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7^'

TUB

International Scientific Series

<Sf

VOL. XLL

I HAVE recently learut from the publishers of the
* International Scientific Series ' that they have madtj
arrangements with Sir John Lubbock to bring out in thJ
same series a work of his on Ants and Bees. Necessarily]
therefore, the material to be dealt with in his work will
to a large extent overlap that which is presented by mj
chapters on the same insects ; but after consulting witf
the publishers, and also with Sir John Lubbock, it ha(
seemed to me undesirable to omit these chapters oj
account of the circumstances here stated. For, on th|
one hand, the facts will not lose their value from beii
twice told ; and on the other, it is desirable that tb|
present member of the Series should form in itself,
far as its Author can make it, a complete resume of all tl
more important facts of Animal Intelligence,

GEOm

Z0(

KEG AN PAUL,!

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

hf> »■'

GEORGE J. ROMANES, M.A. LL.D. F.R.S.

ZOOLOGICAL SECnKTAIjy OF THK MNNEAN SOCirTY

SECOXD EDITION

LIBF.ARY
RATIONAL MUSEUM
^ PF CANADA

LONDON

KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, & CO., 1 PATERNOSTER SQUARE

1882

012155

I When I first

I was my intent

these I intendi

fticts of anima]

treated of the

Descent. Fin

material was

Ibeing comprise

|have made ar

' International

iivision of the

'Mental Evoli

[for press withii

My object i

lave thought ii

i-esembling a te

phology, to whi

lay turn when

pemselves wit

rhich this or tl

bndeavour of ass

{^The rights of tram

JiU

,...^o/«.— «^«^-*rtf:t':

[or the most p
irimination mo:

PEEFACE.

-•o»-

ire

WuEN 1 first began to collect materials for this work it
was my intention to divide the book into two parts. Of
these I intended the first to be concerned only with the
facts of animal intelligence, while the second was to have
treated of these facts in their relation to the theory of
Descent. Finding, however, as I proceeded, that the
Imaterial was too considerable in amount to admit of
])eing comprised within the limits of a single volume, 1
have made arrangements with the publishers of the
I* International Scientific Series ' to bring out the second
iivision of the work as a separate treatise, under the title
Mental Evolution.' This treatise I hope to get ready
[for press within a year or two.

My object in the work as a whole is twofold. First, I
lave thought it desirable that there should be something
•esembling a text-book of the facts of Comparative Psy
ihology, to which men of science, and also metaphysicians,
lay turn whenever they may have occasion to acquaint
themselves with the J)articular- level of intelligence to
^hich this or that species of animal attains. Hitherto the
mdeavour of assigning thes3 levels has been almost exclu-
,^^.Bively in the hands of popular writers ; and as these have,
[or the most part, merely strung together, with dis-
[rimination more or less inadequate, innumerable anec-

%^'

PREFACE.

dotes of the display of animal intelligence, their books
are valueless as works of reference. So much, indeed, is
this the case, that Comparative Psychology has been vir-
tually excluded from the hierarchy of the sciences. If we
exct»pt the methodical researches of a few distinguished
naturalists, it would appear that the phenomena of mind
in animals, having constituted so much and so long the
theme of nnscientific authors, are now considered well-
nigli unworthy of serious treatment by scientific methods.
Hut it is surely needless to point out that the phenomena
which constitute the subject-matter of Comparative Psy-
chology, even if we regard them merely as facts in Nature,
have at least as great a claim to accurate classification as
those phenomena of structure which constitute the sub-
ject-matter of Comparative Anatomy. Leaving aside,,
therefore, the reflection that within the last twenty years
the facts of animal intelligence have suddenly acquired a
new and profound importance, from the proved probability ,
of their genetic continuity wi+h those of human intelli-
gence, it would remain true that their systematic arrange- 1
ment is a worthy object of scientific endeavour. This,
then, has been my first object, which, otherwise stated,
amounts merely to passing the animal kingdom in review
in order to give a trustworthy account of the grade ofj
psychological development which is presented by each[
group. Such is the scope of the present treatise.

My second, and much more important object, is that of |
considering the facts of animal intelligence in their rela-
tion to the theory of Descent. With the exception ofl
]Mr. Darwin's admirable chapters on the mental powers
and moral sense, and Mr. Spencer's great work on the
Principles of Psychology, there has hitherto been no
earnest attempt at tracing the principles which have been
probably concerned in the genesis of Mind. Yet there is

PREFACE.

books
leed, is
en vir-
If we
Tuislunl
)f miml
3iig the
ed vvell-
iiethods.
'nomeiia
Lve Psy-
i Nature,
cation as
the sub-

ot a doubt that, for the present generation at all events,
o subject of scientific in(|uiry can present a higher
egree of interest; and therefore it is mainly with the
iew of furthering this inquiry that I have undertaken
work. It will thus be apparent that the present

lus

lolume, while complete in itself as a statement of the
cts of Comparative Psychology, has for its more ultimate
irpose the laying of a lirm foundation for my future
eatise on Mental Evolution. But although, from what I
ve just said, it will be apparent that the present trea-
ie is preliminary to a more important one, I desire to
iphasise this statement, lest the critics, in being now
esented only with a groundwork on which the picture is
eutually to be painted, should deem that the art dis-
ig aside, B^ygjj -^ ^£ somewhat too commonplace a kind. If the
ity y^a^'^Besent work is read without reference to its ultimate
cquired Ji Jjgct of supplying facts for the subsequent deduction of
nciples, it may well seem but a small improvement
on the works of the anecdote-mongers. But if it is
embered that my object in these pages is the mapping
of animal psychology for the purposes of a subsequent
thesis, I may fairly claim to receive credit for a sound
ntific intention, even where the only methods at my
osal may incidentally seem to minister to a mere love
necdote.

It remains to add a few words on the principles which

ve laid down for my own guidance in the selection and

ngement of facts. Considering it desirable to cast as

fi a net as possible, I have fished the seas of popular

ature as well as the rivers of scientific writing. The

ess multitude of alleged facts which I have thus been

ed to read, I have found, as may well be imagined,

ave beeimgg^ygjy tedious ; and as they are for the most part re-

t there isBg^j ^^ wholly unknown observers, the labour of reading

obability

a intelli-

arrange-

This,

te stated,

in review

grade of

by each

•

lis that of I
[heir rela-
|eption ofl
il powers
on the!
been no I

PREFACE.

them would have bceu useless without some trustworthj»jjjj.j i .1
principles of selection. The first and most obvious pri^iciplAjj^j^j^^^ 1
that occurred to me was to regard only those facts whicilgy ^^^
stood upon the authority of observers well known as co"i»)servations n
petent ; but I soon found that this principle constituteAjj^j princinle
much too close a mesh. Where one of my objects was tM,, selection
determine the upper limit of intelligence reached by th:fij|^.jj present
and that class, order, or species of animals, I usually fouiiM j^^ uncons •'
that the most remarkable instances of the display of inteM^g ^g 1
ligence were recorded by persons bearing names more fjeiitg which f'
less unknown to fame. This, of course, is what we miglM.vpr and 1 1
antecedently expect, as it is obvious that the chances niuMjjj. .^^ ^j j , ,
always be greatly against the more intelligent individual j^j^..^„g seek'
among animals happening to fall under the observation M^^ .^^^^ x J
the more intelligent individuals among men. Therefore* those of oth
soon found that I had to choose between neglecting all til g^ much th
more important part of the evidence — and consequently Bg^ ^uided in t
most cases feeling sure that I had fixed the upper lintnt of the f
of intelligence too low — or supplementing the principle
looking to authority alone with some other principles
selection, which, while embracing the enormous class
alleged facts recorded by unknown observers, might
felt to meet the requirements of a reasonably criti
method. I therefore adopted the following principles
filter to this class of facts. First, never to accept an allej
fact without the authority of some name. Second, in
case of the name being unknown, and the alleged factB^^ ^^ 'xi J
sufficient importance to be entertained, carefully to ccBpgjpjj^ i^- j #.
sider whether, from all the circumstances of the caseBg^ j-j^ ■,.

recorded, there was any considerable opportunity for i^Blosophicall
observation ; this principle generally demanded that Mning throi h
alleged fact, or action on the part of the animal, should let m-al affin >
of a p«'irticularly marked and unmistakable kind, lookBallelism is rfl
to the end which the action is said to have accompli sli^jjoad outlin

ending order,
the selected
chology whic
in some cas
son of my
ural groups th
For it is a
gdom were cl

PREFACE.

fhird, to tabulate all important observations recorded by

iknown observers, with the view of ascertaining whether

ley have ever been corroborated by similar or analogous

)servations made by other and independent observers.

lis principle 1 have found to be of great use in guiding

iy selection of instances, for where statements of fact

liich present nothing intrinsically improbable are found

be unconsciously confirmed by different observers, they

ive as good a right to be deemed trustworthy as state-

jents which stand on the single authority of a known ob-

•ver, and I have found the former to be at least as abun-

^nt as the latter. Moreover, by getting into the habit

always seeking for corroborative cases, I have frequently

|en able to substantiate the assertions of known observers

those of other observers as well or better known.

So much, then, for the principles by which I have

len guided in the selection of facts. As to the arrange-

jnt of the facts, I have taken the animal kingdom in

?ending order, and endeavoured to give as full a sketch

the selected evidence at my disposal permitted of the

i^chology which is distinctive of each class, or order,

i, in some cases, family, genus, or even species. The

dson of my entering into greater detail with some

tural groups than with others scarcely requires explana-

For it is almost needless to say that if the animal

igdom were classified with reference to Psychology in-

|ad of with reference to Anatomy, we should have a very

ferent kind of zoological tree from that which is now

[en in our diagrams. There is, indeed, a general and,

llosophically considered, most important parallelism

ming through the whole animal kingdom between

ictural affini-^.y and mental development; but this

illelism is exceedingly rough, and to be traced only

)road outlines, so that although it is convenient for

X PEEFACE.

the purpose of definite arrangement to take the anima
kingdom in the order presented by zoological classificaj
tion, it would be absurd to restrict an inquiry into Anima
Psychology by any considerations of the apparently d\i
proportionate length and minute subdivision with whicj
it is necessary to treat some of the groups. AnatomicallJ
an ant or a bee does not require more consideration than
beetle or a fly ; but psychologically there is need for
great a difference of treatment as there is in the r^j
very dissimilar case of a monkey and a man.

Throughout the work my aim has been to arrive
definite principles rather than to chronicle mere inc|
dents — an aim which will become more apparent whi
the work as a whole shall have been completed. Therefoij
it is that in the present volume I have endeavoured,
far as the nature and circumstances of the inquiry woi
permit, to suppress anecdote. Nevertheless, althoughl
have nowhere introduced anecdotes for their own sakej
have found it unavoidable not to devote much the large
part of the present essay to their narration. Hence, wij
the double purpose of limiting the introduction of ane
dotes as much as possible, and of not repeating moj
than I could help anecdotes already published, I havej
all cases, where I could do so without detriment to
main object, given the preference to facts which haj
been communicated to me by friends and correspondeDj
And here I may fitly take the opportunity of expressiJ
my thanks and obligations to the latter, who in Lstonil
ing numbers have poured in their communications durij
several years from all quarters of the globe. I make tl
statement because I desire to expkin to all my com
pondents who may read this book, that I am not the U
sensible of their kindness because its bounty has re|
dered it impossible for me to send acknowledgments I

PREFACE.

idividual cases. However, I should like to add in this
mnection that it does not follow, because I have only
loted a small percentage of the letters which I have re-
vived, that all of the remainder have been useless. On
le contrary, many of these have served to convey infor-
mation and suggestions which, even if not reserved for
)ress quotation in my forthcoming work, have been of
36 in guiding my judgment on particular points. There-
Ire I hope tliat the publication of these remarks may
Irve to swell the stream of communications into a yet
[rger flow. *
In all cases where I have occasion to quote statements
fact, which in the present treatise are necessarily
Limerous, I have made a point of trying to quote
trbatim,. Only where I have found that the account
[van by an author or a correspondent might profitably
Imit of a considerable degree of condensation have I
[esented it in my own words.
And here I have to express my very special obligations
Mr. Darwin, who not only assisted me in the most
^nerous manner with his immense stores of information,
well as with his valuable judgment on sundry points
difficulty, but has also been kind enough to place
my disposal all the notes and clippings on animal
belligence which he has been collecting for the last forty
[ars, together with the original MS. of his wonderful
[apter on ' Instinct.' This chapter, on being re-cast for
|e * Origin of Species,' underwent so merciless an amount
compression that the original draft constitutes a rich
)re of hitherto unpublished material. In my second
brk I shall have occasion to draw upon this store more
rgely than in the present one, and it is needless to add

I ' Letters may be addressed to me directly at 18 Cornwall Terrace,
Rent's Park, London, h.W.

