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INBTltOT^ON^ IR. OKTAI^a ^^: i (RaiMrmW from the CSttnocia law Jburridt, Jap. 2, 1897.) '^'t ^ \ By CI.R..11ir.^iQOAB.Q.C., Toronto. , a. tSe MuiaciPAL gpv^nment Of Ontario. (Prei»re4 /or t^e Amerioaa Aiioolataoii for tiie Advanoe of Sia^iitNC) v« ^ ~ ' >^^ ' B^ "C. C. JaJms, M.A. " ■.''~' 't.^^ "' ^ ... 1 '» 4. THE mVEi ^?MENT OF AGRTCULTURE tN ONTARIO. ' ,, ' ' ' /'i l^mTpp BY 0|tP£R OF ] / THE. LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY Of ONTARia ^1 A% ; . ■^i I \ 1 ^Ol?o^'2'0; 180B. , BM "M l I " "' ■ I ' H li r | -T7 ,i il i M i i i|i | . i iiw II I II .p.;ss=: ^JsX 3 r'*' _ ^ - 4 if -Al J ^iS iVcW CANAt>tANA dZZ coiieciloN AT KtNQffTON ONTAKlO CANADA vesMmmsssBiSB^^^mSSiM The EDITH and LORNE PIERCE COLLECTION of CANADI ANA §lue€n*s University at Kingston li^|^^^^;s^s.a ^^x' '/■r '* i,*^'! v.. APPENDIX TO THE REPORT / v> OF THE ONTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES 1896. Ur? 1. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ARITHMETIC. (An Address before the Political Science Club of Toronto University,) By S. MoRLEY WicKETT, Ph.D., (Leipzig), Fellow in PoliticaU Scknct at Toronto University. 2. THE GROWTH OF MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS IN ONTARIO, (Reprinted from the Canada Law Jmii-nal, Jan. 2, 1897.) By C. R. W. BiGGAR, Q.C., Toronto. 3. THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT OF ONTARIO. (Prepared for the American Association for the Advance of Science,) By C. C. James, M.A., Secretary Ontario Bureau of Indit^tries. 4. THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. (An Address before the Political Science Club of Toronto University,) By C. C. James, M. A. Toronto. ti^i PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY OF ONTARIO. %r\ : -^i y TORONTO : WARWICK BRO'S & RUTTER, PRINTERS. &o., &c., 68 and 70 FRONT STREET WE&T. >\ POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ARITHMETIC. » An AnDRESH before the Political Science Club of Toronto University, ON February 3rd 1898. To-day, in America, the currency problem, the question of the tariff, and the riddle of the exchanges are arousing public sentiment to a keen appreciittion of a knowledge of economic and of social facts. And not alone in federal, but also in local circles the demand is )>ecoming ever stronger for reliable and complete official returns. As early as 1874, the late well-known Amer- ican Economist and Statistician, General Walker, wrote ; " The coimtry is hungry for informa- tion ; everything of a statistical character, or even of a statistical appearance, is taken up with an eagerness that is almost pathetic : " Though, he adds significantly, "the community have not yet learned to be half skeptical anu critical enough in respect to sucli statements." Fifteen years later another eminent authority, Carroll D. vVright, at present Director of the Washington Labor Bureau, was still able to state that : " In this country the popular demand for statistical information is usually far in advance of the government," And he too adds, the need for skilled compilers of such returns is great indeed. These remarks can apply, in the main, also to Can- ada, though at times in a modified sense, for on the whole, Canadians in the past have not been as nationally curious as their American friends. However, there is now growing up in Canada a strong desire for statistical information which is decidedly encouraging. Not alone for the mercantile classes is this the case, but it is true also for the administrative authorities, federal, provincial and municipal, as well as, and no less, for the student of social and of economic prob- lems in this country, whose numbers are happily growing, and with sympathy will increase still faster. Without attempting to refresh your nainds on the prime importance of statistics for all classes of thinkers — that were in these latter days hardly necessary — I have ventured to choose " Statistics " meaning thereby, a sketch of the history of statistics, as the subject of this paper before the Political Science Club for two reasons : because in thi; ' liversity, as indeed through- out Canada, there is no special attention given to this intensely pn otical subject ; and, again, that I might take this opportunity to refer to the character of some of our Canadian statistical publications. When "statistics " are referred to, the student may have in mind two fdirly distinct concep- tions : on the one hand, of a mere bald tabulation of facts like the accounts of a simple shop- keeper, on the other, of a perspicuous, methodical arrangement of these facts with reference to the general truths which they would demonstrate. This is, the word " statistics" may mean at one time merely statistical material or data, at another, so called scientific statistics. Statistical data there has been for long ages. An official statistic — and this use of the sing- ular form of statistics is becoming more and more legitimate — carried out by the Emperor of China over 4000 years ago is preserved to us by Confucius in the first chapter of part two of the Chou-King, the oldest Chinese book. The book of Numbers and many other parts of the Bible also give accounts of dififerent enumerations of the fighting men of a tribe and the like. During early times, however, conceptions of arithmetical quantities were so crude and systems of nota- tioas and of enumeration so undeveloped that the' value and extent of much early statistical work must. not be exaggerated. Even down to modem times, as the statistical hyperbole of many a [3] i^'^iUla ONTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES. V aciibe will attest, the value of n cypher or two at tho end of n number waa often very inadequate ely appreciated , and Hotue people would oven venture to say that the siniu sbitument could he apiilied locally to-day I Truu it is, at luaat, that wo have ofton wondered at tho surprising fol- lowing of a Xerxes, and at tho astoniHhing number of deaths in some plague-stricken mediaeval town, which later invoHtigation shows to have been quite impossible. In Konian times especially celebrated, not alone for Hnanciil but also for political and for social reasons, was the Roman census, which tradition dates from the time of ServiuH Tullius. The census under tho Republic was made every five years, and for a time under tho Empire every ten. It is claimed indeed that tho Romans, if they may bo repreHented by Cicero, had a true C(jncei)tion of the nature and importance of administrative statistics ; for in his de uratoie, lib. ii., Cicero states categori- cally " af things, without which there was no public safety " made his influence felt in the same direction : as did also the need of detailed information on the part of several of the over-trodden continental States both during and after the Napoleonic war. There was this difference, however, between then and now, that then all official information was looked upon as the peculiar and invioLate property of the government. Wo have spoken thus far of administrative staiistics, not of scientific statistics ; and the development of statistics in the latter sense, that is, as the arithmetical science of facts, natural, social and political, has been peculiar. The word statistics itself, was first coined or roughhewn in Italy and polished in Germany. In Italy rayioni dl stato was the science of the State, and the publicist or statesman, familiar with such department, was called Matistit. Thus Shakesjjoai'e in Cymbeline speaks of a statesman as a " statist" : for which reason some of the English dele- gates to the Statistical Congress at London in 18(50 i)ropo.sed that those having to do with statistics should be called "statists." But the German University professors had long since taken over the Italian expressions, and having giving them a Latin form had popularised then). And "status" was their new word for state and "statisticus" that for statistics. Hence the word " statistician " (Statistiker) as well has been preserved. Vi POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ARITHMETIC. ThJH (iriKin r>f tho wonl rIiowh tliiit nt thnt time iiUtiHtica hs a fiolcl for rosonrcli wore of % quite ditfurunt chnrncter and oxtent to what they aru at present. For thune early statiiticit thui umbracud all tnattura of interest to publicists — political geography, and general adniinistrativo and constitutional organization. Their aim waH to give political wisdom and to thU end thuir subject matter was, in short, to use a then familiar [)hrase, "the remarkable thingn of the State." For this reason they have been called "descriptive statisticH." And so Sansovino's work, Del Oovernn ot Amministracione di diversi Regni et Republiche, etc., published in Venice about 1663, and regarded by M . Block as the Krst statistical work, dencribes some twenty different countries cosi antiche, come moderne, now ancient, now modern. It even included a deHoription of the Republic Utopia of "Tomaso Moro, Cittadino di Londra.", (I) but it is ahnost bare of any ciphering. And this latter may bo said also of tho writipgu of Oonring in the seventeenth century, the founder of (jrorman University Statistics ; and again, of Achenwall, Professor of the Political Sciences at Ooettingen in the middle of la.st century, who becauHo of his more conscious treatment of statisticn as a department of political science, has since been called the " father of statistics." The well-known French title " Etat de la France " is a literary souvenir of somewhat similar conditions. It was this class of work that in Germany went by the name we have just mentioned, of "University Statistics," and the name is still used, though with a aomewhat altered meaning. This mention of Goettingen and of academic statistics makes necessary passing reference to a curious but not on that account less warm strife between two sots of eighteenth century statisticians. The Dane Anchorson, had published in 1741 a ' statistical ' work arranged throughout in tabular form. And the model thus given was copied in Germany by Ochhardt and others, who laid stress on the tabular presentation of facts. At times even sentences and paragraphs were arranged to appear like tables ! Though there was often no essential difference in the value of their statistical matter, yet the Goettingen School were pleased to contemptuously dub their rivals " Knights of the (statistical) table,"^ and to refer to their work as " vulgar " in style. Amusing 'nough the main ground of strife thus was, there seems to have been this difference that the ' Knights ' although having it seems, less ready access to official information, devoted more attention to arithmetical data than the academic men, and showed on the whole a more lively appreciation of succinctness of statement. In a certain sense then the ' Knights ' may be said to have beaten the first mould for later German statistical work. In the meantime, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, statistical work of a somewhat more specific nature whs shaping itself especially in England, under the characteristic name of " Political Arithmetic " Political arithmetic first embraced all calculations of national concern ; population, trade, etu. And so this period of colonial expansion and of commercial development, a period of keen rivalry in these matters between Holland, France and England, was the peculiar era of such work. And with this work will always be associated the names of Petty, of Davenant, of John Graunt and of many others. The conception of political arithmetic, however, has since been narrowed to refer rather to practical calculations, such as that now carried on in England by actuaries, — computations with regard to pensions, to interest, to rent, and at times calculations of probabilities as seen in the mortuary tables of our insurance companies. There has long been political arithmetic ; and considerable political arithmetic there will always be. But it is a pity that such an honorable name should be known only by its epitaph ; for the expressions Political Arithmetic and Social Arithmetic seem in many ways both moro inviting and more suggestive than the vague and hybrid term statistics. Moreover, the latter word has a repellant, unmusicial sound that in practice must probably be discounted at the expense of popular interest. *An agreeable rendering of "Tabellenknechte." '^i> .ii-J'-ii>ti",;,>.._\'^i.:j'-J '-i"-i\ **D'-i.- ONTARIO BUREAU OP INDUSTRIES. , 1 , I On thu continent iind in Eii^land thon, Htiitiatiail work of n curtain kind wai* huinK profitAlily carried on, Init it wan not until tlie proHcnt cuntury, indued, not until toward the niiddlu of tho century, that much further progreHH waH iiiiide in acientitic Htatiatics. That is, not until the pro- vincu of BtatiHtics had heoomo Iuhh encyclopedic, and more clearly defined by tlio unfranchiHennnit of Politicul Economy hh well hh l)y that of Oeogrui>hy and Ethnolnj^y, nf thu departmenta of Ad- ministrative Organisation, and of (constitutional History , Independent atatiatical work advanced therefore, hut alowly : thoui^h hy the middle of last century the foundation of population HtatiH- tics, or demography, wan well laid by a PrusHian Pastor, HueHaniilch. SueNsmilch's standpoint, however, was theological. He sought to prove by the relative fre(|Uoncy of births and of dcatliH, and by thu numerical proportion in which men and women stood to onu another, uHpecially at the marriageable age, etc., that the Divine Laws with rej;ard to Hocioty were an eternal and exact arithmetic. TIuh theological study of society has been continued in oiir own century ospeciaily •by Oettingen in his " Moralstatistik." In this connection the essay of Malthua on Population' need hardly be mentioned, for Malthus' work was not statistical in character, but rather of tho nature of a compilation. Thus indirectly and also directly statistics as a valuable ancilliary science was impressing pul)lic opinion ; and the rbsult has been of late genuine sympathy between scholars and practical atatisticians. The British Associatiftn, whose meetings were held in this City last sununer, added a statistical section in 18.S0 ; and soon after was founded in Man- chester a local statistical society, and in London, tho Koyal Statistical Society. If the final impetus to sUitistical activity can belaid to the credit of one man, that man was the Holgian Math- ematician, Astronomer and Statistician Quetelet. This able thinker through his writings which enjoyed considerable popularity, by his enthusiastic championing of statistical investigations, and by tho i)rilliant success he achieved in connection with the administration of tlio Belgian Census of 1840, and again through his epoch-marking publication of the full census returns, attracted tho attention of Euiope to his favorite subject as never before. And from this time i)ractice and science have worke.!. . i\ • ■' ..V ': ;,' .._f;V:;-i '«^f .'*. ; V- -1 ■. ■ './ 'y-.^ \ .. ^^er™^**!!,;,;:,!;';'!^-';: Ji,fi.t(!..i. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ARITHMETIC. At the proMiit timo utatintioH bh a •oionco nro taught in most of the continontal univomitlei, and ill tho Unitod Htato* ftt niiiiiy of tho lurnor sonti of loarnirin. In London a soriui of Ice turoH on ■tutistiua ii givon at tho London School of Kconotnica by Mr. HowinM. I'omibly tho inoit enthuiiiiHtic work of this character, howcvir, in met with in Gurniauy and Austria, whon> the Oovornment atatiHticinnB are fr»'(|uontly at tho aaino time univornity profossors. ThiB hoina t}io oaae tho statistical bureaus are at doHnito hours tiio scuno of most practical academic work. And if clasaio is that which popular CHtooni has |)ronounced good, then wo niuHt say that in those two oountrii'H, and, indeed, throughout western Kuropo, Btati.stic» are already classic.^ In Canada statistical work is as yet not well forward. A decided loainted upon their recommendation. A list of the tirst County Lieutenants thus appointed ia given at p. 142 of a recent and moat interesting history of the Western District, entitled " Harrison Hall and its Associations," by Hia Honour Judge Woods, of Chatham, Ont. (d) Thomson & McFarlane's Statutes of U. C. (1831), p. 24. (e) 38 Geo. III., c. 6, sa. 10, 25, 32, 37 ; Proclamation, Jan. Ist, 1800, recited in 42 Geo. IIL, c. 2 (f) 12 Vict., c. 79, Sched. B. [10] •i'.. GROWTH OF MUNICIPAL INSTITUTIONS IN ONTARIO. 