their dominion. Towards the conclusion of the sixth century, Italy was in the possession of the Longobeards, or Lombards, who continued masters of the greater part of it for two centuries. Of their rule, history has recorded little besides murders aud confusion. It was during this period that the Saxon Heptarchy was formed in Britain (see No. 59). At the request of the pope, anid to discharge the obligations of his f*ther Pepin to the waste of blood. CIURLEMAONE — THE NEW WESTERN EMPIRE. By far the greatest character who appeared in Europe at this period was Charles, the son of Pepin le Bref, and known in history by the name of Charlemagne, or Charles the Great. * In the course of a reign of forty- five years,' says Mr Tytler, ' Charlemagne extended the limits of his empire beyond the Danube, subdued Dacia, Dalmatia, aud Istria, conquered and subiected all the barbarous tribes to the banks of the Vistula, made himself master of a great portion of Italy, and successfully encountered tho arms of the Saracens, the Huns, the Bulgarians, and the Saxons. His war with (he Saxons was of thirty gears' duration ; and their final conquest was not achieved without on inhuman holy see, Charlemagne, though allied by marriage to Desiderius, king of the Lombards, diraosaessed that prince of all his dominions, and put a final period to the Lombard dominion in Italy (774).' When Charlemagne made his first entry into Rome, he was crowned King of France and of the Lombards by Pope Adrian I.; aud afterwards, on a second visit, he was consecrated Emperor of the West by the hands of Pope Leo III. (800). He probably attached some im- portance to these rites ; but it is to be remarked that, as vet, the pontiff' was not in the enjoyment of that high influence by which he afterwards could confer or withdraw sovereignty at his pleasure. ' It is probable,' continues the authority above quoted, ' that had Charlemagne chosen Rome for his residence and seat of government, and at his death transmitted to his successor an undivided dominion, iLst great but fallen empire might have once more been restored to lustre and respect ; but Charlemagne had no fixed capital, and he divided, even in his lifetime, his domi- nions among his children (806).' Charlemagne died in the year 814, aged seventy-two. His last days were employed in consolidating, rather than extending, his empire, by the making of laws which have rendered his name famous, and his memory even blessed. * Though engaged in so many wars,' says Dr Russell, * Charle- magne was far from neglecting the arts of peace, the happiness of his subjects, or the cultivation of his own mind. Government, manners, religion, and letters, were his constant pursuits. He frequently convened the national assemblies for regulating the alfairs both of church and state. In those assemblies he proposed such, laws as he considered to be of public benefit, and allovved the same liberty to others; but of this liberty, indeed, it would have been difficult to deprive the French nobles, who hod been accustomed, from the foundation of the monarchy, to share the legislation with their sovereign. His attention extended even to the most distant corners of his empire, and to all ranks of men. He manifested a particular regard for the common people, and studied their ease and advantage. The same love of mankind led him to repair and form public roads ; to build bridges where necessary ; to make rivers navigable for the purposes of commerce; and to project that grand canal which would hare opened a communication between the German Ocean and the Black Sea, by uniting the Danube and the Rhine.' Amidst all his greatness, his personal habits were simple ; his dresu ivas of the plainest sort, and such even as to shame his own courtiers; his hours of study were set apart, and seldom omitted even in the busiest times of his life ; his daughters were taught spinning and housewifery, and his sons trained by him- self in all the accomplishments of the age. Charle- magne was fond of the company of learned men, and greatly encouraged their residency in his dominions. In this respect he resembled his contemporary Haroun al Raschid, so famous in Arabian history, and Alfred the Great, who appeared in England shortly after this period. Superior to all national prejudice, he elevated an Englishman named Alcuin to the head of his royal academy. He was zealous for the extension of Chris- tianity; and one of the few blots upon his name arises from his having, in the spirit of his age, cat sed 4000 Saxon prisoners to be beheaded in one day, because they would not submit to be baptized. Charlemagne established schools in the cathedrals and principal abbeys, for the teaching of writing, arithmetic, gram- mar, logic, and music. Of the sons of Charlemagne, Louis, the youngest, surnamed the JDebonnaire, or gentle, was the only one who survived. He succeeded to all his father's domi- nions, except Italy, which fell into the hands of Ber- nard, a grandson of Charlemagne. Louis, deficient in vigour of character, was unable to hold together the great empire left to him by his father. Having, among the first acts of his reign, given large portions of it to 117 OHAMBIBS'S nrFOBMATION FOB TBI PEOPLE. hk oUldran. the remainder of U« lift wm ipent in dii' graceful qiuneli with themi Mid »fte» hii de»th (840), the empire wm formally diTidod—Lothaire, hii eldeit ■on, obteining Lormine and Protence} while Chwlei the B»ld, » yoancer iod, continued MTereign of the weitem parts of France: and Louie became Icing of German/. Thue abruptly terminatei the hiitory of the Noond weitem empire. FBANOK FBOM IBB TIU OF CHARLES IBB BALD 10 IBB KLBrBina cbnidrt. During the reign of Charles the Bald, France Ant ■ufikred Aom the attaclcs of the Normans, a race of bold and needy adrenturen from the north of Europe. Their plundering invasions were continued for upwards of lerenty years; till at length (912) the Frenon Icing was compelled to purchase toeir amity by yielding to Rollo their leader the country afterwards from them called Normandy, of which Rouen was the capital. The first successor of Charles the Bald with whose name history has associated anything worth remembering, was Charles, surnamed the Fat (885). He was the son of that Louis to whom Germany had been before as- signed, and was thus enabled to bring that country and France for a short time once more under n single ruler. In the turbulence of the times Charles was soon deposed; and during the century which followed, France, ao lately the centre of an empire little !esB than that of Rome in the days of its Csesars, was split up conqaered England, when their leader, WUliam, Dnka of Normandy, became — as detailed in a subsequent number — the founder of an important dynasty. TBB OBBMAN EHFI&K IILL IBB BLBTERIH CBNTURY. Germany had no political existence till the time of Charlemagne, when it was formed by him into a port of the western empire. Towards the conclusion of the ninth century it became an empire of itself. In the year 887, Amuld, a natural son of Carloman, and nephew of Charles the Fat^ was declared emperor by an assembly of bishops and nobles. These assemblies in Germany always retained a voice in the election of their emperors ; and though they often made their ohcice from the line of succession, they nerer acknow- ledged auv hereditary riehts whatever. After the death of Arnold's son, called Louis III., their choice foil upon Conrad, Duke of Franconia (012). Conrad's successor was Henry I., surnamed the Fowler. He was a prince of great abilities, and introduced order and good government into the empire. 'He united the grandees and curbed their usurpations; built, embel- lish»'<, and fortified cities ; and enforced with great rigour the execution of the laws in the repression of all enormities. He had been consecrated by his own bidiops, and maintained no correspondence with the see of Rome. His son, Otho the Great, who succeeded him (988), united Italy to the Empire, and kept the popedom in complete subjection. He made Denmark tributary to l|l^ ' into a multitude of independencies, by noi)leB who would I I'^e imperial crown, annexed the crown of Bohemia to own only a very slender subjection to the Icings. Out his own dominions, and seemed to aim at a paramount of these nobles at lost sprang Hugh Capet (987), who was enabled, on the death of Louis V., to place himself on the throne. He was already possessed of great pro- perty, and proved to be aUo a prince of much abuity and penetration. He established the royal residence at Paris, which his predecessors had deserted, and became the founder of a family which, in one of its branches, occupied the throne of France till the over- throw of monarchy in 1848. He deserves to be men- tionetl with honour, as being among the first of European kings who trusted to prudence, counsel, and modera- tion, rather than force of arms, in ciTecting his purposes. On his death (996), in the flfly-seventh year of his age and the tenth of his reign, he was succeeded by his son Robert, who had all his father's equitable disposi- tion without his vigour of character. He was subjected to a degree of tyranny on the part of the church of which perhaps the history of the world does not afix)rd such another example. Robert had been guilty of marrying a cousin in the fourth degree without a dis. petuation from the Holy See — that is, without paying a fine for what was only an imaginary offence. Gregory v., who then occupied the pontificial chair, threatened to excommunicate Robert if he should not dismiss his wife, and, on Robert's refusal, actually did so, and laid all his dominions under an interdict. This punishment proveu tremendous in its effects; for though the king niraself showed sense and courage enough to despise the wrath of the pontiff, yet his subjects deserted him in terror. The priests, in consequence of the interdict, refused sacrament to the sick all over the country, and the dead Mrere everywhere lefl unburied, when moss was no longer aaid. In these circumstances the un- fortunate king submitted. A second marriage, con- tracted with the consent of the church, proved very unhappy. The new queen, Constantia, or Constance, made many efforts to embroil her husband and his family, and in the midst of these Robert died (1031). His son Henry succeeded, and it was during his reign that those pilgrimages to the Holy Land, which were io soon to end in the Crusades, took their rise. Of these we shall speak by themselves. In the meantime we take leave of France by mentioning that Henry's successor was Phiiip (1060), whose reign is remarkable as having witnessed the beginning of those contests with England which continued at intervals till the early part of the nineteenth century. At this period (1066) the Normans invaded and authority over all the sovereigns of Europe.' In these times the papacy was much disordered. ' Forraosus, twice excommunicated by Pope John VHI., had himself arrived at the triple crown. On his death, his rival, Pope Stephen VII., caused his body to be dug out of the grave, and after trial for bis crimes, con- demned it to be flung into the Tiber. The friends of Formosus fished up the corpse, and had interest to proo- cure the deposition of Stephen, who was strangled in prison. A succeeding pope, Sergius III., aguin dug up the ill-fated carcase, and once more threw it into the river. Two infamous women, Marosia and Theodora, managed the popedom for many years, and filled the chair of St Peter with their own gallants or their adul- terous offspring.' — Tytler. It was amidst this confusion and these disturbances that Otho waa induced to turn his arms on Italy. He shortly became master of it all, and had himself declared emperor by the Holy See, with all the pomp that had attended the same cere- mony to Charlemagne (962). Pope John XII., whom Otho had been the means of raising to the pontificial chair, rebelled soon after. Otho returned to Rome in fury, had John deposed, hanged one-half of the senate before he left the city, and wrung a solemn acknow- ledgment from an assembly of reluctant bishops, that the emperor had a right not only to nominate to vacant bishoprics, but also to elect the pope himself. Otho died (972), and wao followed in succession by Otho II., Otho III., St Henry, Conrad II., and Henry III., the history of whose reigns exhibits tiothing instructive, or upon which the mind can rest with pleasure. Henry IV. (1056) was a distinguished victim of papal tyranny. The celebrated Hildebrand, known as Gregory VII., was in this age the means of raising the power of the church to a height which it had never reached before. During Henry's contest with this daring and ambitious pontifij he made him twice his prisoner, and twice did the thunders of the Vatican excommunicate and depose him in consequence. As a specirjen of the power and insolence of this pope, we may mention that Henry, dispirited by the effect which his excommunication had upon his friends and followers, having resolved to go to Romo and ask absolution from Gregory in personj did so; and presenting himself as a humble penitent at the palace of St Peter, was there stripped of his robes, and obliged to remain in that condition, in an outer court, in the month of January (1077), barefooted, among snoW) and fasting, for three succenive days, i y g ti P a tl a tl HIBTORT OF THE UIDDLB AQB8. enry, nhad to go inoDi itent f hia in Ml loted, dayi, I * Won Im wm tUlvmi to iinnloM forgircneM for hii ' offoncM I On th« fourth dky he wm permitted to kin the tov of hii holineii, and then received abeolution I Henry died in 1106. ITALY FROM THE NINTH TO THE ELEVENTH CEMTUBV* The state of Italy daring thii period hae been already partialW noticed in the preceding lection. From the time of Lothaire, to whom it wai nominally aaeigned ae a leparatc kingdom (B43), to that of Otho the Oreat (964), the country was ravaged by contending tvrants. Between the invasions of the Normans rn the one hand, and the claims of the German emperors on the other, it became much distracted, and was ultimately split up into several independent states. Some of these, particularly Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Florence, became afterwards independent and powerful republics. It was during this per detail of these numerous and petty contentions need not detain us longer ; nor does the history of Spain assume any imiMrtanoe till towards the conclusion of the fifteenth century, when the united arms of Ferdinand and Isa- bella expelled the Moors for ever from the country. QXNEBAL STATE OF EDKOPE IN THE ELEVENTH CENTimY. Before the end of the tenth century, Europe had reached a point of darkness and degradation beyond which it seemed impossible to go. Though long nomi- nally converted to the Christian religion, the nations of Europe may be said to have scarcely exhibited, up to this period, a single distinctive mark of what men understand by Christian civilisation. * The barbarous nations,' says Dr Robertson, ' when converted to Chris- tianity, changed the object, not the spirit of their reli- gious worship. They endeavoured to conciliate the uvour of the true God by means not unlike to those which they had employed in order to appease their false deities. Instead of aspiring to sanctity and virtue, which alone can render men acceptable to the great Author of order and of excellence, they imagined that they satisfied every obligation of duty by a scru- pulous observance of external ceremonies. Religion, according to their conception of it, comprehended no- thing else; and the rites by which they persuaded Uieniselves that they should gain the favour of Heaven, were of such a nature as might have ' been expected from the rude ideas of the ages which devised and in- troduced them. They wetv aither so uumeaming as to be altogether anworthy of the Being to whose konoor they were consecrated, or so absurd as to be a disgraot to reason and humanity. Charlemagne in France, and Alfred the Great in England, endeavoured to dispel this darkness, and gave their subjects a short glimpse of light and knowledge. But the ignorance of the age wa4 too powerful for their efibrts and institutions. The darkness returned, and settled over Europe more thick: and heavy than before.' The clergr were the only body of men among whom any knowledge or learning now remained; and this superiority they employed to continue, if not to deepen, the degradation into which society had fallen. The superstitious belief that moral crimes could be expiated by presents to the Deity, if not originated by them, at least found them its stre- nuous defenders, for the reason that a gift to God meant, in plainer language, a toialium to the church. The priests would have made men believe that avarice was the t,rgt attribute of the Deity, and that the saints made a traffic of their influence with Heaven. Hence Clovis is said to have jocularly remarked, that ' though St Martin served his friends very well, he (dfo maide them pay well for his trouble.' Persons in the highest ranks and most exalted sta> tions could neither read nor write. Of the clergy themselves, many of them did not understand the Bre- viary which it was their duty to recite; and some of them, it is asserted, could scarcely read it. Those among the laity who had to express their assent in writing, did so by a sign of the cross attached to the document (sometimes also by a seal) ; and to this day, in consequence, we speak of signing a document when we subscribe our names. The evils of the feudal system, too, had by this time become excessive and insupportable. Every petty chief was a king in his own dominions, and lus vassals were his subjects, if indeed they should not be called slaves. These barons made laws of their own, held courts of their own, coined money in their own names, and levied war at their own pleasure against their ene< mies; and these enemies were not unfrequently their kings. Indeed the kings of these times can be looked upon in no other light than as superior lords, receiving a nominal and empty homage for lands which, in the fictitious language of feudal law, were said to be held of the crown. In these circumstances, what might we expect to be the condition of the great body of the people! They were either actual slaves, or exposed to so many miseries, arising from pillage and oppres- sion, that many of them mode a voluntary surrender of their lil>erty in exchange for bread and protection from the feudal lords. There wot no people, as that term is now understood. * There was nothing morally in com- mon,' says Guizot, 'between the lord and the serfs; they formed part of his domains, and were his pro- perty ; under which designation were comprised til the lights that we at present call rights of public sovereignty, as well as the privileges of private pro- perty; he having the right of giving laws, of imposing taxes, and of inflicting punishment, as well as that of disposing and selling. In fact, as between the lord and the labourers on his domain, there were no recog- nised laws, no guarantees, no society, at least so far as may be predicated of any state in which men are brought into contact.' In what way society rose above so many accumulated evils, and light sprang from so much darkness, we shall now endeavour to show. The most remarkable and the most lasting influence, beyond all question, was that exerted by THE CRUSADES. ' It is natural to the human mind,' says Dr Robert- son, ' to view those places which have been distinguished by bang the residence of any celebrated personage, or the scene of any great transaction, with some degree of delight and veneration. To this principle must be ascribed the superstitious devotion with which Chris- tians, from the earliest ages of the church, were accus- tomed to visit that country which the Almighty had 119 OHAHBBBM INfOBMAnOK VOR THl PKOFLE. Mleot«d M th« inheritanee of hit fliToiirite woplf . ud in which the Son of God h«l •ccompllriiod the redemp- tion of mukind. Ai thii dirtMt ftilgrimage conid not be performed without ooniider»ble expenee, fatigue, sod danger, it appeared the more meritoriouf, and came to be eonndered at an expiation for almoit erery crime. An opinion which ipread with rapidity oyer Europe about the cloee of the tenth \nd beginning of the elerenth oentuiy, and which gained unirenal credit, wonderfully augmented the number of credulous pil- grimf, and inoMied the ardour with which they under- took thii uMlen royage. The thouaand yean men- tioned by St John [Her. xx. 2, 3, 4] were luppoied to be accoropliilied, and the end of the world to be at hand. A general conatemation leized mankind; roanpr lelinquished their pouessions, and, abandoning their friendi and families, hurried with precipitation to the Holy Land, where they imagined that Christ would quickly appear to judge the world.* While Palestine continued subject to the caliphs, they had encouraged the resort of pilgrims to Jeru- salem, and considered this as a beneficial (.pecies of commerce, which brought into their dominions gold and silyer, and carried nothing out of them but relics and consecrated trinkets. But the Turks haying con- quered Syria about the middle of the eleyenth century, pilgrims were exposed to outrages of every kind from these fierce barbarians. This change happening pre- cisely at the juncture when the panic terror which I haye menticjied rendered pilgrimages most frequent, filled Europe with alarm and indignation. Eyery per- son who returned from Palestine related the dangers which he had encountered in visiting the holy city, mud described with exaggeration the cruelty and rela- tions of the infidel Turks.' Among the most notorious of those who had returned with these accounts, was a monk known by the name of Peter the Hermit. By all accounts this individual •eems to hare been a weak-minded and contemptible being. He is represented as running from city to citT, and from kingdom to kingdom, bareheaded, with naked arms and legs, and bearing aloft a ponderous crucifix in his hand, imploring and preaching with an enthuciastic madness on the neceusity of wresting the Holy Land from the hands of the infidels. In a more enlightened age, Peter the Hermit would probably have been confined as a troublesome lunatic ; in this, however, ha was not only allowed to go on, but encouraged and abetted in his career. The ambitious Hildebrande had expressed a strong desire to send armed forces from Eu- rope to exterminate the Mohammedans from Palestine, in order that another country might be brought under his spiritual subjection ; and Urban II., who at this time occupied the chair of St Peter, warmly seconded the efforts of the enthusiastic monk. Nor was Peter's suc- cess small. Vast multitudes proclaimed themselves ready to engage in the undertaking. Two great coun- cils of the church, one of them held at Placentia, and the other at Clermont, in Auvergne, attended by prelates, princes, and immense multitudes of the common people, declared enthusiastically for the war (1095). The pope himself attended at the last, and Peter and he having both addressed the multitude, they all exclaimed, as if impelled by an immediate inspiration, ' It is the will of God t it is the will of God 1' These words were thought ■o remarkable, that they were afterwards employed as the motto on the sacred standard, and came to oe looked upon as the signal of battle and of rendezvous in all the future exploits of the champions of the cross. Persons of all ranks now flew to arms with the utmost ardour. The remission of penance, the dispensation from those practices which superstition imposed or suspended at pleasure, the absolution of all sins, and the assurance of * Mr Hallam mentions, ■■ corroborati fe of this general belief, that oharten at this period niually oommenoed with these words : ' As the world is now drawing to its close ;' and that an army, marching under the Emperor Otho I., was m> tenrlfled by an eclipse of the sun, whiofa It conceived to announce this oonsum- nutthm, OS to disperse hasUIy on all sides. 12U etamid felicity, were the rewaidt held out by the church to all who joined the enterprise : and ' to the more vulgar oiasa,* says Mr Hallam, * were held out induce- ments which, thoagh absorbed in the orerruling fana- ticism of the first Crusade, might be exceedingly efficacious when it began to flag. During the time that a Crusadei' bore the cross, he was free from suits for hit debts, and the interest of them was entirely abolished; he was exempted, in some instances at least, from taxes, and placed under the protection ef the church, so that he could not be implesided in any ciril court,, except in criminal charges or questions relating to land.' It was in the sprmg of the year 1096 that Peter set out for Judea, at the head of a promiscuous as- sembUge of 80,000 men, with sandals on his feet, a rope about his waist, and erery other mark of monkish austerity. Soon after, a more numerous and better disciplined force of 200,000 followed, including some able and experienced leaders. Godfrey of Bouillon, Robert, Duke of Normandy (son of William the Con- queror of England), the Counts of Vermendois, Toulouse, and Blois, are a few of the more illustrious. The pro- gress of this immense mass of human beings on their journey was marked by misery and famine. They had vainly trusted to Heaven for a supernatural supply of their wants, and in their disappointment they plundered all that came in their way. * So many crimes and so much misety,' says Mr Hallam, ' have seldom been accumulated in so short a space, as in the three years of the first expedition ; ' and another historian says, that a 'fresh su]iply of German and Italian vagabonds,' received on the way, were even guilty of pillaging the churches. It is certain that before the hermit reached Constantinople, the number of his forces had dwindled down to 20,000. Alexia Comnenus, then emperor of Constantinople, who had applied to the states of Europe for assistance, without much hope of obtaining it, in order that he might be enabled to resist a threatened attack by the Turks upon himself, was surprised and terrified at the motley group of adventurers who hod now reached the shore of his dominions. He readily afforded them the means of transporting themselves ivcross the Bosphorus, and performed the same friendly office to the larger force which followed under Godfrey and others; glad, apparently, to have the barbarians of the north, as his subjects called them, out of his domi- nions. The Sultan Solyman met the army of the her- mit, if army it could be called, and cut the greater part of it to pieces on the plains of Nicea. The second nost proved more successful. In spite of their want of disci- pline, their ignorance af the couutty, the scarcity of provisions, and the excess of fatigue, their zeal, their bravery, and their irresistible force, en;.,bled them twice to overthrow old Solyman, to take his capital Nice, and after an obstinate resistance, the city of Antioch also (1098). At length (1099) they reached Jerusalem, much diminished in numbers, and broken in spirit ; but with persevering assiduity they proceeded to lay siege to the city, and in six weeks they became its masters. Their cruel conduct to the inhabitants attests the barbarous feelings of their hearts. ' Neither arms defended the valiant, nor submission the timorous; no age nor sex was spared ; infants on the breast were pierced by the same blow with their mothers, who im- plored for mercy; even a multitude of ten thousand persons, who had surrendered themselves prisoners and were promised quarter, were butchered in cold blood by these ferocious conquerors. The streets of Jerusalem were covered with dead bodies. The triumphant war- riors, after every enemy was subdued and slaughtered, turned themselves, with the sentiments of humiliation and contrition, towards the holy sepulchre. They threw aside their arms, still streaming with blood; they ad- vanced with reclined bodies and naked feet and heads to that sacred monument; they sung anthems to Him who had purchased their salvation by His death and iwony; and their devotion, enlivened by the presence of the place where He had suffered, to overcame their fury, that they diuolred iu tears, and bore the appear- N HISTORY OF TOE MIDDLB AOI». MM of ctny Mft and tondw Mntiment. So incon- ■ittent !■ human nature with itaelf, and lo eaaily doM the moet effeminate lupentition ally both with the most beroio conrafe and with the fiercest barbarity I' With a becoming foresight, the Crusaders established a Christian kingdom in the heart of Palestine; and at the head of it, by universal consent, was pla<--ed God- frey, whose sooduess and justice had signalised him, and gained nim respect in the midst of the general wickedness. The pope, however, was too easer to enjoy the triumph to which he had looked forward, and send- ing in ignorant and obtruding ecclesiastic to assume this command, Godfrey retired; and thus was lost un- doubtedly the best chanco that Europeans ever had of really possessing the Holy Land. The Turks had now time to recover their strength and renew their attacks : they did so: many of the Crusaders bad in the mean- time returned home, and those of them who remained, surrounded and menaced by such foes, at last implored aid from Christendom. There the spirit which had been raised by Peter the Hermit was far from being extinguished ; and another, more eloquent and more learned than Peter — namely, St Bernard — had arisen to keep alive the flame of devotion. Housed by his preach- ings, Europe sent forth a second Crusade (1147). It consisted of 200,000 French, Germans, and English, in two divisions, the first led on by Conrad III. of Ger- many, and the second by Louis VII. of France. Strangely enough, both these leaders permitted them- selver to be drawn into a snare by false guides, fur- nished by the Greek emperor ; and both armies, one after another, were withdrawn amidst the roclis of Laodicea, and after being nearly starved by famine, they were cut to pieces by the Sultan of Iconium. This Crusade proved the most disastrous of them all. * Thousands of ruined families,' says Russell, ' ex- claimed against St Bernard for his deluding prophecies: he excused himself by the example of Moses, who, like him, he said, had promised to conduct the Israelites into a happy country, and yet saw the first generation [lerish in the desert.' It was shortly aftor this period that the illustrious Saladin appeared (1180). Born among an obscure Turkish tribe, this individual fixed himself by his bravery and conduct on the throne of Egypt, and began to extend his conquests in the East. The still existing, though wretchedly-supported kingdom of the Christians in Palestine, proving an obstacle to the procrcss of his anns, Saladin directed his power against it, and as- sisted by the treachery of the Count of Tripoli, he com- pletely overcame the Christians in battle (1187). The noly city itself fell into his hands after a feeble resist- ance ; and except some cities on the coast, nothing remained to the Christians of all that, a century before, it had cost Europe so much to acquire. The followers ef the cross . however, were not yet wholly disheartened ; and a third great Crusade was entered mto before the end of the twelfth century. The three greatest sovereigns of Europe — Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard Coeur de Lion of England — all took part in the scheme. The forces of Frederick were earliest in the field. He had passed through the unfriendly territories of tlie Greek empire, crossed the Hellespont, and defeated the infidels in several battles, before Richard or Philip had stirred from home. The Chris- tians of the East were beginning to look with hope and pride on so great assistance; but they seemed fated to be unfortunate. Frederick died (1190) from having thrown his body, heated by exertion, into the cold river of Cydnus ; and his army, like the others that had gone before it, dwindled into nothing. The united armies of Richard and Philip followed. In their pro- gress, the feelings of envy and national hatred rose above the object which hod brought them together. Philip returned, disgusted or dismayed, shortly alter they reached their destination ; and Richard was thus left alone to uphold the glory of European anns. He did it nobly. With a mixed army of French, German, and English loldiers, amounting in all to !)0,000, Richard performed feats of valour which have not been surpaMsd in the history of any time or nation. On the plams of Asealon, a tremendous battle wai fought with Saladin, and that brave and great man was defeated, and 40,000 of his soldiers are said to have been left dead upon the field of battle. But (**' conquest was unavailing, and the followers of Rich ^gan te fear that there would be no end to their ...ug^les. The zeal which had brought so many of them trom their homes, and sustained them so long in abaenoe, at last abated. Saladin readily concluded a treaty by which Christians might still be permitted to visit the tomb of Christ unmolested, and Richard left the Holy Land for ever. It is due to the memory of Saladin (who did not long survive this period) to state that, after he made himself master of Jerusalem, he never molested the Christians in their devotions — a circumstance which, by contrast, reflects infinite disgrace on the cruel barba- rities of the first Crusaders. In his last will he ordered alms to be distributed among the poor, without distinc- tion of Jew, Christian, or Mohammedan ; intending by this bequest to intimate that all men are brethren, and that when we would assist them, we ought not to in- quire what they believe, but what they feel — an admir- able lesson to Christians, though from a Mohammedan, But the advantages in science, in moderation, and humanity, seem at this period to have been all on the side of the Saracens. There were no more great Crusades. Considerable bands of private adventurers still continued to move eastward ; but disaster and disgrace attended every efibrt, and Europe at last became disheartened when the bones of two millions of her sous lay whitened on the plains of Asia, and so little had been accomplished, Nevertheless, in the year 1202, Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was able to raise another consideiabl* army for the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre; but having reached Constantinople at a timn when there was a dispute in the succession to the throne, he readily laid aside the project of the Crusade, took part in the quar- rel, and in the course of five months he was himself the emperor. The citizens of Venice in Italy, who had lent their vessels for this enterprise, shared iu the triumphs of the piratical Crusaders : they obtained the Isle of Candia, or Crete. Baldwin, however, was soon driven from the throne, and murdered; though the Latins, as his successors from the West were called, kept posses- sion of Constantinople for fifty-seven years. At this period (1227) agreat revolution took place in Asia. Ghenghis Khan, at the head of a body of Tartars, broke down from the north upon Persia and Syria, and massacred indiscriminately Turks, Jews, and Christians, who opposed them. The European settlements in Pales- tine must soon have yielded to these invaders, had not their fate been for awhile retarded by the last attenpt at a Crusade under Louis IX. of France. This prince, summoned, as he believed, by Heaven, after four years' preparation set out for the Holy Land with his queen, his three brothers, and all the knights of France (1248). His arm}' began their enterprise, and we may say ended it also, by an unsuccessful attack on Egypt, The king went home, and reigned prosperously and wisely for thirteen years; but the same frenzy again taking (tos- session of him, he embarked on f» Crusade against the Moors in Africa, where his army was destroyed by a pestilence, and he himself became its victim (1270), Before the end of the thirteenth century (1291) the Christians were driven out of all their Asiatic posses- sions, ' The only common enterpriie,' says Robertson, ' iu which the European nations were engaged, and which they all undertook with equal ardour, remains a singular monument of human folly,' INSTITUTION OF CHIVALBT — STATE OF KUBOPE DUKINa AND AFTER THE CRUSADES. Among the most remarkable institutions of the middle ages was that of Chivalry. The institution was certainly not the result of caprice, nor a source of 121 OHAltBSHra nriOBlCATIOK fOR IBM PEOPLE. ttttmiiadntmTacUM, •• U hw bm wprMWiW, bul •n tSbrt of hunuui nrtuw 4o npnm Ito ft*""!*, «f loTt, honour, uid bwierolono^ »* » »l^ ""^ H*? "^ of llbortT WM oitingulihid, wid religion had become debMMl. The fiiudAl ittte wm • •»«*«^»f perpeiu^ WW, nplDe» Md wiMohy. during which ibewe^ •«»« unumii WW often e.poied to Injuries Public pro- teotlT* Uw •c.wely hi>d ««> exlilence; Mid in thoM oiNumetMOM MdeUnoe came ofteneet »nd moit enec- tUAllT fVom the wmi of private friendi. It wm the tftine feeling of courage, united to » itrong eeue of duty, which both g»Te riie to ohiralry, uid led tuch multitudee to Join the CruMdee. Chivalry esieted be- fyn them. Mid it lurrlTed them. Thow who deroted themMlTM to » life of chiTklry were called knighti, and ■ometimef knight-errantt, in alluiion to their nabiti of wandering fW>m one country to another in learoh of helpleee objecta, which their generosity might find a Sleaeure in relieving and defending. Admiulon to it order of knighthood wai long reckoned an honour of the higheet tort; and to fulfil the towi which entrantf took upon them might well be considered so. They were bound, • by God, by St Michael, and St Oeoige,' to be loyal, brave, and hardy; to protect the hinocent, to ndress the injuries of the wronged; and, above all, to uphold and defend the characters of women. The institution of chivalry is sometimes thought to have thrown an air of ridioulousi ess upon eveiything connected with the aofler sex, and some of the vagaries of knight-errantry gave sufficient counte- nance to such a supposition ; but on the whole we are bound to rate its Neneficial influences in elevating the female character high indeed, when we contrast the gross and grovelling situation held by the sex in former times with ih<3 high and virtuous emotions that we hare learned to aasociate in modem times with the name of woman. If the whole of this effect is not to be ascribed to chivalry, not a little of it must certainly be so; nor do its beneficial effects end here. The feelings of honour, oourtesv, and humanity, which distinguished it, spread themselves into other parts of conduct. War, in par- ticular, was conducted with less ferocity, and humanity came to be deemed as necessary to an accomplished soldier as courage. The idea of a gentleman is wholly the production of chivalry; and during the twelfth, thirteeath, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries, a sense of honour and a refinement of manners towards ene- miee sprung up, which have extended to modem times, and form a distinguishing feature of them. The history of the Crusades has carried us over nearly two centuries of the history of Europe. But Europe might be said, almost without exaggeration, to have been then in Asia. It was certainly not the scene of any transaction of importance during all that period. The numerous quarrels, both public and private, which had before agitated the several countries, and had con- stituted all toeir history, gave way, by mutual consent, as well as by the orders of the church, to the one idea which then reigned supreme among them. Society was thus unconsciously the means of permitting some of those powerful and pacific principles to come into play, which were soon to give it a new destiny. The absence of so many greivt barons during the time of the Cru- sades, was a means of enabling the common people, who had hitherto lived as their slaves, to raise themselves in public standing and estimation; while the possessions of many of these barons, by sale or the death of their owners without heirs, reverted to the sovereigns. In this way the power of the people and of royalty ad- vanced together, and both at the expense of the class of nobility. The people were not unwilling to exchange the mastery of inferiors for that of a superior; and the kings, on their part, looked on this rising power of the people with pleasure, as it offered a shield to protect them from the msolenoe of the nobles. In these circumstances boroughs began to flourish. This was a new element in the progress of civilisation. Men who had hitherto skulked ia castles, and had sacrificed their liberties and their lives for bread and protMtion from Uolatad ohitA, 132 now found thai, br a union among thamtelvM, tkajr might seottie bread by industry, and proteolion and liberty by mutual aid. Multitudes, thmfore, fonook their feudal subsarrienoe to aqjoy indsp«nd«nt oitism- ship. Villeins, or laboureit, Jonkilly eaoapad, to take their plaoe on a footing of equality with iraemen; and sovereigns found means to pass a law that, if a sLaTt should take refuge in any of the now dties, and ba allowed to remain there unclaimed for a twelvemonth, he had thereby become free, and was henoaforth a member of the oommunity. Another imprortment which kings were able to introduoe about this time was the gradual abolition of minor courts of justice, whioh barons had previously held in their several domains, and their getting public and universal law administered by judges of their own appointment. Even single com- bat, the practice most inveterately adluivd to of any among the ancient nobles, became less fk«quent and leas honourable. The more revolting and absani fe»> turos of it were wholly abolished, though the great ab- surdity, and indeed the great crime itself, cannot ba said to have become totally extiLot, even up to our own day, when we recollect that the barbarous practice of duelling is still permitted to exbt. The effect, however, produced by the Crusades, whioh proved greatest in its consequences, though perhaps it was the most unlocked for at the time, was the rise of commerce. The first of thesf< expeditions had journeyed to Constantinople by laud; but the suffinings were so freat, that all the rest were induced to go by sea. The talian cities of Venice, Qenoa, and Pisa, furnished the vessels which conveyed them ; and the sums of money obtained for the freight of so many and so great armies were immense. This, however, was but a small part of what the Italian citizens gained by the expeditions to the Holy Land. The Crusaders contracted with them for military stores and provisions; and any of the Asiatic possessions of value, which came temporarily into the hands of the Christians, became emporiums of commerce for them. The sweet reward of labour was thus first felt for ages in Europe. New arts wer« brought from the East, and many of those natural pro- ductions of the warmer climates were first 'iUt;''.)duoed into the West, which have since aflTorded tL( i e,terials of a lucrative and extended oommer^u. We <«<.U allude in a separate section to the brilliant career of cevoral of the Italian Republics — (see p. V24). In these views we represent the fairest side of the picture. There were yet many obstaclee in the way of a complete and harmonious evolution of the principles of civilisation. But the elements Ml seemed now to have acquired existence, and time only was required to consolidate and strengthen them. FHOM THE CRU8ADKS TO THE MIDDLB OF THE FIFtEEMTH CENTURY — BI3E OF BOMB NEW POWKSS. The most remarkable general feature of European society about the time of the Crusades was the papal influence. Between the pontiflib and the German em- perors there was kept up a perpetual struggle for power; but for a long time the advantage was almost always with the popes. The treatment which some of the empwors received from them was extremely humi- liating. Frederick Barbarossa was compelled to kiss the feet of his holiness, Alexander III., and to appease him by a large cession of territory, after having indig- nantly denied his supremacy, and refused the custo- mary homage, Henry VI,, while doing homage on his knees, had his imperial crown kicked off by Pope Celes- tinus, who, however, made some amends for this indig- nity by the gift of Naples and Sicily. Henry had ex- pelled the Normans from these territories, whioh now became appendages of the German empire (1194), In the beginning of the thirteenth century, Pope Innocent III. was imagined to have permanently established the powers of the Holy See, and its right to confer the im- perial crown ; but this proved far from being the case. In the time of Frederick II., who succeeded Otho IV. (1212), th« M cont«ntk»i mm to more than the nmial BISTORT OF THB MIDDLE AOBL IntgU, and two fkettoni tpnma up in Italj, known by tba naniM of Outlphi Mid UbiMllinM, the former nikintkining tbe lupremaoy of tho popei, nnd the latter that of the emperon. Frederick maintained the con- teit which now aroie between himielf and the popei with much iDirit; but on hit death (13A0) the rndour of tne empire wai for a considerable time ured. At length Rodolph of Hapibourc, a Swin baron, waa elected emperor (1274). Rodolph beoame the founder of the Houie of Austria, and ruled with both Tigour and moderation. Hii ion Albert I. waa the meant of causinc the inhabitant! of Switzerland to auert and obtain their liberty, by hia attemptins to bind them in lubjection to one of hii children, and then uiing force to compel them. In the paai of Morgarten, a email army of four or five hundred of theie bravo mountaineers defeated an immense host of Austrians (1815). Sixty pitched battles, it is said, were fousht between the contending parties; but the spirit of Wil- liam Tell, who appearml at this time, and of his patriot countrymen, rose abore all attempts to enslave them; and the Swiss cantons secured a freedom which their descendants ei\joy to this day. The further history of Germany, for nearly a century, is not politically im- portant. Disputes between the emperors and the papacy still continued, though the balance of advantage was now oftener against the church. About the beginning of the fifteenth century, the great papal schism, as it has been called, took place. It arose from there being no fewer than three difi'erent claimants for the chair of St Peter — Gregory XII., who was owned pope by thn Italian states; Benedict XIII., by France; and Alexander V., a native of Caudia, by a number of the cardinals. This schism proved very hurtful to the authority of the church, though in that respect it benefited the interests of society, and contri- buted to open men's eyes. The appearance of John Huss at this time aided in producing that efl'ect. Hubs proclaimed the same opinions as the great English reformer Wickliffe. He was branded of course by the clergy as a heretic and propagator of sedition. The general council of the church, held at Constance (141 4), concocted no fewer than thirty-nine articlcj in which Huss is said to have erred. Some of the points he denied having professed, and others he offered to sup- port by argument; but his voice was drowned by the clamours of bigotry. His hair was cut in the form of a cross; upon his head was put a paper mitre, painted with the representation of three devils; and ne was delivered over to the secular judge, who condemned both him and his writings to the flames. A similar fi»te shortly after befell his disciple, Jerome of Prague, who is said to have exhibited the eloquence of an apostle and the constancy of a martyr at the stake (1416). In revenge for these cruelties, the Hussites of Bohemia kept up a war with the empire for twenty years; and it was only after having their right to ex- press their opinions acknowledged that they desisted. The great schism lasted for many years. A Neapolitan archbishop, named Bari, was elected and deposed by the resident cardinals at Rome within a few months. Boniface IX. and Innocent VI. were each temporarily his successors. The result of the lengthened dispute may be stated to be, that papal authority was greatly weakened; the government of the church was brought down among a class of ecclesiastics that had never before tasted the sweets of power; and future popes were obliged to resort to such questionable practices for the maintenance of their dignity, that men in general began to lose respect for their sanctity, and a foundation was laid for changes which it fell to the lot of Luther and others to efifisct. The period which witnessed these transactions was remarkable for the continued wars between France and England. In the beginning of the twelfth century, the famous dispute for supremacy arose between Thomas- ft-Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, and Henry II., which ended in the death of the prelate (1171), but in the triumph of his principles. The beginning of the thirtMBth eenkury it mamorablo iieriiiiL history » havinff witnessed the granting > »«na Charta f King John; and towards the oonci' >t' it apfwn ( Kdward I., whose name is associateu with tbe tknt great attempts to subdue the Soots on the Murt of En^ land. The bravery of Wallace and of others averted that calamitT for ever. Wales was not so fortunate | and Ireland had already become a conquered provinot. The grandson of Edward I., named Edward III., proved himself as ambitious and as sagacious as his predeces- sor. His attention, however, was greatly diverted from the kingdom of Scotland to that of France, with whioli country he commenced a war, that proved greater in duration and extent than any that had occurred in Europe since the fall of the Roman Empire. The pro- ]>0Bal of subduing so great a country as France, and seating himself upon the throne of it, seemed at first to be the proposal of a madman ; but in less than twenty years, Edward had so effectually dismembered tho dll- ferent provinces, alienating some of the nobility and overawing others, that his attaining the object of hia desires seemed by that time no improbable nor distant reality. His son, known in history as Edward the Black Prince, named so from the colour of his armour, contributed much by his presence and his valour to the success of the English arms. In the battle of Cressy, fought in 134(i, with numbers greatly on the side of France, and in that of Poictiers, fought ten years latere under similar circumstances, the English were com- pletely victorious. John, king of France, was taken , prisoner, and the conduct of young Edward to his iUlen enemy was generous and delicate in the highest degree) BO that the French prisoners are said to have been overcome by the display of such an elevation of mind on the part of their conqueror, and to have burst into tears. This refinement was the result of chivalijt which both the Edwards attached themselves to, and rendered respectable by their virtues. France was at this time in a deplorable state. A foreign enemy in the heart of the kingdom, the king a prisoner, the capital in sedition, and civil war raging over and above all — these were some of her accumu- lated misfortunes ; and as if nature meant to conspiro with man for her destruction, a plague broke out at this time among the people, and consummated the work of famine and the sword. This plague, how- ever, was not confined to France, though, from the dilapidated state of that country, it proved perhape in it moBt disastrous. It invaded every kingdom of Europe, and the English historian, Hume, computes that it swept away about one-third of the inhabitant! of every country that it attacked. The origin of the disease is not well known ; but there can be no doubt that it could only have made the ravages which it did among nations uncivilised and ignorant, heedless of all the cleanliness and comforts which we know in modern times 'to be necessary to the preservation of health. According to the ordinary account, this pesti- lence took its rise in the Levant about the vear 1346, from whence Italian traders brought it to Sicily, Pisa, and Genoa. In 1348 it passed the Alps, and spread over France and Spain. In the next year it reached Britain, where, in London alone, 50,000 persons are said to have become its victims ; and in 1350, it laid waste Germany and other northern states, lasting gene- rally in each country about five months. At Florence, more than three out of every five of the inhabitants were swept awn*ror Maximilian of Cleraany, who did not hosltats to style him brother. This was the first entrance of Kusna Into Europsan politics. Befor* ths end of the fourteenth century, the Chris- tian religion had penetrated into Denmaim, Sweden, Prussia, and Poland ; but it fiUled in producing anv immediate beneficial efl^t. The politloal events whion took place in these countries, however, were very va- rious at this period, but proved too unimportuit iu their results to admit of being even outlined hsre. TIIR ITALIAN MtPUBLIOS — COMHEIICI IN OKNBIUL. Among the Italian cities, Venice, at the extremity of the Adriatic, Ravenna, at the south of the mouth of the Po, Genoa, at the foot of the Ligurian mountains, Pisa, towards the mouths of the Amo, Home, Oatfta, Naples, AmalphI, and Dari, were either never conquered by tho Lombards, or were in subjection too short a time to have lost many of their ancient habits and customs. In this way these cities naturally became the refuge of Roman civilisation, at a time when other parts of^ Europe were wading through barbariait darkness. The feudal system never prevailed among them with any force; and several of these and other cities had im- portant privileges conferred upon them by the German emperors nt a very early period. Sismondi. the his- torian of Italy, asserts that Otho I. (936) erected some of them into municipal communities, and permitted them the election of their own magistrates. It is cer- tain that, in 951, the citizens of Milan rose in tunlUlt, expelled an archbishcp from their city, and were able to establish a qualified right to interfere in future elections. The atter-history of Milan is eventful and tragiwi ; but we can onlv givo a short account of it here. In the middle of the twelfth contunr, Frederick Barbarossa became engaged with the cities of Lombardy, and particularly with it, in extensive and destructive wars. In the year 1162 Milan was finally overcome; the walls and houses were razed from their foundation, and the sufiisring inhabitants dispersed over other cities, obtaining sympathy in their distress, and communi- cating their enthusiastic love of freedom in return. The republican form of government was adopted in every considerable town ; and before the end of the thirteenth century, there was a knowledge, a power, and an enterprise, among these apparently insignifi- cant republics which all Kurope could not match. The beneficial though unlooked-for effect of the Cru- sades upon commerce has already been mentioned. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the com- merce of Europe was almost entirely in the hands of the Italians, more commonly known in those ages by the name of Lombards. The republic of Pisa was one of the first to make known to the world the riches and power which a small state might acquire by the aid of commerce and liberty, Pisa had astonished the shores of the Mediterranean by the number of vessels and galleys that sailed under her flag, by the succour sho had given the Crusaders, bv the fear she had inspired at Constantinople, and by the conquest of Sardinia and the Balearic Isles. Immediately preceding this period, those great structures which still aelight the eye of the traveller — the Dome, the Baptistir, the Leaning Tower, and the Campo Santo of Pisa hod all been raised ; and the great architects that spread over Europe in the thir- teenth century had mostly their education here. But unfortunately, the ruin of this glorious little republic was soon to be accomplished. A growing envy had subsisted between it and Genoa during the last two centuries, and a new war broke out in 1282. It is difficult to comprehend how two simple cities oould put to sea such prodigious fleets as those of Pisa and Genoa. Fleets of thirty, sixty-four, twenty-four, and one hundred and three galleys, were successively put to sea by Pisa, under the most skilful commanders; but on every occasion the Genoese were able to oppose them with superior fleets. In August 1284, the Pisans were defeated in a naval engagement before the Isle of K I HISTORY OF THE MIDDLR AGES. )M«loH* : tblrtjr-flre of their yenuh ware lotk. Are thouMuia perwDi periiheil in buttlv, mid eleren tbou- ■Mtd became priaonen uf Iht; (Iviioeae. After a few further inetleottial itruggle*, I' ' . lost i*» etMidlng. The greatett coinniervik. il!o>|<>«^«r the rooit rtmarkable oitjr of thu lUui i^ i ule hud bctMi undergoing since the fall of the Hoinau Knipiro. This might l^ true to a great extent, though fur Imig it was certainly more the result of tlioir obscurity thu l their power, llv the tenth century, howeTer, tho doscondanls of those fisher' Uien that had flist taken refuge here, were able to send fleets abroad which could encounter and overawti both Saiacens and Nonnans. The Venetians hod all along kept un a corrosnondence with Constantinople during tho darkest periods of the middle a^ea. This was greatly renewed and extended about the time of tho Crusades. When Constantinople wim taken by the Latins (1°J04), the Venetians, under their doge, or chief magistrate, Henry Dundalo, became possessed of three-eighths of that great city and of the provinces, and Dandalo as- sumed the singularly accurate title of Duke of Three- Eighths of the Itomau Empire. The Venetians greatly increased their share of the spoil by making advanta- geous purchases from tho more needy of the Crusaders. Among tho most important of these was the Isle of Candia, which they retained till the middle of the seventeenth century. The idea of a bank took its rise in this city, and an establishment of that nature, simply for the receipt of deposits, is said to have existed iu it so soon aa tne year 1157. But it was nut till about a centurr later that banking, as the terra is now under- stood, began at all to be practised. The merchants of Lombardy and of the south of France began at that time to remit money by bills of exchange, and to make Srofit upon loans. The Italian clergy who had bene- ces beyond the Alps, found the new method of trans- mitting money exceedingly convenient; and tho system of exacting usury or interest, after experiencing every obstruction from ignorance and bigotry, became a legal part of commerce. In the thirteenth century the go- vernment of Venice was entirely republican ; but con- tinued wars with Ueuoa reduced both cities. These wars were all conducted on the seas, and the display uf naval strength on both sides seems prodigious, when we reflect on the poor condition of Italy at the present day. Besides tnese wan for objects of ambition, there were continual jealousies which rose above enlightened views of self-interest, and led to the most disgraceful broils. At tho middle of the fourteenth century a battle took place between the rival citizens, in which the Genoese were defeated. Their loss was immense, and in distress and in revenge they gave themselves up to John Visconti, Lord of Milan, then the richest and among the most ambitious of the petty tyrants of Italy, hoping that he would give them tne meann to re-estab- lish their fleet and continue the war with the Venetians. He did so, and in another naval engagement, fought in 1354, in the Gulf of Sapienza, the Venetians were en- tirely defeated. But the Genoese had sacrificed their liberty in their thirst for revenge. Visconti became their master instead of friend. Venice was able to rise above its temporary discomfiture, and during the fifteenth century its fame and power became greater than they had ever been before. In the beginning of the fifteenth century the Venetians captured the town of Padua, and gradually lost their empire of the sea while they acquired possessions on the continent. Among the most famous of the Italian states at this period was Florence; and its fame was founded, not on arms, but on literature. Like the other Italian cities, however, it owed its first elevation to the commercial industry of its inhabitants. There was a curious divi- sion of the Florentine citizens, subsisting about the beginning of the thirteenth century, into companies or ails. These wer« at first twelve- seven called th* greater arts, and five the lesaer; but the latter were gradually increaacd to fourteen. The seven urvalar arte were thoae uf lawyers and notariea, of dealeri in foreign cloth (called sometimes calimata), of bankers or niuney-changers, of woollen-drapers, of physicians and druggists, of dealers iu silk, and of furriers. Tb« in- ferior arta were those of retailers of cloth, but>:hars, smiths, shoemakers, and builders. It was in the thir- teenth century that Florence l)ecame a republic, and it maintained its independence fur two hundred years. Iu the beginning of tho fifteenth century it became peculiarly distinguished by the revival of Grecian lite- rature and the cultivation of the fine arts. Cosmo da Medici, who lived a citizen uf Florence at this time, and was known by the name uf the Grand Duke of Tuscany — descended from a Ions line of ancestors, whose wealth had been honourahly acuuired in the prosecution of tho grtater art§ — possessed more richea than any king in Europe, and laid out more money on wurks uf learning, taste, and charity, than all the princes uf his age. The same liberality and munifi- cence distinguished his family for several generations. The commercial success of the states uf Italy induced the inhabitants of northern Europe to atteQi,)t similar enterprises. In the thirteenth century the seaports on the Baltic were trading with France and Britain, and with tho Mediterranean. The commercial laws of Ule- ren and Wisbuy (on the Baltic) regulated for many ages the trade of Europe. To protect their trade firom piracy, Lubec, Hamburg, and most of the northern seaports, joined in a confederacy, under certain general regu- lations, termed the League of the JJanae Towtu ; a uni«m so beneficial in its nature, and so formidable in point of strength, as to have its alliance courted by the pre- dominant powers of Europe. ' For the trade of the llaiise Towns with tho southern kingdoms, Bruges on the coast of Flanders was found a convenient cntrepdt, and thither the Mediterranean merchants brought the commodities of India and the Levant, to exchange for the produce and manufactures of the north. The Flemings now began to encourage trade and manu- factures, which thence 8()read to tlie Brabauters ; but their growth being checked by the impolitic sovereigns of those provinces, they found a more favourable field in England, which was destined thence to derive the great source of its national opulence.' THE TUnKS — FALL OF CO.NSTANTINOPLE. We have already seen the weakness of tho empire of Constantinople at the time of the Crusades ; we have seen the city sacked and the government seized by the champions of the cross. The Greeks regained their empire in the year 1'2(>1, but in a mangled and impo- verished condition. For nearly two centuries it con- tinued in a similar state. Andronicus, son of Michael Palffiologus, who had restored the Greek empire, allowed himself to be persuae; and it was only in the present age that Greece was liberated from their dominion. SI8E OF CIVIL FREEDOM AND SOCIAL IHPOOVEMENT. Civil freedom, as we have seen, dawned first in the great commercial cities of Italy, whence .v spread to Germany, Flanders, and Britain. ThLi important change in society may be traced to the institution free communities of traders, or guilds of merchant, and such confederacies were a necessary consequence of the usurpation and tyranny of the nobles and feudal possessors of the soil. In the eleventh and twelfth cen- turies the usurpations of the nobility became intoler- able; they had reduced the great body of the people to a state of actual servitude. Nor .7a« such oppres- sion the portion of those alone who dwelt in the coun- 126 try, and were employed in cultivating the estates of their masters. Cities and villages found it necessary to hold of some great lord, on whom they might depend for protection, and became no less subject to his arbi- trary jurisdiction. The inhabitants were deprived of those rights which, in social life, are deemed most na- tural and inalienable. They could not dispose of the effects which their own industry had acquired, either by a later will, or by any deed executed duriiig their lives. Neither could they marry, nor cany on lawsuits, without the consent of their lord. But as soon as the cities of Italy began to turn their attention towards commerce, and to conceive some idea of the advan- tages which they might derive from it, they became impatient to shake off the yoke of their insolent lords, and to establish among themselves such a free and equal government as would render property and indus- try secure. The Italian cities were the first to eman- cipate themselves, and their example was followed in uther great seats of population, the king of the country in general countenancing the establishment of free communities, in order to gain support against the en- croachments of the overgrown power of the barons. The first community of this descnption formed in Scot- land is understood to have been that of Berwick-upon- Tweed, which received its charter from William the Lion. Towns, upon acquiring the right of community, became so many little republics, governed by knrwn and equal laws. The inhabitants being trained to arms, and being surrounded by wallp, they soon began to hold t'le neighbourii:^ barons in contempt, and to withstand aggressions on tbeir property and privileges. Another great good, of fully more importance, was pro- duced. These free communities were speedily admitted, by their representatives, into the great council of the nation, whether distinguished by the name of a Parlia- ment, a Diet, the Cortes, or the States-Generul. This is justly esteemed the greatest event in the history of mankind in modern times. Representatives from the , English boroughs were first admitted into the great na- tional council by the barons who took up arms against Henry III. in the year 126.5 ; being summoned to add to the greater popularity of their party, and to strengthen the barrier against the encroachments of regal power. Readers 'may draw their own conclusions from an event which ultimately had the efi'ect of revolutionising the framework of society, and of rearing that great body of the people coiumonfy styled ' the middle claos.' The enfranchising of burghal communities led to the manumission of slaves. Hitherto the tillers of the ground, all the inferior classes of the country, were the bondsmen of the barons. The monarchs of France, iii order to reduce the power of the nobles, set the example, by ordering (1316-1318) all serfs to be set at liberty on just and reasonable conditions. The edicts were carried into immediate execution within the royal domain. The example of their sovereigns, together with the ex- pectation of considerable sums which they might raise by this expedient, led many of the nobles to set their dependents at liberty; and servitude was thus gradually abolished in almost every province of the Kingdom. This beneficial practice similarly spread over the rest of Europe ; and in England, as the spirit of liberty gained ground, the very name and idea of personal ser- vitude, without any formal interposition of the legisla- ture to prohibit it, was totally banished. While society was assuming the semblance of the form it now bears, the progress of improvement was accelerated by various collateral circumstances, the first of which worth noticing was The Revival of Letteri. The first restorers of learning n Europe were the Arabians, who, in the course of their Asiatic conquests, became acquainted with 6ome of the ancient Greek authors, discovered their merits, and had them translated into Arabic, esteeming those principally which treated of mathematics, physics, and metaphysics. They disseminated their knowledge in the course of their conquests, and founded schools and colleges in all the countries which they subdued. The I 1 I V I t 1 I li ti ti tl tl « a w a: tl w li y a HISTORY OP THE MIDDLE AGES. of the it was the Ji,nuiig Irse of 1 6ome nerita, those p, and |ge in I aud The I western kingdoms of Europe became first acquainted with the learning of the ancients through the medium of those Arabian translations. Charlemagne caused them to be retranslated into Latin ; and, after the example of the calipha, founded universities at Bonona, Pavia, Oinaburg, and Paris. Similar efforts were made in England by Alfred j and to him we owe the establish- ment, or at least the elevation, of the univeraity of Oxford. The first efforts, however, at literair improve- ment were marred by the subtleties of scholastic divi- nity. Perhaps the greatest and wisest literary cha- racter of the middle ages was an English friar, named Roger Bacon. This extraordinary individual was not only learned, but, what was more uncommon in those times, he was scientific. Hallam asserts that he was acquainted with the nature of gunpowder, though he deemed it prudent to conceal his knowledge. He saw the insufficiency of school philosophy, and was the first to insist on experiment and the observation of nature as the fittest instruments by which to ac(]|uire knowledge. He reformed the calendar, and made discjveries in as- tronomy, optics, chemistry, medicine, and mechanics. It is to Italy, however, that we owe the first and greatest exertions in the revival of letters. The spirit of libertv which had arisen among its republics was favourable to the cultivation of literature ; and ac- cordingly we find that not only did they produce many individuals who were most active and successful in briugine to light the relics of classical lore, but that there also arose among them men possessed of the highest oi'der of original genius. Florence produced ^ante so early as 1265. Dante was associated with the magistracy of his native city in his earlier years; but bavins given dissatisfaction in that capacity, he was banished, and in his exile produced his great poem entitled the * Divine Comedy.' It is a representa- tion of the three supposed kingdoms of futurity — Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise — divided into one hundred cantos, and containing about 14,000 lines. The poem has been much praised. Petrarch, bom in the year 1304, was likewise a Florentine by birth. The misfor- tunes of his father had impoverished the family, and Petrarch was too proud to take the usual method of retrieving his affairs. His genius, however, earned for him the friendship of many Italian princes, and even of more popes than one, although he had exerted his talents to expose the vices of their courts. Petrarch's personal character seems to have exhibited some un- amiable traits; but he has sung of love, friendship, glory, patriotism, and religion, in language of such sweetness and power as to have made him the admira- tion of every succeeding age. Boccaccio, like the two great poets named, was also a Florentine. He was bom in 131.S, and his name has descended to posterity less associated with his poetry than the light, elegant, and easy prose of his novels. The discovery of Justinian's Laws, aa detailed in the Pandects (see History op Laws), was another event which powerfully tended to modify the barbarism that prevailed during the middle ages in Europe. T/te invention of the Mariner's Compass must be reckoned of still greater importance, and yet it is abso- lutely unknown to whom we owe it. That honour has bee J often bestowed on Oioia, a citizen of Amalphi, who lived about the commencement of the fourteenth cen- tury. But the polarity of the magnet at least was known to the Saracens two hundred years before that time; though even after the time of Gioia, it was long before the magnet was made use of as a guide in navigation. * It is a singular circumstance,' says Mr Hallam, • and only to be explained by the obstinacy with which men are apt to reject improvement, that the magnetic needle was not generally adopted in navigation till very long after the discovery of its properties, and even after their peculiar importance had been perceived. The writers of the thirteenth century, who mention the po- larity of the needle, mention also its use in navigation; yet Carapany has found no distinct proof of its employ- ment till U03, and doea not believe that it was fre- quently on board Mediterranean shipi at the latter part of the preceding age.' The Genoese, however, are known in the fourteenth century to have uume out of that inUnd sea, and steered for Flanders and England. But by far the greatest sailors of the age were the Spaniards and Portuguese. This latter nation had little or no existence during the greater part of the middle ages, but in the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth cen- turies, they were able to expel the Moors from a great part of their country; and in the beginning of the fif- teenth, John, sumamed the Bastard, who was then their king, was the first European prince who exhibited a respectable navy. It was in 14U6 that this adventu- rous people first doubled the Cape of Good Hope. The discovery of America (1493) may be mentioned supplementarily to the invention of * ' HISTOKY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. coanveaT by tue rohans. Previously to the year 55 before Christ, the British Iclands, in common with the whole of northern and western Europe, were occupied by barbarous tribes, who bore nearly the same relation to the civilised na- tions of Greece and Italy, which the North American Indians of the present day bear to the inhabitants of Great Britain and the United States. The Romans, who for ages had been extending their power over their rude neighbours, had concluded the conquest of Gaul, now called France, when, in the year just mentioned, their celebrated commander, Julius Coesar, learning from the merchants of that countiy that there was an- other li:rtile land on the opposite side of the narrow sea now termed the British Channel, resolv-'d to proceed thither, and subject it also to the RomdA arms. Dis- embarking at the place since called Deal, he soon over- awed the savage natives, though they were naturally warlike, and averse to a foreign yoke. He did not, how- ever, gain a firm footing in Britain till the succeeding year, when he employed no fewer than 800 vessels to convey his troops from Gaul. Except along the coasts, where some tillage prevailed, the British tribes lived exactly as the Indians now do, upon animals caught in hunting, and fruits which grew spontaneously. They stained and tattooed their bodies, and had no religion but a bloody idolatry called Druidism. The people of Ireland were in much the same condition. Little was done on this occasion to establisb the Roman power in Britain;. but about a century after- wards — namely, in the year of Christ 43, when the Emperor Claudius was reigning at Rome — another large army invaded the island, and reduced a considerable part of it. A British princi) called Caradoc, or Carac- tacus, who had made a noble defence against their arms, was finally taken and sent prisoner to Rome, where he was regarded with the same wonder as we should bestow upon a North American chief who had greatly obstructed the progress of our settlements in that quarter of the world. In the year CI, an officer named Suetonius did much to reduce the Britons, by destroying the numerous Druidical temples in the Isle of Anglesea; religion having in this case, as in many others since, been a great support to the patriotic cause. He soon after overthrew the celebrated British princess Boadicca, who had raised an almost general insurrec- tion against the Roman power. In the year 79, Agricola, a slill greater general, ex- tended the influence of Rome to the Firths of Forth Hud Clyde, which he formed into a frontier, by conuect- No. 59. ing them with a chain of forts. It was his policy, after he had subdued part of the country, to render it per- manently attached to Rome, by introducing the plea- sures and luxuries of the capital. He was the first to sail round the island. In the year 84, having gone beyond the Forth, he was opposed by a great concourse of the rude inhabitants of the north, under a chief named Galgacus, whom he completely overthrew at Mons Grampim, or the Grampian Mountain; a spot about which there are many disputes, but which was probably at Ardoch in Perthshire, where there are still magnificent remains of a Roman camp. Tacitus, a writer related to Agricola, gives a very impressive account of this great conflict, and exhibits the bravery of the native forces as very remarkable; but the cor- rectness of his details cannot be much relied on. It appears that Agricola, while on the west coast of Scotland, was desirous of making the conquest of Ireland, which he thought would be useful, both as a medium of communication with Spain, and as a posi- tion whence he could overawe Britain. He formed an acquaintance with an Irish chief, who, having been driven from his country by civil commotions, was ready to join in invading it. By him Agricola was informed that the island might be conquered by one legion and a few auxiliaries. The inhabitants, according to Tacitus, bore a close resemblance to the Britons. It is generally allowed that the Romans experienced an unusual degree of difficulty in subduing the Britons; and it is certain thnt they were baffled in all their at- tempts upon the northern part of Scotland, which was then called Caledonia. The utmost they could do with the inhabitants of that country, was to build walls across the island to keep them by themselves. The first wall was built in the year 121, by the Emperor Hadrian, between Newcastle and the Solway Firth. The second was built by the Emperor Antoninus, about the year 140, as a connexion of the line of forts which Agricola had formed between the Firths of Forth and Clyde. This boundary was not long kept, for in 210 we find the Emperor Severus fortifying the rampart between the Tyne and Solway. Roman armies, however, pro- bably under the command of Lollius Urbicus, nad penetrated far beyond the more northerly wall, although, unfortunately, no accounts of their reception are pre- served. From comparing Roman remains lately dis- covered with ancient geographies, it is held as estab- lished that the Romans reached the north-east end of Loch Ness, near the modem town of Inverness. The number of roads and camps which they made, and the regularity with which the country was divided into stations, prove their desire to preserve these conquests. When the conquest was thus so far completed, the country was governed in the usual manner of a Roman province; and towns began to rise in the course of time — being generally those whose names are now found to end in cheater, a termination derived from cwtra, the Latin word for a camp. The Christian re- ligion was also introduced, and Roman literature made some progress in the country, CONQUEST BY THE SAXONS. At length a time came when the Romans could no longer defend their own native country against the nations in the north of Europe. The soldiers were then withdrawn from Britain (about the year 440), and the people left to govern themselves. The Caledonians, who did not like to be so much straitened in the north, took advantage of the unprotected state of the Britons to pour in upon them from the other side of the wall, and despoil them of tl.eir lives and goods. The British had no resource but to call in another set of protectors, 129 OHAMBEB£PS INFOBMATION FOB THE PEOPLE. the Saxons, a warlike people who lired in the north of Oennany, and the Jutes and Ane'.es, who inhabited Denmark. The remedy itm found hardly any better than the didease. Having once acquired a footing in the island, these hardy strangers proceeded to make it a subject of conquest, as the Romans had done before, with this material difference, that they drove the Bri- tish to the western parts of the island, particularly into Wales, and settled, with new hordes of their country- men, over the better part of the land. So completely was the population changed, that, excepting m the names of some of the hills and rivers, the British lan- guage was extinguished, and even the name of the coun- tiyitself was changed from what it originally was to Angle-laud, or Enghuid, a term taken from the Angles. The conquest required about a hundred and fifty years to be effected, and, like that of l-.he Romans, it extended no farther north than the Firths of Forth and Clyde. Before the Britons were finally cooped up in Wales, many battles were fought ; but few of these are accu- rately recorded. The most distinguished of the British generals were the Princes Vortimer and Aurelius Am- Brosius. It is probably on the achievements 3f the latter that the well-known fables of King Arthur and his knights are founded. England, exclusive of the western regions, was now divided into seven kingdoms, called Kent, Northumber- land, East Anglia, Mercia, Essex, Sussex, and Wessex, each of which was governed by a race descended from the leader who had first subdued it; and the whole have since been called by historians the iScueon Hep- tarchy, the latter word being composed of two Greek words, signifying seven kingdoms. To the north of the IF'crth dwelt a nation called the Picts, who also had a king, and were in all probability the people with whom Agricola Lad fought under the name of Caledonians. In the Western Highlands there was another nation, known by the name of the Scots, or Dalriads, who had gtsdually migrated thither from Ireland, between the middle of the third century and the year 503, when they established, under a chief named Fergus, a mo- narchy destined in time to absorb all t'ae rest. About the year 700 there were no fewer than fifteen kings, or chiefs, within the island, while Ire' and was nearly in the same situation. In Britain, at the came time, five languages were in use, the Latin, Saxon, Welsh, the Pictish, and the Irish. The general power of the country has been found to increase as these nations and principalities were gradually amassed together. Although three of the Saxon kingdoms, Wessex, Mercia, and Northumberland, became predominant, the Heptarchy prevailed from about the year 585 to 800, when Egbert, king of Wessex, acquired a para- mount influence over all the other states, though their kings still continued to reign. Alfreri8ing, when we find that his pre- decessors and successors, for many ages, were ex- trumely cruel and ignorant. He died in the year 901, in the fifty-third year of his age. CONqUKST BT THE NORItANg. The Saxon line of princes continued to rule — with the exception of three Danish reigns — till the year 1 0S6, when *:he orown w»< in the ponession of a usurper ISO * named Harold. The country was then invaded by William, Duke of Normandy, a man of illegitimate birth, attended by a large and powerful army. Harold opposed him at Hastings (October 14), and after a well-contested battle, his array was defeated, and him- self slain. William then caused himself to be crowned king at Westminster; and in the course of a few years he succeeded, by means of his warlike Norman fol- lowers, in completely subduing the Saxons. His chiefs were settled upon the lands of those who opposed him, and became the ancestors of most of the present noble families of England. Previously to this period, the church of Romo, which was the only surviving part of the power of that em- pire, had established its supremacy over England. The land was also subjected to what is called the feudal system (see History of the MinoLE Aoes), by which aJl proprietors of land were supposed to hold it from the king for military service, while their tenants were understood to owe them military terviee in turn for their use of the land. All orders of men were thus kept in a chain of servile obedience, while some of the lower orders were actually slaves to their superiors. In thoyecr 853, Kenneth, kin^ of the Scots, hod added the Pictish kingdom to his own, and hia de- scendant Malcolm II., in 1020, extended his dominions over not only the south of Scotland, but a part of the north of England. Thus, putting aside Wales, which continued to be an independent country, under its own princes, the island was divided, at the time of the Nor- man Conquest, into two considerable kingdoms, Eng- land and Scotland, as they were for some centuries afterwards. Ireland, which had alto been invaded by hordes from the north of Europe, was divided into a number of small kingdoms, like England under the Saxon Heptarchy. EAULY NORKAN KINGS. William, lumamed The Conquaror, reigned from 1066 to 1087, being chiefly engaged all that time in completing the subjugation of the Saxons. He is allowed to have been a man of much sagacity, and a firm ruler; but his temper was violent, and his dispositions brutal. At the time of his death, which took place in Normandy, his eldest sou Robert happening to be at a greater dis- tance from London than William, who was the second son, the latter individual seized upon the crown, of which he could not afterwards be dispossessed, till he was 4hot accidentally by an arrow in the New Forest, in the /ear 1100. Towards the close of this king's reign, the whole of Christian Europe was agitated by the first Crusade — an expedition for the recovery of the Holy Land from the Saracens. Robert of Normandy had a high command in this enterprise, and gained much fame as a warrior; but while he was in Italy, on his return, his youngest brother Henry usurped the throne left vacant by William, so that he was again disappointed of his birthright. Hbnry I. — samamed Beauclerc, from his being a fine scholar — was a prince of some ability; but he disgraced himself by putting out the e^es of his eldest brother, and keeping him nearly thirty years in confinement. Such barbarous conduct shows that in this age might wandness for favourites, into whose hands he com- mitted the whole interests of his {.'ople. The first was a low Frenchman, named Piers Gaveston, Who soon foil » Tietim to the indignation of the barons. The second, Hu^ Spencer, misgoverned the country for seveml yeMfL tiU at length the Queen and Prince of Wales raited an intumction against the king, and paused him to be deposed, as quite unfit to reign. The Prince waf then crowned as Eoward III. (1327), being as yet only about fourteen yean of age; and in the course of a few months the degraded sovereign was cruelly put to death in Berkeley Castle. During the minority of the young king, the reins of government were held by his mother and the Earl of March. Under their administration, a peace was con- cluded with King Robert of Scotland, of which one of the conditions was a full acknowledgment of the inde- pendence of the Scottish monarchy, which had been a matter of dispute for some ages. EDWABD III. — BICBARD II. Edward III., who soon after assumed full power, was destined to make good the remark prevalent at this time, that the kings of England were alternately r.ble and imbecile. He was a wanike and sagacious mouArcb, and inspired by all his grandfather's desire of conquest. In 1329, Robert Bruce died, and was succeeded by his infant son David II., to whom a young sister of the English king was married, in terms of the late treaty. Notwithstanding this connection, Edward aided a son of John Baliol in an attempt to gain the Scottish crown. Edward Baliol overthrew the Regent of Scotland at Duplin, September 1332, and for two months reigned as King of Scots, while David and his wife took refuge in France. Though now expelled, Baliol afterwards returned to renew nis claims, and for many years the country was harassed by unceasing wars, in which the English took a leading part. But for his attention being diverted to France, Ed- ward III. would have made a more formidable effort to subdue Scotland, and might have succeeded. He was led into a long course of warfare with France, iu consequence of an absurd pretension which he made to its crown. In the victories which he gained at Cressy (August 26, 1346) and Poitiers (September 17, 1356), the nat ional valour, his own, and that of his celebrated son, tbe Black Prince, were shown conspicuously ; but this Iftrish expenditure of the resources of his kingdom, in which he was supported by his parliament, was of no permanent benefit, even to himself, for whom alone it was made. In those days, almost all men fouf^ht well, but very few had the art to improve their vic- tories. John, king of France, who had been made captive at Poitiers, and David, king of Scotland, who ha!d been taken in 1346, while conducting an invasion of England, were at one time prisoners in England; but no permanent advantage was ever gained over either of the states thus deprived of their sovereigns. In 1361, after about twenty years of active fighting, the English king left France with little more territory than he had previously enjoyed. Edward had invaded Scotland with a powerful army in 1356, but without making any impression. The Scots, under David's nephew, Robert Stewart, effectually protected themselves, not only from his arms, but from a proposal which David himself basely undertook to make, that Lionel, the third sou of the English king, should be acknowledged as his suc- cessor. Edward died in 1377, a year after the decease of his son the Black Prince; and notwithstanding all their brilliant exploits, the English territories in France were less than at the beginning of the reign, England was at this time affected more than at any other by the fashions of chivalry. This was a military enthusiasm, which for some centuries pervaded all Christian Europe. It prompted, as one of its first principles, a heedless bravery in encounterin^r all kinds of danger. Its votaries were expected to be particularly bold in behalf of the fair sex, insomuch that a young knight would sometimes challenge to mortal combat any one who denied his mistress to be the loveliest in the -^orld. Tournaments were held, at which knigkta clad in complete armour would ride against each other at full speed with levelled lances, merely to try which had the greatest t.rength and skill ; and many were killed on these occasions. It was a system full of ex- travagance, and tending to bloodshed ; but neverthe* Distort of orbat Britain akd Ireland. at an/ ilitanr Bed all fint 1 kinds cularly young !ombat ieit in nighU 1 other which l6H it maintained a certain courtuy towards fumalef, and a romantic principle of honour, which we may be glad to admire, considering how rude was almost every other feature of the age. Edward III. was succeeded by his grandson, Richard II., then a boy of eleven years of age, and who proved to be a person of weak and profligate character. The Commons took advantage of the irregularity of his go- Ternment to strengthen their prTileges, which they had with difficulty sustained during the more pow«"^ul rule of his predecessor. Early in this reigu iy assumed the right, not only of taxing the coui>try, but of seeing how the money was spent. Indignant at the severity of a tax imposed upon all grown-up persons, the peasantry of the eastern parts of England rose, in 1381, under a person of their own order, named Wat Tyler, and advanced, to the number of 60,000, to Lon- don, where they put to death the chancellor and pri- mate, as evil counsellors of their sovereign. They de- manded the abolition of bondage, the liberty of buying and selling in fairs and markets, a general pardon, and the reduction of the rent of land to an equal rate. The king came to confer with them at Smithiield, where, on some slight pretence, Walworth, mayor of London, ■tabbed Wat Tyler with a dagger — a weapon which has since figured in the armorial bearings of the metro- polis. The peasants were dismayed, and submitted, and no fewer than fifteen hundred of them were hanged. Wat Tyler's insurrection certainly proceeded upon a glimmering sense of those equal rights of man- kmd which have since been generally acknowledged; and it is remarkable, that at the same time the doc- trines of the reformer Wicklifie were first heard of. This learned ecclesiastic wrote against the power of the Pope, and some" of the most important points of the Romish faith, and also executed a translation of the Bible into English, His writings are acknowledged to have been oi material, though not immediate efiect, in bringing about the reformation of religion. The country was misgoverned by Richard II. till 1399, when he was deposed by his subjects under the leading of his cousin, Henry, Duke of Lancaster. This person, though some nearer the throne were alive, was crowned as Henry IV., and his predecessor, Richard, was soon after murdered. In the meantime, David of Scotland died in 1371, and was succeeded by Robert Stewart, who was the first monarch of that family. Robert I., dying in 1389, was succeeded by his son Robert II., who was a good and gentle prince. He had two sons, David and James : the former was starved to death by his uncle, the Duke of Albany ; and the latter, when on his way to France for his education, was seized by Henry IV. of England, and kept captive in that country for eighteen years. B;obert II. then died of a broken heart (1406), and the kingdom fell into the hands of the Duke of Albany, at whose death, in 141S, it was governed by his son Duke Murdoch, a very imbecile personage. HOUSE OF LANCASTER. Hflnry IV. proved a prudent prince, and compara- tively a good ruler. The settleme:.t of the crown upon him by parliament was a good precedent, though per- haps only dictated under the influence of his successful arms. He was much troubled by insurrections, parti- cularly a formidable one by Percy, Earl of Northum- berland — and one still more difficult to put down in Wales, where Owen Qlendower, a descendant of the British princes, kept his ground for several years. On the death of Henry IV, in 1413, he was succeeded by his son, who was proclaimed under the title of Henrt V. The young Kine attained high popularity, on account of his impartial administration of j-tstice, and his zeal to protect the poor from the oppressions of their superiors. His reign is less agreeably marked by the pe'-^utions of the Lollards, a body of religious teformeia, many of whom were condemned to the flames. Being determined to use every endeavour to gain the crown of France, which ho considered his by right of birth, he laided in Normandy with 30,000 men (August MIA), apd gave battle to a much superior ?rce of the French at Agincourt. He gained a com- plete victory, which was sullied by his afterwards or- dering a massacre of his prisoners, under the appre- hension that an attempt was to be made to rescue them. The war was carried on for some years longer, and Henry would have probably succeeded in making good his claim to the French crown, if he had not died prematurely of a dysentery (August 31, 1422), in the thirty-fourth year of his age, leaving the throne to an infant nine months old, who was proclaimed as H £NBT VI,, King of France and England, Under Henry VI,, \7h08e power was for some time in the hands of his uncle the Duke of Bedford, the English maintained their footing in France for several years, and at the battle of Vemeuil, in 1424, rivalled the glory of Cressy and Poitiers. At that conflict, a body of Scotch, 7000 strong, who had proved of mate- rial service to the French, were nearly cut off. In 1428, when France seemed completely sunk beneath the English rule, the interests of the native prince were suddenly revived by a simple maiden, named Joan of Arc, who pretended to have been commissioned by Heaven to save her country ; and entering into the French army, was the cause of several signal reverses to the English, By her enthusiastic exertions, and the trust everywhere reposed in her supernatural cha> racter, Charles VII. was crowned at Uheims in 1430. Being soon after taken prisoner, the heroic maiden was, by the English, condemned for witchcraft, and burnt. Nevertheless, about the year 1453, the French mo- narch had retrieved the whole of his dominions ftom the English, with the exception of Calais. Hehry VI. was remarkable for the extreme weakness of his character. His cousin, Richard, Duke of York, descended from an elder son of Edward III., and there- fore pcssessed of a superior title to the throne, con- ceived that Henry's imbecility affi)rded a good oppor- tunity for asserting what he thoui;ht his birthright. Thus commenced the famous Wars of the Roses, as tney were called, from the badges of the families of York and Lancaster — the former of which was a red, while the latter was a white rose. In 1454, the duke gained a decisive victory over the forces of Henry, which were led by his spirited consort, Margaret of .