Xll

PREFACE.

that in all cases where I do draw upon it I shall be careful]
to state the source to which I am indebted.

[The above was written when I sent this work to the
publishers several months ago, and I have thought itl
best to leave the concluding paragraph as it originalljj
stood. But in making this explanation, I cannot alludfi
to the calamity which has sinf^e occurred without paying
my tribute, not alone to the memory of the greatesa
genius of our age, but still more, and much more, to th|
memory of a friend so inexpressibly noble, kind, anij
generous, that even my immense admiration of thMfTEODucTioN
naturalist was surpassed by my loving veneration for thJ
man.]

>PLICATION OP '.

I Animals

lOLLUSCA

fTS .

KES AND Wasps

CKMITES

^•IDERS AND SCOJ

fEMAlNING ARTK

riSM

lATRACHIANS AN

►rk to the
bought it|
originallji
not alludj
at paying
e greatest]
)re, to thj
kind, anij

»n of th»TBODUCTION

CONTENTS.

-•o«-

• t

PAOB
1

CHAPTER I.

>PLICATI0N OP THE FOREGOING PRINCIPLES TO THE LOWEST

I Animals ....••••

lOLLURCA

CHAPTER II.

• • •

JT8 .

CHAPTER III.

. 31

Iees and Wasps

CHAPTER rV.

. . 143

CHAPTER V.

ERMITES .....

•

•
*

. 108

CHAPTER VI.
I'iDERs AND Scorpions

•

. 204

•
CHAPTER VII.

EMAINING ARTICULATA .

•

. 226

CHAPTER VIII.

ISH . . . . • •

•

. 241

CHAPTER IX.

atrachians and Reptiles

•

. 254

\
1 1

■! i'

XIV

Birds

Mammals

Rodents .

Elephant

The Cat.

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER X.

CHAPTER XI.

• • •

CHAPTER XII.

CHAPTER XIII.
• • •

CHAPTER XIV.

CHAPTER XV.
FoxBS, Wolves, Jackals, &c.

CHAPTER XVI.

The Dog,

CHAPTER XVII.
Monkeys, Apes, and Baboons

Index

PAOll

2661
32f|

42l
43]

491

SFORE we be^
[roughout the
lould understi
tactly msan b;
5ry different t]
ir own Individ

contemplate

kgnizance of a

[e the most uli

which we are

other person

[ate cognizance

can only -i
^oughts and fe
lich appear to
ive a subject
lalysis of mii
sting in this,
Istricted to th(

call our ow
ive immediate

INTEODUCTION.

SFORE we begin to consider the phenomena of mind
Iroughout the animal kingdom it is desirable that we
lould understand, as far as possible, what it is that we
Eactly msan by mind. Now, by mind we may mean two
try different things, according as we contemplate it in
ir own individual selves, or in othe'r organisms. For if

contemplate our own mind, we have an immediate

Ignizance of a certain flow of thoughts or feelings, which

[e the most ultimate things, and indeed the only things,

which we are cognisant But if we contemplate mind

other persons or organisms, we have no such imme-

[ate cognizance of thoughts or feelings. In such cases

can only infer the existence and the nature of
Noughts and feelings from the activities of the organisms
lich appear to exhibit them. Thus it is that we may
ive a subjective analysis of mind and an objective
lalysis of mind — the difference between the two, con-
sting in this, that in our subjective analysis we are
Istricted to the limits of a single isolated mind which

call our own, and within the territory of which we
ive immediate cognizance of all the processes that are
)ing on, or at any rate of all the processes that fall
Ithln the scope of our introspection. But in our ob-
jctive analysis of other or foreign minds we have no
|ch immediate cognizance; all our knowledge of their
)erations is derived, as it were, through the medium of
ibassadors — these ambassadors being the activities of
>e organism. Hence it is evident that in our study of
limal intelligence we are wholly restricted to the ob-
3tive method. Starting from what I know subjectively

2 INTRODUCTION.

of the operations of my own individual mind, and thj
activities which in my own organism they prompt,
proceed by analogy to infer from the observable activitiej
of other organisms what are the mental operations thai
underlie them.

Now, in this mode of procedure what is the kind cj
activities which may be regarded as indicative of mindf
I certainly do not so regard the flowing of a river or thj
blowing of the wind. Why? First, because the object!
are too remote in kind from my own organism to admit
my drawing any reasonable analogy between them anJ
it ; and, secondly, because the activities which they pre]
sent are of invariably the same kind under the same ci
cumstances ; they afford no evidence of feeling or purpos|
In other words, two conditions require to be satisfied beforj
we even begin to imagine that observable activities
indicative of mind : first, the activities must be displaye|
by a living organism ; and secondly, they must be of
kind to suggest the presence of two elements which wl
recognise as the distinctive characteristics of mind
such — consciousness and choice.

So far, then, the case seems simple enough. Wherevt
we see a living organism apparently exerting intention(
choice, we might infer that it is conscious choice, anj
therefore that the organism has a mind. But furthe
reflection shows us that this is just what we cannot doj
for although it is true that there is no mind without thj
power of conscious choice, it is not true that all apparei
choice is due to mind. In our own organisms, for ii
stance, we find a great many adaptive movements peil
formed without choice or even consciousness coming intj
play at all — such, for instance, as in the beating of on
hearts. And not only so, but physiological experiment!
and pathological lesions prove that in our own and
other organisms the mechanism of the nervous system
sufficient, without the intervention of consciousness, t|
produce muscular movements of a highly co-ordinate edJ
apparently intentional character. Thus, for instance, if
man has his back broken in such a way as to sever ti
nervous connection between his brain and lower extremil

INTRODUCTION.

and till
rompt,
activiti
ions thai

ies, on pinching or tickling his feet they are drawn sud-

nly away from the irritation, although the man is quite

conscious of the adaptive movement of his muscles;

6 lower nerve-centres of the spinal cord are competent

bring about this movement of adaptive response with-

t requiring to be directed by the brain. This non-

ental operation of the lower nerve-centres in the pro-

ction of apparently intentional movements is called

flex Action, and the cases of its occurrence, even within

e limits of our own organism, are literally numberless.

—lerefore, in view of such non-mental nervous adjust-

Z. ^^Jent, leading to movements which are only in appearance

itentional, it clearly becomes a matter of great difficulty

say in the case of the lower animals whether any action

ich appears to indicate intelligent choice is not really

ion of the reflex kind.

On this whole subject of mind-like and yet not truly

ntal action I shall have much to say in my subsequent

atise, where I shall be concerned among other things

|th tracing the probable genesis of mind from non-

ntal antecedents. But here it is sufficient merely to

ke this general statement of the fact, that even within

experience supplied by our own organisms adaptive

vements of a highly complex and therefore apparently

posive character may be performed without any real

ose, or even consciousness of their performance. It

s becomes evident that before we can predicate the

e existence of mind in the lower animals, we need

e yet more definite criterion of mind than that which

upplied by the adaptive actions of a living organism,

soever apparently intentional such actions may be.

h a criterion I have now to lay down, and I think it is

that is as practically adequate as it is theoretically

itimate.

Objectively considered, the only distinction between
msness, mp|.jyg movements due to reflex action and adaptive
dmate ^D^ygjj^gjj^g ^^g ^q mental perception, consists in the
stance, ^J fcaer depending on inherited mechanisms within the
I sever tJmyQ^g gygtem being so constructed as to effect particular
jr extremip^p^j^g movements in response to particular stimula-

B 2

3 kind (1
of mind
srer or thi
tie objecti
) admit
them am

same c
)r purposi
fled befoii
ivities
! display
st be of

which w
)f mind

Wherev
ntentioni
hoice, aL|
ut furth
annot dol
ithout thl
1 appare
for i
nents pei
oming inti
ing of
sperimcDi
Tfn and
s system

ns.

INTRODUCTION.

tions, while the latter are independent of any such
herited adjustment of special mechanisms to the eij
gencies of special circumstances. Reflex actions unc
the influence of their appropriate stimuli may be coil
pared to the actions of a machine under the maniij
lations of an operator ; when certain springs of acti
are touched by certain stimuli, the whole machine!
thrown into appropriate movement ; there is no room |
choice, there is no room for uncertainty ; but as surely i
any of these inherited mechanisms are affected by {j
stimulus with reference to which it has been constructf
to act, so surely will it act in precisely the same way asl
always has acted. But the case with conscious menj
adjustment is quite different. For, without at press
going into the question concerning the relation of be
and mind, or waiting to ask whether cases of menj
adjustment are not really quite as mechanical in tl
sense of being the necessary result or correlative of a chl
of physical sequences due to a physical stimulation, it
enough to point to the variable and incalculable characJ
of mental adjustments as distinguished from the constaf
and foreseeable character of reflex adjustments. All,!
fact, that in an objective sense we can mean by a meii|
adjustment is an adjustment of a kind that has not be
definitely fixed by heredity as the only adjustment
sible in the given circumstances of stimulation. For v;i
there no alternative of adjustment, the case, in an anii
at least, would be indistinguishable from one of refl
action.

It is, then, adaptive action by a living organism I
cases where the inherited machinery of the nervous systJ
does not furnish data for our prevision of what the ada|
tive action must necessarily be — it is only here thati
recognise the objective evidence of mind. The criteril
of mind, therefore, which I propose, and to which I stl
adhere throughout the present volume, is as follows:!
Does the organism learn to make new adjustments, orl
modify old ones, in accordance with the results of its oj
individual experience ? If it does so, the fact cannot I
due merely to reflex action in the sense above describj

INTRODUCTION. 5

it is impossible that heredity can have provided in
Ivance for innovations upon, or alterations of, its machi-
kry during the lifetime of a particular individual.

In my next work I shall have occasion to consider this
iterion of mind more carefully, and then it will be
[own that as here stated the criterion is not rigidly ex-
isive, either, on the one hand, of a possibly mental
jment in apparently non-mental adjustments, or, con-
rsely, of a possibly non-mental element in apparently
jntal adjustments. But, nevertheless, the criterion is

best that is available, and, as it will be found sufficient

all the purposes of the present work, its more minute

ilysis had better be deferred till I shall have to treat of

probable evolution of mind from non-mental an-

jedents. I may, however, here explain that in my use

I this criterion I shall always regard it as fixing only the

[per limit of non-mental action ; I shall never regard it

fixing the lower limit of mental action. For it is clear

it long before mind has advanced sufficiently far in the

le of development to become amenable to the test in

[estion, it has probably begun to dawn as nascent sub-

3tivity. In other words, because a lowly organised

imal does not learn by its own individual experience,

may not therefore conclude that in performing its
[tural or ancestral adaptations to appropriate stimuli
isciousness, or the mind-element, is wholly absent ; we
only say that this element, if present, reveals no
lidence of the fact. But, on the other hand, if a lowly
janised animal does learn by its own individual experi-
[ce, we are in possession of the best available evidence

conscious memory leading to intentional adaptation,
lerefore our criterion applies to the upper limit of non-
mtal action, not to the lower limit of mental.

Of course to the sceptic this criterion may appear un-
tisfactory, since it depends, not on direct knowledge,
tt on inference. Here, however, it seems enough to
[int out, as already observed, that it is the best
fterion available ; and further, that scepticism of this
id is logically bound to deny evidence of mind, not only
the case of the lower animals, but also in that of the

INTRODUCTION.

higher, and even in that of men other than the sceptj
himself. For all objections which could apply to the uJ
of this criterion of mind in the animal kingdom wouJ
apply with equal force to the evidence of any mind otbij
than that of the individual objector. This is obvioi
because, as I have already observed, the only evidence
can have of objective mind is that which is furnished
objective activities ; and as the subjective mind can nevtj
become assimilated with the objective so as to learn ll
direct feeling the mental processes which there accompaij
the objective activities, it is clearly impossible to satisif
any one who may choose to doubt the validity of inferencj
that in any case other than his own mental processes evt
do accompany objective activities. Thus it is that phil«|
sophy can supply no demonstrative refutation of idealisi
even of the most extravagant form. Common sense, hov
ever, universally feels that analogy is here a safer guid
to truth than the sceptical demand for impossible e\
dence; so that if the objective existence of other oj
ganisms and their activities is granted — without whicj
postulate comparative psychology, like all the oth(
sciences, would be an unsubstantial dream — commol
sense will always and without question conclude that tLJ
activities of organisms other than our own, when analogou
to those activities of our own which we know to be accoi
panied by certain mental states, are in them accompanie
by analogous mental states.