11 Midland District in like manner alternately at Kingston and Adolphustown ; the Home District Court quarterly at Newa"k ('Niagara-on-the-Lako) ; and the Court for the Western District " in the Town of Detroit," ; an annual special session of the Peace at Michilimackinac, now " the British Landing," Mac, u.ic Island, Mich,, (33 Geo. III., c. 6, and 36 Geo. IlL, c. 4 ; 41 Geo. IIL, c. (J). (a) The powers of Justices of the Peace at these sessions assembled included (inter alia) the erection and management of court houses, gaols and asylums ; laying out and improving the highways ; making assessments for these purposes, and also "to pay the wages of members of the House of Assembly," (34 Geo. Ill,, c. 6 ; 36 Geo. III., c. 7 ; 47 Geo. III., c. 7) ; making regulations to prevent accidental fires (32 Geo. III., c. 5) ; the appointment of district and township constables (33 Geo. III., c. 2, s. 10) ; fixing the fees of gaolers (32 Geo. III., c. 8, s. 17), of town or parish clerks (33 Geo. III., c. 2, s. 13), and of pound-keepers (Ibid, and 34 Geo. III., c. 8, s. 3) ; the appointment of street and highway surveyors (50 Geo. III., c. 1, s. 2 ; 4 Geo. IV., c. 9, s. 4), and inspectors of weights and measures (4 Geo. IV., c. 16, s. 4); the regulation of ferries (37 Geo. III., c. 10) ; the establishment and regulation of markets in various towns, [«.da. To how large an extent it forms the basis of our present municipal law will appear from the notes appended to many sections throughout the new edition of "The Municipal Manual " to which some portion, at least, of this article will form a prefatory chapter. Although amended at nearly every session of Parliament from 1849 to 1897 — though seven times consolidated, and on each occasion to some extent recast — the changes made in it during the past half ceniary have been chiefly m the direction of amplification and detail. Never has the principle of local self-government been more fully carried out than in the Act of 1849 ; and, though the powers of municipal councils have since been extended to many subjects not at that time toreseen and therefore not therein provided for, they have in respect of other matters been since then curtailed. Especially since Confederation tliere has been a tendency to transfer to gov- ernment officials and to bodies such as boards of health, license commissioners ana police com- missioners, of a less directly representative and popular character, than our municipal councils, certain of the powers which were formerly exercised by those councils or by their officers. Furthermore, the Baldwin Act and its lineal descendants have in their turn become the progenitors and paradigms of the municipal institutions Acts in force to-day in nearly every other Province of the Dominion. This will be more fully shown in a future paper, in which 1 hope to attempt a comparison of the Municipal Act of Ontario with those of Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Manitoba (whose municipal legislation is almost pi-ecisely the same as in (Ontario) ; British Columbia (where it is very similar, but T think better arranged) (a), and the North-West Territories, where the ordinance (1)) governing municipal institutions is taken almost wholly from the Ontario Statute then in force (55 Vict., c. 42). C. K. W. BiGGAE. (a) See the consolidation of 1896, 59 Vict., c. 37 (" Municipal ClauBes "); c. 38 (" Muuicipal Elections "> and c. 39 (" Municipal Incnrporatiun.") (6) Ordinances N. W. T., No. 3 of 1894. '-^aapMMlM THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT OF ONTARIO. References. The Ontario Township by J. M. McEvoy, with an introduction by Prof. W. J. Ashley. Toronto University Studies in Political Science. First Series, No. 1. 1889. Harrison Hall and its Associations, by Hon Judge Womln, Chatham. 1896. Growth of Municipal institutions in Ontario, by C. R. W. Biggar, Q.O., in Canada Law Journal, January 2nd. 1897. (Reprinted in this collection.) Local Government in Canada, by J. G. Bourinot in Johns Hopkins University Studies. Fifth Series, I. -II. 1887. Reports of the Ontario Bureau of LiduBtries, Toronto. 1880-1896. Reports of the Commission on Municipal Institutions appointed by the Government of the Province of Ontario, Toronto. 1889. The Consolidated Municipal Act and the Consolidated Assessment Act of Ontario. 1897. al Elections "> The settlement of Ontario began with the declaration of American Independence, and the first settlers were made up principally of emigrants from the New England States. Most of them came from New York State who brought with them ideas as to self government that were put into shape as soon as opportunity presented itself. The first Legislature of Upper Canada was summoned in September, 1792. On April 0th, 1793, there came into operation An Act ta provide for the Nomination and Appointment of Parish and To^vn Officers within the Province. The era of town meetings and quarter sessions was thus begun, and it lasted until 1841,. when Upper and Lower Canada were united under the name of " The Province of Canada. " In 1841 there was passed The District Couticils Act, introduced by the Hon. S. B. Harrison. This continued until 1849, when the Baldwin Municipal Act was passed, which gave us munici- pal government in the general form that we have to-day, except that in 1896 a new County Councils Act was passed. In studying the growth of municipal government in Ontario, there- fore, we have as divisional lines these dates : 1793. 1841, 1849, 1896. The limits of such a paper as this will not permit a historical review of tho changes that have- taken place at and between these four dates, the student may refer to the works quoted at the head of this paper for full information upon these points. We shall confine ourselves mainly to a survey of the situation as it exists at the present day. The township is the basis or beginning of municipal organization in Ontario. In the latter part of the previous century the first settlers brought to this Province the township form of government of New England as distinguished from the county government of Virginia and neighboring states. * In the early settlement of Ontario natural conditions had much to do with fixing the boun- daries of the townsliips which were first laid out or surveyed along the St. Lawrence river, around the Bay of Quinte, in the Niagara Peninsula and in the vicinity of Detroit. These first scattered sections of settlements were gradually connected by government roads, military roada in some cases. As population increased new townships were surveyed along these roads. As a consequence, a glance at a township map of Ontario will present many peculiarities of form and a great varity of size — for instance, in the County of York, the county adjacent to the City of * See Civil Government in the United States by John Flake, HouKhton, MiflSin & Co., 1890, pp. 34, 57.. 2 B.I. Af . [17] f 18 ONTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES. Toronto, there are nt present ten townships vnrying in size from 28,632 acres to 87.064 acres. In more recent years, however, greater uniformity has been aimed at, and the regulation size for townships northwest of Lake Superior is six miles square, 23,040 acres, with boundaries running exactly north and south and oast and west. This is the plan also adopted in many western and central states. Whenever it is deemed advisable to have a now township surveyed the work is done by order of, or under the direction of, the Provincial Crown Lands Department. The plans and field notes are placed on file in the Department, and the new township is then removed from the great unsurveyed portion to the surveyed portion. The name of the township is also selected by the Commissioner of Crown Lands, and of late years many of the names given have been selected to immortalize some member or ox-member of the Local Legislature. The earlier townships surveyed were given names duplicating counties in the British Isles, in honor of the various Indian tribes, or some members of the reigning family of Great Britain, in one section we are told that the names Tiny, Tay and Flos perpetuate the memory of the three favorite lap dogs of the Governor's wife. At the present time in addition to the townships fully settled and that have altogether passed out of the possession of the Crown there are 161 townships surveyed and open for purchase from the Crown. It may be mentioned here that the total area of the settled and organized portion of Ontario was as follows in 1895 : Acres. Townships 23,114,356 Villages 146.308 Towns 100,943 Cities 40,648 Total 23,402.156 The total area of Ontario is calculated by the Ontario Crown Lands Department to be 126,- 000,000 acres, but the Dominion statistics branch gives the land area at 219.660 square miles or 140,676,000 acres. Taking the smaller estimate we find that less than twenty per cent, of the Province has as yet been settled, and that over eighty per cent, is still in the hands of the Crown. In round figures there is an area of 100,000,000 square miles unsurveyed, a considerable portion •of which is even unexplored, and less known than the valley of the Yukon. Now let us return to the development of a new municipality. Organization of Municipalities. Townships. — During the early days of settlement of a township its inhabitants are not lefi; free from municipal privileges or responsibilities, but as a rule the Lieutenant-Governor, by proclamation, joins the township to one or two other similar townships, and these may be attached to the nearest organized county, or they may be left simply as a union of townships if in one of the judicial districts of the north. When the number of resident freeholders and land holders amounts to 100, or, under certain conditions, when the number amounts to 50, the township is separated from the other townships «nd is entitled to a nepirate municipal existence. In this way also other neighboriitg townships will become settled and in time the Lieutanant-Govemor proclaim.* the union of these townships to be a county, which is then attached to the nearest incorporated county. THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT OF ONTARIO. 19 87,064 acres, gulation size h boundaries ted in many c is done by 'he plans and )nioved from alao selected n have been The earlier lonor of the 1 one section favorite lap e altogether nd i>pea for )n of Ontario 356 308 943 648 ' 165 t to be 126,- lare mijes or cent, of the f the Crown, able portion )t us return are not left; ovemor, by ese may be ownships if nder certain ir townships g townships s townships When the population of this junior or attached county amounts to 17,000 the junior county may, on petition to the Lieiitenant-Governur, be separated from the older county and be formed into a new independent county. On December Slst, 1805, we had in Ontario 402 organized townships having an area of 23,114,356 acres with a total nRsossod population of 1,100,631. This would niske an average of 46,980 acres with a populaftioii of 2,266. The total number of ratepayern was 355,828 making the average lot assesRod just about 65 acres. Unincorporated Villages. — Here and there in the townwhip there will be found a crowding together of the residents. Tliese residents desire a name and a recognition. A petition signed by a majority of these ratepayers, of whom at least one-half must be resident freeholders, is presented to the council of the township and a by-law may then bo passed by this council setting apart this section of the township as an unincorporated villajje. The unincorporated village is controlled by the township council and is subject to all the provincial laws regulating townships. In addition to this the township council may apply to the unincorporated village certain privileges gra'ited to councils of cities, towns and incorporated villages. These privileges apply mainly to the making and care of streets and bridges. Incorporated Villayea. — Whon V)y the census it is shown that there are 750 inhabitants occupying not more than 500 acres of land, a petition signed by not less than 100 residents and freeholders and householders may be prusentod to the township council to have the village incor- porated separated from the township in which it is situated. After certain preliminary conditions have been fulfilled a by-law may bo passed and the village thereby becomes an incorporated village. ■ f : . _^ ,-- At the end of 1895 there were in Ontario 137 villages having an area of 100,043 acres and a population of 136,021. The population averaged therefore barely 1,000 persons. Police Villages. — There is a conditiim intermediate between that of an unincorporated village and an incorporated village known as "Police Village." The county council may on petition erect an unincorporated village into a police village. This gives the inhabitants the right to elect three persons known as police trustees whose business it is to improve the streets, con- struct drauis and sidewalks, and to onfore certain statutory regulations in regard to the preven- tion of fire and explosions, and to prohibit nuisances. The police trustees get their money for expenditure from the township council by a special tax on the village. Towns and Cities. — When the incorporated village attains a population of 2,000 it may become a town, and when the town attains a population of 16,000 it may become a city. The method of so changing is according to statute aa follows : The council decides to apply for the change, and notice to this effect is publicly advertised for three months, application is then made to the Lieutenant-Governor-in-Council and in due time, if nothing interferes, the new town or the new city is proclaimed — the proclamation containing the name and extent of the municipality. Sometimes, however, towns are ambitious to become cities before they reach the size of 15,000 in population. In such cases the incorporation must be got by means of a special Act of the Legislature. The number, size and population of the towns and cities of Ontario on December 3 1st, 1895, was as follows: ^ Area. Ratepayers. Population. 96 Towns 146,.308 acres 93,803 295,623 13 Cities 40,548 acres 115,161 416,216 The average population of the towns is 3,078, and of the cities 32,016, ■ , •/*ki^>ff 20 ONTARIO BUHEAU OP INDUSTRIES. !) It m&y be worth while to give the fM>pulAtion<)f those 13 citiui in 180fi in order of liBe 1 Toronto. ..,, V, 4.t,,t^f,,rti7f>-^^^ 2 Ot va ^„" ^. ., 4y,<;i7 3 HrtiiiJJtnn ..;.-.. 4»flf^ 4 Londoi, ...,.,..,. 34.4y'< 6 Kingaton 17,Wr).. a nr«nff- M...^ 1(J,314 7 Wi - il,54» 8 fludt.h 10,710 St. TlionHa l(),66,'l 10 Strntfonl lO.JWB 11 ^Uuvillo 10,318 I si < 'ntlmrinoB n,(»62 13 r|,n ,am 9,016 (JOVEBNMK.NT OF M ■VICIPALITIEH. I have already refurred to tlio govemmont of unincoriH>rated villages and police village*, lo that we need now consider only townships, incorporated villages or villages as we shall call them, towns, citiea and countieH. In all cases the gtA^eming body is called a oounoil, made up of representatives elected by the ratepayers or persons entitled to vote. Toicnship CowiciU. The council of n township consists of a reeve, who is the head of the council, and four other councillors. If, however, there are 600 (|ualiiied voters, the council consists of a reeve, one deputy reeve and three councillors ; and for every additional 50^ voters there shall be elected an additional deputy reeve instead of a councillor. The icove ia^ elected by the people along with the other councillors. The council of a village is composed similarly to that of a township. The council of a town consists of a mayor, who is the head of that body, and three councillors for every ward when the number of wards is less than live, and two councillors for every ward when there five wards and over. In addition there may be a reeve and one or more deputy reeves for every 500 voters; In case however, the town has separated itself from the county, then the reeves and deputy reeves are not chosen. The city council consists of a mayor, and three nllermen for every ward. This applies t» all cities, except Toronto, which by special legislaticn elects a council of mayor and twenty-four aldermen, and also a board of control. By an Act of the Legislature, in cities of over 100,000 population the council chooses from among its members three aldermen who, with the mayor, form a board of control. This board prepares the estimates and awards contracts for public works, nominates or dismisses officers of the corporation, and carries out any work transferred to it by vote of the general council. It will be seen that the board of control is the executive committee of the council. As Toronto is the only city havi .g a population of over 100,000 it alone has a board of control.