^tjjou. In some succeeding engagements the friends of Henry were victorious; and at length, in the battle of Wake- field (December 24, 1460), the forces of the Duke of York were signally defeated, and himself, with one of his sons, taken and put to death. His pretensions were then taken up by his eldest son Edward, who, with the assistance of the Earl of Warwick, gained such advan- tages next year, that he assumed the crown. Before this was accomplished, many thousands had fallen on both sides. Henry, who cared little for the pomp of sovereignty, was confined in the Tower. Scotland, in the meantime (1424), had redeemed her king from his captivity in England; and thp.t prince, styled James I,, had proved a great legislator and re- former, not to speak of his personal accomplishments in music and literature, which surpassed those of every contemporary monarch. James did much to reduce the Highlands to an obedience under the Scottish go- vernment, and also to break up the enormous power of the nobles. By these proceedings, however, he ex- cited a deep hatred in the bosoms of some of his sub- jects; and in 1437 he fell a victim to assassination at Perth. He was succeeded by his infant son, James II., the greater part of whose reign was spent in a harass- ing contention with the powerful house of Douglas, and who was finally killed, in the flower of his age, by the bursting of a cannon before Roxburgh Castle. His successor, Jame.s III., was also a minor, and, on reach- ing man's estate, proved to be a weak, though not ill- meaning prince. He fall a victim, in 1488, to a con- spiracy formed by his subjects, and which was led by his eldest son. The morality of princes in this age seems to have been much upou a par with that ascribvi' 1S3 CBAUBIBSV nrOBlUTION VOB THB PBOPU. to tk« Tttffclih WTtwSgM of » later pwriod. They neTer •oraiJed to dettroy lift, either within the circle of their own flwiUy. or out of it, when it luited their intereits or their MubiUon to do lo. HOUU OF TORK. Edward, of the Uouie of York, ityled Edwakd IV., who commenced hii reign in the nineteenth vear of hii Me, reigned ten year*, peqfetually dirturbed by renewed attempt! of the lAnoattnan pwtv, of which ho morci- leiily laorifioed many thouiands who fell into his handi. At length, havina offended the V.mI of Warwick, who had been chiefly initrumental iu placing him upon the thnme, that powerful nobleman raised an insurrection againit him, and in eleven days wai master of the jungdom, while Edward had to take refuge on the con- tinent. Henry VI. waa then restored, and Warwick acquired the title of King-maker. Nine mouths after (1471), Edward landed with a small body of followers, and having culled his partisans around him, overthrew and killed Warwick at St Alban's. Margaret of Aigou, who had fought battles for her husband iu almost every proTinoe of Eneland, gathered a new army, and opposed Edward at Tewkesbury Park, where she was completely defeated. Her son and husband being taken, were murdered in cold blood, and she herself spent the re- mainder of her singular life in France. Edward reigned , a profligate and a tyrant, till 1483, when he died in the forty-second year of his age. He had previously caused his brother, the equally profligate Duke of Clarence, to be drowned in a butt of malmsey wine. During the reign of Edward IV., the plague fre- quently broke out in England, and carried oflf immense numbers of the people. It was particularly fatal in London, and in all other places where many houses were huddled closely together, v?ith imperfect means of deuiing and ventilation. It was calculated that the disease, on one occasion in this reign, destroyed as many livei as the fifteen years' war. The plague did not cease to occur in England, as well as in other European countries, until considerable improvements had taken place in the habits of the people, especially in pokt of cleanliness. En./ v., the eldest son of Edward IV., waa a boy of eleven yean when he succeeded to the crown. Hu uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, a wicked and de- formed wretch, soon afler contrived to obtain the chief power, and also to cause the murder of the young king and his still younger brother in the Tower. He then mounted the throne under the title of Kicuako III. For two years, this disgrace to humanity continued to reign, though universally abhorred by his people. At lei^th, in 14ftS, Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, a eonneiion rather than a descendant of the Lancaster family, resolved to make an attempt upon the English crown. Having landed with about 2000 followers at Milford Haven, he advanced into the country, and qteedily gained such accessions of force as enabled mm to meet and overthrow Richard at Bosworth Field, where the tyrant was slain, and the victorious Richmond was immediately proclaimed king, under the title of Hknby VII. The new monanh soon after ■ought to strengthen his title by marrying Elizabeth, the daughter and heir of Edward IV., by which it was Mid the families of York and Lancaster were united. HODSE OF TUDOB — HENRY VII. Under Henry VII. the country revived from the ovils of a long civil war, in the course of which the oUef nobility had been broken down, and the industry and commerce of the land interrupted. It was remark- able, nevertheless, that, during the past period, Eng- land was upon the whole an improving country. The evils of war had fallen chiefly on those who made it; the government, however disturbed by various claim- anta of tlie throne, was mild and equitable — at least as compared -ith that of other countries; and the people ■t laig* throve under a system in which their own ooBient, by th» roico of the Uouae of Commons, was IM necessary to the makbg of avery now law, and tlie laying on of every tax. The reign of Henry VII. waa much disturbed by inkurrections, iu consequence of his imperfect title. A baker's boy, named Lambert Symnel, and a Jew's son, numed Perkin Warbeck, were successively set up by the York party— the one as a son of the late Duke of Clarence, and the other as the younger brother of Edward V., but were both defeated. Warbeck waa hanged at Tyburn in 1499; and uearl> about the same time, Henry procured, by forms of law, the death of the Earl of VVarwick, the real son of the late Duke of Clarence, a poor idi( i boy, whom he had kept fifteen years in confinement, and whose title to the throne, being superior to his own, rendered him uneasy. Henry, thoueh a cruel prince, aa were most of the sovereigns of his age, was a sagacious and peaceful ruler. He paid great attention to all hia affairs, and in some of his acts looked far beyond the present time. For example, by marrying his daughter Margaret to James IV. of Scotland, he piovided for the possibility of the future union of the two crowns. By a law allow- ing men of property to break entails, he ensured the reduction of the great lords, and the increase of the number of small proprietors. His constant policr waa to depress the chief nobles, and to elevate the clergy, lawyers, and men of new families, as most likely to be dependent on him. The greatest fault of his character was his excessive love of money, of which he amassed an immense sura. During his reign, Irelard was made more dependent on the English crown by a statute prohibiting any parliament from being held iu it until the king should give his consent. HENRY Tin. Henry VII. died in April 1509, in the fifty-third year of his age. His eldest surviving son and successor, Henry VIII., was now in his eighteenth vear. Young, handsome, and supposed to be amiablu, ne enjoved at first a high degree of popularity. Some years before, he had been a^anced to Catherine, a Spanish princess, who had previously been the wife of his deceased brother Arthur : he was now married to this lady, the Pope having previously granted a dispensation for that purpose. For many years the reign of Henry was un- marked by any unusual incidents. The chief admini- stration of affairs was committed to a low-born but proud churchman, the celebrated Cardinal Wolsey. The king became much engaged in continental politics; and during a war which he carried on against France, his brother-in-law James IV., who sided with that state, made an unfortunate irruption into the north of Eng- land, and was overthrown and slain, with the greater part of his nobility (September 9, 1513), at; Flodden. About this time some changes of great importance to European society took place. Almost ever since the destruction of the Roman Empire, the natioiiS which arose out 3f it had remained in subjection to the Papal Sec, which might be said to have inherited the universal sway of that government, but altered from an authority over the bodies of men to an empire over their minds. In the opinion of many, this authority of the Roman Catholic religion had in the course of time become much abused, while the T«Iigion itself was corrupted by many superstitious observances. So long as. men had rontmued to be the thoughtless warriors and unlettered peasants which they had been in the middle ages, it is not probable thi\t they would ever have called in ques- tion either the authority of the Pope or the purity of the Catholic faith. But, with knowledge, and the rise of a commercial and manufacturing class, came a dis- position to inquire into the authority of this 'great reli- gious empire. The art of printing, discovered about the middle of the preceding century, and which waa now rendering literature accessible to most classes of the community, tended greatly to brlag abotit this re- volution in European in*;ellect. The minds of men, indeed, aeem at this time m if awaking from a long rleep; and it might well have been a queation with HIST0B7 07 QBEAT BBITAIN AlfD IBELAIO). long with panou who luid reflection, but no experience, whether the change wu to turn to evil or to good. When jnen'g minds aie iii a state of preparation for any great change, a rery small matter is required to set them in motion. At Wirtomberg, in (Jermany, there was an Augustine monk, named Martin Luther, who became incensed at the lloman see, in ccaseqnence of some iujunr which he conceived to hare been done to his_ order by the Pope having granted the pr ^ge of selling indulgences to the Dominican order o' .i..trs. Being a man of a bold and inquiring mind, he did not rest satisfied till he had convinced himself, and manv otaers around him, that the indulgences were sinful, u id that the Pope had no right to grant them. This happened about the year 1517. Controversy and per- secution gradually extended the views of Luther, till he at length openly disavowed the authority of the Pope, and condemned some of the most important pe- culiarities of the Catholic system of worship. In these proceedings, Luther was countenanced by some of the states in Germany, and his doctrines were speedilj^ established in the northern countries of Europe. THE REFOHMATION. Henry VIII., as the second son of his father, had been originally educated for the church, and still re- tained a taste for theological learning. He now distin- guished Limself by writing a book against the Lutheran doctrines; and the Pope was so much pleased with it as to grant him the title of Defender q/ me Faith. Henry was not destined, however, to continue long an adherent of tho Roman pontiff. In the year 1527, he became enamoured of a young gentlewoman named Anne Bo- loyn, who was one of his wife's attendants. He imme- diately conceived the design of annulling his marriage with Catherine, and marrying this younger and more agreeable person. Finding a pretext for such an act in the previous marriage of Catherine to his brother, he attempted to obtain from the Pope a decree, declar- ing his own marriage unlawful, and that the dispensa- tion upon which it had proceeded was beyond the powers of the former Pope to grant. The pontiff (Clement VII.) was much perplexed by this request of King Henry, because he could not accede to it without of- fending Charles V., Emperor of Oermany, one of his best supporters, and the brother of Queen Catherine, and at the sume time humbling the professed powers of the Papacy, which were now trembling I'uder the attacks of Luther. Henry desired to employ the influence of his minister. Cardinal Wolsey, who had now reached a degree of opulence and pride never before attained by a subject of England. But Wolsey, with all his sreatness, could not venture to urge a matter disagreeable to the Pope, who was more his master than King Henry. The pro- cess went on for several years, and still his passion for Anne Boleyn continued unabated. Wol'-sy at length fell under the king's displeasure for refusing to serve him in this object, was stripped of all his places of power and wealth, and in November 1530, expired at Leicester Abbey, declaring that, if he had served his God as diligentljr as his kmg, he would not thus have been given over in his gray hairs. The uncontrollable desire of the king to possess Anne Boleyn, was destined to be the immediate cause of one of the most important changes that ever took place in England — ^no less than a total reformation of the national religion. In order to annul his marriage with Catherine, and enable him to many Anne Boleyn, he found it necessary to shake off the authority of the Pope, and procure himself to be acknowledged in Parliament as the supreme head of the English church. His marriage with Anne took place in 1533, and in the same year was bom his cele- brated daughter Elizabeth. In 1536, Henry became as anxious to put away Queen Anne as he hod ever been to rid himself of Queen Catherine. He had contracted a passion for Jane Seymour, a young lady then of the queen's bed- chamber, as Anne hersm had been in that of Catherine. In order to gratify this new passion, he aeeuied Anne of what appears to have been an iroaginarr frailty, and within a month from the time when she had been an honoured queen, she was beheaded (May 19) iu the Tower. On the very next di>.y he married Jane Sey- mour, who soon after died iu giving birth to a son (afterwards Edward VI.) His dau(r,hters, Mary and .Elizabeth, were declared illegitimate by act of Parlia* ment, and therefore excluded from the succession. Hitherto, though professing independence of Home, Henry still maintained, and even enforced, by severe and bloody laws, tho most of its doctrines. He now tcok measures for altering this system of worship to something nearer the Lutheran model, and also for suppressing the numerous monasteries throughout the countrpr. Being posaessed of more despotic power, and, what IS stranger still, of inore popularity, than any former sovereign of England, he was able to encounter the dreadful risk of o&endiug by these means a vastly powerful corporation, which seems, moreover, to have bsen regarded with much sincere affection and respect in many parts of England. No fewer than 645 monas- teries, 2374 chantories and chapels, !)0 colleger, and 110 hospitals, enj oy ing altogether a revenue of £ 1 6 1 ,000, were broken up by this powerful and uuscrupulooa monarch. He partly seized the revenues for his own use, and partly jj^ave them away to the persons who most actively assisted him, and who seemed most able to protect his government from the effects of such a sweeping reform. By this act, which took place in 1537, the Reformation was completed iu England. Yet for many years Henry vacillated so much in his opi- nions, and enforced these with such severe enactments, ' that many persons of both religions were burnt as heretics. It was iu the southern and eastern parts of England, where the commercial classes at this time chietly resided, taat the doctrines of the Reformation were most prevalent. In the western and northern parts of the country, Catholicism continued to flourish; and in Ireland, which was remotest of all from the conti- nent, the Protestant faith made little or no impression. After the death of Jane Seymour, Henry married Anne of Cleves, a German princess, with whose person, however, he was not pleased; and he therefore divorced her by an act of Parliament. He next married Cathe- rine Howard, niece to the Duke of Norfolk; but hod not been long united to her when he discovered that she had committed a serious iidiscretion before marriage. This was considered a sii&icient reason for beheading the unfortunate queen, and atcninting all her relations. Though Henry had thus murdered two wives, and di- vorced other two, and become, moreover, a monster in lorm as well as in his passions and mind, he succeeded in obtaining for his sixth wife (1543) Catherin«> larr, widow of Lord Latimer, who, it is certain, only con- trived to escape destruction by her extraordinary pru- dence. Almost all who ever served Henry VIII. as ministers, either to his authority or to his pleasures, were destroyed by him. Wolsey was either driven to suicide, or died of a broken heart ; Thomas Cromwell, who succeeded that minister, and chiefly aided the king 11 bringing about the Reformation — Sir Thomas More, loi-d chancellor, the most virtuous, most able, and most consistent man of his time — the Earl of Surrey, who was one of tho most accomplished knights of the a^e, and thp first poet who wrote the English language with perfect taste — all suffered the some fate with Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. When James IV. died at Flpdden, in 1513, the Scottish crown fell to his infant son James V., who struggled through a turbulent minority, and was now a gay, and, upon the whole, an amiable prince. Hia uncle, Henry VIII., endeavoured to br.ng him into his views respecting religion ■ but James, who was much in the power of the Catholic clergy, appears to have wished to become the head of the Popish party iu England, iu the hope of succeeding, by their means, to the throne of that country. A war latterly broke out between th« two mouarchs, Mid the Scottish anuy having refiued 13$ OHAUBBRM IMFOBMATION FOB ITHB P10PL& to flikk, from » dl.llk« to tb« •xpoditlon, JMnei di»d (DMombor 1442) of % broken howrt, lo»Tliig »n only child. Mart, who WM not ftboYe • weok old. Henry imm«di»t«ly oonceiTod tho ide» of luarnnng hi« wn Edwud to thii infwit queen, by which he o»Ioul»ted th»t two hoitile nutioni ihould bo united under one •orereignty. Mid the ProteetMit church in England be npported by • iiniilw eeUbliihment in Bcotl»nd. Thw pr^, howerer, wm reilited by the Scoti, of whom nn few M yet were inclined to the I'roteituit doctrinei. Henry, enraged at their heeitation, lent a fleet and army, in 1544. to inflict vengeance upon them. The Scot* endured with great patience the burning of their capital city, and manv other devaatations, but still to- Aued the match. The government of Scotland was now chiefly in the handi of Cardinal Beaton, a man of liold and deciiire intellect, who zealously applied himself to aappreH the reforming preachers, and locarded the English match as likely to bring about the destruction of tne Catholic religion. KOWABD VI. — qUKKN HARY. Henry died, January 28, 1547, leaving the throne to his only son, a boy of ten y^ars of age, who was imme- diately pro«d&imed king under the title of Edward VI. The Duke of Somerset, maternal uncle to the young king, became suprome ruler under the title of Protector, and continued to maintain the Protestant doctrines. Under this reign, the church of England aseumed its present form, and the Bool^ of Common I^yer waa composed nea . !y as it now eziets. Somerset being resolved to effect, if possible, the match between Edward VI. and Mary of Scotland, invaded that countrr in the autumn of 1547, and was met at Musselburgh br a large army under the governor, the Earl of Arran. Though the Scotch were animated by bitter animosity uainst the Eiiglish, against their religion, and against the object of their expedition, thev did not fight with their usual resolution, but were defeated, and pursued with great slaughter. Finding them still obstmate in niUting to give up their queeu, Somerset laid waste a great ^at of the country, and then retin i. Previous to this period. Cardinal Beaton had been assassinated by private enemies; but the Scotch were encouraged to persevere by the court of France, to which they now sent the young queen for protection. In the reign of Edward VI. the government was conducted mildly, until the Protector Somerset was degraded from his authority by the rising influence of Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, who caused him soon after to be tried and executed. Northumberland, who waf secretly a Roman Catholic, was not so mild or popular a ruler. Yet, throughout the whole reign of Edward VI., which was terminated by his death on the 6th of July 1553, at th'. early age of sixteen, no reli- gious party waa pet-.outed, except those who denied the fundamental doctrines of the Christian religion. It would have been well fur the honour of a church which has produced many great men, and to which the modem world is indebted for the very existence of Christianity, if it had not been tempted after this period to com- mence a very different course of action. The crown now belonged by birthright to Mart, the eldest daughter of Henry VIII., who was a zealous Catholic. Northum- berland, however, assuming the illegitimacy of that princess and her sister Elizabeth, set up as queen the Lady Jane Orey, who was descended from a younger sister of King Henry, and who had been married to a ■on of the Duke of Northumberland. Lady Jane was the most beautiful, most intelligent, and most amiable of all the females who appear in the history of England. Though and John Knox, who had once been a friar, but was now a Pro- testant preacher. As a natural consequence of the obligation which the English queen had conferred upon the Scottish reformers, she acquired an influence over the country which was never altogether lost. About the time when the Scottish Parliament was establishing the reformed religion, Mary of Guise breathed her last, leaving the country to be managed by the reforming nobles. Her daughter, the Queen of Scots, now eighteen years of age, and the most beauti- ful woman of her time, had in 1559 become the queen- consort of France; but in consequence of the death of her husband, she was next year left without any poli- tical interest in that country. Sho accordingly, in August 1561, returned to Scotland, and assumed the BISTORT OF GREAT BBITAIK AKO IRELAKD. Mvcnlgn'.jr of a country which wm chiefly under the rule of fierce uoblei, and where the people, from the difllbrenoe of their religioui faithf, ai well a* their natire barl>ariiini, were little fitted to yield her the obedience of loyal and loving lubjecti. The chance of religion in Scotland waa of a more decisive kind than it nau been in Kn/land. The Eng- li«h 1^' lonnation had been eft'ected by lovereigni who, while they wiihed to throw oft' the Rupremaoy of the Pope, and loine of the Catholio rites, deiired to gire M little way at pouible to popular principles. They therefore not only leized the lupreniacy of the church to themaelvei, but, by biihopi and other dignitariei, mode it an efiiciout instrument for supporting monarchi- cal government. In Scotland, where the iteformation was effected by the nobles and the people, at a time when still bolder principles had sprung up, none of this machinery of power was retained. The clergy were placed on a footing of perfect equality ; they were all of them engaged in parochial duties, and only a small part of the ancient ecclesiastical revenues was allowed to them. In imitation of the system established at Geneva, their general affairs, instead of being intrusted to the hands of bishops, were confided to courts formed by themselves. These courts, being partly formed by lay elders, kept up a sympathy and attachment among the community, which has never existed in so great a degree in the English church. What was of perhaps ■till greater importance, while a large part of the an- cient revenues was absorbed bv the nobbs, a very con- ■iderable portion was devoted to the maintenance of parish Khools, under the express control of the clergy. These at once formed regular nurseries of Protestant Christians, and disseminated the elements of learning more extensively over this small and remote country than it had ever been over any other part of tho world. Queen Mary, ho ing little power in her own country, was obliged to govo n by means of her natural brother, James Stewart, whom she created Earl of Moray, and who was the loader of the Protestant interest in Scot- land. Personally, however, she was intimately con- nected with thd great Catholic powers of the continent, and became a party, in 1564, to a coalition formed by them for the suppression of Protestantism all over Europe. She had never yet resigned her pretensions to tho English throne, but lived in the hope that, when the Catholics succeeded in everywhere subduing the Protestants, she would attain that object. Elizabeth, who had only the support of the Protestant part of her own subjects, with a friendly feeling among the Scotch and other unimportant Protestant nations, had great reason to dread the confederacy formed against her. She nevertheless stood firm upon the Protestant faith, and the principles of a comparatively liberal and popu- lar government, as the only safe position. A series of unfortunate events threw Maiy into the hands of Elizabeth. The former queen, in 1565, married her cousin Lord Darnley, and by that means alienated the affections of her brother and chief minister, the Earl of Morav, as well as of other Protestant lords, who raised a rebellion against her, and were obliged to fly into England. Soon after, the jealousy of Darnley respecting an Italian musician named Rizzio, who acted as French secretary to the queen, united him in a conspiracy with the banished Protestant noblemen for the murder of that humble foreigner, which was effected under Tcrv barbarous circumstances, March 9, 1566. Mary, who was delivered in the succeeding June, of her son James, withdrew her affections entirely from her husband, and began to confide chiefly in the Earl of Both well, who some months afterwards caused Darnley to be blown up by eunpowder, while he lay in a state of sickness; in which transaction it has always been suspected, but never proved, that the queen had a considerable share. Bothwell soon after forced her, in appearance, into a marriage, which excited so much indignation among her subjects, that the same Protes- tant lords who had effected the Reformation, and were the friends of Elizabeth, easily obtained the possession of her person, and having deposed her, crowned hef infant son as king, under the title of Jamks VI., while the regency was vested in the Earl of Morav. In May 1 568, Mary escaped from her prison in Locbleven, and put herself at the head of a b mitted, either by the Catholics in seeking to support the church of liome, or by the Protestants in endea- Touring to insure themselves a^nst a renewal of severities inflicted by the opposite party. Nor is it neaaaaury, in the preaent age, that the adherenta of either faith ahould retain any feeling of displeasure against the other, on account of barbarities which took their rise in the ignorance and rudeness of a former period, and of which the enlightened of both parties have long since disapproved. la the Netherlands, which formed part of the domi- Biona of PhUip II. of Spain, the reformed faith had mad* ooDsiderable advances. Philip, like other Catho- lio princes, entertained tho idea that this new creed, bttidcs being condemnable aa a heresy and an offence Moinat theDeity, tended to make men independent of ^ir rulers. Finding the people obstinate in their profeaaiona, he commenced a war with the Nether- uuidtrs, for the purpose of enforcing his authority over their conaciencea. This war lasted about twenty years; for the Netherlanders, though a nation of no great strength, fought like desperate men, and endured the moat dreadful hardships rather than submit. The chief leader in this war of liberty was William, Prince of Orange, one of the purest and most courageous pa- triots that ever breathed. Elizabeth could not help wishing well to the Netherlanders, though for a long time her dread of Spain, then one of the greatest powers in Europe, prevented her from openly assisting them. At the same time, about two millions of the people of France were Protestants, or, as they were then called, Huguenots, who acted also for the general Protestant cause with as much energy as the great strength of the French government would permit. Eliabeth at length, in 1578, extended an open pro- tection to the Netherlanders, excusing herself to Philip by stating her fear that they would otherwise throw themselvea into the arms of France. The northern provinces were thus enabled to assert their indepen- dence, and to constitute the country which has since been called Holland. DEATH OF MAHT, QUEEN OF SCOTS. The Catholic powers of the continent formed many achemea for annoying or dethroning Elizabeth ; and the impriaoued Scottish queen, or her adherents, wer> generallv ocnoemed in them. The king of Spain, dc termined at length to make a decisive effort, commenceU the preparation of a vast fleet, which he termed the InTincible Armada, and with which he designed to in- vade the English ahores. Elisabeth, her ministers, and people, behwd the preparationa with much concern, ana their fean were increaaed by the plots which were inceawntly forming amongst her Catholic subjecta in 138 behalf of the Queen of Beots. An Mt WH pMM4 dt« daring that any person, by or /or whom any plot should be made against the (junen of England, should be guilty of treason. When, soon after, a gentleman named Itabington formed a connpirocy for aasassinating Eliia- both and placing Mary on the throne, the latter queen became of course liable to the punishment for treason, although herself innocent. She wm subjected to a for- mal trial in her prison of Fotherlngay Castle, and found guiltv. Elisabeth hesitated for some time to strike an unoffetuling and unfortunate person, related to her by blood, and ner equal in rank. But at length fears for herself got the better of her sense of iustioe, and. it may be added, of her good sense, and she cave her sanction to an act whicn leaves an ineffaceable stain Xn her memory. On the 7th of February 1A87. ry, Queen of Soots, was beheaded in the hall of the castle, after an embittered confinement of more than eighteen years. JaiMes VI. was now, after a turbulent minority, in posaeaaion of the reins of government in Scotland, but with little real power, being a dependant and pensioner of Elisabeth, and at the same time much controlled br the clorey, who asserted a total independence of all temporal authority, and considered themselves as the subjects alone of the Divine founder of the Christian faith. James made many attempts to assert a control over the church like that enjoyed by the English mo- narch, and also to introduce an Episcopal hierarchy, but never could attain more than a mere shadow of hia object. The chief influence he possessed arose in fact iVoni his being regarded aa heir preaumptiv* to the English crown. SPANtail ARMADA — RXBELUONl IN IRUAHD. In 1588, the Spanish Armada, consisting of 130 great vessels, with 20,000 land forces on board, set sail against England, while 34,000 more land forces prepared to join iVom the Netherlands. Amidst the consternation which prevailed in England, active measures were taken to defend the country; thirtr vessels prepared to meet the Amioda, and another fleet endeavoured to block up tho Netherlands forces iu port. The command was taken by Lord Howard of Effingham. Troops were alao muatered on land to repel the invaders. The English fleet attacked the Armada in the Channel, and waa found to have a considerable advantage in the lightneu and mana^eableness of the vessels. As the Armada sailed along, it was infested by the English in the rear, and by a series oi' lesultory attacks, so damaged as to be obliged to take refuge ou the Ck>a8t of Zealand. The Duke of Panna now declined to euibark tho Netherlands forces, and it was resolved by the admiral, that they should return to Spain by sailing ?ound the Orkneys, as the winds wv«fiteien «f the ships, having 5000 men on hoA'tt, were mat awiiy on the VVestom Isles and the coaat of Ireland. Of the whole Armada, fifty-three ships only returned to Spain, and these in a wretched condition. The seamen, as well as the soldiers who remained, werv so overcome with hardships and fatiffue, and so dispirited by their discomfiture, that they filled nil Spain with accounik it' the desperate valour of the English, and of the terupestuoua violence of that ocean by which they were laTrounded. Though the Protestant church had meanwhile been establi^ed in Ireland, the great bulk of the people con- tinued to be Roman Catholics. The native rudeness of the people and their chiefs, and the discontent occasioned by what was considered as a foreign church establish- n>ent, rendered the country turbulent and difficult to govern. Sir John Perrot, the deputy, proposed to im- prove the country- by public works and English laws; but it was thought injurious to England to improve the condition of IreUnd, A series of rebellions under chiefs named O'Neill was the consequence, and the English BIITOBT 07 OBXAT BBITAIK AKD IBELAND. gotmimnk wm mklnUlnad with mat difflouUy, and tA Ml uionnotta aiptiiM. Th* r«b«llTon of Huyh O'Neill, E«rl of Trrona, wm p«rtioul»rljr foriuidablt. The Engliah omcan wen »! flnk uiiiuccMtful, and met wiu Mm* Nfioui difeatt. In 1599, Tyrone gained lo mat a riotor^r, that the whole prorlnce of Muuster deolared for hini. He then Invited tbo Spaniarde to maka a descent on Ireland, and join him. The queen ■mt over her favourite, the Earl of Keaex, with '20,000 men; but he did not proceed with vigour, and loon after found it neoeieary to rotum to (higland to juitify himaelf. Next year Tyrone broke the truce lie had formed with Kwox, overran the whole country, and acted a« lovorelgn of Ireland. If Hpain had at thii time pivon hhu the lupport be aiked, Ireland might buvo been diiievered from the Engliih crown. Elisabeth now selected ae her deputy for Ireland, Blount, liord Moun^oy, who was in every reipect better fitted than Eiiex to conduct luoh a warfare. Ai a preliminary etep. thii lugacioui officer Introduced Jeaiouiy and diiunion among the Irish chiefs. The very celerity of his movements tended 1 1 dispirit the insurgents. In 1601, six thousand Upkiiards landed in Kinsale harbour, for the purpose of supporting thn Irish. Mountjoy immediately invested the place, and prevented them ttom acting. Tyrone marched from the south of Ireland to their relief, and was met and overthrown by a much inferior English force, after which Kinsale was surrendered. About the time when Elizabeth died (1603), Tyrone submitted, and Ireland was once more reduced under the authority of the Eng- lish crown. CONCLUSION or TUB KKION OV ELIZABBTU. It is remarkable, that while Elisabeth increased in power and resources, she became more noted for femi- niiie weaknesses. In her early years she had shown a stoicism, and su^riority to natural affections, not usually observed in womon. But in her old age, she became both volatile and susceptible to an extraordi- nary degree; so that the hand which she had withheld in her vounger days from the noblest princes of Europe, ■eemad likely to tie bestowed in her old age upon some mere court minion. Her favourite in niiddlf Ytd' was Robert, Earl of Leicester, a prolligat)' • , l a triiler. In her latter days she listenod to tht ludresses of the Earl of Essex, a young man ' '' greater courage and betUr principle, but also headn..-ail brilliant mili- tary enterprises, began at leu^fth tu adsume an insolent superiority over the queeok whi; vas on one occasion so much provoked by li>» rudeuess as to give him a hearty box on the ear, Nu«with8tanding all his caprices, presumption, and insults, the queen still dotingly for- ^ve him, until he at lencth attempted to raise an insurrection against her in tne streets of London, when he was seised, cuudeinned, and alter much hesitation, executed (February ?5, 1601). Elisabeth, in at last ordering the execution of Essex, had acted upon her usual principle of sacrificing her feelings to what was necessary for the {tublic cause; but in this effort, made in the sixty-eighth year of her age, she had miscalculated the real strength of her nature. She was observed from that time to decline gradually in health and spirits. About the close of 1601, she fell into a deep hypo- chondria or melancholy. She could scarcely be induced to have herself dressed, and at length became so much absorbed by her sorrow as to refuse sustenance, and sat for days and nights on the floor, supported by a few cushions, brought to her by her attendants. On the 24th of March 1603, she expired, after a reign of nearly forty-iiTe years, during which England advanced — po- litical! j and commeiaallr — from the condition of a second-rate to that at a orst-rate power, and the Pro- testant religion was olablished on a basis from which it could never afterwards be shaken. The r«ign of Elisabeth, saw the commencement of tke uaral glory of England. Down to the reign of Henry VII., there was no such thing M » MfT balon|- lug to the publin, and the military geniul of tho poojplu was devoted exclusively to enternrises b^ hwd. The rise, however, of a commercial spirit In Europe, which in H'J'i had caused the discovery of America, and was again acted upon by the scope for adventure which that discovery opened up, hod latterly caused great atten- tion to l>e paid to nautical affairs in England. Engllah- inoii of all ranks sup|)ortod and entered into enteipriaes for diicoveriHK unknown territories ; and under lirake, Cavoiidiih, lUdeigh, and Frubiiher, various expeditions of less or more magnitude wore sent out. The colonies of North America wore now commenced. Amongst the exertions of private merchants, our attention it chiefly attracted by the commencement of the northern whale-fishery, the cod- fishery of Newfoundland, and the leso laudable slave-trade in Africa. When hostilitiei with Spain became mora open, the English commanders mode many successful attacks u])on her colonies in ths West Indies, and also upon the fleets of merchant ves- sels which were enii-loyml to carry home the gold, and other alinoat equallv valuable products of the New World, to the 8pai...h harbours. These attacks were now made in a more syitomatic manner, and with more efiect, as a revenge for the affair of the Armada. It may be said that the dominion of Britain over the seas was perfected almost in a single reign ; a power which has been of such advantage to the country, both in pro- tecting its comincrco, and keeping it secure from foreign invasion, that its origin would have conferred everlast- ing lustre on this period of British history, even al- though it had not been characterised by any other glorious event. The chief articles exported from England to the con- tinent were wool, cloth, lead, and tin : formerly these had been sent in vessels belonging to the Uanse Towns — certain ports of the north of Europe, possessing great privileges — but now English vessels were substituted for this trade. Birmingham and Sheffield were already thriving seats of the hardware manufacture, and Man- chester was becoming distinguished for making cottons, rugs, and friezes. Stocking-weaving and the making of sailcloth, serge, and baize, took tlicir rise in this reign. The progress of other arts was much favoured by the bloody persecutions in the Netherlands, which drove into England great numbers of weavers, dyers, cloth-dressers, and silk-throwers. Amongst the wealthier classes, the wearing of handsome apparel and of gold orname:its and jewellery, made a great advance. Coaches were introduced, but for a time thought only fit for the use of ladies. Great improvements were made in the building of houses. Theatrical umuse- menta were begun, and attained great vogue, tbough only in London. The smoking of tobacco was intro- duced by Sir Walter Raleigh, who became acquainted with the platit in Virginia. At the end of Elizabeth's reign, the population of Loudon was about 160,000, or a tenth of what it now is; and the whole kingdom pro* bably contained about 5,000,000 of inhabitants. THE STUARTS— JAMES I. The successor of Elizabeth, by birthright, was .Tames VI. OF Scotland (styled James 1. of England), who wa» now arrived at the prime of life, and had been married for some years to the Princess Anne of Denmark, by whom he had two sons, Henry and Charles, and one daughter named Elizabeth. James immediately re- moved to London, and assumed the government of England, while his native kingdom, though thus united under the same sovereignty, still retained its own pecu- liar institutions. At the suggestion of the king, who wished to obliterate the distinction of the two countries, the common name of Great Britain was now conferred upon them. King James was an oddity in human cha- racter. His person was naturally feeble, particularly in the limbs, which were scarcely sufficient to support his weight. He had great capacity for learning, some acuteness, and a considerable share of wit ; but was pedantic, vain, and weak. He believed kings to be tho 13ft OStAMBEBS^ IKTd^lUT^ON FOB THS PEOPLE. deputies of Ooi, tai «ocou«t*We to God alone for their Mtioni. He w«i equally di»poMd with Elisabeth to fovem demoticallT, or according to hie own wiU ; but e wanted the vigour and the tact for eecuring popula- xity which enabled hie predecewor to become lo much ihemietrewofhereubjeoti. ^ ,. ^. Notwithftanding the energy of Elizabeth, the popu- lar ipirit had gradually been acquiring force in her ' xeign. It was diefly (een in the acts of the Puritans, a raligious party, who wished to make great reforms in the church, both in its goremment and its worship, and who, fJKim the fervour of their devotions and the strictness of their manners, might be likened to the Piesbyterians of Scotland. King James found con- siderable difficulty at the very first in controlling this party and evading their demands. He was no less troubled, on the other hand, by the Catholics, who, recollecting his mother Mary, conceived that he would be inclined to make matters more easy to them in England. Upon the whole, there were such difficulties m the wav, as, to hare steered successfully through them, would have required a wiser instead of a weaker ruler than Elizabeth. GUNPOWDER PLOT. The disappointment of the Catholics on finding that the severe laws against them were not to be relaxed, Jed to a conspiracy on the part of a few eentlemen of that persuasion, of whom the chief was William Catesby, a person of dissolute habits. It was arranged that, on the day of the meeting of Parliament, November 5, 1605, the House of Lords should be blown up by gun- powder, at the moment when the King, Lords, and Commons, were all assembled in it, thus destroying, as they thought, all their chief enemies at one blow, and maaing way for a new government which should be mere favourable to them. Accordingly, thirty-four barrels of powder were deposited in the cellars beneath the House, and a person named Quy Fawkes was pre- pared to kindle it at the proper time. The plot was discovered, in consequence of the receipt of a letter by Lord Monteagle, warning him not to attend the meeting of Parliament. An bvestigation took plane during the night between the 4th and 5th of November, when the gunpowder was discovered, and Fawkes taken into custody. He confessed his intentions ; and the rest of the conspirators fled to the country, where most of them were cut to pieces in endeavouring to defend themselves. Notwithstanding the atrocious character of this plot, the king could never be induced to take advantage of it, as most of his subjects desired, for the purpose of increasing the persecution of the Catholic party : he probably feared that new severities might only give rise to other attempts against his life. PLANTATIONS IN IRELAND. The state in which the king found Ireland at his accession, aiforded an opportunity for commencing a more generous policy in reference to thr.t country, and introducing regulations favourable to internal improve- ment. Previously to this reign, the legislative authority of the English government was confined to the small ' district called the ' Pale,' while the rest was governed by native sovereigns or chiefs, whose connection with the king of England was merely that of feudal homage, which did not prevent them from making wars or aUi- %nces with each c ^her. Subject to depredations from these powerful Lr zeal by King Charles; and although the people were generally adverse to it, he had succeeded, aner a \'m[ which he paid to the country in 1633, in settling thirteen bishops over the church, by wiiou". he hoped to govern the clergy as he did those of England, But when he attempted, in 1637, to introduce a new Book of Common Prayer into the Scotch churches, the spirit of the people could no longer^be kept within bounds. On the Liturgy being opened in the principal church at Edinburgh, the congregation rose in a violent tu- mult, and threw their clasped Bibles, ond the very stools they sat on, at the minister's head; and it was not till the whole were expelled by force, that tho wor- ship was permitted to proceed. It was found neceusaiy, by the Scottish state-officers, to withdraw the obnoxious Liturgy, till the^ should consult the king, who, not dreading anv mischief, gave orders that it should be used as he had formerly directed, and tha|)^' < ^'- thought he had quelled began to reappear, }-:l^-:: ^.i. vjraged both by his absence, and by tne s'l.- Lioh the Scottish Covenanters had experiencod in a war against religious restraint. A conspiracy, involving most of the country without the Pale, and including many persons within it, was formed chiefly under the direction of a gentleman named Roger Moore, who possessed many qualities calculated to endear him to the people. Some circumstances ex- cited the suspicion of the Protestants; and among others, the return of several officers who had been in the service of the king of Spain, under pretence of recruitine for the Spanish army. But the apparent tranquillity of the country baffled all scrutiny. The 23d of October 1641, being a market-day, was *x«d on for the capture of Dublin Castle. During the previous day, nothing had occurred to alarm the autho- rities. In the evenmg of the 22d, the conspiracy was accidentally discovered, and measures were taken to eave Dublin; but a civil war raged next morning in Ulster, and speedily spread over the country. The design of Sir Phelim O'Neill, and the other leaders of this insurrection, was simply political. They conceived the time a good and opportune one for striking a blow against the government, as the Scots had successfully done; and their conduct was in the outset characterised by lenity. Thev could not, however, allav the hatred with which the Catholics looked upon tneir adversaries; and a sp'.iit of revenge broke out among their followers, which was aggravated to cruel outrage, when they heard that the conspiracy was discovered in Dublin, The spirit of retaliation was let loose, and political wrongs, unfeelingly inflicted, were, as is often the case, ferociously avenged. The massacre of an immense number of Protestants held forth an awful lesson of the effects which oppressive laffs produce on the human passions. The government rather aggravated than alleviated the evil, by offering the estates of all in rebellion to those who should aid in reducing them to obedience. This drove the insurgents to desperation, and postponed the complete extinction of the war for several years. It is to be remarked, that though the Irish were struegling for both national and religious freedom, they gained no sjrmpathy from the patriots of Britain, who, on the contrary, ui||ed the king to suppiMi the rebellion, bemg afnid that a reli- (^ous toleration in Ireland would be inconsistent with the same privilege in their own country. The Scottish Covenanters, themselves so recently emancipated from a restraint upon their consciences, contributed ten thousand troops to assist in restoring a similar restraint upon the Irish I THK CIVIL WAR. It was generally allowed by moderate people, that in the autumn of 1641, at which time the labours of the Parliament had continued one year, the king had granted redress of all the abuses for which the earlier part of his reign, and the British constitution in general, were blameable. If he could have given a guarantee that he never would seek to restore any of these abuses, or attempt to revenge himself upon the men who had been chiefly concerned in causing him to give up, there would have been no further contention. Unfortunately, the character of the kine for fidelity to his engagements was not sufficiently high to induce the leaders of the House of Commons to depend upon him: they feared that, if they once permitted him to resume his autho- rity, there would be no longer any safety for them; and they deemed it necessary that things should be pre- vented from falling into their usual current, l&y therefore prepared a paper called The Remmtlromce, containing an elaborate view of all the grievances that had ever existed, or could now be supposed to exiit; and this they not only presented to the king, b. .t dis- seminated widely among the people, with wh^.m it served to increase the prevailing disaffection. From this time it was seen that the sword could alone decide the quarrel between the king and the Parliament. Charles made an unsuccessful b'empt (January 4, 1642) to seize six of the most refractory members, for the purpose of striking terror into the rest. This served to widen still further ths breach. In the early part of 1642, the two parties sevirally em- ployed themselves in preparing for war. )fet, even now, the king granted some additional coricesbions to his opponents. It was at last, upon a demand of the Parliament for the command of the army — a privilege always before, and since, resting with the cowi- that he finally broke off all amicable intercourse. He now retired with his family to York. The Parliament found its chief support in the mer- cantile classes of London and of the eastern coast of England, which was then more devoteu to trade than the west, and in the Puritan party generally, who were allied intimately with the Presbyterians of Scotland, if not rapidly becoming assimilated with them. Charles, on the other baud, looked for aid to the nobility and gentry, who were able to bring a considerable number of dependants into the field. The Parliamentary party was by the other styled Roundheadt, in c )nBequence of their vearing short hair ; while the friends of the Parliament ^stowed upon their opponents the epithet of Malignanti. The Royalists were also, in the field, termed Cavaliers, from so many of them being horse- men. On the 25th of August 1642 the king erwted his standard at Nottingham, and soon found himself at the head of nn army of about ten ti'ousand men. The Parliament had superior forces, and a better supply of arms; but both parties were very ignorant of the aft of war. The king commanded hU own a*my in person, while the Parlianientar/ tOrces were put under the chai^ge of the Earl of Essex. The first battle took place, Octo >er 23, at Edgehill, in Warwickshire, where the king had rather the ad- vantage, though at the expense of a great number of men. He gamed some further triumphs before the end of the campaign, but still could not muster so large an army as the Parliamem. During the winter, the parties opened a negotiation at Oxford ; but thn de- mands or the Parliament being silll deemed too great by the king, it came to no successful issue. Early in the ensuing season, the king gained some coniid<)rablo advantages; he defeated a Parliamentary Ui CHAMBBBffS DWOKMATION FOB THE PEOPLE. Army under Sir Williwn W*Uer at Str»ttoD, And toon •fter took the city of Brirtol. It only remf»inert for hun to take Olouceater, in order to confine the liivirreckion •ntirely to the eaatem provincefc It was even thougnt at thif time that he might have easily obtained powea- •iou of London, and thereby put an end to the war. Instead of making such an atCempt, he caused sie^ to be laid to Gloucester, which the army of Essex relieved when it was just on the point of capitulating. As the Parliamentaiy army was returning to London, it was attacked by the royal forces at Newbury, and all but defeated. Another section of the royal army in the north, under the Marquis of Newcastle, ^ined some advantages: and, upon the whole, it the dose of the campaign of lfii3, the Parliamentar' .-use was by no means va a flourishing condition. In this war there was hardly an, ivspectable mili- tary qualitT exhibited besides coun^c. The Royalists used to ruqh upon the enemy opposed to them, without any other design than to cut down as many as possible, and when any part of the anu^- was successful, it never returned to the field while a smgle enemy remained to be pursued ; the consequence of which was, that one wing was sometimes victorious, while the remainder was completely b^ten. The Parliamentary troops, though animated by an enthusiastic feeling of religion, wei'e somewhat steadier, but nevertheless had no ex- tensive or combined plan of military operations. The first appeannce of a superior kind of discipline was exhibited in a reciment of horse commanded by Oliver Cromwell, a gentleman of small fortune, who had been a brewer, but was destined, by gre it talent, hypocrisy, and address, joined to an unrelenting disi)08ition, to rise to supreme authority. Cromwell, though himself ineT;>er, in company with a large body of English forces, ' rerthiew the king's northern army on Long Marston Moor. The conduct ut' the Scottish nation in this trans- action was not unexceptionable. They had been grati- fied in 1641 with a redress of every grievance they could name; bince which time the king had not given them the least cause of complaint. In no w ruising war aii-aiust him, they had no excuse but the very equivccal one, that it wag necessary to guard against the possibility of his afterwards being able to injure them, I'hey were also acting on English pay, a proceeding not very con- siltent with their pretensions to independence. The mainspring of their policy was a hope of being able to establish the Presbyterian reliirion in England. The Episcopal church being now abolidhed, divines were nominated by both nations to meet at Westminster, in order to settle a new form of worship and church go- remment; and after a protracted course of delibera- tion, it was agreed that the Presbyterian system should be adopted, though in England it wcs provided that the new chuich should not nave any connection with or influence over the stete. _ The defeat at Long Marston was severely felt by the king. He gained a victory over Waller at Copredy Brieve, and caused Essex's army to capitulate in Corn- wall (September 1) ; but in consequence of a second greatly diminished resources. A new negotiation was commenced t^t Uxbridge; but the terms asked by the Parliament wei'e so exorbitant, ai to show no sincere desire of ending the war. In truth, thout;h the Presbyterian party were per- haps anxious for peace, ther« was another party, now fast rising into importance, who were actuated by no such wishes. These were the Independents, a body of men who wished tu see a republic established in the state, and all formalities whatever removed from the national religion. Amon^ the leaders of the party was Oliver Cromwell, whose mind seems to have already be- come inspired with lofty vieWs of personal aggrandise- ment. This extn>ordinary man had sufficient address to carry a famous act called the Se(f-Denying Ordmanee, which ostensibly airtied at depriving all members of the legislature of commands in the army, but had the efl^ omv of displacing a few noblemen who were obnoxious to his designs. He also carried an avt fpr modelling the army anew, in which process he took care that all who might be expected to oppose his views should be excluded. It was this party more particularly that prevented any accommodation taking place between the king and his subjects. alONTROSE'S CAREER IN SCOTLAND. While the negotiation was ponding, the Marquis (formerly Earl) of Montrose produced a diversion in Scotland in favour of the king. Having got 150C foot from Ireland, to which he added a few Perthshire Highlanders, he descended upon the Lowlands, and on the Ist of September (1644) gained & complete victory over a larger and better - . imed force at Tippermuir. At Aberdeen, whither he went for the pulMose of in- creasing his army, he gained another victory over a superior body of Covenanters. He was then pursued by a third army, under the Marquis of Argyle, and after some rapid movements, seemed to dissolve his forces in the Highlands. Ere his enemies were aware, he burst in the middle of winter Into the country of his great rival Argyle, which ho did not leave till he had made it a desert. Finding himself i.'midly followed by the marquis, at the head of a large body of the clan Campbell, he turned suddenly, and f&iling upon them at Inverlochy (Februrry 2, 1645), gained a complete victory. He then moved along the eastern frontier of the Highlands, where he found himself opposed by a fourth army under General Baillie. After sacking the town of Dundee, and eluding Baillie's troops, ho encountered at Aldeam, in Nairnshire (May 4), a greatly superior force, which he also overthrew. Then turning upon Baillie, whom ho met at Alford, in Aber- deenshire (Jul/ 2), ^e gained a fifth victory, almost as complete as any of the rest. In all these battles Montrose carried everything before him by the spirit of his first onset, and the slai'phter was in general very great. He now descended to the Lowlands, and at Kilsyth, near Olaspow, was opposed by an army of 6000 men, whom the insurgent t'ovemment at Edmburgh had hastily assembled from Fife and Perthshire. These, with a much smaller force, he also defeated (August 15), killing great numbers in the pursuit. The committees of church and state then broke up and left the kingdom, leaving him in appear- ance its sole master. His successes had in the mean- time given the king hopes of carrying on the war with success; but Montrose hod in reality gained no sure advantages. Besides his small army of mingled Irish and Iliglilanders, there was hardly any ijortion of the nation who did not regard him as only a great public enemy. W'jile lying with a diminished force at Philip- haugh, near Selkirk, he was surprised ('September II) by a dctachme>-:t of the regular Scottish at my, under General David Leslie, who completely defeated his troops, and obliged him to leave the kingdom. His having gained six victories in succession, over larger bodies of iuen, has procured for Liiu a distiu^^uished uamr>; but his cruelty, and the ambition to which his fifht at Newbury (October 27), in which he iuif'sred a ..»...., «». .... v.„v..t, —.-. .— - .— . .- defeat, he was left at thd end of the campaign with ! uotirei were coufiueti, detract frout hia character, 144 HISTOBT OF QBEAT BBITAIN AND IRELAND. COMCLVSION OF THE CIVIL WAB. The English campaign of 1645 ended in tlie complete overthrow of the king. Throughout the war, his ene- mies had been continually improving in discipline, in conduct, and in that enthusiasm which animated them so largely; while the Royalists had become, out of a mere principle of opposition, so extremely licentious, as to be rather a terror to their friends than to their enemies. The new-modellin,';; of the Parliamentary army, whic> ^ took place early in 1645, had also aided mudi to the i themselves by all possible meanc against the Presbyte- right of neW-modelling the gOTerameat and lettling the nation. The House of Commons, supported by the city of London, made a bold opposition to these demands, but was ultimately obliged to yield to a force which it had no means of resisting. From that time military violence exercised an almost uncontrolled mastery over England. TRIAL AND BXECUTION OF THE KINO. The leaders of the army being anxious to fortify efiectiveneas of the troops, who were now nomin' iiy commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax, but in reality by Oliver Cromwell, who bore the rank of lieutenant-gene- ral. The consequence was that, in a pitched battle at Naseby (June 14), the >ing was so completely beaten, that he and his party could no longer Keep the field. F.o had no resource but to retire into Oxford, a town zealously affected to his cause, and well fortified. He endeavoured, from this forlorn position, to renew the negotiations for a peace; but every attempt of that kind was frustrated by the Independents, who, though a minority in the House of Commons, possessed great power through the army, and, as already mentioned, V' re desirous of effecting greater changes in church and state than those for which the war was originally un- dcrtiien. Dreading the influence of this body, Ciiavles retired privately from Oxford (May 1646) on the ap- proach of the Parliamentary forces, and put himself under the protection of the Scottish army at Newark. As the views of the Scotch throughout the war had been steadily confined to the security of the Presbyte- rian rcligioii, along with the safety of the king's per- son and the establishment of a limited monarchy, they received him w8 found guilty and condemned to die. C. i 30th of January, he' wae accordingly beheaded ii j»>* of hii palace of Whitehall. The people vert in general bomr-itruck at this event; but they vrero too efleo- tually kept in check b^ the army to have any influence in preveutbg or resenting it. Charlee I. wa« a man of ilender penon, of the middle size, and of a grave and somewhat melancholy cast of countenance. He had not a gracious manner, but pos- lessed considerable dignity. He was sinoerely attached ' to the Church of England, for which he might be con- tidered as a martyr, and he was able to reason very acutely in favour of the divine origin of Episcopacy. The general opinion of modem times respecting his political conduut'ia unfavourable; though few dr / that his death was a most disgraceflil, as woll as imprudent act, on the part of those who brought it about. The worst point of his character was his insincerity: he was proue to using equivocations, with a view to deceive his opponents, and therefore no enemy could depend upon him in negotiation. In private life he was a vir- tuous man, and he is entitled to much credit for the taste which he diiplayed in the encouragement of the fine arts. He left three sons— Charles, Prince of Wales; James, Duke of York, afterwards James II. ; and Henry, Duke of Gloucester, who died in early life. He also left several daughters, one of whom, named Elizabeth, was treated with much harshness by tbe new govern- ment, and died not long after him in prison. In the reign of Charles I., the chief literary men were Ben Jonson and Philip Massinger, dramatists, and Samuel Daniel, Michael Dra^n, and William Drummond, poets. The most emment philosophical character wa,t Dr William Harvey, who discovered the circulat-or. of the blood. Elegant architecture was now for the first time introduced- into private buildings. The king patronised the Dutch artists, Rubens and Vandyke, and collected many fine pictures, which were afterwards sold by his enemies. The Excise and the tax upon landed property were introduced by the Par- liament, in order to support the war against the kin^. When the Parliamentary party became triumphant, it supprefsed the theatre, which was not again k' up till the restoration of monarchy. THE COHHONWEALTD — SUBJUGATION OF laXLAND AND SCOTLAND. Though the execution of the king produced a con- siderable reaction in favour of royalty, the small re- maining part of the House of Commons, which ^ot the ridiculous nickname of the Rump, now established a republic, under the title of the Commonwealth, the executive being trusted, under great limitations, to a council of forty-one members, while in reality Cromwell possessed the chief influence. The House of Peers was voted a grievance, and aboli«he5a), and entering with marks of the most violent indignation, loaded the members with reproaches for their robbery and oppression of the public; then stamping with his foot, lie gave signal for the soldiers to enter, and addressing hiuself to the members, ' For shame 1' said he; * get you gone I give place to honester menl I tell you you are no longer a Parliament : the Lord has done with you 1 ' He then commanded ' that bauble,' meaning the mace, to be taken away, turned out the members, and locking the door, returned to Whitehall with the key in his pocket. Being still willing to keep up the appearance of a representative government, Cromwell summoned one hundred and forty-four persons in England, Ireland, and Scotland, to assemble as a Parliament. These in- dividuals^ chiefly remarkable for fanaticism and igno- rance, were denominated tho Barebona Parliament, from the name of one of the members, a leather-seller, vi'hose assumed name, by a ridiculous usage of the age, was Praise-God Barebones. As the assembly obtained no public respect, Cromwell took an early opportunity of dismissing it. His officers then constituted him Protector of the Commonwealth of Great Britain and Ireland, with most of the prerogatives of tho late king. The war against Holland was still carried on with great spirit. In the summer of 1653, two naval actions, in which both parties fought with the utmost bravery, terminated in the triumph of the English, and the com- plete humiliation of the Dutch, who obtained peace on the condition of paying homage to the English ilag, ex- pelling the young king from their dominions, and pay- ing a compensation for certain losses to the East India Company. In a war which he subsequently made against Spain, the fleets of the Protector performed some exploits of not less importance. The respect which he thus gained for the English name throughout Europe, is one of the brightest points in his singular history. But while generally successful abroad, he ex- perienced unceasing difficulties in the management of aflairs at home. Of the various Parliaments which he summoned, no one was found so carefully composed of his own creatures as to yield readily to his will: he was obliged to dissolve them all in succession, after a short trial. He also experienced great difficulty in raising money, and sometimes applied for loans in the city with- out success. His own oilicers could scarcely be kept in subordination, but were constantly plotting a reduc- tion of his authority. The Royalists, on the other hand, never ceased to conspire for his destruction ; one, named Colonel Titus, went so far as to recommend his assassination in a pamphlet entitled ' Killing no Murder,' after reading which he wai nerer s«en again to smile. The last Parliament called hy Cromwell was in Jan- uary 1656; when, besides the Commons, he tummoned the few remaining peers, and endeavoured, by ennobling some of his officers, to make up a kind of Upper House, This assembly proved as intractable as its predecessorit and he contracted such a disgust at the very nature of a representative legislatui'e, as to resolre, like Cbarle* I., never to call another. His health finally saut^nnder the effects of his ill-gotten power, and he died-vn the 3d September 1G58, a day which was thought to be pr>- Eitiouj to him, as it was the anniversary of several of is victories. His eldest son, Richard, a weak young man, succeeded him as Protector, and was at first treated with all imaginable respect; but he could not long main- tain a rule which even his father had ultimately failed in asserting. He quietly slunk out of public view, leav- ing the supreme authority in the hands of the Rump, wMch had taken the opportunity to reassemble. THE RESTORATION — DCTCB WAR. This remnant of an old Parliament continued in power till the autumn of 1659, when it gave way to a council of the officers who had been in command under Crom- well. The latter government, in its turn, yielded to the Rump, which sat down once more in December. The people, finding themselves mad() the qport of a few ambitious adventurers, began to long for some more fixed and respectable kind of government. At this crisis. General Monk, commander of the forces in Scot- la ^ ' conceived the design of settling the nation. He le. tland (January 2, 1660), with a considerable arm^ , and though he kept his thoughts scrupulously to himself, all men bent their eyes upon huu, as a person destined to realise their hopes. He reached London (February 3), and was received with feigned respect by the Rump. F ^me resistance was attempted by Lambert, one of Cromwell's officers, but in vain. Ere long. Monk was able to procure the restoration of the members who had been excluded from Parliament by Cromwell, who, being a majority, gave an immediate ascendancy to anti-republican views. As soon as this was '%cted, an act was passed for calling a new ^vnd freely dected Parliament ; after which, the exib'.^g assembly immediately dissolved itself. The new Parliament proved to be chiefly composed of Cavaliers and Presbyterians, men agreeing in their attachment to monarchy, though diifering in manv other views. After some cautious procedure, in which the fears inspired by the late military tyranny were conspicuous, they agreed to invite the king from his retii'ement in Holland, and to restore him to the throne lost by his father. They were so glad to escape from the existing disorders, that they never thought of making any preliminary arrangement with the king as to the extent of his prerogative. On the 29th of May, being his thirtieth birthday, Charles II. entered Lon- don amidst such frantic demonstrations of joy, that he could not help thinking it his own fault, as he said, that he had been so long separated from his people. One of the first measures of the new monarch was the passing of a bill of indenmity, by which all per- sons concerned in the late popular movements were pardoned, excepting a few who had been prominently concerned in bringing the king to the block. Harrison, Scrope, and a few other regicides, were tried and exe- cuted; and the bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and Brad- shaw, were raised from the grave and exhibited upon gibbets. In Scotland, only three persons suffered — th» Marquis of Argyle, Johnston of Warriston, and Mr Guthry, a cleigyman: it was considered remarkable, that the marquis had placed the crown upon the king's head at Scone in the year 1651. Excepting in these acts, the kin^ showed no desire of revenging the death of his father, or his own exclusion from the throne. Tlie Parliament which called him home was constituted a legal one by his own ratification of an act for that purpose. In the settlement of other matters, it seemed 147 CBAMBEBffS INFOBMATION FOB THE PEOPLE. the pwTftlllBg with th«4 M th« InttituUoM of the country ihoulS be made m "•"'/JT*'** A V?^ i ehureh wm tMblithed Voth in EnglMdwd Soot and, though not without »uiing about » third of the clergy in b?th oountriei to redgn their cbargee. The item and enthudartio piety which pievaUed during the civil war wai now treated with ridicule, and the iuo«t of the neople vied with each other in that licentioue riot and drunkenneM which i» condemned by all ivstemi of faith. The nation, in fact, eeemed intoxicated with the ■af«ty which the* luppoaed themselTei to have at leocra gained, in a reetoration to the imperfect freedom they eijoyed before the civil war. f heland, which, during the Protectorate, had been managed by Henry, a younger eon of Cromwell, ac- ceded to the R«Mtoration with ai much readineea as any other part of the Britiih dominions. An act was passed for settling property, by which the Catholics obtained some slight benefits, but which, in its main efifacts, tended to confirm the rights of the settlers Introduced by Cromwell. Though Charles had been restored with the appro- bation of a very large poition of his subjects, his most zealous friends were the Rovalists and Episcopalians; hence he almost immediately subsided into the cha- racter of a party ruler. It was deemed necessaiy that he should maintain an armed force for the protection of his person, and to keep down popular disturbances. He therefore caused several horse regiments to be embodied under the name of Life Guards, being chiefly composed o F' Royalist gentlemen upon whom a ptirfect dependencf could be ]|>Iaced; and he afterwards added two or three foot regiments, the whole amounting to about 5000 men. The king paid these troops chiefly out of the money allowed for his own support, for Parlia- ment did not sanction his keepinc up such a force, and the nation generally beheld it with susj^icion. This was the commencement of a itatiding army in England. Personally indolent, dissolute, and deficient in con- scientiousness, and surrounded almost eiclusiveiy by the ministers of the basest pleasures, Charles was not qualified to retain the sincere respect of a people whose habitual character is grave and virtuous. His extra- vagant expenditure soon cooled the afiisctions of his Parliament, and he began to find considerable difii- culties in obtaining money. To relieve himself from this embarrassment, he accepted £40,000 from the French king for Dunkirk, a French port, which had been acquired by Cromwell. For the same purpose, he married a Portuguese princess of the Catholic religion, who possessed a dowry of half a million. He also oom- menosd (1664) a war against Holland, for apparently no better reason than that, in applying the Parlia- mentanr subsidies necessary for keeping up hostilities, he might have an opportunity of converting part of the money to his own penonal use. This Dutch war was chiefly conducted by sea. On the 3d of June 1665, an English fleet of 114 sail met a Dutch one which numbered just one ship less, near Lowestoflfe, and after an obstinate fight, gained a com- plete victory, depriving the enemy of eighteen vessels, and compelling the rest to take refuge on their own coast. The commander on this occasion was the Duke of York, the king's younger brother; a man of greater iq>plication and more stwdy principles, but who soon after became unpopular, in consequence of his avowing himself a Catholic. Some other well-contested actions took place at sea, and the English, upon the whole, confirmed their naval •Ujpramacy. Owing, however, to a failure of the sup- plies, the king was obligiid to lay up his best vessels in ordinary, and to send only an inferior force to sea. The Dutch took advantage of this occurrence to send a fleet up the Thames (June 10, 1667), which, meeting with no adequate reristance, threatened to lay the capital in ruins and destroy its shipping. Fortunately, the Dutch admiral did net think it expeer8, and they were overpowered by General Dal- yell at the Pentland Hills. Thirty-four of the prisonen were executed as rebels, chiefly at the instigation of Sharpe, Arehbishop of St Andrews, who, with the other prelate was peculiarly zealdus in behalf of the govern- ment. Besides these sufferers, fifty persons, including fifteen cleig''men, forfeited lands and goods. Some attempts were now made, at the desire of tho king, to induce the ejected clergy to connect them- selves with the church ; but very few took advantage of a leniency which they believed would have been extended also to Catholics, and which involved their acknowledgment of the king's supremacy in spiritual affairs. About the year 1670, some divines began to hold conventicles in secluded parts of the country, to BISTORT OF GREAT BRITAIK AKD IRELAND. uch other' loveriihsd d»p««ce. SCOTLAND. nitiM had I66S, Lou- off about abutemeut iS occasion g scene of od tenant- iroughfarci iduali who the streeti, .ea to avoid nere heard IT, from the ng or care- I seeking to II situation, red in Lon- which coin- ' September i of the citv. combustible Tangements id to favour during the b of the citpr iple. By this , covering in rhe flame at iaroeter, and 'endered the the city, and le sky which , It had one )rmed much rendered was believed tall pillar, tared in the , _ pillar with low believed ion had been ;y upon the various acts people, to _j severity. 