The theory of animal automatism, therefore, which 1
usually attributed to Descartes (although it is not quit!
clear how far this great philosopher really entertained ttl
theory), can never be accepted by common sense ; and evej
as a philosophical speculation it will be seen, from what ha
just been said, that by no feat of logic is it possible l|
make the theory apply to animals to the exclusion
man. The expression of fear or affection by a dog iii
volves quite as distinctive and complex a series of neurd
muscular actions as does the expression of similar emotion
by a lipman being; and therefore, if the evidence
corresponding mental states is held to be inadequate iii
the one case, it must in consistency be held similailj

lem, as the n

' Of course it n

INTRODUCTION. 7

^adequate in the other. And likewise, of course, with all
ther exhibitions of mental life.

It is quite true, however, that since the days of Des-
irtes — or rather, we might say, since the days of Joule —
16 question of animal automatism has assumed a new or
lore defined aspect, seeing that it now runs straight into the
^ost profound and insoluble problem that has ever been
resented to human thought — viz. the relation of body to
lind in view of the doctrine of the conservation of energy,
shall subsequently have occasion to consider this problem
[ith the close attention that it demands ; but in the
resent volume, which has to deal only with the pheno-
mena of mind as such, I expressly pass the problem aside

one reserved for separate treatment. Here I desire
ily to make it plain that the mind of animals must be
laced in the same category, with reference to this pro-
lem, as the mind of man ; and that we cannot without
ross inconsistency ignore or question the evidence of
lind in the former, while we accept precisely the same
fnd of evidence as sufficient proof of mind in the latter.

And this proof, as I have endeavoured to show, is in all

ises and in its last analysis the fact of a living organism

lowing itself able to learn by its own individual experi-

tice. Wherever we find an animal able to do this, we

ive the same right to predicate mind as existing in such

animal that we have to predicate it as existing in any

lan being other than ourselves. For instance, a dog
IS always been accustomed to eat a piece of meat when
is organism requires nourishment, and when his olfactory
3rves respond to the particular stimulus occasioned by
le proximity of the food. So far, it may be said, there
no evidence of mind ; the whole series of events com-
ised in the stimulations and muscular movements may

due to reflex action alone. But now suppose that by a
imber of lessons the dog has been taught not to eat the
leat when he is hungry until he receives a certain verbal
|gnal : then we have exactly the same kind of evidence
lat the dog's actions are prompted by mind as we have
lat the actions of a man are so prompted.' Now we find

Of course it may be said that we have no evidence of provijtting

INTRODUCTION.

that the lower down we go in the animal kingdom, thJ
more we observe reflex action, or non-mental adjustment)
to predominate over volitional action, or mental adjust]
ment. That is to say, the lower down we go in thJ
animal kingdom, the less capacity do we find forchanginJ
adjustive movements in correspondence with change
conditions ; it becomes more and more hopeless to tem^
animals — that is, to establish associations of ideas; anq
the reason of this, of course, is that ideas or mental unitj
become fewer and less definite the lower we descenfj
through the structure of mind.

It is not my object in the present work to enter upoj
any analysis of the operations of mind, as this will requirl
to be done as fully as possible in my next work. Never]
theless, a few words must here be said with regard to tW
main divisions of mental operation, in order to defiBJ
closely the meanings which I shall attach to certain temj
relating to these divisions, and the use of which I canno
avoid.

The terms sensation, perception, emotion, and volitioj
need not here be considered. I shall use them in the!
ordinary psychological significations; and although
shall subsequently have to analyse each of the organic
mental states which they respectively denote, there m
be no occasion in the present volume to enter upon tl
subject. I may, however, point out one general coi
sideration to which I shall throughout adhere. Takii
it for granted that the external indications of menta
processes which we observe in animals are trustworthy, s|
that we are justified in inferring particular mental state
from particular bodily actions, it follows that in con]
sistency we must everywhere apply the same criteria.

For instance, if we find a dog or a monkey exhibitinj
marked expressions of affection, sympathy, jealousy, raga
&c., few persons are sceptical enough to doubt that thj
complete analogy which these expressions afibrd witl(

in either case ; but this is the side issue which concerns the gener
relation of body and mind, and has nothing to do with the guarantej
of inferring the presence of mind in particular cases.

INTRODUCTION.

lose which are manifested by man, sufficiently prove

le existence of mental states analogous to those in man

which these expressions are the outward and visible

Igns. But when we find an ant or a bee apparently

thibitiug by its actions these same emotions, few persons

re srffici'^ntly non-sceptical not to doubt whether the

itwarci and visible signs are here trustworthy as evidence

analogous or corresponding inward and mental states.

[he whole organisation of such a creature is so different

fom that of a man that it becomes questionable how

ir analogy drawn from the activities of the insect is a

ife guide to the inferring of mental states — particularly

view of the fact that in many respects, such as in the

[reat preponderance of * instinct * over * reason,* the

Isychology of an insect is demonstrably a widely different

ling from that of a man. Now it is, of course, perfectly

rue that the less the resemblance the less is the value of

|ny analogy built upon the resemblance, and therefore

lat the inference of an ant or a bee feeling sympathy or

ige is not so valid as is the similar inference in the case

[f a dog or a monkey. Still it is an inference, and, so

ir as it goes, a valid one — being, in fact, the only in-

3rence available. That is to say, if we observe an ant or

bee apparently exhibiting sympathy or rage, we must

|ither conclude that some psychological state resembling

Ihat of sympathy or rage is present, or else refuse to

Ihink about the subject at all ; from the observable facts

[here is no other inference open. Therefore, having full

[egard to the progressive weakening of the analogy from

luman to brute psychology as we recede through the

bimal kingdom downwards from man, still, as it is the

mly analogy available, I shall follow it throughout the

linimal series.

It may not however, be superfluous to point out
Ihat if we have full regard to this progressive weaken-
ing of the analogy, we must feel less and less certain
[)f the real similarity of the mental states compared ;
b that when we get down as low as the insects, I
phink the most we can confidently assert is that the
mown facts of human psychology furnish the best avail-

INTKODUCTION.

able pattern of the probable facts of insect psychology.!
Just as the theologians tell us — and logically enough—!
that if there is a Divine Mind, the best, and indeed only,!
conception we can form of it is that which is formed m
the analogy, however imperfect, supplied by the liumanj
mind; so with * inverted anthropomorphism' we must
apply a similar consideration with a similar conclusion toj
the animal mind. The mental states of an insect may!
be widely different from those of a man, and yet most!
probably the nearest conception that we can form of theirl
true nature is that which we form by assimilating themj
to the pattern of the only mental states with which wel
are actually acquainted. And this consideration, it isj
needless to point out, has a special validity to the evo-
lutionist, inasmuch as upon his theory there must be ai
psychological, no less than a physiological, continuityl
extending throughout the length and breadth of the]
animal kingdom.

In these preliminary remarks only one other pointl
requires brief consideration, and this has reference to the!
distinction between what in popular phraseology is calledl
' Instinct ' and ' Reason.' I shall not here enter upoL|
any elaborate analysis of a distinction which is un-
doubtedly valid, but shall confine my remarks to ex-|
plaining the sense in which I shall everywhere use thesej
terms.

Few words in our language have been subject to a I
greater variety of meanings than the word instinct. In!
popular phraseology, descended from the Middle Ages,
all the mental faculties of the animal are termed in-
stinctive, in contradistinction to those of man, which I
are termed rational. But unless we commit ourselves to
an obvious reasoning in a circle, we must avoid assuming
that all actions of animals are instinctive, and then
arguing that because they are instinctive, therefore they
differ from the rational actions of man. The question
really lies in what is here assumed, and we can only
answer it by examining in what essential respect instinct |
differs from reason.

INTEODUCTION.

Again, Addison 3ays : —

I look upon instinct as upon the principle of gravitation in
)odies, which is not to be explained by any known qualities
lerent in the bodies themselves, nor from any laws of me-
chanism, but as an immediate impression from the first Mover,
jind the Divine energy acting in the creatures.

This mode of * looking upon instinct ' is merely to
bclude the subject from the sphere of inquiry, and so to
pstain from any attempt at definition.

Innumerable other opinions might be quoted from
rell-known writers, booking upon instinct' in widely
Ufferent ways ; but as this is not an historical work, I
jhall pass on at once to the manner in which science
looks upon it, or, at least, the manner in which it will
jlways be looked upon throughout the present work.

Without concerning ourselves with the origin of in-

[tincts, and so without reference to the theory of evolution^

76 have to consider the most conspicuous and distinctive

features of instinct as it now exists. The most important

)oint to observe in the first instance is that instinct

(nvolves mental operations ; for this is the only point

[hat serves to distinguish instinctive action from reflex,

leflex action, as already explained, is non-mental neuro-

luscular adaptation to appropriate stimuli; but in-

jtinctive action is this and something more ; there is in

It the element of mind. Such, at least, is instinctive

lotion in the sense that I shall always allude to it. I

|m, of course, aware that the limitation which I thus

(mpose is one which is ignored, or not recognised, by

lany writers even among psychologists ; but I am per-

luaded that if we are to have any approach to definiteness

In the terms which we employ — not to say of clear-

less in our ideas concerning the things of which we speak

-it is most desirable to restrict the word instinct to

lental as distinguished from non-mental activity. No

loubt it is often difficult, or even impossible, to decide

rhether or not a given action implies the presence of the

ind-element — i.e., conscious as distinguished from un- \

[onscious adaptation ; but this is altogether a separate ,

latter, and has nothing to do with the question of

f ;

INTRODUCTION.

■!:;

defining instinct in a manner which shall be formallvi
exclusive, on the one hand of reflex action, and on the!
other of reason. As Virchow truly observes, ' it is diffi-l
cult or impossible to draw the line between instinctive!
and reflex action ; ' but at least the difficulty may bel
narrowed down to deciding in particular cases whether!
or not an action falls into this or that category of defini-l
tion ; there is no reason why the difficulty should arise!
on account of any ambiguity of the definitions themselves!
Therefore I endeavour to draw as sharply as possible the!
line which in theory should be taken to separate inJ
stinctive from reflex action; and this line, as I havej
already said, is constituted by the boundary of non-mental!
or unconscious adjustment, with adjustment in which]
there is concerned consciousness or mind.

Having thus, I hope, made it clear that the difficultjj
of drawing a distinction between reflex and instinctive!
actions as a class is one thing, and that the difficulty ofj
assigning particular actions to one or the other of ouij
categories is another thing, we may next perceive that the!
former difficulty is obviated by the distinction which ll
have imposed, and that the latter only arises from the factl
that on the objective side there is no distinction ini-|
I posable. The former difficulty is obviated by the distijicJ
tion which I have drawn, simply because the distinction!
is itself a definite one. In particular cases of adjustivej
action we may not always be able to affirm whether con{
sciousness of their performance is present or absent ; but!
as I have already said, this does not aff'ect the validity of
our definition ; all we can say of such cases is that if thej
performance in question is attended with consciousness itj
is instinctive, and if not it is reflex.

And the difficulty of assigning particular actions to one!
or other of these two categories arises, as I have saidj
merely because on the objective side, or the side of thej
nervous system, there is no distinction to be drawiil
Whether or not a neural process is accompanied by a men-
tal process, it is in itself the same. The advent and den
velopment of consciousness, although progressively conj
verting reflex action into instinctive, and instinctive into!