* County Councils. Previous to the year 1897the county councils were made up of the reeves and deputy reeves of all the townships, villages and towns not separated As i r^ov sequence many of the county councils were large bodies. Fo instance, the counc'l -w' Sn -< County was composed of fifty-eight persons. Other were nearly as large. It y ( ' .ga bhat such bodies were unnecessarily large and expensive, and in 1896 the Legislature of Ontario passed An Act to Bedtice the Number of County Councillors. By it the various counties were by commissionek's (judt'os) cut up into "divisions" larger than townships," each division to elect two- members, and thereby '^e nunber of councillors was reduced to a number not less than eighty and not more than e'flu:. . ;oordir 3; to the population. The members of the county council are elected for two ytaif, ,. -l, u-i hcjfore, they choose a head known as a "warden." Another *A very interesting ivad vaiu-'.blii sketch of t'wa government of Toronto and the working of the Board of Control and the City Council may be found in an article on "Municipal Toronto" by W. D. Gregory, published in Thf Onflnok; New York, Feb. 5, 1888. THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT OP ONTARIO. 21 Inn )vntiun in thia Act i« thitt n voter havinK two votut in a divialon may, if h« oh(M«wii, «ive lioth to out) cnndidiite. Tliu t wnships are grouped in seven judicial districts, as follows : Muskoka, Parry Sound, Nipissin Algoma, Manitoulin, Thunder Bay and Rainy River. These districts have not a county couu il, but have over them certain judicial ofticers appointed by the Crown. There is a special . ct of the Legislature dealing with the organization of townships in these judicial districts, ll.e powers and reguUi- tions of the township councils are, however, on the whole the same as in ownships within th council. When the matter is of more general concern it becomes a duty of the county co ncil. Thus, the maintenance of t le shorter connecting roads belong to the townships, whei is the mainten- ance of certain through roads and connecting bridges would more properly belt ig to the county councils. Most of the roads are now maintained by the townships. The l -unty council is called upon to maintain a county gaol, the township provides the money for pur lie schools, and the county is concerned in high schools. Taxes. To carry or its work every council requires funds, and this money is rais d largely by means of t \i:8. From the Legislature there is derived a portion of the funds ft. educational purposes ; alsti a share of fines and grants for the enforcement of justice, and occasimally grants for special purposes, such as the erection of county poorhouses. In the main, however, the money required is derived from raxes imposed and collected annually. 22 ONTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES. *v Every city, town, villftge and township imposes its own taxea, but the taxfas of the county are imposed by the various municipalities coniposiug the county. Thus, in one tax bill, the farmer pays his township rate, his school rate, and also his county rate. The township trea- surer turns over to the county treasurer the county taxes so collected. In order that an equality of taxation may exist the county council adjusts or eijualizes the assessment of the various municipalities composing the county, and fixes the general county rates to be imposed and collected. Thus we see that the county council decides upon or adjusts the total Hssess- ment for each municipality composing the county, and fixes its own rate to be imposed. ' ho township, t )wn and village municipalities appoint the assessors, fix their own rates of taxes, and the collectors of taxes appointed by the townships, towns and villages, collect the taxes and turn over to the treasurers of these several municipalities the money to which they are entitled. The public schools are managed by " Boards of Trustees," elected by the people. Every city, town and village has one board of trustees, but in the case of townships there is a division into school sections. The boards of trustees m-ike up their estimates, and the council of the township, village, town or city levies a special rate to meet this requirement. The council, however, is responsible, and all debentures issued for the erection of school-houses are issued by the council. The trustee board is merely a custodian of the funds, and although elected separately by the people, is, in a m inner, a committee acting for the council in school matters. life: The Finances of the Municipalities. m, You may now wish to know something as to the financial results of municipal government. Every council has a clerk who does the work of a secretary, and has also a treasurer. Sometimes, especially in the case of townships, these officers are united in one man, though that is undoubtedly false economy. At the first meeting in every year the council is required to appoint two aduitors, one nom- inated by the head of the ccmncil and the other l)y the members of the council, and within one month they must present to the council their statement of audit of the accounts of the munici- pality for the previous year, ending December 31st In this connection it may be stated that the nomination for the ct)Uiicil is hold in all muni- cipalities of the province on the last Monday of December and the election takes place on the first Monday of January, and in order that the electors may be in possessiim of most of the facts as to the financial standing of the municipality at tliat time it is necessary for the treasurer and the head of the municipality to publish in the papers a preliminary financial statement up to December 15th of the current year. Frovit'C al Municipal Auditor. In Ontario, as elsewhere, some councils have not been care- ful in requiring the books to be kept in a satisfactory manner. Some trea.surers have been negligent and even dishonest, and some auditois have failed in doing their whole duty. To remedy this the Legislature at the session of 1897 made provision for the appointment of a provincial municipal auditor, whoso duty it is to devise a uniform system of keeping municipal books that may be adopted by all similar municipalities, to inspect the treasurers' books from time to time, and to be able to respond to the re([uests of councils and treasurers who may desire advice in their financial transactions. This official has been appointed and already finds his time fully occupied. Next comes the question as to how the public and :-^tudent8 of municipal finance may acquire information as to the financial state of afifiirs of all the municipalities. 't THE MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT OF ONTARIO. 23 of the county tax bill, the ownshifj trea- rder that an sment of the o be imiiosed ) total Hssess- iiposed ' ho of taxes, and he taxes and ave entitled, ople. Every 3 is a division :ouncil of the The council, ses are issued ough elected lool matters. government, a treasurer. man, though >rs, one nom- id within one f the munici- l in all muni- place on the t of the facts measurer and ement up to ot been care- s have been lo duty. To ntment of a iig nmnicipal ' books from ;rs who may already finds Ist. The clerk of every municipality is required to furnish to the secretary of the Ontario Bureau of Industries, at Toronto, who is attached to the Department of Agriculture, any infor- mation asked for from the assessment and the collection rolls. 2nd. The auditors are required to send to the same ofticial a copy of their certified audit at the time of its completion. 3rd. The treasurer is required to make a return once a year of the financial transactions of the year, such as the receipts and expenditures, the assets and liabilities, on such forms as the secretary of the Bureau provides for that purpose. These returns are received and examined as far as possible, and, if incomplete, or if they recjuire further explanation, are amended and corrected by correspondence. When satisfactory these statements are published in tabulated form as one of the reports of the Bureau. These reports now cover the years 1886 to 1896. The report that was put out in 1896 covers 152 pages, and includes statistics of assessment and taxation, population, receipts and expendi- tures, assets and liabilities of all the municipalities of Ontario, viz. ; 492 townships, 96 towns, 137 villages, 13 cities and .38 counties. By way of conclusion I give the grand totals of all these municipalities as follows : Year. 1896 1895 1894 1893 1892 1891 1890 1889 1888 1887 1886 Popula- tion. Total asaeasment. 1,972,286 814,917,633 1,957,390 821,466,106 1.936,219, 826,179,370 I 1,910,059 825,530,052 Taxes impoaed for all purposes. Total. 1,909,527 1,922,121 1,917,544 1,906,901 1,880,145 1,848,457 1,828,495 825,211,127 818,847,394 798,616,271 761,906,816 718,654,570 717,311,938 694,380,659 $ 12,122,785 12,316,429 12,320,312 12,512,600 11,803,570 11,767,748 10,897,485 10,248,198 9,919,962 9,300,113 9,009,385 Rate per head. S c. 6 16 6 29 6 36 6 56 6 18 6 12 5 68 5 37 5 28 5 03 4 93 Mills on the dollar 14.88 14.99 14.01 15.17 Bonded debt. Total, Rate per head. 51,895,991' 26.51 49,724,567 26.68 Floating debt. 48,083.243 14.30' 47.166,962 14.37' 43,888,863 13.65 40,720,985 13.46, 38,988,332 25.17 24.70 22.83 21.24 20.44 13.26 34,729,627 18,47 12 97, 31,943,320 17. 28 12,97 29,924,863 16.37 5,834,129 I 6,669,567 6,796,422 6,469,890 7,629,730 8,387,186 6,493,519 6,437,363 5,645,208 4,841,717 Intereat paid on loans and deben. turea. 2,678,220 2,552,607 2,508,621 2,482,156 2,498,294 2,240,692 2,067,938 1,999,760 1,820,590 1,715,620 •Statistics for 1896 are not yeti complete. C, C. JAMES. may acquire iii ..^ r s't THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. ■* I mi The great primary source.s of wealth in this country are four^ in number — our fisheries, our mines, our forests, and our farms. From our Canadian fisheries we derive annually wealth to the amount of ^20,000.000- ; from our mines nearly |!30,000,0003 ; from our forests about $80,000,000*, and from our farms, according to the Dominion census, no less an amount than $600,000,000. We may then start out by stating that agriculture is the most import&nt industry of Canada to-day — we are to a laige extent " a nation of farmers. " Let me put the matter in another form : For ever dollar of minerals produced last year in Canada there was over $20 worth of farm products added to our wealth. The wheat crop of Ontario alone last year was worth nearly as much as all the gold, silver, copper, nickel, coal, iron, salt, petroleum and other minerals of the whole of Canada. When we keep facts like these in mind we can readily under- stand why the managers of banks and loan companies are close students of agricultural statistics and why the values of bank stocks in Canada are so closely afiected by the yield per acre of our stai.le field crops and the prices of the same in the great markets of the world. As students of political economy, you have doubtless observed the remarkable improvement in the market prices of many Canadian stocks during the past year, and you have also, I have no doubt, placed side by side with that the improvement in the price of wheat, cheese and livt stock. It does not take a student of extraordiuciry ability to trace the connection between the two and to know which was the one that affected the other. Let me close this brief statement of the importance of agriculture in Ontario by giving you the following figures : The capital invested in Ontario in agriculture is about $900,000,000. The parsons engaged in agriculture in Ontario in 1891 numbered 292 770'. The annual agricultural product in Ontario is over $200,000,000. (See and Location of Ontario. Ontario is a large province. From the mouth of the Albany River on James' Bay to Pelee Island in Lake Erie, the distance is about 750 miles ; while from the eastern limit on the St. Lawrence to the western, near the Lake of the Woods, it is about 1,000 miles. Its total area is 220,000 sijuare miles : larger than the nine North Atlantic states by one-third ; larger than Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, IVew York, Pennsylvania and Ohio combined. But a small portion is, as yet, settled, in fact eighty per cent, of the entire province is yet in the possession of the Crown, and while the larger porticm unsold is valuable principally for its timber and minerals, there are several millions of acres ef the finest agricultural land as yet unoccupied. One section lies along the Rainy River, adjacent to Minnesotfi ; the other, the valley of Lake Temiscamingue, is to the north of Ottawa. These two districts are in the .same latitude as Northern Minnesota. The former district is covered with deep, black, alluvial soil, and the other with rich clay overlaid with humus. The old settled portion of Ontario lies in the triangle, bounded on one side by the Ottawa and Lake Nipissing, on the second by the St. Lawrence, Liike Ontario and Lake Erie, and on the third by the St. Clair, Lake Huron and Georgian Bay. It is worth while opening a map to look at the configuration. With the exception of a short portage between Lake Nipissing and Trout Lake on the north, it is practically an island, wnslied by the waters of two large rivers and three Notes to this paper \vill be found be^inniog on pige 38 and are referred to by number. [24] THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. 26 )y giving you great lakes. In addition note its shape, like a wedge pushed down into the heart of the great agricultural states, and you will begin to realize that its position and surroundings apparently fit it for a great agricultural land. Its backbone is the western branch of the Archean rocks, the material out of which rich clay is made. The alluvial deposits are most noticeable in the extreme southwest, where the soil rivals that of the richest prairie. While the northern point of Ontario is an ocean port on James' Bay, the southern point is further south thin Boston and Chicago. The southern limit of Ontario is below the 42nd parallel ; the northwest boundary line of the United States is the 49th. Practically all of the 2,114,321 inhabitants of Ontario are to the south of a straight line drawn from the Soo to Portland, Maine. In this area are 23, 000,- 000 acres of occupied lands. The Feople of Ontario. Next let us refer to the i)eople who have settled this favored region. We are, I think, apt to consider the people of this province as a homogeneous class. We are. probably becoming auch at a rapid rate ; but the early settlement of this province was varied, varied in its source or or'gin and varied in its nature, and at the present day we have a variety in the agricultural methods and products of this province that is quite interesting to study. Why is it that one county is to-day noted for its fine beef cattle, another for its sheep, another for its fruit, another for its cheese or butter I Climate and soil have much to do with this ; but the people who first came, bringing the agriculture of their original homes with them, have also much to do with it. It would be interesting to trace these influences had we the time and ability. If I could throw upon a screen here before you a picture of a farm settlement on the St. Lawrence below Biock- ville, another of a group of farms in the German settlement of Waterloo Co., another of a fruit growing section between Hamilton and Niagara, another of the Paisley Block in Wellington, another of a French settlement in Essex, you would hardly believe that they all represented diflerent sections of the same province, and you would admit that the nationality or origin of the people had much to do with their condition. We would, I think, find it an interesting study to trace the present agricultural mttho's back to their source in such sections as the old U. E. L. settlements from New York state along the St. Lawrence, around the Bay of Quinte and in the Niagara peninsula, in the Highland settlement of Glengarry, the settlement of English gentle- men and retired military othcers near Cobourg, the Irish settlement near Peterboro, the military settlement near Perth, the Talbot settlement in Elgin, the Canada Co's settlement in the Huron Tract, the block of Paisley Weavers in Wellington, the Germai s in Waterloo, Huron and Ren- frew, and the French Canadians in Essex, 1 rescott, Russell and along the C.P.R. west of Mattawa. We would find in these various sections many social customs and methods of agri- cultural life still traceable to the countries whence the first settlers came. us anu Liiree Epochs of Agricultural History. We might divide the agricultural history of Ontario into epochs as follows : 1st Fr(mi 1783 to 1812. 