3d to attend on the sus- hearing the A small fines, and, •ted for the ntry of ,;, and ad- >f Ayrshire threatening riuds Edin- _med their metal Dal- ke prisoners Itigotion of 1 the other |the govem- , including Isire of tho liect theni- I advantage Ihave been l)lved their spiritual began to fcountr^, to which the eountnr people used to come with arms. At these places a far warmer kind of devotion was felt than could be experienced under tamer circumstances; and, as may be supposed, such meetings were not cal- culated to di£FUse or foster a sentiment of loyalty. Sen- sible of this, the government obtained an act, imposing very severe fines on all who should preach or listen at conventicles ; but without producing any eflect. The penalties with which they were threatened seemed only to make the people more attached to their peculiar modes of worship and church government. TUB TI^IPLE ALLIANCE — THE FBBNCH ALLIANCE. The kinffdom of France was at this period, under Louis XIV., rising into a decree of power and wealth which it had never before Known. Louis had some claims through his wife upon the Netherlands (since called Belgium), which were then part of the Spanish dominions. He accordingly endeavoured to possess himself of that country by fo.ce of arms. A jealousy of his increasing power, and of the Catholic religion, professed by his people, induced the English to wish that his aggressions should be restrained. To gratify them, Chules entered into an alliance with Holland and Sweden, for the purpose of checking the progress of the French king. In this object he was completely successful, and consequently he became very popular. The Parliament, however, havine disappointed him tf supplies, he soon after entirely changed his_ policy, and with the assistance of five abandoned ministers — Clif- ford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, who were called the cabal, from the initials of their names forming that word, resolved to render himself, if possible, independent of Parliament ; in other words, an absolute prince. In consideration of a large bribe from Louis, he agreed to join France in a war against Holland, with a view of putting an end to that ex- ample of a Protestant republic. War was accordingly declared in May 1672, and the naval fofce of England was employed in meeting that of the Dutch by sea ; while Louis led a powerful army across the Rhine, and in a very short time had nearly reduced the whole of the Seven Provinces. In this emergency the Dutch could only save themselves from absolute ruin by laying a great part of their country under water. The English, who had not entered heartily into this war, soon began to be alarmed for the fate of Holland, which was almost their only support against the dread of Popery; and though forbidden under severe penalties to censure the government measures, they STon contrived to exhibit so much dissatisfaction, as to render a change of policy unavoidable. The kuig found it necessary to assemble his Parlia- ment (February 1673), and it was no sooner met than it passed some acts highly unfavourable to his designs. Among these was the famous Test Act, so called be- , cause it enacted the imposition of a religious oath upon all persons about to enter the public service, the design being to exclude the Catholics from office. Above all things, the House of Commons declared that it would grant no more supplies for the Dutch war. The king resolved to prorogue the assembly; but before he could do so, they voted the alliance with France, and several of his ministers, to be grievances. Charles, who, in wishing to be absolute, had been inspired by no other motive than a desire of ease, now saw that there was a better chance of his favourite indulgence in giving way to liis subjects than in any other course; and he at once abandoned all his former measures, and concluded a separate peace with Holland. This country was now beginning, under the conduct of the Prince of Orange, to make a good defence against the French, which it was the better enabled to do by obtaining the friendship of Germany and Spain. In the year 1678, after a war which, without any decisive victories, will ever reflect lustre upon Holland, a peace was concluded. The Prince of Orange, in the previous year, had married the Princess Mary, eldest daughter of the Duke of York, and educated in the reformed faith— an alliance which pleased the English, from iti itrenothening th« Protestant interest, and which was destined, some yean after, to bring about important iwults. During the whole of this reign the oomiptneH of the court was very great; but it was in some mt>asure the protection of the public. Charles spent vast sums in debauchery, and thus made himself more dependent on his Commons than he would otherwise have been. Many of the Commons were exceedingly corrupt, and all kinds of evil methods were adopted to render them more so. Bribes were distributed among them, and they were frequently olouUd; that is, brought into the presence of the king individually, and personally soli- cited for votes. Stul a considerable party mabtained its purity and independence, and long kept a mi^orit/ against the court. THE POPISH PLOT. For a century past, one of the grand moving-springi of the public conduct had been a strong detestation and dread of the adherents of the Romish church. Thii sentiment did not arise from any fear of the .lumben or political strength of the Catholics, for they were but a small minority of the nation, but from a belief gene- rally enteriained that the Catholics scrupled at no treachery or cruelty which might seem favourable to the re-establishment of their religion. The popular, notions, newly inflamed by the avowed Catholicism of tho Duke of York, heir-presumptive to the crown, and by the late intrigues of the king with France, were en- couraged by a party who wished to impose restrictions upon the royal prerogative, and to exclude the duke from the succession. In 1678, an account of a plot, supposed to have been formed by the Papists, for burning London, massacring the Protestants, and de- stroying the king and the Protestant religion, was circulated by one Kirby, a chemist; Tong, a weak, credulous person ; and Titus Oates, one of the most abandoned miscreants that ever appeared in hirtory. The circumstances attending this pretended discovery were so unlike reality, that if the nation had not been in a state of hallucination at the time, they never could have beon for a moment listened to. Nevertheless, the Popish Plot, as it was called, was not only generelly believed by the people, but also by the Parliaraen'- ind the court; and such was the extent of the excitement, that a general massacre of the Catholics was apprehended. Even the king, though incredulous, was obliged to give way to the prevailing delusion. Meanwhile letters were seized, which dis- covered that the Duke of York carried on a corres- pondence with France, in opposition to the religion and interests of his country. A correspondence of the king's minister Danby, which involved the king in the disgrace of similar machinations, was detected ; and to crown the whole. Sir Edmondsbury Godfrey, the magistrate who first gave publicity to the plot, was found in the fields dead, ^ith his own sword stuck through his body. For two ^ears this horrible delusion reigned over the public mind, and under its influence many innocent Catholics were condemned '-> death. At length the execution of a venerable noDieman, the Viscount Staf- ford, excited a general sensation of pity, and the people padually saw and repented of the excesses which they had committed. THE HABEAS CORPUS ACT — THE EXCLUSION BILL. At this period the House of Commons appears for the first time formally separated into the two parties who have ever since been recognised in it. The ap- pellation Tory, applied to the friends of the Court, was originally brought from Ireland, where the word Toree (give me), used by a Cavalier banditti, had gradually been extended to the whole of the Cavalier or Royalist party. Tho term Whig, which fell to the lot of the Oppositi jn, is said to hare originated in Scotland, being first applied to the sterner portion of the Presbyterian party >n the western counties. Tho Parliament h»Ting impeached Danby, the kiag 14«f CHAMBiBM nrfOBlLLnOl fOB TBS FHOIUL dlMoIrwl U, Mul onlUd u»«tli«r. Tli« new MNmblir, which m«l in Ootobtt 167», p«>T«d •qu.ily unoontron- abla M the lait. It paiMd. by ^J'^orii.y of wwily. nlna, » IIU •xoludiuM tii« Duke of York from the iuc- omioni declwwl thAing'* Ou»rd* wd itfcndmg ■.rmy Uleml I wd pMeed the Balm* Corptu act, which, limiting the time between the •pprehwuiou of a lup- noted wiwinal and hie triiO, rendered it iiiipoiiiblB for il^or any Ibture aorereign to keep iiiUiTiduali in prlwn at hk pleaaure, ai had formerly been done. The Utt mearare u itUl Justly looked upon ai the ji^at bul- wark of pereonal liberty in Britain. Though the bill fbr excluding the Duke of York waa thrown out by the Upper Uou«e, that prince found it ucceHary to eyade tke popuhur odium, firet by retiring to Bruueli, and l^fterwardi to Scotland. At the laiiie time, the Duke of Monmouth, eldest natural lou of tho kins, and beliered by many to be legitimate, began to bo re- garded by the Pn '•byteriaua and liberal party in general ae a preferable heir to the crown. In thoM ■gitationi, the populace of London waa particularly active ; and it waa at thia period that tho term mob waa firat uaed. The word waa an abbreyiation of mobiie vulgiu, a phraao signifying ' the unateody vulgar,' which tho court contemptuously applied to tho crowds which daily aatembled. FEBSECirtlON IN SCOTLAND. Tho persecution in Scotland for field-meetbgs waa so seyere, that, before the year l(l7tt, it was supposed that 17,000 persons had suffered by it in fine, impri- Iaonment, and death. A bond was attempted to be im- posed upon the people, in which conventicles were re- nounced { and to enforce it in the west country, on army of 10,000 Highloiulers was permitted to ransc thero at free quarters. Nothing, it waa found, could breikk the resolution of the people to adhere to their favourite modea of worship; on the contrary, all these severe measures inspired a deep resentment against the government, as well as the prelates. Oi the 2d of May 1679, as Archbishop Sharpo was going in L3xtraordinary revolution took place in i!)ngland. About the time that popular feeling waa recovering fVom the mania respecting the Popish Plot, the House of Commons had shovm stronger symp- toms than ever of a determination to seek tho exclusion of the Duke of York from the throne. The time was unfortunate, for men were beginning to suspect that they had been deceived in many of their surmises about danger from the Catholics. The object, moreover, touched upon a principle which many men in that age deemed sacred — that of hereditary Muccession ; nor was it possible to blame the king for opposing a measure so unfavourable to tho interests of his nearest blood rela- tion. In fact, the Whig party pushed their favourite measure to auch a point, aa to cause a reaotiou of tho public mind against their views. The king called a now Parliament to meet at Oxford, resolved, in the event of ita not proving moro tractable, to take advantage of the popular feeling, dissolve the assembly, and never call another. It met on the 2l8t of March 1681, and the Whigs toon showed that the Exclusion Bill waa still uppermost in their minds. The king pennittml one of his ininisten to propose, that at his death the Princess of Urange should reign as regent, and the new king be for ever banished Ave hundi'ed miles from his dominions. To this concession, which now seems much greater than could have reasonably been expected, they would not listen for a moment. Charles then diasofved the Parliament aa utterly in- tractable, and, as he expected, he was genorally ap- plauded for the act. Popular feeling had now taken a turn in favi^ur of royalty ; and the representative branch of the legislature, long regarded with veneration by tho English, was once more permitted to go down .vithout a struggle. The king henceforth ruled entirely without control, being secretly supplied with money by France, in consideration of his non-interference with the con- quoits of that country. TUB HVB-HOUSE PLOT — DEATH OF CHARLES It. A fit of slavishneas now befell the English nation, ns remarkable in its extent as the late fury against the court and the Catholics. Supported by this mood of the people, Charles caused all the corporations in the kingdom to give up their old charters, and accept of new ones, by which he became all-powerful over the elections of magistrate?, and, conse4|uently, over thoso of parliamentr.ry rrrsrcsci.totivea, should ever another election of thr.t kind take place. The leaders of tho late majority in Psrliainent, comprising tho Duke of Monmouth, I^ord Uusaell (son of the Earl of Bedrord), the Earl of Essex, Lord HoWard, the famous Algernon Sydney, and .lohn Hampden, grandson of the patriot who first resisted Charles I., being reduced to absolute despair, formed a project for raising an insurrection in London, to be supported by one in the west of England, and another under the Earl of Argyle in Scotland, and the object of which should bo confined to a melioration of the government. They were betrayed by nn asso- ciate named Rumsay, and implicated, by a train of uofortttuate circumstances, in a plot for atsassiuatiog WnOSt OF OBEAT BRITAm AKD IBSLAm). M, ninoiic hwlM if. tWMH tb« d »l luch the Heidi ktiowlodgo , unable ur to gWe an 1 amongst 10, by "ub- sivoil what )reach. A I American oppniUTO Idlion took jlar feeling the Popiau nger lynip- 10 oxcluiion le time wn8 ugpect that mises about I moreover, in that age ■>n ; nor was meaauro lo blood rela- lir faTourito lUou of tho t at Oxford, ro tractable, dissolve the ; ou the 2 1 St red that the minds. The )o«e, that at ;n as regent, ve hundi'etl Bsioii, which reasonably a moment, utterly in- norally ap- ow taken a btive branch vtion by tho wn .rithout ely without by France, ih the con- ES II. nation, aa ugainst the is mood of lona in the accept of ll over the lover those jer another lers of the Duke of I Bedford), J Algernon Ihe patriot absolute ^ion in .' England, liana, and lelioration ' an asso- train of issiuatiog tk« kinr (itvM ill* Rje-HouM Plot), of which they wen perfeotly innocent. By the execution of Rusiell and Sydney, and some other aereritica, the triumph of the kinif might be considered oa completed. After having been an absolute aovereign for nearly four years, he died (February 0, 16RA), professing himself at the last to be • Catholic, and wa* wcceoded by the Dukr or Yohk. Charles II. waa a prince of a gay and cheerful dia- position, and ao noted a sayer o( witty things, and so addicted to humoroua amusementa, that he waa called * the Merry Monarch,' Hia wit, ahrewdneea, and good- humour, form the beat aide of hia character. On the other aide, we find a deficiency of alnioat every active rirtue and of all ateady principle. He never allowed any duty of hia atation, or any claim upon hia Justice or clemency, to interfere with his own interests, or even to disturb him in his indolent and vicioui nleasurea. Neglecting his wife, who never had any children, ho spent inSst of his time with hia various mistresses, who openly lived at court, and were oven received by the queen. Of these ladies, the most remarkable were Louisa Querouaile, whom he created Duchsss of Ports- mouth, and Barbara Villiera, whom he made Ducheaa of Cleveland. Six aona of the king by his mistresses were made dukes, and five of these were the progenitors of families in the English nobility. During the reign or Charles II., the nation advanced considerably in the arta of navigation and commerce; and the manufacturea of braaa, glass, silk, hats, and paper, were established. The post-office, set up during the Commonwealth aa a means of raising muney, was advanced in thin reign, and the penny-post was now- begun in London bj a private person. Roads were ^atly improved, and stage-coach travelling was com- menced, though not carried to any great extent. Dur- ing this reign, tea, coffee, and chocolate, which have had a great effect in improving and softening manners, were first introduced. In 1660, the Royal Society was established in London, for the cultivation of natural science, mathematics, and all useful knuwledge. The science of astronomy was greatly advanced by the in- vestigutions of Flamstcad and Halley. But the greatest contribution to science was made by Sir lisa^c Newton, whose Principles of Natural Philosophy were published in 1683: in this work, the true theory of planetary motions waa first explained, in reference to the prin- ciple of gravitation. Amongst the literary men of the period, the first place is to be asaigned to John Miltnn, author of the ' Paradiae Lost ' and other poems : Samuel Butler shines as a humoroua and satirical poet, and Edmund Waller as a lyrist. Amongst divines, tho highest names connected with the church are those of Jeremy Taylor and laaac Barrow; while the highest among the Nonconformists are those of Richard Baxter and John Bunyan. The theatre, which had been sup- pressed during the Commonweuith, waa revived in this reign ; but the drama exhibited less talent and more licentiousness than it did in the previous reigns. Female characters, which had formerly been acted by men, were now for the first time performed by females. JAMES II. — EXPEDITION OV HONUOUTH. Charles II., with all hia faults, had conducted himself towards his subjects with so much personal cordiality, and hod so well calculated his ground before making any aggressions upon popular liberty, ^that he might probably have pursued his arbitrary career for many years longer. But his brother James, though much more respectable as a man, more industrious, and more sincere, wanted entirely the easiness of carriage, plea- santry, and penetration, which were the grounds of the late king's popularity and success. He was, moree8 to do any harm to the government, waa looked upon as a moat unjustifiable piece of cruelty, even if it nad been legally done; and the principal blame was popularly ascrilied to the king. The Earl of Argyle sailed in May with a correspond- ing expedition, and landed in that part of the West Highlands which owned his authority. Unfor --.iiely for him, the government hod received warning, and seized all the gentlemen of hia clan upon whom he had chiefly depended. He nevertheless raised ttetween 2000 and 3000 men, and made a timid advance to Glasgow, in the expectation of being joined by the persecuted Presbyterians of that part of tho country. Being surrounded on the march by various parties of troops, he dispersed his army, and sought to escape in disguise, but.was taken, brought to Edinburgh, and exe- cuted. Thus terminated the last effort made by the Whig party to ameliorate the despotic sway of the Stuarts. ARBITRARr MEASURES OF THE KINO. Encouraged by his successes, James conceived that he might safely begin the process of changing the es- tablished religion of tho country. On the plea of his supremacy over the church, he took the liberty of dis- pensing with the test-o-^th in favour of some Catholic officers, and thus broke an act which was looked upon, under existing circumstances, as the chief safeguam of the Protestant faith. His Parliament, servile as iij waa in temporal matters, took the alarm at this spiritual danger, and gave the king so effectual a resistance that he resorted to a dissolution. Transactiona precisely aimilar took place in Scotland. Heedless of these symptoms, he proclaimed a uni- versal toleration, for the purpose of relieving the Ca- tholics, and thus assumed the unconstitutional right of dispensing with acts of Parliament. The nation was thrown by this measure, and by the numerous promo- tions of Roman Catholics, into a state of great alarm; even the clergy, who had been so eager to preach an implicit obedience to the royal will, began to see that it might be productive of much danger. Wheu James commanded that his proclamation of toleration should be read in every pulpit in the country, onJy two hun- dred tff the «lorgy obeyed. Six of the bioflops joined oHAiniBn ivFOkVAVicnr vob tbi nopiA in ft iMiMotful Mtltion •fe>iiM» tk« «fd«r| M^ ktoj (IwdMtd iiu* doeunMnl to b« » ••dllioM UW, wi thraw ih« petlUonm Into tb« Tow. In Juno 1«88, »h«y WON trioti In WottmlnM»f H»ll, »nil io tho Infl- DiUjoyof»»ion»»lon,ftoqttUtod. Bllndod by roliriout Mil. »ho kinfc proooodod on hit ffttJ oouno. In AetUMot of tho l»w, ho hold onon In- toraoano with tho Hopo, for the roitorotion of U"***"* to tho boMm of tho Romwh church. Ho oallod Cft- tholio lord* to tho pri»r.oounril, ond ovon jilocod loino in tho mbinot. Chftpola, bjr hit iiiitigfttlon, woro ovory- whoro built, »nd monHo nnd prtoiti wont oponly ftbout kio polooo. A oourt of high oommiNion— » cruol in- ■trnmont of power undor Ohftrloo I.— wm oroctod, and bofoN tUo oTOijr doricftl ponon who gftTO any offonoo to tho kinf WM MirtinoneJ. He alto oxoitod groat in- dinationToy Tiolimtly thruitlng a Catholio upon Mac- daion CoUogo, at Oxford, lui iti hoad, and oxpoUing tho monibon for thoir rotiitanco to hit will. Publin fool- ing wa* wound to tho highest pitch of exoitomont by the queen being delifored (.lune 10, I68B) of a ton, who might be expected to per])«tuate the Catholio re- ligion in the country, and ivhoru many eren went the length of tuipeoting to be a tuppotitltioui child, brought forward tololy for that purpoie. The dltaffeotion produced by thoio eikCiimitanoei ox- tended to OTory clati of the king't fubjccti, except the miall body of Roman Catholic*, many of whom could not help regardiug the royal meaturet at imprudent. The Torie* were enraged at tho ruiu thruattined to the church of England, which they regarded as the grand ■upport of conterratire principlet in the ompire. The \Vnigt, who had already made many strenuoui effortt to exclude or expel tho king, were now more inflamed againit him than ever. The clergy, a popular and in- fluential bodv, were indignant at the injuries inflicted upon their church; and even the dittenters, though oompiehended in the general toleration, taw too clearly through its motive, and were too well oonrinced of the illegality of itt manner, and of the danger of its object, M affecting the Protestant faith, to be exempted from the general tentiment. But for the birth of the Prince of Walet, the people at large might haTo been contented to wait for the relief which was to bo expected, alter the death of the king, from the succettion of the Princess of Orange, who was a Protestant, and united to the chief military defender of that interest in Europe. But this hope was now shut out, and it was necessary to resolre upon tome decisive meaturei for the safety of the national religion. THE REVOLUVIOV. In thii crisis, tome of thr principal n(4)ility and gantry, with a few clergymen, united in a lecret aiddreit to the Prince of Orange, calling upon him to come over with an armed force, and aid them in protecting their faith and libertiei. This prince, who feared that Eng- land would toon be joined to Franco against the few remaining Protestant powers, and also that his prospects of the succession in that country, as nephew and son-in- law of the king,* were endangered, listened readily to thii call, and immediately collected a large fleet and army, comprising many individuals, natives of both Scotland and England, who had fled from the levere government of the Stuart princes. The preparationi for the expedition were conducted with great secrecy, and James was partly blinded to tkem, by a rumour that their only object was to frighten him into a closer connectian with France, in order to make him odious to hi* subjects. When he waa at length assured by his ininiiitn hit awn vatial a flag, on which wara intcribad Uia word*. * Tua Fiiotb«t*nv Rklioion and thb LiBBRTint or Enolanu,' with tha appetite motto of hit family, ' J0 Mainlitmbiii ' — ' I will maintain.' At he patted between Dover and Calait, hi* aimainant wa* viaibla to crowd* of speutator* on both thor?*, whose feelings wara Kuch excited at once bv itt appearance and it* well-known purpote. Tha English fleet being detained at Harwich by the lam* wind which waa to favourable to tha prince, he landed (Novambar5) without opputition atTorbay, and iroroa- diataly prooaadrd to oiroulata a manitVsto, declaring tha grievance* of the kingdom, and promising, with the sup- port of tha naopla, to redress them. At the nnt there enon of consequence. The nation, however, toon became alive to the neoei- tity of giving him anoouraffoment. The gentry of Devon and 8omertatahire* formed an atsociation in nit behalf. The Earls of Bedford and Abingdon, with other persons of distinction, repaired to hi* quarter* at Exoter. Lord Delamere took arms in Cheshire; the city of York wa* ■eized by the Earl of Danbv ; the Earl of Bath, gover- nor of Plymouth, declared for the prince; and the Earl of Devonshire mode a like declaration in Derby. Every day discovered some new instance of that general con- feiloracy into which the nation had entered against the measures of the king. But the roost dangerous symp- tom, and tl' -: which rendered his aflbir* desperate, was the spirit vtutch he found to prevail in his army. On his advancing at its head to Salisbury, he learned that some of the principal offlcer* had gone over to the Princo of Orange. Lord Churchill (afterward* famous as Duke of Marlborough), Lord Trelawnov, and the king's lon-in- law, Oeorge, Prince of Denmark, successively followed tbi* example. Even hi* daughter, the Princes* Auriie, de- eerted him. In great perplexity, he lummoned a council of peers, by whose advice writt were itcued for a new Parliament, and committioner* detpatched to treat with the prince. A kind of infatuation now took pottetsion of the king ; and having tent the queen and infant prince privately to France, he quitted the capital at midnight, alroott unattended, for the purpote of following them, leaving orders to recall the writs and disband the army. By this procedure, the peace of the country wh« immi- nently endangered ; but it only served to hasten tho complete triumph of tha Prince of Orange, who hod now advanced to Windsor. The tupreiue authority seemed on the point of falling into hi* hands, when, to his groat disappointment, the king, having been disco- vered at Feversham, in Kent, wo* brought back to London, not without some mark* of popular sympathy and aflfection. There wai no alternative but to request the unfortunate monarch to retire to a country-house, where he might await the settlement of affairs. James, finding hit palaces taken pottetsion of by Dutch guards, and dreading assassination, took the opportunity to renew hit attempt to leave the kingdom. He proceeded on board a vessel in tho Medway, »nd after tome ob- structions, arrived safely in France, where Louis readily afforded him an atylura. The tame day that the king lefl Whitehall for tho laat time, hi* nephew and son-in-law arrived at St James's. The public bodies immediately waited on him, to express their zeal for his c^ute ; and such of the members of tha late Parliament* a* happened to be in town, hftying met by big inyitation, lequaatad him tu tnSTORT OP ORBAT BBITAIK AND tBlStAND. iirite* write for % eonTention, in order to Mttle tho na- tion. II* wai in tho lama manner, anil for tiia lanio purpoflc, T«qu«rt« almost universal ■atisfaction of the nation. By an act passed in the English Parliament, the disseniers from the church in Encland were freed from the severities to which they had been exposed durins the last two reigns. The royal revenue, which had formerly been fixed at the beginning of each reign, was now settled annually by the Houso of Commons, so that the king was more under the control of his people than formerly. The independence and impartiality of the judges were now secured by their boing appointed for life, or during good behaviour, instead of being removable at the royal pleasure as heretofore. William is suid to have wished to grant some further concessions in favour of the Dissenters, but was prevented by the powerful oppo> sition which the Tory party presented in Parliament, RESISTANCE IN SCOTLAND AND IRELAND. The new government was at first extremely popular in Scotland; but one portion of the people was much opposed to it. This consisted of the Ilighlivad clans — a primitive race, unable to appreciate toe rights which had been gained, prepossessed in favour of direct here- ditary succession, and of such warlike habits, that though a minority, they were able to give no small trouble to the peaceful Lowlanders. When the Scot- tish convention was about to settle the crown on Wil- liam aud Mary, Viioouut Dundee, formerly Graham of Clavc.house, ami celebrated for htf wrerity upon th« rwousaiit Presbyterians, raised an insurrection in the Highlands in favour uf King James, while the Duke of (lordon, a Catholic, still held out Kdinl>iir|!ii Castle in the sume interest. It was with no small ditAoultv that the new government could obtain the menns of reducing these opponents. The castle, nftor a protracted siege, was given up In .fune (UiltO). (leneral Markay waa despatched by Willium, with a few troops, to Join with such forces as he could obtain in .Scotland, and endea- vour to suppress the insurrection in the Higlilands, He encountered Dundee at Killiecrankie (July 27), and, though his troops were greatly superior in number and discipline, experienced a complete defeat. Dundee, however, fell by a inuskot-shot in the moment of victory, and his army was unable to follow up its advantage. In a short time the Highland clans wore induced to yield a nominal obedience to William and Mary. In Ireland, a much more formidable resistance waa offered to the revolution settlement. S'nce the acces- sion of James, tl\e liomish faith might be described M virtually predoniinant in that kinedor.<. The laws against Cathollct had been suspended uy the royal authority, all puulic offices were f'led by them, and though the estaulished clergy were not deprived of their bcr.rnces, very little tithe was paii'. to them. The vice- regal office was held by tiie Earl ut fyrconnel, a violent and ambitious youn^ man, disp 'd to secor ' he king in all hii imprudent measures, and resol' >', in the event of their failing, to throw the count ato the hands of the French, The people at larg ' t^ g chiefly Catholics, were warmly attached to the \ t'.' sovereign, whose cause they regarded as " 'ir own. Early in the spring of 160 , j -, .es proceeded fVcm France to Ireland, where he v as soi --> at the head of a lar^e though ill-disciplined ..rmv. He immediately ratified on act of the Irish Parliament for annulling that settlement of the Protestants upon the lands of Catholics, which hod taken place in the time of Crom- well, and another for attainting 2000 persons of the Protestant faith. The Protestants, finding themselves thus Kiispossessed of what they considered their pro- perty, and exposed to the ven(, anco of a majority over whom they had long ruled, fled to Londonderry, Innis- killen, and other ^rtified towns, where they made a desperate resistance, in the hope of being speedily suc- coured by King William. That sovereign now led over a large army to Ireland, and (July 1) attacked the native forces under his father-in-law nt the fords of the river Boyne, near the village of Dunore, where hi- gained a complete victory. James war o^dlessly dispirited by this disaster, nnd lost no time " ai ng again to France, In reality, tho Irish made a '.^ ; iV' appearance, and fought more vigor- ously, after the battle of the Boyne than before it. The Duke of Berwick, a natural son of James, and the EaW of Tvrconncl, still kept the field with a large body of cavalry^ .ud the infantry wei-e in the meantime effec- tually protected in the town of Limerick. William invrstb'l this town, and in one as-^ult upon it lost JOOO men, which so disheartened him, that he went back to England, leaving his officers to prosecute the war. The Irish army afterwards fought a regular battle at Aghrim, when, partly owing to the loss of their brave leader, St Ruth, they were totally routed. The remains of the Catholic forces took refuge in Limerick, where they finally submitted in terms of a treaty which seemed to secure the Catholic population in all desirable right* and privileges. It was agreed that they should receive a general pardon; that their estates should be re- stored, their attainders annulled, and their outlawries reversed; that Roman Catholics should enjoy the same toleration as in the days of Charles II., and not be dis- turbed in the exercise of their religion; that they should be restored to all the privileges of subjects, on simply sweariiig allegiance to the king and queen; and that such as chose to follow the fortunes of James (of whom there was a vast number), should be conveyed to che continent at tho expenw of goremmeut. 153 OHAMBEBS'S WfOSUAXtOS VOR THS PSOPLl!. • King Williun, whoM dlipotition wss tolerant, pro- miied to procure a ratification of thii treaty by Par- liament, but he \ru thwarted in hia design. An act wai pamed in England making it necegsary for all member* of the Iruh Parliament, and all persons fill- ing ciTil, military, and ecclesiastical offices in Ireland, to take an oath abjuring the most important doctrines of the Catholic faith. After this had taken effect, in the filling of the Irish Parliament with Protestants, an act was passed by that assembly, professing to be a. confirmation of the treaty of Limerick, but in reality putting the Catholics into a worse condition than before. KEION OF WILLIAM III. Though all military opposition was thus orercome, William soon found difficulties of another kind in the management of the state. The Tories, though glad to save the established church by calling in his interfer- ence, had submitted with no good grace to the necessity of making him king; and no sooner was the danger p5st, than their usual principles of hereditary right were in a great measure revived. From the name of the exiled monarch, they now began to be known by the appellation of Jaeobites. James's hopes of a resto- ration were thus for a long time kept alive, and the peace of William's mind was so much imbittered, as to make his sovereignty appear a dear purchase. Per- haps the only circumstance which reconciled the king to his situation, was the great additional force he could now bring against the ambitious designs of Louis XIV. Almost from his accession he entered heartily into the combination of European powers for checking this war- like prince, nnd conducted military operations against him every summer in person. The necessity of having supplies for that purpose rendered him unfit, even if he had been willing, to resist any liberal measures pro- posed to him in Parliament, and hence his passing of the famous Triennial Act in 1694, by which it was ap- pointed that a new Parliament should be called every third year. In this year died Queen Mary, without offspring; after which William r?igned as sole monarch. VVhile William was treated iix England with less than justice, he lost all his popuU.rity in Scotland, in consequence of two separate acti, characterised by great cruelty >.:> emporium for American and Indian produce. They subscribed am mg them- selves for this purpose no less than £400,000; to which was added more tliau as much again by merchants in London and Holland. The jeclousy of other trading companies, and the remonstrances of the Spaniards, who apprehended some interference with their colonics, in- duced the king to withdraw his countenance from the ichemc, after he had sanctioned it by act of Parliament; but, nevertheleu (IG98), a gallant expedition WM *euC out by the Scots, who founded a town called New Gdin* burgh, about midway between Portobello and Cartha- gena, tnd under the ninth degree of latitude. During the winter months, everything seemed likely to answer the expectations of the colonists; but summer brought disease, and on their provisions running low, they found, to their infinite consternation, that they could get no supplies, the Spanish and British colonists of the neigh- bouring countries being forbidden to deal with them. In May and September 1699, ere intelligence of these circum8t.ueble, and his ordinary demeanour was reputed cold, silent, and somewhat repulsive. It was only in battle that he ever became animated or easr. He was a conscientious man, of sober and even kindly domestic habits, and sincerely attached to toleration in religion. But for the questionable act of expelling his uncle and father-in-law from the throne, and his con- cern in the affairs of Olcncoe and Darien, no serious blot of any kind would have rested upon his mnae, cither as a public or private person. The reigu of King William is rcmatkablo for thq mSTORt OF GBEAf BW!tAJS( A^ IBELAim. New Edin* ad Cartha- e. During f to answer ler brought they found, uld get no ' the neigh- with them, ice of these expeditions involyed on disease had ire attacked he country; untenanced gn, the un- Very few large sums Y lost. The edition, ex- against the mong whom assume a 7, by which 8, permitted his rei^ in id his sister- Act of Suc- ailing these 1 Protestant •r of Eliza- ,r took their cBsion to the gnty, in the ithout heirs, B elector of }ugh various ich England ig the whole ig family of jve been so Iwith the in- states. At iroduced, in ;he Duke of lis successor, the preten- \{ Philip v., in Spain. I James, the lleaving his Tale", now a |h generally Pretender. [iouis XIV. II., King of the hostile ly created cordingly (March i, le. f lity, parti- timent was knee, which I His person lanour was le. It woa , or easr. hren kindly lleration in polling hit Id his con- no leriout Ihii name, [le for tliQ first legal support of a standing army, and for the com- mencement of the national debt. It is also distin- guished by the first establishment of regular banks for the deposit of money, and the issue of a paper cur- rency. Formerly, the business of banking, as far as necessary, was transacted by goldsmiths, or through the medium of the public Exchequer, by which plans the public was not sufficiently insured against loss. In 1695, the first public establishment for the purpose, the Bank «f England, was established by one William Paterson, a scheming Scotsman ; and next year the Bank of Scotland was set on foot by one Holland, an English merchant. The capital in the former case being only £L,200i€00, and iu the latter tho tenth part of that sura. In the reign of King William flourished Sir William Temple, an eminent political and philosophical writer, to whom is usually assigned the honour of first com- posing the English language in the fluent and measured manner which afterwards became general. The most profound philosophical writer of the ago was John Locke, author of an Essay on the Human Understand- ing, an Essay on Toleration, and other works. Bishop Tillotson stands hi^h as a w.iver of elegant sermons. The greatest name m polite literature is that of John Dryden, remarkable for hin energetic style of poetry, and his translations of Virgil and Juvenal. QUEEN ANNE — MARLBOBOUGH'S CAMPAIGNS. William was succeeded by his sister-in-law, Anne, second daughter of the late James II.; a princess now thirty-eight years of age, and chiefly remarkable for her zealous attachment to the church of England. The movement against the king of France had not been confined to Great Britain; it was a combination of that power with the emperor of Germany and the states of Holland. Queen Anne found it necessary to maintain her place in the Grand Alliance, as it was termed; and the Duke of Marlborough was sent over to the conti- nent with a large army to prosecute the war in con- junction with the allies. Now commenced that career of military glory which has rendered the reign of Anne and tho name of Marlborough so famous. In Germany and Flanders, under this commander, the British army gained some signal successes, particularly those of Blenheim and Kamillies; in Spa.n, a smaller army, under the chivalrously brave Earl of Peterborough, performed other services of an important kind. The war, however, was one in which Britain had no real interest — for it has been seen that Spain has continued undor a branch of the House of Bourbon without greatly endangering other states. A party, consisting chiefly of Tories, endeavoured, in 1706, to put an end to the war; and France was so much reduced in strength, as to concede all the objects for which the contest had been commenced. But the people were so strongly inspired with a desire of humi- liating Fiance, which in commerce and religion they considered their natural enemy, that some ambitious statesmen of a contrary line of politics were enabled to mar the design of a treaty. Among these was the Duke of Marlborough, who, being permitted to profit not only by his pay, but by perquisites attached to his command, wished the war to be protracted, merely that he might make his enormous wealth a little greater. It was in consequence of these unnecessary interferences with continental politics, urged chiefly by the people, and by a class of statesmen popular at the time, that the first largo sums of the national debt were contracted. union of ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. Sinco their religious enthusiasm had been laid at rest by the Revolution Settlement, the Scottish people had been chiefly animated by a desire of participating in tho commerce of England. The treatment of their expedition to Darien had now inspired them with a bitter feelinc against their southern neighbours, and they rcsolTed to show their power of couuter-annoyance by holdmg up threats of dissenting from England in the matter of the succession. In 1703, their Parliament passed the famous Act of Security, by which it was ordained that the successor of her majesty in Scotland should not be the same with the individual adopted by the English Parliament, unless there should be a free commimication of trade between the countries, and the aflikirs of Scotland thoroughly secured from English influence. Another act was at the same time passed for putting the nation under arms. The English minis- ters then saw that an incorporating union would be necessary to prevent the Pretender from gaining the Scottish crown, and to protect England from the attacks of a hostile nation. For this purpose they exerted themselves so eflectually in the Scottibh Parliament, as to obtain an act, enabling the queen to nominate com- missioners for the arrangement of a union. The men appointed, thirty on each side, were, with hardly an exception, the friends of the court and of the Revolu- tion Settlement; and the treaty accordingly was drawn up without difficulty. In October 1706, this document was submitted to the- Scottish Parliament, and was found to contain the fol- lowing principal points: — That the two nations were to be iudissolubly united under one government and legis- lature, each, however, retaining its own civil and cri- minal law; the crown to be in the House of Hanover; the Scottish Presbyterian church to be guaranteed; forty-five members to be sent by the Scottish counties and burghs to the House of Commons, and sixteen elective peers to be sent to the Upper House by the nobles; the taxes to be equalised, but, in consideration of the elevation of the Scotch imposts to the level of tho English (for the latter people already owed sixteen millions), an equivalent was to be given to Scotland, amounting to nearly four hundred thousand pounds, which was to aid in renewing the coin, and otiier ob- jects. These terms were regarded in Scotland as mise- rably inadequate; and the very idea of the loss of an independent legislature and a place among govern- ments, raised their utmost indignation. Nevertheless, by dint of bribery, the union was carried through Par- liament; and from the 1st of May 1707, the two coun- tries formed one state, under the title of the Kingdom of Great Britain. HIGH CUURCU ENTHUSIASM. Since the Revolution, the Whigs might bo considered as the predominant party in England. They almost exclusively constituted the ministries, and a large ma- jority in the Parliaments, of King William. The sen- timents of the queen were of a different cast from theirs. She disrespected the Revolution Settlement, by which she reipned; and was more zealously attached than they to the church of England, in all its doctrines, practices, and privileges. As the remembrance of the errors of King James faded from the public recollection, or were put out of view by more recent grievances, the people began to partake more generally of the Tory spirit. The Parliament which they returned at the beginning of the new reign, contained a much larger admixture of that party than the former one. Tlie Tory feeling of both people and Parliament chiefly took the direction of a strong attachment to the church of England, which they wished to maintain in uncompro- mising supremacy, and in all its privileges; while tho Whig party, in general, were favourable to the toleration called for by the dissenters. The distinction of High Church and Low Church now became conspicuous, the one phrase implying the ecclesiastical views of the Tories, while the other referred to those of the Whigs. In this Parliament the House of Commons passed a bill against occasional conformiti/, by which penalties were imposed on all persons in office who should attend dissenting places of worship; but it was thrown out by tho Upper House, in which tho bishops created by William voted against it. An imprudent act of the ministry raiser' he High Church enthusiasm to an extraordinary ight. A 15:) (JHAllBEBS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOFLB. divine of inferior note, named Heniy Sachr irell, had preached a violent sermon, in which he eeemed to call upon the people to take up arm* in defence of their endangered church. The ministers were so weak as to give this man a solemn -,rial,dunng which the people rose so tumultuously in his favour, that, though de- clared guilty, it was found impossible to inflict uyon him more than a nominal punishment. After the trial, he received more marks of public reverence and honour than were ever bestowed on the greatest national bene- factor. In proportion to the popularity of Dr Sache- verell' was toe loss of public favour experienced by the Whig' party. About the same time, through some court intrigues, they forfeited all remaining favour with their royrl mistress. Mrs Masham, a lady of the court, and fkvourite of the queen, had contrived to introduce into the cabinet two Tory statesmen, Mr Robert Harley, afterwards Earl of Oxford, and Mr Henry St John, afterwards Lord Bolingbroke, These gentlemen hav- ing attempted to set up a party for themselves, their superior, Lord Oodolphin, dismissed them, to the great displeasure of Queen Anne, who now resolved to get quit of the Whig party at the first opportunity. In August 1710, Harley and St John came into power, at the head of a decidedly Tory ministry, which, though of brief duration, was destined to make an important figure in the national history. The queen at the same time called a new Parliament, whinh proved to be almost wholly composed of the Tory party. PEACE OF UTRECHT — DEATH OF QUEEN ANNE. The members of the new cabinet immediately applied themselves, though very secretly, to the business of bringing about a peace. When their plans were ma- tured, the consent of the House of Commons was easily g.v:ied; but the Lords having shown some reluctance, it Was found necessary to create twelve new peers, in order to overpower the sense of that part of the legis- lature. After a tedious course of negotiation, Britain and Holland concluded a peace at Utrecht (1713), leaving the emperor of Germany still at war. By this arrangement, Philip V. was permitted to retain Spain and the Indies, but no other part of the dominions which his ambitious grandfatbor had endeavoured to secure for him; and it was provided that he and his descendants should never inherit the kingdom of France, nor any future king of France accede to the crown of Spain. Britain obtained nothing tangible by all her exertions, except the possession of Gibraltar and Mi- norca, and the privilege of being exclusively employed to carry slaves to the Spanish American colonies. It has jufitly been considered a stain upon the nation, that it should have concluded a separate peace under such clandestine circumstances, nii the interests of the other Itelligerent parties were thereby greatly injured. For the gratification of their High Church supporters, the ministers obtained an act for preventing dissenters froia keeping schools, and another for establishing church patronage in Scotland, the former of which was repealed in the following reign. It is believed that Queen Anne and her Tory in .lis- ters were in secret willing to promote the restoration of the main line of the Stuart family, and Harley and St .lohn arc now known to have intrigued for that pur- pose. But before any plan could be formed, the queen took suddenly ill and died (August 1, 1714), when the ministers had no alternative but to proceed according to the Act of Settlement. The Electress Sophia being recently dead, her son, the elector, was proclaimed under the title of Georub I. The reign of Queen Anne is not more distinguished by the wonderful series of victories gained by Marl- borough, than by the brilliant list of literary men who now flourished, and who have caused this to be styled the Augus'an age of English literature, as resembling that of the Roman Emperor Augustus. Alexander Pope stands unrivalled in polished verse on moral sub- jects. Jonathan Swift is a miscellaneous writer of •iiigular rigour and an extraordiuary kind of humour. 16Q Joseph Addison wrote on familiar life and ou moril and critical subjects with a degree of elegance before unknown. Sir Richard Steele was a lively writer of miscellaneous essays. This last author, with assistance from Addison and others, set on foot the ' Tatler,' * Spec- tator,' and ' Guardian,' the earliest examples of small periodical papers in England, and which continue to this day to be regarded as standard works. Gibber, Congreve, Vanburgh, and Farquhar, were distinguished writers of comedy; and Prior, Philips, and Rowe, were pleasing poets. In graver literature, this age is not less eminent. Dr Berkeley shines as a metaphysician ; Drs Sherlock, Atterbury, and Clark as divmes; and Bentley as a critic of the Roman classics. ACCESSION OF THE HOUSE OF HANOVER — REBELLION OF 1715-16. The new sovereign lost no time in coming jver to Britain, and fixing himself in that heritage which his family has ever since retained. He was fifty-four yearr of age, of a good, though not brilliant understanding, and very firm in his principles. Knowing well that the Whigs were his only true friends, he at once called them into the administration. It was the custom of that period for every party, on getting into power, to tiy to annihilate their opponents. Not only were the whole Tory party insulted by the king, but a committee of the House of Commons was appointed to prepare articles of impeachment against Oxford, Bolingbroke, the Duke of Ormond, and the Earl of Strafibrd. Bolingbroke, perceiving his life to be in danger, fled to the continent ; and his attainder was in consequence moved and carried by his rival Walpole. Ormond suf- fered a similar fate. Oxford, after a protmcted trial, was only saved in consequence of a difierence between the Lords and Commons. During the first year of King George, the Tories kept up very threatening popular disturbances in favour of High Church principles ; but the Whigs, gaining a majority in the new House of Commons, were able to check this a little by the celebrated enactment called the Eiot Act, which permits military force to be used in dispersing a crowd, after a certain space of time has been allowed. Disappointed in their hopes of office and power, and stung by the treatment of their leaders, the Tories resolved to attempt bringing in the Pretender by force of arms. With an eager hopefulness, which for a long time was characteristic of the party, they believed that all England and Scotland were ready to take up arms for the Pretender, when in reality there was but a limited portion of the people so inclined, and that portion unwilling to move if they saw the least risk or danger. Blind to these circumstances, and with- out design or concert, they commenced the unfortunate civil war of 1715. The Earl of Mar, who had been a secretary of state in the late administration, raised his standard in Brae- mar (September 6), without any commission from the Pretender, and was soon joined by Highland clans to the amount of 10,000 men, who rendered him roaster of all Scotland north of the Forth. There, however, he weakly permitted himself to be cooped up by the Duko of Argyle, who, with a far less numerous force, had posted himself at Stirling. Mar expected to be sup- ported by ail invasion of England by the Duke of Ormond, and a rising of the ]>eople of that country. But the duke completely failed in his design, and no rising took place, except in Northumberland. There Mr Foster, one of the members of Parliament for the county, and the Earl of Dor went water, with some other noblemen, appeared in anns, but unsupported by any considerable portion of the people. Mar detached a party of 1800 foot, under Mackintosh of Borlum, to join the Northumbrian insurgents, who complained that they had no infantry. The junction was managed with great address ; and at the same time some noble- men and gentlemen of the south of Scotland attached themselves to the southern army. The government was ill provided with troops ; but it uevorthelesa sent fflSTORT OP GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. iTV of state rd in Brae- >n from the ad clang to ira master owever, he the Duko force, had be sup- Duke of country. ^, and no d. There int for the wnie other ed by any otached a iorlum, to amplained managed me noble- attached ivernment leleia sent such a force agidnst Mr Foster, as obliged him to re- tire with his men into the town of Preston, in Lanca- shire, where, after an obstinate defence, the whole party (November 1 3) surrendered themselves prisoners at the king's mercy. On the same day, the Earl of Mar met the Duke of Argyle at Sheriifmuir, near Dura- blane, where a battle was fought, in which, after the manner of the battler >n the civil war, the right wing of each army was successful, but neither altogether victorious. The duke withd' ew in the face of his enemy to Stirling, and the eaii retired to Perth, re- solved to wait for the news of an invasion from France, and for the arrival of the Pretender, whom he had invited to Scotland. Mar did not for some time become aware how little reason he had to expect support from France. Louis XIV., upon whom the hopes of the party greatly rested, had died in September, leaving the government to the Regent Orleans, who had strong personal reasons for wishing to cultivate the good-will of the British mo- narch, and of course declined to assist in the present enterprise. The Pretender, nevertheless, sailed for Scotland, and on the 22d of December, arrived incog- nito at Peterhead, bringing nothing but his own person to aid his adherents. Mar, who had already attempted to negotiate a submission to tbo government, brought him forward to Perth, where ae was amused for some time with preparations for his coronation. But before he had been many da^s there, the Duke of Argyle found himself in a condition to advance against the in- surgent force; and on the 30th of January 1716, this unfortunate prince commenced a retreat to the north, along with his dispirited army. On the 4th of February, he and the Earl of Mar provid..J for their own safety by going on board a vessel at Montrose, and setting sail for France; the army dispersed itself into the Highlands. For this unhappy appearance in arms, the Earl of Derwentwater, Viscount Kenmure, and about twenty inferior persons, were executed ; forty Scottish families of the first rank lost their estates, and many excellent members of society became exiles for the remainder of their lives. CHARACTER OF THE GOVERNMENT UNDER GEORGE I. The suppression of this insurrection, and the ruin of 80 many Tory leaders, tended to increase the power of the Whig party, and the stability of the Hanoverian dynasty. The government, nevertheless, acted under considerable. difficulties, as they were opposed by the majority of the clergy and country gentry, as well as by the whole of the mob feeling, except in the large commercial towns. To avoid the hazard of too often appealing to the people, they carried, in 1716, a bill for repealing King William's Triennial Act, and pro- tracting the present and all future Parliaments to a duration of seven years. The chief popular support of the government was in the dissenters, and the middle classes of the community. From the peace of Utrecht, Britain remained free from foreign war for nearly thirty years, excepting that, in 1719, the ministry was called on to interfere for the repression of nn attempt on the part of Spain to regain her Italian territories. A Scotsman, named Law, who had become comptroller-general of France, and amused that country with financial schemes, which at first promised to enrich, but finally almost ruined the country, was the means in 1720 of inspiriting the British people with a similar visionary project, called the South Sea Scheme. This might be described as a joint-stock company, professedly trading in the South Seas, but chiefly engaged in a scheme for managing the national debt. It seemed for a time to prosper, and many realised large fortunes by selling their shares at a premium to others; but in a short time its un- soundness was discovered, the price of shares fell, and thousands were utterly ruined. With great difficulty, and by an extremely complicated adjustment, the House of Commons equalised as nearly as possible the state of gain and loss among the innocent parties, and credit was restored. Sir Robert Walpole, who wai chiefly concerned in effectins this arrangement, became premier and chancellor of ^e Exche(]|uer, and for up- wards of twenty years from that period (April 1721), he must be looked on as the prime mover and manager of the public affairs. At the beginning of the reign of George I. the na- tional debt amounted to fifty-three millions, and owing to there having been no war, it was rather less at the time of tho king's death. The annual expenditure of the state was about seven millions, or scarcely a seventh part of what it now is. The commerce and manufac- tures of England continued to advance steadily during this reign; but Scotland and Ireland remained in an unimproved state. Roads were now for the first time made in the Highlands. The chief literary men were the same as those who had come into repute in the time of Queen Anne: in addition to them, John Gay is ''.o be reckoned amongst the poets, and Waterland and Lardner amongst the divines. This was also more particularly the age of Daniel Defoe, a dexterous writer of pamphlets on the Nonconformist side, but far more noted in later times on account of his admirable tale of Robinson Crusoe. GEORGE II. — WAR WITH SPAIN AND FRANCE. George I., at his death in 1727, was succeeded by! son, George II., a prince of moderate abilities, but cor scientious, and free from all gross faults. In the eai°\ part of his reign, Walpole efiected some useful mea sures, and upon the whole was a vigorous and en- lightened administrator of public afiuirs, though nothing can justify the extensive system of bribery by which rlone he pretended to manage the House of Commons. After a peace of extraordinary duration, he was urged, much against his will, into a contest with Spain, on account of some efforts made by that country to check an illicit trade carried on by British merchants in its American colonies. In searching vessels for the pre- vention of this traffic, the Spaniards had made some trifling aggressions; and British spirit took fire at the indignity of being liable to a search by any neigh- bouring state, even for the prevention of a notorious breach of treaty. The comnmnity therefore demanded a war; and the minister, with great reluctance, was obliged to comply. One fleet, under Admiral Haddock, was sent to cruise off the coast of Spain ; and another, under Admiral Vernon, was sent against the American colonies. The latter gained lustre by taking the impor- tant town of Portobello. Another and larger expedi- tion, with 10,000 soldiers, was then sent to reinforce Vernon; but owing to disputes between him and the commander of the troops, no further triumphs were gained. A timid, ill-concerted, and ill-conducted attack on the fortifications of Carthagena, lost Britain a large body of men. Meantime, a third fleet, under Anson, sailed to the eastern coast of Spanish America, in order to co-operate with Vernon ; but only one of the vessels reached its destination. Anson, thus reduced in naval force, took several prizes off Chili, and plundered the town of Paita, but could rcnture upon no more hazard- ous enterprise. He cruised across the Pacific in tho hope of meeting one of the Spanish galleons, which usually contained great quantities of bullion; but did not succeed, till, on his return from refitting at Canton, he took the Manilla transport, with treasure to the amount of three hundred thousand pounds. Though he had failed in all the proper objects of his expedi- tion, the money he brought to the public treasury caused him to be very well received by the people; while the flagrant mismanagement at Carthagena was the subject of general execration. Tho Spanish war now languished for some time, while the attention of Britain was attracted to the proceed- ings of France. After the death of the Emperor Charles VI. of Germany, his dominions fell by inheritance to hifl daughter, the celebrated Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary. She was opposed in this succession by tho sovereigns of France, Saxony, and Bavaria, all of whom 157 CHAMBERS'S INFOBHATION FOB THE PEOPLE. pretended to hare some olaimi on her dominioni. A war WM commenced against her; the elector of Bavaria wai crowned emperor, undei the title of Chorieu VII.; and inch wae the success of the French arms, that she was soon reduced to the greatest distress. With this quarrel Britain had little reason foriiiterfering; but the king thought his dominions in Germany endangered, and the people were animated by thoir usual hostility to the French. Walpolo, being conscientiously opposed to the war, allowed himself to bo driven from office (February 1742), though he still continued to enjoy the respect of the king. The ministry was recruited by the most popular men of the late minority, among whom the most conspicuous were Lord Carteret and the Earl of Bath. To the sur- prise of the nation, this set of statesmen opposed, now they were in power, all the improvements they had lately professed to clamour for, and seemed even more ' willing than their predecessors to carry out the policy which was suggested by the king's anxiety on account of his foreign dominions. About the time when Oreiit Britain entered into this struggle, the affairs of the Hungarian queen took a surprising turn, and her armies, under her husband the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Prince Charles of Lorraine, and other eminent commanders, began to drive her enemies from her dominions. France, having lost 100,000 men in the contest, sued for peace; but this the queen haughtily refuse The exclusive spirit in which Britain managed the commerce of those territories provoked tho cupidity of the French, who commenced a system of aggression both in India and North America. 1 hey, in particular, drew a line of forts along the back settlelnents of the whole range of the American colonies, from the Gulf of St Lawrence to the Mississippi, so as to prevent the settlers from advancing beyond the Appal cnian mountains. For two or tnree years the British government suf- fered these aggressions, and even insults of a more de- cided nature, to pass unresented; but at length it was determined, in 1756, to proclaim war. A campaign of a novel and difficult character was opened in North America, for the purpose of driving the French from their forts. The first movements were attended with defeat and disaster. The French had gained the ex- clusive affection of the native Indians, who proved a dangerous and barbarous enemy to the British. Several of the forts were attacked, but without success; in the assault upon Ticonderago, 2000 men were killed. At length, on the accession of Mr William Pitt (after- wards Earl of Chatham) to the office of secretary of state, a more auspicious era commenced. The British troops and provincials became more experienced in the nature of the service. One after another, the principal forts fell into their hands; and a diversion was created by an attack upon Canada. In September 1759, Gene- ral Wolfe reduced the town and fort of Quebec, though at tho expense of his own life; and the whole colony soon after submitted to the British arras. Meanwhile, Colonel Clive had been equally success- ful in the East Indies. He had destroyed the French settlement at Pondicherry, thereby securing to his country the whole coast of Coromandel; and by his famous victory at Plossey (June 26, 1756), over a com- binatioT: of French and native forces, he laid the foun- Jdtion of tho great territorial power which the British have since acquired in Hindoostan. Thus the French, instead of gaining the colonies of other nations, ended by losing some of their own. While Britain was thus successful in two remote quarters of the world, she experienced a difierent for- tune in Europe. Austria, Russia, and Poland, had combined with France against the new and rising power of Prussia, which was at present directed by Frederick II., commonly called Frederick the Great. Britain on this occasion oecame the ally of the Prussian monarch, not r.-om any regard to her ovn interests, but in order that the king m-ght be able to protect his Hanoverian dominions. Immense sums of money were raised for the purpose of paying the troops of those countries which the king was anxious to defend; and the Duko of Cumberland was appointed their commander. This prince was so unfortunate (September 1757) as to bring an anuy of 40,000 men into an angular piece of country, from which there was no escaping, so that the whole were obliged to lay down their arms to tho French, who then became masters of Hanover. Not- withstanding this failure on the part of his ally, Frede- rick was able, by his extraordinary military genius, and by British subsidies, to defend his dominions for several years against all the forces that Austria, France, and Russia, could bring against him. In the midst of this war (October 25, 1760), George II. died suddenly, in the seventy-seventh year of his age, and was suc- ceeded by his grandson Geoboe 111., then only in his twenty-third year. MISCELLANEOUS CIRCUMSTANCES CONNECTED WITH THE . HEIQN OF OEOHGE II. The chief domestic event of the reign of George II. was tho rise of the religious sect ceiled Methodists. The church had for a considerable time been in a languid state ; amongst the community there was little religious feeling of a fervid character; and at no previous time were there so many conspicuous writers against the main doctrines of Christianity. John Wesley, a clergy- man of the established church, and several other indi- 159 CHAM6EBS'.3 INFOBMATION FOB THE PLx..LE. viduAls of 11 enthiiiiattio turn of m\nC> were prompted b» theiu cjwumitoncei to attempt to i-ou»e a more itealoui piely amongst, the people; iaid in thi» objftct they were turpriiingly succeaiful. .^uotht r clergymuu named WhitefieW, gifted with oratorical power* which gave him great command over the feelings of an audi- ence, proved of much service as an itinerant preacher in working this reformation. The con»tiiuence of these exertions was the organisation of a new religious body, commonly called Methodists, comprehchdiiig a vast number of congregations in all parts of the kingdom, as well as in the American colonies. Newspapers first acquired political ini^j'.rtance in this reign. They originated in the time of the Com- monweiuth, but none of a regular periodical nature appeared till afler the Uestoratioi:, when a busy writer named Roger L'Estrange established in Londoii a weekly one culled ' The Intelligencer.' Till the iie- Tolution, such small and unimportant newspapers as existed, were trammelled br a licensing power and cen- sorship. When these restrictions were removed, news- papers injrea^ed in number, till, in 1700, they were again restricted by the imposition of a penny stamp. In those days newspn^ne;'!* were chiefly conducted by a set of mean and pour vt riters, to whom the term ' Grub Street authors' was generally applied, from many of them living in thai wretched part of London, The influence which newsp.iyffxs were calculated to havt over the public miisd, wns 6wt recoOTi'iCfl Ky Sir Robert Walpolc, who, whiio i.c uaver thought of gi <, ; sig the least encouragement to literature on its 0'.t« y papers. A monthly pamphlet, begun In 17 'i I by LJ >\ ard Cave, a London bonkseller, under t'.iH niviur of tho * Gentleman's Magik:'hie,' was nrajfvsed of the best articles from the newh>>apers; and thus originated the periodical works termed magazines avid revjen\«, which are now cons]>icuou8 as vehicles of light literature and politii;><.' discussion. The iict'uliar literary genius c.i the age was showtt in the nciHious prose writings of l'"uilding, Smollett, and S(eme, . iv] in the picturesofllo^/trth, all of which represent the .'it'.ionalcnaracterin its .greatest breadth. The novels «f VKtchardson are equally accurate as de- scriptions of maufirirs, but contain no trace of the same humour. Next in da-^inction to these writings must be placed the eesays i i ?ohn Hawkesworth and Samuel Johnson, the latter of v. Lorn did a great service to lite- rature in compiling a dicticnary of the English language. James Thomson, William Collins, and Thomas Gray, rank high ca poets. Carte and Echard were respectable hi8torical writes ; and philosophy was cultivated by Francis iii.itcht^(>ii and David Hartley. Drs Conyers Middleton, .Joseph Butler, and Isaac Watts, were the principal writers on religious subjects. OEOnaE III. — DVTB ADMINISTRATION — PBACE OF 1763. Soon afler his accession, G>>oige III. espoused the Princess Charlotte of Mecklonimig-Strelitz, by whom he had a large family. One of his earliest political measures was to confer one of the itate-secretaryships upon the Earl of Bute, a Scottish nobleman of Tory or Jacobite predilections, wno had been his preceptor, and possessed a great influence over his mind. This, with other alterations, infused a peaceful disposition into his majesty's counsels, which was not much relished by Mr Pitt. That minister, having secretly discovered that Spain was about to join France against Britain, and being thwarted in the liMe of policy which he conse- quently thought it necessary to assume, retired with a pension, and a peerage to his wife; afler which the ministry was rendered still less of a warlike tonipei'. A negotiation for peace was entered into with France> which ofl>ered, for that end, to give up almost all her colonial posscnsions. The demands of the British were, however, rather more exorbitant than France expected, 100 and not only was the treaty broken off, but Spain com- menced those hostilities which Mr Pitt had foretold. JN\ vertheless, Britain continued that splendid career of ci-nxuest which, except at the beginning, had been ■ hi'v fortune during the whole of this var. In a very fe\) months Spain lost Havana, Manilla, and all the Philippine Isles. The Spanish forces were also driven out r*" Portugal, which they had unjustiy invaded. At sea the British fleets reigned everywhe;-e triumphant, and at no former period was the country in so proud a situation. The ministry, however, were seiHil:.);- tL<\ii war, even with all this good fortune, was a Ic&i.ig frnme^ ai (i t'aey therefore, much ngainst the will ui the nutioD, coui'*luded a peace in February 1763. ilv this treoty Great Britain gave up a c rtair. inu-- tioit < f her con(|uest8, in exchange fur other.' '.vhich ii»d been wrested from her; but sh' was nei ■\'ih>lerj • fuinoi' to an immimse aiiiount. i^iie acqui' ^ti tiviu tiie 'rencii, Canada, tliit part of Loui.iuna east of ihe Mis- sissipi'i, Cape Breton, :?< uegal, the <.;landB of i.anada, Domulf'a, St Vincei^ ['», uiul Tobago, with all tho acqui- sitions itliii'ii ihe French hod made upon the Coro- niundel co!;.'t. in the Ei'.m: Indies since 1749. From Spain !>Ue acquired Minorca, Ea^t and West Florida, with certain privileges of value. T!i*,i conti; untal states in alliance witli Great Brici'i.\ weie ultw left rts thny had been. Tliiiae advantages on tin pari, of Greut V>n. tain bad been purchased at the nxpc .mv> of an addi- tion of si.'^ty millions to the nativ: al deL't, which rtw amounted hi all to £133,959,2(0. TRANSACTIONS IN IRELAND. tiiiion che pacification at Limerick, Ireland had been ruled exclusively by the Protestant party, \^ho, under th.-' i;^fluence of feelings arising from locxi and religious an( 'pathies, had visited the Catholics with many seve- rities. These measures naturally rendered the Catho- lics discontented subjects, and led to mutli turbulence. The common people of that persuasion, '-oing denied all access to justice, took it into their own liauds, and acquired those lawless habits for which they have since been remarkable. Treachery, cruelty, and ail the lower passions, were called into vigorous exercise. The pass- ing of a bill in 1719 by the English Parliament, de- claring its power to legislate for Ireland, occasioned general dissatisfaction, and caused the rise of a patriotic party in the Parliament and people of Irehuid, who professed to look to the odvanta^ of the country, e.B distinguished from that of Great Britain. The discon- tent of the Tory party mingled with this spirit; and the celebrated Swift, in 1724, blew it into a flame by his severe pamphlets, called the 'Drapier's Letters,' which professedly decried a new coinage of halfpence, but were in reality aimed at the English ministry. The discontents of the Catholics continued unabated, and the contentions of the patriotic party with the ad- herents of the English ministry were car.'ied on with the utmost keenness in Parliament, when the rebellion in Scotland (1745) alarmed the government for the loyalty of Ireland. The Earl of Chesterfield, celebrated for his literary productions, was, in this exigency, sent for a short time m lord-lieutenant, and allowed to hold forth all possible encouragement to the Catholics and patriotic party. By discountenancing party distinc- tions, and giving the Catholics the full protection of the laws, he so effectually soothed and tranquillised the country, that while the neighbouring Protestant king- doms exhibited an army seeking the restoration of a Catholic prince, Ireland, though full of Christians of that i^rsuasion, and bound to the Jacobite cause by many endeared associations, remained perfectly faith- ful to the Hanover dynasty. When the danger was past, the earl was recalled, and the former system re- sumed. The struggles of the patriots with the English ministerial party were continued with unabated vio- lence down to the death of George II., without pro- ducing any markeeing ■old. At Boston, a ship-load, which had been intro- duced into the harbour, was seized by a lawless mob, and towed into the sea. This last act of violence was resented by the passing of a bill in Parliament for in- terdicting all commercial intercourse with the port of Boston, and aiu^er for taking away tho legislative 1«2 assembly of the state of TJaisachuiettl. The former measure was easily obviated by local arrangements; and in reference to the latter, a Congress of represen- tatives from the variouo States met at Philadelphia, in September 1774, when it was asserted that the exclu- sive power of legislation, in all cases of taxation and internal policy, resided in the provincial legislatures. The same assembly denounced other grievances, which havo not here been particularly adverted to, especially an act of the British legislature for trying Americans, for treasonable practices, in England. The Congress also framed a covenant of non-intercourse, by which the whole utility of the colonies to the mother country, as objects of trading speculation, was at once laid pros- trate. The colonists still avowed a desire to be recon- ciled, on the condition of a repeal of the obnoxious statutes. But the government haatly inferior in discipline and appointments to the Britikh troops. They pojsessed, however, an indomi- table zeal in the cause they had agreed to defend, and fought with the advantage of being in the country of their friends. At Bunker's Hill, near Boston (June 17, 1775), they had the superiority in a well-contested fight with the British troops, of whom between two and three hundred were killed. At the end of one year, the British government was surprised to find that no progress had been made towards a reduction of the Americans, and sent out an offer of pardon to the colonists, on condition that they would lay down their arms. The proposal only mot with ridicule. On the 4th of July 1776, the American Congress took the decisive step of a declaration of their iiideii«ndence, embodying their sentiment in a document remarkable for its pathos and solemnity. During the next two campaigns, the slender forces of the new republic were hardly able anywhere to face the large and well-ap- pointed armies of Great Britain. Much misery was endured by this hardy people in resisting the British arms. Notwithstanding every disadvantage and many defeats, America remained unsubdued. The first serious alann for the success of the co'> tost in America, was communicated in December 17< ', , by intelligence of the surrender of an army under General Burgoyne at Saratoga. In the House of Commons, the ministers acknowledged this defeat with marks of deep dejection, but still professed to entertain sanguine hopes, from the vigour with which the large towns throughout Biltain were now raising men at tlieir own expense for the service of the government. Mr Fox, the leader of the Opposition, made a motion for the discontinuance of the war, whii ' was lost by 165 to 259, a much narrower majority ihan any which tho ministry had before reckoned in the Lower House. In proportion to the dejection of the government, was the elation of the American Congress. Little more than two years before, the British sovereign and minis- ters had treated the petitions of the colonists with silent contempt ; but such had been the current of events, that, in 1778, they found it necessary, in order to appease the popular dbcontent, to send out commis- sioners, almost for the purpose of begging a peace. As if to avenge themselves for the indignities of 1775, the Americans received these commissioners with the like haughtiness; and being convinced that they could secure their inde])endence, would listen to no proposals in which the acknowledgment of that independence, and the withdrawal of the British troops, did not occupy the first place. The ministers, unwilling to submit to such terms, resolved to prosecute the war, holding fortit HISTOBT 0? GBEAT BRITAUT AKD XBELAKD. Tie former - Dgementi ; : repreten- lelphia, in the oxclu- cation and 'gislaturM. icei, which , eapecially /Vmericanii « ConnMt ', by which or country, B laid pros- « be rccon- obnoxioug resolred to ■ce of amn. wM treated British mo- r ikirmiBhes vincialR, for e beginning f protracted the colonies i ♦hpy were nents to the an indomi' defend, and B country of jn (June 17, ell-conteiited :i«twee& two I end of one to find that iction of the irdon to the Y down their e. longress took idei^ndencc, remarkable le next two jpablic were md well-ap- misery was the British ;e and many to the public, as the best defence of thoir conduct, the neoessity of curbing the spirit of insubordination, both in the American colonies and at home, which they described as threateninff the overturn of the most sacred of the national institutions. The rise of Oreat Britain during the seTentcenth and eighteenth centuries, in wealth and military and naval power, had been observed by many of the surround- ing states with no small degree of jealousy. France, in particular, had not yet foro'^^u the triumphant peace which Britain had (Mo^ated in 1763. The Ame- ricans, therefore, by their emisaary, the celebrated Benjamin Franklin, found no great diiflculty in forming an alliance with France, in which the latter power acknowledged the independence of the colonists, and proi/iised to send them large auxiliary forces. Viewing the distressed state to which Britain was reduced by the contest, and concluding that the time had arrived to strike a decisive blow for her humiliation, Spain soon after declared war against her; and in 17H0, Holland was added to the number of her enemies. Uutsia then put herself at the head of what was called an Armed Neutrality, embracing Sweden and Denmark, the object of which was indirectly hostile to Britain. So tremen- dous was the force reared against Britain in 1779, even before all these powers had entered into hostilities, that it required about 300,000 armed men, 300 armed ves- sels, and twenty millions of monf annually, merely to protect herself from her enemiet. Even her wonted superiority at sea seemed to hare deserted her ; and for some time the people beheld the unwonted spectacle of a hostile fleet riding in the Channel, whicn there was no adequate means of opposing. It was now obvious to the whole nation that this contest, upon whatever grounds it commenced, was a great national misfortune; and the Opposition in Par- liament; began to gain considerably in strength. After some votes, in which the ministerial majorities appeared to be gradually lessening, Mr Dunning, on the 6th of April 1780, carried, by a majority of eighteen, a motion, * tuat the inuuence of the crown hod increased, was increasing, and ought to be diminished,' This was looked upon as a severe censure of the government, considering that the House of Commons was not alto- gether a popular body, but included many who had seats there only through the influence of the crown, or by the favour of the nobility and gentry. In the year 1778, an act had been passed, relieving the Roman Catholics in England from some of the severe penal statutes formerly enacted against them. The apprehension of a similar act for Scotland caused the people of that country to form an immense number of associations with a view to opposing it ; and in the early part of 1779, the popular spirit broke out at Edin- burgh and Glasgow in several alarming riots, during which one or two Catholic chapels, and some houses belonging to Catholics, were pillaged and burnt. An extensive Protestant Association was also formed in England, to endeavour to procure the repeal of the English act. This body was cliiefly led by Lord George ordon, a son of the late Duke of Gordon, and member ol' the House of Commons, In June 1780, an .'mmense mob assembled in Jjondon to accompany Loii George to the House of Commons, where he was to present a petition against the act, signed by 120,000 persons. His motion for the repeal of the act being rejected by a vast majority, he came out to the lobby and harangued the crowd in violent terms, suggesting to them similar acts' to those which had taken place in Scotland. The mob accordingly proceeded to demolish the chapels of the foreign ambassadora. Meeting with no effectual resist- ance, for the magistrates of the city wore afraid to take decisive measures against them, they attacked New- gate, released the prisoners, and set the prison on fire. The new prison at Clerkenwejl, the King's Bench, and Fleet Prisons, and the New Bridewell, were treated in like manner. At one time, thirty-six fires were seen throughout the city. The mob had uncontrolled pos- s^on of the ■ treote for five days, pillaging, burning. and demolishing; until the king in council determined to authorise the military to put them down by force of arms. Tranquillity wa« then restored, but not before upwards of 400 person!: were killed and wounded. Many of the ringleadors were convicted and executed. Lord George Gordon was tried for high treason, but acquitted on a plea of insanity, which his subsequent life showed to be well founded. Similar outrages wera attempted in other cities, but prevented by the visour of the magistrates. The chief sufierers from these riots were the party who aimed at politioU reforms. On the other hand, the king obtained increaied resneot, ii' insequence of the firmness he had shown in taking I . ivsures for the suppression of the riots. The states of North and South Carolina, wlich con- tained a larger proportion of persons friendly to the British crown than any of the northern states, had submitted, in 1780, to a British army under General Clinton, -Next year, the greater part of the troops which had been left in those states were conducted northward by Lord Comwallis, in the hope of making further conquests; but the consequence was, that Ge- neral Greene, after a series of conflicts, in which he greatly distressed various parties of the British troops, regained both Carolinos, while Lord Comwallis took up a position at Yorktown in Virginia, At this time. General Washington, the American commander-in- chief, to whose extraordinary sagacity and purity of motives the colonists chiefly owed their independence, was threatening General Clinton's army at New York. Clinton tamely saw him retire to the southward, be- lieving that he only meant to make a feint, in order to draw away the British from New York, when he in reality meant to attack Comwallis. On the 29th of September (1781), Yorktown was invested by this and other corps of Americans and French; and in three weeks more, the British batteries being completely silenced. Lord Comwallis surrendered with his whole army. With this etent, though some posts were still kept up by British troops, hostilities might be said to have been concluded. At the next opening of Parliament, many of those who had formerly supported the war, began to adopt opposite views; and early in 1782, a motion, made by General Conway, for the conclusion of the war, was carried by a majority of nineteen. The necessary con- sequence was, that, on the 20th of March, Lord North and his colleagues resigned ofiice, after twelve years of continued misfortune, during which the prosperity of the country had been retarded, a hundred millions added to the national debt, and three millions of people separated from the parent state. As usual in such cases, a new administration was formed out of the Opposition. The Marquis of Rock- ingham was made prime minister, and Mr Fox one of the secretaries of state. The new ministers lost no time in taking measures for the restoration of peace. Unfor- tunately for their credit with the nation, Sir George Rodney gained an important victory over the French fleet off the island of Dominica, April 12, 1782, after the ministers had despatched another officer to super- sede him in the command. On this occasion, thirty, seven British vessels encountered thirty-four French; and chiefly by the dexterous manoeuvre of a breach of the enemy's line, gained one of the most complete vic- tories recorded in modem warfare. The triumph was eminently necessary, to recover in some measure the national honour, and enable the ministers to conclude the war upon tolerable terms. In November, provi- sional articles for a peace with the United States of America, now acknowledged as an independent power, were signed at Paris, and the trea^ was concluded in the ensuing February. When the American ambassador was afterwards, for the first time, introduced at the British leve'e, the king received him kindly, and said with a manly frankness, that though he had been the last man in his dominions to desire that the indepen- dence of America should be acknowledged, he should also bo the last to wish thai that ftcknowledgment M8 OHAMBBBSfl INFORMATION FOR THE PBOPLE. Aould be withdrawn, Warwu ioon .fter concluded with Franco, Spain, and Holland, but not without «ome coniiderablo conocwlon. of colonial territory on the part of Great Dritain. , The concluiion of thii war is momorablo m a period of sreat lufferlng, arisit.jr from the exhaustion of the national resources, the Vlepression of cmnmorce, and the accident of a ba.1 harvest. The priii .pies of pros- nerity were, after all, found to he so firmly rooted in the ountry, that immediately after the flrst distresses liul passed away, every department of the state resumed us wonted vigour, and uuriiig the ensuing ten years of peace a great advance was made in national wealth. On'tho unexpected death of the Marquis of Kocking- ham, in July u't', tbo king chose as bis successor the Katl'of Sbelburue, who, though nominally a Whig, was not su.'ticiently inclined to the general measures of that party t) bo agreeable to Mr Fox and other loading members of the cabinet. Un thoir consenuent resigna- tion, the vacancies were filled up by the friends of Shel- burne, among whom was Mr William Pitt, a younger son of the Earl of Chatham. This young stateiminn, to whom was assigned the office of chancellor of the exchetiuer, had already distinguished himself by the part he took in the popular proceedings for a rofonii of the House of Commons — an object which the Opposi- tion and their supporters had for somu yeurs advocated with great zeal, but which soon after fell in a great measure out of public notice. COALITION MINISTRY. The present ministry was oppo8evo parties, notwithstanding that they had been opposeu to each other throughout all the late war, coalesced for fucclous or ambitious purposes; and being triumphant over the ministry, forced themselves upon tho Icing'.