INTRODUCTION.

iousness itl

ktional, does this exclusively in the sphere of subjec-
tivity; the nervous processes engaged are throughout the
^ame in kind, and differ only in the relative degrees of
their complexity. Therefore, as the dawn of consciousness
)r the rise of the mind-element is gradual and undefined,
)oth in the animal kingdom and in the growing child, it
^s but necessary that in the early morning, as it were, of
jonsciousness any distinction between the mental and the
ion-mental should be obscure, and generally impossible to
letermine. Thus, for instance, a child at birth does not
}lose its eyes upon the near approach of a threatening
)ody, and it only learns to do so by degrees as the result
)f experience ; at first, therefore, the action of closing the
?yelids in order to protect the eyes may be said to be
instinctive, iu that it involves the mind-element : ^ yet it
ifterwards becomes a reflex which asserts itself even in
)pposition to the will. And, conversely, sucking in a
lew-born child, or a child in utero, is, in accordance with
ly definition, a reflex action ; yet in later life, when con-
sciousness becomes more developed and the child seeks the
)reast, sucking may properly be called an instinctive
iction. Therefore it is that, as in the ascending scale
)f objective complexity the mind-element arises and
idvances gradually, many particular cases which occupy
the undefined boundary between reflex action and instinct
?:tnnot be assigned with confidence either to the one region
)r to the other.

We see then the point, and the only point, wherein
[instinct can be consistently separated from reflex action ;
7iz., in presenting a mental constituent. Next we must
|consider wherein instinct may be separated from reason.
Lnd for this purpose we may best begin by considering
[what we mean by reason.

The term ' reason ' is used in significations almost as
[various as those which are applied to ' instinct.* Some-

1 • Le., ancestral as well as individual. If the race had not always
[had occasion to close the eyelids to protect the eyes, it is certain that
[the young child would not so quickly learn to do so in virtue of its
[own individual experience alone ; and as the action cannot be attri-
jbuted to any process of conscious inference, it is not rational ; but we
■have seen that it is not originally reflex ; therefore it is instinctive

INTKODUCTION.

limes it stands for all the distinctively human faculties^
taken collectively, and in antithesis to the mental faculties!
of the brute ; while at other times it is taken to mean thej
distinctively human faculties of intellect.

Dr. Johnson defines it as ' the power by which man]
deduces one proposition from another, and proceeds from!
premises to consequences.* This definition presupposeJ
language, and therefore ignores all cases of inference not!
thrown into the formal shape of predication. Yet even in!
man the majority of inferences drawn by the mind neveii
emerge as articulate propositions ; so that although, ail
we shall have occasion fully to observe in my subsequeLtj
work, there is much profound philosophy in identifying!
reason with speech as they were identified in the teriiif
Logos, yet for purposes of careful definition so to identifj|
intellect with language is clearly a mistake.

More correctly, the word reason is used to signify the!
power of perceiving analogies or ratios, and is in this!
sense equivalent to the term ' ratiocination,' or the facultjl
of deducing inferences from a perceived equivalency off
relations. Such is the only use of the word that isl
strictly legitimate, and it is thus that I shall use iti
throughout the present treatise. This faculty, however]
of balancing relations, drawing inferences, and so of fore-j
casting probabilities, admits of numberless degrees ; audi
as in the designation of its lower manifestations it soundsf
somewhat unusual to employ the word reason, I shall iil
these cases frequently substitute the word intelligence]
Where we find, for instance, that an oyster profits bjl
individual experience, or is able to perceive new relations!
and suitably to act upon the result of its perceptions, ij
think it sounds less unusual to speak of the oyster as dis-
playing intelligence than as displaying reason. On this!
account I shall use the former term to signify the lower!
degrees of the ratiocinative faculty ; and thus in my usage!
it will be opposed to such terms as instinct, reflex actionJ
&c., in the same manner as the term reason is so opposed.!
This is a point which, for the sake of clearness, I desire!
the reader to retain in his memory. I shall always speak]
of intelligence and intellect in antithesis to instinct, emo-

INTRODUCTION.

lion, and the rest, as implying mental faculties the same
\i kind as those which in ourselves we call rational.

Now it is notorious that no distinct line can be di*awn

letween instinct and reason. Whether we look to the

[rowing child or to the ascending scale of animal life, we

Ind that instinct shades into reason by imperceptible

legrees, or, as Pope expresses it, that these principles are

[for ever separate, yet for ever near.' Nor is this other

lan the principles of evolution would lead us to expect,

I shall afterwards have abundant occasion to show.

[ere, however, we are only concerned with drawing what

listinction we can between instinct and reason as these

iculties are actually presented to our observation. And

lis in a general way it is not difficult to do.

We have seen that instinct involves 'mental opera-
tons,' and that by this feature it is distinguished from re-
lex action ; we have now to consider the features by which
is distinguished from reason. These are accurately,
lough not completely, conveyed by Sir Benjamin Brodie^
^ho defines instinct as ' a principle by which animals
re induced, independently of experience and reason-
ig, to the performances of certain voluntary acts, which
re necessary to their preservation as individuals, or
the continuance of the species, or in some other
fay convenient to them.'^ This definition, as I have
lid, is accurate as far as it goes, but it does not state
[ith sufficient generality and terseness that all instinctive
3tion is adaptive ; nor does it clearly bring out the dis-
[nction between instinct and reason which is thus well
)nveyed by the definition of Hartmann, who says in his
Philosophy of the Unconscious,' that ' instinct is action
|iken in pursuance of an end, but without conscious per-
jption of what the end is.' This definition, however, is
tewise defective in that it omits another of the im-
3rtant differentiae of instinct — namely, the uniformity of
istinctive action as performed by different individuals of
le same species. Including this feature, therefore, we
[ay more accurately and completely define instinct as'
lental action (whether in animals or human beings),
' Psychological Researches, p. 187.

INTRODUCTION.

■ ■ 1/

directed towards the accomplishing of adaptive movement]
antecedent to individual experience, without necessar
knowledge of the relation between the means employe]
and the ends attained, but similarly performed under thj
same appropriate circumstances by all the individuals
the same species. Now in every one of these respectJ
with the exception of containing a mental constituent an^
in being concerned in adaptive action, instinct differs froE
reason. For reason, besides involving a mental coil
stituent, and besides being concerned in adaptive actioE
is always subsequent to individual experience, never act]
but upon a definite and often laboriously acquired kno^TJ
ledge of the relation between means and ends, and is ver
far from being always similarly performed under the samj
appropriate circumstances by all the individuals of til
same species.

Thus the distinction between instinct and reason
both more definite and more manifold than is that betweej
instinct and reflex action. Nevertheless, in particula
cases there is as much difficulty in classifying certaij
actions as instinctive or rational, as there is in cases wherf
the question lies between instinct and reflex action. AlI
the explanation of this is, as already observed, that instina
passes into reason by imperceptible degrees; so thai
actions in the main instinctive are very commonll
tempered with what Pierre Huber calls ' a little dose
judgment or reason,* and vice versa. But here, again, til
difficulty which attaches to the classification of particul(
actions has no reference to the validity of the distinction
between the two classes of actions ; these are definite aDJ
precise, whatever difficulty there may be in applying theif
to particular cases.

Another point of difference between instinct aiii
reason may be noticed which, although not of invariablj
is of very general applicability. It wi^l have bee|
observed, from what has already been said, that tlj
essential respect in which instinct differs from reason con
sists in the amount of conscious deliberation which tl
two processes respectively involve. Instinctive actions aii
actions which, owing to their frequent repetition, becomj

INTRODUCTION.

novemeny

necessa:
I employei
under th
ividuals c

habitual in the course of generations that all the
ividuals of the same species automatically perform the
e actions under the stimulus supplied by the same
propriate circumstances. National actions, on the other
nd, are actions which are required to meet circumstances
e respectj comparatively rare occurrence in the life-history of the
cies, and which therefore can only be performed by an
entional effort of adaptation. Consequently there arises
|e subordinate distinction to which I allude, viz., that
stinctive actions are only performed under particular
[•cumstances which have been frequently experienced
ring the life-history of the species; whereas rational
tions are perfonned under varied circumstances, and
rve to meet novel exigencies which may never before
[ve occurred even in the life-history of the individual.
Thus, then, upon the whole, we may lay down our
reral definitions in their most complete form.
Reflex action is non-mental neuro-muscular adjust-
jnt, due to the inherited mechanism of the nervous
stem, which is formed to respond to particular and often
3urring stimuli, by giving rise to particular movements
an adaptive though not of an intentional kind.
Instinct is reflex action into which there is imported
le element of consciousness. The term is therefore a
[neric one, comprising all those faculties of mind which
concerned in conscious and adaptive action, antecedent
individual experience, without necessary knowledge of
le relation between means employed and ends attained,
\t similarly performed under similar and frequently re-
ping circumstances by all the individuals of the same
3cies.

Reason or intelligence is the faculty which is concerned
the intentional adaptation of means to ends. It there-
re implies the conscious knowledge of the relation be-
feen means employed and ends attained, and may be
[ercised in adaptation to circumstances novel alike to
le experience of the individual and to that of the species.

ituent aiii
iififers fro;

3tltal COE

ive actioi^
never acti
Lred know!
and is ve
!r the sami
lals of tti

1 reason
at betweeil

particula
ing certaij
3ases wherj
ition. AbI
hat instina
s ; so thi

commonll
ttle dose
J, again, til
f particul|
distinction
iefinite aij
plying theij

istinct aDi
invariabl|
have bee|
1, that til
reason con
which tt
3 actions ail
ion, becomj

CHAPTER I.

APPLICATION OF THE FOREGOING PRINCIPLES TO THE|

LOWEST ANIMALS.

iri'l'

li':

Protozoa,

No one can have watched the movements of certa
Infusoria without feeling it difficult to believe that thj
little animals are not actuated by some amount of Intel]
gence. Even if the manner in which they avoid coUisio
be attributed entirely to repulsions set up in the curred
which by their movements they create, any such mechanii]
explanation certainly cannot apply to the small creati
seeking one another for the purposes of prey, reproductid
or, as it sometimes seems, of mere sport. There is!
common and well-known rotifer whose body is of a cj
shape, provided with a very active tail, which is armed]
its extremity with strong forceps. I have seen a si
specimen of this rotifer seize a much larger one with
forceps, and attach itself by this means to the side of t|
cup. The large rotifer at once became very active,
swinging about with its burden until it came to a piecel
weed, it took firm hold of the weed with its own forcej
and iDegan the most extraordinary series of movemeLJ
which were obviously directed towards ridding itself of t|
encumbrance. It dashed from side to side in all directiol
with a vigour and suddenness which were highly astoiiis|
ing, so that it seemed as if the animalcule would eitl
break its forceps or wrench its tail from its body,
movements could possibly be better suited to jerk off tl
offending object, for the energy with which the jerks wef
given, now in one direction and now in another, were, aa
have said, most surprising. But not less surprising

PROTOZOA.

3 TO THE

tenacity with which the smaller rotifer retained its

Id ; for although one might think that it was being

lost jerked to pieces, after each bout of jerking it was

In to be still attached. This trial of strength, which

1st have involved an immense expenditure of energy in

[portion to the size of the animals, lasted for several

lutes, till eventually the small rotifer was thrown

lently away. It then returned to the conflict, but did

succeed a second time in establishing its hold. The

liie scene was as like intelligent action on the part of

[h animals as could well be imagined, so that if we were

lepend upon appearances alone, this one observation

lid be sufficient to induce me to attribute conscious

3rmination to these microscopical organisms.

I But, without denying that conscious determination may

(e be present, or involving ourselves in the impossible

of proving such a negative, we may properly affiim

until an animalcule shows itself to be teachable by in-

fdual experience, we have no sufficient evidence derived

lerivable from any number of such apparently intelli-

[t movements, that conscious determination is present.

}refore, I need not wait to quote the observations of

sundry microscopists who detail facts more or less

jilar to the above, with expressions of their belief that

Iroscopical organisms display a certain degree of instinct

itelligence as distinguished from mechanical, or wholly

[-mental adjustment. But there are some observations

[ting to the lowest of all animals, and made by a com-

mt person, which are so remarkable that I shall have to

be them in full. These observations are recorded by

H. J. Carter, F.R.S., in the 'Annals of Natural

tory,' and in his opinion prove that the beginnings of

linct are to be found so low down in the scale as the

lopoda. He says : — ' Even Athealium will confine

If to the water of the watch-glass in which it may be

[ed when away from sawdust and chips of wood among

3h it has been living ; but if the watch-glass be placed

the sawdust, it will very soon make its way over the

of the watch-glass and get to it.'