2nd From 1812 to 1837. 3rd . From 1837 to 18H7. 4th From 1807 to 1897. These periods are of nearly the same length, about thirty years— a generation each. In the first period the w(n-k consisted mainly in felling tlie forests to make an open place for the rude loc liouses and barns and. the small field in wliich the wheat, oats and potatoes might be gx'own. The farms were well described as "clearings " and the cleared ground among the btumps served 26 ONTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES 'I ! i ! I to produce only enough grain and roots to sustain tho settler's family. Cattle were few in num- ber and the settler had to add hunting and trapping to his occupation of felling and tilling in order to supply his family with meat and clothing. In that period the two principal articles exported from the farm were oak and pine timber and wood ashes. Reference to the early trade records" will show how important these two items were in the export trade of Upper Canada. The clearing of land and the making of potashes for export is an industry but little known to the farmers of to-day. The student of the industrial history of Canada will find an interesting theme in the description of this practice. Interesting accounts are to be found in some of the early records of backwo- ids life in Upper Canada. Potash making, of course, was to be found even at a comparatively recent date in the wooded townships lately settled. For instance, I have been told by a resident of tho midland counties of western Ontario that he recollects well when over a considerable area "black salts" was the common currency or medium of exchange. With thb increase in cleared land came an inert aefe in the area of land sown to grain, especially to wheat. This grain had arisen to extraordinary values during the continuance of the great war of 1812-14^, and this doubtless gave increased impetus to its cultivation. An investigation of the trade returns of the second period, 1812-1837, will show an increasing export of wheat to Europe by way of Montreal. Down to 1875 the exports of Montreal may be taken as practically those of Ontario alone, for Manitoba and tho Northwest had not yet become exporting sections. Ontario produced as fine wheat as was to be found in North America — both spring and fall— and she has probably kept up her record in tl'ia regard better than any other part of the older settled portion of this continent. From 1783 to 1812 the population** had grown from practically nothing to about 80,000 per- sons, all of whom, with the exception of a few hundred, were directly connected with agricul- ture. From 1812 to 1837 the population increased from 80,000 to 397,489. By far the larger portion of this population lived upon the farm. We find on reference to the year 1830 that there were only five towns in tlie province of over 1,000 inhabitants each, viz.. Brock ville, 1,130; Hamilton (including township), 2.013 ; Loi:don (including township), 2,415 ; Toronto, 2,860, and Kingston, 3,587. In 1830 there was only ojie daily paper in Ontario and only one bank. Even matches, steel pens and postage stamps were as yet unknown. The first telegraph lino from Toronto to Niagara did not appear until 1847, :ind the first railway train from Toronto north to Bradford did not run until 1853. Railway C(jnnection with Montreal by the Grand Trunk came three years Inter, in 1856. Even the canals along the St. Lawrence were small and of simple construction. The farm exports of the j»rovince went down the St Lawrence in Durham boats and batteaux. During the third period, from 1837 to 1867, an extensive innnigration set in to this province from England, Scotland and Ireland''. The great famine in 1846 sent Irish immigrants to Ameiica by the tens of thousands. These new comers settled, as a rule, in groups or bh cks and f rmed the nuclei of some of the richest townships of Ontario. These Old Country settlers came from the British Isles where the love of live stock is so marked. I have not time to refer to the development of the pure breeds of live stock — horses, cattle, sheep and swine — in the British Isles. You will find an in'eresting sketch of it in that well known work The Pioneers and Progress of English Farming, by Rowland E. Prothero (Longmans, Green & Co., 1888). Its development added untold wealth to Great Britain, and the names of such men as Bakewell, Collings, Booth, Bates and Cruickshank should be recorded in gold in Westminster Abbey. The love of the British for live stock is a marked characteristic and must be reckoned with in considering the growth of wealth of all their descendants. It presents a very interesting theme for investigation and discussion. We sometimes attribute British wealth to coal, some- times to Haips of oak and of steel, but the picture of John Bull moving about among 1 :•-;, ■..■V .• r.. 1. '""^miiix Sii: THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. *>7 ivo few in num- ig and tilling in •incipnl articles le to the early irado of Upper ustry but little ida will find an to be found in of course, was settled. For )ntario that he incy or medium f land sown to he continuance Itiv.ition. An jreasing export '■ may be taken it yet become America — both ;han any other ut 80,000 per- with agricul- far the larger 830 that there kville, 1,130 ; ironto, 2,860, matches, steel ito to Niagara idford did rot le years Inter, ■uction. The tteaux. this province ts to Ameiica s and f rmed rs came from ) refer to the the British Pioneers and 1888). Its 18 Bakewell, Abbey, jckoned with y interesting coal, anme- bout among his flocks and herds is one that appeals to me with e(iual furce. The Scotch laddie with his faithful collie watching his tlock of sheep and the sturdy Englishman driving his bunch of fat beeves to market must not be forgotten ill studying the dovolopment of British prosperity. Nor must we forget that the Queen is mistress of her Royal tiocks and herds and sets a noble example followed by the Prince of Wales and the Duko of York. 'I hese immigrants from over the sea, especially those from Aberdeenshire and the south of Scotland, und those from Northumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, and the great sheep downs of the south of England, brought with them the love of good horses, good cattle, and good bheep, and the pure bied stock soon followed. An interesting story could be told of the lirst extensive importation^" brought out in 183;j by Mr. Rowland VVingtield of Guelph, an English settler, who chartered a boat, crossed the ocean, sailed up the St Lawrence, ascended ihe Ottawa, came down the Rideau Canal and landed his stock at Hamilton, and then drove them on foot to his farm in Wellington Co. Ontario, by her sunny skies, clear air, clean water, and rich pastures, has been well adapted to the rearing of live stock. The settlers from England and Scotland not only loved good stock, but knew how to care ft r them, and in this period the true foundation of Ontario's agricultural wealth was laid. Where do wo stand to-day, thirty year^j later ? I cau put it in a few words. As was proven at the World's Fair in 1893, there is no other part of the north American con- tinent where so great a variety of t he best of pure bred stock is to be found to-day as in the Province of Ontario. Any one who doubts this can have convincing proof of it by visiting the magnificent gatherings of live stock brought together every fall at the exibitions held in Toronto, London and Ottawa, and at the winter shows held at Guelph and elsewhere by the Fat Stock Associations. What is its extent ? Let me give it to you in figures : Total value of live stock on the farms of Ontario, July 1st, 189(). . $0(;,857,56() Total value of live stock sold for year ending Ju'y 1st, 181tG §28,750,000 Total value of dairy products made in Ontario eveiy year §27,000,000 We now come to the fourth period, the tliirty years just ended, 1867-1897. The main feature of this jieriod is the rise of dairying as a specialty — it is tlie age of the coming in of the cheese factory and the creamery. In 1851 the first co-operative cheese factory had been started near Rome in Oneida Co., New York State, and soon after factories sprang up by the score in the Hudson valley and to the west and north. In 18fi4 Harvey Farrington, of Herkimer Co., New York State, with commendable enterprise crossed over into this Province anba and the Northwest. In that period the wheat area of Manitoba alone increased from about 200,000 acres to 900,000. The Dominion statistician, in census bulletin No. 18, says that " contemi)oraneously with this decrease," of farmers and farmers' sons in Canada " there has been an increase in the amount of land improved from 21,899,180 acres in 1881 to 28,637,242 acres in 1891." The agricultural product of 1891 was far in advance of that of 1881. Yet if we turn to the farm pi-oducers we find the following statement : 1881 1891 Farmers and farmers sons in Canada 650,712 649,606 Here is a falling oft' to the extent of 7,206 accompanied by the very large increase in the improved land of 6,638,062 acres. There are fewer persons engaged in agricultural work in Ontario to-day than there were ten j'ears ago, but the product of their work is much greater. The agricultural statistics of out Ontario Department go back only to 1883. Let me put the statement in the form of a table : 1883 1896 Total farm lands 21,458,067 23 172,408 Acres of field crops 7,542,623 8,511,444 Value of farm laud §654,793 025 8557,468,270 Value of implements !S4:J,522,530 850,730.358 We have therefore an increase in farm lands of nearly 2,000,000 acres, an increase in the cultivated land of just about 1,000,000 acres ; a decrease in the value of farm lands of nearly $100,000,000, but an increase in the value of farm machinery and implements of over §7,000,000. At the same time there has been a very marked falling oflF in the price and cost of machinery of all kinds. We conclude therefore, that in the past thirteen years, for whicli we have statistics, there has been a verj' great increase in the machinery, implements and tools used upon the farms of this province. This explains why it has been possible for a smaller numl)er of workers to increase their total product. Perhaps you will allow nie to illustrate this with some exnmples to which you can add from your own observation and experience. The potato, tobacco, corn or maize, and the tomato are I* frt:- THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. 29 'actory sj'sttm. eriods referred lers gave way stock develop- If we were to b fruit growing alture. These ■ own country. ms. IS, there was a of the prairie Manitoba alone ansus bulletin irmers' sons in ,899,180 acres in advance of It : L891 9,506 II crease in the tural work in uuch greater. me put the 96 72,408 11,444 88,270 30.358 ncrease in the mds of nearly er $7,000,000. ' machinery of lave statistics, ipon the farms jf workers to can add from e tomato are natives of America and can be traced back to their original source on tluH continent. But in the case of wheat, barley and other grains we are still very much in the dark as to their origin, (io back as far as you can, you will find in history and in archjeological remains the instru- ments for reaping have been shaped something like the curved arm, the sickle, and yet it was only the other day the sickle went c»ut of use among civilized pef)ple. From the time that wheat and Vmrloy and oata wore first produced until within a few years ago, the sickle, with practically little or no change, remained the principal reaping instrument of the human race. About 1826 a Scotch minister named Bell presented for examination to the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland a new machine, the forerunnner of what we now know as the reaping machine^''. About the year 1831 Cyrus McCormack brought out the first reaping machine in the United States. Tt was not until the year of 1841 or 1842, after ten long years of changing and testing, that his machine was finally put upon the market. It is only within the last fifty years that the sickle, the scythe and the cradle, after being used for so many centuriesj have been superseded by the reaping machine. All at once what wonderful developments began. The reaper and the mower, and then a very few years ago came the self-binder, and we have to-day in California the harvester and header, a machine drawn by from eighteen to twenty-four horses or mules, which reaps and threshes the grain and leaves it in bags on the field. The question we ask ourselves right here is, " What next ? " One hesitates to give an answer to that question when we see what has happened, what wonderful steps in progress ha\ e been made from the simple sickle and scythe to the self-binder. When within the period of thirty or forty years stich wonderful evolution has taken place after a long period of quiescene, one may well say, what will be introduced next ? Take another instance. In connection with dairying, the method in olden times of churning the milk was by a very simple operation, either by means of a bag hung up and pounded or sw ung around, or else in a vessel quite similar to our old-fashioned barrel churn. It is not very many years since the old-fashioned dash churn and implements of this kind were used for the manu- facture both of butter and of cheese. Then came the application of power, such as dog power, horse power, steam power, the introduction of the box churn and one after another applications of various kinds of machinery began to be made, till now what have we to-day ? W^e have a machine that can be set up in the barn to milk the cows. Although this machine is in an imper feet condition, nevertheless it does its work and proves we are on the right track. The milk drawn by the machme can now be put into another machine and separated, the skim-milk com- ing out of one spout and the cream out of another. This cream can be put into another vessel or machine, and by proper temperature and the addition of a substance somewhat resembling yeast, a fermentation can be started, and just that kind of fermentation that we desire in con- nection with it. After the fermentation has gone on a certain time this cream can be put into another machine and churned, and after churning it can be worked and packed by machinery^ So that now it is possible, although not perfectly })racticable, to do the whole of the work by machinery, from the very milking to the putting of the finished article on the market. This wonderful progress has taken place within the last quarter of a century. The part played by machinery in agricultural work is referred to in an article on " Indus- trial advance of Germany " by W. G. Mulhall in the North American Eevieiv for January 1898. Mulhall estimates the value of German rural products in 1895 at $2,002,000,000. He