* counsels. Then was formed (April 2, ^703) what was called the Coalition Ministry, in which Lord North and Mr Fox acted together ai> secretaries of state, though two years had hardly elapsei^ since the letter had breathed the most violent threat i in Parliament against his present associate. A coahvion, iu which p.ilitical principle was supposed to be abandoned fo, ' he sake of ofBcc, could not be agreeable to the nation, Vt A\e it was evidently embarrassing to the sovereign. Mr Fox had prepared and carried through the Lower House his famous bill for tho regulation of the East India Com- pany, by which all authority was to devolve on seven directors choKen by the House of Commons; in other words, by which tho immense patronage of this offshoot of the empire was to fall into the hands of the uiuiistry. The India bill, as it was called, was generally supposed to aim at -fixing the ministry in power beyond the con- trol of both king and people, and it accordingly roused much indignation. His majesty therefore, fully confi- dent of support from the people, used his personal in- fluence, in no covert way, to induce the House of Lords to reject the bill, and (December I tt) sent a messenger to demand the seals of office from his over-ambitious miuiiiters, appointing Mr Pitt to be the prime minister and civaucellor u>f the exchequer of a new cabinet, con- sisting chiefly of hie majesty's friends. The various departments of the state were now thrown into a relative position, which had never been known before, and has never recurred. The king an out further interruption. LEalSI.ATIVR MRASVRRH IN IHEIiAWU. From tho end of tao reign of (ieorge I., a patriotic party in Ireland, con.posed of a mixture of Catholics and Protestants, had been exerting itteli' to reduce the influence of the English miiiislTy in their country. The resistance of tho American colonists gave a powerful stimulus to this body; and on some alarm of an inva- sion of tho French, they found n pretext for taking up armv, apparently for the protection of the country, but in reality to render themselves formidable to England. Encouiagod by Parliament, and headed by the princi- pal men in the country, the Volunteer Corps, as thoy wi-re called, held meetings and passed resolutions, in which tbtiv openly avowed their dcterminatiun, at tho hazard of lifo and fortune, to achieve the indcpendenco of tho native legislature, and a complete participation in the commercial rights of the British. Tho govern- ment, being then too feeble tn resist, bowed to their demands, Pcyning's law, atid others which had given tho English Purliainent a right to interfere with Ire- land, were repealed; and itcts were passed for the right of halieas corpus and tho independence of tlie judges. In November 1783, the volunteers hold a grand con- vention in Dublin, and proposed to urge the question of parliamentary reform; out the govcniment now began to regain strength, and in a short time, by skilful mea- sures, it prevailed upon tho corps to dissolvo. AlIMSTBV OP MR PITT — FROM 1784 TO THE COMMENCE- MK.VT or THE I'RKNCII RK VOLUTION. Till Jigh tho favourite minister of a sovereign decidedly opposed to all popular innovations, Mr t'itt continued to profess his former zeal for a reform in the House of Commons; but, as might be expected, was unable to bring the power of the goveninient to bear upon tho siibjwt. In April 17U.5, he asked leave of the Houso to bring in a bill for this object; but it was refused by a large majority. The desire of parliamentary i-eform nevertheless continued to animate a large portion of the community. In 17114, a regular society had teen instituted in Scotland, for the purpose of obtaining such a measure; and in the succeeding year, forty-nine out of the sixty-Rix boroughs had declared in favour of it. There were also numerous associations of a similar character throughout England. In 1786, Mr Pitt established his celebrated but fal- lacious fcbeine for redeeming the national debt, 'by what w.is called a Sinking Fund, The revenue was at this time above hfteen millions, beht^ about one million more than was raquired for the puolic service. Thin excess he proposed 'o lay aside annually, to lie at compound interest; by which means he calculated that each miliiv>n would be quadrupled at the end of twenty- eight years, ai.'l thus go a great way towards the object he had in view, lo this scheme Mr Fox added the infi- nitely more absurd amendment, that, when the goveni- luent required to borrow more money, one million of every six so obtained should be laid aside for the same purpose. The scheme was so well received as to in- crease the popularity of the ministci, aud it was not till 1813 that its fallacy was proved. In the same year commenced the parliamentary proce«dings against Mr Warren Hastings, for alleged cruelty and roobcty exercised upon the natives of India during his governorship of that dependency of Great Rritain. These proceedings were urged by Mr Burke and other members of the Whig party, and oxcited so much public indignation against Mr Hastings, that the mSTOBY OP OnEAT DRTTAra AND IRBLAKD. but fol- debt, ty bue was at pic milliou \v.e. This I to lie at bat«d that M twenty- |the object " the iiifi- be goveni- Inillion of ] the same las to in- was not MTientary |r alleged 1 of India I of Great {r Burke Ixcited BO 1 that the minittry wu i)bll{|cd, though unwillingly, to Icixl their countenance to his trial, which touli place b«l' <*aT- liament in the most solemn manner, ami ovi in the aggregnte one hundred and forty-ninu Jays, extend- ing over a xpnce of several years. The prucvediugs resulted in the acquittal of Mr Hastings. The king and queen had in the meantime beco.ae the parents of a numerous fatnily of sons and daughtere. The eldest son, (leorge, Prince of Wales, had now for several years been of ago, and exempted from the con- trol of his father. He had no sooner been set up in an establishment of bis own, than he ]>lunged into a career of prodigality, fori'iing the most striking contrast with the chastened simplicity and decorum of thu paternal abode ilu iiUu attached himself to the party of the Opposition, though rather apparently from a princlrde of contradiction to his father, than a sinrere approba- tion of their political objects. The rcnult was the complete alienation of the Prince of Wales from the . ailcrtions of his majesty. In November 17UU,an uborr-Jon of intellect, result- ing from an illness of some juration, was observed in the king, and it became necessary to provide some species of substitute for the exercise of the royal func- tions. To have invested the Prince of Wales with the regency, appeared the most obvious course; but this would have thrown out the ministry, as it was to be supposed that his royal highness would call the chiefs of his own party to his councils. Mr Fox contended that the hereditary nature of the monarchy pointed out an unconditional right in the prince to assume the supreme power under such circumstances; but Mr Pitt asserted the right of Parliament to give or withhold such an office, and proposed to assign certain limits to the authority of the intended regent, which would have placed the existing ministry beyond his reach. The Irish Parliament voted the unconditional regency to the prince; but that of (ireat Britain was about to adopt the modified plan proposed by Mr Pitt, when, March 17 ;u (.porter;^ were effectually roused to u sense of i,,,- (Jr^ager which hung over all ancient institutions, and a pretext was found (Januaiy 1 793) for declaring war against France. A comparatively small body of the people were opposed to this step, which waa also loudly deprecated in Parliament by Messrs Fox and Sheridan; but all these remonstrances were drowned in the general voice of the nation. At such a crisis, to speak of political reforms in England seemed the height of imprudence, as tending to encou- rage the French. All, therefore, who continued to make open demonstrations for that cause, were now branded as enemies to religion and civil order. In Scotland, Mr Thomas Muir, a barrister, ond Mr Palmer, a Unitarian clergyman, were tried for sedition, and sentenced to various terms of banishment. Citizens named Skirving, Gerald, and Margatot, were treated in like manner by the Scottish criminal judges, for offences which could only be said to derive the cha- racter ascribed to them firom the temporary and acci- dental circumstances of the nation. An attempt to 165 OHAMIIIM IVrOBlUnOV fOB TBI PIOPLt. inflUl ilmilM minUhmMU upon th« Knullih rtforrom. WMdtfMted bytht •oquU»4J of » shownaM nMn«d HMiivi bul lh« p»rtjr wm nrrtrth.ltw •ubjtot.d. with tlw appwrant conourwnc* of » Imr* Mid lnflu«nti»l por- Uoii (»flh« p«)pU, to rowiT minor ■•▼•'•'"•fc Aftw alliMioM h»oMMiion uf the Frtncb, while the town of Toulon, beinir inalinemporary pjiieuion of Conica and Tou- lon, the capture of several of the French colonies in the Weit Indiei, and the spnliatinn of a groat ({uantity of the commercial shipping of France; against which were to bo reckoned the expulsion of an army from the Netherlands, the loss of 10,00<) men and 60,000 stand of arms, in an unsuccessful descent upon the west coast of France, some oonsiderable losses in mercantile ship- ping, and an inci-eose of annual ex]>euditure from about fourteen to nearly forty millions. In the course of the year 1795, the lower portions of the community began to ap])ear violently discontented with the progress of the war, and to renew their de- manuk for raform in the state. As the king was passing (October 29) to open the session of Parliament, a stone was thrown into his coach, and the interference of the korte guards was requited to protect his pereon lyom an infuriated mob. The ministers consequently ob- tained acts for more effectually repressing sedition, and for the dispersion of political meetings. They were at the luuie time compelled to make a snow of yielding to the popular clamour for peace; and commenced a ne- gotiation with the French Directory, which was broken off by the refusal of France to restore Iklgium to Austria. In the ensuing year, so far from any advance being made towards the subjugation of France, the northern states of Italy were overrun by its armies, and formed into what was called the Cisalpine Republic, The celebrated Napoleon Bonaparte made his first con- spicuous appearance as the leader of this expedition, which ttrmuiated in Austria submitting to a humiliat- ing peace. At the clou.' of 1796, a French fleet sailed for Ireland, with the design of revolutionising that country, and detaching it Kom Britain ; but its object was defeated by stress of weather. At this crisis, a new attempt was made to negotiate with the French Republic ; but as the events of the year had been decidedly favourable to France, a renewed demand of the British for the surrender of Belgium was looked upon OS a proof that they were not sincere in their Ciposals, and their agent was insultingly ordered to ve the French territory. To add to the distreisea of Britain, while Austria was withdrawn from the number of her allies, Spain, bv a declaration of war in 1797, increased in no inconsiderable degtw (h« inuaWNfiWM with which rite had to contend. ICG TIIBlUTimBD INVAIIOM— SUIU^UKNT BVl,>;M. For somr time an invasion of Britain hi.' ■'!«.etween London and the open sea. The reduc- tion of this mutiny appeare war with th« rapublic. AuitrU, Naplet, knm Holland. Thirty-flve thousand men, under the Duka of York, formed the military part of the expedi- tion. The fleet wai lucceatful at the flrit in taking the Dutch ihipa; but the army, having landed under ttreia of weather at an unfaTourable place for their opera- tions, was obliged, after an abortive series of skirmishes, to make an agreement with 'he French, purchasing permiHion to go back to their country by the surrender of 8000 prisoner* from England. The reranes which France experienced in 1709, were generally attributed to tho weakness of the Direc- tory — a council of five, to which the uxecutivo had been intrusted. Bonaparte suiidenly returned from his army in Egypt, and, by a skilful iimnagement of his popula- rity, overturned the Directory, aiid caused himself to be appointed the sole depositary nf the oxeeutive power of the state, under the denomination of First Consul. He immediately wrote a letter to King George, making overtures of peace, but was answered, by ttte British ■ecretary, that no dependence could be placed by Great Britain on any treaty with France, unless her govern- ment were again consolidated under the Bourbonit. Bonapai'te, having much reason to wish for peace, made a reply to this note, vindicating France from the charge brought against her, of having commenced a system of aggression inconsistent with tho interests of other states, and asserting her right to choose her own government — a point, he said, that could not decently be contested by the minister of a crown which was held by no other tenure. But tho British government was at this time too much elated by the expulsion of tho French nriny from Italy, and the late changes in the executr .-, which, in their estimation, betokened weakness, to be immediately anxious for peace. Tho evients of 1800 were of a very different nature from what had been calculated upon in England. Sir Sidney Smith, who commanded the British forces in Syria, had made a treaty with tho French army after it had been left by Bonaparte, whereby it was agreed that tho French should abandon Egypt, and retire unmolested to their own country. The British govern- ment, in its present temper, refused to ratify this ar- rangement; and the consequence was a continuance of hostilities. The French overthrew a largo Turkish army at Grand Cairo, and made themselves more effec- tually than ever the mastera of the country, so that Britain was obliged to send an army next year, under Sir Ralph Aborcromby, to accomplish, at au immense expense, and a great waste of human life, what the French had formerly agreed to do. In Europe, the presence of Bonaparte produced equally disastrous re- sults. By one of his most dexterous movenientB, he eluded the Austrians, led an army over the Alps by the Great St Bernard into tho Milanese, and having gained decisive victory at Marengo (June 14), at once restored the sweater part of Italy to French domina- tion. Contemporaneously with Napoleon's movements, Moreau led another army directly into Germany, over- threw the Austrians in several battles, and advanced to within seventeen leagues of their capital, Vienna. These reverses obliged Austria next year (1801) to sue for and conclude a peace, by which France became miatrea of all continental Europe west of the Rhine •ud Kuth of the Adige. ar.BU.LION IK lARLAND— UNION WRH ORIAT DHITAIN. Although the government had baan able, In 1783, to pitKuru a dissolution of tha volunteer corpa, tha bulk of the Irish |)eople continued to express tha most aiixloui desire for such a reform in thair Parliament aa might lander it a mora just representation of tho iiopular voice. Unable to yield to tham on this point, Mr Pitt endeavoured to api>aaM( tham by extending thair com- mircial privileges ; but his wishes were frustrated, chietly by the Jonlouiy of tho British merchants. A strong feeling of discontent, not only with the govern- ment, but with the Hritish connection, was thus engen- dered in Ireland. The commencement of the revolutionary proceeding! in France excited the wildest hopes of the Irish. To . wards the close of the year 1731, they formed an i elation, under the title of the United Irishmen, compre- hending persons of all religions, and designed to obtain * a complete refonn of the legislature, founded on the principles of civil, political, and religious liberty.' The government from the first suspected this association of meditating an overturn of the state, and took strong measures for keeping it in check. Acts were passed for putting down its meetings, a- id the secretary, Mr Hamilton llowan, was tried, and Pdntcnceu to a flue and two years' impriaonmont f>ir whui ivas termed a sedi- tious libel. At tho same time, some concessions to the popular spirit were deemed indispensable, and the Iriih Parliament accordingly passed nets enabling Catholics to iiitermarry with Protestantn, to (iractiso at tho bar, and to educate their own children. On discovering that a treasonable correspondencv had been carried on with Franco by some leading per- suna in the society of United Irishmen, the uoveniment was so much ain.imed as to send (1704) a Whig lord- lieutonant (Earl Fitzwilliam) to grant further conces- sions; but ere anything had been done, the ministers were persuaded by tho Protestant party to return to their former policy. The patriotic party now despaired of etfcctiiig any iniproveme:it by peaceable means, and an extensive conspiracy was entered into for delivering up Ireland to the French republic. The scheme waa managed by a directory of five persons, and though half a million of men were concerned in it, the moat strict secrecy was preserved. In December 1706, a portion of the fleet which had been fitted out by the French to co-operate with the Irish patriots, landed at Bantry Bay ; but measures for a rising of the people not being yet ripe, it was obliged to return. Next year, the losses ut Camperdown crippled the naval resources of France, and prevented a renewal of the expedition. Losing all hope of French assistance, the conspirators resolved to act without it ; but their designs were be- trayed by one Reynolds ; and three other members of the directory, Emmett,Macnevin, and Bond, were seized. Notwithstanding the precautionary measures which the government was thus enabled to take, the Union per- sisted in the design of rising on a fixed day. Lord Edward Fitzgerald, another of its leaders, was then arrested, and being wounded in a scuffle with his cap- tors, soon after died in prison. On the 21st of May 1708, Lord Castlereagh, secretary to the lord -lieutenant, disclosed the whole plan of insurrection, which had been fised to commence on the '23d. Though thus thwarted in their designs, and deprived of their best leaders, the conspirators appeared in arms in various parts of the country. Parties attacked Naas and Carlow, but were repulsed with loss. A large party, under a priest named Murphy, appeared in the county of Wexford, and took the city of^ that name. Slight insurrections about the same time broke out in the northern counties of Antrim and Down, but were easily suppressed. In Wexford alone did the insurgents ap- pear in formidable strength. Under a priest named Roche, a large party of them met and defeated a portion of the government troops ; but on a second occasion, though they fought with resolution for four hours, they were compelled to retreat. Another defeat at New 167 OBAMBBBEPS INlOiatATION FOB f HE FEOFLE. RoBB exaspewted them gcMtiy, md tome monstrom cruelties were contequently pwctUed upon their pri- ■onert. On the 20th of June, their whole force waa collected upon Vinegw HUl, near Ennieoorthy, where Ml Hrmy of 13,000 men, with a proportionate train of artillery, wa« brought againit theiu by General Lake, They wore completely orerthrown and diapersec? . From this time the rebellion languished, and in July it had ■0 far ceased to be formidable, that an act of amnesty was passed in favour of all who had been engaged in it, except the leaders. On the 22d of August, when the rebellion had been completely extinguished, 900 French, under General Humbert, were landed at Killala, in the opposite ex- tremity of the country from that in which the insurgents had shown the greatest strength. Though too late to be of any decisive effect, they gave some trouble to the government. A much larger body of British troops, under General Lake, met them at Castlebar, but re- treated in a panic. They then advanced to the centre of the country, while the lord-tieutcnant confessed the formidable reputation which their countrymen had ac- quired, by concentrating an immensely di»pToponioned force against them. Ou the S*.h of September, they were met at Carrick-on-Shannoii by this l&.'ge army, to which they yielded themselves prisoners of war. During the ensuing two years, the British ministers exerted themselves to briig about an incorporatijig union of Ireland with Great Britain; a measure to which the Irish were almost universally opposed, but v uich, by the use of bribes and government patronage libe- rally employed amongst the members of the Irish legis- lature, was at length effected. From the Ist of January 1801, the kingdom of Ireland formed an essential part of the empire, ou which was now conferred the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The act of Union secured to the Irish most of the com- mercial privileges which they had so long sought. Upon a comparison of the aggregate exports and imports of the two countries, Ireland was to raise two parts of revenue for every fifteen raised by Great Britain, during the first twenty years of the Union, after which new regulations were to be made by Parliament. One hundred commoners were to be sent by Ireland to the British (now called the Imperial) Parliament; namely, two for each couu;y, two for each of the cities of Dub- lin and Cork, one for the university, and one for each of the thirty- one most considerable towns. Four lords spiritual, by otation of sessions, and twenty-eight lords temporal, elected for life by the Peers of Ireland, were to sit i. the House of Lords. The Union, though, upon the whole, effected in a spirit of fairness towards Ireland, increased the discontent of the people, which broke out in 1003 in a new insurrec- tion. Under Robert Emmett and Thomas Russell, a conspiracy was formed for seizing the seat of the vice- government, and for this purpose a great multitude of peasautry from the county of Kildare assembled (July 23) in Dublin. Disappointed in their attempt upon the castle, they could ouly raise a tumult in the streets, in the coarse of which Lord Kilwarden, a judge, and his nephew, Mr Wolfe, were dragged from a carriage and killeetWeeil its members and the king on the subject of the Catholic claims, which had long l^en ui^ged by the Whig party, with little support from the people. The nest ministnr was headed by the Duke of Portlaud, and included Lonu Hawkesbunr and Castlereagh (afterwards Earl of Liver- pool and Marquis of Londonderry), and Mr Canning, as secretaries; Mr Spencer Perceval being chancellor of the exchequer. After being accustomed to the ser- vices of such men as Pitt and Fox, the people regarded this^ cabinet as one possessing comparatively little ability. One of its first acts was the despatch of a naval armament to Copenhagen to seize and bring away the Danish shipping, which was expected . to be immediately employed in subserviency to the designs of France, and for the injury of Britain. The end of the expedition was easily obtained; but it was the means of lowering the honour of Britain in the estima- tion of foreign powers. FIB8T PENINSVLAU CAMPAIGN — SUBSEi^UEiri EVEKTS. The retaliation of France, for the interferences of other powers with its Revolution, even supposing such retaliation justifiable, was now more than completed. Further measures could only appear as dictated by a desire of aggrandisement. But France was now given up to the direction of a military genius, who had other ends to serve than the defence of the country against foreign aggression or interference. The amazing suc- cesses of Napoleon had inspired him with the idea of universal empire; and so great was the influence he had acquired over the French, and so high their military spirit, that the attainment of his object seemed by no means imjwssible. There was a difterence, however, between the opposition which he met with before this period, and that which he subsequently encountered. In the earlier periods of the war, the military opera- tions of the Europeau powers were chiefly dictated by views concerning the interests of governments, and in which the people at large felt littb sympathy. Hence- forth a more patriotic spirit rose everywhere against Napoleon : he was looked upon in England and else- where as the common enemy of humanity and of free- dom ; and every exertion made for the humiliation of France was animated by a sentiment of desperation, in which the goTcmora and governed alike participated. The Spanish peninsula was the first part of the pros- trated continent '.here the people could be said to have taken a decidedly hostile part against Napoleon. He had there gone so far as to dethrone the reigning family, and give the crown to his elder brother Joseph. A sense of wrong and insult, mingled with religious fanaticism, raised the Spanish people in revolt against the F;eneh troops ; and though their conduct was everywhere barbarous in the extreme, it was hailed in Britain as capable of being turned to account. In terms of a treaty entered into with a provisional govern- ment in Spain, a small army was landed, August 8, 1808, in Portugal, which hod been recently t»ken pos- session of by the French. Sir Ar*hur Wellesley, who afterwards became so famous as Duke of Wellington, was the leader of this force. In an engagement at Vimeira, on the 2ist, he repulsed the French, under Junot, who soon after agreed, by what was called the Gouventior. of Cintra, to evacuate the country. Sir Arthur being recalled, the British army was led into Spain under the command of Sir John Moore ; but this ofiicer found the reinforcements poured in by Napoleon too great to be withstood, and accordingly, in the end uf December, he commenced a disastrous, though well-conducted retreat towards the port of Corunna, whither he was closely pursued by Marshal Soult. 'ihe British army suffered on this occasion the severest hardships and losses, but did not expe- rience a check in battle, or lose a single standard. In a battle which took place at Corunna, January 16, 1809, for the purpose of protecting the embarkation of the troops. Sir John Moore was killed. Much of the public attention was abuul this time 169 OBAMBBBffS IMTOBMAHOM FOB TfiB PEOPtlS. •lunKMMd by oiwunwtMicM in th« pri«t« life of the eldeik ion of the king. The Prince of W»le« h»d been tempted, in 1798, by the pro«p«^ •'''•*!!"« "" i.*'** debU paid by the nation, to many the Princen Caro- line of Brunswick, for whom he entertained no real afibotion. Almoat ever since the marriage, he had ■hown the moet marked disrespect for his consort, who oonseqnentlr lived separate from him, and was herself considered by many as not altogether blameless in her conduct as a matron. In 1809, Austria was induced once more to com- mence war with France. Upwards of half a million of men were brought into the field, under the command of (he Archduke Charles. Bonaparte, leaving Spain com- paratiToly open to attack, moved rapidly forward into Germany, and, by the victory of Eckmlihl, opened up the way to Vienna, which surrendered to him. After gaining a slight advantage at Essling, the archduke came to a second decisive encounter at Wagram, where the strength of Austria was completely broken to pieces. The peace which succeeded was sealed by the marriage of Napoleon to Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor of Austria, for which purpose he divorced his former wife Josephine. In the autumn of 1809, the British government de- spatched an armament of 100,000 men, for the purpose of securiue a station which should command the navi- gation of the Scheldt. The expedition was placed under the command of the Earl of Chatham, elder brother of Mr Pitt, a nobleman totally unacquainted with military affairs on such a scale. The army, having disembarked on the insalubrious island of Walcheren, was swept off in thousands by disease. The survivors returned in December without having done anything towards the object for which they set out. This tragical affair be- came the subject of inquinr in the House of Commons, which, by a majority of 272 against 232, vindicated the manner in which the expedition had been managed. 8VCCKSSK8 OF \\ i.i.LINOTON IN Sl'AIN. A new expedition in Spain was attended with better fuccess. Taking advantage of the absence of Napoleon in Auitkia, a considerable array was landed, April 23, 1809, under the command of Sir Arthur Wellesley, who immediately drove Soult out of Portugal, and then made a rapid move upon Madrid. King .Joseph advanced with a considerable force under the command of Marshal Victor; and on the 28th of July, attacked the British and Spanish troops in a strong position at Talavera. The contest was obstinate and sanguinary; and though the French did not retreat, the advantage lay with the British. As this was almost the first suc- cess which Britain experienced by land in the course of the war. Sir Arthur Wellesley became the theme of universal praise, and he was elevated to a, i)cerage, under the title of Viscount Wellington of Talavera. He was obliged immediately to fall back upon Portugal, where he occupied a strong position near Santarem. Early in 1810, Napoleon reinforced the army in Spain, and gave orders to Massena to ' drive the Bri- tish out of the Peninsula.' Wellington posted Lis troops on the heights of Busaco — eighty thousand in number, including Portuguese — and there, on the 27th of Sep- tember, was attacked by an equal number of Frencli. Both British and Portuguese behaved well: the French were repulsed with great loss, and for the first time in the war, conceived a respectful notion of the British troops, Wellington now retired to the lines of Torres Vedras, causing the whole country to be desolated as he went, for the purpose of embarrassing the French. When Alassena observed tlio strength of the British position, he hesitated ; and ultimatuly, in the spring of 1811, performed a disastrous and harassed retreat into the Spanish territory. It now became an object of importance with Welling- ton to obtain possession of the Spanish fortresses which had been seized by the French. On the 22d of April, he reconnoitrad Badajos, and soon after laid siege to Almeida. Mitwena, otlraucing to raise (he liege, was 179 met on fair.termi at Fuentei d'Onoro, May 5, and repulsed. Almeida consequently fell into the hands of the British. General Bereiford, at the head of another body of British foroea, gained the bloody battle of Al- buera over Soult, and thereby protected the siege of Badajos, which, however, waa loon after abandoned. During the same season. General Graham, in command of a third body of troops, gained the battle of Baroisa. At the end of a campaign, in which the French were upon the whole unsuoceMful, Welwgton retired once more into Portugal. 8IE F. BURDBTI — THE RKOENCT. The exclusion of strangers from the House of Com- mons during the inquiries into the Walcheren expe- dition, had been made a subject of discussion in a debating club, the president of which was therefore committed to Newgate for a breach of privilege. Sir Francis Burdett, member for Westminster, miule this proceeding the subject of some acrimonious remarks in a letter to his constituents, denying the right of the House of Commons to imprison without trial, and describing that body as ' a part of our fellow-subjects, collected together by means which it is not necessary for me to descrilie.' The letter was voted a libel on the House, and a warrant was issued by the speaker for committing Sir Francis to the Tower. Sir Francis, denying the legality of the warrant, resisted its execu- tion by remainmg in his own house, where he was pro- tected from the officers by immense crowds of people. AM^kuffering a kind of siege fo% two days, he was forcibly taken by % large train of soldiers, and lodged in the Tower. By these proceedings, the capital wau convulsed for several days; and in the course of the tumults which took place, a number of lives were lost. The intellect of the king, which hod experienced several temporoiy aberrations, gave way at the close of the year 1810, and rendered the appointment of a regent unavoidable. Accordingly, in December, the Parliament imposed that duty upon the Prince of Wales, though under certain restrictions as to the ap- pointmeu'-' of officers, and other branches of the royal prerogative. The Tory party had not now the same reason to dread the accession of the prince which they had in 1789. His sentiments on the Catholic claims, originally favourable, had in 1804 experienced a decided change, which proved the means of alienating him from the Whigs, with whom Catholic emancipation was a leading principle. Though he did not at first show any disinclination to take his old friends into the ministry, ho contrived, when the first year of restriction had elapsed, to let them remain in their wonted etate of opposition, without seeming to have desired it. EVENTS OF 1811, 1812, AND 1813. The year 1811 was regarded as the period of greatest depression and distress which the British empire had known for several ages. At this time, with the excep- tion of an uncertain footing gaineil in Spain, the influ- ence of England was unknown on the continent. Bona- parte seemed as firmly seated on the throne of France as any of her former raonarchs, while every other civi- lised European kingdom either owned a monarch of his express appointment, or was in some other way sub- ser\'ient to him. By the Berlin and Milan decrees, he hae]onging to a neutral power — such, for instance, as the United States — was permitted to carry goods to those ports, unless they should previously land and pay a dutv in Britain. Thus the nation at once suffered from the shortsighted despotism of the French emperor, and from its own narrow and imperfect views of commerce ; for, by embarrasaing America, it ">nly deprived itself of one of its best and almost sole re- maining customer!. The power of Bonaparte, thouah suddsa in U« risei mSTORT OF OBEAT BBCTAIK AND IBfiLAKO. Lipiie had the excep- |the influ- :it. Bona- 3f Franco bther civi- Irch of his 1 wajr Bub- lecrees, he lit British into the tl, which, poied the -Buch, for to carry lusly land at once ke French Feet views \, it -inly Bole to- : lit rise. tnight have been pwmaiMnt if managed with diacretion. It wan used, howerer, in BUch a way a« to produce a powerful reaction throughout Europe in favour of those ancient iuBtitutions, which, twenty yearB before, had been threatened with ruin. The exclusion of British goods — a meaiure which he had dictated in resentment against England — proved the source of great distress, oppression, and hardship throughout the continent, and was greatly instrumental in exciting a spirit of hos- tility againat him.* The very circumBtance of a foreign power domineering over their native princes, raised a feeling in favour of those personages, which, being identified with the cause of national independence, acted as a very powerful stimulant. On the other hand, a sense of the erasping ambition of Napoleon — of his hostility to real freedom — of his unscrupulousness in throwing away the lives of his subjects for his o?ni per- sonal aggrandisement — had for some time been gaining ground in France itself. In 1812, when the transactions in Spain had already somewhat impaired Napoleon's ;:eputation, Alexander, Emperor of Russia, ventured upon a defiance of his decrees against British merchandise, and provoked him to a renewal of the war. With upwards of half a mil- lion of troops, appointed in the best manner, he set out for that remote country, determined to reduce it into peifect subjection. An unexpected accident defeated all his plans. The city of Moscow, after being possessed by the French troops in September, was destroyed by incendiaries, so that no shelter remained for them dur- ing the ensuing winter. Napoleon was obliged to re- treat ; but, overtaken by the direst inclemency of the season, his men perished by thousands in the snow. Of his splendid army, a mere skeleton regained central Europe. Returning almost alone to Paris, he contrived with great exertions M reinforce his army, though there was no replacing the veterans lost in Russia. Early in 1813, he opened a campaign in' northern Cierroany, where the emperor of Russia, now joined by the king of Prussia and various minor powers, ap- peared in the open field against him. After various successes on both sides, an armistice was agreed to on the 1st of June, and Bonaparte was offered peace on condition of restoring only that part of his dominions which he had acquired since 1805. Inspired with an overweening confidence in his resources and military genius, he refused these terms, and lost all. In August, when the armistice was at an end, his father-in-law, the emperor of Austria, joined the allies, whose forces now numbered 500,000 men, while an army of 300,000 was the largest which Napoleon could at present bring into the field. Henceforth he might be considered as over- powered by numbers. By steady, though cautious movements, the allies advanced to France, driving him reluctantly before them, and increasing their own force as the various states became emancipated by their pre- sence. At the close of 1813, they rested upon the fron- tiers of France, while Lord Wellington, after two suc- cessful campaigns in Spain, had advanced in like manner to the Pyrenees. HOME AFFAIRS. — WAB WITH AMERICA. Some changes had in the meantime taken place in the British administration. On the 11th of May 1812, the premier, Mr Perceval, was shot in the lobby of the House of Commons, by a man named Bellinghain, whom some private losses had rendered insane. LordH Liver- pool and Castlereagh then became the ministerial leaders In the two Houses of Parliament, but were i,uickly voted down by a majority of four, upon a motion made bjy Mr Stuart Wortley, afterwards Lord Wharncliffe. The ministry was finally rendered satiBfactory to Par- liament by the admission of Earl Ilarrowby as presi- dent of the council, Mr V*nsitti\rt as chancellor of the exchequer, and Loid SidmoutK (formerly premier while Mr Addington) as secretary for the home dep.\rtment ; Lord Liverpool continuing as premier, and Lord Castle- reaeh as foreign and war sccretaiy. Notwithstanding the successes which were ut this period brightening the prospects of Britain, the rtMnt and his ministers did not enjoy much popularity. The regent himself did not possess those domestic rirtuei which are esteemed by the British people, and he had excited much disapprobation by the steps which he took for fixing a criminal charge upon hiB consort. The general discontents were increased by the efiects of the orders in council, for prohibiting the commerce of neutral states. Vast multitudes of working people were thrown idle by the stagnation of manufacturei, and manifested their feeiii'gs in commotion and riot. The middle clataes expressed their dissatisfaction by clamours for parliamentary reform. At this unhappy crisis, provoked by the orders in council, as well as by a right assumed by British war- vessels to search for and impress English sailors on board the commercial shipping of the United States, that country (June 1812) declared war against Britain. Before the news had reached London, the orders had been revoked by the influence of Lord Liverpool ; but the Americans, nevertheless, were too much incensed to retrace their steps. During the summer and autumn, several encounters took place between single American and British ships, in which the former were successful. It was not till June 1, 1813, when the Shannon and Chesapeake met on equal terms, that the British ex- perienced any naval triumph in this war with a kindred people. On land, the Americans endeavoured to annov the British by assaults upon Canada, but met with no decisive success. The British landed several expe- ditions on the coast of the States; and were successful at Washington, at Alexandria, and at one or two other points, but experienced a bloody and disastrous repulse at New Orleans. The war ended, December 1814, with- out settling any of the principles for which the Ameri- cans had taken up arm's. But while thus simply use- less to America, it was seriously calamitous to Britain. The commerce with the States, which amounted in 1807 to twelve millions, was interrupted and nearly ruined by the orders in council, and the hostilities which they occasioned : henceforth America endea- voured to render herself commercially independent of Britain, by the encouragement of native manufactures — a policy not immediately advantageous perhaps to herself, but deo'dedly injurious to Great Britain. The fatal effects ot' ^l^f Berlin and Milan decrees to Napo- leon, nnd of . 1 ' rders in council to the interests of Britwn, show in ,i extremely dangerous it is for any goveinraent to Interfere violently with the large com- mercial system"^ upon which the immediate interests of their subjects depend. I'EACE OP 1814 — SUDSKQUKNT EVENTS. At Tu .'lose of 1813, it w»,s cv'dent that Bonaparte couid hardly defend himself agaiiiat the vast armaments colltoted on all hands against him. Early in 1814, having impressed almost every yo^.th capable of beam- ing anns, he opposed the allie. on the frontiers with a force ihiAch less numerous mid worse disciplined. Even now he was oficred peace, on condition that he should only retain Friince as it existed before the Revolution. But this proposition was too humiliating to his spirit to be accepted ; and he entertained a hope that, at the worst, his father-in-law, the emperor of Austria, would not permit him to be dethroned. Two months were spent in almost incessant conflict with the advancing allies, who, on the 30th of March, entered Paris in triumph ; and in the course of 'v few days, ratifiea a treaty with Napoleon, by which he agreed to resign the government of Franco, and live for the future as only sovereign of Elba, a small island in the Mediterranean. In the measures for settling France, Great Britain concurred by her representative Lord Castlereagh, who attended the allies during the campaign of 1814; and peace w.as proclaimed in London on the 20th of June. Fraucft was deprived of all the acquisitions gained both under the Republic and the Empire, and restored to the rule of the ancient royal family in the person of Louie XVIII. Tha emporor of Ruswa and the king of 171 CHAMBBBS'S INFORKAWON FOR THE PEOPLE. Prussia Viiited England in June, and were revived I with all tbj honours due to men who were considered as the libe.-ators of Europe. Wellington, now created ft duke, rbCJiTed a grant of £400,000 from the House of Commons, in addition to one of £100,000 pre- viously Toted; and had the honour to receive in per- son the thanks of the House for his services. Repre- sentatives from the European powers concern <■ in the war mot at Vienna, October 2, in order to settle the disturbed limits r' he various countries, and provide against the nr «rai of a period of war so disastrous. Throughout the ;^hole arrangements. Great Britain acted with a disinterested magnanimity, which, after her great sufferings and expenses, could hardly have been looked for, but was highly worthy of the eminent name which she bore amidst European nations. In March 1815, the proceedings of the Congress wore interrupted by intelligence that Napoleon had landed in Fr"""- ^^i .as advancing in triumph to the capital. He hu sen encouraged by various favourable circumstances to at^.empt the recovery of his throne; and so unpopulai- 'jnfl tho ni-W guvemmert already be- come, that, th(.> tfh hr" landud with only u few men, he was every arh«re re'"'nved with aflsction, and on the 20th of March wi duiftat'' in u.j capital, which had that morning 'a;oi eft by Liouis Will. The latter sovereign hid grant. . iv ^ho.iler to his peoplu, by which he and his succei? ''rti were bound to rule under certain restrictions, and -ith a legislature composed of two chambers, somewhui lescr.'bliiig the Dritish Ileuses of Parliament. Bonaparte now came unde~ sinular en- gagements, and even submitted to take the votes of the nation fi .>' lionaparte alone, whom thsy denounced as having, J y liis brci'ch of the treaty, * placed himself out of the pale of civil and E3cial relations, and incurred the penally o'' sum- mary execution.' Kapolei>n, knowing that his ineinies would accumulate foster in proportion than his own troops, crossed the frontier on the 14th of June, with 120.000 men, resolved to fight Blucher and Wellington scpui-ately, if possible. The ra^ idity "f his movements prevented that concert betv/eea the Prussiau and Ene- lish generals which it was their interest to cstaijlish. On the IGth, he beat Blucher at I-'piy, and compelled him to retire. He had at the same time intrusted to Marshal Ney the duty "f cutting off all connection be- tween the two hostile armies. His policy, though not fully acted up to by hia marshals, wos so far '■'locessful, that Blucher retired upon a point nearly a d^^y's march from the forces of Wellington. After Bonio further fighting next day. Napoleon brought his whole forces to bei'.r, on the 18th, sgainst Wellington alore, who had d-awn u;. his troops aauss the road to Brussels, n-'ur a place callsii Waterloo. The battle ccnsistuil of a constant succession of attacks by the French \i])m> thi: British lines. Thetio assaults were attondci; with great Lloo'lshed, but nevertheless resisted with the utmost fortitude, till the evening, when Blucher came up or, the left flank of the British, and turned the d'iilc against the French, who hod now to opei-ate laterally, as well as in front. The fiiJlure of a final charge by Niijjnleoii's reserve to proi'uco any impression or. (Le two armien, decided the day agaiitst him: hi* baftl'i' and broken homt retired before a furious chargo of the Prusijian ciiVftlry, who cut tUem down '73 ■mmercifully. On hii return to Paris, Napoleon made hi efibrt to restore the confidence of his' chief counsel- lors, but in vain. After a fruitless abdication in favour of his son, he retired on board a small vessel at Roch- fort, with the intention of proceeding to America; but being captured by a Biitish ship of war, he was con- demned by his triumphant enemies to perpetual con- iinement on the island of St Helena, in the Atlantic, where he died in 1821. Louis XVlll. was now restore*', and the arrange- ments of the Congress of Vienna were completed. The expenses of Great Britain during this last year of hos- tilities exceeded seventy millions ; and the national debt, which in 17!>3 had been £230.000,000, now amounted to the vast sum of £860,000,000. During the latter yean of Napoleon, a reaction hi>d taken place throughout Europe against the innovatory doctrines which, by producing the French Revolution, had been the cause, innocent or guilty, of so much ruinous warfare. Encouraged by this sentiment, the sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, had no sooner settled the nevf government of France, than they entered, September 26, 1815, into a personal league or bond for assisting; each other o'l all occasions when any commotion should take piu~» .^^laong their respective subjects. This treaty was comj. , je-i in somewhat ob- scoire terms ; and from its professing religion to be the ^'ile proper guide * in the counsels of princes, in con- f;olidating human institutions, and remedying their im- pel. ections,' it obtained the name of the Holy Alliance. It was published at the end of the year, and communi- cated to the Prince Regent of England, who approved of, but did not accede to it. The reaction had also its effect in Great Britain, in fixing the power of the aristocracy, which, by composing the whole of the Upper IIji;s4ij and influencing the election of a major part of the Lower, might be said to constitute the government. The security of this pre- dominatuig power was indicated by several acts in which their peculiar interests were consulted. In the preced- ing year, an act had been passed for prohibiting the importation of grain from the continent, when the price in this country should be less than eighty shillings per quarter. An attempt to continue the income and pro- perty taxes, which pressed with the greatest severity on the wealthy and landrd cksses, was also negatived. THE PRINCESS CIIAaLOTTE—HOPUL-^R TUMULTS. In May 1816, the Princ ss Charlotte, only child of the Prince Regent, was married to Prince I.ieopold of Saxe-Cobuig, a young officer who had gained her affec- tions when attending the allied sovereigns at the British court. In November 1817, to the inexpressible grief of the whole nation, iu3unt, the prices of evciy kind of produce, a.ad of every kind of goods, had fiilien far below the unnatural level to which a state of w'^r and of paper money had raised them ; and hence the expenses of the late contest, which had never been felt in the fictitious prosperity then preva- lent, came to prcRS with groat severity upon the national rescurccs, at a time when there wa« niucii less ubility to biar the burcleu. To complete the miaery of the country, tire crops of 1816 fell far ohort of the usual quantity, aud the price of hroaii was increased to an amount >noK! tliau double that which bos gmce been ths bireruge rate. HISTORY OP GREAT BRITAIN AND IREEAND. len preva- n»ti<>T)Hl tes ebility ;ry of the the usual seel to an ince been Tumultuary proceedings took place in various parti of the country; and a desire for a reform in the House of Commons, which was supposed to be the only means of reducing the public exp^ nditure, began to take deep root among the lower orders, and produced tumultuary excesses in the metropolis. The government then adopted expedients for counteracting the force of the popular spirit. They endeavoured to make it appear that an extensive conspiracy had been formed for the overthrow of the government. Of the four rioters charged with high treason, a conviction was obtained only against one. Such unanimity, howe . er, prevailed between the ministry and the Parliament, that, at the close of February (1817), an act was passed for the suspension of the liabr,^ Coi-pus Act. A considerable number of persons were imprisoned, and detained for some time at the will of the ministers. A temporary revival of prosperity occurred in 1818, but was q uckly followed by renewed distress. In the autumn oi 1819, the misery of the working-classes had reached its greatest height, and still parliamentary reform was demanded as the only measure which could permane.itly improve their prospects. On the 12th of July, at a public meeting in the unrepresented town of Birmingham, an attorney was elected to proceed to Westmmster, and openly claim to be received as a member of Parliament. On the ICth of August, a vast body of operatives assembled at ManchesttT,iu an open space of ground called St Peter's Field, for a similar purpose, though professedly to petition for parliameiN tary reform. As they came in regular array, bearing banners with inscriptions, the magistrates professed to consider the meeting as dangerous to the public peace, and accordingly, ere the proceedings were far advanced, a body of troops, consisting chiefly of yeomanry, dashe.l into the mass, trampling down many persons of both sexes under the horses' feet, and killing and wounding others with their sabres. The meeting was dispersed by these means, and Messrs Hunt and Johnston, the principal orators, were apprehended. The tragic nature of this event, and its appearing as an invasion of the popular right of meeting for redress of grievances, produced some marks of public resentment; but the magistrates who conducted the attack received the immediate and cu'dial thanks of the government. When Parliament reassembled in November, there was an evident increase of attachment to the ministry; and, in addition to the strong measures already taken for suppressing popular discontent, acts were passed to suppress unstamped political publications, to prevent secret training to arms, and to restrict the right of call- ing a public meeting to magistrates. The year 1819 was reraai'kable, among other things, for the provision made, by act of Parliament, for the resumption of cash payments at the bank. On the 20th of January 1820, George III. died at Windsor, in his eighty-second year, without having experienced any lucid interval since 1810. The Prince Regent was immediately proclaimed as Oeouue IV.; but there was no other change to mark the connnciicc- ment of a new reign. / few days after the decease of George III., the Duke of Kent, his fourth fiin, died suddenly, leaving an inf^int daughter, Victurin, with a very near piospect to the throne. MISCELLANEOUS CinCUMSTANCES FROM 1790 TO 1820. Owing to the superiority of Britain at sea, she wns able to preserve her commerce during the war, while that of Fiance was comparatively ruined. This circum- stance, combined with the remarkable effects of nmchi- iiery in various manufactures, and the great improve- ments efTecte'l In agriculture, maintained tlic prosperity of the country during a contest Mhieh otherwise mutt have sunk her as low as it did Austria and Prusain. Tiio value nf the experts, which had been fifteen mil- lions ir. ]', 60, and had .;n/v advanced to twenty in 1790, was, in 1002,/o.-/^-«i.»: mtflmu. This period ia above all things memorable for the introduction cf the use of ateum iu navigation. A model vessel, with a small steam-engine on board, was tried in 1788 by Mr Patrick Miller of Dalswinton in Dumfriesshire. Soon after, 4 vesMl on a larger scale was exhibited in perfect action on the Forth and Clyde Cana). The idea fell asleep for a few years, but was revived by Mr Fulton, an American, who, in 1807, set agoing a steam-vessel on the Hudson River, the first in the world which was regularly employed in conveying passengers. In 1812, Mr Henry Bell of Helensburgh launched a similar vc?s>^l on the Clyde, being the firsb seen in Europe; and from that period steam -vessels quickly became nunvituus. Their superiority, m pro- pellint,' Tccsels withuut regard to wind or tide, was iu time universall;^ acknowledged; and ultimately they have been used in voyag'.'a across large oceans. In this period, uonsidorable efforts were made for the more general education of the people. Sunday schools, first suggested by Mr Raikes of Gloucester, overspread the whole country, and proved the means of instruct- ing many children who otherwise would have remained altogether ignorant. A plan of teaching great numbers of children, by employing the best pupils as raonitora or assistants, was originated by I^r Bell and Mr Joseph Lancaster, and widely introduced. Two great socie- ties wore formed for the pui-pose of setting up and sup- porting schools in the districts where they were most needed. This period also beheld the rise of various societies, whose object it was to send missionaries to convert the heathen in distant lands, and to dissemi- nate Bibles both at home and abroad. Great efforts were at the same time made in Britain to put an end to slavery in the AVest India colonies. The latter part of the reign of George III. was also, distinguished by great improvements in the dress and social condition of the people. Old fashions gradually disappeared, and the more simple and agreeable cos- tume of the present day came into use. In the year 1750, cocked hats, wigs, swords, and buckles, werei generally worn, and all gentlemen used hair powder. From the year 1790 to about 1800, these and many other oililities completely disappeared. Speedy travel- ling by stage-coaches, and the rapid transmission of letters by niail-can'iagcs, became at the same time general iu all parts of the United Kingdom. At no perica did a more brilliant class of literary men oxist. Poetry ;issuraed new and attractive forms ia the works of Campbell, Moore, Southey, Wordsworth, Byron, and Scott. Tlic nov"! or fictitious tale was advanced to a dignity it liad never known before, in consequence of the production, by Sir Walter Scott, of a series of such compositions, in the highest degree dra- matic and entertaining. In the Edinburgh and Quar- terly Reviews, periodical criticism acquired an impor- tance it never before possessed. At the same time, the more grave walks of divinity, history, and travels, were filled by respectable body of writers. Tlic name of Sir Humphry Davy stands pre-eminent in science, which was also cultivated with distinguished success by Wollaston, Leslie, Playfair, and Robison. In philo- sophical literature, the names of Dugald Stewart and Thomas Brown merit peculiar respect. HEION OF GEORQE IV. At the time when f'eorge IV. commenced his reign, the Manchester affair and the recent proceedings of the ministry, lioil inspired a small bana of desperate men with the design of assassinating the ministers at a cabinet dinner, and Ihcreafter attempting to set them- selves up as n provlgii./ial government. On the J3d of February IflUO, lliey were surprised by the police in their place of meeting, and, after a desperate resist- ance, five were seized, among whom one Thistlewood was the cliief. These wi chod men were tried for high troasnii, and executed. Nearly about the same time, an attempt was made by the workmen in the west of Scotland to bring about some alteration in the state; and two nicn were executed. On the accession of the king, his consort's name had j been omitted from th'j liturgy. Thifl aud other indig- 173 CHAMBEBS'S IMPORMATIOlf FOR THE PEOPLE. nities induced her to return ftom » Toluntwy exlla in lUlj, June 1820, to tlie great embMrawment of the king and Iiit ininiitew. Her miyeity, who had long been befriended by the Opposition, wa» received by the people with the warmert expresaione of sympathy. Whaterer had been blanieable in her conduct wag over- looked, on acco!int of the greater licentiousneBS of life aioribed to her huiband, and the persecutions which •he had suffered for twenty-four years. The king, who had established a system of observation round her mitjestv during her absence from the country, caused a bill of pains and penalties against her to be brought (July 6) into the House of Lords, which thus l)ecame a court for her trial. Messrs Brougham and Denman, who afterwards attained high judicial stations, acted as counsel for her majesty, and displayed great dexterity and eloquence in her defence. The examination of witnesses occupied several "reeks; and nothing was left undone which might promise to confirm her majesty's guUt. But no evidence of criminality could soften the indignation with which almost all classes of the com- munity regarded <'!ii prosecution. Though the bill was read a seconr ■'■' u- uy a majority of 28 in a house of 218, and a thira ii:ae by 108 against 99, the govern- ment considered it expedient to abandon it, leaving the queen and h . ,>.'i> i jans triumphant. In Jul} 1 **"'' , '' .' .onation of George IV. took place m^taiices >.f great splendour. On this occa- . :i ni)vJ'j an attempt to enter Westminster ' ^ |;n ^so of witnessing the ceremony, but Y the military officers who guarded the ''ave such a shock to her health, a few days. During the month under d sion, the ' Abbey, fr waa repel door; < n insult w' as to cause her d' a of August, the Lrj paid a visit to Ireland, where he was received with much cordiality by all classes of that excitable people, notwithstanding his known hostility to the Catholic claims. In September, he paid a visit to the kingdom of Hanover. In August of the ensuing year, he completed this series of visits by a voyage to Scotland, where, owing to the novelty of the occasion, and the historical association!) which it was the means of awakening, he was also received with extreme kind- ness. During his absence In Scotland, his leading mi- nister, the Marquis of Londonderry (formerly Lord Castlereagh), put an end to his own life, in consequence of a morbid sense of the difficulty of his position in re- gard to continental affairs. The successor of the Mar- quis of Londonderry in the direction of foreign affairs was Mr George Canning, who had quitted the cabinet two years before on account of the prosecution of the queen, and was at this time preparing to leave tLe country as governor-geneial of India. Mr Canning was a statesman of enlightened and humane spirit, and among other popular qualities, possessed a rich and classical style of parliamentary eloquence. JOINT-STOCK MANIA — COMMRRCIAl. (.MBAARASSHENTS. The'twiJteiisuing years were characterised by an ex- traordinarjractivity in almost all departments of trade and commerce. Mr Huskissoii, an able commercial miiiister introduced by Mr Canning, originated several measures highly important; especially the repeal of all duties on goods passing between Great Britain and Ireland — an alteration m the duties affecting the silk manufacture — the repeal of the combination laws, and of the law against the emigration of artisans ; while the executive formed commercial treaties, on the reci- procity system, wifi "itriou" countries of Europe; and, acknowleilging tae indepent'ence of the revolted Spanish colonies in America, drew t, lem as additional customers into the British market. Capital now so far excee' cd the ordinary means of its employment, that many . oint-stock companies were formed, as a means of giving it a wider range than that to which it was usually limit >d. Some of these associ- ations professed objects which were by long-cerablished usage the proper business of individuals alone, and others involved hazardous and visionary projects, which nrere to b« earned into effect in lemoto countries. The ;7< depretsed itate of trade in 1821 md 1822, had led to a diminished importation and production of goods, and been succeeded by an advance of prices in 1823, The consequence was a sudden and unusually active demand, and a powerful reaction of supply, which did not cease till production had far exceeded the bounds of modera- tion. Through the facilities afforded by large issues of paper money, tho delusion was kept up longer than it would otherwiie have been. The first symptom of somothing being wrong, was the turning of the exchanga against England. A diminution of issues at the bank followed. Merchants began to feel a difiSculty in an- swering pecuniary obligations. Then took place a run upon the banks, some of which, both in London and in the country, were obliged to stop payment. Between October 1825 and February 1826, fifty-nine commis. sions of bankruptcy were issued against English country banks, and four times the number of private composi- tions were calculated to take place during the same period. While the merchant and manufacturer were without credit, their inferiors were without employ- ment, and distress reached almost every class of the community. Some liberal pecuniary measures on the part of the Bank of England, helped '. a a short time, rather by inspiring confidence than i-y actual disburse- ment of money, to retrieve in some measure the am< barrasse*! circumstances of the country, CANNINO'S ADHINISTBATION — CATHOLIC EUANCIFA i; :)>. In the spring of 1827, the illness of Lord Liverpool (followed soon after by his death) opened ttiii way for Mr Canning's promotion to the first place !|i tl.e admi- nistration; on which occasion, for Vfirio'.is reasons of a personal as well as political charactei', the more uncom- promising claiKS of Tories resigneo their places, leaving the reins of government in the hands of a compara- tively popular party. Mr Canning, however, sank under the new load imposed upon him, and died in the ensuing August. His friend Lord Qoderich succeeded as premier; but resigned in January 1828, when the Duke of Wellington was appointed in his place, with Mr (af^rwards Sir) Robert Peel as secretary for the home department. From the year 1805, the Catholic claims had been a prominent subject of parliamentary discussion, and since 1821 they had been sanctioned by a majority in the House of Commons. Almost despairing of their cause, while left to the progress of mere opinion in the English aristocracy, the Iri»h Catholics had in 1824 united themselves in an AssocieCion, with the scarcely concealed purpose of forcing iheir emancipation by means of a terrifying exhibliion of their physical strength. An act was quickly passed for the suppres- sion of this powerful body; but it immediately reap- peared in a new shape. In fact, the impatience of the ('atholic population of Ireland under the disabilities ■".nd degradation to which they were subjected on ac- i'unt of religion, was evidently becoming so very great, that there could be litt! hope of either peace or public order in that country ti^i their demands were conceded. Though the English public lent little weight to the agitation, and the king was decidedly hostile to its object. Catholic emancipation rapidly acouired impor- tance with all classes, and in all parts or the empire. In the spring of 1820, a kind of preparation was made for the concession, by the repeal of the test and corpo- ration oaths, imposed in the reign of Charles I J. The ministry soon after Kceived an alarming proof of the growing force of the question. Mr Vesey Fitz- gerald hod vacated his seat lor the county of Clare, on becoming president of the Board of Trade. He was a friend to emancipation, and possessed great influence in the county; but he was also a meiiibor of ari anti- Catholio administration. As an exnedient forariiioying the ministry, the Catholic Association, and all the locid influences on that side, were set in motion to procure the return of Mr Daniel O'Connell, the moat iistin- guished orator of the Catholic party. To the surprise of the nation, Mr O'Connell was retiuncd by a great BISTORT OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. proof Fite- are, on WA8 a fl'ieiice .H anti- Ihe lOcal 1 procure diatin- Isurprise 1a gretvt mi^oritj. It WM eren lunniied thftt the Uwi for the ezdufion of Catholics from Parliament would be unable to prevent him from taking hii teat. Tho Duke of Wellington now began to see the necenlty of taking steps towards a settlement of this agitating question ; and the first, and most difficult, was to overcome the scruples of the sovereign. At the opening of the session of 1829, in consequence of a recommendation from the throne, bills were introduced by ministers for removing the civil disabilities of Catholics, and putting down the Catholic Association in Ireland; and notwithstanding a great popular opposition, as well as the most powerful exertions of the older and more rigid class of Tories, this measure was carried hy a minority of 353 against 180 in the House of Commons, and by 217 to 112 in the House of Lords, BEIGN OF WILLIAM IV. The agitations respecting the Catholic Relief Bill bad in some measure subsided, when, June 26, 1830, George IV. died of ossification of tho vital organs, and was succeeded by his next brother, the Duke of Cla- rence, under the title of William IV. About a month after, a great sensation was produced in Britain by a revolution which took place in France, the main line of tho Bourbon family being expelled, and the crown con- ferred upon Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orleans. By this ev »nt, a great impulse was given to the reforming spirit in Britain, and the demands for an improvement in the paiiiamenta?y representation became very strong. The consequence was the retirement of the Wellington ,''.d- mii istration in November, and tho foi jm itlon of a Whig cabinet, head^^d by Earl Grey, .'he ogitations of the time were much increased by a syst'em of nocturnal fire-raising, which spread through the south of England, and caused tSe destruction of a vast quantity of agri- cultural produce and machinery. The Whig ministry came into power upon an under- standing that they were to introduce bills for parlia- mentary reform, with reference to the three divisions of the United Kingdom. These, when presented in March 1831, were found to propose very extensive changes, particularly the disfranchisement nf boroughs of small population, for which the members were usually returned by private influence, and the extension of the right of voting in both boroughs and counties to the middle classes of society. The bills accordingly met with strong opposition from the Tory, now called the Conservative party. By a dissolution of Parliament, the ministry found such an accession of supporters as enabled them to carry the measure through the House of Commons with large majorities; but it encountered great difficulties in the House of Lords; and it was not till after a temporary resignation of the ministry, and some strong expressions of popular anxiety respecting reform, that the bills were allowed to become law. During the few ycRTS which followed the passing of the Reform Bills, the attention of Parliament was chiefiy occupied by a series of roeaaurcs which a large portion of the public deemed necessary for improving the insti- tutions of the country, and for other beneficial purposes. The most important of these, in a moral point of vie, v, was the abolition of slavery in the colonies, the sura of twenty millions being paid to the owners of the negroes, as a compensation for resigning a right of property which had long been a disgrace to humanity. By this act, eight hundred thousand slaves were (August 1, 18.^4) placed in the condition of freemen, but subject to an apprenticeship to their masters for a few years. In the same year, an act was passed for amending the laws for tho support of the poor in England, which hod long been a subject of general complaint. One of the chief provisions of the new enactment established a government commission for tho superintendence of the loci>l boards of management, which had latterly been ill-conducted, and were now proposed to be re- formed. The flble-bodied poor were also deprived of the right which hiui been conferred upon them at the end of the e-.ghteenth cenxuiy, t impel purishea to support them, either by employment at a certain rate, or pecuniary aid to tho same amount : they were now left no resource, failing employment, but that of enter* ing poor-houses, where they were separated from their families. The contemplated results of this measure were a reduction of the enormous burden of the poor< rates, which hod latterly exceeded seven millions an- nually, and a check to the degradation which indiscri- minate support was found to produce in the character of the labouring-clnsses. On the renewal of the charter of the East India Company in 1834, the government deprived it of its mercantile pil . ilcges, and extended the right of trading with China to tho community .tt large. The ancient policy of not allowing Europeans to settle in Hindoostan was also departed from, under some restrictions of in- ferior importance. Some reforms, equally advantageous to the public, were effected in the administration of the law, and in the privileges held by the Bank of England, In 1833, a reform took place in the mode of electing the councils and magistracies of the Scottish boroughs. Instead of regulations which took their rise in an early age, and had beer found productive uf mismanagement, the parliamentary constituencies were empowered, in all except a few cases, to choose the requisite number of councillors, to whom then belonged the duty of ap- pointing the requisite number out of their own body to act as magistrates. In lU.'iJ, the English municipal corporations were refonneci, upon a principle similar to that .ipplied to Scotland, except that the rate-payers and freemen were designed to form the electoral bodies, and that the councils in most cases were to consist of a greater number of members. A modified reform of the same nature took place in Ireland, by virtue of an act passed in 1840. During the summer of 1834, the ministry endea- voured to carry through Parliament o bill to enable them to take unusual measures for restraining turbu- lence in Ireland. In cc. sequence of a difficulty ex- perienced in passing the measure. Lord Althorp and Earl Grey resigned their situations. The latter, who had now passed his seventieth year, was anxious for other reasons to retire from more active life, in order to spend the remainder of his days in the bosom of his family. He withdrew with the admiration of all partie , his whole career having been marked by coneigSency and sincerity. His place was supplied by Viscount Melbourne, and Lord Althorp was induced to resume office. The Irish Coercion Bill, with certain modifi- cations, was then passed. In November, the death of Eorl Spencer c?>:jed the advancement of his son Lord Althorp to the House of Peers, and the ministry was then left without a leader in the House of Commons. The king, who hod fui some time inclined to the Conservative party, took advantage of this circumstance to dissolve the cabinet. The Duke of Wellington was again called into office, and a messenger was despatched to Italy to brinjt'Sir Robert Peel home from that country, in ordev«to accept the premiership. Sir Robert hastened to Loudon, and on the 10th of December, the new ministry was -^n- stmcted, chiefly of the individuals who lost office in 1830. k ir ilobert, though sensible of the difficulty of conductii. J public affairs at such a time, resolved to do the utmos to conciliate popular favour, by entering upon refor. ning measures. In a new House of Corr mens, his party was strengthened by nearly a hundred new votes; but he was still in a minoiity. After bring- iiiiE^ forward a variety of measures of a reforming cha- racter, being defeated on the question of devoting some part of the Irish church revenups to education, he was compelled to resign (April 8, 1835), and allow the Mel- bourne ministry to be replaced. In the session of 1836, the ministry were defeated, by majorities iu the House of Lords, in attempts to carry seveial importai t measures of reform, but succeeded in passing an act for commuting tithes in England into a corn-rent charge payable in n'oney ; also in an act for enablbg dlsseuten in Englan 1 to b« manied other- 175 OHAMBBBS'8 INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE wiie than by tho e»tabli»hed clergy; and another for n iroueral reffigtry of births, den th», and iiiamageB. 1 hoy likewise reduced the stamp-duty on newspapers to one penny, by which the circulation of that class of publi- cations was Tery larffcly incroasod. From this time, there was a marked diminution in the zeal which had for some years been manifested for changes in tho na- tional institutions. Early in lli37, the ministry again introduced into the House of Commons v. bill lor aot- ilincthe Irish titho question ; but before this or any other measure of importance had boon carried, the Ling died of ossification of tho vital organs (June SO), in the seventy-third year of his age, and seventh of his reign, being succeeded by his niece, tho Phincess Victoria. The deceased monarch is allowed to havu bcon a con- scientious and amiable man, not remarkable for ability, but at the same time free from all gross faults. COMMENCEMENT OF THE PllllSENT HEIUN. Queen Victoria began to reign June 20, ) II.'I7, having just completed her eighteenth year; was . -wncd on tho 28th of June in the following year; and «as mar- ried to her cousin, Prince Albert ol' Coburg and Ootha, February 10, HMO. This union has now (February 1849) been followed by tho birth of two princes and four princesses — thus giving now security to tho con- tinuance of the present dynasty. In tho autunms of 1042, '44, '47, and '48, her majesty visited Scotland, but on each occasion more in a private tlian in a state ca- pacity; residing at the mansinnii of the nobility that lay in her route to the Highlands, where the Prince Con- sort enjoyed the invigorating sports of grouse-shooting and drir-stalking. In 1)148 she paid a visii, entirely divestc of state formalities, to the late royal family of France ; and shortly after made another to her uncle, the king of the Pelgiaiig. In IU45, besides making the tour of the Knglisk midland counties, the royal pair visited the family of Prince Albert at Coburg and Gotha; receiving the attentions of the various (Jennan powsrs that lay on tiicir outward and homeward route. Iter majesty htis received in turn the friendly visits of several crowned heads, among whom have beei. the cx-king of the French, Leopold of Belgium, the king of Saxony, and the emperor of Russia. Such interchanges and attentions are not '.vithout their importance; at all events they are characteristic of a new era in the in- ternational history of Kuropc. The Whig ministry and measures, which had for gome cime been on the decline, were set aside by a vote of ' n>» confidence' in the summer of lli41 ; a dissolu- tion of Parliament was tho consequence ; and after the new elections, the ()pi)osition was found to bs so far in the ascendai'cy, that Viscount Melbounic tendered his resignation, and retired from public life, leaving .-^ir Tvobert Peel ajrain to take the holm of affairs. The Parliament of 11)41, under the flirection of thu Peel ministry, w*! in i-jany re»pplied to ship-building, especially to the construction of steamers; raachineiy of every descrip- tion was much improved, and its application extended to almost every known process. The last twenty years have also been niprked by considerable social advanoe- meut ; for although dicicontent and outbreaks have u>;- curre M Mii a dncrw of wealth aud polilkai influmoa wUA vua he sbm to place her . c the head of mH iuiUoim. This nnprsM- dented affluouoe and power *p|sMHa to ham taken iti rise in a fortunate eoncnmnoe of faTOuring oiKum- stances, some of a phTsical and othen of a mor»l dka- racter. The tirst of the jJiTsical causes in importance is unqnaatioBaUjr the inaalar ^tnation, at onoe pro- tecting the OiHintrj from the dostructlTe inrasions whidi bare so much depremed and retarded many con- tinental states, and luraishing opportunities for a ready commerce with all the shores of the civilised world. The second of these causes is to be found in the natural fertility of a large portion of the United Kingdom, and the temperate climate enjoyed by it, faTouring the production of the food neceBHary for a laim population. A third cause is the larj. amount of her mineral and metallic utores, fumishiug her with the meakis of prosecuting manufactures to an extent beyond all which the world has ever before bad es- {lerience of. Thus Britain has been naturally qualified to become the seat of a great agricultural, manufac- turing, and commercial nation, and must always, f>om the nature of things, have tended to assume that cha- racter. Moral causes, likeinse, have had a powerful eflect. The stock of tiie British population happens to hare sprung fnm the Teutonic branrh of the Caucasian variety of the human species, which has in many coun- tries proved the superiority of its intellectual and moral organisation. The idea of trial by jury, and of arrang- ing public aliUrs by a representati^-e body, hit upon at an early period by this i«ce, show that it possesses a natural aptitude for forming improved political insti- tutions. Its connection with most of the important inventions of modem times shows its ingenuity in the artii. .'