This is certainly a remarkable observation ; for it seems

c 2

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

I ;!

to show that the rhizopod distinguishes the presence]
the sawdust outside the watch-glass, and crawls over
brim of the latter in order to get into more congerJ
quarters, while it is contented with the water in the watl
glass so long as there is no sawdust outside. But to J
ceed:

On one occasion, while investigating the nature of scj
large, transparent, spore-like elliptical cells (fungal?) wl
protoplasm was rotating, while it was at the same time char]
with triangular grains of starch, I observed some actinophop
rhizopods creeping about them, which had similarly shaj
grains of starch in their interior ; and having determined j
nature of these grains in both by the addition of iodiiifj
cleansed the glasses, and placed under the microscope a
portion of the sediment from the basin containing these cells
actinophryans for further examination, when i observed oiifj
the spore-like cells had become ruptured, and that a portioi
its protoplasm, charged with the triangular starch-grains,
slightly protruding through the crevice. It then struck i
that the actinophryans had obtained their starch- grains frj
this source ; and while looking at the ruptured cell, an
nophrys made its appearance, and creeping round the cell]
last arrived at the crevice, from wl if^li it extricated one of 1
grains of starch mentioned, and then crept off to a good
tance. Presently, however, it returned to the same cell ;
although there were now no more starch-gi-ains protruding,
actinophrys managed again to extract one from the inteij
through the crevice. All this was repeated several tin
showing that the actinophrys instinctively knew that those
nutritious grains, that they were contained in this cell,i
that, although each time after incepting a grain it went a^
to some distance, it knew how to find its way back to the i
again which furnished this nutriment.

On another occasion I saw an actinophrys station itj
close to a ripe spore-cell of pythium, which was situated iil
a filament of Spirogyra crassa; and as the young ciliaf
monadic germs issued forth, one after another, from the del
cent spore-cell, the actinophrys remained by it and cau
every one of them, even to the last, when it retired to anotl
part of the field, as if instinctively conscious that there
nothing more to be got at the old place.

But by far the greatest feat of this kind that ever presen
itself to me was the catching of a young acineta by an I

PROTOZOA.

Iggish amoeba f as the former left its parent ; and this took
ce as follows : —

In the evening of the 2nd of June, 1858, in Bombay, while
Iking through a microscope at some EuglcncR, <fec., which had
)n placed aside for examination in a watch-glass, my eye fell
)n a stalked and triangular acineta {A. mystacinal), around
lich an amoeba was creeping and lingering, as they do when
U are in quest of food. But knowing the antipathy that the
\<£ba, like almost every other infusorian, has to the ten-
\\es of the acineta, I concluded that the amoeba was not en-
Iraging an appetite for its whiskered companion, when I was
brised to find that it crept up the stem of the acineta, and
jund itself round its body. This mark of affection, too much
le that frequently evinced at the other end of the scale, even
)ere there is a mind for its control, did not long remain with-

iuterpretation. There was a young acineta, tender, and
thout poisonous tentacles (for they are not developed at birth),
|t ready to make its exit from the pai-ent, an exit which takes
Ice so quickly, and is followed by such rapid bounding move-
Ints of the non-ciliated acineta, that who would venture to
}, ct priori, that a dull, heavy, sluggish amoeba could catch
bh an agile little thing? But the amoeba are as unerring

unrelaxing in their grasp as they are unrelenting in their
tel inceptions of the living and the dead, when they serve
m for nutrition ; and thus the amoeba, placing itself round

ovarian aperture of the acineta, received the young one,

se-like, in its fatal lap, incepted it, descended from the
bent, and crept off. Being unable to conceive at the time
It this was such an act of atrocity on the part of the amoeba
jthe sequel disclosed, and thinking that the young acineta
jht yet escape, or pass into some other form in the body of
fhost, I watched the amoeba for some time afterwards, until

tale ended by the young acineta becoming divided into two
fcs, and thus in their respective digestive spaces ultimately
boming broken down and digested.^

With regard to these remarkable observations it can
ly, I think, be said that although certainly very sug-
Btive of something more than mechanical response to

mlation, they are not sufficiently so to justify us in
|;ribing to these lowest members of the zoological scale

rudiment of truly mental action. The subject, how-

h H. J. Carter, F.R.S., Annals of Natural History, 3rd Series, 1863,
45-6.

AXTMAL INTELLIGENCE.

f I

;'lfc: ,■

I '1 *

ever, is here full of difficulty, and not the least so
account of the amoiba not only having no ncrvi
system, but no observuhle organs of any kind ; so tli;
although we may suppose that the adaptive movenicri
described by Mr. Carter were non-mental, it still remaij
wonderful that these movements should be exhibited
such apparently unorganised creatures, seeing that as
the remoteness of the end attained, no less than t|
complex refinement of the stimulus to which ty
adaptive response was due, the movements in questil
rival the most elaborate of non-mental adjustments ell
where performed by the most highly organised of nervoj
systems.

Coelenterata,

Dr. Eimer attributes ' voluntary action 'to the Medu>j
and indeed draws a sharp distinction between what
considers their ' involuntary ' and ' voluntary ' movemeii|
In this distinction, however, I do not at all concur ;
although I am well acquainted with the difference
tween the active and slow rhythm upon which the
tinction is founded, I see no evidence whatever
supposing that the difference involves any psychologid
element. The active swimming is produced by stimj
lation, and is no doubt calculated to lead to the escape
the organism ; but this fact certainly does not carry
beyond the ordinary possibilities of reflex action. M
even when, as in some species is constantly the cai
bouts of active swimming appear to arise spontaneoiiji
or without observable stimulation, the fact is to be a|
tributed to a liberation of overplus ganglionic energ
or to some unobservable stimulation ; it does not justi
the supposition of any psychical element being coj
cerned.^

M'Crady gives an interesting account of a meduj
which carries its larvsB on the inner sides of its bell
shaped body. The manubrium, or mobile digestive ca\ij

* For an account of the natural movements of the Medusas and t|
effects of stimulation upon them, see Croonian Lecture in Phil. 2rtr\
1876, and also Phil. Trans. 1877 and 1879.

ECUINODERMATA.

movemeiil

|tlie animal, depends, as in the other Medusae, from the

imit of the concave surface of the bell, like a clapjxT

tongue. Now M*Crady observed this depending organ

I be moved first to one side and then to the other side

the bell, in order to give suck to the larva} on the

^es of the bell — the larvae dipping their long noses into

nutrient fluids which that organ of the parent's body

itained. I cite this case, because if it occurred in one

I the higher animals it would probably be called a case

linstinct ; but as it occurs in so low an animal as a

lly-fish, it is unreasonable to suppose that intelligence

ever have played any part in originating the action,
^erefore we may set it down as the uncompounded
suit of natural selection.

Some species of medusae — notably Sarsia — seek the
[ht, crowding into the path of a beam, and following it
lively if moved. They derive advantage from so doing,
jause certain small Crustacea on which they feed like-
36 crowd into the light. The seeking of light by these
jdusse is therefore doubtless of the nature of a reflex
(;ion which has been developed by natural selection in
ler to bring the animals into contact with ( heir prey,
[ul Bert has found that Daphnia pulex seeks the light
Specially the yellow ray), and Engelmann has observed

same fact with regard to certain protoplasmic organisms.
tt in none of these or other such cases is there any
pence of a psychical element being concerned in the
)cess.

Echinodeimiata,

Some of the natural movements of these animals, as
|o some of their movements under stimulation, are very
jgestive of purpose; b^ ^ I have satisfied myself that
ire is no adequate evident ■ of the animals being able to
3fit by individual experience, and therefore, in accordance
th our canon, that there is no adequate evidence of their
libiting truly mental phenomena. On the other hand,

study of reflex action in these organisms is full of
|;erest — so much so that in my next work I shall take
3m as typical organisms in this connection.^
I' See Croonian Lecture, 1881, in forthcoming issue of PMl. Trans.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.
Annelida.

I, i

ill

Mr. Darwin has now in the press a highly interestii
work on the habits of earth-worms. It appears from
observations that the manner in which these animals dral
down leaves, &c., into their burrows is strongly indicatii|
of instinctive action, if not of intelligent purpose — seeiij
that they always lay hold of the part of the leaf (ev«
though an exotic one) by the traction of which the le
will offer least resistance to being drawn down. But
this work will so shortly be published, I shall not forest
any of the facts which it has to state, nor should I yi
like to venture an opinion as to how far these facts, wM
considered altogether, would justify any inference to|
truly mental element as existing in these animals.

Of the land leeches in Ceylon, Sir E. Tennent givJ
an account which likewise seems to bespeak intelligenij
as occurring in annelids. He says : —

In moving, the land leeches have the power of planting oJ
extremity on the earth and raising the other perpendicularly!
watch for their victim. Such is their vigilance and instinij
that on the approach of a passer-by to a spot which they infe
they may be seen amongst the grass and fallen leaves on tlj
edge of a native path, poised erect, and preparing for thq
attack on man and horse. On descrying their prey they
vance rapidly by semicircular strides, fixing one end firmly
arching the other forwards, till by successive advances they
lay hold of the traveller's foot, when they disengage themselvj
from the ground and ascend his dress in search of an apertu
to enter. In these encounters the individuals in the rear of I
party of travellers in the jungle invariably fare worst, as tl|
leeches, once warned of their approach, congregate with sii
gular celerity.*

• Natural History of Ceylon, p. 481.

CHAPTER II.

iskves on tH

MOLLUSCA.

SHALL treat of the jNIollusca before the Articulata,

jcause as a group their intelligence is not so high.

ideed, it is not to be expected that the class of

limals wherein the * vegetative ' functions of nutri-

[on and reproduction predominate so largely over the

limal functions of sensation, locomotion, &c., should

resent any considerable degree of intelligence. Never-

leless, in the only division of the group which has

inse organs and powers of locomotion highly developed

-viz., the Cephalopoda — we meet with large cephalic

langlia, and, it would appear, with no small develop-

lent of intelligence. Taking, however, the sub-king-

|om in ascending order, I shall first present all the

rustworthy evidence that I have been able to collect,

[ointing to the highest level of intelligence that is at-

lined by the lower members.

The following is quoted from Mr. Darwin's MS. : —

Even the headless oyster seems to profit from experience,
3r Dicquemase ('Journal de Physique,' vol. xxviii. p. 244)
[sserts that oysters taken from a depth never uncovered by the
I, open their shells, lose the water within, and perish ; but
lysters taken from the same place and depth, if kept in reser-
FOU's, where they are occasionally left uncovered for a short
lime, and are otherwise incommoded, learn to keep their shells
[but, and then live for a much longer time when taken out of
the water. ^

' This fact is also stated by Bingley, Animal Biography, vol. iii.
3. 454, and is now turned to practical account in the so-called ' Oyster-
schools ' of Franco. The distance from the coast to Paris being too

reat for the newly dredged oysters to travel without opening their
^hells, they are first taught in the schools to bear a longer and longer
exposure to the air without gaping, and when their education in this
irespect is completed they are sent on their journey to the metropolis,

inhere they arrive with closed shells, and in a healthy condition.

ANIMAL IXTELLIGEXCE.

III

Some evidence of intelligence seems to be displayed
by the razor-fish. For the animals dislike salt, so thai
when this is sprinkled above their bm^rows in the sand]
they come to the surface and quit their habitations. Bu]
if the animal is once seized when it comes to the surfad
and afterwards allowed to retire into its burrow, nr]
amount of salt will force it again to come to the surface.'

With regard to snails, L. Agassiz writes : ' Quiconqud
a eu I'occasion d'observer les amours des limapons, nel
saurait mettre en doute la seduction deployee dans leJ
mouvements et les allures qui preparent et accomplissenf
le double embrassement de ces hermaphrodites.' ^

Again, Mr. Darwin's MS. quotes from Mr. W. White'
a curious exhibition of intelligence in a snail, which doel
not seem to have admitted of mal-observation. ThiJ
gentleman 'fixed a land-shell mouth uppermost in
chink of rock ; in a short time the snail protruded itself!
to its utmost length, and, attaching its foot verticalljl
above, tried to pull the shell out in a straight line. Not!
succeeding, it rested for a few minutes and then stretched!
out its body on the right side and pulled its utmost, butl
failed. Resting again, it protruded its foot on the left!
side, pulled with its full force, and freed the shell. This!
exertion of force in three directions, which seems so|
geometrically suitable, must have been intentional.'