says : " The sum total is fifty million dollars loss than the value of farm products of the twenty-three western States of the Union, but the number of hands in Germany is two and a half times as great, while the im})roved area of the Western States is three times that of Germany. In Ger- many the productive area is e(iual to no more than eight acres per farming hand ; in the Western States it is sixty-two acres. The value of product per acre is, of course, higher in Germany j "4- J 80 ONTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES. namely 831, as comjmrod with 810 in the WeHtern States, but the product ])er farming hand is fB20 in the latter against 825') in Germany. Ho gives two reasons for this great difference, viz., the greater use of improved machinery on the large fiirms of the U. S., and the military system of Germany which ' takes from agriculture the flower of the jjeasantry." Many interesting cliaptcis have been written on the development of the primitive plow that consisted of a sharpened tree crotch drawn by one or two cows or oxen, and that merely scratched the ground, to the modern steel plow with its removable and adjustable colter and mould board. We might contrast the old Scotch plow, drawn by twelve oxen and requiring two or more men to manage it, and the modern sulky plow drawn by a smart team of horses turning three or fo ir furrows at once and all controlled by one man who rides upon it, sitting upon a spring seat. This is a development with which you are all more or less familiar. It might bo advisable here, however, to refer to the fact that the impiovement consists entirely in the form and efiicipncy of the implement rather than in the mode of its working. There is still a great opportunity for proroviding of refrigerator cars on the railroads, and refrigera- tor compartments on onr steamship lines, so that within a very short time we hope to bf able to place these perishable articles in a fresh and attractive form on the great ccmsuming markets of Europe. The successful carrying out of this undertaking will be one of the greatest boons to Canadian agriculture— in fact it is an absolute necessity to the present welfare of our agricultural industry, to say nothing of the effect upon its future prosperity. The application of machinery to agricultural work is rapidly bringing it into line with the great manufacturing industries, and when we consider its possible development as a manufactur- ing industry many questions present themselves, of interest to th« student, such as Will agriculture be broken up or divided into speoiftl lines of production? What part will electricity play in future work and how will agriculture be affected thereby ? What will be the effect when the farmer ia enabled to erect a windmill and store up the free energy of the wind in a storage battery, whence at will he can beat or light his house, pump his water and drive his machinery ? How will the increasing use of machinery affect the ownership of farm lands ? Will the tendency be towards larger proprietorships or towards smaller holdings ? Will the increased use of machinery raise the farmer intellectually and socially or will it tend to reduce him more and more to mere drudgery and servitude ? Some say that the use of machinery has driven thousands from our farms : others say that machinery has been brought in in larger quantity to take the place left vacant by the men who have left the farm for the city. The relationship of machinery to men in agricultural work is a question that might be discussed at great length, but we must leave this part of our subject for our next. Imjyroi'emeut in Transportation facilities. The history of transportation development in Ontario would be a concise history of the social and material progress of the people. The first settlers travelled by canoe or Durham boat or overland by the Indian trails^''. The settlers' roads followed these trails at first, being ^wrifmeg'vs^miinivf.f THE DEVELOPMENT OF AORICDLTURE IN ONTARIO. 31 'straightened and improved in after years. The corduroy road of the Hettlers' own ninldng and the two or three military roads conHtructod in the latter part of the 18th century, were the principal avenues of bringing out supplies to the lake front for transportation by sailing vessel i down to the rapids of the St. Lawrence. Let me make a quotation from the report of the Instructor in Road-making for Ontario : "The first serious attempt at road constructiim in Ontario was commenced immediately I after the separation of Canada into the Upper and Lower Provinces in 1792, and was one of the chief considerations of Lord Simcoo upon his arrival as first Lieutenant-Governor. At the first Parliament in 1793, a statute labor law was passed, in spirit verv similar to the present law. Guided by his military ideas, which prompted him to see in the prenent site of London the future capital of the Province, in Chatham a naval dock yard, in Turkey Point and Penetanguishene, naval stations, he accordingly jjlanned a system of military routes. When on one of his tours of exploration he stood on the present site of London, then known merely as the ' Forks of the Thames,' in the midst of an unbroken wilderness, and proclaimed his intenticm of opening a road 'otraight as the crow could tiy ' to the Head of the Lake (Burlington Bay). Work was commenced on this road on Sojjtember 10th, 1793, by a detachment of the Queen's Rangers. This was first called Dundas Street, but is now known as the Governor's road. From the Pro- vincial seat of Government, York, now Toronto, Yonge Street was opened to Lake Simcoe by troops, a work which was ci.mpleted in February of 1790. It was the intention of Simcoe that the road through the Province from York to Kingstim should be opened by the settlers, and travel from the latter place to Montreal was for a time to be by water. Had Simcoe remained as Governor, it is altogether probable that the work of opening roads would have been carried on more energetically, but with his recall in 1796 ended very largely the era of military con- atruction." The Danforth Road fpom York eastward was begun in 179.1. ' ' By 1796 there were roads from Montreal to Lake Francis, and from Cornwall to I'rescott. The intermediate stage of about fifty miles was travelled by boat owing to the wet water front in (ilengarry, and the consefjuent dittiiuUy of constructing a road. As late as 1807 the mails were carried from Montreal to Toronto, Niagara and Amherstburg, by pedestrians who carried an axe to assist them in the journey. In 1^16 the first stage was run between Montreal and Kingston, and in 1817 a stage ran between Kingston and York. This, however, was only in the winter, and during summer navigation the stages were discontinued. In 1826 the first stage passed between Niagara and Toronto, and in 1828 a stage route was established between Ancaster and the Detroit River." During the second period the construction of canals^* around the rapids of the St. Lawrence greatly improved the communication with Montreal and assisted the farmer with his freight to Europe. About the middle part of the 3rd period railway construction began, and for 45 years the iron and steel rails have been insinuating themselves through the farm settlements, and the iron horse has been pushing himself more and more into the very heart of the farmer's business. The benefits of railway communication for the handling of farm produce and for bringing in farm necessities are so well known and understood that we need not delay to discuss them. Improve- ment in road communication tends to remove the inequalities in farm value due to location or situation. I have seen the statement made by an Australian official that a tub of butter can be taken from Sydney to London for less than it could bo brought from some remote part of Eng- land or Scotland. Two factors are just now entering into farm operations that demand your at- tention and that should be closely followed by you. The first is the movement already inaugur- ated in this province for the improvement of our rural highway, and second the construction of 89 OiVTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES. light eluctric niilwiiyH thrmigh ruml pfirtH for tlio bunuHt of tho ftiiiii community. The trolley ByHtotn is only ten yeiirs o'd, ivhcmly wo Und Hovoral city linoH gmduiiliy oxtendinjj! thuif oiionv- tioHH into tho ftdjftooiit townHliips. VVhon tho fanner can doliver hi8 goodH for markut at his own gate and can ho carried into town at tho rate of 20 niilos an hour, tranwict hiH huKiness and return with his purcliases witli tho loss of but a couplo of hours, and no charge for wear and tear of horHOB, harness and vehicles, wo shall sou a now st)cial and financial condition of agriculture. Let mo refer you to one exam [de. An electric road runs from Hamilton through tho Grimsby fruit district, cai-s pass tho doors every 20 minutes. Fruit can be loaded at Grimsby or Winona and shipped to Montreal or Winnipeg without change. Fruit lots at Grimsby have sold as high as 11600 an acre. In tliat section als(» the fruit-growing farmers have te'ephonos in their houses, and can follow the market prices closely. Other ({uestions for consideration are the use of bicycles in rural sections, and thedaily free delivery of rural mails. Tho considoratiop of the effect of improved transportation upon agriculture should be of intense interest to you as students of political science. A fruitful field of speculation lies before you in trying to work out the eflfect of the present promised progress of tho next quarter of a century. Let mo give the following statement from M. Tissorand, late Director General of Agriculture in France, it will give you, so to speak, tho other side of the picture — the European. It is taken from a paper lately present- ed to the Recess Committee of the British House of Commons on Irish afifairs. " Formerly, tradition, handed on from father to son, sufficed the husbaniirAan for the advantageous utilization of the soil. The methods of culture were simple ; it called 'or no great effort of the mind to till well, to regulate the rotation of crops and the breeding of live stock. Everything went on in a restricted circle, and the son, working as his father before him had done, was able to live comfortably and bring up a numerous family. Today the situation is no longer the same. In this extroardinary century, when everything has been profoundly modified by steam, when distances have disappeared, and the Australian with his wool, the Indian with his corn, the American with his cattle and his dead meat, can reach the i^arkets of Europe at less cost than it took the farmer of Yorkshire at tho beginning of the century tj get his produce to London, old methods and paternal traditions have become insufficient for the struggle which has to be carried on against foreign competition. It is no longer the struggle for life between man and man which is in question ; it is the struggle for existence between industry and industry, between agriculture and agriculture, between country and country." ' ' The struggle which agriculture has to sustain is all the more intense and severe because it has been less prepared for it. The formidable transformation brought about by the progress of railways, navigation, and the telegraph has had a greater eflfect on agriculture than on any other industry, because it has been surprised, so to speak, in the midst of the calm and (juietude which it had been enjoying. It is no doubt a great boon to humanity that the products of the earth may overflow with an extreme facility from tho regions in which they abound to the countries which need them ; that every individual is assured his daily bread, and has no longer to fear the horrible famines which in other times periodically decimated tho population ; that, thanks to Australian wof)l and to the vast pasturages of the New World, the working man can obtain cheap clothing and cheap food to protect him p^ainsb infirmity and give him health and strength. But if these are results to be thankful for from the humantarian point of view, it is nevertheless true that they have had uptm agriculture, through the general lowering of the prices of produce, an action which has placed it in a critical situation, and which has thrown the cultivators into confusion and brought discouragement and despair among tho rural population. All thoughtful minds, the public powers, and governments are occupied with these considerations. In all directions it is felt that the agriculture of Europe is like an old and leaking ship, tossed and ^rf'^li'V^V'^'^'VfVi^^'^' THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN UMTaRIO. 39 y. Tlio trolley ii;^ their oporu- ininkut nt liiB In hiisineHH mid ' weiir imd tear of agriculture, {h theOriinHhy »\>y or Winona vo Hold afl high n their houses, are the use of on of the effect as students of i out the effect B the following ; will give you, laf eJy present- vere because it he progress of 1 on any other uietude which 5s of the earth the countries longer to fear ; that, thanks an can obtain and strf ngth. 8 nevertheless 38 of produce, iltivators into 111 thoughtful ions. Jn all P, tossed and buffeted iibiiiit upon a sea of hreakura, and that, to save it from fnunring, it i Into ben ced ky abler liiindH and navigated by pilots who will join to a thorougli priictioal training a proiuuad ^nd extensive scientific knowledge." The Elf'vct of Si'ieiUiJic IiirfHtlijdtinn upon Aiiyicultiire, The fill of agriculture is as old as man, but the Hcienrr of agriculture has not yet completed ts first century. It seems at first though impossible to believe that before tho nineteenth century dawned Agricultural Science was to even the most advanced scientific workers and explorers a "dark pontinent." In 1801 De Saussuro published a work entitled " Recherchos sur la Vegetation," In which he gave the antlysis of the ashes of many plants, and contended that they wfre aliMo- lutely essential to the growth of the plant, that they must be derived from the soil, and that jrobably these ash or mineral constituents that the jtlant derived from the soil were the sonrco jf those found in tho animals which fed upon the plants. From 1802 to 1812 Sir Humphrey iDavy delivered several series of lectures which he published in 1813 under the title " Elements [of Agricultural Chemistry." To him is due the credit of making the first attempt to reduce [agricultural knowledge and investigation to a scientific l»asiH. The work of these two men, [together with that of Thaer, Sprengel and Boussingault, prepared the way for the magnificent I work of Liebig, whose publications appeared in 1840 and 1842, since which time many of the brightest minds in Europe and America have been investigating the composition of soil, plant, and animal, and their relation to one another. Davy said : " Discoveries made in the cultivation of the earth are not merely for the tim» and country in which they are developed but they may be considered as extending to future agos, and as ultimately tending to b?nefit the whole race, as affording subsistence for generations to come ; as multiplying life ; and not only multiplying life, but likewise providing for its enjoyment." Liebig in one of his productions wrote : " I shall be happy if 1 succeed in attracting the attention of men of science to subjects which so well merit to engage their talents and energies. Perfect agriculture is the true foundation of trade and industry — it is the foundation of the riches of states." Chemistry was the first science that came to the a-'sistance of agriculture, and ever since agricultural science has been largely built upon agricultural chemistry as a foundation. In 1840 a few farmers of Mockern, in Germany, formed themselves into a sort of club or society and decided to seek the assistance of a chemist in the selection of their special fertilizers. From this have sprung all the experiment stations and agricultural laboratories of the world.