*« maritime enterprise and mercantile intre- pidity weK testified at a time when other nations were engages' only in feudal broils. Planted iu Eng- land in the fifth century, and probably in Scotland man^ centimes before, we see this people making a continual ikdrance ever since in political institations and in the arts of peace. Historiars poist o«t the accidents r.Ll'ih eflwcted conspicuous ohMUfSS ; but ivhile the feebienes* nd wickedness ef • Jete may have been th imn^ediate cause of the Maina Charta, Rnd the paseious of Henry VIII. the proximate cause of the reformation of religion, there must have also been something in the rieople pressing them irresistibly to- wards liberty of person and of conscience, and enabling them to overco'iie all obstacles to the accomplishment uf those objects. It was iu the nature of the people to establish free institutions — and they were established. A people 80 active and so ingenious could not fail to take tCdrnutage of the natural facilitius which they en- joyed for manufactures and commerce. They made the * Fur an iMooiint of the pbystoal featuros, natunl products, poUtlcal and civi: divlaioni of Qreat Britain rnd her dependen- cies, tlie reader is referred to tlie Usooraphical Noi. from 63 to 70 inclusive. No. 62. best of bladee in the days of Cocnr de Lion, and in the time of Elizabeth their sails whitened every neighboxir- ing sea. Arts, driven out of other countries by ruth- less bigotry, fourd ntuga and flourishnd amongst ft people who eagerly grasp at every kind of employment which promiaes to be useful, It is to their persevering industry, exorcised by favour of so many natural cir- cumstances, and constantly protected by free institu- tions, that we are mainly and most immediately to look for the Bouioe of ths greatiiess of the British Kmpire. VOKM OP aOVEBNMENT. Th« guTMitmant of the T'nlted Kingdom is constitu- tional, or ponesses a regu, •- form, in which the civil Shts of all classes are ackiu.wiedged and guaranteed, e constitution is a monarchy, in which tho sovereign Mcepts of liis dignity under an expresii agreement to abide by certain prescribed forms of government accord- ing to the laws of the realm, and to maintain inviolate ths I>rotestant religion, with all the rights and privi* kgss of the chun;b. The sovereign is the head or di- MOtiilg power in the executive of government, the foun- tuin of all honours, and the watchful guardian of the Interests of the state : ho is held to be incapable of doing wrong; and if an unlawful act is done, the mi- nister instrumental in that act is alone obnoxious to punishment. The legislative part of the government IS composed of two deliberating bodies — the House of Lords and the House of Comnicns, both of which con- sist of individuals belonging to the United Kingdom only, the colonial dependencies of the empire having no share in the general management. The person* who compose the Home os8eB8iou of freehold property to the value 177 CHAMBERS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. of 40i. annually, or of land in copyhold of the clear Minual value of ton p. .iidf, the poneMiiou of lan'l or boutM of tea pouudi auuutl value in property, or o> a 1mm of not 1«m than «i«»y jroari in hnKlauU. and fifty-noven In Scotland, and the occupation of landa or t Kimli»li and Iriih borougnf being alio allowed to vote. A llouno of Coinmon» cannot legally esiit for wore than aeven yeart; but, in reality, it rarely exist* lo long; the death of the wreroign, change of iniuiktry, and other circum- ■tanoei, oauiiug a renewal ou an average every three or four yean. Reckoning from 1002 till November I847, there were fifteen Houiiei of Coiunioni; a* the fifteenth atill exiitu (February 1840), we hare an ave- nge of three years for each : those of longest duration yreiti the fourth, from 1U07 to 1812; the fifth, from J812 to 1818; and the fourteenth, from 1841 to 1047. The Housea of Lordu and Commons coiiiposo the Parliamint. The Parliaments of England and Scot- laud wore united in 1707, and then called the British Parliament. In 1800, the Irish Parliament merged in the Biitish Parliament, The three kiugdums wore first represented in one Parliament in lilOl. Since that period it has been entitled tho Impaial rarliametU, and is always convened at Westminster. The two Houses, with the sovereign, curaposo the throe estates of tho realm, or legislative body. The ■overeign takes no personal concern in tho proceedings of Parliament, further than opening or proroguing the tesk'niut; but the interests of the crown in Parliament ani ':>tru«ted to members of the cabinet council or mi- nistry, and by them are defended and explained. The two Houses, with the sovereign, have th*. power to pans laws, impose taxes, borrow money, make mquiries into the management of the public revenues, 01 the trans- actions of the £p:eat officers of goverumopt, ui.o even to bring the latter to trial, if nccesaavy, 'v^iU',''':oarJ8 of n^.'-g; (»«:•'. are conducted, such as those for educa;^. ^ i .'T unrposes of charity, for the erection of l:,:;hthou«t« ok iLf coast, for the construct'. ju 01" harbours, and general h', 'udeed, into all ti'e buiiness w^ich U intrusted to the executive part of the •ro''emment ; they cannot direct what is to be done, but lu^;/ always make scrutiny into it after- wards, if any error or mismanagement has taken place. The discussions ou these subjects are often very warm and eager, and bring to light facts of groat public im- portance. No act ofthe two deliberative bodies becomes Talid OS a law without tho assent of tho sovereign ; and all propositions relating to money to be raised for the public service, must originate with the House of Com- mons, the Iiords merely givlnj^ their assent as a matter of form, without Kiing allowed to alter anything. This circumstance gives a much larger share of influence to the Commons thiui is possessed by the Lords ; the for- mer having it in their power, when di« of an act of Parliament, but !s only known by tho name of a bill while under discus- sion : permission must first be obtained to introduce the bill, rod it >iiust then b« read and cnusideriad by tho Hotiar three several times, besides being once scru- tinised more closelv by a committee or select number uf the inumbets, anil, if a public bill, by the whole Houi"! sitting as a oommittec, when each u>eiub«r is permitted to ipuak as frequently as he sees occasior, <) *?naa in the regular sittings of the House no one ii ii'ii>'<'ed to speak mure i'. vi once, except tn vk jitaiu viii-iu His first stateiaentM have been misuudemtood. If it is not re- jected in any of those three readings, 01 ^iven up in the committee, the bill is said to have passed. It must then go through tho same proi-eM in the other House, where it is sometimes adopted, sometimes rejected; but if any alterations are made on it here, they must be reported to the House where it first originated. If the two cannot agree uii the changes proposed, the bill falls to tho ground; but sonio utouificatlon i» generally con- trived which satisfies both parties. It still remains to obtain the sanction of tho sovereign, which is hardly aver refused, after which tho bili becomes an act nf rarlianunt or law. The members of both Houses have certain personal priviluges, which are deemed necessary for enubling theiij properly to attend to their public duties. In Parliament, they enjoy absolute freedom of speech, and Cuutnot be questioned out of the House for any- thing said in the debates; they and thoir servants are exempted from arrest (except in orimitutl cases) during their attendance in Parliament. The Extcutive, as already stated, is reposed in tho hands of a sovereign. The dignity of the sovereign is hereditary in the family of Urunswick, now on the throne, and in thi) person of cither a male or female. A queen reigning, therefore, aiijoys the sarao privi- leges as a king. Itesides enforcing the laws of the realm, through the medium of courts of justice, and a variety of functionaries, f!ie sovereign is charged with tho office of levying taxes granted for tho public service, and of defending the empire at home ur abroad against foreign enemies. He, or she (with reference to our present sovereign), also couducts all intercourse with tho rulers of otter nations, forming treaties and alliaucos, declaring war or concluding peace. She has the duty of protecting tho persons and trade of British subjects in foreign countries. Fur this purpose, she has the sole appointment of the officers who perform these duties; of judges in the several courts of law; of officers in the army and navy; of public ambassadors, and of consuls at foreign ports for the safetv of trae ( <■. mice, the Secretary at War, and the Secretary for Ireland. Xheie, witlt the Chancellor of the Kxchequer, the firtt Lord of the Admiralty, the Matter -< Ion eral of the Ut Miauce, the President of the Hoard of Control, and oiu- ur two others, coDstitutu what is called the Mi- nitlrp, t!ie Oabinel Council, or briefly the Cabinet; and all the measures of the executive government are settled by their deliberations. Besides this body, the Queen has a J'rivy Council, consisting of persons eminent from rank, office, or personal character, who may be at vari- ance with the Cabinet Council, but who take no share in the government, except when summoned by the royal authority. They are then in the same situation witl the cabinet ministers, ivtid Ijecome responsible for ' advice they give. The ro>(ular divisicii of labour which is established in the 31n mh govern i leut, under the respective licuds of the Cabinet, Treaeur v, Exchequer, Board of 'i'rivJe, Mint, Revenue Boards, Admiralty, War Oifice, &o. is one of its chiof excellencies ; because overy secretary, or other officer of state, having a narticular department assigned to him, the res^)onsibility for any error or mismanagement is established at once, and niuy be either roctifiod ur punished. l'i'..liamcnt itself has its age, wills, kc, and adopt tho principles ut' t 'u> old canon law. There are also courts of AdmlraltN, nl ioh decide votection of the subject from the vindictivcness of power. Civil cases, turning upon matters of fact, are likewise decided in all parts of tho United Kingdom by juries. The House of Lords, as the great council of tho sovereign, acts as a court of last appeal from the civil tribunrJs of Britain and Ireland. Practically, the busi- ness of ^ 'uing these appeal >< is undertaken by some law lord, such as tho Lord tliivnccUor, who, as there must be three persons present, is usually accompanied by a temporal peer and a biehop. Before deciding, the House sometimes demands the opinions of the English judges. Independently of their power as judges of npgioal, the peers uct as a criminal court in all cases where a peer of the realm is tried for a capital crime. The iaws and judicial usages of England are ex- tended to most of the colonial possessions, along with all the rights and privileges which are common to British subjects. Hencu the inhabitants of the most distant part of the empire, whatever be their origin, rank, or colour, are entitled by the conetitution to enjoy the samj degree of civil and religious liberty, and the samo careful protection of life and property, OS their fellow-auljects in the mother country. Thia is an invaluable boon, for in no nation do the people practically enjoy greater liberty of speech or action (without licentiousness), and in none is the press more unshackled. Next in point of value to the privilege of trial by jury, the British subject places the right of petition to the Ilouses of Porliament, either for an im- provement in the laws or a redress of grievances. Ai this involves the right of assembling publicly in a peaceful manner, or of meeting constitutionally, to di«- 178 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1^0 M %° 1.0 1.1 U^I^S |2.5 |50 "*^™ I^K !: us 110 ^ 1 121 1 U. 16 < 6" ► V <^ % /; ^ ^ '^# s^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4S03 OHAMBBBM iSFdKlliatGS VOR YCE VBbftX. MM meMOMI of gorenment auid legUUtion, it ii allowed to fom the impngnable bulwuk of Britiih political freedom. [For farther information on the legal uiagM of Great Britain and Ireland, the reader ie re- ferred to the HraiOBY OP Law*— forming No. £4 of the pteient rolume.] BELIOION AND THK CHURCn. The United Kingdom ii a Protestant state, but all leligions (not offensire to public or private morals) majr be professed, and their different forms of worship praotiiwo, without interference from any quarter what- VTer. All denominations of Christians have their own churches, employ whom they please as their pastors, »nd are equally under the protection of the law. The empire contains several established or predominant churches, which are supported by special acts of the legislature. In England and Ireland, there is one church, denominated the United Church of England and Ireland (separate before the union of the two countries in 1800), being a Protestant Episcopacy. In Scotland, the established religion is Protestant Pres- bytorian. According to the constitution, the religion of the English Church, and also the law of England, are established in every colony by the simple act of addins the territory to the crown, unless there be a special provision to the contrary. Thus the Churdt of England prevails in all the great colonial dependencies, except Lower Canada, which is guaranteed a Roman Catholic hierarchy; the Cape of Good Hope, which has been ^aranteed Protestant Presbyterianism ; Malta, •nhi-h IS Roman Catholic ; and so on with some minor colonial possessions and dependencies. Church of England. — The atfain of the church aro managed by arohbishops and bishops ; but no step of any im^rtance, out of the ordinary routine, can be taken without an act of Parliament, and therefore the church may be said to be governed by the legislature of the country. The sovereign is the head of the church, which is thus in intimate union with the state. The laity, except through their representatives in the House of Commons, possess no right to interfere in any shape whatever with the doctrines or practice of the churon. The doctrines defined by law are contained in the Thirty-nine 'Articles, and the form of worship is the Book of Common Prayer. (See No. 76). Ecclesias- tically, the country is divided into dioceset, each of which is under the care of a bishop or archbishop ; the dioceses are classed under two provinctM, each of which is under the charge of on archbishop — namiely, the Archbishop of Canterbunr, who is styled * Primate of all England and Metropolitan;' and the Archbishop of York, who is styled 'Primate of England.' The other dignitaries of the church are arohdeacons, deans, and prebendaries; the inferior clergy are rectors, vicars, and curates. Strictly, there are only three grades, bishops, priests, and deacons, ail clergymen belonging to one of these. The buhops are entitled to be ad- dressed as ' my lord,' being legally spiritual peers. The revenues exigible by law for the support of the churoh are most unequally distributed, and the dio- ceses are of very unequal proportions. The following are the names of the English sees, with the amount of their incomes: — Cuterbnry. L.15,000; Bangor, I..4000; Bath and Welb, L-MOO; Carlisle, L.3000; Charter, L.4S0O; OhIohesUr, I<.4a00: Onrham, hMBO; Eljr, L.S500; Exeter, LJ700; Olonoestar and Brbtol, L.37aO; Bedford, L.4900i l.iohfldd, L.4M0; Uaooln, li.«)00; liludaff, L.1000; London, I..I1,700; Maaohester, L.4900; Nor- wich, L.44a5; Oxford, L.JIOOO: Peterborongh, L^MW; Ripon, X.4S00; Rochettcr, LJOOO; Baliibaiy, hMOO; 8t Aiapb, L.4M0; 8t David's, L.8S0O: Wiaohetter, I<.10,MO; York, Ii.10,000; Bodor and Man, L.sn00.— Total inoome, L.147,W& The greater part of these revenues are derived from lands, or rents for grounds let on leases, and for which fines are taken at entry. The chapters of cathedrals, composed of deans, canons, and prebends, possess ^so large revenues, the dean of Durham, for instance, hav- ing £4800 a year, and. other memben of the <^pter 180 ' £32,i60. In 1834, the groM lerennei of ihe deaili ai)d chapters amounted U upwards of X2S5,000. The revenues of the inferioi or parochial clergy are derived firom tithes commuted into money paymenti, and also fees at oelebrating marriaoes, baptLmis, and fUnerals. With respect to the parochiial branch 6f church eroolu- ments, Mr M'Culloch remarks-^' It appears that of 10,478 benefices, from which returns have been re- ceived, 297 are under £50 a year; 1629 are between £60 and £100 a vear; and 1602 are between £100 and £160; so that there are 1926 benefices under £100 a year, and 3628, or more than a third of all the bene- fices in the count.-y, under £160 a year. On many of these benefices there are no glebe houses, nor do they possess the means A erecting any.' Curates are paid by the recton or vicars, whose servants they are: by law their salary cannot be under £80— the average U £81. The total revenues of the churoh may be stated in general terms as follow: — Arshbiahops and blahopi, L.ISO.OOO ; cathedral and collegiate o'durehes, L.SSO,000; deani and other fimotlonarin, L.60,000; 10,840 parochial benefices, L.3, 100,000; ourateaof reiideiit clergy, Ii.87,000; cuTptsi of non-resident dlergy, L.387iO0a — Total reTenne, LJ,984,000. The appointment of the clergy to benefices is as fol- low: — Presented by the crown, 962; by arohbishops and bishops, 1248; by deans, chapten, and ecclesias- tical corporations, 2638; by universities, colleges, and hospitals, 721 ; by private individuals, 5096 ; and by municipij corporations, 53. This, says the authority already quoted, is not exactly correct, there being up- wards of 200 omitted in the returns. In 1847, the total number of congregations belonging to the established church was 12,060. At the some time there were the following number of coDgr^;ations of dissenters: — Roman Catholics, 441; Presbyterians, 230 ; Independents, 1860 ; Baptists, 1210 ; Calvinistic Methodists, 431 ; Wesleyan Methodists, 2890 ; other Methodists, 693; Quaken, 384; Home Miasionaiy con- gregations, 469---total of dissenting congregations (ex- clusive of Jews), 21,085. It is con idered probable that this number includes as many actual worshippen as the 12,060 congregations of the establishment. The membeiv of the established church have beisn estimated at 4,500,000 ; and those of dissenting bodies at 4,000,000 ; but all such estimates are exceedingly illusory. Church m both the Roman Catholic and Protestant bodies — the Roman Catholic and Protestant archbishops of Dublin being among the number. The commissioners in 1840 receired £50,000 from the public purse; their estimate was £50,357, which they proposed to lay out as follows: — On training of teachers, £2220; model schools, £890; grants towards building and establish- ing new schools, £12,000; salaries and gratuities to teachers, £23,000; infant schools, £220; agricultural schools, £150; inspection, £4975; books and school requisites, £4250 ; and general expenditure, £3152. The fee paid by each scholar is Id. per week. In March 1838, the number of national schools was 1384, attended by 169,548 children; but 195 new schools were soon to be opened, and it was expected that they would be attended by 40,106 pupils, making a total of 209,654. Reckoning, however, the schools said to be in nctual operation in March 1838, there were then upwards of 169,000 children receiTing a regular ele- mentary education at an annual cost to the state of £50,000. Since that period the grant has been in- •.■nUtsed; and in 1845 there were 3426 schools, and 432,844 pupil", at a cost of £86,000. Besides tu h great national system of elementary instruction, the country poMcsses several religious or charitable associations for promoting education among the poorer classes : of these the principal are the Kil- dare Place Society, which lately supported 1097 schools, attended by 81,178 scholars; the Church Education Society, which in 1845 had 1811 schools and 100,755 pupils; and the Sunday School Society, formed in 1809 for the religious instruction of children unable to attend schools on week days. The Roman Catholic body also supports a considerable number of schoohi. Scotland possesses five colleges or universities for the higher branches of instruction, being those of Glassow, St Andrews, King's College and Moreschal College Aberdeen, and Edinburgh. Education at these insti- tutions is generally conferred on a more liberal and less expensive scale than at the universities of England. Besides these universities there are the recent and minor colleges connected with the Episcopalian, Free Church, and Catholic bodies. Scotland has been long distinguished for its parochial institutions for ele- mentary instruction, and also for its grammar-schools or academics in the chief towns, which serve as pre- paratory gymnasia for the universities. Each parish (some parishes in towns excepted) is provided with a Mhool at the expense of certain landowners or heritors, in virtue of an act of Parliament passed in 1696, re- establishing statutes formerly in existence. Another act was passed (43 Oeo. Ill, c. 54) in 1U03, amending existing provisions on the subject, and ordaining ' that the salary of each parochial schoolmaster shall not be under £16, 13s. 4d., nor above £22, 48. 5^d.,' except in particular cases mentioned ; and provision is further made for augmenting this minimum and maximum at the end of every twenty-five years. An increase ac- cordingly took place in 1828, raising the minimum to £25, 13s. 3fd.,and the maximum to £34, 4s. 4^d. These payment* are made according to the liberality of the heritors; and they besides must provide a small house for the schoolmaster, with a garden, aa well as school- house. The teacher is entitled to take small feei in 182 addition ; the more common fee is 2i. or 2s. 8d. per quarter for instruction in reading,Srith 6d. for writing. Altogether, this class of men are elenderly remuneratM for their extremely valuable lerrices. Within the laet thirtT^eari,the parish schools have been almost super* seded in some quarters br the establishment of vofun- tarilpr supported institutions, sudi as thoee of the Dis- senting and Free Churches, Subscription Academies, and the like; they have alio been supplemented by various munificent endowments from private indivi* duals, and recently by the proffer of aid from the Committee of Council on Education, In a report to Parliament in 1834, the number of schools in Scotland was stated as follovrs : — Parochial schools, 1047; pupils attending them, 68,293; total emoluments of teachers, £53,339. Voluntarily sup- ported schools, 3995 ; pupils attending them, 154,160. It appears from this that there were y23,45S children receiving instruction (not including the attendance at Sunday schools), and that of these only 68,208, or little more than one-fourth, were educated at the parochial schools. There were 5042 schools, and of these only 1047, or about one-fiflh, were parochial establishments. The publication of this report caused considerable sur- prise, for it was generally believed that the great bulk of the juvenile population were instructed in the parish schools. The total emoluments of the parish teachers are stated at £53,339, or on an average, nearly £51 each; but of this sum only £29,642 is stated as salary, there being collected in school fees, £20,717, and from other sources, £4975. The average annual expense of educating each child at the parochial schools, on the above data, appears to be 15s. 7^. A neat difierence was found between the attendance of miues and females. Taking the entire attendance on schools, there were 732,489 moles, and 89,964 females. The result of the inquiry seems to be, that about 1 in 9 of the population in Scotland attends school. The generally imperfect instruction amone the humbler orders of society in all parts of the United Kingdom, .s strikingly n.anifested in the returns of cri- minal commitments. On this interesting topic we ex- tract the following results of an inquiry instituted with respect to education and crime, and lately embodied in a pamphlet read before the Statistical Society of Lon- don, by RawBon W. Rawson, Esq.: — ' \»t, That only 10 in 100 of the criminal offenders committed for trial in England and Wales are able to read and write well, and of these only 4 in 1000 have received such an amount of instruction as may be entitled to the namo of education <-,nd that these pro- portions are greatly below t> rnge standard of instruction among the general ^ ion. 2d, That these proportions i> .^nsiderably higher in Scotland, and lowei^ in Ireland; and the evidence appears to establish that the degree of instruction pos- sessed by crimini*^ offenders is an indir»tion of that pos- sessed by the gen.r*l population in the same districts. 3d, That about one-third of the adult male popula- tion of England cannot sign their own names, and that from one-fifth to one-fourth can neither read nor write. 4th, That these proportions ore much more favour- able than ir. France or Belgium, Where one-half of the youths a^ eighteen could neither read nor write. The proportion of wholly ignorant criminals in those eouu'- tries ia correspondingly greater than in England. 5th, That in England, instruction is twice as preva- lent among male as among female criminals, and one- half more prevalent anions males in the general popu- lation than among females. That in Scotland and Ireland school instruction is three times as prevalent among the male criminals. 6th, That this unfavourable condition of females in these two countries is further confirmed by the fact, that ths proi>ortion of female to male criminals is greater than in England; and it may be traced to the circumstance of the number of girls at school in those two countries being very small in comparison with the number at school in England. In comparing the three GONSTITCTIOK AKD BESOUBGES OF THE BBITIBH EliIPIRE. eountriei, the number of female crimintlt ii found to be exMtljr in the inrene ratio to the proportion of females attending idiool. 7(A,That education hai a greater influence among females than among males in restraining them from the commission of crime. 8(A, That instruction prevails, upon an arerage, to a greater extent among the agricultural than among the manufacturing counties of England; but that the agri- cultural counties in the east, east-midUuid, and south- east, are greatly below the average.' Since the above results were deduced, a new and Satifying feature of the age has appeared in the estab- ihment, in many of our more populous towns, of what are termed^Industrial Schools. These humble institu- tions are intended solely for those neglected and desti- tute children who would otherwise be uncared for, and allowed to grow up in ignorance, beggary, and crime. Already much good has been done by these schools, in which the children receive certain meals, clothing, elementary instruction, and are trained to industrial habits. As yet they have depended on private sub- scription; but a more legitimate object for government support could not well )w imagined. PINANCSS. litveHut.-^The revenue of the British Empire has varied exceedingly of late years; from 1761 to 1774, which was a period of peace, it increased from £8,800,000 to £10,285,673; and since that time, from the various wars in which the country was engaged, the immediate expenses, and the interest of public debts, it has conti- nued to augment till within these last ten or twelve years. From 1775 to 1783, which was the period of the American war, it rose from £10,000,000 to £1 2,000,000; and during the peace which followed till 1793, it was increased to £17,500,000 a year. I After this period the French revolutionary war com- menced. That war was by no means unpopular with the nation; and it was tiesides gilded by the many splendid victories which continued to be obtained by British seamen as long as the enemy had a fleet to appear at sea. Heavy taxes for defraying the expenses of this war were therefore submitted to without remon- strance, and the public reve ue rose accordingly to a very large amount. From 1794 to the peace of Amiens in 1801, which only lasted two years, the revenue was increased from £17,500,000 to £28,000,000; and from 1803 till 1816, the year after the final conclusion of neaoe, it had risen to £76,834,494, which was the largest sum raised by taxes in one year. _ The sums thus raised in taxes, large as they were, did not, however, meet the expenditure of the country during these periods of war. In order to defray the great charges which arose, it became necessary also to borrow to a ^at amount. The following table will show the sums raised by the taxes, the sums borrowed, and the total expenditure for each of the years specified: — Year. Raised in Taxes. Borrowed. Total Expend. 1794 £17,674,395 £5,079.971 £22,754.366 1801 S8,085,8S9 33,533,159 61.617,968 1803 38.401.738 23.972,748 62,373,480; 1806 S3,698,124 22,358,672 76,056.796 1810 66,089,349 22,763.202 88.792.551 1814 70,936,215 62,309.445 122.235.660 1816 76,834,494 54,471.464 130,305.958 These sums will appear altogether enormous, and must give the most extraordinary idea of the resources of a government, which, while it raised such a large yearly amount in taxes, had yet credit to borrow the immense additional sums which were wanted. The whole sum which was expended in the wars of the Revolution, from 1794 to 1816, amounted to £1,700,000,000 sterling— a sum so far beyond all ordinary dealings, that we can have little conception of its amount or value. The debt formed by borrowing money at difl'erent ntes of interest to conduct the warlike operations of tlw country, hM risen from small beginnings towards the conclusion of the seventeenth centuiy, to an on* paralleled amount. At the revolution of 1688, tb« national debt amounted to only £664,268; at the acceuion of Queen Anne, £16,894,702 ; of George L, £54,145,863; of George II., £52,092,285; at the end of the Spanish war in 1748, £78,201,312; at the oom- mencement of war in 1755, £74,871,840; at conclusion of peace in 1762, £146,682,844; at commencement of American war in 1776, £185,943,051; at oonolusian of peace in 1783, £288,484,870; at commenoament of French revolutionaty war, £283,733,609; at peaoe of Amiens in 1801, £582,839,277; at peace of (Feb. 1) 1816, £864,822,461; on the 5th of January 1848 it wae £772,401,851, with an interest of £27,753,668. At th« same period the amount of outstanding Exchequer billa was £17,974,600, which raised the sum-total of the national debt to leven hundrtd and ninety ntUUofu, and the total interest to £28,141,5311 The annual cost «f management of the national debt is £91,398. The revenue which it is necessary to raise for the purpose of paying the interest of the debt, and conduct- mg the business of the country, is derived from taxa- tion upon a great variety of diJSerent articles, which are all, however, reduced to the following heads: — 1. The Ctutoma. — These are taxes levied upon the foreign commerce of the country, being the duties paid upon articles imported from abroad, such as tea, sugar, cofiee, spirits, wines, tobacco, &c. They include also a few on some goods exported, such as coals, wool, and skins. Their whole amount in the year ending Januanr 5, 1848, was £20,024,431. 2. The Excise. — The Excise taxes are those which are levied on goods of British manufacture, such as glass, malt, paper, &c. The duty is paid back again to the maker if the commodity is to be exported to foreign countries. This class of taxes yielded, in the abov* year, £12,883,677. 3. Stamp Duties. — ^These consist of the prices affixed to stamped papers, upon which the law makes it impe- rative that every document for the transfer of property, or other obligation, shall be written. Deeds, settlements, and bills, bills of exchange, receipts (above a certain small amount), and a great variety of other instruments of business, are required to be stamped in this manner: and the prices aflixed to the stamps, which are often high, bring a large revenue. Under the head of stamps are also included newspaper stamps, indentures, dice, duties on plate, and other anomalous items. The whole amounted in the above year to £7,527,543. 4. Assessed Taxes. — These are duties levied on land, on windows (eight or upwards), male servants, riding- hones, dogs, use of armorial bearings, hair powder, &c. This class of taxes, which are levied by surveyors and collectors, amounted in the above year to £4,334,561. The principal items are the land and window taxesj each of which was above £1,000,000. 5. Income and Property Tax. — A tax on pronerty'and incomes beyond a certain annual amount has been occasionally resorted to in time of war, or during extra- ordinary financial depressions. A burden of this kind was imposed in 1841; then as a temporary expedient, but the state of the country has since rendered its con- tinuance necessary. It is at the rate of 7d. per pound on property, and on all incomes exceeding £150 per annum, allowance being made for certain kinds of loss and outlay. The revenue drawn from this source in 1848 amounted to £5,450,800. In 1847 it was £5,593,109; and in 1846, £5,603,443. 6. Post-Qjjice.—ln the year ending October 1839, the revenue derived from the tax on letters passing through the post-oflSce was £2,390,764. But by the reduction of postage to one penny per letter (if under half an ounce) at the beginning of 1840, the amount of revenue derived from this source in the year ending January 1840, was only £441,000; and in 1848, £923,000. The great advantage derived by the country from cheap postage more than compensates the deficiency. 7. The income derived from rentals of crown property, and the sale of timber, bark, &c. from the crown laudi 18B CBAMBIlnro nrVOBMATION FOB TBI V1S07LB. (wtth othtr ineidento), yielded • menae in the abort jrew of £77,000. . . , . v . 8. ir^NwttMMOwf.— Tlieee inelade dutiee on hackney- coMhee, h»wken' Uceniei. offlcee, peniione, feet, and mode ieiaed for tasee, together with a number of other oaraal reoeipti. Their amount in 1848 wae £1 19,788. 9. The abore eoureee are those from which the ordi- nary rerenue ie neeired ; but in addition to these then are imprest and other moneys, money receired from the East India Company, unclaimed diTidends, Kc.— all of whieh in 1848 amounted to £205,462. The tota' of the income for the year ending 5th January 1848 was thus £51,546,264 ; and it wUl be obserred that of that sum fiilly £92,000,000 were raised from customs and excise, or duties on foreign and Bri- tish manuftotures, and above £7,000,000 on stamps. Thus the great bulk of taxation is indirect, and the raallr direct taxes are small in comparison. The chief burden of the taxes evidently falls on the con- sumers of tea, coffee, sugar, tobacco, soap, spirits, and wines, and these consumers are the great body of the people. Considerable reductions hare been recently ef- fedied, however; and the evideht tendency of the times is to direct rather than to indirect taxation. Since 1881, not only have numerous duties been reduced and modified, but those of an unproductive nature have been swept from the tariff; while those on com have been rendered merely nominal. Espaiditure. — The gross annual revenue of the king- dom in 1848 was £57,795,249, which, after deduction of outstanding balance, chaige of collection, &c. left a nett income, as above-mentioned, of between £51,000,000 and £52,000,000: let us now see how this large sum is expended. The first great item of expenditure is in the form of interest on the national debt, amounting to £28,141,531; the navy, £8.018,873; the army, £7,540,405; the ordnance, £2,947,869; miscellaneous services chiuged on annual grants of Parliament, such as objects of science, museums, education, surveys. Parliamentary commissions, public buildings, printwg and stationety, &c. &c. £3,561,067; courts of justice, £1,046,594; annuities and pensions charged on the consolidated fund, £529,804; other salaries and aJlow- anoes, £432,157; miscellaneous charges, £310,976; on account of Irish distress,£l,525,000;civil list, £393,983. With respect to this last sum, which is the expense incurred for the personal support of the sovereign and loyal family and household, we may remark that it forms but a small item in the ^nenl expenditure of the nation. Formerly, the crown possessed private revenues from lands, duties, bo. but all such are now abandoned to the country (chiefly under management of the Board of Woods and Forests), and the sovereign, in requital, is voted a civil list, or certain fixed sums, by vote of Parliament. The total expenditure thus amounts to £59,230,413 — making an excess of ex^nditure over the income of £2,956,683. To meet this excess, either new taxes must be imposed, and new loans contracted, or a cor- responding reduction must be made in the national outlay; and it is now to the latter alternative that the attention of the public is being directed. That the expenditure of nations, as well as that of individuals, should never exceed their incomes, is just and pru- dent; where an opposite course is pursued, it is sure to lead to embarrassment and dishonour in the long-run. THE ARMY AND NAVY. ne Army. — According to the terms of the constitu- tion, a permanent or standing army is not held to be legal. It is understood that the civil power, as exerted by magistrates, constables, and police, is com- petent to preserve order, and that the creation of a military force is only a matter of temporary necessity. An army, however, being constantly required both to assist the civil authority, and to protect the foreign possessions of the empire, an act of Parliament, called (he Mutiny Act, u passed annually, to maintain a large body of troops in regular service. Whether from tlus IM provision in the oonstitntion or otherwise, it happen! that education in military tactics is eonduoted on a very limited scale : the privates in the army are en- listed by small bounties from the lowest classes of the community, and verr rarely, if ever, are promoted to the rank of commissioned offloet*. The commissioned officers, in general, belong to the aristocracy or landed gently, ana in most instances purchase their commis- sion according to a scale of prices. Although both privates and officers are alike ill-prepared, by previous instruction, for performing the duties of their profes* sion, such are the effects of discipline, the excellence of equipment, and other advantages, but, above all, a high tone of honour and spirit of valour, that the British army is found able to compete with forces re- cruited under far more favourable circumstances. It is composed of infantry and cavalry, variously accoutred according to the part they have to perform in the field. In 1848, the army (infantry and cavalry) consisted of 122,812 rank and file, 9962 non-commissioned officers, and 5995 officers. Number of horses, 1 1 ,000. The an- nual estimate for this branch of our forces is at present £6,318,686. To this account there is to be added what is called the civil department of the army, or the army management, consisting of the salary of the secretari- at-war and his office, tne coramander-in-chief and his office, the medical departments, &c. By an act passed in the reini of George IV., a sum of £60,000 is paid into the Exchequer by the East India Company, on account of the charge for retiring pay and pensions, and other expenses of that nature, arismg in respect of the forces serving in India. This sum is applied to- wards the general expenses of the state. The pay of a private in the Horse Guards varies from Is. 9^. to 2s. 0^. per day ; in the cavalry of the line. Is. 4d. ; in the Foot Guards, Is. 2d.; and in the infantry of the line. Is. Id. When at home and in barracks, 6d. a day is deducted from this, for which the soldier receives three- quarters of a pound of meat and one pound of bread. The principal part of his clothes and accoutrements is furnished at the public expense; his pay, however, is subject to a deduction of 2s. 7^. a week, in the case of privates serving in the cavalry; Is. Id. a week from privates in the Foot Guards; and Is. 6d. from all other privates, on account of these articles. Besides the cavalry and foot regiments, there is another description of force called the Ordnance, which includes artillery, engineers, miners, &c. They have the management of fortifications, with their guns, stores, &c. the making of rockets, and different kinds of shot for great guns. The numerical force of this branch of the service amounts to 14,294 men and officers. These, with equipments, cost upwards of £3,000,000 annually. Of the British army, 113,847 are employed at home and in the colonies, and 24,922 in the East Indies. The troops at home are chiefly lodged in barracks, as a police, near the large towns. The statements which we have made above relate entirely to the effective force of the army, which is either on active duty or ready to be so employed. But there are a great number of persons attached to the army who do no duty, though receiving ^ay like others. Some of these are pensioners, who have either been long in service, or have suffered by wounds, &c. The Navy. — Great Britain has long been renowned as a firsi-r&te naval power: by command of its war vessels it protects its commerce, and exerts its autho- rity in the most remote quarters of the globe. It is usual to say that Britain possesses the * dominion of the seas ;' but this is only a figure of speech. The nation possesses no acquired or vested sovereignty over the ocean, acknowledged by other powers, although at times it mav forcibly compel submission. The British royal navy is recruited in much the same manner as the army; but the constitution, by a singular anomaly, sanctions the forcible abduction of men from their private homes to serve on board of war vessels. This species of impressment, however, is only resorted t« in coses of ui|;ent necessity; as, for iuitauce, during tho: CONSTl¥ 94a. to ls.4d.;inthe f of the line, I, 6d. a day is eceives three- ind of bread, autrements is y, however, is in the case of a week from tm all other ny, which is t>loyed. But ched to the ' like others. her been long |en renowned of its war Its its autho- Iglobe. It is 1 dominion of ch. The ttty over I although at The British I manner as ' anomaly, from their tssels. This resorted to' \, during th« heat of war. The sailors who enlist are generally yoanc men who have served an apprenticeship on board merohant vessels; and with this preparation, they form seamen of the hichest qualifications : their courage, integrity, and kind-heartedness, are a luting theme of national gratulation. At present the total force of the navy amounts to 43,000 men; of whom seamen 27,600, boys 2000, marines afloat fiSOO, marines ashore 8000. To these are to be added about 900 employed officers. The average pay of a sailor is £\, 14s. per month, with victuals, which are estimated at about £\, 4s. additional. Much complaint is made of the high sala- ries paid to people about the dockyards; the master- workmen receiving £250 per annum, and the artificers from 5s. to 12s. 6d. per day. During the war with France, Great Britain had upwards of 1000 ships, manned by 184,000 seamen. In November 1848, the royal navy consisted of 673 vessels, of which the following were in ammiuion : — 19 first-rates, of from 120 to 100 guns each, mounting 2216 guns; 76 second and third-rates, of from 104 to 70 guns each, mounting 6196 guns; 126 fourth, fifth, and sixth-rates, of from 66 to 18 guns each, mounting 1878 guns; 79 sloops, of from 18 to 8 guns each, mounUng 986 guns; 16 brigs, of from 8 to 3 guns each, mounting 78 guns. Steamers — 22 ships and frigates, with an aggregate power of 12,222 horses, and mount- ing 281 guns; 42 sloops, of an aggregate power of 13,300 horses, uid mounting 261 guns; 38 gun-vessels, of an aggregate power of 6748 horses, and mounting 126 guns; 2 screw-schooners, whose joint power is 120 horses, and mounting '20 guns; steam -guardships, classed as fourth-rates, 3800 horse-power. Grand total, 420 vessels, mounting 16,026 guns. Of this force 104 are steam-vessels, propelled by engines of an ag^gate power of 36,180 horses. This return does not include the mail flotilla of Dover, Holyhead, Liverpool, other stations, ftc. Ships in ordinary are vessels which are dismantled, and put aside in a harbour, with only a few persons on board to take care of them. A ship in ser- vice, or even thus taken care of, will waste and rot, it is said, in fourteen or sixteen years; but a plan has lately been devised by which those not in service may be hauled up out of the water, and placed under cover, which it is expected will make them last much longer. The cost of^ vessels of war in building is from about £40,000 to £110,000, according to dimensions. An 80-gun ship costs for hull £54,900, for rigging and stores £16,005— total, £70,905. A ship of this size, with a complement of 750 men, costs per annum, for pay of officers and wages of seamen, £19,812; for pro- visions, £13,325; for rigging and stores, £3201; for wear and tear of hull, £3660— total, £39,998. This is exclusive of charge for ordnance and marines. The naval estimates for the year 1849 were £7,961,842. Dividing this sum by 262, the number of ships and vessels in commission, it appears that the average cost per annum of each vessel is £31,554. These parti- culars are mentioned, in order that the people may have a proper notion of the expenses at which naval armaments are maintained. There are six marine arsenals or dockyards — Dept- ford, Woolwich, Chatham, Sheemess, Portsmouth, and Plymouth. The principal foreign stations for the navy are Gibraltar and Malta in the Mediterranean ; Halifax and Quebec in North America; Jamaica and Antigua in the West Indies; and Trincomalee and Bombay in the East Indies. AQBICULTURB — MANUFACTUREa — COMMERCE. In consequence of the industry exerted in Britain for several centuries, the greater part of the soil is now in a high state of cultivation and fertility; roads, rail- ways, and canals, for carriage and communication, are everywhere formed; substantial farmsteads, villages, and large and populous towns, stud the surface; har- bours, docks, factories, foundries, and other useful erections, unequalled in number and extent, form a chief feature of the country; and manufactured pro- ducts of every description are produced in astonishing quantitiet— thus conferring not only upon the inhabi- tants, but upon the people of other countriei, an amount of comforts and luxuries hitherto unknown. Out of a total of 77,000,000 of acres in the British islands, 47,000,000 ai« cultivated, 15,000,000 uncul. tivated, and 16,000,000 incapable of cultivation, accord- ing to our present notions of agriculture. The value of the cultivated soil has been estimated at about £1,700,000,000; of mines, at £120,000,000; of roads, ca- nais, and other meansof communication, at£lSO,000,000; of dwellings, factories, and kindred erections, at £640,000,000; of annusl agricultural produce and im- plements, at £224,000,000; of horses, cattle, sheep, and other live-stock, at £242,000,000; of manufactured goods, at £190,000,000; of mercantile shipping, at £85,000,000; of foreign merchandise paid for, at £53,000,000; and of fisheries, foreign ana domestic, at £6,000,000; being a total of productive propertpamaunt- ing to more than £3,000,000,000! Besides this enor- mous sum, it is supposed that the nation possesses, of unproductive property, including waste lands, house- hold furniture, apparel, ornamental articles, coin, &c. £680,000,000; and of public property, as chunshes, hospitals, prisons, artenals, forts, military stores, dock- yards, ships of war, ke. £106,000,000; being a grand total of £4,124,000,000! The large amount of useful and agreeable things represented by this sum, and which afford subsisttaoe and comfort to more than 27,000,000 of people, are, let it be carefully observed, the reatdt* qf bwour; in other words, the difference between the country in its primi- tive state, and the condition which it has attained after nearly 2000 years of well-directed ingenuity and toil. Against this sum, however, must be placed the National Debt, amounting to more than £790,000,000. This debt is no doubt owing to individuals widiin the na- tion, and who spend the interest arising from it in the country; but it does not the less on that account repre- sent a portion of the results of industry bestowed in such a manner as to produce no return. The people engaged in agrieuUurt and other rural employments are necessarily spread over the whole of the cultivated parts of the country. Of these, the farmers or leasers of the ground are in general much superior in wealth and style of living to the farmers of any other country in the world; being generally, to a certain extent, capitalists, who employ labourers to perform the actual business of rural economy. The annual value of the produce raised in EIngland — namely, crops, gardens, grass, and woodlands — is estimated at £141,000,000; in Scotland, at £28,000,000; and in Ireland, at £217.000,000. In manufactures and commerce, Britain has long enjoyed a superiority over all other countries. For this the nation has been indebted not only to their naturally industrious dispositions, and the enlightened men who have in the course of time invented mwihinery for increasing and cheapening the products of labour, but, as already stated, to the extraordinary abundance of mineral substances requisite for manufactures, and to the insular nature of the country, which admits of ready maritime communicatiou with other regions. In consequence of these advantages combined, Britain has- for a long time furnished articles of clothing and house- hold conveniency to many parts of the world, receiving in exchange either money or raw produce which its own soil and cUmate do not permit of being grown. The cotton manufacture, notwithstanding that the raw material can be obtained only in distant parts of the earth (America, the East Indies, and Egypt), has risen in Great Britain, during seventy years, from about £200,000 of annual prcduce, to the enormous sum of £36,000,000, of which about two-thirds is exported. Cotton goods are manufactured chiefly by means of machinery, in large factories, of which, in 1839, there were 1603 in England and Wales, 192 in Scotland, and 24 in Ireland; the chief seats of the manufacture being Manchester, Glasgow, and Paisley, 186 OBAionM DoroBicAnoir fok tme noptj. Thaw AwtoriM gtin mplojmtni in «••»«««• y^ *• a«»,000 DMMMi, of whom upwMdf of 1 a,000 wot* btlow tUrtoon ■•nan of h*' Co^^mi coodi m« sIm muu- fMtund by hMtdloom w«»t«m, of whom » confldewble xvralMr cmitinao to itrirt HtKinat tho oroipowtniig •ompotitioBofmachlneir. ...... ,, . , Tho wmUm mMiufiMtura, which ii tho oldett in BriUin, WM eurriod on in 1889 bjr 86,411 pertoni, in 17S8 faotorioii of which 1595 were in England and Walet. 113 in Seotland, and 31 in Ireland— JointW laalidax an annual falue of about £25,000,000. This •mount indudee of oouree all loita of woollen and wonted etuffl — ai broadclothi, tweedi, blanketing*, flannalf, oarpete, hoaieij — in fine, all artiolee into which wool enten ae the principal ingredient. Of such goodf not left than £8,250,000 iterling are now an- nnaliy exported from Britain. The woollen manufac- ture, particularly ttie finer kindi, if chiefly carried on in the wait and north of England; both fine and coarse iUirici are now made at OalaahieU in Scotland; and Kilmaraock and Stirling drive a thriring trade in car- pete, bonnet!, fee. lu the finest kind of broadcloth*, the PruMiane are laid itill to excel the Engliih. The Hnm manufacture haa alio been long proaecuted, eapecialljr in England and Scotland; but until of late yMtr* ita progreaa haa been inconaiderable, compared with that of our other manufacture*. No very accu- rate atatiitic* of the trade can be obtained, in conae- quenoe of hand-power being employed to a large extent both in the apinning and weaving of the material. In 1839 there were 169 flax factoriea in operation in Eng- land, 188 in Scotland, and 41 in Ireland — employing reapectirely 16,000, 18,000, and 9000 handa. Accord- ing to Mr M'Culloch, the entire value of the linen manufacture of the United Kingdom in 1847 did not exceed £10,000,000. The tilk manufacture, introduced by French immi- granta in the aixteenth century, ia carried on to a great extent at Spitalfielda, Cioventiy, Manchester, Pusley, and Glaagow. Silk enter* into ao many articles, either whole or as a component part, and ia ao widely spread over the kingdom, that any estimate formed of the value of the manufacture roust be regarded merely a* an approximation. Standard authorities estimate tho annual value at upwards of £10,000,000 — about one- tenth of which i* exported. There were, in 1846, 150 mill*, employing about 35,000 person* of all ages. The htmhoare manufacture la one in which the me- tallic and mineral wealth of the country, combined with the akill of British workmen, have long given ua a pre-eminence over other nations. Iron to the amount of more than 1,000,000 tons waa, in 1(142, prepared from British mines, for the purpoae of being manufac- tured into machinery, raila, ateam-shipa, domestic uten- aila, firearms, cutlery, and other articles of oonToniency. The manufacture of the finer clan of hardware is chiefly seated at Birmingham and Sheffield ; machinery, ship- building and the like, at Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Glaagow, and Dundee ; while the principal foundries for the preparation of the crude material are in Stirlingshire, Lanarkshire, Wales, and StaflJordshire. The annual value of hardware now manufactured in Britain is estimated at £18,000,000, giving employment to 800,000 hands. Thia ia exrluaive of watohea, plate, articles of jewellery, &c. which are valued by Mr Jacob* at aomewhere about £3,000,000. The miscellaneous manufactures of the country are ao numeroua and complicated, that it is impossible to farm anything like a correct estimate of their respective values. LetUher roods, for example, have b«en set down at an annual value of £16,000,000 ; earlltenware and cAhm at £2,500,000 ; paper at £2,000,000 ; and aimilM valnationa hare been put upon glaaa, soap, malt liquors, hx. ; but all such estimates must be regarded as mere approximations. ' It is to be regretted,' says Mr M'Culloch, * that there are no means of forming any estimate of the real value of the manufactured articles annually produced in Great Britain and Ire- land. But the pievioua statements ahow that it must 186 b« vtnr graat. Than aiti in ikot, bnt few dapMimntt in which w« are able to obtain a tolerably oloao ap< proximation to th« groaa value of the aitiolaa prodoead ; and even though wo could do thia in them all, the re- Bttlta would not be of ao much value aa ia commonly auppoaed, and might indeed, unlcH aul^eoted to further examination and analyais, lead to the moat ononooua oonduaiona. It ia auppoaed by many, that whatever may be the annual value of our manufactured good*, we shall, by adding it to tho annual value of our afri- cultural products, get the total value of the new oom- moditiea annually produoed in the empire. But this ia an error. The value of the Britiah wool, for example, employed in tho woollen manufacture, may amount to from £5,000,000 to £5,500,000 a year, and forma an item of thia amount in eatimating the value of the manufacture. It is plain, however, that if we inelude this wool in any estimate of the agricultural produce of the country, we must exclude it ttom that of its manufactured produce; for if we do not, it will be reckoned twice over. The same thing happens in a vast variety of coses. Hence the extreme diiffioulty of fonning any fair estimate of the real value of mn ly apeciea of manufactures.' The eommeret of BritMn ia conducted by veaaela be- longing to private partiea within the realm, or in other countries. In 1845, the mercantile navy of the home country and its colonies consisted of nearly 82,000 vessels, of more than 3,500,000 of aggregate tonnage. We obtain, however, a more distinct idea of the extent of the national commerce from a calculation of the number of vessels, British and foreign, which in 1845 enterod and departed from British harboura. These were— of British, 21,000 ; of foreign, 11,600, compre- hending an aggregate of above 6,000,000 of tonnage. The chief mercantile port of Britain ia London, aftisr which Liverpool, Dublm, Bristol, Leith, Hull, Glasgow, Newcastle, Greenock, and Belfast, rank in auccesaion. Duties exceeding £11,000,000 are annuall,<- paid to government for goods imported into London ; itnd har- bour dues to the amount of £150,000 were collected in 1830 for vessels in the docks at Liverpool. The following table exhibits the a8,«47 359.316 334,899 4IS,81S 608,830 16,667 367,064 8,639 S,S»7,431 446,961 469,086 8,717,363 9,683,615 1,615,054 3,186,8tf 1,443,831 608,771 688,666 1,188,439 46,798,908 1,918,615 707,338 97,001,908 6,973.608 M.I17.86B 184a 75,338 139,876 117.601 315,094 365,503 3,107,164 37,470,879 4,297,089 1,049,541 918,541 331,460 330,068 433,536 99,616 476,401 8,r, the importi of Britain eenelet chiefly of raw materiali for manufactureei while the ezporte an almoH exdueirely manufkctured goode. The greateek quantitr of importe ii from America ; the gieatoal quantity of exportc to the laroe part of the world. Tea, to the weight of 44,000,000 Ibe., ii ob- tained from China; wine, to the amount of 6,000,000 gallona (in 1848), chiefly firom Portugal and Spain; augar, to the ralue of ilZ.OOO.OOO aterling, ia exdu- aively imported from the Weat Indiea ; cotton, in ita taw state, ia obtained chiefly from the United Statea, Of wool, the coaraer aort ia obtained at home, while the finer kinda are imnorted from Oermaay and Auatralia. Tallow, hemp, and timber, to the value of £4,000,000, are annually imported from Russia. Th0 aniHM/ esporit of natiTe produce of the United Kingdom are valued at about je60,000,000, and the re- exports (of goods pivTiously imported) at £16,000,000 — tetol £76,000,000. The annual importa are valued at about £75,000,000, thua leaving a balance of £1,000,000 in favour of the United Kingdom to be paid in money. Thia balance, however, ia aubject to many cauaee of fluctuation. Of the £60,000,000 of exporta, upwarda of£I4,000,000 ate aent to Northern Earope;£ll,000,000 to Southern Europe; £1,600,000 to Africa; £11,200,000 to Aaia; £7,000,000 to the United Statea; £5,600,000 to our North American Coloniea and the Weat Indiea; £1,200,000 to foreign Weat Indiea; and £5,400,000 to Southton and Central America. Our beat customers are the United States, taking £7,000,000; the East Indies, £7,000,000; Oermany, £6,000,000; Holland, £4,000,000; British North America, £3,000,000; and the West Indies, £2,500,000. The countries nrnkine next in order, and receiving between £2,000,000 and £3,000,000 of our exports, are France, Italy, Turkey, China, West Indies, Brazil, and Russia. Of the pro- duce so exported, cotton eoods yield the largest value; after which woollen gooia, iron and iteel, hardwares, linen, brass and copper manufactures, arms and am- munition, rank in succession. The following table exhibits the Declared Value of Principal Articles of British and Iriih Produce and Manufactures, Exported in the Years ending January 8, 1847 and 1848 :— Deelarsd Value of MUah BBilrWi Predaee bM MsMlMtwsak ■sported la tke Veers 1844, 1841. and 1848 1~ COVMTallS. AlkaU, - - Apotheoaries' Wares, - Appard, - Arms, Anmiunition, • Beer, Ale, Book BroM and Copper, • Butter, Cheese, • Coals, Culm, - Cordage, ... Cotton Mannftftctures, Cotton Yam, . - Barthenware, Fish, - . . . Olau, Haberdashery, - Haidwares, - Hats. - . . . Horses, ... Iron, Bteel, - Iiead and Shot, Leather, Saddlery, Linen Manufactures, Linen Yam, Maohinery, • Oil, Lintseed, Sec. Painters' Colours, - Plate, Jewellery, Salt BilkManufaetures, - Soap, Candles, BtetioDery, • Sugar, refined. Tin Wares, ko. - Wool, Bheeps', Woollen Manufaetures, Woollen Yam, Other Articles, - Totals, - 1847. £159,412 884,993 758,279 484,711 381,799 174,339 1,558,187 811.2US gc7,iai 129,726 17,717,778 7,882,048 793,166 339,305 269,547 874,585 9,180,588 117,778 111,159 4,178,02(i 147,170 432,926 9,830,808 878,405 1,117.471 95,740 213,620 945,»W 905,005 837,577 205,090 976,589 399,404 767.307 342,455 6,335,103 908,270 9,029,078 1840. £211,830 296,406 712,904 483,647 403,759 200,530 1,841,868 175,102 968,508 154,990 17,375,245 5,957,980 834,357 875,858 291,188 1,111,625 8,341,961 185,813 103,073 6,265,779 179,344 465,527 9,958,851 649,893 1,963,016 235,148 283,848 883,037 861,467 985,626 818,134 305,243 413,437 643,644 288,831 6,806,038 1,001,364 8,878,983 1*41 British Amerioa, ... W.Indies, Jersey, Man, he. Gibraltar, - MalU, Ionian Islands, Cape of Qood Hope, Bt Helena, *o. Mauriths, British India. Australia, New 2^aland, Russia, Sweden, Norway, - Denmark, Prussia, . Oemany, - Holland, - Bslginm, France, Portugal, Aiores, ... Madeira, ■ Bpoln, ... Canaries, - Italy, Biclly, Ac. Turkey and Qreeoo, Syria, Hgypt. • West Coast of Africa, China, Sumatra, Java, itc. Philippines, - Haytl, - Cuba, Sic. United States, - Mexico, New Granada, Ate. Brazil, La Plata States, Chili, - Peru, Other places, Total, i 3,070,H1 8,481,477 888,760 1,048,887 900,000 li3,9H 414,151 83,303 9BS.8M> 7,608,066 744,488 47,819 16,806,368 8,198,916 106,475 159,814 986,670 505,384 6,151,828 .1,131,870 1.471,851 9,656,959 1,153,847 86,8.19 31,738 500,807 46,313 9,568,140 2,319,605 577.828 408,101 458,414 8,305,617 376,918 92,517 174.457 999,474 7,938.079 494,095 8,413',KI8 784,564 807,633 658.380 314,218 1848. 1846. £ 3,888,954 1,760,111 970,aa4 70O.97S 183,068 800,619 648,748 89,938 948,080 «,703,77a 1,801,076 43,048 16,887,304 9,153,481 183,730 163.518 856,586 877,989 8,817.796 3.430,038 1,479,088 8,791,238 900,380 60,938 «7,507 676,836 48,878 9,601,911 8,846,858 631,631 991,880 838,028 8,304,887 818,473 118,618 818,078 1,849,018 7,148,830 847,130 390,149 9,493,306 898,879 1,077.618 878,708 56,335 £ 3,308,06» *.80l,887 «4,ae7 W8,aM 955,0.1a 171,731 480,079 31,416 310,831 6,449,060 1,441,840 8a.7M 16,017.700 1,78B,14« I46,6M 183,818 340,318 844,038 6,606,838 S,4V,48P 1,118,094 8,718^163 060,787 87,148 30.3aa 780,787 u.8m 3,301,089 3.138,308 867,618 408,674 481,680 1.701.430 357,018 08,808 196,119 1,308,939 6330.480 303,688 479,107 9,749,338 959,388 820,638 339.473 58.584.292 80.111,082 57.786,876 Account of Registered Shipping belonging to the Empire on the 5th Jon. 1848, and Ships built during the previous Year. Ships RegUtered. Ships Built. 1847. 1847. England, Scotland. - Ireland. - Jowy. Man, &c. Colonies, Tons. • 476,531 612,866 865.656 83.568 644,603 Men. 138,096 30,648 14,538 8,706 43,906 Ships. 749 161 30 48 660 Tons. 118,808 30,744 8,884 4,090 116.487 Totals, - 3,952,.';24 232,890 1641 266.411 The number of rrpUltna Ships belonfring to the British Empiie on December 31. 1840. was 32,499, and 1847, 38,988. Account of Shipping employed in the Foreign and Colonial Trade of the United Kingdom in the Year ended January 8, 1848, stated exclusively of Ships in Ballast. £87,786,878 £58,971,186 Countries to which Entered Inwards. Cleared Outwards. Ships belonged. 1847. 1847. Ships. Tons. Ships. Tons. British Empire, 18,771 4.838.086 15,538 3.805,794 United States, 1,303 636.384 879 518,893 Prussia, 1,3S1 876,563 878 158,064 Norwiiy, 1.316 808,198 568 64,638 Denmark, 1,701 129,107 1,626 126,626 Russia, 330 80,420 166 48,600 Holland, 694 58,445 745 78,754 Belgium, 841 34,846 278 41,689 Prance, - 856 49,623 8,428 804,813 Other States, 8,998 379,176 9.461 286,070 TotaU, 89,661 6,091,062 8S,664 4,719,241 187 OBAMBISM nrfOBMATIOK fOB TBI PSOPLI. AwKwnt of Milpphifl impiojM i> «•• OomMat **«•«» "^.V" ti»M Juiuwy I, IMI, itoua raeludMly rf Bhlpt la Itallut. RmployMlbalwMn Bri- tain and IralMid. OtllW CouUnf nUp*. Tbtali. EBtaf*)! Inwanli. IM7. •blp*. 134,440 14>,M1 Tonik l,IM,aiO IO,iM3,18a lf,ll»,7tM CTMnd Outward*, 1847. Bhiph 17,«U I4U,M(7 IU,I»S Ton*. «,047..il)7 11,118,1311 t3.M5,afS Th* eurtmu^ or MOiMy of the United Kingdom it »bontje20,OOO,dOO of sold and lilTcrcoin, and £32,000,000 of bftnk-notM, chieflir of tlie ralue of five nnd ten poundf— total, £S8,000,000. Ai nearly all large pay- ment!, bowerer, are made by billi of exchange and dniii on bankers, there it an nuorniouily laree cur- rancy of that kind. It hat been calculated that the amount of billt, promitiory-notei, and bankert' drafts in circulation at any one time cannot be much leu than £122,000,000. The centre of all the great monev traniactiont of the Britith Empire it London, in which it tituated the Dank of Ensland, or principal banking inititution. The amount or foreign and inland billt of exchange and drafts payable in London daily, it esti- mated at £4,000,000. In Scotland, which it celebrated for itt well-conducted banking inttitutiont, the money currency it chiefly one-pound uank-notet and tilror. On tne 7th of October 1041), the note circulation of the United Kingdom wai at follows: — Bank of England, £17,605,718; private bankt, £3,681,544; joint-ttock bankt, £2,666,749; Scotland, £3,136,516; Ireland, £4,506,421. The money coined in 1847 con- tilted of 110,400 Ibt. gold. Yielding £5,158,440; of 38,100 Ibt. lilver, yieldmg £125,730; and of 40 tont copper, yielding £4960. In all partt of the United Kingdom there are now National Securitiet Savings' Banks, for the safe cut- tody of amall tumt, the savings of labour, and for which the national credit is pledged. The amount of deposits, chiefly the property of the humbler orders of the community, is now upwards of £.'!2,000,000, and is annually increasing. In 1845, the number of indivi- dual depositors wot considerably above 1,000,000. PUBLIC WORKS, CA^ALS, RAILROADS, DOCKS, &C. Connected with our manufactures, are the great works of the ciril-engineer — canals, roads, docks, bridges, piert, &c. — workt which attest, more obviously than any othert, the activity, power, and resources of the country. It ia to the facility of internal communica- tion afforded by these works, that the heaviest goods, though manufactured in the interior of the country, can be carried to seaports for exportation, without any burdensome addition to their price ; and that ma- terials for their different manufactures can be carried to inland towns from seaports, by canals or railroads, with the same advantage ; while intelligence can be conveyed between the principal toivns and seaports in the course of a few minutes, without that loss of time and opportunity which is so valuable in a highly-com- petitive country. The length of the turnpike roads of England and Wales would, if joined together, form a continuous line of above 26,000 miles in length. The expenditure of the trustees on account of these roads, in 1841, amounted to £1,551,336; the revenue for the same year being £1,574,518: of the total expenditure, £302,182 went to defray the interest of debt, which, in 1829, amounted to £5,578,815 I The length of the various cross roads and other highways in England and Wales is estimated at about 104,000 miles. In Scotland the aggregate length of the turnpike roads is estimated at 3700 miles; and the cross roads in toler- able repair at about 10,000 miles. Of the roads in Ireland there are no accurate statistics; but great im- provementt have recently been effected under the fuperinteudence of the Board of Public Woiki. Since m the Introduction of railways, statistics in roferenc* to the traffic and passengers on tha tumpiks roads are oomparatirely valueless unless for mere local purposes. The traffic and revenue of the chief lines are rapidly falling away, and this circumstance loudly calls for some other mode of maintenance than the expansive and obstructive exaction of toll dues. The navigable eaitals used for the transport of goods and produce in Ensland aloii«i are estimated at 2200 miles in length, while the navigable rivers exceed 1800 miles— making together mora than 4000 miles of inland navigation, the (greater part of which has been erected or rendered available within the last eighty years. Scotland possestei about 200 milet of navigable canal; and though the phyiical character of the country is unfavouraole to this species of inland communication, the want is less felt in consequence of the numerous firths and arms of the tea which iutertect thit portion of tho island. The whole extent of navi;;able oanalt available in Ireland doet not exceed 30U milet, and including river navigation, the entire water communi- cation falls short of 500 milet. * What the condition of that fertile country might become,' roniarki Mr Porter, ' if itt means of communication were placed upon an equal footing with those of the midland and southern counties of England, is a question of the highest interest to every one who has at neart the moral and intellectual advancement of the Irish people, and, as a consequence, the general prosperity of the United Kingdom.' In 1829 tho revenue arising from the canals of England and Scotland exceeded £13,000,000, which, besides keeping them in repair, afforded an average profit to the proprietors of 5} per cent, on their original capital; but in consequence ol the greater faci- lities afforded by railways, a great decline has taken place in the value of most canals. Various projects are now, indeed, on foot for converting some of the principal lines into railways, or for making them sub- sidiary to, or dependent on, the latter. The bridga, aqueducts, and tunneli, which have been erected in connection with roads, canals, and rail- ways, are more magnificent and numerous than those of any other country in the world. To estimate their number would be difiicult ; but we may mention, that, in London, the Waterloo and London Bridces alone cost very nearly £2,500,000 of money. The iron bridges which have been erected in different places, are the admiration of all foreigners. Their arches are constructed of a number of strong ribs of metal, standing apart from each other like the joists of a house, and qn these the floor or roadway is forme in- creMe which point! out in the moit forcible manner the enercpr, power, and capacity of our country. Con> nected with nioit of the linei of railway are electric telegraphi, either for conTeying deipatohee in connec- tion with the working of the linoi, or for the purpote of public coinmuuication. The recent adoption or theie ndjuncti prereuts anything lilie Aill or accurate ita- tiitioi ; but some idea of their importance may be gleaned from the fact, that any ordinary buiinen trani- action between parties in Edinburgh and Loudon can be coinnienced, negotiated and completed in the brief ipace of a couplo of houn t Dock$, Piti$, and Lightkouiei.—Dockt are artificial baaina built of itone for the reception of ship* : they are of two kinds— wet and dry. A dry dock ii a recep- tacle where vesieli are built or repaired; after which the tide ii admitted by flood-gatei, and they are floated out to tea. Wet dockt are conitructed for the uie of ■hips when loading and unloading, it being found that when they are allo«red to settle down unequally on the mud or sand of rivers and harbours, their timben are ■trained, and the Tessels considerably damaged; in the wet docks they are kept always afloat. The sums laid out by some of the dock companies in London are im- mense. The capital expended by the London Dock Company in purchasing ground (chiefly the sites of houses and streets) was more than jC 1,000,000 ; and the whole cost of the works was £3,938,310. The docks at Liverpool have an area of water of about 112 acres, and the quay space is nearly eight wiles in total length. The business transacted may be coi\jectured from the fact, that the dues paid by vessels entering the docks in 1840 was £197,477, 18s. 6d. Few of the laree seaports are without the accommodation which docks yield to commerce; those at Leith contain ten acres of water-room, and have cost £285,108. It would be idle to attempt a description or even enumeration of the immense number of piers and harbours which have been constructed at the dif- ferent seaports. At every place where the profits of trade seemed to authorise such erections, capital was seldom deficient to complete them. The lighthouses of Britain are perhaps the most re- markable part of the nautical apparatus of the islands. The capital expended upon them has been large, and the skill with which some of them, such as the Bell- Rock and Eddystone lighthouses, are constructed for durability in the midst of a tempestuous sea, could only have been exhibited iu a countnr where mechanical science existed in its hichest perfection; and there is hardly a dangerous or doubtful point along the coast where the mariner is not guided by a light on some headland or rock. There is, however, n.uch complaint concerning the dues levied from slipj for lighthouse expenses; some of them are held as profitable tolls by private families, and in others the money levied u applied to purposes quite unconnected with lighting. COLONIAL POSSESSIONS. The foreign possessions of the United Kingdom are infinitely more extensive and populous than the home country. They are about forty in number, reckoning all classes of foreign stations and possessions, and lie iu every quarter of the globe. The oldest existing colonies of Britain are those of the West Indies, con- sisting of a number of the islands so called, the district of Honduras, or Belize, on the adjacent coast of North America, and Guiana in South America. These pos- sessions are rich in every tropical produce, yielding sugar, cofl^ee, tobacco, cotton, cabinet timber, spices, fruits, drugs, and dye stufl's. Jamaica, the largest and most important of these islands, has an area of more than 5000 square miles, with a population of 380,000, of which only about 88,000 are whites, the majority Iwiug negroes, most of whom wore originally slave- labourers. Trinidad, St Luola, Domlntea. BarbadoM, and the other islands belonging to Britain, may orni- tain an aggregate area of 83,000 square miles, with a population or about 460,000, of which the greater pro- portion are negroes and Creoles. Beliie Is a small territory; but Uuiana has an are* of 67,000 square miles, with a population of mure than 100,000. Since the independence of the North American states in 1776, the British posseseions In that eontinent lie* wholly in the northern section, embracing the province of Canada, the colonies of Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, Prince Edward's Island, New Brunswick, and New- foundlan tralia. New Zealand, composed of three contiguous islands, ranging from 1100 miles in length, with a breadth varying from 5 to 200, is also the seat of » British colony planted iu 1 840 ; and if its internal management were once fairly adjusted, it would pro- bably rise to first-rate importance. The staple products are wool, hides, hardwoods, grain, and copper. At the Cape of Good Hope, Sierra Leone, Cape Coast, and other parts of Africa, Britain possesses upwards of 200,000 square miles, with a population of 350,000. Cape Colony, taken from the Dutch in 1806, is a thriv- ing settlement, and may be said to be the only spot on the vast continent of Africa in which modem civilisa- tion haa been successfully planted. The Mauritius, and some minor islands in the Indian Ocean, the rocky islets of St Helena and Ascension in the Atlantic, and Fernando Po in the Gulf of Guinea, constitute the sum of British possessions connected with Africa. Their principal products are ivory, gold, hides, honis, sugar, coflTee, palm oil, teakwood, aloes, &c. The Ionian Islands, the isles of Malta and Gozzo, and the town and fortress of Gibtaltar, in the Mediter- 169 oBiJiiiMni moniAnov iob thi fiopli. MOMn. ih« iilet of lI.Ji|oknointt. With tho religion and law uf England have l)«eu aenorallx iutroduced tho Engliah language, uiagei, and niaimere. The co- loniee poeeeee little or no independent power. They are locally managed by goremore and other function* ariee appointed by tho crown, and are lubicct to nunie- roui legulatione impoied by the imperial Parliament, or by the colonial Moretarv. Canada, Nora Scotia, New Druniwick, Newfouuilland, Jamaica, and utkor Weat Indian poMoiiioni, und the Cn\>9 of Uood Ilopo, IndiTiduiilly poieoM loci^ legiilaturei, or parliaments, by which rarioue internal concenii, luch aa making roade, education, impoiition of duei on ithipping, kc, to defiray expeniee, are managed. The colon iei are not taxed to luuport the home govemmont, it being a principle in tne constitution that there can be no taxation without representation ; but they are sub- jected to rarious customhouse duties and restrictions, that greatly limit their capacity for improvement. All the raw produce they can export, such as sugar, coffee, timber, &c. is pennitted to outer British ports at a duty much lower than the same kind of produce iVom foreign countries. This preference is in one reii>ect adTantageous to them ; however, they are at the same time restricted in the purchase of various articles, ex- cept from Britain and its possessions. Thev are also prevented iVom raauufacturing certain kinds of pro- duce; for example, the inhabitants of Jamaica cannot refine their own sugar, but are compelliid to scud that article to EuKl6.] Balariei of govemon and others In Wect Indies, L.UaM. Maglttrales, Weet Indiee, L.41,e00. EoolMiaatical estsblUhment, Weet Indies, Ii.SO,3go. On account of the civil lOTcmments— Bemiudas, L.401S i ntnce Edward's Island, I..ia34| Nova Bootia, L.400i Falkland Islands, LJ480; Bahamas, L.34I0; nelixolond, t.lOJB; Fort Badofton, L.IMO1 Hong Kong, L.eO.OOO [from 1841 to 1846, L.314,000] ; Western Australia, L.TSIQ; Labuan, L.g8a7. Lighthouiee, Newfound- land, L.4U0U. Colonial naval yards, L.48,913 ; victuoUIng establiahments, L.93I0; medical establishments, L.BU3; re- pairs and new works, L.137>4U. Transport of men and stores, &0. L.8B7,6B0. Expenditure on Gibraltar and Malta in 1843-4, I..360,000 ; works in progress there wUl cost L.46O,O0ti Expen- diture in protecting the Ionian lalands, about L.13U,000 per annum [value of the whole exports to them in 1844, L. 123,988]. Military expsndltoie on Cape of Ctood Hope In 1843-4, L.298,000 ; 190 naval espenditars, I,.l70,OM»-«a«ai, L.4«,«Mk ■■ pwa i l— «> Mauritius la l«4S-t, L.«,awi eapMisss for dclMiess abo«l te be laoun-lotal, hMtfiOO, whtoh Is si the rate of about L.to a-heod of the Briliak popula> tliin. Altogether, the direct espease of the saoUiar eoualry oa account of the ooloalss may be safely set down at lh4,0IIO,aM)b All the expenses, troubles, and anxieties Incurred on account of the colonies are believed, we have said, to be compensated by their purchase of our nianufacturts, their reception of emigrant settlers, and the employ, meut of our shipping. These supposed advantages mav be examined aoparatelv. The declared value ofBrltlsa and Irish prodiKC and manufactures, exported to tht colonies from the United Kingdom in 1847, wo* Heligoland, I..UO Olbraltor, 4«,Ma Malta and Oozxa, * 1(U,RW Ionian Itlnnda, - . . l43,4aH Cape of Uood Hups, - • (UlH,SHIi Ascension and Bt Helens, • 31.378 Mauritius, fS3,U3 Australian Bettlemcnts, • 1,844,170 North American Colonies, - 3,>33,0I4 West Indies anil Oulana, - • «,»«,»77 Honduras, ... - 170.947 Falkland Islands, a.oas Total Exports, I.,8,II0>,3n Under nine milliont for the whole, even taking iuto account the military dependencies. Therefore, for every pound's worth of goods exported by our mer- chauts, the country, in the form of taxes, pays 9s. But as it loses also at least je3,000,000 on account of diffe- rential duties, it may bo said to give X7,000,000, in order to sell articles to the value of ^69,000,000. It could be shown, however, that the colonies would con- tinue to buy from us were the counectlon dissolved, or greatly changed in character. The United States of America oiice were colonies, and the trade with them has vastly increased since they became independent. While they were colonies, the exports to them were latterly under £1,500,000; now they are upwards of £10,000,000 per annum, and require ttom us neither defence uor luanagoment. With regard to the outlet which the colonies afford for our population, it appears. Hays Sir William Molcsworth, ' that in the course of the laHt twenty years, 1,673,003 persons have emigrated from this country, of whom 83A,564 went to the United States, 70'J,lOl to the North American colonies, 127,188 to the Australian colonies, and 19,0U0 to other places.' One-half of all our emigrants, therefore, proceed to a country which is not under our jurisdictiou; uor does it appear that tho colonies are preferred by the other half lu consequence of their connectiou with the British government. Large numbers of those who emigrate to Canada proceed afterwards into tho United State*. W« have not seeu any statement of what benefit is derived by British shipping IVom tho colonial connection ; but whatever it is, there can bo uo doubt that the same num- ber of ships would be employed in the export and im- port trade, if the colonial connection was dissevered. In fine, reckoning the expense of luilitaiy, naval, and civil protection, along with the heavy loss incurred by our obli. gation to buy their dear produce, it is calculated that in ordinary times the people of Great Britain lose between five and six millions annually by tho colonies. India is not, Btrictly ajMaking, a colony or possession of Britain. PoliticaUy it belongs to the Honourable East India Company, an association of British mer- chants, by whose servants it hag been conquered, and is now locally governed, under the control and ap- proval, however, of the crown, and a charter granted by tho legislature. In virtue of an act of Parlia- ment passed in 1893, the East India Company is gua- ranteed the government of the British territories in India until April 1854 ; the company is not to carry on any trade; commerce to be open to British mer- chaatB ; natunl-boni gubjecta of England may proceed CONSTITUTION MSH RESOUROSi OF THE BBITISR EMPIRE. •kowllob* llMldtaOM litUietfioo, ' aoualry oa 4,MM,0UO. iicurr«d on T« Mid, tu iiufMturti, i« amploy- itftgw mvt ) of Brittih i«d to th« WM I..UO 4eed to do. The only advantage! which we derire {torn our occu- pation of theie linnieiiM countrlet, ara the undliputed poeeeialon of their traJo, and the fortunee (ionieliinei very large) eaved out of their ealarioi by Hrlliih tub- Jeeti who are appointed to diicharge tbo dutiea of goremment. It It to the trade of the country, how- •Tir, that we muit look for any cnniiderable and per- manent advant^kge ; and aa thii can only be made to increase by the cultivation of peace and order through the country, the interoit of llritaln becomes directly involved In niaintainiiiK henceforth the peace of India. The Improvement which a few years of peace eflfects in these fertile countries is astonishing: the population of a certain portion is supposed to have nturlv doubled In the period of comparatlvo peace from 181 1 to 1830, being in the former year only forty-flve, and in the latter almost ninety millions. Till she came under British rule, India never enjoyed twenty years of peace and orderly government in all her former history. Many faults and oppressions art) laid to the charco uf the English in India, Arom which It is impossible to defend them. The taxes (which fall chiefly upon the land and the poor peasantry) are very oppressive, and are rendered more so by tho unprincipled conduct of the natives who are employed to collect them. Justice also is administered in a foreign language ^Persic), and the courts are so few, that districts which are larger than Scotland have hardly one to each. Notwithstand- ing all this, the preservation of public order and of peace has conferred advantages on the country of the most inestimable kind. Latterly, considerable im- provements have been effected by tho cstabliohmont of schools, and by Christian missionaries. As India, by the taxes which it pays to the Company, clears the cojt of its own protection, and all its other public expenses, it may be considered as the only foreign possession of Hritain whoso trade affords an unburdened profit to the home country. The forces employed by the Company, partly composed of BritUli regular troops, and partly of native levies, amounted in 1U46 to 2.50,000 men. In 1833-4, its annual revenue was £13,6U0,1C5, an enormous sura to be raised in a semi-barbarous counttY, yet no more than sufficient to discharge the annual expenses. The Company at that timo was in debt to the amount of £35,463,483. POPULATION — 80CIAL STATISTICtl. The people of England, Scotland, and Ireland, re- spectively, possess certain national peculiarities of cnaracter; but these, from tho general intercourse which now preyails, are gradually disappearing, and a uniform British character is becoming daily more apparent. In this general and happy assimilation, the English qualities of mind and habits predominate. The chief feature in the English character is an ardent love of liberty, which renders the people extremely tenacious of their civil rights, stem advocates of justice, and patriotic in the highest degree. In their manners they are grave rather than gay, blunt rather than cere- monious. In their habits they are enterprising, induu- trious, and provident; in their feelings humane. In all mercantile transactions the greatest integrity exist)!, and promises are faithfully performed. In the middle and upper classes the highest civilisation prevails, and all the social virtues and comforts of domestic life are sedulously cultivated. There are some favourite field- sports and boisterous amusements; but the enjoyments of the English are chiefly within doors, in their own well-regulated homes. A lore of home is a marked peculiarity in the affections of the English. The emi- nent importance attained by the British in the scale of nations, appears to depend mainly upon two features of the common character — the high moral and intel- lectual character of the people at large, and their ex- traordinary skill iu producing articles of necessity and luxury, aa well as thsir deiterity in the eonim«re« by which these are dllAisod over the world. An account of the population of the empire kM been taken at intervals of ten years from IROI ; and the fol- lowing table will show the gradual increase which has occurred since 1811 : — Bn|l«ntl»nd, irsland, . 1811. 10,183,. /8 I,8US,I1U8 4,MI0,UM 1811. 11,1178.873 »,u8a,i.so 8,80<,0IK1 1831. i3,IM,M» «,3B8,8U7 7.734,383 IMI. 1S,8M,74I 8,I78.IM Totals, lfl,4(»,M4 80,874,484 IO,MN,741 86,)«,47S These estimates are exclusive of the army and navy, as also of the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man, which are noticed under another section. The increase of the population, as compared with the reiums of 1831, is at tho rate of 14'A per cent, for England ; IS |)er cent, for Wales ; for Scotland, 1 1*1 ; for the islands in the llritiah seas, l!)-6: making the Increase for the whole of (Jreat Britain 14 per cent., being less than that of the ten years ending 1831, which was 15 per cent. The following is the latest statement of the extent and population of tho British Empire ; — Colonial and Foreign I'uMeuloDS. England and Wales, • HootUnd, Ireland, Man snd Channel lalanda, Kuropaoo UvpoDdenciiw, Ailatlodo. - . - African do. Nortli American, do. South American du. - Weallndloa, - Auitralosla, Protected and Tributary Btates— Ionian iHlund*, Kant Indian States, - Hqiiaro MIIm. Population. 