If it is objected that snail shells must frequently bel
liable to be impeded by obstacles, and therefore that thisl
display of manceuvring on the part of their occupants is tol
be regarded as a reflex, I may remark that here again we I
have one of those incessantly recurring cases where it is|
difficult to draw the line between intelligence and non-
intelligence. For, granting that the action is to a certain!
extent mechanical, we must still recognise that the!
animal while executing it must have remembered each ofl
the two directions in which it had pulled ineffectually
before it began to pull in the third direction; and it is
improbable that snail shells are so frequently caught in
positions from which a pull in only one direction will|

' Bingley, loc. cit., vol. iii. p. 449.

« De VEsphe et de la Clmse, &c., 1869, p. 106.

' A Londoner's Walk to Edinburgh, p. 155 (1866).

MOLLUSCA.

jlease them, that natural selection would have developed
special instinct to try pulling succe? ively in three
[irections at right angles to one another.

The only other instance that I have met with of the
)parent display of intelligence in snails is the remark-
)le one which Mr. Darwin gives in his ' Descent of Man,'
the authority of Mr. Lonsdale. Although the inter-
retation which is assigned to the fact seems to me to go
3yond anything that we should have reason to expect of
lail intelligence, I cannot ignore a fact which stands
Ipon the observation of so good an authority, and shall
lerefore quote it in ]\Ir. Darwin's words : —

These animals appear also susceptible of some degree of per-
lanent attachment : an accurate observer, Mr. Lonsdale, in- '
|)riiis me that he placed a pair of land-snails {Helix pomatia),
16 of which was weakly, into a small and ill-provided garden.

terashbrt time the strong and healthy individual disap-
Bared, and was traced by its track of slime over a wall into an
djoining well-stocked garden. Mr. Lonsdale concluded that

had deserted its sickly mate ; but after an absence of twenty-
|>ur hours it returned, and apparently communicated the result

its successful exploration, for both then started along the
ime track, and disappeared over the wall.^

In this case the fact must be accepted, seeing that it

[ands on the authority of an accurate observer, and is of

definite a kind as not to admit of mistake. Conse-

lently we are shut up to the alternative of supposing

le return of the healthy snail to its mate a mere acci-

mt, and their both going over the wall into the well-

|;ocked garden another mere ax3cident, or acquiescing in

16 interpretation which Mr. Darwin assigns. Now, if

[e look closely into the matter, the chances against the

)uble accident in question are certainly so considerable

to render the former supposition almost impossible.

|n the other hand, there is evidence to prove, as I shall

imediately show, that a not distantly allied animal is

iquestionably able to remember a particular locality as

[s home, and habitually to return to this locality after

kding. Therefore, in view of this analogous and cor-

Dcscent of Man, pp. 262-3.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

■a

roborative case, the improbability of the snail remembering
for twenty-four hours the position of its mate is verjl
much reduced ; while the subsequent communication, ij
it took place, would only require to have been of t\\^
nature of * follow me,' which, as we shall repeatedly find]
is a degree of communicative ability which many inverte-j
brated animals possess. Therefore, in view of these coii|
siderations, I incline to Mr. Darwin's opinion that the fact]
can only be explained by supposing them due to intelliJ
gence on the part of the snails. Thus considered, thesJ
facts are no doubt very remarkable ; for they would appea
to indicate not merely accurate mem-ory of direction and
locality for twenty-four hours, but also no small degree oj
something akin to ' permanent attachment,' and sympaj
thetic desire that another should share in the good thing]
which one has found.*

The case to which I have just alluded as proving
beyond all doubt that some Gasteropoda are able to retaiij
a very precise and accurate memory of locality, is that oj
the common limpet.

Mr. J. Clarke Hawkshaw publishes in the Journal ol
the Linnsean Society the following account of the habit|
in question : —

The holes in the chalk in which the limpets are often to bej
found are, I believe, excavated in a great measure by raspini
from the lingual teeth, though I doubt whether the object is tcl
form a cavity to shelter in, though the cavities, when formedl
may be of use for that purpose. It must be of the greatest imf
portance to a limpet that, in order that it may insure a firml
adherence to the rock, its shell should fit the rock accurately!
when the shell does fit the rock accurately, a small amount o|
muscular contraction of the animal would cause the shell to ad
here so firmly to a smooth surface as to he practically iml
moveable without fracture. As the shells cannot be adapted!
daily to difierent forms of surface, the limpets generally retumj
to the same place of attachment. I am sure this is the easel
with many ; for I found shells perfectly adjusted to the uneven!
surfaces of flints, the growth of the shells being in some parts!

* The facts, however, in order to sustain such conclusions, of course!
require corroboration, and it is therefore to be regretted that Mr. Lons[
dale did not experimentally repeat the conditions.

MOLLUSCA.

jlistorted and indented to suit inequalities in the surface of the
lints. . . .

I noticed signs that limpets prefer a hard, smooth surface to

pit in the chalk. On one surface of a large block, over all
^ides of which limpets were regularly and plentifully distri-
Duted, there were two flat fragments of a fossil shell about

inches by 4 inches, each embedded in the chalk. The chalk
ill round these fragments was free from limpets ; but on the
kmooth surface of the pieces of shell they were packed as closely
IS they could be. I noticed another case, which almost amounts,
to my mind, to a proof that they prefer a smooth surface to a
lole. A limpet had formed a clearing on one of the sea-waed-
[jovered blocks before referred to. In the midst of this clearing
kvas a pedestal of flint rather more than one inch in diameter,
standing up above the surface of the chalk ; it projected so
iiuch that a tap from my hammer broke it ofi". On the top of
^he smooth fractured surface of this flint the occupant of the
clearing had taken up its abode. The shell was closely adapted
to the uneven surface, which it would only fit in one position.
Che cleared surface was in a hollow with several small natural
cavities, where the limpet could have found a pit ready made to
Shelter in ; yet it preferred, after each excursion, to climb up to
the top of the flint, the most exposed point in all its domain.^

It appears certain from these observations, which to
some extent were anticipated b}"" those of IMr. F. C. Lukis,^
that limpets, after every browsing excursion, return to
me particular spot or home ; and the precise memory of
lirection and locality implied by this fact seems to justify
IS in regarding these actions of the animal as of a nature
mquestionably intelligent.

Coming now to the cephalopoda, there is no doubt
[that if a larger sphere of opportunity permitted, adequate
[observation of these animals would prove them to be
much the most intelligent members of the sub-kingdom.
I Unfortunately, however, this sphere of opportunity has
hitherto been very limited. The following meagre ac-
count is all that I have been able to gather concerning
the psychology of these interesting animals.

According to Schneider,^ the Cephalopoda show un-

• Journal Linn. Soc. vpl. xiv. p. 406 et seq.
2 Mag. Nat. Hi«t. 18.31, vol. iv. p. 346.

• Thieresche Wille, § 78.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

'':il

mistakable evidence of consciousness and intelligence!
This observer had an opportunity of watching them for
long time in the zoological station at Naples ; and hi
says that they appeared to recognise their keeper aftej
they had for some time received their food from hinj
Hollmann narrates that an octopus, which had had
struggle with a lobster, followed the latter into an adjacenj
tank, to which it had been removed for safety, and therl
destroyed it. In order to do this the octopus had tj
climb up a vertical partition above the surface of ttj
water and descend the other side.^ According tJ
Schneider, the Cephalopoda have an abstract idea oi
water, seeking to return to it when removed, even thougH
they do not see it. But this probably arises from thj
sense of discomfort due to exposure of their skin to tha
air ; and if we can call it an ' idea,' it is doubtless shareij
by all other aquatic Mollusca when exposed to air.

' Leben der CepTialopodeny s. 21.

:!■'. ■:.

CHAPTER III.

ANTS.

^ITHIN the last ten or twelve years our information on
le habits and intelligence of these insects has been so
^nsiderably extended, that in here rendering a condensed
)itome of our knowledge in this most interesting branch

comparative psychology, it will be found that the
lapter is constituted principally of a statement of observa-
)ns and experiments which have been conducted during the
lort period named. The observers to whom we are mainly
[debtedfor this large increase of our knowledge are Messrs.
lies, Belt, Miiller, Moggridge, Lincecum, MacCook, and
tr John Lubbock. From the fact that these naturalists
j)nducted their observations in different parts of the
)rld and on widely different species of ants, it is not
^rprising that their results should present many points

difference ; for this only shows, as we might have ex-
acted, that different species of ants differ considerably in
ibits and intelligence. Therefore, in now drawing all
lese numerous observations to a focus, I shall endeavour

show clearly their points of difference as well as their
)ints of agreement ; and in order that the facts to be
|)iisidered may be arranged in some kind of order, I shall
3al with them under the following heads : — Powers of
jiecial sense ; Sense of direction ; Powers of memory ;

lotions ; Powers of communication ; Habits general in
lindry species ; Habits peculiar to certain species ; General
[telligence of various species.

Powers of Special Sense,

Taking first the sense of sight, Sir John Lubbock made
|iiumber of experiments on the influence of light coloured
passing through various tints of stained glass, with the

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

M ■ !

following results. The ants which he observed greati
dislike the presence of light within their nests, hurr}irj
about in search of the darkest corners when light is af
mitted. The experiments showed that the dislike is muJ
greater in the case of some colours than in that of other]
Thus under a slip of red glass there were congregated
one occasion 890 ants, under green 544, under yellow 49|
and under violet only 5. To our eyes the violet is as opaqi]
as the red, more so than the green, and much more
than the yellow. Yet, as the numbers show, the ants U
scarcely any tendency to congregate under it : there wej
nearly as many under the same area of the uncovers
portion of the nest as under that shaded by the viol]
glass. It is curious that the coloured glasses appear to a)
on the ants in a graduated series, which corresponds wiJ
the order of their influence on a photographic plate. Ej
periments were therefore made to test whether it mig|
not be the actinic rays that were so particularly distastefj
to the ants ; but with negative results. Placing violj
glass above red produces the same effect as red gla
alone. Obviously, therefore, the ants avoid the violj
glass because they dislike the rays which it transmit!
and do not prefer the other colours because they like u
rays which they transmit. Sodium, barium, strontiun
and lithium flames were also tried, but not with so mucj
effect as the coloured glass.

It has just been observed that the relative dislike whi(|
Sir John Lubbock's ants showed to lights of different colon
seems to be determined by the position of the colour i
the spectrum — there being a regular gradation of intolj
ranee shown from the red to the violet end. As these anl
dislike light, the question suggests itself that the reasd
of their graduated intolerance to light of different coloid
may be due to their eyes not being so much affected
the rays of low as by those of high refrangibility. In tli
connection it would be interesting to ascertain whetli]
ants of the genus Atta show a similarly graduated intolf
ranee to the light in different parts of the spectrum ; ii
both Moggridge and MacCook record of this genus thatf
not only does not shun the light, but seeks it — coming i

ANTS — SPECIAL SENSES.

glass sides of their artificial nests to enjoy the light of

imp. Possibly, therefore, the scale of preference to

its of different colours would be found in this genus to
Ithe reverse of that which Sir John Lubbock has found

the case of the British species.

As regards hearing, Sir John Lubbock found that
[nds of various kinds do not produce any efifect upon
insects. Tuning-forks and violin notes, shouting,
jistling, &c., were all equally inefficient in producing the

fhtest influence upon the animals; and experiments
ih sensitive flames, microphone, telephone, &c., failed to
|ld any evidence of ants emitting sounds inaudible to

lan ears.

Lastly, as regards the sense of smell. Sir John Lubbock
Ind that on bringing a camel's-hair brush steeped in
[ious strong scents near where ants were passing, '• some

it on without taking any notice, but others stopped,
evidently perceiving the smell, turned back. Soon,

rever, they retm-ned, and passed the scented pencil.
ter doing this two or three times, they generally took

further notice of the scent. This experiment left no

ibt on my mind." In other cases the ants were observed

wave about and throw back their antennae when the
^nted pencil was brought near.