^ I shall not hero trace their spread through (iermany, France, and the British Islfs, how they sprang up in the U. S. and Canada. Agricultural science in Canada dates from 1874 when the Agricultural College and Experimental farm were started at CJuelph. To give you some idea of the work now in progress let me enumerate the leading institutions of this nature in Ontario. We have as stated, the College and Experimental Farm at Gue'ph, three dairy schools, ten fruit experiment staticms and a system of experimental work directed from Guelph and carried on in 1897 by ;i,835 f trmers located in all part- of Ontario. We have the Dominion system of experi- mental farms, with the central farm at Ottawa and four branches in other provinces, a dairy school and several training colleges in Quebec, dairy schools in New Brunswick and Manitoba, and a horticultur?: I school in Nova Scotia. 1 have alreadj' stated that chemistry was the foundation of agricultural science. Its appli- cation in connection with soils and fertilizers, foods, and feeding, and with dairying is readily 3 B.I. AP. 84 ONTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES. uoiupruhundud. A liirgo jmrtioii of the work in otlior scioncoi ci)u!(l not bo curriud on without till) asHiHtiinci' nf th« ngrioulturnl chtiiuiit. Perhiips ono illuitmtion of tho vftliio of chemistry miiy \h> sutHciunt for oiir |»rcHont imrpuMe. Tho l)out uuKiir product in (lenimiiy ha^ inoroiiMed from ."{(M),()00 tons in 1H7(» t,i> l,t;2<',(HM) tonM in ]H!),(K)(),000. An improvement to the extent of 25 per cent is (|uite with- in the range of possibility. The ProHidont of the Agricultural College in his report for 1807, referring to this work in imi)roving varieties of grain, says : *' In this way some excellent foreign varieties have been introduced, tested, and distributed throughout the province — varieties which yield from six to eight Itushols jier acre more than any varieties previously grown. In oats and barley alone, the varieties introduced and distributed by tho oxporimont station have, within the past four or five years, paid to the province a good deal more than the entire cost of tho College for tho last ten years." Entomologists aro studying the thousand and ono insects and diseases affecting our grains and fruits. One practical example will perhaps best illustrate tho value of Entomology. About ten years ago the complete destruction of the orange groves of California was threatened by the spread of an insect known as the cottony-cushion scale. The vitality was being sucked out of the trees by millions of tiny insects that literally covered them. The pests got completely beyond the control of the fruit-growers of that countiy and in their despair they appealed for help to somebody or anybody. Professor Riley, who was in charge of tho Entomological Department at Washington, and who unfortunately met his death in 189B,--one of the greatest benefactors the American people has ever known — at once began tho investigation of that ques- tion. Being an expert entomologist he know practically every country in the world where that scale insect was common and he knew that tho place from which it had most likely come was Australia. It had probably been introduced some twenty years before that, in bringing in fruit trees or vines. He however knew it had never become a pest in Australia. Now if it is found in Australia and later found in California and had become a pest in California and had not become a pest in Australia, ho concluded that there nmst be something in Australia that will stop it, so he despatched two assistants to Australia to investigate it and they sent back consignments of lady-bug beetles or lady-bugs as they are commonly known. You have seen these running back and forth over the leaves and branches of the fruit trees doing great destruction to the other insects. Within a very short time, less than a year, although these scale insects had been increasing for twenty years and practically had the i)roduct of California by the throat, and in fact had taken pcssession of the country ; in less than a year, this little lady-bug had increased to such numbers that it swept the scales out of existence or got it into such control, that the fruit interests of California were saved. I do not suppose that anybody could .'?it down and readily figure up the amount of money that was saved or made for the United States by that simple little insect brought in by a man known to very few present. You do not see his name prominent in the newsoaners. The fact was not heralded broadcast in cfr«ftt flftmintr hvno H« was not given any great ovation. It is a question whether any monument will be erected to THE DEVELOPMENT OF AORIOULTURE IN ONTARIO. riud on without i'. of chumiitry y lian iiiuruiiHod t t'o(nt(irio in t is ijuite with- eport for 1897, ccollcnt foreign viirictioa which In oats and n hiive, witliin tiru cost of the our grains and ly. About ten mitoned by the ng sucked out got complotoly ly appealed for Entomological of the greatest n of that ques- e world where jst likely come in bringing in Now if it is ia and had not I that will stop jnsignmentsof I running back n to the other locts had been oat, and in fact id increased to that the fruit vu and readily >y that simple see his name Incr fuuo W« — o -^i-"' - — be erected to him by thu I'liited Statim, yet it is doubtful wiiuthurthu United StatuH haH had liiiy gruiitur liunu- factor titan that iiiau and hi ' ikHviHiateN, The importance of Koononiic Entomology to I hit farmer JHtliuH reforroil to by thu IhIk I'rof. Paiitou if our Ai^ricultural OolKtgu, in an artic'u contributed to the Farmort*' luHtituti' rwjiort for IHIMI 7: "The study of inniHitH in rtilation to umn has of Into yt^irN commitndud much attention, and is uitually referred to bh Kcouoinic Kiitomology. Wlule there are some iiiMfCtn benuticial to man, there are many injurious. Home destuoy hiH food, Home injure hiM t-lothing, and olJuirH attack the aiiimaU that are of use to him. Nearly 100 HpeL'icH Imvo been found preying u))on his i^rain and forai^o crops ; upwards of 4(1 upon \m vt.'<{('lal>lus : 50 u|ioii lilt grapti ; 75 ujion tlut ap|ile. Thu pinu has 125 spuciuH as unuiiiios ; thu oak 3U0 ; the elm 80 ; thu hickory 170 ; the maple 75 ; the bcuch liV) ; while the unfortunate willow battles againsi 400 insect foen. Tl00 by thu chinch-bag. 1870— New York Statu lost li?5,0«K),tMM) by thu eabbagu worm. 1873— Thu Southern Status lost 825,(M)0,00O by the cotton worm. 1874— Thu United States lost 836(i,000,000 by thu grasshopper. 1884— Caniula lost $500,000 by thu clovur midge. Thu avuragi' loss of the United Status from inaocts during 1884 is calculated to h ve been *400,000,0, and for 1891. ?300,tM)0,(X)o. With such Kgurus buforo us, in most casus under thu mark, we must conclude that the study of a subject that will enable us to lessen this loss is of great imiiortance." Thu biologist is studying the microscopic forms of life that produce plant food in the soil, that bring about thu changes in stored foods, that control the formentations in milk, butter and cheese, and that cause the many iliseasos in our live stock. Thu debt that the whole world owes to thu great Pasteur should not i)e forgotten. He established the principlos of wine making and saved the vinoyardH of France ; liu laid the foundations for dairy bacteriology ; he mastered anthrax, thu terrible di.suasu that threatened the annihilation of the herds, not of France alone, but of all Europe as well. He was one of thu gruatest guniuses that the world has ever known, and agricultural science received a wonderful impetus from the labor of his head and hands and heart. So important is scientific research in connection with agriculture that one noble minded Eng- lishman set apart a great estate in England for that work, and endowed it with £100,000. For about half a century the work has buun carried on at Rothamsted, and the Queen has recognized it by knighting its donor and his assistants. Sir John Bennett Lawes and Sir Joseph Gilbert are familiar names in the higher agriculture of thu whole world. One of the hopeful signs of thu times i.s that agricultural scientific investigation is attracting more and mere attention on the part of our governments, young men of promise are being drawn into its ranks, splendid opportunities for research are being provided in many countries, and we may confidently look forward to a great advancement in the next quarter of a century. The probable eft'ect upon agricultural life of the application of scientific investigations and discoveries may well attract your careful attention. Cliangea in Methods of PForA; and the Intrudttdion of Co-operative Associations. Let me finally refer in a few words to the changes that have taken place or are now taking place in the life and methods of the farming community. It is but a few years since the farmer lived in a log house built by his own hands anil but rudely furnished. The heating and cook- -TTIf-'VV, -W. ■'.-'■'-■■''■' 36 ONTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES. ing were done at the big open fire place. The food of his table was entirely of his own raising and was therefore limited in its variety. For many years his clothes were of deerskin or of home spun, his winter's cap was of the same material, his summerhat was of straw })laited by his own family. His logging and hauling were done by oxeni*^. He cut the grain with sickle, scythe or cradle, and his wife and children followed with rakes binding and shocking the grain. He threshed on the l)arn floor with the cuu:bersome flail or by the tramping of his horse's feet, and he winnowed after the manner of bye gone centuries. He flung a bag of wheat over the back of hisoidy horse, or he placed it in his canoe or perchance he swung it over his own sturdy shoulder and strode off by the trail to the little mill miles away where by water power it was ground into flour between stones. The social life of the community was largely maintained in the old fashioned " bees" when the neighboi's gathered for a logging or clearing, a barn-raising, a road" making, a corn shocking or even a pig killing. The women had their bees for carpet making or quilting. Traces of these old customs are still to be seon in the well worn rag carpet of some old farm house or the log cabin (juilt that still appears at country fairs. Many of our grandfathers and grandmothers made love to one another at an apple paring bee when the young men pared the fruit and the young women quartered, cored and strung them on strings to hang^ up on the cross beams to dry for winter's use. The school teacher, generally a full grown man, who had seen service in the old land, "boarded round" and was eagerly looked for in many homes. The cobbler or shoemaker went from house to house with his tools and roll of leather staying at the house till the whole family wore rebooted or reshod. The peripatetic tailor dropped in from time to time to make up a suit or two for Sunday wear. The clockmaker came on his rounds and cleaned up the old clock, the grandfather's clock, that stood in the corner of the living room and started it aright though the older members of the family never forgot to make their reckoning by the sun. From time to time the dusty pedlar turned in and laid down his capacious pack, and became for the time being the most imporfaint personage in the world to the younger members of the family^". Most of these old castoms have been changed and a new system now is followed. The old log house has become a blacksmith shop or an outliouse or has been pulled down, and the frame or brick or stone dwelling has taken its place. Its furnishings have b^en bought in town. In many cases it is warmed with coal. The grocer and the merchant are regukrly visited by the farmer or his wife and cash purchases have largely taken the place of barter. Through many districts the baker's and the butcher's carts make their rounds two or three times a week. The only universal remnant of the old "bee " that still lingers is the " raising bee " when the timbers of the great farm barn are set up and many hands are needed to lighten the work. Threshing bees are also still in voyue in some sections. To a large extent the farmer does his own work and limits his (jporations to his own farm and his own help. VVe still find however the thresher with his thrae or four helpers going from farm to farm with his machine and portable steam engine. Sometimes in a newly settled section the owner of a mower or Under will eng ge to cut for his neighbors in rotation. An in cresting event in farming operations is the annual harvest excursion ♦;o tlie wheat lands of Manitoba. The farmers of Manitoba are unable of themselves to harvest their extensive crops in the short time between ripeningand frost. Every year from .3,000 to 5,000 extra "hands" go from Ontario ti) Manitoba by special trains to take part in this work. Some return in the fall, some find permanent employment, and some remain to take up claims for themselves. Other cases of the migration of farm help are to bo found in connection with fruit growing hoppicking and flax growing. For instance when tlie fruit crops of the Niagara distric!, arc about t\\w large numbers^ of Indians from the Grand River reserves move into the district, pitch the r camp and hire out to pick strawberries, raspberries, grapes etc. When hops are ready to pick in Waterloo county THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. 37 or around the Buy of Quinte and when flax is ready to pull in Perth county and the adjacent townships numbers of women and children from the towns go out to engage in the work. Migration for temporary work is to bo found also in the vicinity of canning factories ; on tlie whole however the fanner in his method of work is approximating more and more the mode of work known to dwellers in our towns and cities. I have referred to the co-operation in work among the early settlers. We are coming into another form of co-operation. I have spoken of the success of co-opei-ative methods in connection with the making of butter and cheese. One other form of co-operation must be mentioned and that is in the great increase in all kinds of associations for improvement. An agricultural society was organized at Niagara or Newark in 1792 or 1793. Of its existence and of its usefulness but little is known at the ])resent day. It was not till 1830 that practical encouragement was given these societies on the part of the Legislature. Thoy have continued ever since. In 18()7 apart from these general societies for holding fairs, there was only one other association, that of the fruit-growers. In 1897, however, there were Farmer's Institutes organized in every riding or district of Ontario, there were twelve live stock associations, two dairy associations, a Bee- keepers Association and the Entomological Society. The report of the Ontario Commissioner of Agriculture for 18(58, filled only 272 pages, and its distribution was confined to a few copies. In 1897, the .agricultural reports of the department were eleven in number and made 1,808 pages over 2CK),0 10 of these reports were distributed, in addition to large numbers of bulletins. In the three years 18(58-69-70 the Legislature spent $195,9(59 in behalf of agriculture of which §1(51,392 was for agricultural societies, 830,000 for the provincial fair, and §1,050 for the Fruit-growers Association. In the three years 189o-9<>-97, the Legislature spent $718,156 for all agricultural purposes including the agricultural societies, the various associations, the Agri- cultural College, the dairy schools. Farmer's Institutes, Fruit Experiment Stations, Good Roads Branch, Printing of Reports, and collection of Agricultural Statistics' '. The total expenditure by the Legislature on behalf of Agriculture for the thirty years 1868-97 inclusive has been $4,509, 090. The most noticeable characteristic of Agriculture in this province to-day is the intellectual progress manifest in so many ways. It is a hopeful sign of the times thiit farmers are asking for meetings and for specialists to addreso them — more recjuests than can be complied with ; and that they are asking for reports and bulletins in greater number than our appropriation i permit us to publish. The farming class have oegan to read, to think, to discuss, and to enquire. The seed that is now being sown cannot but yield a harvest that will some day astonish the people who are not directly engaged in Agriculture or carefully following the development. There is springing up in your midst aiiewaijricnltnre. As students of political economy I urge you to watch its growth, to got into sympathy with its progress, and by your researches and your study, to assist our countiy to have a right appreciation of its importance. C. C. Ja.mes. '^■jT--- NOTES. SUPFLEMENTAEY TO THE PaPER ON " ThE DEVELOPMENT OF AORICULTVRE IN OmARIO. " In order not to burden the paper with statistics and quotations and thereby, to a large extent, interfere with the continuity of the discussion, it was thought beat to reserve the notes here appended. As many requests have been made from time to time for the information con- tained in these notes, it has been de.med advisable to place them here and to make the refer- ence to their places in the address by numbers. 