37.818 U,I)06,74l .18.1(17 9,080,610 3t,tl2 8,173,184 xa 194,040 M.1 140,889 7M.flH7 88,010,000 a4,B«7 1,443,379 7M. 1 l,88O,00«l 89,000 103,0W 78,384 799,008 80O,O(N) 370,000 I.I 41 993.340 aoo.ooo .18,900.0011 Total, 3,148,747 1(KI,978,«4I Occupalioni. — It appears that those engaged in the close and vigilant pursuits of manufactures and mer- chandise are, in England and Scotland, as two to one in numbers, compared with those who apply to the more leisurely business of agriculture. In 1841 the number of Miose in active life or living independently were 7,n4(),.'ifi!) — leaving 10,097,865 to be understood as women and children having no recognised occupations. Of those employed — 8,110,376 were engaged in com- merce, trade, and manufactures; 1,499,278 in agricul- ture, grazing, gardening, atiii other kindred pursuits ; 761,868 in miscellaneous labour, as mines, quarries, por- terage, &c. ; 218,610 comprised the navy, national and mercantile, fishermen, watermen, &c.; 131,464 the army at home and abroad ; 63,1 84 were engaged in the learned professions — divinity, law, and physic; 142,836 were following pursuits requiring education, including those engaged iu imparting knowledge to others ; 16,959 were in the civil service of ^vemment ; 25,275 were in municipal and parochial offices ; 1,165,233 were in domestic service ; 199,069 were alms-people, paupers, lunatics, and pensioners; 511,440 were returned as in- dependent; 2424 were afloat and undescribed ; leaving a residue of 10,096,398, in respect of whose occupations no particular%were given. The number of personi engaged in, ana dependent upon, agriculture in Ireland, is comparatively much larger than in Great Britain. It appears from the census of 1841, that there are 5,358,034 persons directly dependent upon the culture of the soil out of a population of 8,175,124 ; and taking into account its subsidiary employments, the depend- ence on agriculture will even be proportionally greater. In considering the number of persons supported by any particular manufacture, it is to be remembered that the numbers given are of actual workers, and not of those who, as wives, children, &c. are supported by the labour of otheiB. Th« total uumber of persons 191 CBAHBEBS'S HHOBMATION FOB TBI PEOPLE. >' f wkoM oeeupationi were MetrUined in OrMt BriUin WM r,846m^l»»ing 10,»»7.8«i m the • wridu/' of the popnUtion, which miut be tiJwn to condrt of per- ■one depettdent on the fonner. Therefoie, to the num- ber riren under eaoh employment, we muit add another number bearing to it thfl proportion of about 11 to 8, in order to aeoertain the entire number of indi- Tiduala whom that btaoob of induitiy lupporti. It is wvHkr of remade that, fkom other reports, the pro- portlMk of those woriiers who are of tender age is de- oeatiu, and the total number of children now en- nwed fii the abore occupations is only 31,566, under llSlth of the whole workers. The largest number returned under anjr oae occupation is of domestic ser- rants, being l,165Ji8S, of whom 908,835 are females. The statement of the ag^gate population of the British islands, afibrds no idea of the force which is •otuallr emploTed in agriculture and manufactures. The effective labourers (men) are estimated to amount to no more than 7,500,000, whereas, reckoning the powers exerted in productiTO industry by animals, mills, steam-engines, and mechanism of Tarious kinds, the force is equal to the strength of between 65,000,000 and 70,000,000 working-men. DwMingi. — The number of houses in England in 1841 were-4nhabited, 2,753,295; uninhabited, 162,756; building, 25,882. The number iu Wales, inhabited, 188,196; uninhabited, 10,133; building, 1769. In Scotland, inhabited, 503,357 ; uninhabited, 24,307 ; building, 2760. In the islands of the British seas, 19,159 inhabited; 865 uninhabited^ and 220 bui^iing. Grand totals for the whole of Great Britain, 3,464,0OT inhabited, 198,061 uninhabited, 30,631 building— alto- gether, 3,692,679 houses. It appears from the census, however, that in Great Britain on the night of the 6th June 1841, that 22,303 persons slept in bams, tents, pits, and in the open air. Vital SttUitlie*, — England is now provided with a law for enforcing the registration of births, marriages, and deaths; but in other parts of the empire, Scotland in tNirticular, the arrangements for these useful objects are very imperfect, and demand speedy amendment. At the celebration of marriage, parties are required to sign their names; and it appears that, on an average, 33 in the 100 of males, and 49 in the 100 of females, sign with a mark, beinc unable to write. The average age of men in England at marriage u about 27 years, and of women, 25 years and a few months. Of 100 marriages, 8 take place with both patsies under age; and it is remarkable that the Mriculturml districts fur- nish the greatest proportion of early marriages. The average annual numtwr of marriages for England and Wales to every 10,000 inhabitants is 78. The average of births to every 10,000 for Encland and Wales is 319; of deaths, 221. It may be worth noticing, that it is in the maritime counties we find the least mortality. Pauperum— Crime. — The population of the United Kingdom thus consists of various classes of ^tersons, amongst whom, with respect to wealth, education, and general condition, even more than the usual differ- ences are to be found — the greatest wealth and luxury cont'asting with the most abject poverty and want, and the must industrious prudence with the utmost negligence and want of self-respect. Without entering minutely into the political and social causes of this distressing difference, it may be mentioned as a general result, that the difficulty of purchasing food leads to a corresponding depression of ctrcumAances in the humbier orders of the community, and either causes an extensive dependence on poor-rates for support, or produces debased and dangerous habits of living. The poor of England arc entitled by law to support iu workhouses, according to the provisious of an act of Parlhiment pasted in 1834. In 1847, the numbc; of paapen(including children) relieved in England, was l,7n,IM, or about 1 in 9 of the population. Of these 39^087 r«eeived in-door relief; 1,456,313 re- ceived ovt-door relief. The amount received was £7,117483 : of which £5,298,787 was expended on the poor— £899,095 on in-mainieno&oe, and £3,467,960 on out-relief. In Ireland, similar poor-laws were introduced in 1888, and an likely to prove of )(reat service to that part of the empiN. 'The chief peculiarity of theselaws,* says Maocttllc«h, * is that relief under them is adminis- tered solelyin workhouses; and thus they diffitr irom the Scotch poor-laws, under which workhouses have scarcely been made use of at all, except in a few large towns; fvnd from the English poor-laws, which were intended bv the logislature to be a mixed system of relief to the able-bodied in woikhousas, and of relief to the impo- tent poor, partly iu workhouses and partly at their own homes. Th^ difito agiUn fi6m the English and Scotch poor>l»wt in thia, that while in England all destitute persons have a legtl right to relief, and in Scotland all deatitut* inip«l«t patnna have a similar right, in Ireland, on tha oontniy, no individual was intended to have a ImoI riski to relief; but at the same time, wheth« nph b oaied or impotent, he may equally reorive relief is wer k h o usse , . provided he is destitute.' Under this law, the expenditure for the poor in Ireland for the year ending 1st January 1846 was £816,026, and the nouUv of paupers 49,293; but in Novembw 1846, in consequence of the potato failure, the number was 80,600. In Scotland, as above elated, only the impotent or very aged poor can lognUy claim relief from the pariah ftinds, which, hj a recent act, are managed by parochial boards, subject to the direction aurl con- trol of a Centiml Board, which is established in Edin- burgh. In 1846-47, the number of paupers on the roll or rogistered was 85,971 ; casual poor, 60,399— making the number of persons receiving relief in Soot- land daring the year, 146,370, w about 1 in l8 of the population. The amount received wM £435,367 : of whidi £336,515 was expended on roj^stered poor; £88,840 on casual poor; £12,879 on medical relief; £43,158 on management; and £5022 on litigation. The preeent condition of society throi^out the United Kingdom exhibits the ^eetade of great and valaobb elnrts at improvement among the more en- lightened fllasset. Within the laet twenty years, the utility of the press has been immensely increased, and works of iaatruction and mtertunment have been cir- onlated in departments of society where formerly no- thinc of the kind waa heard of. The establishment of meehanics' institutbns, lycenins, exhibitions of works of art, reading societies, and other means of intellectual improvement, forms another distinguishing feature of mMem society. At the same time great masses of the people, for lack of education, and from other unfortu- nate circumstances, are evidently gravitating into a lower condition. From these reasons, and others con- nected with the development of our manufacturing and commercial system, convictions for crime have been latterly increasing. In 1847 there were in England 28,833 offenders, of whom 21,682 were convicted; iu Ireland 31,209,* of whom 153357 were conricted; in Scothuid 4635, of whom 3569 were convicts^. Of tho offences, 7611 were comnkitted agjabst the person; 4747 against property committed with violence; 43,867 SMunst property without violence; 589 malicious Denmark, Hol- land, Belgium, Portugal, Naples, Bavaria, Sardinia, Saxony, Hanover, the Swiss Confederation, and Turkey. Those of e third rank a<% the small constituent prin- cipalities of Germany and Italy. It is to th0 conti- No. 63. nental or foreign states that we now confine our de- scription, reserving the component parts of the United Kingdom — ^gland, Scotland, and Ireland — for treat- ment in the three subsequent numbers. FRANCE. France, one of the largest and most important of the European states, is situated between lat. 42° 20' and 51° 3' north, and long. 3° 51' east, and 9° 27' west. It is bounded on the north by the English Channel, Straits of Dover, Belgium, the Prussian province of Lower Rhine, and Ilhenish Bavaria; on the east by Baden, from which it is separated by the Rhine, hj Switzer- land, and Italy; on the south by the Mediterranean and by Spain, from which it is separated by the Pyre- nees; and on the west by the Atl^tic. The greatest length of the country is 664 miles, and its breach 620; its area, including Corsic^v and the islands* which stud the sea-coast, is estimated at 208,736 square miles. * The Channel Uland$, though geographically connected with Franco, hnve been an appendage to the English crown since thn eleventh contuiy. The group coniisU of Jersey, lii miles by 6 or r> t GuernBcy, 9 miles by 6 ; Aldemey, Bark, and several other islats and rocks of small extent The larger of those islands aro ibrtili', and well divorsifled by orchards, clumps, and hedgerows ; 193 OHAMBEBff S mVOBMATlGS FOB THE PEOPLE. SmerfiMOy, Fnmce may be d^icribed m » flat ooun^, the greater portion coiwirting of T»Uey-like tract! or open plateaux, with low hillv rao^ or •well- ine eminencei between. Iti iceneiy, therefore, MhiWti little of the romantic and pictureique, and with the exception of the Limourin, and wme of the lai;ger rirer coarMi, i», on the whole, rather flat and uninteresting. The principal hiUe whioh diretaify the surflwe are— 1. Tm Voiges, on the north-east, preienting rounded oatUnei, with gentle dopei, and affording much open eitura; the Ugheit point 4693 feet. 2. The Jura onntalni, l/ing aonth of the Voigei, and forming part of the boundary between France and Switurland, the extreme height of which ia about 6000 feet. 3. The Cerennes, and other portions of the long range which forms, as it were, the western brim of the valley of the Saone and Rhone: the highest points do not exceed 5000 feet. This range may be said to form the ^at water-shed of France, from which all the large rivers flow in a north-west direction to the Atlantic. 4. The clustering hiUs of Auvorgne, or central France, remark- able toT their crateriform tops and recent volcanic origin, the highest of which is Puy de Sancy, 6200 feet. The larsest and best-defined river-basins or valleys are those of the Saone and Rhone on the east, which may be rumrded as one; those of the Adour, Garonne, Lot, and Dordogne on the south and south-west; those of the Loire and Seine in the centre; and those of the Somme, Mouse, Moselle, and Rhine on the north. The ■oil of most of these valleys is a fine deep alluvium, with a greater or less admixture of sand: some, like tiie Limousin in Auvei;gne, are of unsurpassed fertility; and all, under proper cultivation, are capable of yield- ing the ordinary crops in more than average abundance. There are large tracts of heath in Bretagne, Anjou, and Maine ; and the Atlantic sea-board presents in many places, as in Landes, wide expanses covered with ■and-dunes and intervening marshy lagoons, on which nothing useful can flourish except the sea-pine, planted there to protect the surface from further drift. The great rivers exclusively French have all a wes- terly flow towards the Atlantic; those flowing north- ward — ^the Scheldt, Sambre, Meuse, Moselle, and much- ooveted Rhine — have onl^ the upper and least valuable portions of their courses m France; and the Rhone, the sole laige river running southward, has also a great Sortion of its course in another country. Of those owing westward, the following are the most impor- tant: — 1. The Seine, navigable to Rouen for vessels of 200 tons, and for barges more than 300 miles inland. 2. The Loire, the largest river belonging exclusivelv to France, which, although it receives numerous tribu- taries, and possesses a considerable volume of water,.is of remarkably little use in commerce, and can only carry small burgee and steam-vessels; a defect resulting ttom. numerous sandbanks. 3. The Oaronne, which is navigable for barges about 280 miles of its course, and receives a vast number of tributaries. The Rhone dur- ing its course in France is a noble, but rapid river, and though much obstructed by shoals and shifting sand- banlu, is navigable for flat-bottomed steamers to Cha- lons-sur-Saone, a distance of 276 miles from Marseilles. * QtohgieaUfi,' says one rnthority, * the whole of France may be considered ab one extensive basin, the oircumferenoe and centre of which consist of primitive formations, the intermediate space being filled with those of a secondary and tertiary kind.' Taking this statement as a mere proximate outline, we find pri- mary rocks in the Ardennes on the north ; in the Vosges, Jura, and Alpine ridges on the east; in the Pyrenees on the south; in Bretacne, Mune, and Nor- mandy on the west; and, oentrslly, in the hilly ranges of Auvergne. Lying upon these in many places, with- out the intervention of the transition and older secon- dary strata, occur the coal-measures, the oolite lime- thcy s^Kqr enmptloii from almost ersty speeiss of taxation, have a eansUarabte oommeree, and are (kTOorUe resorts t* per- ■aMwHhUmMsdiBcainas. Areaofths whole, US square mllss| populaMsn la IMI, 7«,0M. IM stones and shales, and the chalk; and not unfrequently even the coal-measures are absent, and the oolitic and chalk repose immediately on the upper primaries. The tertiari^ generally occupy tho great river drainage of the centre, showing that at no very distant epoch a laige portion of France was a shallow sea or estuary of deposit. The chief minerals are — coal from upwards of forty indiflfbrent fields, not exceeding 2,800,000 tons annually ; iron largely from ten or twdve districts ; rock-salt from Lorraine; gypsum, or plaster of Paris, in unlimited quantities; asphalte from Seyssel and the Jura; abundance of limestone, slate, and granite; ex- cellent marble and building stones; mill or burr-stone; lithooraphio slate; gn^hite, jet, atad slum; and a lane supply of first porcelam, aad other elavs. With the exception of iron, the other metals are of no great com- mercial importance; the total value of lead, silver, antimony, copper, manganese, arsenic, &c. annually produced rarely exceeding £60,000. The climate of a country whose extreme limits lie between the 42d and 51st parallels of north latitude — whose western region is subject to the influences of the vast Atlantic, while its central and eastern, exempt from these influences, are subject to these of a higher elevation — ^must necessarily exhibit considerable diver- sity. Geographers have accordingly divided the whole into four regions — namely, 1. The most southerly, in which the vine, olive, mulbeny, and orange flourish, bounded north and west by a line drawn from Bag- n6res-de-Luchon in the Pyrenees to Die in Drome; 2. I^hat through which the cultivation of the vine and maixe extends, stretching as far north as a line passing from the mouth of the Garonne to the northern ex- tremity of Alsaoe; 3. That region which terminates with the culture of the vine, near a line drawn from the mouth of the Loire to Mesieres in Ardennes; and 4. The remaining portion of the country, having a climate somewhat allied to that of England, dnd yield- ing rich verdant pastures and forest ^wth. Along the entire western coast the climate is distinguished by a greater degree of humidity than in anpr other district; the south and east have about a third fewer rainy days than the north and west; winter is often pretty severely felt in the north-east; and though snow seldom lies in the central and southern regions, yet these are liable to destructive hail and thunder-storms, as well as to sudden inundations. The native vegetation of the country, though number- ing several thousand species, oontuns few, with the exception of the apple, pear, plum, and fig, that are of much economical importance. The existing Flora, however, is one of great variety and value, embracing exotics from almost every region of the globe, whi(£ have become readily naturalised in its fine soil and under its genial climate. Of grains and vegetables largely cultivated, we may enumerate wheat, rye, oats, maize, millet, buckwheat, kidney-beans, pease, carrot, beet, melons, potatoes, flax, hemp, and tobacco; and madder, safi^n, and hops on a smaller scale. Of fruit-trees, the vine, olive, oruge, pistachio, fig, apple, pear, plum, peach, apricot, and cherry, with which we may also class the mulbeny and caper. Of forest- trees, the oak, beech, maple, ash, chestnut, walnut, birch, poplar, larch, pine, fir, box, cornel, acacia, and cork-tree. As a certain consequence of dimate and soil, these plants are not found indififerently all over the surface, but are restricted to peculiar localities, where they sieet with conditions necessary to their growth and perfection, or where, through accidental causes, they have become objects of eqwcial cultuie. The forest growth of France is said to cover fiilly one- eighth of the entire surface, or about 17,000,000 British acres — an amount which is rendered necessary by the use of wood as the chief domestic fVieL Of the mammaHa found wild in France, the principal are — the black and brown bean of the Pyrenees, the wolf, the fox, the lynx of the Alps, the duunoia and wild goct of the eastern and southern hills, the wild bear, badger, otter, marmot, ermine, and hamster. EUBOPE. unfireiiuently lie oolitic »na er primaries, irer dninage itant epoch a or eatuaiy of n upwards of ,800,000 tons We difiriets; •ter of Paris, lyseel and the i granite; ex- or burr-stone; i; andalaifa s. With the no great oom- ' lead, silrer, &c. annually ime limits He rth latitude — luences of the stem, exempt le of a higher iderable direr- ded the whole southerly, in range flourish, bwn from Bag- tie in Drome; f the yine and I a line passing > northern ex- ich terminates le drawn from Ardennes; and itry, haying a • uid, dnd yield- Towth. Along [.tinguishedby other district; fewer rainy often pretty ;h snow seldom yet thest are itonns, as well ,ongh number- : few, with the . fig, that are txisting Flora, le, embradng globe, whicu fine soil and nd vegetables leat, lye, oats, pease, carrot, tobacco; and scale. Of do, fig, apple, rith whiw we Of forest- nut, walnut, 1, acacia, and climate and ^ntlyall oyer localities, , to their |h accidental , culture. (er AiUy one- 0,000 British ' by the Jthe principal lyrenees, the ' am>^.l the green turtle taken occasionally on the southern seo-v-oasts. The JUm and noUuica, with the bxception of the mullet, sardine, carp, horse- foot oyster, and edible snail, are much the same as those belonging to England. The inucU of any econo- miotl importance are the bee, silk-worm, gall-nut fly, and the blistering fly. Respecting the breeds of the doputtioated animalt, if we except t]^e merino sheep and poultry, it may be safely asserted that they are all iuerior to those of Great Britain. The inhabitantt are generally arranged by ethnolo- gists under five distinct heads or races: — I. The Freneh proper, conriituting nine-tenths of the population, and consisting subordinately of the Grseco-Latms or French, north of the Loire, and the Romance, south of that boundary; with whom may be classed the Italians of Corsica; 2. The Otrmanic races of Alsace and Lorraine, and the Flemings of the north; 3. The CelHe or Cymric race (Bretons) of Bretagne; 4. The Btuques of the Low Pyrenees; and 6. The Jno*, who are found in all the principal towns. Hhere are thus six distinct languages spoken within the kingdom — French and Italian (both of Latin origin), German, Celtic, Basque, and Hebrwc; independent of sey«ral widely-diflfering proyinoial dia- lects of the French and German. Though the Rotium Catholio faith may be regarded as the national religion (five-sixths of the people being attached to it), yet no form of i-^orship is expressly established or associated with the state. Reckoning the Catholio population at 28,210,000, and the Protes- taaU at 6,010,000, the remainder may be regarded as consisting of Jews, Rationalists, Anabaptists, and other minor sects. Both the Catholio and Protestant clergy are paid out of the public reyenue — the sum annually allotted for religious purposes amounting to nearly £1,172,000 sterling. With regard to education, the country may be said to be at present under the opera- tion of aa efficient and liberal system. By the law of 1833, it is ordained that every commune by itself, or by uniting with others, shall have one elementary sohool, independent of infant schools; that every com- mune with a population of 6000 shall have, in addi- tion, a superior school; and that every departm'eiit, either by itself, or by uniting with others, shall have a normal school. Aliove these are 350 communal or royal colleges supported by the state; and higher still are the 26 head or chief academies. These, collectively, form what is called the * University of France,' which is under the superintendence of the Minister of Public Instruction, assisted by a council and a number of inspectors — the whole machinery requiring an annual outlay of about £520,000 sterling. With respect to nafiono/ industry, France may be regarded more as an agricultural than a manufacturing country. By the law of inheritance, the property of a father is divided equally among his children; and consequently there is a progressive tendency to more minute divisions and subdivisions of the land. The en- tire number of landed proprietors was lately 10,895,000, of whom about one-h>\lf were assessed at less than five francs annually. A vast number of the properties are under five acres in extent, and the result is a gene- rally mean condition of rural afliairs, and the total absence of all high -class systematic agriculture. Ac- cording to DomlMksle, the total produce of agricultu- ral industry in France amounts to £199,200,000, of which £108,000,000 are derived flroiu the bread-corns; £32,000,000 from the vine; £8,400,000 from live-stock and wool. The fiaheriei on the coast are not of much importance, the principal being those of pilchards, her- rings, mackerel, oysters, and anchovies, employing in all about '5800 boats both in the Mediterranean and Atlantic. The mining departments have been already alluded to; but though fostered in every manner, the coal raised does not exceed a tenth, and iron is some- what less than a fifth, of that lumually produced in Britain* In maiM(/irc(iir«s Fmace ranks next to Great Britain, the estimated annuid value of the goods produced amounting to £92,000,000: of which dlk, £12,000,000; wooUen, £10,600,000; cotton, £»,000,000; linen, £10,400,000; hardwares, £8,700,000; leather, £8,000,000; glass, £1,200,000; paper, £1,000,000; and porcelain, £300,000. The minor manufactures of the country would be tedious to mention; most of them exhibit a greater degree of skill and ingenuity than is to be met with in any other country. Ship-bnUdif^ is carried on to some extent at Rochefort, Brest, Cher- bourg, &c.; and in engine-building, and other heavy machinery, the French are now beginning to attain considerable eminence. The commerce of France has more than doubled since the peace in 1815, her imports now amounting to about thirty-eight, and her exports to thirty-nine millions sterling. Her mercantile navy is estimated at 15,600 vessels, carrying an aggr^ate burden of 700,000 tons. The internal comm^cation of the country is carried on by well-kept roads; these being classed into royal, departmental, and communal, according as they are upheld by the sovemment, or by the deputments and communes to which they bislong; by river navigation, of which there is upwards of 5616 miles; by 2250 mUes of canal; and by railways, of which about 2000 miles are constructed. The government of France, until the Revolution of 1848, was a hereditary, con8til:ational, or limited mo- narchy, with the succession restricted to males. The • legislative power was vested collectively in the king and the two great national assemblies — the Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Deputies. The executive was vested in a ministry, appointed by the king, at head of the state, and consistiBd of— 1. Minister of the Interior; 2. Justice and Public Worship; 3. Public In- struction; 4. Public Works; 5. Trade and Agriculture; 6. Finances; 7. Foreign Afibirs; 8. War; 9, Marine and Colonies. At present (1849) the govemnient of France is Republican; the legislative power being vested in a Chamber of Deputies dected by universal sufiWe; and the executive conducted by a President and Ministiy, much in the same manner as under the monarchy.— Revenue said to be £47,000,000; present expenditure, £72,000,000; debt, £21 1,000,000; army, 355,000. Capi- tal, Paris, with a population of 1,053,897. For adminittrative purposes, France is partitioned into Q6 departments, which are subdivided into 868 arrondissements, 2834 cantons, and 37,187 communes. At the head of each department is a prefect, named by the government; he is assisted by a council, which sits for a week annually to distribute the imposition of taxes, and decide on the wmts of the department. In each arrondissement there is a sous-prefect, likewise named by the executive, and subordinate to the pre- fect: the sous-prefect is alsc assisted by a council. In each canton there is a judge de paix, with judicial functions in matters of inferior importance. In each commune there is a maiie, assisted by adjoints. SPAIN AND FORTCOAI,. These two perfectly distinct and independent king, doms belong to a region so unique in character and situation, that we shall treat them, in regard to their physical geography, as one. This region, commonly Known in Britain as ' The Peninsula,' lies at the south- western extremity of the European continent, with which it is connected by an isthmus 230 miles broad, and is situated between lat. 36° and 40° north, and between long. 4° east and 10° west. It is bounded on the north by the Bay of Biscay, and by France, from which it is separated by the Pyrepees; on the east by the Mediterranean; on the south by the Mediterranean, the Straits of Oihraltai^* and the Atlantic; and on tho * Tbo promontoryrfliistreas, town, and bay of aibraltar, situ- 195 OHAMBEBffS INFOBMATIOir FOB THE PEOPLE. irett wholly by the Atknilc The only idand* geo- gnphically connected are the B»le«i©— m important croup, eznibitinc in miniature all the oharaoterutic featureeof the mainland. The area thus included is computed at 216,780 equare milei, of which 182,270 belong to Spain, and 34,510 to Portugal. , ,, „ In tuper^oial ekaraeter the Penmsula is decidedly mountainous. ' The interior may be considered as one Tast table-land, from 1800 to 2600 feet above the level of the sea, traversed by numerous mountains, and intersected by rivers. Around this central nucleus extends a narrow belt of maritime low land, sloping gradually towards the sea, and broken into an alterna- tion of hills and valleys, which produce a most agree- able variety of aspect, and present a pleasing contrast to the bleaK and barren sameness by which the central rsgion is characterised.' The geology of the country is but indifferently known. The principal economic mi- nerals are — ^granite, marble, serpentine, common lime- ■tone, coal, rock-salt, gypsuiu, alabaster, meerschaum, and sever^ of the precious stones ; the metals — iron, lead, silver, mercury, tin, copper, antimony, and cobalt. The princ^aal rivert of the Peninsula are^the Ebro and Xucar, mlling into the Mediterranean, both un- narigable; the Ouadilquiver, Guadiana, Tagus, Douro, and Minho, discharging themselves into the Atlantic, and all formine channels of communication with the interior. In thu respect the Ouadilquiver is the most important, being navigabb for vessels of 100 tons to Seville, and for flat-bottomed boats to Cordova. The climate, as might be expected from the position and physical conformation of the region, is extremely ' diversified. All along the Mediterranean sea-board the temperature is mild and equable, seldom sinking below 32°, and generally ranging between 55° and 60° Fahrenheit. Here snow is almost unknown, and ver- dure is rarely checked, unless during the occasional droughts of summer. On the central plateau matters are quite reversed; the summer's heat is excessive, and the winter's cold, rendered keener by stormy blasts from the mountains, is equally so. In this region the winter is long, and snow covers the sierras; while the summer is short, and so hot, that verdure is often destroyed. On the northern and western sea-board the summer becomes cooler; and the winds, charsed with moisture from the Atlantic, bring rains and other atmospheric diversities. The vegetation of a country so diversified in surface and climate must necessarily present great variety, and thus we find within its limits the banana and palm of the tropics, and the pine of the polar regions. Though a number of the more useful plants in the peninsula be indigenous, yet a great many are naturalised exotics, imported during the early and better days of its com- jnerce and naval adventure. The chief of these, with- out reference to locality or culture, are — wheat, oats, barley, maize, rice, hemp, flax; the vine, oli/e, sugar- cane, cotton, lemon, citron, fig, pomegranate, date, almond, pistachio, banana, and plantain ; the apple, pear, peach, cherry, walnut, chestnut, and hazel; and to these we may add the dwarf-palm, mulberry, carob, caper, red pepper, saffron, and aloe. With respect to forest-trees there is much less variety; the peninsula being one of the worst wooded regions in Europe. The principal trees are— the evergreen, cork, cochineal, and other varieties of oak ; the beech, poplar, sumach, tamaruk, chestnut ; and in the sierras and higher grounds, the fir and pine. The animal kingdom pre- ated on the Spani«h eido of tlio Btrait, belong to Britain. TIw promontory consiata of a vast rock, riaing from 1200 to 1400 foot abOTO tho Bca ; is about 8 miles in longth, and ft'ora i to ) of a mile In widtli ; and ia Joined to the mainland by a low aondy isthmus about U milca in length. On tho north aide, fronting tho iathmus, tho roclc ia almost perpendicular ; the east and Huuth aides are aleo atcop and rugged ; but on tho west aide it Hlopoa downward to a fine bay V miles long by t\ broad. On this alopo Ilea the town, containing a mixed populatinn of 16,000 ; and above riao tlie principal ramparta of the rocky forlrviia, whkh ia Konei'olly garrisoned by upwards U SOOO troops, IflC sent! only one or two featorea wwlhy of notlee. Th^ principal wild animals are— the bear, wolf, ftx, herd! of wild-boar, lynx, wild-cat, and mcmkeT; the ntlturs, quail, bustard, flamingo, and some Afnoaa formt, at« peculiar to the birds; reptiles of the seipeht funily are more numerous than in any other part of Europe; and of insects economically important, may be mentioned the bee, silk-worm, gall-nut fly, and cantharide*. The distinguishing features in the domesticated animali are — ^tue horse, of Arab extraction; mules, the finest in the world; and the merino-sheep. The inhabiUmU of the peninsula — Spaniards and Portuguese being originally one — are usually arranged into »>ur races; — 1. The Spaniard*, an admixture of Teutonic and R^man blood, who constitute the great bulk of the people, and whose language is a compound of Visigothic and Latin; 2. The Batguet, of Navarre and the Basque provinces; 3. The Moreeeoei, or Moors, who are found chiefly in the south; and 4. The Oitanos, or Gipsies, spread indiscriminately over the countiy, but preserving intact the individuality and peculiarities oi their race. The rtltgion of both countries is Roman Catholic; and until some recent reformations, which hare yet taken little efiect, was of the most degraded and de- grading character. ' The peninsula,' says a recent writer, ' swarms with an idle, ignorant, and inter- meddling priesthood; and though their power be now greatly uom br the abolition of their regular estab- lishments, yet their influence both over the government and the people is immense; and, to their shame be it added, that that influence is chiefly exercised in retard- ing the social progress of the people.' In Spain, the education of the people is entirely under the power of the clergy. There are, properly speakine, no olemen. tary establishments; for although several schools, aca- demies, and colleges have been endowed, the unsettled state of the country has prevented these from taking the effect. Portugal, on the other hand, can boast of a number of seminaries, some of which are nominally of a higher class ; but how they answer the end in- tended, may be gathered from the fact, that the pupils are only about 1 in 90 of the entire population. The indiutrial pursuits of the two kingdoms com- posing the peninsula are much of the same kind and character. Both are more agricultural than manufac- turing or commercial countries; comprehending under the former term all that appertains to grain, fruits, herds, and other produce depending upon the soil. Anything like a systematic agriculture, however, is altogether out of the question; nor need much improve- ment be looked for so long as both states remain in their present distracted condition, and so long as the present mode of tenure exists. In mining, matters are not quite so bad; and of late, consideraMe acti- vity has been exhibited, principally, however, through the agency of foreign companies, in the quicksilver, lead, and iron departments. In the arts and man'ufactures, neither country exhibits much skill or activity; silks of average quality, coarse woollens, cottons and linens, paper, leather, plate and jewellery, soap and barilla, comprising all that are of any importance. As to their commerce, whatever it may have been in the four- teenth and fifteenth centuries, it is now of little import- ance, a great portion of the foreign trade of the penin- sula being conducted by the merchants and ships of other nations. The chief exports of Spain are — wine, quicksilver, lead, wool, raisins, figs, oi-anges, lemons, and other fruits; olive-oil, barilla, cork-bark, honey, and occasionally some wheat — valued annually at £4,600,000: those of Portugal are wine, oranges, le- mons, figs, and other fruits; cork-bark, olive-oil, su- mach, wool, goats' skins, and small quantities of tallow, brandy, and other articles, valued at £2,000,000. The imports amount nearly to the same sum. The government of Portuaal is a limited hereditary monarchy, with tho succession unrestricted to sex. By thocharterof 1826, the Ivglslative power is vested in the lOTerei^ and the cortes, who orp 4ivided into two fitJltO^Bi «li- lei^u, who m unlimited in number, and whose dignity if heredituy or for life; and the Chamber of Deputiee, elected for periode of four yean by provincial efeoton, who are themeelTci named by the primary aiiemblief of parishes. More than this cannot be said of the government of a country which is incessantly tnm asunder by contending factions, and where a new ■ystem of administration is set up to-day only to be overturned to-morrow. Total population, 3,649,994 ; annual revenue, £2,550,000; debt, £19,838,000; army, J 8,000. The capital city is Lisbon on the Tagus, with a population of 260,000. The govenmmt of Spain is also a limited hereditary monardhy, with the succession unrestricted to sex. The legisltttive power is vested in the sovereign and cortes, or oiUional assembly, which is divided into two chambers — the Senate, composed of the prelates, hereditary grandees, and certain others, nominated by the sove- reign for life; and the Congreu of Deputies, composed of citiMns elected for three yean by the juntas of pro- vinces, the memben of which are elected by the muni- cipal bodies, or ayuntamientos. Such, we believe, is the present constitution; but no less than four consti- tutions have been in operation during the present cen- tury, and matters yet remain in a very unsettled con- dition. The total population of the country is esti- mated at 12,387,000; annual revenue, £11,700,000; debt, £286,300,000, of which only £89,600,000 is ac- knowledged; army, 69,000. The capital city is Madrid, With a population of 210,000. SWITZERLAND. Situated between lat. 45° 50' and 47° 45' north, and long. 5° 55' and 10° 30' east, Switzerland occupies the vei7 centre of the Alpine development, and is conse- quently the most elevated and irregular of European countries. It is bounded on the north by Germany; on the east hy Austria; on the south by Italy; and on the west by nance. Its superficies is estimated at 14,950 square miles, of which a large proportion is covered With lakes and glaciers. The supetfioial character of the country is sufficiently indicated by the mention of its position — a region com- posed of mountain-ridges, radiatine in every direction, with narrow and tortuous river-valleys between. The higher mountain-ridges range from 6000 to 15,700 feet above the sea; their summits from 9600 feet and up- wuds, buried in perpetual snow and glaciers, and their sides broken into every imaginable divenity of crag, cliff, ravine, and waterfall, dotted at intervals with clumps of pine and fir. The valleys, on the other hand, thou^n still from 1200 to 1500 feet above sea- level, are dutinguished alike for fertility and beauty, and form a singular contrast with the rugged heights which frown above them. The tract lying between the Alps and Jura mountains, and in which all the great lakes from Constance to Geneva are situated, may b. regarded as the Lowlands of Switzerland ; and yet the ceneral altitude of this plateau is from 1600 to 2000 net, at the same time that it is intersected by numerous ridges and river courses. The rookfomuUUma in the higher and central districts are strictly primary, flanked by transition and the older secondaries. The equivalents of our own lias and chalks are also found at great heights overlying the older rocks, thus marking the date of the Alpine and Jura elevation; and in the low tract above de- scribed occur alternations of soft greenish sandstones and limestones, the supposed equivalents of the Paris tertiaries. The mineral products are chiefly confined to roofing -slate, marble, gypsum, granite and other builcUng stones, and a few iron and asphalte mines in the Jura. Traoap of coal have been met with; salt springs occur in Basle; and springs of some medicinal celebrity in Berne, Vaud, Glarus, and St Gall. Several of the great European rivers — the Rhine, Rhone, Inn, Tesino, and Doiiba— have their sources amid the jjlaciois of Switzerland, which thus enjoys them merely a* rapid mountab-streams, anandlabk as channels of oommunication. The Aar is the only river of any navigable importance, having its course exclusively within the territory cf the Confederation. The lake$ of Switzerland, either as regard|^ their ex- tent or the beauty and magnificence oi their sceneiy, are unexcelled by any in the world. The principal are — Constance or the Boden See, Geneva or Leman, Neufchatel, Zurich, Lucerne, the Unter See, Wallen- stadt, Zug, Thun, and Brienz, on this side the Alps; and portions of Maggion, Lugano, &c. which lie on the other side of the Mfa, chiefly within the confines of Italy. The four first are the most important as well as the largest, and are traversed by small steamen in addition to the usual suling boats of the country. With respect to elimiUe, Switzerland is said to be much colder than its latitude or its position in Europe would appear to warrant. The mean annual tem- perature at Berne is 45° Fahrenheit; at Basle 46"; and at Geneva (1200 feet above the sea) 46^°. Of course altitude is the prime cause of this deficiency, thoudi it is no doubt considerably increased by the cooling effects of the glacien and snow-dad summits, the openings and exposures of the valleys, and other analogous causes. The plants of nearly all the different zones of Europe are thus found in Switzerland, from the vine, olive, and mulberry of the sunny valley, up to the her- baceous vrillow, the lichens, and mosses that struggle up to the confines of eternal snows. The inhabitants are usually ranked under two races — the Germanic and the Greece-Latin: the former com- prising the Deutsch or German Swiss of the northern and central cantons; the latter the French and Italian Swiss of the western and southern parts. The great majority of the population — say 1,600,000 — are Ger- man, speaking the Deutsch language, which is indeed the language of the Confederation; the French are estimated at 450,000; the Italian at 121,000; the Romance, speaking a dialect of the Latin, 51,000; and the Jews 2000. According to the most recent autho- rities, the entire population is 2,372,920. With respect to the religion of the Confederation, ac- counts are somewhat contradictory, but it is generally admitted that the Protestants number about 1,286,000; the Roman Catholics, 847,000; Jews, 2000; other per- suasions making up the remainder. In some of the cantons the Roman Catholic faith is the only religion tolerated; in some Protestantism (chiefly Colvinistic) is equally exclusive; while in others there is no restric- tion whatever. Educational affairs seem to be better ordered; and most writers agree in regarding Switzer- land, on the whole, as one of the best-educated coun- tries in Europe — the proportion of pupils at school being as 1 to 9 of the population. The instruction of children from five to eight or ten years of age is com- pulsory; and for this purpose every district has an ele- mentary school, independent of a secondary one for classical and scientific tuition. Besides these, there are normal schools for the training of teachen in seve- ral cantons; academies in the chief towns; the four universities of Basle, Zurich, Berne, and Geneva; cer- tain public libraries, literal^ associations, and institu- tions for instruction in the arts. The productive indiutrg of the country is astonishing, considering its size and natural capabilitioe. Owing to its mountainous character, it is more pastdral than agricultural, and yet a considerable area is under tillage, yieldbg excellent crops of oats, barley, and rye. Wheat can scarcely be ranked as an object of culture; but maize, beans, lentils, potatoes, turnip, hemp, and flax are raised to some extent. It is in the manage- ment of the dairy that the Swiss chiefly excel — cattle, cheese, and butter being articles of export; and to this end the irrigation of meadow-land is per)i".ps better conducted than in any other part of Europe. The vine is cultivated in the valleys; and in some districts largo orchards of apples, pears, and cherries, for the manufac- ture of liqueurs. In several of the arts and vian%{fac- tures the Swiss exhibit great ingenuity and taste; but 137 OHAUBSBS'S mVOBlUnOV FOR THE PEOPUS. aurt of Htm tM eonduoled mora b th« coMaM of tht PMMUt laadholdw and th«pkeid than in ind«p«nd«nt notorial. Tho branohca wUch ara moat attended to will ba beat ezUMted hj an enumeration of their prin< dpal expttta— nameljr, aiUu, eottona, lace, glorea, fratdiea, Jewellenr, muaieal inatrumenta, itraw-plait, wooden TeaMda. ebaeae, batter, wine, and liqueuie. Aa (wuda gevemmtnt, the twentr-two cantona into iHiieh ua oounti7 ia diTided are united on equal termi in a confederation for mutual defence. The grand Menl oounoU or Ooneral Diet of Switierland ia com- poaed of depntiea ftom all the oantoni, each sending two or tliree deputiea, but exerdaing only one Tote. This diet meeti once a year, and iita erery two yean alternately in Beme, Zurich, i^d Lucerne. Its fune> tion i< to treat, with foreign powers, declue war, con- clude peace, determine the amount of military force, regulate the finances of the Confedenttion, and other matters of common interest. Besides its statutory meeting, the diet can be assembled at any time on the request of fire cantons; and when not sitting, its powers are so fitr delmted to the grand council of the direc- torial canton for the time being. In all judicial, eede- riaatical, and fiscal matters, each canton acts for itself as a free and independent republic, with the exception of Neufchatel, in which the king of Prussia exercises the ri^ht of sorereign. There is, strictly speaking, no standmg army; but each canton has its militia, liable to be called out either for its own or the general service — the whole amounting to a force of 64,000 men. The federal expenses for administration, army, &c. amount to ;eSO,000 annually, and are defirayed by the interest of certain capitals set aside for the purpose. WALT. This is now merely a physical, not a political terri- tory, its surface bein^ partitioned into a number of perfectlv distinct and mdependent states. It is partly peninsular and partly insular, lying chiefly between lat. 36° 95' and 46° 40' north, and long. 6° 40' and 19° east. It is bounded on the north by Switzerland and Austria, from which it is naturally separated by the Alps; on the east by the Oulf of Venice; on the south by the Mediterranean; and on the west by the Medi- terranean and France. Its area, including that of the islands, is computed at 12*2,800 square miles. The laraest and most important of these islands are — Sicily and the Linari group, belonging to Naples; Sardinia, to the kingdom of the same name; Corsica, forming one of the departments of France; Elba, attached to Tus- cany; and Malta, possessed by Great Britain. Siq>trjleialbf, Italy exhibits much diTorsIty and beauty. Ouuded by the Alps, its northern fringe ex- hibits all the features of the Swiss landscape; but this soon changes into scenery of the most opposite descrip- tion — namely, the great plain of Lombaidy, which extends along the base of these mountains for more than 250 miles, with on average breadth of 50, is flat and low, but fertile and well cultivated, and watered throughout by the Po and its numerous affluents. The only other mountain development is that of the Apen- nines, which, branching from the Maritime Alps in Genoa, range southward like a backbone or spine through the centre of the peninsula, bifurcating at Venosa into two minor ridges — the one forming the heel,th9 other the fore-foot of the fkncifbl boot. From the Apennines, which attain an extreme height of 9520 feet, the countrr slopes on both sides, intersected by Btreams and volleys, and terminating near the coast in llattish land— the largest extent of which is the ' Ma- remme,' lyin^ between the Amo and Oulf of Goeta, of variable breadth, but about 220 miles in length. The principal riven of the country, whidi, on the whole, may m regarded as well-watered, are — the Po, with its numerous Alpine tributaries, flowing through the great plain of Piem those of southern France, and the valleys of Switzerland, already described; the oultivation of rice, and the more extensive growth of the mttll>erry, being perhaps the main peculiarities. In southern Italy, the products, as indicated in the preceding para- graph, are more analogous to those of the south of Spain — receiving greater diversity from the sucoessive stages of the Apennines, which are clothed in many places with forest growth to the very summit. Cn animals, we may mention the wolf, wild boar, stag, fox, lynx, badger, marmot, crested porcupine; the quail, bustard, ortolan, and a variety of game; a num- ber of snakes and reptUes; the tunny, mullet, anchovy sardel, and other fisnes ; tho silk-worm, and the oele- brated tarantula spider. The inhabitimti are described as * a mixture of raees, composed of Greeks, Gauls, Germans^ Goths, Arabians, and many others, who have migrated mto the peninsula at various times, and intermingled with the original population, whose language they have superseded. They have long been divided into numerous tribes and nations, with tepamte political and social intetesti, XUBOPB. I ApwninMU bUtoRomt; 'loiMio*, uul rlbutariM of » diAooltiflit to which the tly owing to ureouiitnta. occur in the lenninei, and oentnlnuige f of Jarawic r older itntt*, I, and on the >7 teoent ter- hrottgh theie dee numeroui in operation. . to fringe the rom the Amo ; eraten, and it), the Lipari being aocom- erranean con- af the country marble fimm y ; alum and FuicanT ; and rax, lalt, pui- estoUed; but under ocrtain ally mild, the , and the iky ilain of Lom- \ Manhea,the « fatal loourge I an occauon- vating liiooco it ii umal to North of the froste are ex- . and lemon itral regioni, J, where the bhout culture, itain height! ; an territory, [ea, and where ]■ throughout _,of Naplee falls to the lift, and other Italy differ 1 the valleya .nltivatiou of ht mulberry. Tin Kuthern Wing para- |he touth of le suooeniTe led in many lummit. of boar, ttag, upine; the Ime; a num- llet, anchovy lid the oele- iieof raoM, Is, Arabians, le peninsula Ithe original I superseded. Is tribei and intereitg. 'and ipeaking dialeeta so different, that ^he inhabitaate «f me proviaee can soaroely, if at all, undtratand the language of another.' What we denominate Hatimn is, howerer, the written language, used by the sereral gOTemmenta, and woken as a Temaoular by all the educated olaaaes. The basis of this is the ancient Latin, modified by the infusion of foreign elements. The Soman Ouholie reUgioH is that professed in all the states, and by almost the whole population ; the only exceptions being the Protestant Waldenses in Piedmont, the Greeks in the principal commercial towns, and the Jews, who are found oniefly in Rome, Leghorn, and Venice. Being the head and centre of the Papal power, it might be anticipated that the number of those officially connected with the church in Italy should be Tery greats though one would hardly expect that they were as 1 to 50 of the population — the proportion usually given by statisticians. Eduea- HonaUg, the country is one of the most neglected in Europe — the proportion of pupils to the entire popula- tion being as 1 to 60 in the Papal states ; 1 to £8 in Lucca ; 1 to 66 in Tuscany ; and as 1 to 70 or more in the Neapolitan territory. The only state that enjoys anything like an elementary system is Lombardy, now under this Austrian empire ; and there the proportion is said to be as 1 to 18. The productive induttry of Italy presents considerable variety, but is by no means so important as the natural capabilities of the country appear to warrant. Lom- bardy is the chief corn-growing state, and there agri- euUure and irrigation are conducted upon something like correct principles ; in Genoa and Tuscany the cul- ture of fruit is more attended to ; the central parts are mainly pastoral ; and in Naples and Sicily ' the abun- dance of vegetable productions is more owing to the climate and soil than to the industry of the husband- man.' The culture of silk, the vine, and olive, are three important branches, and in these the people exhibit considerable skill and industry. As m all Catholic countries, fish forms an important item of consumption; and consequently the tunny, anchovy, mullet, and other fisheries, are conducted upon an ex- tensive scale. ' ItaJy ia not distinguished,' says Mao- culloch, ' for manufaclures ; the chief are thoue of silk fabrics, silk thread, &c. which have their principal seat iu Lombardy. Woollen and linen stuffs, straw-plait, gauze, artificial flowers, straw-hats, paper, parchment, leather, porcelain, gloves, essences, and musical instru- ments, are among the other goods manufactured ; but, generally speaking, the raw products of the country form its chief exports, and most manufactured articles, whether of necessity or luxury, are imported from foreign nations.' Politically, Italy is divided into a number of inde- pendent states, each having its own peculiar govern- ment, and all less or more of a despotic character. At present there are nine of these states; but on the demise of the Duchess of Parma, the Duke of Lucca succeeds to her estates, and Lucca is to be annexed to Tuscany. We may shortly enumerate — 1. The kingdom of Sar- dinia, comprising the island of that name, the princi- palities of Piedmont and Nice, and the duchies of Genoa and Savoy. Monarchy absolute and hereditary; supported by a military force of 40,000 men, and a small navy. 2. Venetian Lombardy, which includes the ancient republic of Venice and the duchy of Mantua. This province now forms an integral port of Austria, and is under the administration of a viceroy, appointed by the emperor, by whose troops it is garrisoned. S. The duchy of Parma, the government of which is also abso- lute, but paternal in spirit. 4. Modena, including the small duchies of Modena, Reggio, Mirandola, and Massa-Carrara. 5. Lucca, a small maritime duchy, occu- pying a comer of Tuscany, to which it is to be even- tually attached. 6. Tuscany (anciently Etruria), a graod-duchy, consisting of one large unbroken terri- tory, a detMhed portion on the confines of Parma, and the isles of Elba and Giglio; after Lombardy, the most i&duitrioua and well-conducted of the Italian states. 7. StatM of the Church, all lying oontiguoui, with the exoeption of St Benevento ana Pont* Corvo, in the Neapolitan territory; ruled by th« pope, as a secular prince; and as this prelate ii elected nom the college of oardinali, the government may be described as an elective monarchy. 0. San Marino, a unall republlo, fonnine an enclave of the Church States, and under the protection of the pope. 9. The kingdom of Naplee— or, as it is sometimes odled, Tht> Kingdom of the Two Siciliee — comprehending the southern noion of the peninsula, the large isumd of Sicily, ana the Lipari Isles. The government is an absolute hereditary mo- narchy, supported by a force of 80,000 men, and a considerable navy. TURKEY IN KUBOI-E. The Turkish or Ottoman empire embraces a series of territories, situated partly in Europe, partly in Asia, and, if we consider its nominal conneoikion with £igypt, partly also in Africa. A vast extent of the country thus indicated is, however, virtually indroendent: Egypt may be said to be wholly so; the Danubian regions of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Servia, are but slenderly related, and many of the tribes in Asiatic Turkey bear as little all^iance to the sultan as they do to the sovereign of Britain. It is to that portion of the empire generally delineated by geograpners as ' Turkey in Europe ' that we now confine our descrip- tion. Lying between lat. 89° and 48° north, and long. 16° and 29° east, this territory is bounded on the nortL by Austria aad Russia; east by the Black Sea, Sea of Marmora, and the Archipelago; south by Greece; and west by the Ionian and Adriatic Seas. The area thus enclosed is estimated at 180,200 square miles, exclu- sive of a few isles in the upper part of the Archipelago, and of the itiland of Candia in the Mediterranean. Respecting tho phyiieal atptct and conttru^ioti of the country little is known with accuracy — less, perhaps, than of any other section of Europe. The mountains which give diversity to the southern provinces ore the Dinaric, Balkan, Candavian, Rhodope, and other rami- fications of the Alpine system; the Eastern Carpathians form the only ridge in the north, and that merely as a boundary with Austria, in which they have their chief development. South of the Balkan range the surface presents considerable diversity — hill and glen, slope and well-watered valley; none of the latter being entitled to the character of plain, except those in Macedonia, Thrace, and Thessaly, which have been long celebrated for their beauty and fertility. The northern provinces, on the other hand, present exten- sive level tracts, inferior to none in Europe in point of size, and generally of the richest alluvium, unless where they degenerate into marshes skirting the Danube, as in Wallachia and Bulgaria. The minerals of econo- mical '.iuportance are marble ; iron, copper, lead, and jilver ore; magnesia, meerschaum, and whetstones; but milling, unless in Bosnia, is little attended to. As to climate, Turkey is generally said to be ' colder than the other countries of Europe lying within the same parallels.' In the flat provinces of the north the summer is hot and sultry; the winter, on the other hand, is severe, and snow lies for fully five months on the mountains. South of the Balkan, whose heights are annually covered with snow, the seasons are less marked; and though the weather is somewhat change- able, the climate of the valleyu is delightful. In Croatia, Bosnia, and the adjoining provinces, the cereals and other cultivated crops can be raised in any quan- tities on the plains, while the mountain-slopes ai-e clad with forests of oak, elm, and pine. South of the Bal- kan the country is covered with forests of the sycamore, plane, carob, box, and cypress; gardens of roses, jas- mine, and lilac; vineyards and orchards of nearly all kinds of fruit-trees; but it is destitute of the olive, which, except in some favourable localities, does not thrive north of lat. 40°. The Flora of Albania is similar to that of the opposite coast of Italy: in Thessaly— the garden of European Turkey— the oure, vine, fig, pome> m CHAHBEBCni INrOBttJinOV FOB THE PEOPIH. mn»k«, walnut, klntimd; o)nwig«, Ictecni oHrott; eottoii, tobMo<>, illk, kt. in MtinA \h pwftWIdn ; white blo«ii. ibf *lldlT M« til* hy%el*th, naKlimi*. tuli^ M>d o»h« niMlinki of our gwMMi*. The prlneipftl wild cmim«Mi »re-thfe htM, wird-lKwr, »olf, J»ek»», for, fccj »bun- dulc« of d««r and nme; a plentiAiI luppfy of fiih, aibong which th« ituneon ii Mcnliar; and the lUk. #«nh, fint mured In fiiirope ai Conitantinople about file middle of the lixth ceutuTj. The mUiM fitoph of the country are the Ottoman Turka^'an onhoot firom the Toorlceo or Tartan of Cen- tral Alia, Wh6, in the year 1 409, conquered that piirt of iht eountijf' Tyintf within the eonilnee of Europe. Intermixture with other riteei, and the physical condi- tion! of place, hare itamped them, bowerer, with peculiitfitfee not to be found in tho existing Asiatic Mongols. Thp ther inhabitants — more humoroui in ■eteral provinces than the Turks — are the Greeks in TlMalyand RuHiili; the Albanians in the west; the CiMttj, Bosnians, SeWians, and other Sciaronians^ the WalliuhianS And Armenians ; Jews, Oipsies, and PtiaUt, The Turki, and many of the Albanians, Bu^ga^ans, and' Bosnians, are Mohammedans or ob- serreM of the Koran ritual; the Greeks, Servians, and ■ome of the Boimians, belong to the Greek Church; the Jews adhere to their own ancient belief; while many in all of the provinces are Roman Catholics, or of no fUth at all. ^ In Turkey,' says a hi^ authority, * the great number of employments for which learning is necessaiy acts as a stimulus to the desire for education, and there is accordingly no want of schools, where the elements of knowledge — aa spoiling, reading, and the principles of grammar and religion — are taught. To all the imperial mosques are attached mudreses or col- leges, where aspirants to legal or sacerdotal offices are instructed.' TAe reader must not be misled, however, brthis statement: there are thousands in every pro- vuide who never saw the form of a letter; nor can we, with cur ideas of instruction, regard that as a liberal education which is restricted to the reading of the Koran and its Commentaries, to the code of civil law, or to the studlei of astrology and medicine as expounded by the Arabic writers of the ninth centuiY i Every branch of induttry, says the * Cyclotwedia of Commerce,' is in a backward state in Turkey. Although there is a general recognition of the principles of firee trade, yet in most parts power makes mw, and there is no real securitr of property. The cultivators aro con- gregated in villages, and apricuAure is in a very rude condition; still, so grett is the fertility, that tliere is a surplus of com for exportation. The grains chiefly cultivated are — maize, wheat, rye, barley, oats, and buckwheat; the vine is grown in most of the provinces; and flax, hemp, safliran, cotton, tobacco, madder, &c. chiefly in the south. Mawtfaeluret appear formerly to have attained greater excellence than was to be ex- pected; but of late years they have been depressed by foreign competition, and the domestic weaving of cot- ton stuff for family use, and some silks at Constanti- nople and Salonica, are now almost the only branches of contequence. In hardwares, the braziers and iron smiths of ShumU have acquired some celebrity ; steel is manufactured at Bosna-Serai, and flrearms at Semen- dria, Gabrora, and other places. Commerce is impeded by the want of roads; and almost all merchandise is conveyed throughout the country on horseback. The gotemmenl Is an absolute monai'Chy o^ despotism, hereditary in the family of Oiman, but restricted to males. The sultan, as caliph, or successor of the pro- phet Mohammed, unites the highest spiritual dignity with the supreme secular power. He has unlimited control over the property and lives of his subjects, from the meanest menial to the highest oflicer of state, whom he can remove or put to death at will. The only limit to his will is the Kor&n, or Book of Moham- med (see No. 76), which he is bound by his oath of office to observe: and this is in rtelit^ tho source of oil civil, political, or criminal law. In addition to the cdde of laws, the interpretations of the olema, or priest- 200 hood, have graalwti^t la the tcihanab. Tha mufti is not only the chief of the priesta, buA the highaal interpreter of the lawt; and hie daeisiosw ava ooUeoted and respected as preoedcots. For adminialrative puf^ poses, the provinces and prineipaUtiaa aie arranged Into eyalets, and these again into livas er saacUak% Miper* intended by viaiers, pachaa, beys, and o. .er oflkiala. Population, 18,300,000; revenue, £3,^4,000; debt, ^£7,600,000; army, 184,000. Capiti*!, Constantinople, with A00,000 inhabitants. OMKI. This country, whose ancient history is so intimately associated with all that is leftnad and ennobling in human progress, occupies the south-east extremity of Europe, commonly dbtinguiahed aa the Hellenic Penin- sula. It ie surrounded ny the Mediterranean, exeent on the north, where it is bounded by Turkey, of which, till 1821 , it formed one of the eomponent saetieus. Its area is estimated at 1S,000 square miles, of which not more than two-fifths are susceptible of cultivation. The phyrieal atpeet of the country is decidedly moun- tainous and rugged; its hills, though seldom rising above 5500 feet (Liakoura in the Parnassus is 8068 feet, and 8t Elias in the Morea 7000 feet), being so abrupt and craggy as to assume an appearance more majestic and imposing than many others of double the altitude. Risins and radiating in every direction, the hills occupy fully three -fifths of the surface, leaving the remainder in narrow defiles, glens, and basin-ehaped valleys, wbich respectively formed the sites of the numerous petty states into which ancient Greece was divided. The mineral products are — marble of various colours, porphyry, slate, coal, gypsum, sulphur, alum, asphalte, zinc, lead, iron, gold, silver, copper, manga- nese, and cobalt ; none of which, however, ace obtained in important quantities. Considerable diversity Ushed and mainb^ed out of the revenue of the former Miiot KUROFi. tuiitortM^uid of tlMM MminuiM upwordt of forty i « now in opwfttion. ?Im pnthietiM Wuitry of th* country diffon UttU >';«.n thftt of tha Muthem part* of Tarkev, alrMdy d«- •eribad. AgrieuUnro it in » very primitiTe condition; but tho flne Mil of tha Talleya ennblat tha inhnbitwU to rasp asoallant eeranl cropi, which nra ripa about tlw and of Jane. Tha rina and eurrant>fcrapa ara axtan- ■tvaly eultiratad; tha other fruit* ara mora tha gift of nature than tha reiulti of culture. Tha roanufacturaa are moetly domaitic, and quite inconiiderabla; flihing ia largely carried on; and the extent of their commer- cial intcircoune with the neighbouring oountriw of the Levant ia taid to employ 4500 TOtaeli, naTigatcd by vpwaidi of 16,000 men. Tha gooenment ii a conatitutional, though nearly a deapotic, monarchy. Oreaoa formed a part of the Turkish empire till 1821, when the people revolted, and after a long and aevere itruggle, lucceeded with tha aid of England, France, and Ruieia, in achieving their independence. The country wai accordingly formed into the new kingdom of Hellaa, and Otho, a prince of Bavaria, appointed king. The Council of state i* compoaed of three vioe-preaidenti, seventeen councillors in ordinary, and fourteen special council- lors. Subsequently, Athens was declared the capital, and the country divided, for administrative purposes, into twenty-four nomoi or governments, and seven sub- governments. National debt about £4,286,000; reve- nue, £A27,000 ; expenditure, £600,000. Array, 3)100 ; navy, 82 vesseli, of all sizes, manned by 2000 hands. lontan blanda. The Jonfan IiUmdi, situated on the wast and south coasts, ware formed in 1818 into an independent republio or oligarohy, under the proteothm of Britain, by whose troops they ore gar- risoned. Tlie principal islands are Corhi (which, as tho key to the Adriatic, has always been of considerable political Import- anoe), Kophalonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Thiaki or Ithaca, Ccrigo, and Paxos, containing an area of 1041 square miles, with a population of SiS.OOO. The government Is vested in a liigh commissioner, residing at Corfu, who represents tho British sovereign; n logislntive assembly of twcnty-nino members, elected partly by the nobles and portly by the commissioner ; and a sennto of five memliers, elected by tho legislative ns- sembly, with a president appointed by the commissioner. The army, the police, and the lanitA, or health establishment, are under the sole direction of the high commissioner. These islands exhibit in miniature, both physically and industrially, the ohlsf features of tho mainland. AUSTRIA. The Austrian empire occupies a large portion of central Europe, and consists of an aggre|(ation of king- doma, principalities, and duchies, acquired at various timet by treaty or by conquest. To the archduchy of Aus- tria, the nucleus of the whole, there have been added since the end of the thirteenth century the kingdom of Bohemia, Moravia, part of Silesia, Styria, Illyria, Tyrol, Auwhwatx, and Zator in Oalicia — all belonging to the Germanic confedevation; Galicia, one of the partitions of Poland; Buckowina^ formerly part of Moldavia; the kingdom of Hungary (including Croatia, Sclavunia, and the Military Frontier) ; the principality of Transyl- vauia, whiw had been connected with Hungary for many centuries ; and lastly, Venetian Lombardy, at- tached ao recently as 1815. This vast territory, though thus composed of a heteroeeneous assemblage of tribes and nations, lies compactly together, and la situated between lat. 42° and 51° north, and long. 8° 30' and 26° 30' east. Its area is estimated at 257,368 square miles, of which 75,822 are occupied by the provipces induded under the German confederacy ; aggregate population, 35,804,152. The wUunl features of the empira, axclusive of Lombardy, already deacribed under Italy, exhibit wide and well-marked diversity of hill and plain. The roountain-iangea are bold and oontinuoua; the plains are amongst the most extensive in Europe. Of tha for- imer, tha principal are — ^the Alpine development of the Tyrol, wUcb, under tha title of tU Camie, Julian, uid other ridgaa, divais* into Illyria and Styria: tha aaatam and wattem Carpathiaua. which ancirola tha whole of Hungary and Transylvania north of tha Danube, rami- fying into the minor chains of tha Jablunka, Little Carpathiaas, Ac; and lastly, tha Kietan-gabirge, Eri- oebirg^ and BShmerwald ranges, which, ancloaing Bohamia, form tha boundary with Saxony and Bavaria. In tho western or Oerroanic provinoea of tha atnplra there ttra a number of fine valleys, watered by auflk rivera aa the Inn, Enns, Moldau, March, Muhr, and Drave; while in Oalicia and Hungary expand aoma of those vast plains which givo character to this region of Eurone. The most remarkable of these is that of Middle Hunsaiy, traversed by the Danube, the Theias, Drave, and Maros, and said to comprise an area of 35,000 square mile*. The country abounds in miiwrafs; but its capabilities are far from being developed. Oold and silver are mined in Hungary and Transylvania; quicksilver at Idria in Comiola ; the supply of iron is immense ; l«>ad and copper are abundant; tin, calamine, zinc, cobalt, anti- mony, bismuth, manganese, and almost every other metal, can be procured. There are also nbundant supplies of rock-salt, as at Wieliczka; marble, coi^, alum, saltpetre, and sulphur; clay for the finost porce- lain; quartz for glass; and most of the precious stones. Connected with its geology, we may notice the mineral and thermal ipringt, of which nearly a hundred are annually fre<|uented by visitors from all countria*.' In point ot climate, the country is generally divided into three regions. 1. The southern, extending from lat. 42° to 46° north, where the depth of winter resembles the month of March in northern countries, and where are found the vine, fig-tree, olive, and myrtle. 2. The middle region, from lat. 46° to 49* north, where the olive is not found, but where maize and vines thrive in favourable situations. Here winter lasts from three to four months; summer is warm, but variable; and the air is salubrious, except in the vici- nity of the Hungarian marshes. 3. The northern zone, extending from lat. 49° to 51° north, where wintor ia severe, and lasts fully five months; where vines and maize are no longer met with, and where wheat requires a. favourable situation. Under these various climatic influences, and with a generally fertile soil, Austria possesses most of the cultivated grains and fruits; while in her extensive forests flourish all the timber- trees known in England. Among the wild animals may be noticed the brown bear, wolf, lynx, roe, red and fallow-deer, the iber, elk, urus; wild boar, and herds of rather diminutive hones, which range uncon- trolled in the plains of Hungary; a variety of game birds, the golden and other >>.igles, herons in vast flocks; the land tortoise; leecl 08, which supply tha greater part of Europe; the blistering fly; and the bee, whose wax and hoTiey yield a large annual revenue; with the silkworm in Venetian Lombardy and the lower district of the Tyrol. The population, which consists of several distinct races, is arranged by the best authorities in the follow- ing proportions: — 1. About 18,000,000 are of Sclavonic extraction, and are found in Illyria, the eastern parts of Styria, the archduchy of Austria which borders upon Hungary, in some parts of Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, Transylvania, Dalmatia, and the Military Frontier. 2. The Germans number about 6,300,000, and form an integral part of the population in the archduchy, Styria, Carinthia, the Tyrol, Moravia, and Bohemia; but con- stitute separate communities in Hungary, Transylvania (where they are denominated Saxons), Galicia, the Mili- tary Frontier, and in the Venetian territories. 3. The third race are the Ma^ars, 6,300,000, who are esteemed of pure Asiatic extraction, and form the majority of the inhabitants of Hungary' and Transylvania. 4. The Italians, 4,760,000, constitute nearly the entire popu- lation of Venetian Lombardy and the south of the Tvrol. 5. The Wallachians, a medley of ancient Thradans, Romans, and Sdavonians, 1,900,000, chiefly 201 OHAXBttura tstovtumoif von the psopik. found in TrMnrlrMiiai Hvaguy, uid BuekowiMk 0. Tht Jtwi, 052,000, prinolpiaiy iwkUag in Oklidn, Hungarr, nnd llonri*. 7. TIm OiMlM. Anauto, UrMkt.AnnMiiuM.lt&numbM'inc in ftU about 100,000. The domiiunU rdigiim of iha unpiN it Romnn C»- tholio; but tlM OnA. United Churoh and tJio Arme- ninn Cntholio Cltunili hnr* »Im tlioir dignitnriM and attabliahmrat*. ProtMtantiam it in mofti partt of tlit •mpira only toltratad; thouglt in Hungutj and Tran- qrlvaoia tbo rowDban of that faith oqior tndownwnti and r 'al priviltget with Catbolioa. Unltarianiim hat ban ' pNvaltnt in TrantyWania; the Jewi adhere to tbi 'laic ritual i and manj of the Oermaiii now openly leta a sort of dei«m or ratioualiiin. In refe- nnet iv eUmtmtan inMtntetion, Auttria (with the ex- oeption porhapt of Hungary and Dalmatia) hat recently taken a nigh position, and ib itill doing ail in her power to maiutam it. Every ohild, from Ato to thirteen yean of age, it compelled to attend ichuol, and there receire Sneral initniotion. It it alto ordained that no perion all enter the marriage ttatt who it not able to read, write, and caat accountt; that no matter of any trade diail, without paving a heavy penalty, employ work- men who are unable to read ana write; and that tmall bookt of a moral tendency ihall be dittributed at the lowatt price to all tubjectt of the empire. Jndutfriailjf, Auitria it yet more an agricultural and pastoral than a manufacturing country. It fumithet wheat and other bread- corns in abundance; fruits, wine, hops, hemp, flax, tobacco, saffron, and dye- ttuffs; hides, horns, wax, honey, silk, and other ani- mal produce. As already meui,ioned, silk is largely manufactured in Lombardy; and latterly considerable enoouragemeut hat been given to manufactures in cot- ton and linen in the southern provinces; while Bohe- mia and Moravia have long been celebrated for their manufactures in woollent, leather, glass, hardware, and firearms. The mineral produce has been already adverted to; and, eohtmeroiallj), Trieste, Fiume, and Ragutaare rapidly riting into importance. The means of transit for trade and general intercourse have also of late years been greatly extended. Austria now pos- te st e s majpiificently-constructed roads, leading through- out the chief provinces; has several well-kept canals of considerable length; has five or six long lines of rail- way; and these in addition to the great navigable rivers, the Maros, Theiss, Drave, and Danube— the last of which has been open to steam-navigation since 1822. The jfovemmenl of Austria is a pure den>otism (we ipeak without reference to the present (1849) un- settled state of the country), under a hereditaiy em- peror and a ministry of his own appointment. Ge- nerally, the provinces have each a species of local parliament, oontiiting of the nobles. In imperial Itgislation and finance, none of these provincial bodies hat any voice, the emperor being the maker of all the lawi for his subjects. They meet annually, and their main duty is to receive projects of taxation from the crown, and to allocate the imposition over their respective districts. There are, however, some excep- tions to the stringency of despotic power: in Hungary, nothing can be decreed by the eovereion without the concurrence of the Diet, at it it oallea, or provincial assembly; Transylvania has a separate Diet, but sends members to that of Hungary; and in Tyrol there is a ipecies of representation. The emperor, in virtue of the states already mentioned, is a member of the Ger- man Confederacy, in the Diet ot which he exerciiet four votes, and enjoys, besides, the right of presiding. Army about 406,000 men; national debt, ^86,31 0,000; revenue, £15,000,000 sterling. The capital city it Vienna, with a population of 375,834. GERMANY. Genuany, as it is called by the English, I'AUemagne by the French, and Deutsoh or Teuttchland by the nativM themselves, it a vatt tttritoiy, extending from the Baltic Sea on the north to the Gulf of Venice, Italy, and Switwrland on the touth; having Prutiian 20i Poland and Hungaiy on kh« «ul, and Franoa, tlM Netherlandt, and German Ocean on tha watt, Thia lagion, oooupying an aiaa of 346,000 tauaia milat, it oompotad of a numbar of ttataa, indapandaat at lagaidi their interior adminitttation, but by tha treaty of Vienna united into ona body, called the Oermanio Confadaration, which, bv meant of a federative diet, profestei to maintain tha peaoa and security of the whole. Under this confadeia<7 *** included not only the confuted aggregation of small principaiitiet and duchies, but also the greater part of Prussia, tha western provinces of Austria, parti of Limburg and Luxemburg in the Nttherlandt, and Uolstaiu and Lauenburg in Denmark. Tha following description, however, will be directed more atpeaially to tha ttatet forming the region oommonly known at Germany, and to the condition of thete ttatet previout to tha existing (1849) attempts at political consolidation. With regard to php$ieal eot{figwration, tha country may be divided into two regiont — the northoro and toutharn, teparated from each other by the irregular hilly band of tha Fichtel Gebirse, Rhon Gebirga, Kc which fornit at the tame time the great watar-abad of the country. The northern region it almost entirely level, iuoludinff vatt tracts of heath and light sandy soil in the nortn-eatt, aitd swamps and maruet in tha north-west; while the coast is in some placet to low, as to require dikes to defend it from the sea. In tliit division, the soil, except in Saxony, it in general poor^ but not unsusceptible of improvement. The touthera portion it more diversified, presenting several long ranges of hills, counterbalanced by the extensive plaint of Wirtemborg and Bavaria, from 950 to 1400 feet above the sea-level. Here also the land it superior, and in raanv districts extremely fertile. In the central hilly band, and weitward towardt the Rhine, there are many fine river-valleys, verdant, well-wooded, and not devoid of picturesque beauty. Indeed no country In Eurojpa is better watered than Germany, being traversed oy several hundred rivers, four of which are of the first class, and about sixty less or more navigable. The rock fortnaliont which give character to the country beein with the granitic and primary develop- ments of tne Alps and Biibmerwald, and terminate with marine and alluvial deposits of recent origin. Of the metals and minerals sought after and obtained in Germany, we may mention — gold and silver from the £rze (ore) and Hartx mountains, iron, copper, tin, lead, cinnabar, cobalt, bismuth, antimony, and zinc; coal, rock-salt, sulphur, alum, saltpetre, marble, alabaster, gypsum, lithographic slate, roofing-slate, lime, and a variety of building stones; calcedonies, agates, amethysts, and other precious stones. The elmat0 of Germany is said to be ' less variable than the nature of its mountain system, and the ranges of latitude within which it lies, would lead us to imagine ; and its vegetation resombles in its general character that of England, or the north of France.' The vegttcble products of prime economical import- ance are — the usual bread-corns, maize, buckwheat, pulse, potatoes, turnips, cabbage, hemp, flax, hops, rapeseed, madder, aniseed, mustttfd, be. ; all the garden fruits in great profusion; and the vine in lavour- able situations south of lat. 51", but most successfully on the banks of the ' wide and winding Rhine,' on the Maine, Neckar, Moselle, and Danulie, The extensive forest growth, which fonns one of the peculiar features of Germany, supplying the inhabitanta with fuel and timber, at well at with an article of export, consists principally of oaks, beeches, firs, pinea, larches, elms, alders, and birch. Among the domesticated animals, we may particularise the Holstein and Friesland breeds of the horse and ox ; the merino sheep of Saxony; and the swine of Bavaria and Westphalia. The people of this portion of the Confederation are mainly of Germanic, Teutsch, or Gothic origin, speak- ing various dialects of the high and low Dutch ; but usmg, as a written medium, the well-known high Dutch or German language. The other inhabitants are— tha lutopi. Jtion are \, spmk- ch; but k Dutch -th« Prmek on tk« tUilnai mbm SeUiwiiuit ia th« mmI; Mtd • namter of Jowi in the prinoipAl citioo. Cakho. lloim and Luthoran and Oalvialitto Piotootantini dirido amonf tkom tU groat bulk of tlio pooplo, tho chiof oiooptloni boing tho Jowi and RatlonalUto— tho lattwr haTing gioatly Inctoaiod within tho lait ton or flftoon yoan. * Hifaoa H oiiaf /j f,' layo a itandaid autho- rity, * no part of Europo enjoTt adrantagoo oqual to Gormany, oopocially tho northern part of it. Tho parochial lohooU ato lo genoral, that nono but tho wiUVilly ignorant, or thofo of iraporfoot fMialtioo, can be unaoqualntod with roading, inriting, and tho fint mloo of arithmotie. Tho ichooli for daMioal initruc- tion, donominatod gymnaoiumi, podagogiumii and Iv- eoumi, aro found in almott orory larn town, and dU- ponio loaming at a rorf cheap rate. The uniTonitiea are •ufflolently numorout (nineteen witliin the entire Con> federation), and well endowed to prorido iuetruction in the higher brancheoof knowledge upon tenni nearly, if not altogether, gratuitoui. InduMtnaUn, the Oermani aro a thrifty, plodding people, and to thie ipirit are they mainly indebted for the poiition they have acquired in the arte and manu- faoturof. Thoir agriculture and huibandry — tho pro- duce of which ha* been already noticed — are of a tidy and domeitio character; not conducted, ae with ui, upon a large toale, but in imall ' hofs,' which are profit- ably and ikilf^illy managed. The produoti of their rivtr fiihtrif hare alio been mentioned, ae well ae that of their miMve that experienced even in the most southerly part of our island. The natural vegetation is of the scantiest description: there are no forests, and only a few plantations of o»k, beech, and elm, clumps of pine on the links or sand- drift, and rows of willow and poplar along the banks of the canals. The principal cultivated plants are — oats, rye, and buckwheat; barley, wheat, and the legu- minous crops in smaller quantities; potatoes, flax, hemp, tobacco to a considerable extent; madder, rape- seed, chicory, mustard, and beet; tulips, hyacintns, lilies, dahlias, and other garden flowers, for which the country around Haarlem has long been celebrated. There is nothing peculiar in the breeds of the domes- ticated onimo/t; and the only wild ones deserving of notice are — hordes of rats and mice, which infest tho cultivated grounds; frogs and other reptiles, which swarm in the canals; and the stork, which annuiJIy visits and breeds in the oountry, where it is specially protected for its valuable services in ridding the waters of their reptile exuberance. Water- fowl, wild and tame, abound in all the provinces; and the adjacent sea-banks swarm with herrings, cod, sole, ray, turbot, and other flat fish. Of the inhabitante, about three-fourths are Hollanders or Dutch, speaking a variety of the German language known nowhere else in Europe; the remainder Doing the Prisons in North Friesland, the Germans in Lux- emburg and Limbuig, the WiJloons or Flemings in Limburg, and about 60,000 Jews establisued in the principal towns. As to religion, the majority of the people are Calvinistio ProtMtanis, with a regularly- constituted clergy ; the minority consisting of Lutherans, Mennonites, Remonstrants, Roman Catholics, and Jews. There is, however, no dominant sect in the oountry i all forms of faith and ritual are alike tolerated ; the clergy are indiscriminately maintained by the state; the universities ai« upheld in the same manner, and these are open to students of all sects, whose theological studies are conducted under professon of their own creed. The system of public taucatiM adopted in Hoi* SNS CBAMBUUri IXrOBlliAfbf FOB TBI PBOtU. \mi kM •*' rofol'^lo'**! *»(! uo imnif' dklaworkliif of Mia •jnUmi <■ tUputod to lood inipoo- tan «iA boftnit of nuuiAfomont. No ttftdior U allowod lo UMiiM kk proftition until ho Em roooirod » aorti< t«ail« tf fraoral aniUiflcfttion, iiur to bo »ppoiutod to MIT tekool until bit fltnoM for th»t pMrtioular cbargo ka* taon Moortkinod. Tho b«tt«r-cl*H tchooli »r« wi»4Mrtid by toMbon »t tboir own rUk, but «rm thoM M« Ml potmittod without tbo wnolion of tht bowii. Tko noit oUm mo tho Tuitohon for tntdM- man'* okildrtn, who pay » amall f«a; and banaath thaaa an tba Arman or poor Kltooit, iu which tha in. ■Iraolion U wholly gratuUoua. InthulHaUf and eoHmtreialiy tha Dutoh hara long baan eaUbnuad: tha convenioii of a worthlaaa «•»• marah to m fiKtila country >• aTidanoa of tha ona faa. tura; tha astanaira potaaiaiont which thay at ona tiino a^Joyod in both hemiapharaa ia proof of tha other. At ■raaaat thair eandition b tomawhat itationary; thair immodarata aalf-aataam, tha tanaoity with which they cUng to oftabliahad forma, and the tanlineai of the national mind to oomprekand and adopt imjproTementa, ha?ing thrown them lomawhat behind the a«^acent countnaa, Tha nature of tkoir agricullural produce haa baan alreatW adverted to; and the careful, clvunly itylo in which ikey cultirota the toil and manage their dairiaa, aa wall aa the manner in which they embank and dnia their low ploti or poliUri, are Myond all praiia. Tho,^M«HM, once a principal Murce of wealth, nava greatly declined; and amuntrce, iu which the Dutoh hare alwaya baan pre-eminent, though vaitly infaiior to what it waa in tke aerenteenth aud part of tba alghteantk centuriea, ia atill a chief aource of na- tional wealth and employment, though likely again to Miftr from the utter incapability of the country to oolnpata in ataam-naTigation. Tho chief maniifaetiire* are those of woollen in I^yden and Utrecht; lilka in Utreckt, Haarlem, and Aiueterdam; cottona at Haar- lem; tobacco- pipes at Oouda; aud paper, leather, aumr*ra&Bing, pamten' coloun , and cordage, at rarious other places. The distilling of gin is extensively con- dueted at Schiedam; and uip-buildiag at the ports of Rotterdam and Amsterdam. Tha ffovsmsMNl, ainoe the establishment of peace in 1815, kaa been a constitutional hereditary monarchy. The lagialative power is vested in the sovereign and the Stataa-GanenI, which consists of two diambers — the upper of iVom 40 to 60 members, elected for life by the kmg; and tke lower of 116 deputies, chosen by the people of the provinces every three years. Popula- tion, a,4 14374; revenue, £5,822,000; national debt, 4101,462,000; army, 24,000; capital, Amsterdam, with a population of 220,000. The Belgic provinces, which >utck provinces under the Span! lELOIUM, were united with the Dutch provlnceis under tke Spanish dominions in 1548, rontinued after the revolt or the former to belong to Spain until 17 17, when they were ceded to Austria, and were thence usuaJly termed the Austrian Netherlands. During the usurpation of Napoleon, they were incor- porated with Fiance ; but in 1815 they were separated nom that kingdom, and united with the Dutch pro- vineeo, to form the kinsdora of the Netherlands. Dif- fering in religion ana .angut.;^, and finding their Interests aa a munufactnrtng peipie not always coin- ciding with those of the comm^.