That ants track one another by scent was long ago
sntioned by Huber, and also that they depend on this

ise for their power of finding supplies which have been

jviously found by other ants. Huber proved their

[war of tracking a path previously pursued by their

[ends, by drawing his finger across the trail, so oblite-

ting the scent at that point, and observing that when the

Its arrived at that point they became confused and ran

[out in various directions till they again came upon the

lil on the other side of the interrupted space, when they

[oceeded on their way as before. The more numerous

p systematic experiments of Sir John Lubbock have

Illy corroborated Huber's observations, so far as these

Unts are concerned. Thus, to give only one or two of

lese experiments ; in the accompanying woodcut (Fig. 1)

is the nest, B a board, n f g slips of paper, h and m

ANIMAL rNTJiXLIGENCE.

similar slides of glass, on one of which, A, there was placj
pupse, while the other, m, was left empty. Sir John Lu
bock watched two particular (marked) ai|
proceeding from A to h and back a£
carrying the pupae on A to the nest
Whenever an ant came out of A upon Bl
transposed the slips/ and ^r. Therefore]
the angle below n there was a choice
sented to the ant of taking the unscenti
pathway leading to the full glass A, or
scented pathway leading to the empty gli

m. The two marked ants, knowing th^

^ ' — } ' — "" way, always took the right turn at t
^^^' ^' angle ; but the stranger ants, being guid
only by scent, for the most part took the wrong turn
the angle, so going to the empty glass m. For out of 1|
stranger ants only 21 went to h, while the remaining \\
went to m. Still the fact that all the stranger ants
not follow the erroneous scent-trail to m, may be taken |
indicate that they are also assisted in finding treasure
the sense of sight, though in a lesser degree. Therefc^
Sir John Lubbock concludes that in finding treasure * tl
are guided in some cases by sight, while in others tl
track one another by scent.'

As further evidence showing how much more ants
pend upon scent than upon sight in finding their way,
following experiment may be quoted. In the accompanj
ing woodcut (Fig. 2) the line marked 1, 2, 3 represeii]
the edge of a paper bridge leading to the nest ; A tl|
top of a pencil which is standing perpendicularly uj
a board, represented by the general black surface;
the top of the same pencil when moved a distance
a few inches fi-om its first position A. On the td
of this pencil were placed some pupas. Sir John Lull
bock, after contriving this arrangement, marked an an
and put it upon the pupae on the top of the pencu
After she had made two journeys carrying pupae fi:om tlf
pencil to the nest (the tracks she pursued being repre|
sented by the two thick white lines), while she was in tli
nest he moved the pencil to its position at B. The thij

ANTS — SPECIAL SENSES.

jite line represents the course then pursued by the ant

its endeavours to find the pencil, which was shifted only

I few inches from A to B. That is, * the ants on their

urney to the shifted object travelled very ofton back-

..U^

Fig. 2.

Irds and forwards and round the spot where the coveted
lect first stood. Then they would retrace their steps
rards the nest, wander hither and thither from side to
|e between the nest and the point A, and only after
ry repeated efforts around the original site of the larvae
Lch, as it were, accidentally the object desired at B.'
[erefore the ants were clearly not guided by the sight
the pencil.

The same thing is well shown by another form of
3eriment. ' Some food was placed at the point a (Figs,
md 4) on a board measuring 20 inches by 12 Jnches,

Dij -Li... •.'^.AKY

iS[ATiOis^/.i. Museum

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

and so arranged that the ants in going straight from it I
the nest would reach the board at the point 6, and aftj

passing under the pap
tunnel c, would proce
between five pairs
wooden bricks, each
inches in length and
inches in height. WU
they got to know thJ
way they went qiii|
straight along the line
Fig. 3. to a. The board was thj

twisted as shown in Fig, 4. * The bricks and tunnel bei|

arranged exactly in tl
same direction as'
fore, but the boa
having been moved,tJ
line d e was now oif
side them. The chana
however, did not at
discompose the and
but instead of goii(
as before, through
tunnel ^and betwe
the rows of bricks I
a, they walked exacJ

Fig. 4.

H;, '■:

along the old path to e.* Keeping the board steady,

moving the brick patb
to the left-hand corner!
the board where the fol
was next placed (Fig.
had the effect of makil
the ant first go to the
position of the food at I
whence it veered to a nj
position, which we
call X. The bricks
food were then moved I

Fig. 6.

wards the right-hand corner of the board — i.e, over a
tance of 8 inches (Fig. 6). The ant now first went t«|

ANTS — SENSE OF DIRECTION.

Fig. 6.
is made to contradict their

[en to ic, and not finding the food at either place, get to
)rk to look for it at random, and was only successful
ter twenty-five minutes'
indering.

And, as evidence how

ich more depend*.' ^e

ley place upon scent in

\ding their way than

|>on any other of their

unities, it is desirable to

iote yet one further ex-

[riment, which is of great

terest as showing that

len their sense of smell

ise of direction, they follow the former, notwithstanding,
we shall presently see, the wonderful accuracy of the
[formation which is supplied to them by the latter. * If,
len F, niger were carrying off larvae placed in a cup on a
3ce of board, I turned the board round so that the side
lich had been turned towards the nest was away from it,
^d vice veracif the ants always returned over the same
ick on the board, and, in consequence, directly away
)m home. If I moved my board to the other side of my
tificial nest, the result was the same. Evidently they
plowed the road, not the direction.'

There can be little doubt that ants have a sense of
[ste, as they are so well able to distinguish sugary sub-
mces ; and it is unquestionable that in their antennae
^ey possess highly elaborated organs of touch.

Sense of Direction,

As evidence of the accuracy and importance of the
bse of direction in the Hymenoptera, we must here
Iduce Sir John Lubbock's highly interesting experiments

ants — leaving his experiments in this connection on
Bes and wasps to be considered in the next chapter,
fe first accustomed some ants (Lasius niger) to go to
id fro to food over a wooden bridge. When they had
)t quite accustomed to the way, he watched when an ant
IS upon a bridge which could be rotated, and while she

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

was passing along it, he turned it round, so that end 6 \tJ
at c, and c at 6. * In most cases the ant immediatel
turned round also ; but even if she went on to b or c,
the case might be, as soon as she came to the end of ti
bridge she turned round.' Next, between the nest an
the food he placed a hat-box twelve inches in diametJ
and seven inches high, cutting two small holes, so thi
the ants in passing from the nest to the food had to paj
in at one hole and out at the other. The box was fixtf
upon a central pivot, so as to admit of being rotated easil
without much friction or disturbance. When the ants '
well learnt their way, the box was turned half round i
soon as an ant had entered it, 'but in every case ti
ant turned too, thus retaining her direction.* Lastlil
Sir John took a disk of white paper,^ which he place|
in the stead of the hat-box between the nesiand tli
food. When an ant was on the disk making towari]
the food, he gently drew the disk to the other side of ti
food, so that the ant was conveyed by the moving surfacl
in the same direction as that in which she was going, m
beyond the point to which she intended to go. Undl
these circumstances ' the ant did not turn round, but weij
on ' to the further edge of the disk, when she seemed
good deal surprised at finding where she was.'

These experiments seem to show that the mysteriod
* sense of direction,' and consequent faculty of ' homing!
are in ants, at all events, due to a process of registerin|
and, where desirable, immediately counteracting anychang
of direction, even when such change is gently made by I
wholly closed chamber in which the animal is moving, aiii
not by any muscular movements of the animal itself. AdI
the fact that drawing the moving surface along in tli|
same direction of advance as that which the insect
pursuing does not affect the movements of the latteil
seems conclusively to show that the power of registratioi
has reference only to lateral movements of the travellinj
surface ; it has no reference to variations in the velocity
of advance along the line in which the animal is pro
greasing.^

' While this MS. is passing through the press Sir John Lubbock hai

ANTS —MEMORY.

Powers of Memory,

Little need here be said to prove that ants display
}ine powers of memory ; for many of the observations and

)eriments already detailed constitute a sufficient demon-
oration of the statement that they do. Thus, for instance,
le general fact that whenever an ant finds her way to a
^ore of food or larvae, she will return to it again and again

a more or less direct line from her nest, constitutes
iple proof that the ant remembers the way to the store.

is of considerable interest, however, to note that the
iture of this insect-memory appears to be, as far as it
368, precisely identical with that of memory in general.
lus, a new fact becomes impressed upon their memory

repetition, and the impression is liable to become
Faced by lapse of time. More evidence on both these
itures of insect-memory will be adduced when we come

treat of the intelligence of bees ; but meanwhile it is
lough to refer to the fact that in his experiments on
jits, Sir John Lubbock found it necessary to teach the
Isects by a repetition of several lessons their way to
[easure, if that way was long or unusual.

With regard to the duration of memory, it does not
jpear that any experiments have been made ; but the
(llowing observation by Mr. Belt on this point in the case

the leaf-cutting ant may here be stated. In June 1859

found his garden invaded by these ants, and following

their paths he found their nest about a hundred yards

ad another paper before the Linnaean Society, which contains some
Iportant additional matter concerning the sense of direction in
Its. It seems that in the experiment above described, the hat-box
Is not provided with a cover or lid, i.e. was not a • closed chamber,'
|d that Sir John now finds the ants to take their bearings from the
pection in which they observe the light to fall upon them. For in

experiment with the uncovered hat-box, if the source of light
andle) is moved round together with the rotating table which sup-
Irts the box, the ants continue their way without making compen-
klDg changes in their direction of advance. The same thing happens
Ithe hat-box is covered, so as to make of it a dark chamber. Direction
1 light being the source of their information that their ground is being
pved, we can understand why they do not know that it is being
pved when it is moved in the direction of their advance, as in the

eriment with the paper slip.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

distant. He poured down their burrows a pint of commo
brown carbolic acid, mixed with four buckets of wateij
The marauding parties were at once drawn off from ttj
garden to meet the danger at home, and the whole formij
carium was disorganised, the ants running up and do^
again in the utmost perplexity. Next day he found thed
busily employed bringing up the ant-food from the oil
burrows, and carrying it to newly formed ones a few ys
distant. These, however, turned out to be only intende
as temporary repositories ; for in a few days both the o|
and the new burrows were entirely deserted, so that
supposed all the ants to have died. Subsequently, hoiJ
ever, he found that they had migrated to a new site, aboi
two hundred yards from the old one, and there establisha
themselves in a new nest. Twelve months later the aol
again invaded his garden, and again he treated them tol
strong dose of carbolic acid. The ants, as on the previoj
occasion, were at once withdrawn from the garden, aij
two days afterwards he found * all the survivors at worki
one track that led directly to the old nest of the year befoij
where they were busily employed in making fresh exc(
vations. Many were bringing along pieces of ant-fo
from the nest most recently deluged with carbolic acid I
that which had been similarly deluged a year before,
from which all the carbolic acid had long ago disappeaid
' Others carried the undeveloped white pupse and lar\j
It was a wholesale and entire migration;' and the next
the nest down which he had last poured the carboUc
was entirely deserted. Mr. Belt adds : * I afterwards foB
that when much disturbed, and many of the ants destroy^
the survivors migrate to a new locality. I do not doi(
that some of the leading minds in this formicarium re
lected the nest of the year before, and directed
migration to it.'

Now, I do not insist that the facts necessarily pointl
this conclusion ; for it may have been that the leaders]
the migration simply stumbled upon the old and vac
nest by accident, and finding it already prepared as a nd
forthwith proceeded to transfer the food and pupsB tol
Still, as the two nests were separated from one another!

Bcies, is knowi

ANTS — MEMORY.

|o considerable a distance, this hypothesis does not

jem probable, and the only other one open to us is that

Ihe ants remembered the site of their former home for a

period of twelve months. And this conclusion is rendered

3SS improbable from a statement of Karl Vogt in his

iThierstaaten,' to the effect that for several successive

jears ants from a certain nest used to go through certain

ihabited streets to a chemist's shop 600 metres distant,

order to obtain access to a vessel filled with syrup. As

cannot be supposed that this vessel was found in suc-

3ssive working seasons by as many successive accidents,.

can only be concluded that the ants remembered the

rup store from season to season.

I shall now pass on to consider a class of highly re-

larkable facts, perhaps the most remarkable of the many

jmarkable facts connected with ant psychology. ^

It has been known since the observations of Huber

lat all the ants of the same nest or community recognise

|ne another as friends, while an ant introduced from

lother nest, even though it be an ant of the same

jcies, is known at once to be a foreigner, and is usually

laltreated or put to death. Huber found that when he

Bmoved an ant from a nest and kept it away from its

)mpanions for a period of four months it was still recog-

jised as a friend, and caressed by its previous fellow-

jitizens after the manner in which ants show friendship,

iz., by stroking antennae. Sir John Lubbock, after re-

[eating and fully confirming these observations, extended

lem as follows. He first tried keeping the separated ant

ray from the nest for a still longer period than four

lonths, and found that even after a separation of more

lan a year the animal was recognised as before. He re-

[eated this experiment a number of times, and always

|ith the same invariable difi'erence between the recep-

^on accorded to a foreigner and a native — no matter,

Ipparently, how long the native had been absent.