1. Primarij sources of wealth. Sometimes in discussions of this nature "manufactures" is added as a fifth source of wealth. It will, I think, be admitted that the manufacturer takes the products of the Hsherman, the miner, the lumberman or forester, and the fanner and turns them over or manufactures them into something a little more valuable. In a sense the fisherman, the miner, the lumberman, and the farmer are manufacturers. The importance of manufactures relative to the otlier four classes cannot be given by stating the value of the manufactures. These are the reasons for not including manufactures as a fifth class — it is- not one of the pri.nary sources of wealth. The value of manufactures according to the census of 1891 was §465,000,000. for number of persons engaged see note No. 5. 2. Tlie Fisheries of Canada. The following facts are taken fi-om the report of marine and fisheries for 1897 : The fisheries of Canada are the most extensive in the world. The value of the sea and inland fisheries in 1867 was estimated at under one million dollars, and in 1859 they were valued at about a million and a half dollars, but in 1867 they had reached §4, 000, 000 ; in 1877, $12,000,000 ; in 1887, 818,386,000 ; and in 189G, 820,400,000. The product for 1896 was made up as follows : Value in 1896. Value in 1886. Nova Scotia New Brunswick British Columbia ... Quebec Ontario Prince Edward Island Manitoba and N.W. Territnries 86,070,895 4,799,433 4,183,999 2,025,754 1,605,674 976,126 745,543 88,415.362 4.180,227 1,577,348 1,741,:^2 1,435,998 1,141,991 186,980 $20,407,424 $18,679,288 Between the years 1869 and 1896 inclusive the five principal commercial fisheries yielded as follows :— Cod, $106,433,217 ; herring, $54,373,042 ; lobsters, $48,964,860 ; salmon, $46,740,- 470 ; mackerel, $37,589,835— total $293,101,424. The total value of all the fisheries of Canada for the twenty-eight years 1869 to 1896 inclu- sive, was $420,168,046, of which amount Ontjirio contributed $28,167,013. The value of the fish'ng boats, tugs, nets, and other fishing material used in Ontario in 1896, was $838,532. [38] THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. 39 3. Products of the Minea of Canada. Quantity. Coal tons. 8,»76,201 Gold .... Silver oz. 5,558,446 Copper lbs. 13,300,802 Nickel lbs. 3,997,647 Lead lbs. 39,018,219 Petroleum bbls. 709,857 All non-metallic products All metallic products Estimated value of pioducts not returned Value. 87.286,257 6,190,000 3,322,905 1,501,660 1,399,176 l,39d,853 1,011,546 814.542,939 13,996,234 250,000 Total for all Canada, 1897 $28,789,173 The total values for previous years were : 1896 $22,609,825 1895 20,715,319 1894 19 933,8.57 1893 20,035,082 1892 16,628,417 1891 18,976,616 1890 816,763,353 1889, 1888, 1887, 1886, 14,013,913 12,479,550 11,365,705 10,221,255 (Compiled by E. D. Ingall, M. E., of Geological Survey of Canada.) Afi'jieraJ Products of Ontario. The following statement of the mineral products of Ontario for 1897 is taken from the latest report of the Ontjvrio Bureau of Mines issued in 1893. (A. Blue, Director of Ontario Bureau of Mines) : Ontario Mineral Product, 1897. Central, natural rock barrels. Cement, Portland " Pressed brick, plain number. Pressed brick, fancy " Roofing tile Terra cotta Paving brick Sewer pipe Petroleum imperial gallons. Illuminating oil " Lubricating oil " Benzine and naphtha " Gas and fuel oils and tar Paraffin wax and candles lb. Natural g.as Calcium carbide tons.* Salt " Gypsum and products of , Graphite and products of , Iron , Nickel " Copper " Gold oz. TotaU 1897. 1896. Quantity. Value. 84,670 876,123 96,825 170.302 7,148,SH)8 53,727 895,000 9,350 35,000 400 35,800 4,567,880 45,670 73,551 25,556,691 10,891.337 1,131,083 1,959,810 199,755 949.341 77,340 8,021,633 281,035 2,139,278 88,378 308.448 574 .34,440 54.686 249,880 1,729 17,950 400 8.500 24.011 288,127 1,909 359,651 2,750 200,067 11,412 190,244 83,899,821 3,794,003 Net tons of 2,000 IbH. 40 ONTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES. ill 4. Farest Products of Canada. The forest products of the D<«ninion as given in the census of 1891, applying to them the values given in the customs returns of exports, amounted to ^80,071,415. Mr. George Johnson, Dominion statistician, in his Report on tne Forest Wealth of Canada, Ottawa. 1895, p. 161, gives the forest products of the four provinces, Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, as follows : 1891. 1881. 1871. White pine §!2,420,298 $3,558,422 §3,635,535 Red pine 209,038 421,710 287,702 Oak 782,061 1,911,789 775,972 Tamarac 48;i,300 550,274 404,412 Birch and maple 376,941 574,270 257,247 Elm 762,285 749,561 344,538 All other square timber 6,074,590 11,753.700 5,576,200 Logs— pine 11.581,506 17,846,936 8,877,774 Logs— all other 19,098,729 11,527,853 3,725,823 Spars and masts 256,686 171,971 227,640' Staves 418,724 290,253 321,650 Lathwood 1,456,735 455.825 128.285 Tanbark 1,475,176 1,792,576 731,346 Firewood 21,269, 189 21,825,762 19,168,783 Total 867,264,258 $73,429,922 844 462,907 6. Ccc^tpationti of ihe Peojde of Canada in 1891. Class. Number. 1. Agriculture, mining and fishing 790.210 2. Trade and transportation 1*^6,695 3. Manufacturing and mechanical pursuits 320,001 4. Domestic and personal services 246,183 5. Professional vocations 63,280 6. Non-productive class 52,986 Total 1,659,355 Class 1 was subdivided as follows : («) Agricultural 735,207 (6) Fishing 27,079 (c) Lumbering 12,756 (d) Mining 15,168 Total 790,210 The agricultural class was further subdivided : Farmers, and farmers' sons 649,506 Farm laborers 76,839 Apiarists, gardeners, tioriats, etc 6,120 Dairymen, stock-raisers, stock-herders, etc 2,742 Total 735,207 THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. 41 BritiBh Columbia Maoitoba New Brunswick Nova Scotia Ontario Prince Edward Island Quebec. ... .... N. W. Territories . . . . Totals No of farmers and farmer's sons. No. of miners. No. of fis 1881. 1 1891. 1881. 1891. 1881. 1,860 2,381 5,874 2,792 4,691 18,497 29,014 6 9 44 54,485 46,880 121 97 1,844 63,436 63,340 2,728 6,660 13,631 300,564 292,770 493 1,034 766 20,492 20,227 4 18 791 200,867 191,564 391 1,634 3,935 1.011 10,837 6 474 44 666,712 619,506 6,541 13,417 22,905 1891. 3,799 78 2,926 14,478 1,421 914 3»433 27,079 6. Early Trade Becords of Canada. A dotttilcd reliable record of the exports of Canada would be very interesting in this discus- sion if such were available. Unfortunately this record can be got only in fragmentary form. The exports of Upper Canada went out by two routes, across the border into the neighboring States and down the St. Lawrence past Coteau to Montreal and Quebec, whence they were sliipped to Europe. Mr. George Johnson informs me that "the returns for "the Port of Quebec were collected from the first by Mr. Dunscombe, and the British Government also had n full set. Tiie British Government's set was destroyed by lire about 1815. Subsequently Dunscombe's collection was also destroyed by fire." In Vol. V. of Commercial SUitistics, by John Macgregor, M.P, (1850), former secretary of the British Board of Trade, we find, on pages, 254, 255, a fiondensed statement of the trade of Canada for the years 1754, 1769, 1788 and 1K08. Furs, fiah and lumber are referred to in the first three years. In 1808 the exports of pot and pearl ashes from Quebec amounted to £290,000 out of a total export of £1,156,060. In the same year the imports of ashes into Canada from the United States amounted to £110,000. On page 266 of the same work we have the following among the exports by sea from Canada : 1835. 1840. 1844. Ashes, cwts 120,226 99,899 156,748 Wheat, bushels 61,727 1P0,862 308,654 Other grain, bushels 11,8.37 68,928 245,763 Wheat flour, bbls 91,063 330,010 389,102 These figures, however, do not quite harmonize with another table of exports given on p. 269. On page 270 is given a table of values of the most important articles exported from Canada which may le reproduced here for what it is worth as showing the change in the pro- ducts during the eleven years, 1832-42 : Ashes. £ 1832 204,667 1833 174,281 1834 108.287 18.<5 176.231 1836 238,951 1837 180,671 1838 168,980 1839 142,457 1840 126,148 1841 121.733 1842 157,906 Grain, etc. Timber. Total. £ £ £ 221,552 471,8.37 898,056 241,720 489,367 905,368 139,742 683,208 931,237 39,500 620,182 8-36,003 28,804 703,165 970,920 16,331 661.786 847,688 46,034 706.185 921.199 32,052 1-80,403 1,054,912 494,507 952,826 1,573,481 660,908 1,019,745 1,802,386 512.324 522,203 1,192,433 .^. \-L. V*'- "*••-,-:■ ' 42 ONTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES. t'S f 1 Mr. George Johnson, in the conimunioition before quoted, says : — The Colony was accus- tomed to transmit to the Home (jovernment every year a manuscript report of the taxes, duties, fees, etc., etc., which gave an inmiense deal of information about the country. I have the manu- script copy for the year 1842 which 1 rescued from destruction not long ago. I have little douDt that these would be available in some nook or corner of some one or other of the places in which the British Government is obliged U> store them. Their value is "another story." Take the report for 1842 which I have before me and under the head of Exports we have, 1st, a return for the Port of Montreal ; 2nd, a return for the Port of Quebec ; 3rd, a short statement of the exports to the United States from Inland Ports. So that down to the year 184*.i there was no division by Provinces. I give you an extract, which refers to the Inland Forts: "The exports to the United States (for 1842) consist principally of apples, ashes, lumber, furs and casual articles of merchandise, but the value is very limited. The staple exports by sea are wheat, flour, lumber, pot and pearl ashes, staves, beef, pork and iun. Toba.co is pro duced and exported in the western district of Upper Canada. The value at these ports cannot be ascertained, as the customs house officers in general keep no account of them, being duty free. " " The ports of St. Johns and Phillipsburgh are the principal ones in Lower Canada, the value of exports at the former is returned at £100,214.15.10, including £82,783.11.6 in specie, and at the latter, £11,924.1.6. From the other Loiver Canada and the Upper Canada ports no return of any kind can be procured." Up to the time of the opening of the Erie canal the exports of Upper Canada for Europe went east by way of the St. Lawrence. The following statement of the trade passing Coteau was furnished by JVir. Robert Sellar of Huntington, Que. The batteau was a long sharp pointed boat and the Durham boat was flat bottomed, made like boats used on the Mohawk river, N. Y. Year. 1817. 1818. 1819. 1820. 1821. 1822. 1823. 1824. 1826. Batteaux. No. 835 679 573 430 357 385 377 457 Durham boats. No. 268 315 339 561 442 407 317 292 No record. Year. 1826. 1827. 18-^8., 1H29. 1830. 1831., 1832.. 1833. Batteaux. No. 167 254 403 Durham boats. 313 497 358 No record. 712 530 837 371 817 451 864 612 In an early Legislative report on the canals of Upper Canada it is stated that going down the Durham boat carried on the average 350 barrels and the batteau thirty barrels ; on the way up the former eight tons and tlie latter four tons. THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. 48 ony was accus- e taxes, duties, fiave the nianu- I have little of the places bher story." ports we have, I ; 3rd, a short n to the year to the Inland ishes, lumber, jle exports by )ba.co is pro I porta cannot n, being duty • Canada, the l.C in specie, nada ports no a for Europe assing Coteau sharp pointed c river, N. Y. 'urhani boats. ]So. 313 497 358 :1. 530 371 451 612 going down on the way 7. Prices of Wheit. The following average prices of wheat per niinot for the years given are taken from a state ftment furnished some years ago by Mr. Roht. Sollar of Huntingt'in, Que. They were compiled ;j'lby Rev. M. Comte and refer to Montreal. The iniuot is a measure of ([uantity, forty (juarts. '^Tho livre may be taken at seventeen cents and the sol at three-ciuarters of a cent. 'T\ s Year. 1800. 1801. 1802. 1803. 1804. 1805. 1801). 1807. 1808. 1809 1810. 1811. 1812. 1813. Livres. So'j 12 6 6 6 9 8 8 10 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 12 19 16 , , Year. 1814 1815. 1816. 1817 . 1818. 1819. 1820. 1821. 1822. 1823 1824. 1836. 1837. 1841. Livres. Sols 9 16 12 7 10 8 6 6 4 10 u f» 6 6 12 6 10 8 10 7 10 8. The (rroicth of Fopnlatimi and Increase in Farm Operations in Ontario. In 1784 there were in Upper Canada " about 10,000 United Empire Loyalists" according to memoramlum contained in the appendices of the House of Assembly of U. C. for 1823. According to Bouchottc (the British Dominions, vol. II., p. 235) the population was as follows : In 1806, 70,718 ; in 1811, 77.000 ; and in 1814, 95,000. The municipal census returns give the population as 150,066 in 1824 and 157.923 in 1825. The t'ollowing statement for tlie years 1826-1841 is made up from the returns sent to the Legislature. Year. Poi)u- lation. No J:\. Occupied. Cultivated. Horses. Oxen, 4 years and Milch Other cattle, Acres. Acres. No. upwards. cows. No 2 to 4 No. years old. 166,379 3,353,653 .599 744 23,806 26,302 62,198 25,669 177,174 3 579,5.54 645,792 25.228 29,091 (56,878 27,661 186,488 3,632,540 668,:}26 25,701 29.814 67,188 37,304 197,815 3,726,330 717,553 28,388 33,332 75,071 34,766 213,156 4,018,385 773,727 30,776 33,517 80,892 32,537 236 702 4,387,777 818,416 33,428 36,131 84,373 35,162 263,554 4,716,372 916.367 36,822 39,054 92,274 35,172 295,863 5,151,211 988.9.56 40,254 41,870 96,042 35,760 .321,145 5,127,064 1,004,779 43,217 42,455 99,823 36 796 347,359 5,703,219 1.309,7H5 48,118 46,080 110,051 39,371 374,099 6,089,094 1,283,709 55,064 48.938 121,024 44,706 397,489 6,280,611 1,440, {)05 57,250 48,453 120 110 49,110 399,422 6,769,050 1,469.7.37 63,396 47,703 129 711 50,649 409.048 6,670,083 1,566.677 66,220 47.491 136,171 47,607 432,li/9 7,011,706 1,713,163 72,696 48,990 148,483 49,566 455,688 6,868,504 1,811,431 75,316 49,940 157,411 56,756 The following table is made up from the census reports. Note increase in live stock. 184L. 1848. 1851. 1861. 1871. 1881. 1891. Population 487,053 725.879 932,004 1,39(5,091 1,620,851 1,926,922 2,112,989 Land occupied, aci 63 6,212,726 8,413,591 9,828,656 13,354,896 16,162,676 19,259,909 21,091,698 Land improved, acres 1,751,628 1,780,157 3,705,523 6,051,609 8,833,626 11,294,109 14,157,952 Horaes, No 113,(547 151,389 201,070 377,681 489,001 590,298 771,8.S8 Neat cattle 504,963 665,846 744,264 1,015,278 1.403,174 1.702,167 2.062,474 Sheep 675,730 833,807 967,168 1,170.225 1,514,914 1,369,178 1,021,769 Swine 394,366 484,241 571,496 776,001 874,e04 700,922 1,121,.S96 Wheat, bush 3,221,9S9 7,658,773 12,682,650 24,(520,425 14,233,389 27,406,091 21,318,682 Oats, bush 4,788, "u 7,055,730 11,396,467 21.220,874 22,138,958 40,209,929 47,160,246 Potatoes, bush 8,080,402 4,761,316 4,973,285 15,325,920 17,138,634 18,893,996 17,636,151 44 ONTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES. 9. Ittnitiijnmts into Canada. The arrivals at Quebec in 182i> wore 15,!U5, and in 18.10, 18,075. From 1829 to 1840 inclusive the nunilter of immigrants who arrived in Canada at Quebec was 400,179. The arrivals for the years following were ; 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 90,150 1851 27,9.19 1852 38.494 1853 32,29^ 18.54 Total for eii-dit years 41.170 39,076 .10,099 5.1,183 359,009 Of the 90,150 arrived in 1847 no less th.in 50,300 came from Ireland. The population of Upper Canada in 1851 as to origin was as follows : Can.adian born, not French 520 093 " French . . 