-^ial provinces of the north, tke Belgians in 1880 secedcS from the Nethe. • landish monarchv, declared thems^ivv ~n inder^^ident state, and in 1831 modo choice o< a kii^g. F,ahf < uently the limits of their tenitonr wer" datfirr*''';-! if the Five Great Powers, and thu>^ .H .i^nl .^"i Belgium became suMtrate kingdoms. S tiw'^^'jd Inh em lat. 49° 37' and 51* tV nortk, and long. 2* 37' and 6* wut, 11 is oonsaoueatly bounded on tba nortk by lloUsud ; east by HhaBuk Prusakt ; south br France ; ami west by the Orrraan Ocean. Area, 11 Jul square miles. ^NjMryMoKy, the noitkem and western provinces of Belgium, in tbair flatness, fertility, dikes, and canals, may be regarded aa a continuatian of Holland— witk this diflbrenoe, that in no part does tke suriaoa ikll beneatk tke level of tke tea. < Tka aoutk and east provinoes have an oppcsli« character ; they are gena- rollv more thinly peopled, lees cultivated, and eiubit an IrreguUr hilly surikoa, with tracts of roarshv land and estenoive forests. With the exception of these hilly districts, and some light lundv soils in the nrti, the whole territory proaesits a series of nearly 'errl plains, traversed by numerous streams — tha affiisuts of tke navigable rivers Mouse, Sambra, Dander, SckalJt, Lys, 1(0. — deligktfUUv divrrsilked by woods, arable lands, and meadows of brilliant verdure, enoloaed by hedge- row trees, and thickly studded tkrougkout with towns and villages.' The anlogitnJ formation of the flat dis- trict is precisely similar to that of Holland ; but in the hilly provinces of the south and east very profitable developments of anthracite -coal, limestone, and red sandstone overlie primary schists, and these again are incumbent on porphyry, quarts, and vranite. The chief mineral products of Liege, Namur, Hainault, and Luxemburg are — coal, iron, lead, copper, and sine ; besides which may be mentioned manganese, calamine, alum, various kinds of stone, slate, marble, whet-hones, and porcelain clay. Of the mineral ipringt arising Arom these formations, the most celebrat«l are those of Spa — whose waters are annually visited by thousands, atid sent besides, in bottles, to all ports of Europe. The elimat* resembles that of the south-east of Eng- land, but is, on the whole, more humid aud t)>i table; some districts, moreover, a* Flanders, being at ' rtain seasons rendered unhealthy by noxious exLalations from the water -courses and low polder lands. The vegetation, both natural and cultivated, is precisely the some OS that of Enslaud and the north of France. The domesticated onimiJs, if we except the excellent draught -horse of Flanders, ara decidedly inferior to those of Holland and Germany. The inAabitanlt are usual^ classed under two stocks — the Gennanio and Grsaco- Latin. The former em> braces tb<: Uelgians or Nctherlauders, speaking the Flomisu Migue, and a small number of Oerman-Dutoh in I'iiiilarg mid Luxemburg. To the latter belong the VV'nl loons o*" the southern provinces, who speak the Frfliich-Fleiuiiih and the Walloon — two uncouth primi- tive dialects of the French language. All rtligion$ are tolerated, but the Roman Catholic is that established in connection with the state, adhered to by nineteen- twentieths of the population, and administered by a regular priesthood, including one archbishop, five bishops, 165 cures, and not less than 4400 inferior clergy. Until the revolution of 1830, the Belgic pro- vinces, OS part of tke Netkerlonds kingdom, ei\joyed the same ed«Mti(mal system as that described under I Holland; but since that period » vast falling off is said to hare token place, especially among the lowor orders, in oonsequenoe of government havir ' r>r.:r! '*o<1 all supervision and compulsion. At presk. t, the in«hM(>y of Belgian' n h%^\\i'-t i' I'v buted between agriculture, mining, <-«.. .-os; and under a continued peace and 1I>/ .ui government, bids fair to attain its ancient superiority. The Belgian or Flemish system of agriculture ia well known over, Europe for its minutf and careful management; and no people understand better the method of collecting and preparing every species of manure, without which muclk of their sandy soil would be next to worthlessi The JUhtritt, both inland and maritime, are rapidly inoreasine, principally, however, under a system of r < '.onol bounty; and mining is carried on in a regular out . u.OOO hands, and the quantity of crude iron-ore raised Lcing upwards of 10,000,000 tons. Th« most important Dd 6* Mit, II by llolUudi M ; KRil MTttt tra lailM. provincM of , Mid OMiali, tlUiid— with turCM* All th iind Mat ejr »r« Ml and •sail na- bit ion of th«t« in tb« nrti, nsikrlv '•rft idw. 8oh«l J(, UM)1« iMldl, id by bodK*- t with towns the flat dii. i ; but in the ry profitable me, and red eie again are nnite. The [kinault, and r, and lino ; ■e, calamine, , whet-honei, I ariaing Arom thoM of Spa DUiandf, and ope. -eaet of Eag- Md Tenable; igat t rtain ezLolationi landi. The preciiely the i of France, he excellent inferior to on; remment, |e Belgian j)wn OTer |cut; and ollectinc it which I'orthlen. rapidly litem of .regular ^ about le raised IportAQt fl(«OF«i>**'<' tu mn ^ htru m»~-wooHw l , as at /nrieit, l leroi, jcc; steam-engines, tirearnin. aini n| (be Hrnrs already noticed, a number of will Vept cnnnN, > > waoadaraised roads, and a national » . m of railways. The oo*«nimm(, as established in '\uM, Is a consti- tutional, hereditary monarchy, Tested in the person and family of liCopold, Prince of Maxe-Cnburg. The legislative power is exercised collectivelv by the king, senatu, and house of representatives — the members of these chambers being elected by those oitisens who pay not loss than twenty florins (33s. 3d. sterling) an> nus)!y It direct taxes. The number of representatives >u« I 1 to 4A,000 inhabitants; the senators half as m»n< ai' the representatives. The former are elected ' <* ti , ears, one-half retiring every two years; the la.i'. (ur eight years, one-half retiring every four years. The d'lmbers assemble of their own right annually in Novombor, but the king has the right of convoking, adjnuming, or dissolving them at pleasure. The exe- cutive is exercised by the sovereign, assisted by six responsible ministers — namely, of police, of the interior, foreign affWirs, public works, war, and finance. For ttdmuiistrative purposes, the country is divided into nine provinces, and these again into arrondissements, communes, and cantons, aftor the inodol of France. Population, 4,29n,5ti'2 ; revenue, £4,A20,000; debt, £24,600,000; nrniy, 32,000; capital, Brussels, with a population of 106,000. DEnMARK. This small but ancient kingdom occupies that penin- sular and insular portion of Europe betwixt the Ger- man Ocean and the entrance to the Baltic Sea ; and lies between lat. 53° 28' and 57° 42' north, and long. 8° 10' and 12° 38' east. The territory consists of Jut- land, or the kingdom of Denmark Proper, which in- cludes Zealand, Funen, Laaland, Falster, Moen, Lange- lond, Bomholm, and a number of smaller islands in the Baltic; the. duchy of Slawidc, which comprises some adjacent islands* on both coasts; and the duchies of Hcittem and Laxtmbwrg, which the king represents in the federative Diet of Qenuanv. The aggregate area of the peninsula and islanos is estimated at 21,856 sauare miles. SuperJiciaUy, both the peninsular and insular por- tions Hi-o low and flat ; in many places rising little above the sea, and requiring the protection of mounds and dikes; and in no portion exceeding an altitude of 1000 feet. In Holoteiii, SleswiA, and the south of Jutland, the soil is fnr the most part extremely fertile, but little intorrupt»(l by manhoii, and only occasionally light and sr.ndy \\\ the central districts. In the north and west of Jutlaini, on the other hand, large sandy tniuts ire prevalent, partially covered with bent, heath, and juniper, and utterly unavailable for culture. The ■oil of tue islands is composed of calcareous sand and clay, which, though inferior in point of fertility to the meadows of Holatein, is, upon the whole, of average quality. Tl»i whole country, like Holland, is of recent marine forman^nsu a»d consequently presents no rocks of economical valve. The dimote, in conse^^uence »f the low-lying nature of the land, and the ))i'uxiinity of the surrounding seas to its moot central portidiis, \». <>u the whule, much milder tho^ thie lath'^ te wIip iiviKhboiiring low- lying sandy down, about SO miles flrom itM i:iuuth of thu Elbe, b«long to Britain. Population, 8190. n«M. Til* Mlgenoai v tat la mn Is tsv^ WMtyi i%m* art now no fbnete, and what plMtatlons eilst, eentaiB but an IndMbrmt growth of birek, alder, ask, and beaeh. All the common gra«we, rye, wheal, oats, potatoes, hemp, flax, an^ raiw-teed, aro raind in Denmark ; In the duehlee, hope and tobaeco ; and In several of tho islands art largo orehard- growths «t npplso, pearo, chsrrlee, and haatl-nuts. The chanKteristU feataioa in the domeotleated speoles aro— the heavy Holsloin '>f <*"ihagen, are of Teutonic ui /in, but belong to four dlm-n ct stocks— nam«ly, the I) wlic consti' tute the majuti't nl^sMt Jutland, S iek, and tho islands, and speak i mortorhiMMl furni ut ' old N'orto languace ; the Otrmaiu in Holitein and luenburgi the /"' ""IS in the Vtiidsof Hieswick; and itio An0&» (a trill when* gi^ a the nanti' to Kngland), foui ' chiefly u I 'he Baltic nost of Hlenwlck. Lutheranisiii is the esta -suhools and aoideinies >n all the considerable towns. Parochial schools, chietly coiidueted on tlte I/>«ii' Mterian system, are aln>oft everywhere establishi-l, here being upwards ef ' 00; and hero, as in Prusi>'< tttendance at school is not optional; for, by a latv :. .all children from tho ago of 7 to 14 yours mnst att id some public sebool, and if unable to pay, are edu( -ed at the public expense.' IiuiuHrialijf, Denmark in toru an ogrioultunl than a manufaeturiitg con try, h "i perhaps more pastoral than agricultural, la embu king, draining, and the preparation of pastures and eodows, the inhabitanto of the ducbios show consideral ' skill— raising not only abundance for home consumpti , but largo supplies fur export. Th« fitheriet aro also considerable import- ance—the principal being the . -rring-flshery off Jut- land, and that of cod in the Noi h Sea. The govern- ment hasaflbrded great encouragci i jent to ma!*^fae^urei; but in no department (unlcu unde' tlie protection of ex- orbitant duties) can the people ooni >elo with foreigners, even in their own markets. The ^i;«mmen( is a hereditary lonarchy, formerly absolute; but in 1834 representative assemblies, with a consulting voice, were instituted in each of tho four principal divisions — namely, tho Ii>!ands, 70 reprs* sentatives; Jutland, 51 ; Sleswick, 4 - ; Holstein, 48; Lauenburgretainnigitsold constitutional diet. Popula- tion, exclusive of Iceland and the Faroe (ales, 2,202,074; revenue, £1,833,000; debt,£ll,')ni,00<>; army, 25,000. Capital, Copenhagen, with 120,1 UO inhabitants. Iceland and the FarOo Ialand«. lerlnnd Is situated In tho Northern Ocean, Iwlwccn lat OJ* and 66' 88' north, and long. 18* and 21° 31' w st, being obont 280 miles in Its greatest length, and SOO in its frreatest breadth. Its area is estimated at 88,3M squaro miles ; popolatloa about S0,OOO, of Scandinavian or Norse origin. Tho wiMla island Is of volcanic fDrmalion, recent, or atill in prof^rees i and In aspeot is rugged and barren in the extreme. Only ooa-ninth is haWtaUe, the romaindor being covered with ioe-clad hills, called JOkuls (highest 686.^ fuetl, or narrow valleys, rendered equally deaolato by lava and .'shes cjoctod from numerous volcanoes— of which Hocla ia tho ,iC8t known, though not tho most ilostructivo. Besides those i vidences of subterranean heat, there are nume- rous boiling springs (gcyaorsi, which tltfow up water and stoam to a great licight, boga of boiling mud, and dense clouds of sul- phureous steam and smoko issuing fTom many places. The island, though merely touching tho Arctic Circle, is essentially iwlar in its climate : trees aro stunted, and seldom riao aba\-o 10 fbot J the growth of com Is rarely If ever attempted j potatoes liave been introduced with some auccess ; several kinds of culi- nary vegetable arc raised, but, with tho exception of rod cabbago, 205 CHAMBBBS'S INTOBMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. I few Mtftln porfcotion. Tlie in»ta li«nr»rt to h»y-the raaring of cattla forming, with B.hlii«, the principal occupation of tho people. Thtre ore no legular manufactures: stockings and mlt- tans, however, knitted by the women, form articles of export ; «8 do hIso wool, skins, dried flsh, oU. older-down, &c. Tho Fartle Itkmdi, also In tho Northern Ocean, llo between lat 81* SO- and 83* SC north, and long. 6' and 8* west ; about 188 mUes north-west of tho Shetland Islands, and 3S0 b. ith-cast of Iceland. The group consists of 22 bold roclcy Isles, 1 of which ore Inhabited) have nn aggregate area of 493 sqiiaro miles, and a ScandUiavInn population of 7000. Tho surfiico of tho land con- sists of a succession of hUls (tho highest S240 foot), with Inter- vening stripes of valley, eovored with a thin soil, on which Is grown potatoes, turnips, and occasional patches of barley ; hay, as in Iceland, being the principal crop. Thero are no trees, but there Is abundance of peat fbr fUel, as well as coal. The wealth of the population arises chiefly fh>m shecp-rearlng, fish- ing, and fowling. SWEDEN. This countrj occupies tlie eastern and more import- ant section ct' tlie Scandinavian peninsula, and is situated between lat. 55° 'JD' and 69° north, and long. 11° 10' and i^" 12' east. ]*' -extreme length is about !)65 miles, and its average ^ eadth 1)18: the area, ^uclud' islands, is coinputec .t 170,220 square miles. Phyt.-xiUy, the country presents several districts of very difterent aspect ; the whole, however, declining from the Kolen and Dofrino ranges towards the basin of the Baltic. Starting with these, which have the character of an irregular table-land, about 20 or 25 miles across, and only at intervals studded with moun- tains of more than 5000 feet high, we find the gene- ral elevation between 2000 and 2800 feet, covered with straggling forests of pine and birch, and intersected by narrow valleys, whose depressions are occupied by lakes and torrents. From tnis tract the country de- scends by steps or plateaux — the first being of no great breadth, and from 700 to 800 feet above the sea; the second about 280 feet high, and more than 40 miles in breadth; the third from 90 to 110 feet; and lastly, a fringe of inconsiderable elevation above the Baltic. Throughout the whole of these, the rivers which rise in the mountain plateau hold on their course, present- ing numerous rapids and waterfalls ; only a few of them, as the Angermans, being navigable during the two last stages of their descent. Such is the superficial character of Nordland and part of Sweden Proper. As we travel southwards through the latter territory, the face of the country becomes flat, or only diversified by the insignificant ridges which enclose the great lakes Wener, Wetter, &o. South of the lakes, the greater part of Gothland presents the same low and sandy character as the opposite coast of Denmark, and evi- dently belongs to the same recent marine formation. The most important mineral products are — iron (the best in Europe), copper, and lead in abundance ; cobalt, zinc, antimony, gold and silver in minor quantities; marble, porphyry, limestone, and potters' clay. Respecting climate, Nordland, part of which lies within the Arctic Circle, has from five to six months of winter; snow and ice then covering the mountains and rivers, and locking up the waters of the Gulf of Bothnia. On the other hand, the summer is sudden and short, but excessively warm; at midsummer, the sun never falls beneath the horizon north of Tomea; and the crops of oats and barley come to maturity in six or eight weeks. In the central parts, winter lasts only about four months, but is severe enough in most seasons to lock up the Baltic; and in the southern level tracts, the climate is very similar to that of northern Germany. The vegetable productions, as might be expected from the high latitude and natural poverty of the soil, are bv no means abundant. In the forests, which cover about 98,000 square miles, pines, firs, alders, and birches are prevalent in the north; these, with oak, elm, and ash in the central districts; and the beech, chestnut, mulberry, ko. only in the south. Apples, pears, and other garden fruits are grown in Gothland ; the gooseberry family even within the Aictio Circle. 200. The cultivated products consist chiefly of rye, barley, oats, wheat, potatoes, peas, hemp and flax, buckwheat, madder, hops, and woad in the south; but as we pro- ceed northward, most of these disappear, and oats, barley, maslin (a mixture of barley and oats), and po- tatoes are alone cultivated — oats ripening so far as 68° north, and a coarse variety of barley even to the limits of the pine-woods in 69° 'id'. The principal wild am'- maU are — the bear, wolf, wolverine, fox, lynx, badger, otter, squirrel, lemming, and other small rodents; with a few scattered members of the beaver family. Game-birds are everywhere rife, from the partridge to the capercailzie; rapacious species, as the golden-eagle, sea-eagle, homed and snowy owl, are also frequent; and aquatic birds, as the swan, geese, and a variety of ducks, appear in great abundance, either permanently or migrant. Seals and porpoises are found in the Baltic, whose waters also furnish plentiful supplies of cod, sole, turbot, pilchard, herring, stremming, mackerel, oysters, &c.; while in the rivers and lakes are sturgeon, salmon, trout, pike, and perch. The inhabitants, with the exception of a few Finns and Laplanders, are wholly of Gothic descent, speaking a variety or dialect of the old Norse — the common root of the Danish, Norwegian, and other tongues. The religion of the state, and that to which almost the whole population adhere, is the Lutheran, admini- stered Dy 1 archbishop, 11 bishops, and about 3000 inferior clergy. All other creeds ar6 tolerated, but none but Lutherans are eligible to any employment under the state. The editcational institutions of the country are of a superior description, and, like the church, are upheld and supervised bv the state. There are upwards of 3000 elementary schools; high-schools or gymnasia in all the provincial capitals; and two universities — namely, that of Upsala and Lund. At- tendance at the primary schools is not compulsory; but every adult must give proof of ability to read the Scriptures before he can exercise any act of majority. Industrially, the Swedes are a busy, hardy, clear- headed, and progressive people. Of late yeors govern- ment has given great encouragement to agriculture, and the spirit being participated by the landholders, a very perceptible improvement has taken place — so much so, indeed, that from requiring imports of com in 1826, Sweden is now a corn-exporting country. The fisheries — principally in herring, stremming, salmon, white flsh, and lobster — are extensively and profitably conducted; and mining, especially in iron and copper, employs a considerable number of hands — about 90,000 tons of bar-iron being produced annually, and not less than 800 tons of copper. The manufactures are chiefly- domestic, the peasantry supplying themselves, as win- ter employment, with nearly all the coarse woollens, linens, and cottons they require. There are, however, some cloth factories, sugar refineries, distilleries, leather, paper, soap, and glass-works in the larger towns. The gotemment is a limited monarchy, hereditary in the male line, and restricted to the Lutheran creed. The legislative power is vested in the king and repre- sentative Diet, consisting of four chambers — namely, nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasantry. The exe- cutive is managed by the king and a state council. NORWAY. Norway occupies the western section of the Scan- dinavian peninsula; extends from lat. 58° to 71° 10' north, and from long. 5° to 31° east; and is bounded on the west and north by the Northern Ocean, east by Russian Lapland and Sweden, and south by the Skager Ruck. Its greatest length is upwards of 1100 miles, and average breadth 50; area 134,300 sq. miles. The general aspect of the country is bleak, rugged, and sterile; the shores are rocky and precipitous, and on the west fenced by numerous small islands, and in- dented by fiords. The interior consists chiefly of tho mountain masses of the Kolen and Dofrefalds; rising in the north almost from the water's edge, and in the south spread out in plateaux or Jjelds, intersected by )f Tje, barlejr, .z, buckwheat, )ut M we pro- ax, and oata, oats), and po- g 10 far aa 68° a to the limits lipal wild ani- , lynx, badger, nail rodents; beaver family. e partridge to ) golden -eagle, also frequent; id a rariety of r permanently found in the itiful supplies g, stremming, 'ers and lakes irch. if a few Finns iccnt, speaking a common root ;ongaes. The ;h almost the eran, admini- d about 3000 tolerated, but y employment tutions of the and, like the 3 state. There 9; high-schools itals; and two id Lund. At- it Compulsory; ity to read the ; of majority, hardy, clear- years govern- iculture, and lOlders, a very so much 80, lom in 1826, The fitheries [on, white fish, ly conducted ; r, employs a ,000 tons of lot less than are chiefly ilres, as win- le woollens, .re, however, ries, leather, owns. ereditary in leran creed. and reprc- namely, The exe- uncil. the Scan- 1 to 71' 10' Is bounded in, east by Ihe Skager 1 100 miles, lies. Ik, rugged, litous, and Is, and in- |fly of the Is; rising lid in the pected by EUBOFE. narrow valleys susceptible of a scanty culture, or by steep ravines, down which impetuous rivers cleave their way by rapids and waterfalls. The lowest tracts, and those to which cultivation is chiefly limited, occur round Christiana fiord, and the adjoining shores of the Skager Rack, or to the south and east of the Bay of Trondheim. The geology of the country is primary, and yields, like the contiguous parts of Sweden, iron, copper, cobalt, zinc, marble, and slate. The climate of a region, a large portion of which lies wivhin the Arctic Circle, cannot of course be brought under one general description. Suflice it to say that it is milder, but more variable than that of Sweden under the same parallels. At Christiana, winter lasts from the middle of September to the middle of May, and Bummer is short and warm ; in Lapland, winter endures from August till May, and for many weeks the sun is invisible (the aurora borealis and stars being the only natural lights) ; while summer is short and fervid, the sun never sinking beneath the horizon. The inhabitanli, with the exception of the Lap- landers, are members of the Teutonic race, and imme- diately descended from the old Scandinavian Norse- men — a dialect of whose language they employ. In religion they are Lutherans; but all other sects are tolerated save Jews, who are prohibited from settling in the country. In educational matters, Norway is in- debted to her former connection with Denmark; in every parish there is a school for elementary instruc- tion, academies oF laerde-skolet in thirteen of the prin- cipal towns, and a university in the capital. The industry of Norway is chiefly limited to her foreitt, which yield excellent timber, bark, and tar; to hei litheriei of cod, lubfish, herrings, lobsters, salmon, anchovies, &c.; to her mines and foundries of iron, copper, and cobalt; and to shipping (2280 vessels, navi- gated by 11,400 men), much of which is employed iu the carrying-trade of other countries. Agriculture is in a very rude and primitive state; and the manufac- tures are almost wholly domestic. With respect togovotiment, Norway was an appanage of the Danish crown until 1814, when, by the conven- tion of Kiel, it was placed under that of Sweden. It still, however, retains its ovm representative body or atorthinfi (which is essentially democratic) ; and is, in reality, no more connected with Swedish rule than Hanover was formerly with Britain. The executive is vested in a viceroy and council at Christiana; and for administration, the country is divided into 5 dioceses, and these again into 17 amis or provinces. Aggregate population of Norway and Sweden, 4,306,600; revenue, £165,600; debt, £651,000; army, 50,000. PRUSSIA, This is one of the great European powers, occupying a large portion of northern and western Germany, part of what was formerly Poland, some detached patches in middle Germany, and to these may be added the Swiss canton of Neufchatel, which acknowledges the sove- reignty of the Prussian king. The country has thus an extensive and heterogeneous frontier, which weakens, or at all events keeps in check, that power which, in less than a century, added to the original duchy of Brandenburg the above-mentioned territories, and rose to the position of a first-rate kingdom. Its area, ex- clusive of Neufchatel, is 107,842 square lailes. Its physical aspect, geology, climate, vegetation, and animal productions, are identical with those described under the north and west of Germany; the surface being generally level, with the exception of the hilly, mineral districts of Saxony and Silesia; the soil sandy, and often covered with heaths ; defaced by large bogs and morasses, particularly in the north-east ; present- ing in most districts extensive forests of fir; and only fenerally fertile in Saxony and the Rhenish provinces, 'he chief hydrographical features not already adverted to are — the Oder, with its large tributaries the Neisse, Spree, Waftha, and Netz ; portions of the Russian rivers Vistula and Niemen; the cariout Aa^, or fresh- water lagoons, which communicate with the Baltic by navigable openings; and the celebrated thermal springs of Aix-la-Chapelle (143°). The peopfg of Prussia belong principally to the great Germanic and Sclavonic families — the Poles in Pozen, West Prussia, kc. belonging to the latter, and the bulk of the inhabitants in the other provinces to the former. German is the language of the court, as well as of the better-informed classes in all the provinces. The Lithuanians in East Prussia, the Vandals in Pomerania, and the Jews in the principal cities, do not exceed perhaps 250,000. With regard to religion, all sects and creeds enjoy the amplest liberty; nearly three-fifths professing the evangelical faith, two-fifths that of the Roman Catholic, the fraction being Jews, Mennonites, Rationalists, &c. * In no other country is the si/stem of education so complete; and in none is the instruction of all classes so carefully provided for. The law imposes upon parents the strict obligation of sending their children to school, unless they can prove that they are giving them a proper education at home; and care is everywhere taken to furnish the poor with the means of complying with this law, by providing their children with the things neces- sary, and even with clothes. Every parish is bound to have an elementary school, and every town one burgh- school or more, according to the population. Above these are gymnasiums, and in these institutions classical learning is pursued preparatory to admission into the universities, of which there are seven — in the cities of Berlin, Breslau, Halle, Bonn, Konigsberg, Munster, and Greifswald.' Besides these there are normal schools for the training of teachers, establishments for instruction in particular arts, and collections of natural history, philosophical apparatus, and public libraries, accessible to any person who chooses to avail himself of their assistance. The whole of this admirable system is upheld partly by private fees, partly by the respective towns and provinces, and partly by the stato ; the whole being under the strict and unremitting sur- veillance of government functionaries. The national industry has been already detailed under that of the German Confederation. Prussia, however, is mainly an agricultural country — the Rhenish pro- vinces. Saxony and Silesia, being as yet the only ma- nufacturing districts. Internal communication is con- ducted by means of several good lines of road; by the great rivers, which are all less or more navigable; and by the great German lines of railway. Government, a hereditary monarchy, with a council of state; and since 1824, provincial assemblies, to whom laws are submitted for deliberation. For administra- tive purposes, the country is divided into ten provinces, which are subdivided into regencies, and these again into circles. National debt about £22,515,000; revenue, £8,650,000; expenditure, £8,700,000 ; standing army, 150,000 — the war complement, 337,000 men. RUSSIA. The Russian Empire comprises the whole northern region of the eastern hemisphere, from the frontiers of Prussia and the Baltic on the west to the Pacific on the east; crosses Behring's Straits, and includes a por- tion of North America in the western hemisphere; together with a number of islands in the adjacent seas. Much of this vast territory — which amounts to nearly one-seventh of the terrestrial part of the globe — is, however, uninhabited, and indeed unfit to l^so; the greater portion rude and ungenial, and but thinly tenanted by semi-barbarous tribes; and only that sec- tion in central Europe entitled to be ranked with civi- lised nations. European Russia, to which we now limit our description, is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean ; east by the Oural Mountains and the Caspian ; south by the Caucasian range and the Black Sea; and vrest by Turkey, Austria, Prussia, and the Baltic. The area is estimated at 2,045,000 square miles. SuperJidaUy, the territory may b« regarded as one vast plain, with a slight elevation running diagonally 207 CHAUBBBS'S INFOIUfATIOK 70B THB PEOPLE. aooM the interior, »nd forming the gmi water-shed which diTerti the riren to the Arotie OoeMi on the one hMtd, wad to the CMpi*n and BlMk SeM on the other. If we exoeitt the OumliM Mountftins o« ite oMtem border, Mid a hilly tract in the Crimea, there it no por- tion of the country which riici more than 1100 feet abore the aea, and that only near Valdai in the cen- tral plateau. ' The northern section, which lenaibly decline*,' aays a natire author, ' towards the White and Frosen seas, is covered with vast forests, abounds in marshes and lakes, and is but little fit for cultiva- tion. The other, and more southerly portion of the Jtlain, includes the whole district along the Wolga, as ar as the sandy steppes or deserts between the Caspian and the Sea of Azov, and constitutes the finest part of Russia: generally, it has a fertile soil, tho arable and pasture laud preponderating over the woods and uianhes. That part of the country which extends to- wards Voronej, Tambov, Ponzo, and Simbirsk, as far as the deserts, is remarkable for the superior quality of every kind of fruit and other produce. It has every- where an excellent soil, consisting of black earth, strongly impregnated with saltpetre. But the tract which commences between the Sea of Azov una the Caspian, and extends near the shores of the latter, and between the Wolga and Oural, as far north as the Samara, is little better than a desert> being level, dry, high, barren, and full of salt lakes.' The rock formaiim* of Russia present much less variety than mij^t be expected from the extent of the country, chiefly in consequence of the flat and unbroken manner in which they lie. The chief economic mineral* are — gold, platina, silver, lead, and copper from the Oural; oopjperand tin in Finland; iron from the cen- tral elevation of Valdai, &c.; coal in Poland, Toula, and Ikatherinoslav, but of little importance; rock-salt and brine -springs in Poland, Taurida, Perm, and other places; lime, alabaster, gypsum, and amber. The ^^nate of Russia is saia to be much colder than tliat of other European countries in the same latitude; and the farther we proceed eastward, the temperature becomes still lower, in consequence of the uncultivated state of the lurfacc, di*tanoe firora the tempering in- iiueuoe* of the ocean, and the frequency of easterly and northerly winds from the icy regions of the Arctic Ooewi. In the northern section the winter is severe, and lasts firom eight to nine mouths; all the rivers and seas are frozen, and the ground deeply .covered with snow : summer, on the other hand, is short and hot ; and there is, conerally speaking, neither spring uor autumn. In the central re^on winter is rlso seven) but shorter; there is something like spring and autumn, and summer is still warmer. In the south, winter oontinues only for altout five months, freezing the rivers and shores; and summer is often fervid and oppressive. The provinces bordering on the Baltic have a wet and variable climate, and this feature ex- tends to the elevated tract which borders the upper basin of the Wolga; but farther eastward, and in the extreme north and south, tho atmosphere is clear and dj^ — a circumstance which materially modifies the effects of tho winter's cold. The vejfetable and animal prodMCtlons present less variety than might be expected from a region lying between the 45th and 70th parallels. The most re- inarkaHe feature in the former is the vast expanse of forest growth, covering about two-fifths of the entire superficies. A> already hinted, these are most exten- sive iu the north and central regions, especially between the 55th and b'Oth parallels, where it has been said that a squirrel might travel between St Petersburg and Moscow without touching the ground. Among the cul- tivated plants we may notice rye all over the country, barley to 67° north, oats to 62° north, wheat in the fer- tile tracts along the southern rivers, millet along the Don, hemp and flax in the west and centre, tobacix) in the Ukraine, cranberries in the marshes of the north, fruit ill the south-east, the vine in the i^.. 'nea and Cau- casian proriuoet; and variously, potatoea, rape, rhubarb, poppy, Jcc. The characteristic wild ainnuik the polar bear, the bUck and brown bears of the forest, the reindeer, elk, urns, wild horse of the Ukraine, wolf, blue fox, lynx, beaTer, sable, ermine, lemming, fee.; game, but not abondantiT; the sturgeon, salmon, trout, carp, pike, mackerel, and a variety of other fishee in the rivers; and the bee, whose honey and wax form valuable products of consumption and export. The population of the country, amoimting to 60,000,000, is composed of a vast variety of races, dif- fering in language, roiigion, manners — ^irom the rudest state of barbarism to the highest point of European civilisation. Laying aside minor distinctions, they may be classed under the following etocks; — ^The Sdavonk, including the Russians Proper, tiie Poise, Bulgarians, and Servians; the Finn* ot Finland, Lapland, and Esthonia ; the LttHik tribes of the Baltic provinces ; the Toorkeu of the Caucasus, Astrakhan, Kazan, the Crimea, &c.; the DeuUeh or Qermmtu in lUga, Rsvel, and St Petersburg; the GoAt, including the Swedes of Finland ; and in lesser numbers Danes, Jews, Greeks, French, and English. The settled inhabitants are ranked in four classes — nobles, olei;gy, citizeM, and peasants ; the peasants being eit^^er freemen with limited privileges, or serfs belonging to the soil, and transferable like any other species of property. All forms of rd'^out fam are tolerated ; but that of the orthodox Greek Church prevails, and is adhered to by the Russians, Servians, Cossacks, &c. The Roman Catholic faith is professed by the l^oles and Lithua- nians; the Swedes, Danes, Finns, and most of the Ger- mans are Lutherans ; Calvinism reckons but a small number of Poles and Germans ; Islamism is the creed of the Toorkee or Tartars ; and the Jews observe the Mosaic ritual. Edveationaily, the country is in a very depressed state, if we take into account onlr the pea- sants and lower orders; but among the citizens and higher classes there is a more general dissemination of knowledge than is generally believed. According to an educational scheme drawn out in 1802, somewhat similar to that of Denmark, a certain number of uni- versities, lyceums, and elementary schools were to be erected, upheld, and conducted under government; but only a few of these have a* yet beea established. The indtutrial operatioiu of the country are as yet conducted in a very primitive manner, and upon a limited scale, considering the vastitude of the natural resources. Agrietdture is in its first stage, and yet, owing to the excellency of the soil and comparatively small home demand, large supplies are annually ex- ported. Of late years, maiti^vcturea, under high pro- tective duties, have risen to some consideration, and the country now possesses a number of establishments for the preparation of woollen goods, silk, cotton, linen, and metal wares. The chief seats of these are the governments of Moscow, Novgorod, Vladimir, Saratov, Toula, and St Petersburg. ' The Russians,' says Water- stou, ' excel in the manufacture of leather ; and from th'jir advantages in reepect to raw material, their canvas, strong linens, cordage, felt, mats, potash, soap, candles, caviar, and isin^las, are quite as good as those made elsewhere ; but m all other branches their productions cannot compete with those of Western Europe, espe- cially Britain, as to finish, durability, and cheapness ; and their existence is therefore dependent upon a pro- hibitory system of export duties.' The government i» an absolute hereditary monarchy; all power emanates from the czar, emperor, or autocrat, whose authority is withoutiimit or control. He is the central point of the administration, the head of the church as well as of the state, and to his decision, or for his sanction, all important measures must be sub- mitted. His authority is delegated to certain Iwards, the members of which are of his own appointment; uid to these respectively are committed the ordering and execution of all legislative, judicial, civil, religious, financial, and other afiairs. Population, 60,962,250; revenue, £16,380,000; debt, £76,800,000; anny 500,000. Ci^ital, St Petersbuis, with 476,000 inhabitants. INIfM& I of tho foreit, Uknine, wolf, leumiing, Ice.; Mklinon, trout, tther fishM in wd wax fonu port. unounting to r of i«CM, dif- xaa the rudeit I of European kmiitheyiiMy rhe Selawmic, M, BulgariuiB, Lftplaud, Mid tie provinces ; n, KaiMi, the 1 Kga, ReTel, the Swedei of Jewa, Greeki, ihftbitantf ue , citizeM, and freemen with I the (oil, and perty. ted ; but that ind is adhered '„ The Roman I and Lithua- ost of the Oer- 8 but a small im is the creed rs observe the ry is in a very only the pea- e citizens and ssemination of According to !02, somewhat lumber of uni- ils were to be emment; but lished. try are as yet and upon a f the natural jage, and yet, imparatively annually ex- ler high pro- 'oration, and itablishments cotton, linen, hese are the imir, Saratov, says AVater- ir ; and from their canvas, «p, candles, those made productions lurope, espe- cheapness ; upon a pro- ' monarchy; I or autocrat, He is the Ihead of the decision, or liust be sub- boards, [itment; uid lering and ji, religious, [60,362,250; ny 500,000. lanta. ENGLAND AND WALES. England and the principality of Wales, which we sbail treat aa one incorporated country under the former of these names, occupy the most southerly, and at the same time the largest and most fertile, portion of Great Britain — an island, the position of which is at once favourable tc commerce, to security, and to national independence. Placed in a medium latitude, it is further preierved by the surrounding ocean from those extremes of heat, and cold, and aridity, to which con- tinental countries, both iu higher and lower parallels, are frequently subjected. England, then, is bounded on the north by Scotland, from which it is chiefly separated by the Solway Firth and the C'hoviot hills ; on the «!t!t by the German Ocean; on the south by the Enslish Channel; and on the west by St George's Channel and the Irish Sea. The space thus included is rather irregular . in form, and lies between lat. 49° 57' and 55° 45' north, and between long. 6° 41' west, and 1° 46' east. Measuring along the second meridian, from St Alban's Head on the south to Ber- ' wick on the north, its length is 362 miles; its breadth, from Land's End to North Foreland in Kent, 330 miles; from St David's Head in Pembroke to Lowes- toft in Suffolk, 300; from Lancaster Bay to Bridlington Bay in Yorkshire, 110; and from the Solway Firth to Tynemouth, only 64 miles. Its area is estimated at 57,812 square miles, or nearly 37,000,000 acres, of which 5,200,000 belong to Wales. SUPERFICIAL FEATURES. The superficial features of England, though not de- void of variety and picturesque Deauty, are, upon the whole, leas diversified than those of Scotland and Ireland. Generally speaking, its western side — from Cumberland and Westmoreland, southwards through Wales, into Devon and Cornwall — is hilly or moun- tainous; while the eastern side, sloping from these heights down to the German Ocean (as evidenced by the direction of the principal rivers), ia of an undulat- ing, flat, and sometimes monotonous character. The chief mountain. ranges which give character to the country have been classed under three heads : — I. The Ifcvonian Range, stretching from Gloucester, through No. 64. Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall, and terminating in the promontory of the Land's End — the highest point of which is Cawsand Beacou in Devon, 1792 feet; 2. The Cambrian Eangt, extending from the Bristol Chan- nel, through Wales, the culminating point of which is Snowdon, 3571 feet; 3. The Northtm or Cumbrian Range, stretching from Derbyahire, through Cumber- land, and passing into Scotland, whose loftiest peak is Skafell in Cumberland, 3166 feet. In the central and eastern parts of the country (south of Yorkshire) there are a few ill-defined ranges of swelling eminences; but none which exceed 1020 feet. The chalk-bills or Downs of southern England are inconsiderable emi- nences, radiating in different directions from the table- land of Salisbury Plain in Ha:ap8hire, the highest point of which is only 1001 feet. Besides Snowdon and Skafell, the principal heighta in England are David (3427 feet), and Llewellan (3469), both in Walea; Skeddaw (3022), and Saddleback (2787), in Cumber- land; and Helvellyn (3055), in Westmoreland. In contradistinction to these mountain-ranges are ihe moors, valea.marahea, and other level tracta, which con- stitute no inconsiderable portion of the surface. Thd principal moorUmd* are those of Northumberland, ex- tensive, open, solitary wastes, producing little except heath, at an elevation of from 500 to 1000 feet above the Sou; tho moors of Durham, in the Lead-Mine« district; those of Cumberland and Westmoreland, inseparably blended with the mountains of those counties; those of Yorkshire, forming a wide elevated tract, ungenial in soil and climate; those of Staflfbrd- shire, at an elevation between 500 and 1154 feet; Dartmoor in Devonahire, covering upwards of 240,000 acres, at a mean elevation of 1700 feet, and of extreme^ ruggedness ; Exmoor, partly in Devon, and partly in Somerset, conaiating of 20,000 acrea, for the most pari) bleak, waste, and irreclaimable ; and the heathy up- lands of Surrey, Hunts, and Dorset. The valei or cUiUs, traversed generally by the rivers, form an important feature in the geography of Eng- land; their verdure, shelter, and fertility being UA-' surpassed by any other portion of Europe. The principal are — the Vale of York, about 60 milea in length, and of variable breadth, occupjring an area of 640,000 acres; HoldemcHS, lying between the Humber and the sea, in the south-eastern part of Yorkshire, 270,000 acres; the vale in which' Carlisle ia situated, 300,000 acres; the Vale of the Severn, extending through Gloucester and Worcester for nearly 40 miles; the Vale of Exeter, 128,000 acres; the Vale of Taunton, 64,000; the Weaiia of Southern England; and the minor dales of the Tyne, Wear, and Tees. The low marshy district called the Fens, lying around the Wash, principiJly in Cambridge and Lincoln, but partly also in Northamp- ton, Norfolk, Suffolk, &c. forma a level tract of not leaa than 500,000 acrea — apparently of recent elevation above the waters of the German Ocean. For the last two centuries much engineering skill and capital have been expended on the drainage and reclaiming of these fena, and the result has been the acquirement of ex- tensive tracts of the richest and most fertile alluvium. Of the surface thus described, probably not above one-ninth (Wales being included) is unsusceptible of tillage, or at least of profitable improvement. OEOLOOICAL STRUCTURE. Geologically, England exhibits traces of every forma- tion; its western or hilly region being chiefly stanitio and primary, and serving as a basis v>t the other for- mations, which take on in succession, till we reach the chalk and tertiary beds in the south-eastern portion. The range or strike of these formations is in a north 209 OHAMBEBB'B nrFOBHAVION FOB THB PEOPLE. ud Mvth direction, aoOuAm gwdogioa 11119 «zUbitii them (not tftking minor intwrraptioni into account) like 10 many loncTtudinal bandi oTerlapping eMh other, from the lUtee of ComwaU ud Wiiiu, to the chaUu and tertiary clayi of Kent and Middleiex. Theie for- mation! difplay moit of the lubordinate groupi of the geologist (lee No. 2), with all their characteriatio animal and TCgetaUe remaine in mat perfection. Thuf, in Cornwall and Deron eminecoet of granite, Mipentine, and porphyry occur, while the slopes rest- ing on them are composed of difierent kinds of slate. The granite of this district is extensively used for par- ing in London, though considered less hsra and durable than that brought m>m Scotland. The Welsh moun- tains are composed chieflv of varieties of slate, with ■ome intermixture of volcanic rocks, as basalt and trap ; wliile a rich coal-field, 100 miles in length, and from five to ten in breadth, rests upon their southern verge, extending from Olamortnan into Pembrokeshire, being the largest coal-field m Great Britain. The northern range of mountains is also chiefly composed of slate rocks, there being only one mountain of granite near Shap in Westmoreland. Between these ranges of mountains, and a line drawn from Exmouth, tlubugh Bath, Gloucester, Leicester, Nottingliam, and Tadcaster, to Stockton-upon-Tees, the surface is composed of the lower secondarjr strava, including rich beds of coal, the existence of which in this situation is mainly what has enabled England to become the first manufacturing ooontiv in the world. The eastern parts of the coun- ties of Durham and Northumberland, from the Tees northward to Berwick, form a peculiarly valuable coal- field, of numerous beds, from which the metropolis and other cities in the east of England and elsewhere are supplied with this important mineral. Another coal- field of great value, and that upon which the manufac- tures of Manchester depend, extends northwards from Macclesfield to Oldham, and thence westwards to Prescot near Liverpool. A coal-field near Wolver- hampton, in StaflTordshire, is the most valuable in the centre of England : upon it depend the extensive me- tallic manufactures of Birmingnam. To the east of the line drawn from Exmouth to Bath, and thence by Gloucester, Leicester, and Tadcaster, to Stockton-upon-Tees, we find the upper rocks of the secondary formation, presenting in succession red sand- stone and red marl, lias limestone and clay, oolitic limestone, green sand with clay, and finally chalk. Connected with the red marl, vast masses of rock-salt are found; these are extensively dug in Cheshire and Worcestershire for domestic use. Lias, which extends from Lyme in Dorsetshire to Whitby in Yorkshire, is remarkable for the remains which it presents of the large saurian reptiles. Beds of oolitic limestone cover the southern pajrt of Gloucestershire, and a great part of Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire, Rutlandshire, and the eastern side of Lincolnshire. The chalk exists everywhere to the south-eaat of a line commencing near Dordiester, on the south coast, and passing through Wilts, Berks, Norfolk, and so on to Flamborough Head — excepting in Sussex and Kent, where it has been carried off by denudation, exposing a peculiar formation called the toadden, and in the l)ed of the Thames near London, and one or two other places, where tertiary beds of day occur. To sum up— the economic mineral prodvee of England consista chiefly of granite, roofing- slate, limestone, some marble, coal, both bituminous and anthracite, building-stones of various kinds, rock- salt, alum, potters' clay, fullers' earth, and siliceous sands; the metallio of copper, tin, lead, silver, zinc, manganese, iron, antimony, arsenic, and plumbago. The main depositories of the metals are the hiila of Cornwall, Devon, Wales, and Cumberland. Iron, as a clay carbonate, u chiefly obtained from the shales of the coal-measures. The principal oor.l-fields are those of Durham and Northumberland, Lancaster, Stafli»d, and South Wales. Rook-salt uid brine ipringt are foood only in Cheahirt and Woroeeter; uid plumbago tinuak wlelj ia Bonowd«l*, Cumbwlaod. 910 HTOBOOBAPHT, &C. The gulfg, bant, ttraiu, and other anni and Indeita- tloni of th« oceans whidi surround Engluid are, with one or two exceptions, of limited dimensions. On the east coast are — the estuary of the Humber, reoeiving the waters of several rivers; the Wash, a large shallow inlet full of sandbanks and mud-shoals; Harwich Har- bour; Blackwater Bar; and the estuary of the Thames, also incumbered with numerous intricate shoals and sandbanks. On the south are — the irrwular expanse formed by the Solent and Spithead roads, and South- ampton water, the last of wuch i^s inland for ten or twelve miles, and is navvable to ita extremity; Ply- mouth Sound, celebrated mr the stupendous breakwater which protects its wator from the swell of the Atlantic; Falmouth Harbour, and Mounts Bay, so called ftom St Michael's Mount, a curious insulated rook a little ofi" the mainland. On the west are — Barnstaple Bay; Bristol Channel, a deep gulf 25 miles wide at its entrance, and about 8 where it joins the estuary uf the Severn ; the bays of Swansea and Caenuarthen ; Milford Haven, one of the safest and most capacious harbours of England ; St Bride's Bay; the large i>ays of Cardigan and Caernarvon ; the estuaries of the Dee, Mersey, and Ribble; and Morecambe Bay, a large inlet, so shallow that proposals were at one tbne made to reclaim it from the sea. The straits are those of Dover, 21 miles across, and about 17 fathoms at its deepest part, supposed by geologists to be of recent excavation — England before thi^ event having been attached to the main continent ; and the Menai Strait, separating the island of Anglesea from the mainland of Wales, about 14 miles in len^h, and varying from 2 miles to 200 yards across. This strait is crossed by a magnificent suspension-bridge, erected l^ Telford in 1826; and is now in course of being spanned by a sus- pension railway-tube or tunnel of still more gigantic proportions and curious construction. The principal capes are Flamborough Head, Spurn Head, North Foreland, and South Foreland on the east; Dimgeness, Beachy Head, St Alban's Head, Port- land Point, Start Point, Bolt Head, and Lizard Point on the south; Land's Eiad, Hartland Point, St Goven's Head, St David's Head, Stumble Head, Holyhead, Ormes Head, and St Bee's Head on the west; and Air Point in the Isle of Man. All of those mentioned on the east and south, and the two last on the west, are the sites of lighthouses, indispec-able to the safety of the immense coasting trade of tho country. The islands geographically connected with England are, with one or two exceptions, small and unimportant. OS the east coast are — Holy Isle or Lindisfame, con- taining the remains of an abbey and cattle; the Fams, a dangerous group of small rocky islets ; Foulness and Sheemess at the entrance of the Thames; and the Ide of Thanet, formed by two branches of the small river Stour. Off the south coast — the large, beautiful, and salubrious Isle of Wight, sometimes called * The Oar- den of England ;' Purbeck and Portland Islands, noted for their quarries ; the Eddystop rock, with its cele- brated lighthouse ; and the Scilly Islands— a group consisting of seventeen rocky islets, thirty miles west- south-west from the Land's End. Ofi^ tne west coast — the small islands of Lundy, Skomer, Bardsey, Holy- head, and the Skerries; the large island of Anglesea; and the Isle of Man, which, legiuatively and judicially, forms a sort of independent territory. (For Jersey, Quenisey, &c. see No. 63, p. 193.) The lakes of England are few, and of very tiny dimen- sions; the largest scarcely covering an area of four square miles; but the beauty of their associated scenery has conferred on them an almost universal reputation. We refer to the lakes of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and the north of Lancashire; the largest of which are Winandermere, Ulleswater, Thirlmere, Denrentwater, Bassenthwait<% Buttermere, and Cmmnookwater. These lie amid the vales and r e ee si e s of the Cumbriaa range; •ad it IB the combination of Alpine wildn«M and gtan. a I : i- I ENGLAND AND WALES. imd indast** uid are, with >ni. On the «r, teoeiTing large shallow larwioh Har- 'theThamef, B ihoals and wlar expanie I, and Sottth- Ad for ten or iremity; Ply- is breakwater (he Atlantic; called from rock a little nitaple Bay; wide at its le estuaiy uf >Mnuarthen ; ost capacious large l>ays of I of the Dee, Bay, a large ne tijne made are those of ithoms at its be of recent i baring been Menai Strait, the munland varying from ; is crossed by by Telford in med by a sus- more gigantic Head, Spurn iland on the Head, Port- Lizard Point [t, St OoTen's Holyhead, 'est; and Air lentioned on west, are [the safety of pth England unimportant, lisfame, con- , the Fams, toulness and I and the Isle 1 small river ftutiful, and > The Oar- ads, noted X its cele- -a group Imiles west- iwest coast dsey, Holy- r An^lesea; Ijudicially, Tor Jersey» ^inydimen- of four scenery eputation. tmoreland, I which are rentwater, These range; ludgrao- ( dear, with the loffc loenery which reposes in clothed slope and mirror-like lake, which gives to the * Lake District' its principal charm. (See p. 214.) The principal riven ef England, beginning with those fallinff into the German Ocean, are as follow : — The Tyne, Wear, and Tees, all navigable to a certain extent by means of steam-tugs, and forming valuable channels of communication with the inland coal-flelds of the district; the Humber, with iti larger tributaries the Ouse, Wharfe, Aire, Calder, Dou, and Trent, draining an immense trtuit of fertile country, and navigable to a considerable distance by bar{^s; the Witham, Welland, Nen, and Great Ouse, which fall into the Wash, also navif^able to a great distance inland; the Thamee, with its numerous small feeders, the Charwell, Windrush, Kennet, fcc— the * Father of English rivers,' navigable by ships of all burden up to the docks of the metropolis; and the Medway, with its open estuary, navigable by the largest vessels up to dnatham. The largest failing into the Atlantic are the Severn, with its affluents Wye, Teme, classic Avon, and lower Avon, all forming valuable channels of com- munication with the interior; the Dee, navigable to Chester; the Mersey, the great outlet for the manu- fiscturing districts of the west; the Ribble; and Eden. Connected with these are many minor streams, which contribute to the beauty and fertility of the country; and also a number of springe, celebrated for their mineral and medicinal properties. The principal of these ate the salt springs of. Northwieh, Nantwicn, &c. in Cheshire, and of Droitwich in Worcester, which yield salt fai immense quantities; and the medicinal wrings of Bath, Bristol, Cheltenham, Tunbridge Wells, Epsom, Leamington, Matlock, Buxton, and Harrow- gate. Some of the latter are thermal or hot springs — as Bath, at a temperature of 114°; Buxton, 82"; Bristol, 74°; and Matlock, 68° Fahrenheit. CLIMATE. The climate of England, according to MaccuUoch, < is chiefly characterise by the absence of extremes in temperature, by humidity, and by almost incessant variations withm a limited range; peculiarities ascrib- able to the geographical position of the country, in contiguity with an extensive continent on the one hand, and a vast ocean on the other: the latter with nearly the same temperature throughout the year, and exertmg an equUising influence over the contiguous atmosphere ; the other with a varying temperature, above that of the ocean in summer, and lower during the winter months. Hence the origin and direction of the prevailing winds at different periods of the year, according to whichever of those ^at surfaces exert most rarefying power: those blowmg from the conti- nent being comparatively dry, whilirt those from the ocean, V/sing charged with its exhalations, bring the chief part of the rain which descends, two-thirds of it falling oil the west side of the country.' The arerase temperature in winter is about 40° Fahrenheit ; in summer the day temperature is generally about 60°, very rarely 80°. The mean fall of rain for the whole kingdom is about 36 inches; though in Cumberland, for example, there is said to fall 60 inches, and in the neighbourhood of London only 23. The prevailing winds are from the south-west and west; the next in order of frequency from the north-east. Being more inclined to cold and humidity than that of contmental countries under the same latitude, the climate is more favourable to the growth than to the ripening of vegetable productions. It is certainly not unfavourable to either the physical or moral condition of the people. Perhaps even its uncertainty has been the subject of too mucn grumbling. On this point we may adduce the cheerful opinion of Charles II., as re- corded by Sir William Temple. ' I must needs,' says Sir William, ' add one thin^ more in favour of our cli- mate, which I heard the kmg say, and I thought new and right, and truly like a kmg of England that loved luid esteemed his own country: it was in reply to some of the eompuy that wei* Nriling our cUma(e« and extolling those of Italy and Spain, or a* least of Franee. He said he thought that was the best climate where he could be abroad in the air with plea- sure, or at least wiUiout treuble and inoonTenienoe, the most days of the year, and the most iioun of the day; and this he thoMght he emdd be in Xngkmd mer* than in any other eottntrp in Ewope.' Devonshire, and some adjacent districts on the southern eoast, e^Joy • temperature which in winter is, at an average, two, three, four, and even in some instances five degreet above the rest of the country; and these districts ai« therefore recommended for the rcvidence of penona affected by pulmonaiy disease. BOTANY AND ZOOLOOT. Though the native vegetation of the country nunr 1w described as verdant and luxuriant, yet most of the fruits, ornamental trees and shrubs, bread-corns, green- crops and roots, are exotics which have become natu- ralised by a long course of care and culture. Without drawing any distinction, however, between what is in- digenous and what of foreign importation, we may enumerate the following as the most important of her vegetable productions: — In some of the southern part* the vine erows luxuriantly, but seldom brinn its fruit to perfection; at ordinary elevations, and aU ever the kingdom where suitable soil is to be found, the pear, apple, medlar, cherry, gooseberry, currant, strawberry, raspberry, and other fruits come to perfection ; and the same may be said of the bread-corns — wheat, rye, barley, and oats — of beans and pease, of the potato, hop, turnip, carrot, beet, hemp, flax, rape, buckwheat, woad, madder, teasel, the artificial grasses, and a vast variety of useful and ornamental vegetable products. At ele- vations under 700 feet or thereby; most of the timber trees and ornamental shrubs — as the oak, beech, syca- more, poplar, elm, ash, hornbeam, maple, lime, laurel, laburnum, chestnut, yew, larch, and pine — attain a profitable growth; up to 900 or 1000 feet, the ash, alder, nawthom, and pine continue to thrive; but above that height, the mountain ash, some of the smaller willows, the cranberry, bilbeny, juniper, and heaths are the only inhabitants. One peculiar feature in the vegeta- tion of England is the royal forests, of which the New (67,000 acres). Dean (23,000), Woolmer (6000), Whit- tlebuiy (5400), Windsor (4400), Delamere (3800), and Whichwood (3700), are the most extensive. The zool&w of England, like that of all other hisUy- civilised couiitries, is almost entirely limited to animals which can be profitably domesticated. Confinine their attention to the latest superficial deposits, geologists have determined that at no very distant era the country was peopled with elephants, hippopotami, the vrild horse and ox, bears, hyenas, wolves, elks, the wild boar, beavers, &c.; but these have now entirely disappeared, partly from cosmical conditions, and partly throush the agency of man. The existing quadrupeds in a wOd state are the fox, badger, polecat, marten, otter, weasel, stoat, hedgehog, mole, squirrel, hare, rabbit, a few spe- cies of bat, and several species and varieties of the rat or mouse family. The fallow-deer and roe exist in a protected or half-wild state, as does also the urtur or wild ox, still preserved as a curiosity in some of the parks of the nobility. Of reptiks, there still exist the adder, common snake, and blindworm, the frog, toad, and lizard; but none, save the first, are at all veno- mous. Of birds, there are an immense variety, partly indigenous, and partly migratory visitants, jhe most curious and valuable of these are the bustard, quail, grouse; ptarmigan, partridge, pheasant, and blackcock; the geese and ducks of the fens; the eu;le; the night- ingale, which is seldom heard north or the Humber; and the turtle-dove, a summer visitant of the southern counties only. Of marine animaU, a few of the porpoise family frequent the seas; the herring and mackerel ar« caught chiefly on the east coast; the pilchard exclu- sively on the south; cod, hs^dodc, whiting, ling, and hake in various parts; oystas fattened pnndpiUly on CHAUBEBS*S INFOBIIATION FOB THE PEOPLE. th« MUth »nd louth-eMt ; the iwllop, cockle, pen- winkle, limpet, &c. on rooky ihorei, wluch are aUo frequented by the crab and lobrter. In MTeral of the riven lalmon are found, though iomewhat icantily, and iturgeon are occaaionally met with; but in luoit of the freeh waten, ecl», dace, trout, bream, perch, pike, and other fiihes are abundant. Of the domesticated animals, England poBsesses ■ome flnt-rate varieties— as the racer, Cleveland bay, Suffolk punch, and old English black of the hone; the Hereford, Gloucester, and Teeswbter of the ox ; the Leiceeter and South Down of the sheep ; and the Berkshire and Rudgwick of the pip — all of which are described at length in Nos. 37-40 inclusive. PEOPLE — POPULATION. Ethnologically, the constituent elements of the Eng- lish population are to be traced in the history of the country. The first inhabitants were Dritons, probably a mixed Celtic race, and who, during the time of the Cession of the country by the Romans, must have me slightly changed by the admixture of that race. Upon a scattered population of Romanised Britons came the great wave of the Saxon invasion in the fifth and sixth centuries. After this, the predominant ele- ment of English society was undoubtedly Saxon, the Norman Conquest only adding to it a Frenoh aristo- crar/, which little afiected the great bulk of the popu- lation. The English, therefore, exclusive of the Weldh, who are Britons almost unchanged, may be regarded as in the main a Teutonic people, an admixiu::o of British entering into the composition always less and less as we advance from Wales towards the eastern coasts, where the people are nearly pure Saxon. According to an acute writer in Blackwood's Maga- zine for 1829, ' the Saxon Englishman is distinguished from other races bv a stature rather low, owing chiefly to the neck and limbs being short, by the trunk and vital system being large, and the complexion, eyes, and hair light; and by the face being broad, the fore- head largo, and the upper and back part of the head round, and rather small. In his walk, the English- man rolls, as it were, on his centre. This is caused by the breadth of the trunk and the comparative weak- ness of the limbs. The broader muscles, therefore, of the former, aid progression by a sort of rolling motion, throwing forward first one side and then another. , . , The mental faculties of the Englishman arc not absolutely of the highest order ; but the absence of passion gives them relatively a great increase, and leaves a mental character equally remarkable for its simplicity and its iractical worth. The most striking of those points in English ch.arocter, which may be called fundamental, are cool observation, unparalleled tingle-mindedness, and patient perseverance. This cha- racter is remarkably homogeneous. The cool observation of the Englishman is the foun- dation of some other subordinate, but yet important points in his character. One of the most remarkable of these is, that real curiosity, but absence of wonder, which makes the nil admirari a maxim of English so- ciety; it is greatly associated also with that reserve for which the English are not less remarkable. The single-mindedness of the Englishman is the foundation of that sincerity and bluntness which are perhaps his chief characteristics; which fit him so well fur >he busi- ness of life, and on which his commercial character de- pends; which make him hate (if he can hate anything) all crookedness of procedure, and which alarm him even at the insincerities and compliances of politeness. The perseverance of the Englishman is the foundation of that habitude which guides so many of his own actions, and that custom in which he participates with all his neighbours It is this which makes universal cant, as it has been profanely termed, not reasoning, the basil of his morals; and precedent, not justice, the basis of his jurisprudence. But it is this also which, when his rights are outraged, produces that grumbling which, when distinctly heard, efiectually potects them; ^1« and it is thii which oreAtei that puUlc ipirit, to which, on great emergencies, he rises with «dl hit fellow* countrymen, and in which he persists until its lesulti astonish even the iiationi around him. New a little reflection will show, that of the three fundamental qualities I have mentioned, the first seem* ing may easily be less amiable than the final result shall be useful. To a stranger of differently -constructed mind, the cold observation, and, in particular, the slow- ness and reserve which must accompany it, may seem unsociable; but they are inseparable ftom soch a con- struction of mind, and thev indicate not pride, but that respect for his feelings which the possessor thinks them entitled to, and which he would not violate in others. The dignity, therefore, which in this case the English- man feels, is not hauteur ; and he is as rarely insolent to those who are b^low, as he is timid and deferent to those who are above him. In regard to the absence of passion from the English mind, it is this which forbids one to bo charmed with music, to laugh at comedy, to cry at tragedy, to show any symptom of joy or sorrow in the accidents of real life; which has no accurate notion of grief or wretched- ness, and cannot attach any sort of meaning to tho word ecstacy; and which, for all these reasons, has a perfect perception of whatever is ridiculous. Hence it is, that in his domestic, his social, and his public relations, it is perhaps less affection than duty that guides the conduct of on Englishman; and if any one question the moral grandeur which this sentiment may attain, let him call to mind the example of it, which, just before the victory of Trafalgar, was given by Nel- son in the simple and sublime communication to his fleet — " England expects every man to do his duty ! '• Which is tne instance that equals this, even in the forged records of Roman glory i Happily, too, the excess of hatred is as little known to the Englishman OS excess of love; and revenge is abhorrent to his na- ture. Even in the pugilistic combat he shakes hands with his antagonist before he begins ; he scorns to strike him when he is down; and, whether vanquished or victor, he leaves his antagonist neither cast down nor triumphant. The extraordinary value of such a character is obvious enough. British liberty and Bri- tish commerce are its results: neither the Scottish nor Irish mind would have attained them.' In this sketch, though clever and forcible, some con- spicuous features of the social character of the English are overlooked. The domesticity of the Englishman's mode of life is very remarkable, when taken in contrast with the lounging, open-air existence of continental nations. The Englishman delights in his home, and spends much of his time in it— a result to which tho nature of the climate undoubtedly contributes. He appreciates his home very hichly, calls his house his castle, and prides himself on its being inviolable even by the emissaries of the law. The members of his family, his wife, his sons and daughters, are taken along by him in most of his recreations and pleasures. The conjugal tie is deemed peculiarly sacred, insomuch that the slightest dishonour offered to it is universally re- sented. It cannot be said, however, that the affections of kindred are much recognised in England beyond the nearest class of relations. In all personal and -domestic circumstances, the substantial is kept strong.;' in view, even while the ostensible object is ornament. The aristocratic institutions of the country have mixed, with the sturdy independence of the English character, a considerable reverence for external and accidental dis- tinctions, and created a disposition, pervading almost all classes, to hold forth appearances rather alwve than below their means. For tne same reason, as well as that abstract truths are nof readily apprehended by the English intellect, there is a strong and general disposition to cling to ancient practices and fonns in both government and law. The population of England in the time of the Plan- tagenet sovereigns is believed to have been little nx.ro than two millious. It has been estimated at 5,500,00Q i BNOLAKD AND WALES. to whicb, it fellow- ta rwultt the three int Mem* nult ihall mitnicted , the (low* may Mem iich a con- e, but that inks them in otheri. a EnglUh- ly inwlent leferent to he Engliih ^nned with iy, to »how snts of rcttl r wretchod- liug to the BonB, hat a 18. Hence his public duty that if any one timent way if it, which, Ten by Nel- vtion to hi« his dutg!" even in the ly, too, the linglishman t to his na- hakes hands le scorns to vanquished cast down of such a Ity and Dri- Bcottiah nor in view, bnt. The lixed, with laractcr, a lental dis- tig almost ov« than well as pnded by general I forms in Lhe Plan. Ittle nu/fu p,SOO,OOQ 1)1 1666. Tlie progr«M dnring the greater part of the •ightMDth centuiy was slow; the amount m 1760 is supposed to have been about 6,500,000. In 1801, for the firsl time, a regular census was taken ; and this haa been repeated once in ten yean ever since, giving the following results: — 1801, ■ • 8,87S,»80 1831, • ■ 13,8»4,£<9 1811, ■ 10,183,816 1841, 16,»0«,141 18», ■ • 11,978,819 The rapid advance of our population is placed in a striking light, when we consider that, for the United Kingdom, it is nearly a thousand per day. Within the last fifteen years, emigration has been proceeding on a scale of unprecedented magnitude; yet, even in the years during which it has been most active, it has not been suliicient to drain the country at one-third of the rate at which its population has been increased by new births. This rapid increaM of numbers clearly shows that, whatever partial evils there may be in the condition of the people, the country must upon the whole have enjoyed, for nearly fifty years, a high de- gree of prosperity; for it is quite insupposabie that, with stationary resources, so many new mouths could have been fed, unless there had been, what certainly there has twt lieen, a large and general deterioration in the style of living. It is to be remarked, however, that an immigration to a great extent from Ireland has been going on for upwards of twenty years, and Uiat generally the Irish Mttlers continue in England to live in a style little superior to that which they fol- lowed in their own country. The increased population has chiefly taken place <.n the manufacturing towns. It is calculated, indeed, by Mr Macculloch, that nearly a third of the people live in towns of above 10,000 inhabitants. Most of the large cities have experienced a ra{>id advance of population within the last twenty years. *It appears that, while during the ten years ending vrith 1U40, the entire population increased at the jrate of 14'4 per cent., that of the great towns in- creoMd at the rate of 20*2 per cent. But if we com- pare the population of 1831 with that of 1841 — deduct- ing the population of the great towns as given above at each of these periods — the ratio of the increase of the rural population, including the smaller class of towns, will be found to be 11*2 per cent., or 9 per cent, under the increase of the great towns.' TheM facts wrve to show that it is the development of the manu- facturing, and not of the agricultural energies of the country, which has mainly tended to augment the population. [For further details respecting popula- tion and vital statistics, see No. 62, p. l!)l,] NATIONAL INDUSTRY. In point of national industry England stands un- rivalled by anv other country on the globe. Her agri- ctJlure, though still more antiquated end less syste- matic than that of Scotland, has recently made rapid improvement ; and, under different methods of lease, would soon attain a peifection worthy of her other in- dustrial pursuits. As it is, about a third of the surface is under average cultivation, yielding profitably the ordinary white and gruen crops; a large proportion under first-rate pasture for fattening and dairy pur- poMs; and a considerable extent under nursery, fruit and kitchen gardens, and pleasure-grounds. Alto- gether, the total agricultural produce of England — grain, green crops, live stock, dairy and other produce —cannot fall little short of £140,000,000. Assuming the entire area of England and Wales to be equal to 37,094,400 statute acres, it is estimated that 11,143,370 consist of arable fields and gardens ; 17,605,630 of meadows, pastures, and marshes; 3,984,000 wastes capable of improvement; and 4,361,400 incapable of improvement. Thejitherie* carried on along the coasts of England can scarcely be regarded as one of the great sources of national wealth, although, on an aterage, they give employment, at tea and on shore, to no fewer than 14,000 hondf. In turning indastnr this Motion of Brit«in hM long stood unrivalled. The operations, particularly in coal, iron, copper, tin, lead, and rock-salt, are conducted upon the most extensive and efficient systenv; and the produce so obtained constitutes not only an impor- tant source of national riches, but has contributed in a maiked degree to the advancement of the other arts and manufactures. The annual mineral produce for the last five or six years has been estimated as follows : —About £10,000,000 from coals; £8,600,000 from iron; £1,200,000 from copper; £920,000 from lead; £400,000 from salt; £390,000 from tin; £60,000 from manga- nese; £35,000 from silver; £22,000 from alum; £8000 from zinc; £25,000 from the other metals — as anti- mony, bismuth, arsenic, &c.; not taking into account the value of the rocks used in building, paving, and the like, nor the clay and sand uMd in the fabrication of pottery, glass, brinks, tiles, &c. With regard to the arts and manufactures, there is scarcely a branch which is not less or more attempted : wo can only enumerate the leoding departments: — 1. Soft fabrics, as cotton, valued at £30,000,000 annu- ally; woollens, as cloths, carpets, hosiery, &c. about one-fifth less; silk, at £12,000,000; linen employs about 17,000 hands; lace, gloves, straw-plait, &c. un- known ; paper, £1,500,000 ; leather manufactures, £13,000,000; hats, £2,800,000. 2. Eardwartt, com- prising all kinds of articles, * from the anchor of a man-of-war to the most delicate furniture of a lady's work-box.' Under this head rank steam-engines, gene- ral machinery, clocks and watches, cutlery and tools, jewellery and plate; and some idea of their value may be formed from the fact, that the annual produce in clocks and watches alone amounts to £17,000,000. 3, Chemical and fictile manufactures, the chief of which are — glass, amounting in annual value to £2,000,000 ; china and earthenware to £2,300,000; soap, alkalies, dyes, &c. 4. Distilling, brewing, baking, and other alimentary preparations. 5. Ship-buUding in wood and iron, and the allied arts of masonry, joinery, &c. The commerce of England is fully commensurate with her manufacturing greatness; every sea is traversed by her vessels, every land visited in March of new markets and new objects of merchandise. Her merchant navy, with that of the Channel Islands and Man, exceeds 16,000 vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 2,000,000, and carry upwards of 110,000 men. In 1843 there were 546 steam-vessels belonging to England, with an estimated tonnage of 72,024. The internal commu-' nication of the country is carried on by means of 26,000 miles of well-macadamised turnpike-roads, which tra- verse it in every direction; by canals, making an aggre- gate length of 2200 miles; and by railways, of which upwards of 4000 miles have been already laid down, or are in course of completion. The value of railway in- vestments in Great Britain have been estimated at £200,000,000; mining companies, £10,000,000; gas companies, £6,415,295; and assurance companies, at £6,000,000. GOVEUNMENT — ADHINISTaATION. Respecting the political constitution, laws, religion, and education of England, the reader is referred to our article on the Constitution and Resources op the British Empire, in which he will find those statistics and details, any notice of which in tai? place would lead only to unnecessary repetition, at the expense of matter which cannot be elsewhere adverted to. For administrative purposes, the country is divided into fifty-two counties, forty of which form England proper, and twelve belong to Wales. Most of these are subdivided into hundreds; some into wards; York into ridings and wapentakes; Kent into lathes; and Sussex into rapes, which are again divided into hun- dreds. Judicially, the whole n>rm 7 circuits; muni- cipally, 25 cities and 172 boroughs; and ecclesiastically, 11,077 parishes. In the following table the counties are arranged alphabetically, with their areas, their population accoiding to the census of 1841, and the ' 213 CHAHBEBCra IinPOBlUnON rOB raE PfiOPLJL «hiif or wtaij town } which, homrar, !■ not Always (ha iugMt or mott populoui »— OountlMk Aoree. Popubtlon. Chief Town*. Baditard. ' - - - 178,440 1M,8W 80,891 107,936 Beaumaris. Bedford. Bwki. ■ - - - 481 ,»W 161,147 Reading. Breoknockf * - 4i«,t60 86,603 Brecon. Buoktngham, ■ - m,iio 188,983 Buckingham. OMmuurthen, • 6t3,U0 106,326 Caormarthon. OMnuurvon, • - 848,180 81,093 Caernarvon. Ounbridge, - • 048,480 164,469 Cambridge. Cardigan, - - - 431,000 68,766 Cardigan. Chwhire, • • • 673,280 393,660 Cliestur. Cornwall, - - - 8JI1,S00 341,279 Ijiunceston. Cumberland, 974,780 178,038 Carlisle. Denbigh, ■ - • 403,120 88,866 Denbigh. Derby 6il,»iO 272,217 Derby. Devon, . - - - 1,684,400 633,460 Ezvter. Doraet, - - - 643,840 173,043 Dorclioatcr. Durham, - • - 702,080 324,284 Durham. Euex, . - - - »81,120 341,979 Colchester. runt, . . - - lIM.lliO 66,919 Flint. Glamorgan, - - fi06,880 171,188 Cardiff. Olouoester, ■ • 808,120 431,383 Gloucester. HampRhire, - - 1,040,000 388,004 Winchester. Heretird, - - - 033,320 113,878 Hereford. Hertfind, • • 403,200 187,207 Hertford. Huntingdon, - - 238,080 88,W9 Huntingdon. Kent, - - - - 996,480 8(8,337 Maidstone. lanoaahire, • - 1,130,240 1,667,034 Lancaster. I«ioeBtar, - - • S1S,840 218,867 Leicester. liincoln, • • - 1,671,040 362,620 Lincoln. Merioneth, • - 424,320 39,333 Dolgoliy. Middleaex, - - - 180,480 1,876,636 London. Monmouth, • • 317,440 134,383 Monmouth. 836,960 69,219 Montgomery. Norfolk, • - ■ 1,298,360 412,664 Norwich. Northampton, 680,240 199,228 Northampton. Northumberland, 1,197,440 280,278 Alnwick. Nottingham, - - 833,680 849,910 Nottingham. Oxford, - - • 483,840 161,643 Oxford. Pembrdni, - - - 390,400 88,041 Pembroke. Radnor, • - - 272,640 28,336 New Radnor. Rutland, ■ - ■ 98,360 81,302 Oakham. Bhropshlrc, - - 859,820 839,048 Shrewsbury. Bomeract, - - ■ 1,082,800 438,982 Taunton. BUfford, - - - 787,760 810,604 Stafford. Suffolk, - ■ ■ . 969,600 818,073 Ipswich. Surrey, - - - 483,760 882,678 Southwark. Suiuez, • . . ■ 938,240 299,783 Iawcs. Warwick, - - 874,080 401,718 Worwick. Westmoreland, - 487,680 66,484 Appleby. WUte, - - - 874,880 288,733 Salisbury. Worcester, • - 462,720 233,336 Worcester. York, .... 8,738,040 1,891,480 York. Total, .... 36,999.680 18,906,741 ifofe.