20,417 Ireland 170,207 England and Wales 82.099 Scotland 75,811 United States 43,732 (^ther provinces 0,498 All others 14,487 Total 952 W4 10. Impnrfiitiim of Ft ire Bred Cuttle into Ontario. About 1831, Mr. Robert Arnold of St. Catharines, brought a shorthorn cow and a bull to Canada from the St.ite of New York, The dam of the cow was bred by Robert Colling. Mr. Wingtield'a imported cattle also included some Colling stock. They were afterwartls sold to Mr, Ht>witt of Ciuelph, About 18.1(», Hon, Adam Fergusson of VVoodhill imported several head of pure-bred stock from over the sea and from the neighboring states. Further importations are mentioned in the preface to Vol. I t>f the Canada shorthorn Herd Book compiled and published by the Board of Agriculture of U]>i)er Canada, Toronto, 1807. The year by year importations of shorthorns are to be found in the introductions to the various volumes of the Dominion short- horn Herd Book begining in 1880. " Dairy cattle were first brought to Canada by the colonies of settlers who accompanied explorers to occuj>y this country ; each party brought what they considered the mos* suitable of the kind from their respective former homes. " During the year 1(510 a French settlement was formed at Quebec by Viceroy Chaniplain. From 1030 to 1050 Reverend Gentlemen and others imported dairy cattle that are known as the native Canadian cow, of which very few (if any ) can now be found pure-bred. Their excellent quality and suitableness to this country should have induced their ownera to preserve the purity of that breed. "About the year 1025 dairy cattle from Great Brit.iin were brought to the lower St. Lawrence by settlers who came to occupy the grant of territory made by King James the Ist to Sir Wm. Alexander, under the great seal of Scotland ; thenceforward settlers coming to Canada brought with them dairy cattle best suited to those settlements. '* The importation of pure-bred Ayrshires is clearly traced to the arrival of Scotch ships bringing them for the use of passengers on the voyage. They were sold on arrival at the E istern harbors, at Quebec and at Montreal, " Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General in 1821, was a breeder and importer of Ayrsnires, Other governors, shipm.isters, merchants and farmers not now living were owners of Ayrshires thus obtained. The good appearance and performance of these animals attracted such attention that it became a general practice, over tifty years ago, to induce shipmasters to briog out a couple or more Ayrshires, till the imi)ortation for br^ieding purposes became very frequent during the early part of the present century, and it has since been I'egularly continued. " It is estimated that there are now in Canada over fifty thousand pure-bred Ayrshire cattle, and not less than three hundred thousand Ayrahire grades, which are the best herds of dairy cows in the Dominion, " The foregoing paragraphs are from the introduction to the first volume of the Canada Ayr- shire Herd Record Montreal. 1880. The records in this book include animals born in Canada as early as 1802. Ayrsliires are found principally in Eastern Ontario, the Montreal District and the Eastern Townships. :-js'T THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. 45 1]. Sample Stattnninta of CoupenWu'e Ihiirij Compunien. ((() C'heuso Hnd Inittei- factory in Oxford County, (The Stnithiilliin Clioosu Co.). In 1897 there were 140 pntrons ; r)3(),624 ft) of chueao wore made ; viiliie of cheese, )B44,501 ; distributed anionj,' patrons 83y,."W. From 1879 to 1897 this coiupimy has made (5,U40,"J25 lb of cheese which sold for 8«>-'«,!306. (h) Stitonicnt of a factory in Western Onta'-''). One hundred and forty-one sliareholdera ; ^l,03(t aubscribed, being 2(Mi shares at 15 oi . , J895 paid on stock ; cost of factory Sl,329. In 1H97 milk received was 1,815.740 lb ; cheese made was H)o,22.'j Wi. The cost of drawing was tl,f. Paid patrons for milk $8,370. (r) Co-operative factory in Lanark County. Sixty-eight patrons, facte ry ran from May 3 to Nov. 5, 1897- IHl working days ; 1,358,270 lb milk received ; made 1,740 chnese, weighing 130,737 lb. (.'heese sold for $10,780 ; interest on deposit. $24— total receipts $10,804. The cost of drawing milk and making cheese (l^c per lb.)was $2,124. The salesman and treasurer was paid $70. The inap'ictor received $6, other expenses were $11, The remainder, $8,573, was divided among the patrons. ((/) Statement of a Cheese and Butter Company of Western Ontario. Sixty-six stockholders, 95 patnma, subscribed capital $1,530, (306 shares at $5 each) paid up $1,015. In 1897 milk received was 1,423,851 lb ; cheese made was 131,403 lb, of wliich the patrons themselves took 5.380 tti. The cost of drawing milk and hauling cheexe was $l,22fc ; the cost of making was $992 : other expenses were $290. The cash received for sale of cheese was $10,348 ; the cash paid to patrons was $7,583. 12. The Rf aping MachU^e. " Until about fifty years ago the most important agricultural operations were conducted upon the same principles as had ruled for ages before that time. The form of the plough was cer- tainly improved, and was no longer the rude implement which Robert Burns used a hundred years before ; but it was still operated in the same fashion as prevailed in his day. Even now the sower goes ff)rth to sow just as he did in New Testament time.s ; and husbandry until a recent period was much the same as it had been when Thomas Tusser wrote his "Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry " in 1573. The conservatism which surrounded practical agriculture is now being gradually dissipated, but the battle between the old forms and the new has been more protracted here than in any other occupation. Look, for instance, at the operation of reaping. Circumst.ancea continually occur year after yeai' which make it imperative that the fields should be reaped expeditiously, and the harvest garnered as rapidly as possible. Yet no feasible method of applying machinery to this work was proposed until the nineteenth century had begun, and even after a practicable reaping machine had been invented it took many yeara to induce the farmers to adopt it generally. So late as 1870 the work of reaping was done by the sickle or the scythe, and manual labor was the only motive power used. The crops were reaped by " heuk-men," the sheaves were made up by women, and gleaners went over the fields precisely as they did when Boaz met Ruth "amid the alien ct)rn." And yet the idea of the modern reaping macliine was realized and in full operatitm in the first century, and that among a nation which was then regarded as only half civilized. The description which Pliny gives of this machine might have been applied to some of the reaping machines invented early in the present century. He says: "In the extensive plains of Gaul large hollow machines are employed, with teeth fixed to the forei)art, and they are pushed forward on two wheels, through the 9tanding"corn, by an ox yoked to the hind part ; the corn cut off by the teeth falls into the hollow part of the machine." It i."" difficult to account for the disappearance of this useful midline, nor is it easy to discover when iti u.se was a .ndoned. Rutilius Palladius, the Roman writer on agriculture, who lived in the fourth century, refers to this machine in his work "De Re Rustica " ; but even at that time its use seems to have been confined to Gaul. Though Pailadius's book was regarded as the chief authority on agriculture, and w.as the text-book of the modiieval farmers, no attempt was made to revive the ox-drive ii reaping machine, and it was forgotten for over 1400 years. The principle upim which it was constructed — cutting teeth iiLstead of scythe blades — was the main peculiarity of the machine invented by the Rev. Patrick Bell, of Civrinyllie, in 1826. Before referring to that machine specially it may be desirable to show briefly the progress of development whereby reaping by machinery was brought to its present state of perfection. It seems probable that various attemjitB were made towards the c'ose of last century to devise a reaping machine which would minimise the cost of harvesting, but no particulars of these have been preserved. In 1804 Mr. Boyce obtained a patent for a. reaping machine. It consisted of a cylinder set vertically upon a carriage that ran upon small 46 ONTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES. wIiooIn, tln' cyliuilov onclofiii;,' this carriiiKo. Tlio triiina thatcxtLMidud to the Imck of tho iiiiichino wori' no coiitrivoil thut a h^rsu could lio yoked, and the H)i|>iii'iituH was piiHliod forwnrd by tlio uiiimiil, By ii Biiiiplu arraii;{itiiioiit of )>evf1 •^'t^ariii^tho motion of thcnwichinu ciiusi'd the cyliiidur to revolve. .Aromul the lower edye of tluH drum or cylinder a tlanj{e projected, \vhii;h consisted of a aeries of knife hUdes set to form a eontinnouN circle, and ii.s the machine was propelled this circnlnr knife cut tlu^ corn, which fell to each side of the apjuii-atus. The drum could he raised or htwereil so aw to make !on;4 or short Htubl)lo as desired. There was no arraiif^ement for gathering; or huntllini,' the cut corn, and this defect prevented the machine from beini; used prac- tically. About the same time a patent was obtnineil by Mr. Phmkett, of London, for another reaper, the chief difference lieini^ tliat the knife blade was toothed like a fine saw. It also failed through the lack of a method of |:{atheriiit; the corn when cut. In 1800 Mr. (JladMtonc, a mill- wright, of Castle-Douf^las, devised a reaper, upon which he made many improvements in later years. The horse "hafts projected at the side, so that the liorse walked on the stubble. A circular frame carryin;^ a knife was made to revolve by the forward motion nf the machine. Projecting prongs kept the corn in place against the revolving cutter, and an elaborate device was used for gathering up the cut corn in small t[uantitieH. Drawings and full de8ori])tions of the earliest and latest forms of the (iladstfuie reaper are to bo found in Brewsier's "' Edinburgh Encyclopedia," Vols. 1 and 17. Thouah hailed at first as a great achievement, this reajier nevi!r came into general u.se. Mr. .Salmon, of Woburn, brought out in 1810 another machine in which for the first time he revived the very ancient process of clipj)ing the corn with shears, but it also fell into oblivion. "In 181t) Mr. Scott, of Orniiston, devised a reaper on quite a different principle. It was similar in form to the Gladstone machine, but instead of a circular knife blade there was a frame fitted with sixteen small sickles, which cut the corn that was hold in position by the projecting ])rf>ngs. The great difficulty m working this machine was to keej) the sickles free of the corn, for portions of the straw getting into the revolving apparatus brought it to a staidstill. About the same time Mr. Smith, of Deanston, proposed to construct a reaper in which he reverted to the revolving knife blade, but though he worked at improvements upon it for over twenty years, his plan failed. The first forward movement took place in 1822, when Messrs. Ogle & Brown, Alnwick, brought out their machine for reaping and gathering. In it the cutting was done by a straight knife which was moved from side to side by the motion of tlie machine, and cut the corn against a row of fixed teeth or prongs A revolving vane took up the cut corn and deposited it on a deal platform behind tlie cutter. Like its predecesson, this machine was not taken up by the agriculturists. These inventions had prei)ared the way for the reaping machine devised by the Rev. Patrick Bell. He was born in 1800, and though trained for the Church he early develf»ped a bias towards the stud)' of mechanics, and was a good practical workman. About 1820 he set himself to the problem of constructing an efr-.ctive reaper, making his own models with such scraps of iron as he could obtain cheaply. His machine was in working order by 1826, and at that time his brother had one in operation on his farm of Inch-Michael, in the Carse of Gowrie. The clipping process was adopted by Mr. Bell. Instead of a single knife blade v'brat- ing from side to side, as in Ogle «S: Brown's machine, he had a moving frame with ". series of projecting knives like scissor blades, which worked above r> similar set of ti.Kod knives. The cut com fell on an endless web of cloth which ran round two rollers, and delivered the corn on one side of the machine. The reaper was pushed forward by a horse, and the motion set all parts of the machine working simultaneously. There was no complicated machinery reeiuired, and it was proved that one machine could reap twelve acres per day." — Dundee Advertiser. The New York Farmer oitd American Gardener's Mugnzine for 1834 p. Ill contains a description ( by the inventor ) and illustration of Obed Hussey's grain cutter, and the appendix to the same volume p. 73 contains a description (by the inventor) and illustration of Cyrus H. M'Cormick's "Improved reaping machine. " These two machines are the fore-runners of the reapers and binders now used in the United States and Canada. 13 Earhj Highways. The 1896 report of the Ontario Provincial Instructor in Roadmaking, Mr. A. W. Campbell C. E., contains a chapter in Development of Roads in Ontario. " Speaking of ''trails" and early routes he says : " The most important of these routes, frequently referred to by early writers, led from Burlington bay to the head waters of the Thames, down which the traveller might descend by canoe to Lake St. Clair. A branch of this trail, nientioned by Galir.ee, led from the ford at the Grand river to Longue Point. An early map show.? an Indian path following the north shore of Lake Erie. Trails led from Lake Frie to Chatham and London. From the northern branch of the Thames, a short portage and canoe route led to Lake Huron. A trail led from the Don THE DEVELOPMENT OP AGRICULTURE IN ONTARIO. 4T to Burlington bay. Nottiiwft8aj■; • mm --.»r-A V 48 ONTARIO BUREAU OF INDUSTRIES. MiUaijf of Jiiiilirayi In Canada. Yeiir 1836. 1H46. 1847. 1867. Miles in Milos in Ontario. Caniida. 16 16 64 1,444 986 Yoar 1867. 1877. 1887. 1897. Milei in Ontario. 1,362 2,8ftff 6, 38; J 6,626 MiloH in CHiinda. 2,278 5,218 11,793 16,650 16. Oren iind lhir»e». The piiHHin^ of the ox as n beaHt of burden may he Houn from the followinfi; tigureit : 1851. 1861. 1871. 1881. 1891. No. No. No. No. No. Oxen 192,140 99,605 47,941 23.263 12,424 HorscB .... 201,670 377,681 489.001 690,298 771,838 16. Pioneer Life, Very interesting^ accounts of pioneer work and life may be found in the following : Authentic Letters from Tapper Canada, by T. W. McGrath, Dublin, 1833. Twenty-seven Years in Canada West, by Major Strickland, London, 1853. Country Life in Canada Fifty Years Ago, Canniff Haight, Torontti, 1885. 17. Expenditure in behalf of Atjricidtvre by the Lerjiiilnture of Ontario. Salaries Agricultural Societies 54,074 Provincial Fair Fruit Growers' Association Miscellaneous 1868. $ 1869. 1870. 9 800 54,074 10,000 350 236 800 53,894 10,000 800 480 800 63,424 10,000 350 401 Total 65,460 65,624 Total for three years, 1868, 1869, 1870 $195,969 1895. Department 17,490 Agricultural Societies 74,747 Other associati -ns 21, 123 Reports and bulletins 15,121 Ontario Agricultural College : Salaries 26,(tl2 Expenses 25,959 ~ ■ .... 19,304 4,886 7 667 2,066 20,375 1,941 2,028 6,482 Capital account Bureau of Industrirs Farmers' Institutes Travelling Dairies Daii-y Schools Experimental Fruit Stations. Fruit spraying Pioneer Farm Good Roads Miscellaneous 250 1896. # 17,789 74.325 22,6!Hi 15.708 27.737 26.916 21.044 4,774 10,522 1,971 9,306 2,635 2,130 3,791 2.1.51 1,800 64,985 1897. $ 17,746 73 738 19,li7 11,0.10 27,950 26,980 8,844 3,773 10,489 141599 2,441 2.69? 1,612 {),6(t3 1,800 Tf.tal 244,452 Total for three years, 1«95, 1896, 1897 245,295 228,409 .... 1718,158 ''"^lyriw 'V«