— England derives its name from the Angkt, one of the Bazoo tribes who settled in its southern districts about the middle of the fifteenth oentnry. As might be expected ttom its history, its topographical nomenclature is a compound of British, Roman, Saxon, and Norman. The following prefixes and afiftxes are of frequent occurrence : — Ton, town ; borough, or bvry, town ; vUle, town ; bit or by, habitation ; ham, home or dwelling ; itodt or How, reaidonoe ; thorpe, a number of dwell- ings or village ; caer, fort or castle ; cotter or chttUr, fortified camp; miniter, abbey ov church; llan, place of meeting or church; ecele$, church; hUhe, port; don or iun, hill; pen, height ; nctt, pnimontory ; fey or leigh, meadow plain ; bum, atream or boundary ; abtr, confluence or mouth of a river ; ford, fchallow portage ; %oieh, wick, bond of a river, or dwelling by. REHABKABLE SCBNEBV — NATURAL CURIOSITIES. Lake Scenery. — The south.west part of the county of Cumberlaud and the north.west part of Westmoreland comprehend a range of lofty mountains — Skiddaw, Saddleback, Helrellyn, and some others of scarcely less note — amidst which lie the lakes for which this district of England has long been celebrated. The largest of these are UUeswater, Thirlmere, Derwentwater, and Bassenthwaite; but some of less size — as Buttermere, Crumnockwater, Loweswater, Ennerdale, Wastwater, and DeTock Lake — are scarcely less admired. The Tales or passes amongst the hills likewise contain much beautiful scenery of a wild character, although perhaps only trarenod by a brawling mountMn lill. Aa airway mentioned, it is the combination of alpine wildnesl and grandeur, with the soft scenery which reposes in clothed slope and mirror.likc lake at the bottoms of the hills, that sives the Cumberland scenery its prin- cipal charm. Ulleswater, which extends into West< moreland, is thought to possess the gre a t e st beauty: it is about 9 miles in length, but nowhere more than 1 in breadth. Derwentwater (often termed Keswick Lake, from its vicinity to the town of Keswick), which mea- sures 3 miles in length by 1 i in breadth, is only infe- rior to Ulleswater. Mrs Hadcliife, tho eminent noTe> list, describes it as having peculiar charms, both from beauty and wildness. ' The whole is seen at one glance, expanding within an amphitheatre of mountains, rocky but not vast, broken into many fantastic shapes. The precipices seldom overhang the water, but are ranged at some distance; and the shores swell with woody eminences, or sink into green pastoral marnns. The bosom of the lake is studded by several small but well- wooded islands.' Amongst the passes, that of Borrowdalo is the most remarkable: it is a narrow chasm opening from the centre of the amphitheatre which terminates the ex- panse of Derwentwater, and traversed by the vehement little stream of the same name. Near the entrance of the pass is a detached mountain called Castle-Crag, with a peaceful village reposing at its foot; and oppo- site to Castle-Crag is the Bowdarstone, a huge mass of rock, which has apparently fallen from the neighbouring clifis, and round whose base the road is made to wind. It is computed that this enormous boulder is not less than 1800 tons in weijght. The lake scenery of Cumberland has b^ its beauty attracted a great number of permanent residents, whose villas enter pleasingly into its landscapes, and amongst whom the present age has seen several eminent literary men — Southey, Wordsworth, &c. It also attracts an immense number of tourists from all parts of the king- dom. Thb district usually called the Lakes may be said also to comprehend a small northern and nearly detached portion of Lancashire, where Windermere and Coniston Water are sheets rivalling in extent and beauty those of Cumberland. Derbyshire Peak Setnery. — The termination of the great northern range in the north of Derbvshire, pre- sents in that district a collection of rugged hills and narrow valleys, amidst which some of the most roman- tic scenery in England is to be found. A particular portion of it, near the village of Castleton, is termed the Peak Scenery, from a pwiicular eminence or peak which attracts more than usual attention. The Peak is approached through a rude and savage pass named WinycUs (q. d. gates of the winds), flanked with precipices 1000 feet high. It is a limestone moun- tain, and perforated, as mountains of that kind of rock often are, with an immense cave. On the top are perched the remains of a castle, once the residence of a family descended from William Peveril, a natural son of the Conqueror, In the precipice below, above 600 feet from the top, is the entrance of the cave, a flattish Gothic arch, 120 feet wide and 46 in height. Within this arch the cavern recedes about 90 feet. Here a company of twine-makers pursue their humble trade. At the extremity of the first cave, which alone enjoys any of the light of day, a low and narrow arch leads into a spacious opening called ' The Bell-house,' whence a path leads to the ' First Water.' This is a lake 42 feet in breadth, passing below a massive arch of rocks, in some places not more than 20 inches above the surface of the water. Laying himself flat along the bottom of a small canoe, the visitor with his guide shoots through below the depending rocks into au opening 220 feet in length, 200 in breadth, and 121 in height. At the farther extremity of this spacious cavern, the stream which flows along the bottom forms itself into what is called the ' Second Water,' near the end of which is a pile of rocks subjected to a perpetual copious dripping from the roof, and called * Roger Rain's House.' Other passages and expansions succeed, till the cave ceases to r • 1 BNOLAKD AND WALES. t wildntM repoMi ilk bottomi of y iti prin- mto WMt- bMUity. it B than 1 in irick Lake, rhich niea- I only infe- nent nove- botli from one glance, taiui, rocky lapei. The are ranged rith wooJy rgini. The llbutweU- U the most ig from the ^tei the ex- le vehement he entrance Caitle-Crag, • and oppo- uge maaa of leighbouring ide to wind. ' if not leu r ita beauty denta, wboae Mid amongst aent literary attracts au of the king- akei may be and nearly dermeie and t and beauty f land savage is), flanked Itone moun- liind of rock Uie top are lesidonce of I, a natural lelow, above (the cave, a in height. Lit 90 feet. Leir humble Irhioh alone liarrow arch «U-house,' This is a live arch Iches above ) along the aide shoots oening '220 [eight. At ■the stream Ito what is which ii ks dripping ).' Other I ceases to be pMsabl* at the distanoc of 2300 feet from the open- ing. On returning from his torch-lit adventure to the mouth of the cave, the visitor usually experiences a singular impreuion of novelty and delight from behold- Ins again the surface of the daylight world. The scenery a^acent to the neighbouring town of Buxton is also much celebrated. One of the most noted objects is Elden't Jloh, a perpendicular opening, down which a line has been dropped to the extent of 2652 feet without finding the bottom. iWe'« Hole is a cave remarkable for its magnificent stalactites. A succession of beautiful valleys, situated amidst rugged mountains, leads to the romantic one of Matlock, where the banks of the Derwent are bordered by extensive woods, interspersed with the boldest and most varied forms of rock. Of a wilder character is the celebrated Dwtdale, where the River Dove traverses a pass of 2 miles in length, and of the most striking character. The sides of this short valley are chiefly composed of rocks of gray limestone, which, in their abrupt and towering ascent, assume innumerable fantastic forms — spires, pyramids, &o. — and are clothed with yew-trees, the mountain ash, and numerous mosses and lichens. The Isle of Wight, situated off the coast of Hamp- shire, and measuring 23 miles by about 13, is cele- brated both for its ^ild climate and its beautiful scenery. From the high open downs formed by a range of chalk hills in its centre, some delightful views, mingling the bold objects of the coast line with the sail-studded English Channel, are obtained. The south shore is the most noted for its romantic objects, the most remarkable of which is at Undercliff. Here a great chalk cliff has at one time been presented to the sea; but, afterwards undermined by the action of the waves, a large portion of it has fallen forward in vast fragments, leaving a new cliff at the distance of about half a mile from the shore. In the interval between the beach and the cliff, the fragments are scattered in confusion, many of them forming eminences of the most picturesque forms, while the intermediate spaces afford room for cottages and villas, and even at one place for a small rising town, nestling amidst the most beautiful shrubbery, natural and artificial. This district, when viewed from the sea, appears a series of gigantic steps, rising from the beach towards a great perpendicular wall. The cliff in several places opens in vast ravines, locally termed ehinu, which are usually clothed with a picturesque vegetation, and the most admired of which are those of Snanklin and Blackgang, Newport, the capital, is situated in a beautiful valley in the interior, adjoining the picturesque old castle of Carisbrooke. At the western extremity of the island are the celebrated Needlet, a cluster of chalk rocks raising their splinterv and rugged peaks high above the waters which rush and rolTin the dangerous passages that lie between. Scenery of Wales and Cornwall. — Wales has already been described as a mountainous region, the chief peaks of which somewhat exceed 3000 feet in height. It is visited by tourists from all parts of the kingdom, on account of the picturesque scenery with which it abounds, particularly in the northern district, or North Wales, Its hollows or vales contain none of those beautiful expanses of water which mix such softness with the grandeur of the Cumbrian scenery, but are traversed by impetuous rivers and torrents, according with the precipitous and savage character of the land- scape. The vales of North Wales ore deeper and nar- rower than those of South Wales; these expand in many instances into brood plains, affording scope for the operations of the agriculturist, and for the build- ing of towns and villages. A range of hills, of which Snowdon is the highest, traverses North Wales from south to north, terminat- ing at Beaumaris Bay in the tremendous steep of Pen- manmawr, whose hanging fragments threaten to bury him who travels by the difficult path which has been formed along its almost perpendicular sides. This hilly district comprehends a few tarns, or mountain lakelets, fiill of delicious fish. The general bleakness is delightftiUy relieved by the intervening vales, the largest of which is that of Clwyd in Denbighshire, 20 miles lone by about 4 or 5 in breadth, and pre- senting a brilliant picture of fertility. Amongst the lesser valea, the muet famed for beauty is that of lAan- gMen, 'where the Dee. winding through cultivated and pastoral scenes, \ ^uts at every step a varying landscape.' Festiniog, rhich a number of streams unite to form a little riv^., amidst verdant and wooded scenes, is also celebrated by tourists. Upon a hill north of Liskeard in Cornwall, the slopes of which are strewed with granite boulders, stands the curious pile called the Cheese Wrina, composed of five flat round pieces of the same rock, laid one above another, the largest towards the top, so that the whole forms a kind of inverted cone, to the height of 15 feet. Dr MaccuUoch, the eminent geologist, explains the formation of this strange object as solely owing to natural causes. Logging Stones, of which there are several in the same county, are in like manner ex- plained. The largest is one situated upon a cliffy promontory near the Land's End. It is a mass 17 feet in length, of irregular form, and believed to be about 90 tons in weight, resting by a slight protuberance upon the upper sur&ce of the cliff, and so nicely poised, that a push from the hand, or even the force of the wind, causes it to vibrate. It appears that these logging stones are simply prismatic masses of the rock, which have been left in their present situation after adjoining masses of a similar character had been removed. ANTKIUITIES, &C Perhaps the earliest objects of antiquity in England are the barrows or tumuli with which the Britons, like so many other uncivilised nations, were accustomed to cover the remains of the dead. Several specimens of these still exist, but many more have been destroyed and levelled with the soil. Their construction, con- tents, and^ther peculiarities are ^propriately noticed under ARCH.EOLOur in No. 98. Druidieal Semains rank perhaps next in point of antiquity. The most simple of these are Cromlechs, of which an unusual number is found in the island of Anglesea, once the chief seat of the Druids, who were the priests of British heathenism. A cromlech con- sists of a large slab of stone, placed flatwise, or in a sloping position, upon two upright ones. It seems to have formed an altar for human sacrifices. Druidieal circles are more complicated. They usually consist of circles of huge stones placed on end, with m some in- stances connected lines or rows of similar stones, the whole forming objects at once rude and imposing. It is believed that they were the temples of the Druids. The most remarkable Druidieal circle is that of Abury, six miles from Marlborough in Wiltshire: there is an outer circle, 1400 feet in diameter, composed of stones generally about 16 feet in height, with a distance of 27 between every two. There are small concentric circles within the large one, and in the centre of all is a crom- lech or altar for human sacrifices, composed of one long flat stone, supported by two upright ones. Two straight avenues of approach, about a mile in length, were com- posed of similar blocks, and on the outside of the outer- most circle there was a vallum or bank, the mwt slope of which was perhaps a, place for spectators. From the encroachments and carelessness of the neighbouring inhabitants during a long course of ages, this curious relic of the British people is much dilapidated. Another Druidieal circle of great note is that of Stonehenge upon Salisbury Plain, a district also presenting many tumuli and other vestiges of the Britons. The Stonehenge temple, in its perfection, consisted of 140 stones, ar- ranged in two concentric circles, the outermost 108 feet in diameter, with similar stones laid flatwise along the tops of the upright stones. The blocks which remain are from 18 to 20 feet high, and about 7 feet broad. Within the inner circle are two oval ranges, supposed to have formed the admytum or cell, and which consist of stones about 30 feet in height. The remains of this 215 CHAMBEBS'S IKFOBUiTION FOB THE PEOPLE. itopendoui temple, fragmonti m thejr are, •till produce ft lenMtioii of uwe upon the mirnl of the beholdor. Annan liemaini ui now rare, »ud iienrly obliterated. Tike roadi fonned hy thii people Lave in loiae iiiitiiucee been changed into our preiwnt comparatively broad and well-formed wnyn; in other caiiei, ulight traces of thtir original pavement, which gonerallv coiuiited of largo ■tonei forming a causeway, are to be found. Between Newcastle and Carlisle are the remains of the two walls built respectively by the Kniporors Adrian and Severus, in r.!0 and 210, to keep out tho northern barbarians: the first being a high mound of earth, and the second a rampart of stone, Gili^ miles long, running parallel to the first. All the towns, the names of which terminate in Chester or cetler, are considered as having been ori- ginally Roman stations. Near St Albaus are the re- mains of the walls which once surrounded the Hoinun town of VerukmiuiH, tho site of the town itself having long been subjected to the plough. In making exca- vations in Loudon and other places, remains of Roman buildings — temples, baths, iii:, — are frequently brought to light, proving, coutrury to nu atf'ected notion now somewhat prevalent, that Roman .civiliaatiou had made considerable progress in our island. Several of the small churches built soon after the introduction of Christianity still exist, and continue to be used as parish churches. The larger churches con- nected with monastic establishments, and the cathe- drals, which were the seats of bishops, took their rise at a later period, chiefly during tho twelfth and thir- teenth centuries. This was a t'.me when an cntliusiosm existed for founding and endowing monasteries and churches. To it we are indebted for many superb minsters, the solemn beauty of which continues to oe a proud possession of our land. Westminster Abbey, York Minster, and the cathedrals of Winchester, Liu- coin, Gloucester, Canterbury, Lichfield, and Salisbury, may be instanced as particularly aueust specimens of the Gothic style in wliich all ecclesiastical structures were then built. There are also many ruinous remains of the great abbacies of the middle ages: those of Tin- tern, near Monmouth; Glastonbury, near Wells; and Bury St Edmund's, arc of famed Dcauty. A kindred class of structures exist in what arc called crosses, which consist generally of an elegant tapering Gothic erection, with a small shriue beluw, and were in most iustauces erected to hallow the spot on which the remains of venerated persons rested on their way to the tomb. Of the huge castles built by the Norman nobility and by the sovereigns during tho first few centuries after the Conquest, many specimens still exist, but few which are not in ruins. The Tower of London, built by the Conqueror himself, is an entire and most superb example of this class of structures. Conway and Caernarvon Castles, which, with several others, were raised to overawe the then independent princi- pality of Wales, are also noble specimens. Others may be found in the north — as Lancaster, Carlisle, New- castle, and Rugby. They usually consist of a great square tower, with ranges of lesser towers, and the whole surrounded by thick and lofty walls, beneath which there was generally a moat or wet ditch. Dover Castle, placed on a lofty cliflf overlooking the Ensli.sh Channel, and still kept in good order, is a peculiarly interesting specimen of tho Norman fortress. England abounds in mansions in various styles, the seats of her no))ility and gentry. Some of these reach a high degree of splendour, both in architecture and internal furnishing, not to speak of the delightful syl- van domains by which they are generally surrounded. CITIES — TOWNS — PORTS. It has already been seen that a large part of the population of England is collected in cities and towns of considerable size. Some of these may be classed under the separate heads of manufacturing and com- mercial towns, while others are cither university towns, naval stations, cathedral towns, or towns for summer recreation or the residence of persons in independent 21G circumstances. The cities and towns of England art of sroal number, and though oilen of plain exterior, inolude all immense amount of wealth. The prevalaDce of brick in domestic buildings, and of the smoke Mising from coal fires, give ft peculiar character to Engllsn towns. In all, however, there are numerous ohuiche* and other public edifices, and in luiue there are many streets built entirely of stone i — The Metropolis. Lomlon, tho capital of England, and metropolis of the British Empire, is situated on the banks of th« Thames, in the counties of Middlesex and Surrey. Ou the spot now occuuiod by the city, ot more ancient part of the metropolis, whioh is on the left or northern Dank of tho Thames, a town liad been built and pos- sessed by tho Romans eighteen centuries ago, and irom that period it has constantly been the seat of an in- creasing and busy population. Its chief increase and improvement, however, have been since the great fire in IGdli, which destroyed a large number of the old streets and publio edifices. The original city was for- tified by a wall, whioh has long since been removed, to allow of an exp:\nsion into the a(\jaoent fields; and as the number of houses and streets without the old line of wall has at length greatly exceeded those within, the city is like a mere kernel in the moss. The extend- ing city has in time formed a connection with various clusters of population in the neighbourhood, including Westminster on the west, and by means of bridges, Southwark and Lambeth on the south. The whole metropolis, reckoning by continuous lines of bouses, extends to a length of nearly U miles, by a br^ 1 1th of from G to 7; and it is computed that the vli'le in- cludes at least U5 square miles I The following is the list of districts included within what is usually described as London, with their popu- lation in lti31 : — London within tlie. walls, 67,6^5; Loudon without the walls, (>7,07U ; city of West- minster, 202,0i)0; out-parishes within the bills of mor- tality, 701,348; parishes not within the bills of mor- tality, 293,507; Southwark, 91,501: total, 1,474,069. London within the walls contains ninety-eight parishes, most of which are very small in size, but at one time were very populous. The practice of living out of town, and of using the dwelL><."s of the city for ware- houses, has greatly lessened .i.puIation in latter times. Without tho walls, there ore eleven parishes, independently of the parishes in Westminster and Soutnwark. The largest and most populous of the suburban parishes is Marylebone. Adjoining the suburban, though really town parishes, there are various country parishes, as Greenwich, Deptford, Camberwell, Clapham, Wcstham and Stratford, Hammersmith, Ilampstead, &a, containing an aggregate populntion of 129,480; and adding this number to the above 1,474,069, there was within a compass of about eight miles round London, in 1831 , a population of 1,584,042, which in 1841 had increased to 1,873,676, and which now probably exceeds 2,000,000. Within tho last fifty years, London has doubled in extent, and at pre- sent is rapidly increasing on all sides, particularly on the north, west, and south. Of the population in 1841, 168,000 were domestic servants; 28,000 boot and shoemakers ; 23,000 tailors ; 21,000 dressmakers and milliners; 20,000 clerks; 18,000 carpenters ii:a. mmitancM. t'Init, it hu for sf^ei been the cupltal of Kngland, and lent of the legiilnturo nnd court; Mid ■inn the union with Scotland nnd Ireland, it hn* become » centre alio for thcae parti of the United Kingdom. Reing. therefore, h (Mint of attraction for the nobility, landed gentry, and other fainiliei of opulence from all quarter*, a vait inoreaie of population to ininiiter to tliu taitea and wanti of these clatnea hai been the re- lult. While deriving iinmcnio advantages from thit ceiitraliiing principle, London has been etiually, if not far more, indebted to its excellent situation on the banks of a great navigable river, and in a fine part of the country. As already mentioned, Lonilon pro]>er, or the greater part of the town, stands on the left bank of the Thames, on ground rising very gently towards the north; and so oven and regular in outline, that among the streets) with few exceptions, the ground is almost flat. On the south bank of the river, the ground is quite level, rather too much so; and on all sides the country appears very little diversitied with hills, or any- thing to interrupt the extension of the buildings. The Thames, that groat source of wealth to the metro- polis, is an object which generally excites n lively interest among strangers. It is a placid, majestic stream, rising in the interior of the country at the dis- tance of I'M miles above London, and entering the sea on the east coast about (iO miles below it. It comes flowing between low, fertile, and village-clod banks, out of a richly-ornamented countrr on the west, and arriving at the outmost houses oi the metropolis, a short way above Wostniinstcr Abbey, it pursues a winding course between banks thickly clad with dwell- ing-houses, warehouses, manufactories, and wharfs, for a space of eight or nine miles, its breadth being hero from a third to a quarter of a mile. The tides ofl^ect it for fifteen or sixteen miles above the city; but the salt water comes no further than Gravesond, of thirty miles below it. However, such is the volume and depth of water, that vessels of seven or eight hundred tons reach the city on its eastern quarter at Wapping. The nett customhouse duty collected at the port in 1U44 amounted to the amazing sum of £11,197,981, being fully one-half of the entire customs' duties of the United Kingdom > London, from the want of stone in all the eastern districts of England, is essentially a brick-bvilt toivn. To a stranger, it appears to consist of an intermin- able series of streets of moderate width, composed of dingy-red brick houses, which are commonly four storeys in height, and seldom less than three. The greater proportion of the dwellings are small. They are mere slips of buildings, containing in most in- atances only two small rooms on the floor, one behind the other, often with a wide door of communication between, and a wooden stair, with balustrades, from bottom to top of the house. It is only in the more fashionable districts of the town that the houses have Bunk areas with railings ; in all the business parts, they stand close upon the pavements, so that trade may be conducted with the utmost facility and con- venience. Every street possesses a smooth flagged pavement at the sides for foot passengers; while the central parti of the thoroughfares are causewayed with square hard stones, or paved in some other way equally suited to endure the prodigious tear and wear created by the horses and vehicles passing along them. In the central and many other principal streets of London, the ground storeys of the houses are generally used as shops or warehouses. When the object is retail trafiic, the whole range of front is usually formed into door and window, so as to show goods to the best advantage to the passengers. The exhibition of goods in the London shop-windows is one of the greatest wonders of the place. Everything which the appetite can desire, or the fancy imagine, would appear there to be congre- gated. In every other city there is an evident meagre- ness in the quantity and assortments ; but here there is the most overwhelming abundance. The flowing of the Thames from west to east through the motropolur, hn >i-ren a Mnc. dtnMlM to Hut lines of streets ; : )> ><-ipal tnoroi it'aiw an !>' measure parallel < ><' river, wit) be latek>' least shorter, street8 oran^hing ftriHt ihem. I>i> ing the town lengthwise, or from east > w«h' groat leading thoroughfares at a short >li>ijti each other, but gradually diverging at tie i extremity. It is a matter of general compi there are so few great channels of coniin > through London both lengthwise and crosswise; In inferior streets, independently of their complex bear- ings, are much too narrow for regular traffic. Accord- ing to the accounts last taken, the entire metropolii contained 13,936 separate streets, squares, courts, alleys, &c. each wiih a distinct name. Uxford Street, the longest in London, is 2304 yards in length, and numbers 325 houses on each side. Without particular reference to municipal distlnc- ins, London may bo divided into four principal por- the city, which is the centre, and where the II Uit tioni tions ■ greatest part of the business is conducted; the east end, in which is the port for shipping; the west end, or Westminster, in which are the palaces of the Queen and royal family, the Houses of Parliament, West- minster Abbey, and the residences of the nobility and gentry; the Surrey division, lying on the south side of the Thames, and containing many mnuufacturing establishments and dwellings of private families. Be- sides these, the northeni suburbs, which include the once detached villages of Stoke-Newington, Islington, Iloxton, St Paiicras, Pentonville, Senior's Town, and Paddington, and consist chieflv of private dwellings for the mercantile and higher classes, may be considered a peculiar and distinct division. It is, however, no- where possible to say exactly where any one division begins or ends. Throughout the vast compass of the city and suburbs there is a blending of one division with those contiguous to it. In the business parts there are lines or clusters of neat dwellings, and in the parts devoted to retirement there are seen indica- tions of business. The outskirts on all sides comprise long rows or groups of detached villas, with orna- mental flower-plots; and houEcs of this attractive kind proceed in some directions so far out of town, that there seems no getting beyond them into the country. From the Surrey division there extend southwards and westwards a great number of these streets of neat private houses, as, for instance, towards Walworth, Kennington, Clapham, Brixton, &c.; and in these direc- tions lie some of the most pleasant spots in the environ! of the metropolis. Manufacturing Towns. At the head of these stands Mancheskr, the chief seat of the principal manufacture of England — that of cotton. This town is situated on the river Irwell, in the south-east district of Lancashire, at the distance of ltt2 miles from London. Inclusive of Salford, a sepa- rate municipality on the other side of the Irwell, and also comprehending a few connected villages, Man- chester contained in 1831 a population of 227,808, and in 1841, 296,183. The ground on which the town stands is a perfect level, and from whatever side it is approached, its crowd of spires, towers, manufactories, and warehouses, appears mingling with the smoke that hangs over it. The older part of the town clusters round the collegiate church, an elegant and spacious structure of the time of Henry VII., or extends in the ancient street called Deansgate. The busiest com- mercial street is Market Street, and the most elegant is Mosley Street. The town contains most of the usual public buildings to be found in one of its size — a Town- Hall, infirmary, prison. Exchange, &c. besides several institutions of a literary and scientific character; and several of these buildings, particularly the two first, are of remarkable elegance. A botanic garden and public park in the outskirts of the town, are great ornaments, and form most delightful as well as in- structive places of recreation. 217 CBAHBBBSPg IXfOUUnoX fOB THS PEOPLB. Th* fMtorlM of MuohMtw cioMa \M in nunibwi thty raiploy b«tw»«n M.OOO uiU 4A.(M)(( imjmoiu, aiid ■tMm •iiKiiiary tqu*! in pow«r to «000 honvt. About four-tlfthi of th« cotton iiiwiul'actur. of the kit .{(luni omtm in Limcwihire, »na of thii • Irj-ge pro|K)rtion ii conflnwl to Mttnoh»ft«r— th«rt beiii|( in IIU'l no ftwer tb»n 1724 cottou-niilli,eiu|iloving 197,4tiO iiMiili. The woollen, linen, Mid silk triule, pnrticularljr the iMt, and muir imallvr manufacturei, m of hnti, plni, uiu- brallM, BO., are alto c«rried on to a large extent in thie town. It may b« added, that tho tnakiug of maohiner; bae of late jrear* beiHime a thriTing tray maiiufiictureni; but tho upper part haa a lupermr up|it!araiice, coimiitiiiK uf utiw and regu- lar itreoti, und cuiilaiMing u number of elegant build- iligi. Anioii):it t ho public bulldinj(i,thu Town-Hall calli for particular i aicc, buinu a luaKuiHcont itructuru of the Corinthian xrdor, in the proportion! of tho temple of J ipi< ur SiaCor at Uoniu. The |)opulation of lltrininK- haiuinlUUI wai 14U,i)U tlucnce (if th« .-^hvaf and Don, gives it health and clean- linesn; but onl} the newer street! and suburkMi viUoa are neat, and the tuwn is ctmitaiiily involved in the sinukv arising fntiii the maiiufoclDries, A mMsic-hall, [Hiat-otHce, and medical hull, t»tfeth«r with a build<«ig called the Cutlers' Hall, in which th« metnbers of that trutlu moot for an annual banquvt, are the chief public buildings boasting of any elegance of exterior. HhelHdd was famous in tho niidiUu ages for producing knives and arrow-heads. From such small beginnings, it advanced in tho course of ages to its present distinc- tion. An Immenso quantity of knives, scissors, implo- ment* of husbandry, and surgical and mathematical instruments, is now made in it. The nuuiufacture of plate, and of goods in imitation of it, as also of car- penters' tools, printing types, haircloth, and many other articles, is carried on to an immense extent. The manufactures of iijhofKeld have the peculiarity of beiuff chieily in the hands of men uf moderate capital anu limited business, though there are also a few bouses which engross a vast quantity of the principal trade. Tho establishments for tho grinding and polishing of cutlery are among the most striking ubjocts of curiosity to a stranger; and tho show-ror n of the Messrs llogers, cutlers to her Majesty, is a splendid museum, wltere all the local manufactures may b« seen, of th« best quality, and in the finest order. Coventry, an ancient city in Warwickshire, 91 milei from London, is a great seat of the manufacture of ribbons, and also of watches. Some other manufac- tures, carried on to a great extent in the last century, including gauzes and calimancoes, haw declined, leav- ing the above alone flourishing. Tho population in 1831 was 27,070; in 1841, 30,179; all except a small portion being engaged in trade and manufactures, Coventry is an ancient town of note, and contains, besides some good modem public buildings, an old church of remarkable beauty ns a specimen of Gothic architecture, and a very curious old hall (St Marv'e Hall), used for festive purposes, having a grotesquely- carved ,oak roof, and a piece of tapestrjr, wrought in 1450, measuring 30 foet by 10, and containing 80 figures. The town was remarkable in early ages for the perform- ance of the grotesque religious dramas called Myste- ries, and for the shows and pageants which took place in celebration of the visits of royal personages. One pageant of an extraordinary character has been per- formed annually ever since the reign of Charles II. It is designed to commemorate a real or imaginary incident, which is thus related: — Leofric, Earl of Mercia, who possessed the property of the tolls and services of Coventry, exacted his dues so rigidly, that the inhabi- tants were greatly aggrieved, and at length Qodiva, hie pious wife, became their advocate. The carl, wearied by her solicitations, promised to grant her request, if she would ride naked through the town at mid-day. His terms, according to the legend, were accepted, and the countess rode through the town with no coverintr but her flowing tresses. It is added, that she had modestly commanded every person to keep within doors anfl away from the windows, on pain of death; but that one person could not forbear taking a glance, and lost his life for his curiosity. The procession commemo- rative of this occurrence includes the whole of the offi- cials of the corporation, besides a female of easy pur- chase, who rides in a dress of linen, closely fitted to her limbs, and coloured like them. The curious person who stole the glance is called Peeping Tmn, and a wooden image of him is to be seen on a house in the city. Derby, the capital of Derbyshire, is an ancient, but now considerably modernised town, situated on a plea- sant slope and irregular ground, on the south side of the vale of the Derwent, a river tributary to the Trent, pursuing a winding course through the county, and of great value in moving mill-machinery. Derby is the centre of one of the most productive and industrious districts in Eusland, particulwly im respects the mauu- 219 CHAMBE?^'S iSF&BMA.nOS FOR T^E PEOPLE. liiitUre of Iron and other muwrala. In the town and its neighbourboid there are large nianufactoriei of lace, galloong, broad silkg, Bilk hosiery, china, marble, jewellery, &c.; several estensive millii and manufac- toriei have been built within these few years, and the machinery is equal to that of any other part of the kingdom. The town is irregularly built, and excepting some new erections In the corn-market, an infirmary, and an old church, with an elegant and conspicuous tower, it owns no public building worthy of remark. Though placed in the midst of a stone district, the houses are, as usual, built of brick. Within these few yean, Derby has oonie prominently into notice by being on the line of the extended series of railways from Durham and Yorkshire to London. In 1840, the town received from Mr Joseph Strutt the munificent gift of a pleasure-ground, 1 1 acres in extent, and called by him the Arboretum. It is replenished with walks, seats, and everyway fitted up for promenading and recrea- tion ; it is opened freely two days of the week to all classes, and on other days is accessible upon payment of a small fee. The population of Derby, in 1831, amounted to 23,627; in 1841, 32,407. Carlisle, which in early times was distinguished as a bulwark against the invasions of the Scottish armies, and as a cathedral city, has latterly acquired some note as a seat of manufactures, particularly in the de- partment of cotton-spinning, calico-printing, and the weaving of ginghams, &c. The establishment of rail- ^ray communication with Newcastle on the one hand, and with the west of England and with Scotland on the other, has within the last few years added to its mercantile prosperity. The population in 1831 was 20,006; in 1841 it was 23,012. ', ",;' Commercial Towns. At the head of this class stands Livei'ponl, next to Loudon the greatest port in the empire. It is situated in Lancashire, on the east bank of the estuary of the Mersey, at the distance of 86 miles from Manchester, and 204 from London. The town extends for about three miles along the Mersey, and rather more than one mile inland, the situation enjoying a slight slope towards the river. On the side next tho country, the town extends into numerous suburban di.itricts, com- prehending many villas, the residences of the more wealthy citizens. The rise of Liverpool has been sur- priiinxly rayid. In the reign of Elizabeth, it was only a smiul Tillage; in 1700, there were about 5000 inha- bitants; in 1760, 26,000; in 1801, 77,653; in 1831, 165,176; and in 1841,282,656. Urerpool is the grand medium through which the trade of England with Ireland and with America is carried on; and a vast quantity of business is trans- acted by its merchants with the - .i^s ui the Mediter- ranean, East Indies, and other p vts of the world. The leading article of import is the <. tton so extensively used in the manufactures of Lanca hire, of which, in 1830, out of 793,6215 bales imporCed into England, 703,200 were brought into Liverpool. The rural pro- duce of Ireland — cattle, bacon, poultry, eggs, &c. — forms the import next in amount, tho value iu 1-832 being about £4,500,000 sterling. The duties paid at the customhouse of Liverpool in 1844 were £4,365,526, being about a fifth of those paid throughout the whole kingdom. Its progress as a comraisroial port may be best traced from the number and burthen of tho ves- sels which have entered the docks during the last thirty years, and which has been as follows: — In 1812, 4599 vessels, and 446,788 tannage ; in 1820, 7276 ves- sels, and 805,033 tonnage; in 1825, 10,837 vessels, and 1,223,820 tonnage; in 1830,.' 1,214 vesse'' and 1,41 1,964 tonnage; in 1835, 13,941 resMls, nr ^ 68,426 ton- nage; in 1840, 15,998 vossela, and 2/i. .08 tonnage; and in 1845, 20,521 vessel, and 8,016,531 tonnage. Liverpool is tho great outlet for the goods manufactujred in Laiucashire and Yorkshire for sale in America. It is stated that one mercantile house in the Anierican trade luw in one year shipped and received goods to tho 23» amount of a million. In connection with the commerce carried on with the United States, there is a large transit of passengers. This was formerly carried on by means of a periodical series of well-appointed and quick-sail- ing vessels, usually termed /tner»; but since 1888, it has been conducted by means of steam-vessols. There are also steam-vessels conveying passengers daily to and from Dublin, Glasgow, and several Welsh ports, and only a little less frequently to other Irish harbours, and to several ports in the south-west of England, Tho town, thus so extensively concerned in that com- merce from which England derives its chief glory, pr6- sents many external features not unworthy of its mer- cantile character. Of these the chief is the Dochu, a magnificent series of deep-water harbours, extending along the whole front of the town. When those now making and those proposed are finished, they will form an aggregate superficies of 203 acres, and 15 miles of quays! In the year ending June 24, 1840, the dues paid by vessels entering and leaving them was £197,477, 18s. 6d. The sight of these docks, bristling with numberless masts, and a scene of constant bustle from loading and unloading, fills a stranger with asto- nishment. In connection with the docks of Liverpool, we may mention those of Birkenhead, on the opposite side of the river, which, when finished, will afford an amount of shipping accommodation equal to 206 acres t The rise of Birkenhead, which may date its commercial existence from 1844, is wholly unparalleled in the his- tory of this or any other nation. The town contains several handsome streets, the chief being Castle Street and Dale Street. The Town- Hall and Exchange Buildings form an elegant and impressive assemblage of objects, having a bronze group in the intermediate court, ooromemorative of the death of Lord Nelson. The Customhouse is, as might be expected, a conspicuous edifice, but in a heavy style of architecture. The ether public buildings — the Corn-Exchange, Lyceum, Athemcum, Royal ^nk, the Assize Courts and St George's Hall, Wellington Rooms, Infirmary, &c. are goodly structures. There are upwards of twenty churches belonging to the establish- ment, many of them of nxuch architectural beauty; a greater number of chapels belonging to various deno- minations of dissenters ; with four Roman Catholic chapels, a lueeting-house for Quakers, and' a Jews' synagogue. The charitable institutions are numerous and well conducted. About 1500 patients are admitted annually into the infirmary. The Blue-Coat Hospital maintains and educates about 200 boys and girls. The school for the blind is on a most extensive scale. A handsome and spacious theatre, and a circus, are open during great part of tho year. At the Royal Liverpool Institution, public lectures are given ; and attached to it is a philosophical apparatus and a museum of na- tural curiosities. A botanic garden was established in 1801 at an expense of about £10,000. There is also a mechanics' institution of unusual extent and elegance, having been erected at an expense of £11,000. It in- cludes schools for the young, as well as for the adoles- cent; and in the amount of its funds, and variety of the branches of knowledge taught, the establishment may be described as a kind of university for tho middle and working -classes of Liverpool. Amongst tha re- markable objects connected with the town, the orna- mental Cemetei-y of St James's, farmed out of an old stone quarry, is worthy of particular notice. It con- tains a statue of Mr Huskisson, Bristol, a large seaport town, is bituated partly in the county of Somerset and partly in that of Gloucester, at the junction of the r' 'ers Avon and Frome, and about ten miles from the junction of the former (which is navigable) with the Bristol Channel. It is one of a few English towns which possess the dubiously -acknow- ledged privilege of being counties in themselves, and it is also the cathedral city for the diocese of Bristol. Bristol is an ancient town, and has long enjoyed dis- tinction as a seaport. Previous to the rise of Liverpool, to which it is now greatly inferior, it was the chief port ''JENOLANB AND WALES. '.'MfUt n le comm^Ne large transit m by means 1 quick-sail- i I«89, it has , There are Ituly to and 1 ports, and ih harbours, ngland. in that com- f glory, pre- f of its mer- bhe Docks, a I, extending n those now I, they will ires, and 15 ne 24, 1840, ng them was iks, bristling istant bustle er with asto- )f Liverpool, the opposite rill amtrd an to 206 acres t 9 commercial d in the hls- streets, the The Town- elegant and ig a bronze emorative of ihouse is, as lit in a heavy buildings — Royal ^k, Wellington , There are jhe establish- beauty; a arious deno- an Catholic ,nd a Jews' re numerous |bre admitted }at Hospital ' girls. The Ire scale. A Lrtly in the lucester, at land about 1 (which is \o of a few }-acknow- jelves, and bf Bristol. loyed dis- Liiverpool, bhitf port of the west of England. It still possesses considerable trade, and has further of late years become the seat of some iKtive and thriving manufactures. In 1837, 886 ships, of 76,957 tons burthen, entered the harbour from foreign ports, besides 632 from Ireland; and in the same year, the customs duties collected were ;£!, 153,109. Sugar, rum, and tea, are the chief foreign imports; while the chief exports are the native manufactures, and cotton, woollen, and linen goods. The chief native manufactures arc soap, glass bottles, various metallic wares, drugs, dyes, and soda. It is honourable to Bristol that, as in its ancient days of supereminency as a port, it sent out the first English vessel across the Atlantic (that of Cabot, which discovered North Ame- rica), BO in these days it was the first to establish a communication by steam with the same continent. This was done in 1838, when the Great Western per- formed its first voyage. The population of Bristol in 1831 was 117,016; in 1841, 123,188. Bristol is a well-built town, containing many spacious streets and squares, and extending into several beau- tiful suburban villagee, as Clifton, Kingsdown, and St Michael's, where the residences of the wealthiest citizens are placed. The city contains many public structures of an interesting character. The cathedral is a fine old specimen of the Gothic architecture, and the church of St Mary RedclitFe is considered one of the most beautiful in Kngland. The ' floating harbour,' formed out of the ancient beds of the two rivers, and surrounded by an immense extent of quay, is a most impressive object: the cost of its construction was not much less than ^700,000. The Guildhall, Jail, Com- mercial Rooms, and Institution (which contains a li- brary, hall for lectures, &c.), are other public buildings of an elegant appearance. Clifton, well known for its hot springs, contains a suite of baths and pump-rooms, Newcastle- on -Tyne. — This ancient and prosperous Ee.-it of commerce occupies a somewhat incommodious situation on the left or north bank of the Tync, at the Uistauce of about ten miles from the sea. It is locally in the county of Northumberhuid, and by means of a brilgo across the Tyne, is connected with the populous bor:iugh of Gateshead, in the county of Durham. It owes the origin of its name to Robert, the eldest son of William the Conqueror, who erected a fortress on the high bluff which here overhangs the river, and gave it the name of Newcastle. For ages the town was sur- rounded by strong walls, as a protection against invad- ing Scottish armies: these, however, have disappeared, and in modern times the town has spread over the irregular acclivities and upland which border the river. The old fort or castle still exists, also the ancient Gothic church of St Nicholas, whose elegant turret is conspi- cuous at a considerable distance. The main cause of the increasing importance of Newcastle is its fortunate situation in the midst of the great coal-field of North- umberland and Durham, the produce of which finds a ready outlet by the Tyno. The plentifulness of coal has led to the establishment of numerous manufactures, among which are numbered cast and ^vrought iron, machinery, lead, gloss, chemical productions, pottery, soap, and glue. The gross receipts at the customhouse, which includes also the port of Shields, for the year 1848, was £456,956. The older parts of the town near the river exhibit a busy scene of industry; here are crowded together ship and boat-building yards, wharfs for vessels, iron foundries and machine maimfactories, and all the usual v-orks connected with a great seaport. The streets in this quarter are dirty and smoky, but other parts of the town are of great elegance. Since 1834, by the extraordinary energy and taste of Mr Richard Grainger, a speculating architect, a large portion of the town has been taken down and rebuilt with handsome stone houses, amidst which are various public buildings, including a theatre, an Exchange, extensive markets, &c. Newcastle must be considered the metropolis of a rich and populous district, including Tynemouth, North and South Shields (all at the mouth of the Tyue), Sunderland, DurhMn, and Gateshead; and wHh these it is intimately connected by meani of the river, railways, or otherwise. At Shields and Sunderland are the great dep6ta of shipping in the coal and other trades. Besides its remarkable manufacturing and commercial industry, Newcastle ill distinguished for its philosophical and literary institutions, no other town of its kind possessing so many inhabitants of cultivated taste. In 1831, including the population of Gateshead, which was 15,177, Newcastle and its suburbs had a population of 68,790; in 1841, the population of Gates- head was 19,843; of Newcastle, 69,430— total, 89,273. Hull (properly Kingston-upon-Hull) is situated at the confluence of the Hiver Hull with the estuarr of the Huraber, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, of which district it is the principal town. It commands an ex- traordinary amount of inland navigation, not only by moans of the Trent, Ouse, Derweut, and other branches of ^he Humber, but by means of canals connecting with those streams, and penetrating to the very heart of England. It is the principal outlet for the manufac- tures of York and Lancashire towards the continent of Europe, the chief seat of the northern whale-fishery, and one of the most important stations for steam-navi- gation in the island, having packets of that kind voyaging not only to London, Newcastle, Leith, and Aberdeen, besides many inland places in its own dis- trict, but to Rotterdam, Hamburg, and occasionally to some of the ports in what is more particularly called the north of Europe. Hull was a noted port so early as the reign of Edward I.; and in the seventeenth century it was a great state depot for arms, on which account the possession of it in the time of the civil war became an object of much importance. The re- fusal of its governor. Sir John Hotharo, to give it up at that time to Charles I., or even to admit his majesty within the gates, is a conspicuous incident in English history. For some years, owing to various circum- stances, some branches of the commerce of the port have expe^enccd a decline rather than an advance; but it is still a town of large trade. In 1829, 579 vessels, of 72,248 aggregate tonnage, belonged to Kail. For the accommodation of the shipping there is a splen- did range of docks, with all the accommodations suit- able for storing a vast quantity of merchandise. The population of the town in 1841 was 65,670. Che$ter is one of the less imiK>rtant and le'" populous of the commercial towns of England. Such importance,, however, as it possesses as a commercial town, is en- hanced by its being a county town and cathedral city, and the residence of a considerable number of persons in independent circumstances. It is also remarkable for its antiquity and its historical associations, as well as for some local features of an unusual kind. It is situated within a bend of the Dee, a few miles from the point where that river joins an estuary branch- ing from the Irish Channel. The two principal streets cross each other at right angles, and the town is still surrounded by the massive walls which were originally designed to protect it from warlike aggression, but are now only useful as aq agreeable promenade, from which some pleasant views of the surrounding country may be obtained. The streets are formed in hollows dug out of rock, so that the lowest floor of each house is under the level of the ground behind, though looking out upon the carriage-way in front. The paths for pas- sengers are not here, as is usually the ca«e, formed in lateral lines along the streets, but in a piazza running along the front of what in England is called the first, and in Scotland more correctly the secmid floor, of the houses. These piazzas, called in Chester the Rrms, are accessible from the street by sburs at convenient dis- tances. There are numerous shops entered from them, and they in some places still retain the massive wooden balustrades with which all were originally furnished, but for which, in other places, light iron railings have been substituted. Where the houses and balustrades are old, the efl^ect is very curious and striking, and apt to awaken ideas of ancient usages and habits long passed away- The cathedral of Cheater contains some curious 321 CHAMBERS^ INFOBMATIOlff FOR THE PEOPLE. Micient arcMtectUM. The cartleii » iplendid modern biulding, on the site of the powerfl.1 fortrew whroh was once of such importance m » check upon the Welsh: it contains the county court-house, jaJ, &c. The prin- cipal other buildings' are the Halls built by the mer- chants to senre as marts, of which there are three, be- sides the Exchange. The bridge across the Dee is a remarkable object, being of one arch, with a span of 200 feet; it cost £40,000. . ,. u Chester was an important station of the Komans, from whom it derired the cross form of its two prin- cipal streets, and of whom many relics have from time to time been dug up. It retained its importance dur- ing Saxon and Norman times, and in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries was a flourishing city, with a large maritime trade. It then declined, in consequence of natural obstructions to the navigation of the river. From the year 1328 downwards, it was remarkable for the annual performance of a peculiar class of theatrical representations, similar to those performed at Coventry, and termed Mysteries. To modem taste these would Mem the most gross burlesque of sacred subjects; but so convinced were the clergy of those days of their edi- fying qualities, that a thousand days of pardon from the pope, and forty from the bishop of Chester, were granted to all who attended them, After a long period of declension, the trade of Chester was revived by the cutting of a new channel for the river, whereby vessels of 600 tons burthen were enabled to come to the quays near the town. The commerce, with the exception of » few ships which visit Spain, Portugal, the Mediterra- nean, and the Baltic, is chiefly confined to Ireland, whence an immense quantity of linen, hemp, flax, skins, and provisions, is imported. The exports of Chester are cheese (the staple production of the county), lead, coal, calamine, copper -plates, and cast-iron. Ship- building is carried on to a considerable extent, and there are some manufactures of inferior consequence. The population in 1831 was 21,363; in 1841, 22,961. Southampton is an ancient, but considerably modern- ised town, the capital of Hampshire, anvi, next to Ports- mouth and Plymouth, may be considered the chief out- port on the south coast. It enjoys a situation at once pleasant and convenient, in a vale adjoining to the bay bearing its own name. In modem times, the town, has been greatly improved and increased by the erec- tiou of lines of handsome streets in the environs, the residence of a respectable and leisurely population. Among the attractions of the neighbourhood are those of the New Forest, which almost adjoins the town, and a beach forming a pleasant bathing-place in summer: few sea-side towns are more salubrious or agreeable. With the Isle of Wight, at a few miles' distance, there is a constant communication by steamboats. The South- western Railway, which terminates near the shore of the bay, has greatly advanced the interests of the town, by making it a depot of traflic in connection with the metropolis ; and there are now constructing, at a great cost, large wet-docks and wharfs for ship- ping. A considerable trade is alreadjr carried on with foreign countries, and the port is a main point of com- munication between England and Guernsey, Jersey, and Havre, in which, and some other respects, it is a rising rival of the neighbouring town of Portsmouth. The population in 1831 was 19,324; in 1841, 27,490. University Cities. Oxford, the chief of this limited class of cities, is the principal town in Oxfordshire, and is situated in a valley at the confluence of the Isis and Cherwell, at the distance of .58 miles from London. Besides being the seat of the celebrated university named from it, it is the seat of an episcopal see. Containing twenty colleges and five 'halls,' a cathedral, and thirteen elegant parish churches, besides the RadcliflTe Library, the University Theatre, and several other elegant pub>)o buildings, all condensed into a small space, amidst streets some of which are straight and elegant, while none, except a few of an obscure character, are 222 mean, Oxford appears to a stranger as beautiful exter< nally as its historic character renders it venerable. The High Street, in which several colleges are situ- ated, is generally acknowledged to be one of the finest streets in the world. The origin of the university is usually attributed, but upon no certain authority, to King Alfred. Oxford has certainly, however, been a famed seat of learning since the twelfth century. Each college and hall has its own students and teachers, re- venues and regulations ; yet they are all united under the government of one university. The officers by whom the university is immediately governed, are the chancellor, hiph steward, vice-chancellor, and two proc- tors. In addition to the private officers in each college and hall, who see that due order and discipline are preserved, and all the liberal sciences taught, there are twenty-three public professors of the several arts and sciences. In 1 844, there were 5026 members on the books, one-third of whom, in their capacities as fellows, &c. were maintained by the revenues. The students wear a peculiar dress, varied according to their status in the college. They all live within the precincts of their respective colleges. Cambridge is the chief town in Cambridgeshire, and is situated on the Cam, at the distance of 50 miles from London. It ia also an elegant city, though less so than Oxford, The university has no certain date before 1229 : it comprehends seventeen colleges, which in most respects are similar to those of Oxford. King's College Chapel, built in the reign of Henry VI., is considered the most beautiful structure in either of the two university towns. Naval Stations. Portsmouth, the principal rendezvous of the British nnvy, is situated on the west side of the Isle of Portsea in Hampshire. To the west of the island is the bay called Portsmouth Harbour, excelling every other on the coast of England for its spaciousness, depth, and security. The obvious utility of this harbour in such a situation caused it to be used at an early period as a station for shipping, and hence the rise of the town of Portsmouth on the narrow inlet by which it communi- cates with the English Channel. It is also to be ob- sen'ed that the strait between the mouth of this har- bour and the Isle of Wight, forms the celebrated road- stead of Spithead, which is capable of containing a thousand sail at anchor in the greatest security. The original or old town of Portsmouth, surrounded by ancient walls; the modem suburban towns of Portsea and Southsea, respectively situate^ to the north and south of the original town; and the town of Gosport, on the opposite side of the inlet to the harbour, may all be said to form one cluster of population, probably numbering not less than 70,000. The beach opposite Southsea being well adapted for sea-bathing, has been the cause of that suburb or village becoming a watering- place of considerable note. The docks, arsenal, building-jrards, and y'l the va- rious establishments concerned in the fittinff-out and ^ safe keeping of the national shipping, render Ports- mouth an object of wonder to all who see it for the first time. The Dockyard includes the great area of 100 acres. The Smithery is a vast building, where anchors are wrought, weighing li-om 70 to 90 hundredweight each. On the Anchor- Wharf hundreds of these useful implements are piled up, ready for immediate service. The Ropery, where the rardage for the vessels is pre- pared, is three storeys high, 54 feet broed, and 1 094 feet long. The Oun-Wharf is an immense arsenal, consist- ing of various ranges of building.i for the reception of naval and military stores, artillery, &c. The Small Armoury is capable of contiftining 25,000 stand of arms. There is a naval college, where a hundred sriiolars in time of war, and seventy in time of peace, are taught; thirty, who are the children of officers, being main- taineid and educated at the public expense. During war, the number of persons employed in the various establishments connected wit& the public service at ENGLAND AND WALES. iful exter- Teneiable. are bUu- the finert livenity is thority, to er, been a ury. Each lachen, re- ited under officers by ed, are the 1 two proc- ach college cipline are ight, there eTcral arts lembers on ipacitieg as sues. The wording to within the ^eshire, and )f 50 miles though less ertain date ;eges, which of Oxford. Henry VI., e in either the British e of Portsea is the bay sry other on , depth, and bour in such period as a the town of t communi- a to be ob- )f this har- )rated road- ontaining a urity. The lunded by of Portsea north and of Gosport, ,rbour, may , probably :h opposite ', has been Ga watering- liill the va- pg-out aud Lder Ports- for the first Irea of 100 pre anchors Iredweight liese useful Ite service, els is pre- 11094 feet |il, consist- ception of The Small Id of arms, holars in taught; |ng main- During he various Iserrice at Portimouth has amounted to 5000. The principal buildings connected with the arsenal and dockyards, are the commissioner's house, the goTemment house, ihe victualling office, the port-mlmiral's house, and the naval and military barracks, he promenade along the fortifications forms one of tht most agreeable fea- tures of the town. Amongst objects of curiosity we may specify the Victory, Nelson's flag-ship at Trafalgar; the Semaphore Telegraph ; and the house (No. 110 High Street) in which the Duke of Buckingham was tempo- rarilv residing, when in front of it he was stabbed to death by Lieutenant Felton in 1628. The church of Portsmouth is a spacious Gothic structure, with a comparatively modem tower, useful as a landmark to seamen. There are various charitable, literary, and scientific institutions connected with the town. Plymouth is another important naval station, besides being a thriving commercial town. It is situated at the head of the capacious haven of Plymouth Sound in Devonshire, on the east side of a tongue of land formed by the estuaries of the rivers Plym and Tamar, which here empty themselves into the sea. Essentially connected with Plymouth is Bevonport, situated in the immediate neighbourhood, and properly an appendage of Plymouth, though of late years distmguished by a separate name. The united population in 1841 was 76,699. Plymouth having gradually risen from the condition of a small fishing-town to its present size, most of the streets are irregular, and by no means elegant or commodious; but the new parts of the town are handsome, and are spreading rapidly. Plymouth carries on a considerable trade in timber with North America and the Baltic, and an intercourse has been established with the West Indies. The coast- ing-trade is chiefly with London, Newcastle, Newport (in Wales), and Bristol. The chief imports are coal, culm, com, wine, and timber. It is as a naval and military station that the town is chiefly distinguished. Situated upon a capacious and secure natural harbour, near the mouth of the English Channel, it is well adapted for this purpose, fleets having a ready exit from it upon any expedition towards the Mediterra- nean, the Indies, or America. The dock, which is situated at Devonport (formerly on that account called Plymouth Dock), extends along the bank of the Ta- mar, in a curve 3600 feet in length, with a width at the middle, where it is greatest, of 1600 feet, and at each extremity 1000, thus including an area of 96 acres. Of the fortifications conntsoted with Plymouth, the most remarkable is the citadel, which was erected in the reign of Charles II. It is placed in a most com- manding situation on the east end of the height called the Hoe, which shelters the town from the sea. It is exceedingly well fortified, and is constantly garrisoned. It contains the residence of the governor of Plymouth, and barracks for 600 or 600 troops. The Victualling Office, an important establishment, containing store- houses, granaries, baking-houses, and cellars for supply- ing the meat, bread, and liquors required to provision the vessels of the Royal Navy, occupies a splendid building in the adjacent township of East Stonehouse. The port of Plymouth is distinguished for its capacity, and the security which it affords in its several parts. It is capable of containing 2000 sail, and is one of the finest harbours in the world. It consists of three divi- sions or harbours — Sutton Pool, immediately adjoin- ing the town; C:itwater, an extensive sheet, formed by the estuary of the Plym ; and the harbour or bay of Hamoaze. At the mouth of these harbours^ the great bay of Plymouth Sound forms an excellent roadstead, which is now completely secure by the erection of the breakwater across its entrance. [For an account of this immense structure, see B'eakwalern, p, 432, Vol. I.] The Eddystone Lighthouse is also an important ap- pendage to the harbour, the entrance of which would, without this beacon, be extremely dangerous. The public buildings of Plymouth are — the Custom- house, the Exchange, the Athenseum, the Public Library, ^he Theatre, the Clamical and Mathematical School, the Mechanics' Institute, &e. Of the two parish churchef, the most ancient is that of St Andrew, built previously to 1291, a handsome building of the Gothic order; Charles's Church is also a Gothic structure. Among the charitable institutions, which are about 30, are a workhouse, a public dispensary, an eye-infirmatv, a lying-in diarity, a public subscription school, alms- houses, Bible societies, &c. Towns of Residence and Recreation. Bath, — This is reckoned the best -built town in England, and is a favourite residence of the higher classes, either for recreation or in pursuit of health. It is situated in Somersetshire, at the distance of about 108 miles west from London, and lies in a valley di- vided by the River Avon. Though of great antiquity, the place came into notice and rose to importance in comparatively modem times, in consequence of pos- sessing certam hot mineral springs, considered to be efficacious in the cure of diflferent complaints. The water issues from tho ground at a temperature of from 1 09° to 117° of Fahrenheit, and the quantity discharged daily from the various outlets is 184,320 gallons. The water has been analysed, and is found to contain sul- phate of lime, with considerably lesser proportions of muriate of soda, sulphate of soda, carbonic acid, and carbonate of lime, also a minute portion of silica and oxide of iron. It is stimulating in its properties, and is said to be most successful in cases of palsy, rheuma- tism, gout, and cutaneous diseases. Over the springs there :' re elegant pump-rooms and baths. Thi modem parts ul' the town are built as streets, crescents, and squares, the houses being of polished sandstone, and in some instances constructed with much taste. Li'<'Ramsgale, situated on the coast of Kent, and which may be considered as the chief places of cummer lecnation for the inhabitants of 223 CHAMBEBS'S INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE. London, to and frora which •teainers ply daily. Heme Bay is a place of rocent date, rising into notice, and posseuiug a pleasant open beach, with space for pro- menading. Margate is a town of a much earlier date, situated in an open part of a bold line of chalky cliffs, and consists of a confuBe' cluster of streets, with some lines of building of a more airy description in the en- virons. The town is well supplied with shops, bazaars, and places of amusement during the bathing-season; it also possesses numerous respectable buardin^-houses, where, on moderate terms, a person may i-eude for a short time in a very agreeable manner. At these houses, parties of pleasure are made up for the day, the ex- pense of cars and refreshments during the excursion Deing defrayed by general contribution. Within a mile or two along the coast is another summer retreat called Broadstaira; and beyond it, at an equal distance, is Kamsgute. The chalk clitfs here, which are bold niid precipitous, afford a high and salubrious position for the chief part of the ^own, and beneath there is a fine tract of sandy beach for the use of bathers. The har- bour at Kamsgate id one of the best in England, and affords shelter to all kinds of vescels in the Downs, Cathedral Towns. Of this class of towns, besides those which have been already noticed under other heads, we can here only lulvert to three of more than usual importance: — Canterbury, the capital of Kent, is a city of great antiquity, having formed the seat of an ecclesiastical establishment to St Augustine, the apostle of Christi- anity to Britain in the sixth century. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, the towa derived great importance from the erection or extension of a cathedral, on a most extensive scale, and of the purest Gothic architecture. In 1 1 62, the archiepiscopal see was bestowed on the famous Becket, who enjoyed it eight years, till the period of his murder in !170, when his shrine became an object of extraordinary reverciice, and brought pil- grims in thousands from all parts of the kingdom. The cathedral, which thus became celebrated, still exists, in a slightly-altered and improved condition. Its form is that tf a cross, with a central tower of unrivalled workmanship, reaching to a height of 236 feet. The size of the building is iinmenH«: the length inside, from east to west, being 514 feet; height of tho vaulted roof, 80 feet; breadth of the nave and side aisles, 71 feet; and breadth of the cross aisles, from north to south, 124 feet. The interior exhibits a number of interesting monuments of distinguished individuals. Altogether, the cathedral is a work of exceeding gran- deur, and, with exquisite i>eauty of form, possesses a profound historical mterest. The town of Canterbury 18 old, and, like most cathedral towns, is a dull and foimal place of residence, with a proportion of genteel inhabitants. It is, however, neat and clean, and is surrounded by a fertile and pleasant tract of country. It has a number of large hotels and posting-houses, to accommodate the numerous travellers passing between the metropolis and Dover, the chief out-port ror France. The distance from London is fifty-six miles, and from Dover sixteen. The only object of attraction in the town besides the cathedral, is a pleasure-ground called the Danejohn, a corruption ot' the word donjon, such a building having once occupied the spot in connection with the city walls. The area of the f.eid is laid out with an avenue of trees, and is principally otherwise a grassy esplanade, open freely to all the inhabitants. In 1 7!)0, the field was prei ;nted by Mr Alderman Jamej Simmonds for the use ai 1 recreation of the inhabitants in all time coming — pv act of generosity deserving tho highest commendation. The mpulatiou of Canterbury in 1831 was 14,463; in 1841, 15,422. Yoyk is considered as the second city in the kingdom ill point of dignity — the chief town of the county, and the cathedral city of the archiepiscopal diocese bearing its name — is situated at the confluuiioe of the rivers Foss and Orse, in one '^f the richest and most extensive plains in England. Its population in 1031 was 25,35!>: 224 in 1841, 30,152. York, whatever its first rise might be, was a city of the Romans, and occupied by Roman citizens as a colony. It was successively tho seat of Adrian, Severus, and other emperors: Severus died here in the year 210. At the time of tho Norman Conquest, it was a city of considerable consequence and size. This eminence it retained for several centuries, but latterly it has sunk into a mere county and cathedral town ; that is to say, a ^lace where a considerable number of legal and ecclesiastical functionaries reside, and from which articles of necessity and luxury are diffused over a neighbouring rural district. It is entered by four principal gates or bars, has six bridges, a cathedral, twenty -three churches, besides places of worship for various dissenting bodies; a guild- hall, county-hall, and other public buildings. The most remarkable object by many degrees is the Cathedral, or Minster, a most superb specimen of the Ootbic archi- tecture, nieasuring in length 5244- feet; in breadth across the transepts, 222 feet ; the nave being in height W, and the grand tower 213 feet. The various parts were built at different times between 1227 and 1377. The parts most admired are the east window, and the screen dividing the choir from the body of the church. This window consists of upwards of 200 compartments of stained glass, containing representations of the Supreme Being, saints, and events recorded in Scripture. The screen is a piece of carved wood-work in a highlv-oma- mental style. The chapter-house is also much admired : it is a magnificent structure, of an octagonal form, 63 feet in diameter, and 68 feet in height. York Minster has within the last ten years twice suffered severely from fire. The damage produced on the first occasion — namely, the destruction of the wooden work in the choir — was completely and successfully repaired; that which took place on the second occasion, and which consisted of tho destruction of the interior of one of the smaller towers and the roof of the nave,, has also been repaired. York was at one time a commercial town of some importance, conducting trade by means of the river Ouse, which is navigable for vessels of 120 tons burthen. It still possesses a few small manufactures. Winchester, a town of great antiquity in Hampshire, at the distance of 62 miles from London, is situated in the bottom of a rich grassy vale, through which flows the Itchin, a small river which issues into the sea at Southampton. There was a town here before the Chris- tian era, and it afterwards became the principal city of the Danish, Saxon, and Norman dynasties. It was the scene of Alfred and Canute's glories ; and here, with innumerable princes, bishops, and abbots, they lie interred. Till the revolution, it continued a chief place of residence of the royal family ; a palace built by the Stuarts is now used as a barrack for soldiers. In the reign of Edward III. (1366), Winchester became tho episcopal see of the celebrated William of Wykeham, who great'.j' improved the cathedral, and instituted a college for the cducatinn of youth. The cathedral has undergone various mutations; but being lately repaired and cleaned, is now one of the finest structures of the kind in Britain. The splendid mausoleum of William of Wykeham, in ono of its aisles, is an object of great interest. At a short distance from the cathedral are placed the venerable buildings composing the College of Wykeham, at which a number of young gentlemen are educated and prepared for the university. Another highly-interesting object of antiquity is the Hospital of St Cross, situated about a mile down the Itchin. Founded by Henry de Blois, bishop of Winchester, and brother of King Stephen, in 1136, St Cross is the most perfect specuuen remaining in England of the conventual establishments of the middle ages, and affords a residence and means of subsistence to thirteen indigent old men. Winchester is composed of a variety of old streets, and seems among the least improved towns in England. Latterly it has been inspired with a little animation, by becoming a station on the line of the London and Southampton Railway. Population in 1831,9212; in 1841,9370. SCOTLAND. aERM AN ^ OCEAN iVHMatlo Scotland, one of the component parts of Great Bri- tain, occupies the northern, the smaller, and less fertile portion of that island. It lies between lat. 54° 38' and 58° 40' north, and between long. 1° 46' and 6° 4' west, or, including the Hebrides, 7° 44' west. It is thus washed on ^he west and north by the Atlantic, and on the east by the German Ocean; and on the south is bounded by England, the Sol way Firth, and part of the Irish Sea. Its coast-line presents the most fantas- tic irregularities: here jutting into the ocean in high narrow peninsulas, there receding far inland, in lake- like gulfs, and again suddenly starting seaward, and breaking into X number of bold rocky headlands. Its greatest length, from the Mull of Galloway on the south to Dunnet Head on the north, is about 280 miles; its breadth is variable, being about 146 miles between Buchan Ness in Aberdeenshire and the extreme point of Ross -shire on the west, but diminishing to little more than 30 miles between the Firths of Forth and Clyde. The entire surface is estimated at 30,094 square miles, of which 26,014 are mainland, and 4080 insular, SUPERFICIAL FEATURES. Superficially, the country may be described as moun- tainous and rugged — its central and southern districts, however, exhibit less of this character; hence the com- mon distinction of Highlands and Lotolands. A line drawn from Aberdeen to Glac-'ow may be regarded as the boundary between the two regions — the former a country full of romantic scenery, savage precipitous mountains, lakes, dreary moorlands, rushing streams, deep glens, and wild hanging woods; the latter being less elevated and irregular, but still presenting several considerable mountain-ranges, A more correct division, perhaps, would be into northern, central, and southern regions: the first comprising the Highlands proper; the second that triangular space enclosed by the line drawn from Aberdeen to Glasgow, and another line formed by the courses of the Clyde and Twesd ; and the third region all the counties to the south-west of these rivers. The principal mountain-rauges and groups are : — 1. Those north of the Caledonian Canal, an irregular and rugged conformation, of which the highest points are No. 65. Ben More, Ben Wyvis, and Ben Attow— the last 400(1 feet. 2. The Grampians, a well-detinod, but branching range running across the country — the highest peaks of which are Ben Cruachan, Ben Nevis, Ben Avon, Caini- gorum, Caimtoul, and Ben Macdhui-the last 4390 feet. 3, The Central or Lowland Group, the component chains of which are the Ochil, Sidlaw, Cainpsie, Lo- mond, Pentland, and Lammermuir Hills — the highest point being Ben Clach in Clackmannan, 2359 feet. 4. The Cheviots, with their continuation the Lowthers, &c. that form the great water-shed of Southern Scot< land, none of which exceed 2700 feet. All thest; chains or groups cross the country, and preserve a wonderfUI degree of parallelism : indeed, taking the Forth as thtf central depression of a vast trough, the edges of which are formed respectively by the Grampians and Che- viots, all the other hill-ranges, both geologically and in point of altitude, may be looked upon as so many descending steps to the centre. There are no great plains in Scotland, a feature not to be expected from the limited extent and pecolior configuration of the country. There are, however, ft number of considerable valleys, known as carses, straths; haughs, and dales, intermediate between the mountain' ranges; and these form, as it were, the granaries of the country. The principal of these are, Strathmore— that is, 'Great Valley' — lying between the Grampians Mid Ochils, and extending through part of Perth, Forfar, and Kincardine; the Carse of Oowrie on the notth of the Tay; Strathearn, lying along the course of the Earn to where it joins the Tay; the Carse of Stirling and Falkirk, in the valley of the Forth; the Howe of Fife, lying along the Eden ; Clydesdale ; and the Merse of Berwick, The cultivated grounds, which form scarcely a third of the whole surface, chiefly lie in tracts sloping to the sea-coast, and in the lower parts of these vales. The less precipitous hilly districts are chiefly occupied as pastoral ground for sheep and cattle. Wood, which once covered a large portion of the surface, is now chiefly confined to the neighbourhood of gentlemen's seats, and to plantations which have been raised withi::. the last sixty years for the protection of arable lands from the cold easterly and north-easterly winds. OEOLOOICAL STRUCTURE, The rock formations of the country commence with the earliest primaries, n I if we except a few insigni- ficant and dubious patt .ea, terminate with the coal- measures, or the immediately overlying new red sand- stone. The Highlands constitute one of the best examples of a primary country, whose strata are con- torted and disrupted into a thousand irregularities by effusions of granite, greenstone, and other early igneous rocka ; and with the exception of a small secondary basin in the plain of the Tweed and along the Solway Firth, the same remark is applicable to all the southern mountainous part of the country. The secondary for- mations — old red sandstone, carboniferous limestone, and coal-measures, with their associated traps and basalts — occupy the central portions of the country, forming a broad band, which is bounded on the north by a line drawn from Stonehaven to the mouth of the Clyde, and on the south by one drawn from Dunbar to Girvan in Ayrshire. In this banc* or trough, which slopes from both sides to the Forth and Clyde, occur the coal, limestone, aad ironstone, which, within the last thirty years, have so much contributed to the commercial advancement o.' Scotland. The chief mineral produ » of the country consists of excellent granite, as that of Aberdeen and Kirkcud- bright ; marble, as that Trom Assynt ; slate from Balla- hulish, &c,; limestone in almost every county; building 225 OHAMBEBS'S INFORMATION FOB THE PEOPLE. •tonM of flnt-rate quality, m thoie of Fife wid Mid- Lotliian; coal from the exteniive fieldi of Fife, Mid- Lothian, Linlithgow, Stirling. Lanark and Ayr; iron- ■tone in moat of thwie coal-fleldg, but principally in Lanark and Fife; lead mainly from the Lowther range; ■ilrer i» extracted in imall quantities from the lead; ■trontian in found in Argyle ; antimony in Ayrshire; alum ii obtained in large quantities from the ooal- ■hales near Campsie; clay, for tiles and bricks, is found abundantly; and several of the precious stones, as garnet, rock-crystal, and agate. HTDROORAFHT. The ff*^», ^lf>f *traits, kc. as already hinted, are extremely numerous and intricate. On the east the principal are — Dornoch Firth, a large open expanse of water; Cromarty Firth, of considerable depth, and ao completely landlocked, that it would form one of the finest harbours in the world; Moray Firth, running far inland, and communicating, by means of the Caledo- nian Canal, with the Atlantic Ocean ; the Firth of Tay, navigable for large vessels to Dundee, and to smaller crait to Perth; and the Firth of Forth, running inland for fifty miles, presenting several subordinate bays, containing a number of indifferent harbours, and navi- gable for ships of any burden to Alloa, and for small steamers to Stirling. On the south and west coasts there are — the large shallow estuary of the Solway; Wigton Bay; Iiuce Bay; the importf.3t Firth of Clyde, with its several picturesque lochs, navigable for large vessels as far as Glasgow Bridge, and communicating with the Forth by means of a canal. To the north of this the indentations and creeks vernacularly called loehs and sounds become so numerous and complicated, that their figure and extent will be best comprehended by referring to the map. The capet, or, as they are locally styled, ' heads and nesses,' are equally numerous. The principal are — Cape Wrath, Dunnet Head, and Duncansby Head, on the north ; Tarbet Ness, Troup Head, Kinnaird's Head, Buchm Neiis, Buddon Ness, Fife Ness, and St Abb's Head, on the east; Southemess, Burrow Head, and the Mull of Oallowry. on the south; CorsUl Point, Mull of Cantire, Mull of Oe, Point of Rinns, Ardna- murchan, and Stoir Point, on the west; Aird Point, in Skye; Barra Head and the Butt of Lewis, vespec- tively the southern and northern extremities of the Hebrides; and Sumburgh Head, the most southerly projection of the Shetland islands. Most of these neadlands are the sites of lighthouses or beacons, and form important objects to the navigator. The iilandt and outlying rocks connected with Scot- land constitute one of its most characteristic features — forming, as they do, nearly a sixth part of the esti- mated area of the country. Their value, however, is by no means proportionate to their extent — most of them having rugged coasts and bare hilly surfaces, exposed to the injurious influences of the sea-breezes. The east coast presents no islands, with the exception of those in the Firth of Forth, the chief of which are Inchoolm, Inchkeith, and the Isle of May, the two last being surmounted by lighthouses. At the entrance of the Forth is the Bass Kock, a singular basaltic mass, rising perpendicularly from the sea to the height of 400 feet, bearing a scanty herbage, which pastures a few sheep, and being the favourite resort of the gannet or solan goose. About twelve miles east of Buddon Ness lies the Bell-Rock, or Inchcape, a dangerous ledce, about 850 yards in length and 110 in brea - 76,800 2fi,H48 Linlithgow. Nairn 124,800 11.218 Nairn. Orkney & Shetland, 819,200 60,790 Kirkwall. Peebles, - - - 204,180 10,520 PeebluH. Perth, - - - - 1,886,320 138,131 Perth. Renfrew, - - - 144,000 134,735 Ptigley. Ross, 1,682,880 67,618 Tain. Itoxburgh, - - 487,800 40,008 Jedburgh. Holkirk, ■ ■ - . 168,320 7,899 Selkirk. Stirling, - - - 312,960 82,179 Stirling. Hutherlnnd, - - 1,122,860 24,686 Dornoch. Wigtoh, - - - 288,960 89,179 Wigton. Total, - . - 18,944,000 2,820,810 A(>f<.— The word Scotland Is of dubious and disputed origin i all that la known for certain being, that tho term Scoti was applied to the PictUh inhabitants of tho western comer of tho country so early as the second century. The topographical nomenclatiuv Is chiefly Celtlu and Saxon ; hence the ITequent occurrenoo of the fbllowing prefixes and terminations x—Ben, mountain ; brat, highland ; fill, moigitaln ; law, mount ; dun, hill; cairn, heap of stones, or stony hill; craig, rocky height; ard or aird, headland or height; ntu, promontory; itrath, large valley; glen, steep narrow valley; blair, open field or plain ; aber, Inver, auchter, at tho mouth or confluence of a river ; kil, cell or church; ba{, dwelling or town ; kat, kin, head or height; inch. Island ; more, largo ; and so on. REMARKABLE SCENERY — NATUR>'. CURIOSITIES. The comparatively irregular surface of Scotland, or, as a geologist would remark, its being more generally formed of the primitive and early rocks, haa caused tho existence of much picturesque and romantic scenery, the attractions of wnich have been greatly heightened of late years by the works of the native poets and novelists, particularly Sir Walter Scott. The Highlands may be said to fonu one wide tract of such scenery, though some parts are considerably more beautiful than others. The finer scenery in Scotland generally lies along the beda of lakea or the rales of rivera. Tho chief tracts are the following: — Lower Perthshire. The Tro*'xh» and Loch Katrine, — This is a beautiful district, t'tuated at the distance of little more than 25 milea irom Stirling, and remarkable aa the scenery of Scott 'a 'Lady of the Lake.' It may be said to commence at the large Lowland village of Callander, which ia only 16 miles from Stirling. This village lies in the bosom of the valley of the Teith, with lofty hills on all sides except the east, and apparently occu> pying the last patch of level ground before the traveller enters the Highlands. The sunounding scenery is woif. SCOTtAND. iiora limpU iloniR. For ed into 3S ei. Ill the alphabet!- >ulation ao lunty Towns. bcrdcon, ivurury, y- unir. roonlnwr. othnay. Uoo. roninrty. iiiiiibHrton. luinfric s. iDINBUnuH. :i«in. 'iipar. "orftir. laddiiiRtnn. nvenieBd. ilonvliiivon. vinrom. vlrkcudbrlght. ^anurk. ,lnllthgow. Sulm. IvlrkwHll. fuebluH. Purth. [•alsley. rain. ledbiirgh. Selkirk. Stirlirg. Dornoch. Wigton. Inni tuted origin! m ScoH was corner of tlio topographical the frequent latlons -.—Ben, mount; dun, rooky height; itralh, large plain ; aUr, er; kit, cell or height; inch. OSITIBS. Scotland, or, e generally caused tho tic scenery, heightened poets and Highlands .cb scenery, beautiful generally ivers. Tho A beautiful more than Ihe scenery |be said to J Callander, fhis village , with lofty ently occu- ^e traveller leiy is woi;. thy of being explored; two places, in particular, should be Tisited. The first is the P