Considering the enormous number of ants that go to
lake a nest, it seems astonishing enough that they should
>e all personally known to one another, and still more-
stonishing that they should be able to recognise members

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

of their community after so prolonged an absence. ThinU
ing that the facts could only be explained, either by
the ants in the same nest having a peculiar smell, or bj
all the members of the same community having a par]
ticular pass-word or gesture-sign, Sir John Lubboclil
with the view of testing this theory, separated some antj
from a nest v hile still in the condition of pupae, and
when they emerged from that state as perfect insectJ
transferred them back to the nest from which they haj
been taken aS pupae. Of course in this case the ants iij
the nest could never have seen those which had beej
removed, for a larval ant is as unlike the mature insect
a grub is unlike a beetle ; neither can it be supposed thaj
a larva, hatched out away from the nest, should retail
when a perfect insect, any smell belonging to its parenl
nest — more especially as it had been hatched out bj
ants in another nest ; * nor, lastly, is it reasonable ti
imagine that the animal, while still a larval grub, can havj
been taught any gesture-signal used as a pass-word by thj
matured animals. Yet, although all these possible hypo
theses seem to be thus fully excluded by the conditioul
of the experiment, the result showed unequivocally thaj
the ants recognised their transformed larvae as native-bon
members of their community.

Lastly, Sir John Lubbock tried the experiment
going still further back in the life-history of the anl
before separating them from the nest. For in Septembd
he divided a nest into two halves, each having a queeil
At this season there were neither larvae nor eggs. Ttl
following April both the queens began to lay eggs, and
August — i,e, nearly a year after the original partitioniu
of the nest — he took some of the ants newly hatched frod
the pupae in one division, and placed them in the othJ
division, and vice versa. In all cases these ants were re|
ceived by the members of the other half of the dividei
nest as friends, although if a stranger were introduced intl
-either half it was invariably killed. Yet the ants whicj

• It is to be noted that although ants will attack stranger arj
introduced from other nests, they will carefully tend stranger lanj
similarly introduced.

ANTS — MEMORY.

[ere thus so certainly recognised by their kindred ants
friends had never, even in the state of an egg, been
resent in that division of the nest before. On this highly
^markable fact Sir John Lubbock says : —

Theae observations seem to me conclusive as far as they go,
id they are very surprising. In my experiments of last year,
lough the results were similar, still the ants experimented
jith had been brought up in the nest, and wei-e only removed
Br they had become pupse. It might thereford be argued
^at the ants, having nursed them as larvse, recognised them
len they came to maturity ; and though this would certainly
in the highest degree improbable, it could not be said to be
ipossible. In the present case, however, the old ants had ab-
llutely never seen the young ones until the moment when,
Ime days after arriving at maturity, they were introduced into
|e nest ; and yet in all ten cases they were undoubtedly recog-
;d as belonging to the community.

It seems to me, therefore, to be established by these experi-
ents that the recognition of ants is not personal and indi-
lual ; that their harmony is not due to the fact that each
[t is individually acquainted with every other member of the
imunity.

At the same time, the fact that they recognise their friends
|en when intoxicated, and that they know the young born in
leir own nest even when they have been brought out of the
jrysalis by strangers, seems to indicate that the recognition is
|t effected by means of any sign or pass- word.

We must, therefore, conclude with reference to this
Ibject that the mode whereby recognition is undoubtedly
fected is as yet wholly unintelligible ; and I have

broduced these facts under the heading of memory only
[cause this heading is not more inappropriate than any

ler that could be devised for their reception.
It ought here to be added also that the power of
lus recognising members of their community is not con-
|ed by the limits of blood-relationship, for in an experi-

mt made by Forel it was shown that Amazon ants

3ognised their own slaves almost instantaneously after

absence of four months.

Under this heading I may also adduce the evidence as
J enormous masses, or, as we might say, a whole nation

ants recognising each other as belonging to the same

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

nationality. New nests often spring up as oflfshoots froj
the older ones, and thus a nation of towns graduallj
spreads to an immense circumference around the originJ
centre. Forel describes a colony of F, exsecta whici
comprised more than two hundred nests, and covered
space of nearly two hundred square metres. *A11 ill
members of such a colony, even those from the further)
most nest, recognise each other and admit no stranger.'

Similarly, MacCook describes an *ant town' in til
Alleghany Mountains of North America (' Trans, AmeJ
Entom. Soc.,' Nov. 1877) which was inhabited by ^. exsi\
toidea. It consists of 1,600 to 1,700 nests, which rise
cones to a height of from two to five feet. The groui]
below is riddled in every direction with subterraneai
passages of communication. The inhabitants are all on tli
most friendly terms, so that if any one nest is injured]
is repaired by their united forces.

It remains to be added in connection with this subjeJ
that the recognition is not automatically invariable, bJ
when * ants are removed from a nest in the pupa statj
tended by strangers, and then restored, some at least (
their relatives are certainly puzzled, and in many casf|
doubt their claims to consanguinity. I say some, becau
while strangers under the circumstances would have bed
immediately attacked, these ants were in every
amicably received by the majority of the colony, and it
sometimes several hours before they came across one \flj
did not recognise them.'

It may also be added that Lasiua flavus behavj
towards strangers quite differently and much more h
pitably than is the case with L, niger. The strangj
shows no alarm, but, on the contrary, will volunt
enter the strange nest, and she is there received wi
kindness ; although from the attention she excites,
the numerous communications which take place betwecl
her and her new friends, Sir John was * satisfied that m
knew she was not one of themselves. . . . Very differentj
the behaviour of L, niger under similar circumstances,
tried the same experiment with them. There was
communications with the antennae, there was no cleanin

ANTS — EMOTIONS.

Ut every ant which the stranger approached flew at her
ike a Uttle tigress. I tried this experiment four times ;
lach stranger was killed and borne off to the nest.'

ETYiotions,

The pugnacity, valoi\r, and rapacity of ants are too

rell and generally known to require the narration of

)ecial instances of their display. With regard to the

mderer emotions, however, there is a difference of opi-

[ion among observers. Before the researches of Sir John

Lubbock it was the prevalent view that these insects dis-

[lay marked signs of affection towards one another, both

ly caressing movements of their antennae, and by showing

)licitude for friends in distress. Sir John, however, has

3und that the species of ants on which he has experi-

lented are apparently deficient both in feelings of

|ffection and of sympathy — or, at least, that such feelings

re in these species much less strongly developed than

16 sterner passions.

He tried burying some specimens of Lasms niger

leneath an ant-road ; but none of the ants traversing the

md made any attempt to release their imprisoned com-

lanions. He tried the same experiment with the same

isult on various other species. Even when the friends in

lifficulty are actually in sight, it by no means follows

lat their companions will assist them. Of this, he says,

|e could give almost any number of instances. Thus,

men ants are entangled in honey, their companions

(evote themselves to the honey, and entirely neglect

leir friends in distress ; and when partly drowned, their

Kends take no notice. When chloroformed or intoxicated

leir own companions either do not heed them, or else

Iseem somewhat puzzled at finding their intoxicated

)llow-creatures in such a condition, take them up, and

irry them about for a time in a somewhat aimless manner.'

[urther experiments, however, on a larger scale, went to

low that chloroformed ants were treated as dead, i.e.

Amoved to the edge of the parade-board and dropped

i^er into the smTOunding moat of water ; while intoxicated

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

■f"

ants were generally carried into the nest, if they were antj
belonging to that community ; if not, they were thro^
overboard. This care shown towards intoxicated friend
appears to indicate a dim sense of sympathy towardj
afflicted individuals; but that this emotion or instind
does not in the case of these species extend to healttj
individuals in distress seems to be proved, not only by tli]
experiments of burying already described, but also by ttj
following : —

On Sept. 2, therefore, I put two ants from one of my nesu
of F.fuaca into a bottle, the end of which was tied up via
muslin as described, and laid it down close to the nest. In |
second bottle I put two auts from another nest of the sas
species. The ants which were at liberty took no notice of til
bottle containing their imprisoned friends. The strangers in tlj
other bottle, on the contrary, excited them considerably,
whole day one, two, or more ants stood sentry, as it were, ovej
the bottle. In the evening no less than twelve were collect
round it, a larger number than usually came out of the nests
any one time. The whole of the next two days, in the san
way, there were more or less ants round the bottle containij
the strangers; while, as far as we could see, no notice whatevij
was taken of the friends. On the 9th the ants had eati
through the muslin, and effected an entrance. We did nol
chance to be on the spot at the moment ; but as I found U
ants lying dead, one in the bottle and one just outside, I tl
there can be no doubt that the strangers were put to deatlj
The friends throughout were quite neglected.

Sept. 21. — I then repeated the experiment, putting tl
ants from another nest in a bottle as beforp. The same sceiil
was repeated. The friends were neglected. On the otha
hand, some of the ants were always watching over the bottlj
containing the strangers, and biting at the muslin which pn
tected them. The next morning at 6 a.m. I found five ani
thus occupied. One had caught hold of the leg of one of tlj
strangers, which had unwarily been allowed to protrude throua
the meshes of the muslin. They worked and watched, thong
not, as far as I could see, with any system, till 7.30 in tlij
evening, when they effected an entrance, and immediately a
tacked the strangers.

Sept. 24. — I repeated the same experiment with the san
nest. Again the ants came and sat over the bottle containiij
the strangers, while no notice was taken of the friends.

ANTS— SYMPATHY.

The next morning again, when I got up, I found five ants
)und the bottle containing the stmngers, none near the friends.
LS in the former case, one of the ants had seized a stranger by
le leg, and was trying to drag her through the muslin. All
lay the ants clustered round the bottle, and bit perseveringly^
lough not systematically, at the muslin. The same thing hap-
Bned all the following day.

On repeating these experiments with another species (viz.,
\orTnica rufeacens) the ants took no notice of either bottle,
id showed no sign either of affection or hatred. One is almost
^mpted to surmise that the spirit of these ants is broken by
ivery \i.e. by the habit of keeping slaves]. But the experi-
[ents on F. fusca seem to show that in these curious insects
iiti'ed is a stronger passion than affection.

We must not, however, too readily assent to this

^neral conclusion, that ants as a whole are deficient in

[e tenderer emotions ; for although the case is doubtless

with the species which Sir John examined, it appears

be certainly otherwise with other species, as we shall

lesently see. But first it may be well to point out that

|en the hard-hearted species with which Sir John had ta

seem not altogether devoid of sympathy with sick or

itilated friends, although they appear to be so towards

|althy fiiends in distress. Thus the care shown to

toxicated friends seems to indicate, if not, as already

served, a dim sense of sympathy, at least an instinct to

jserve the life of an ailing citizen for the future benefit

the community. Sir John also quotes some observa-

|ns of Latreille showing that ants display sympathy with

itilated companions ; and, lastly, mentions an instance

[ich he has himself observed of the same thing. A spe-

len of F, fuaca congenitally destitute of antennae was

icked and injured by an ant of another species. When

|>arated by Sir John, another ant of her own species

16 by. ' She examined the poor sufferer carefully, then

Iked her up tenderly, and carried her away into the

pt. It would have been difl&cult for any one wha

messed this scene to have denied to this ant the pos-

jsion of humane feelings.' Moggridge is also of opinion

It the habit of throwing sick and apparently dead ants

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

into the water, is ' in part to be rid of them, and partlvj
perhaps, with a view to effecting a possible cure ; for
have seen one ant carry another down the twig whict
formed their path to the surface of the water, and, afteil
dipping it in for a minute, carry it laboriously up againj
and lay it in the sun to dry and recover.*

But that some species of ants display marked signi
of what we may call sympathy even towards healthy coinJ
panions in distress, is proved by the following observation
of Mr. Belt. He writes :^ —

One day, watching a small column of these ants (t'J
Uciton humata), I placed a little stone on one of them to m
cure it. The next that approached, as soon as it discovered it|
fiituation, ran backwards in an agitated manner, and soon coo
municated the intelligence to the others. They rushed to tiij
rescue ; some bit at the stone and tried to move it, others seiz
the prisoner by the legs and tugged with such force that
thought the legs would be pulled off, but they persevered unti
they got the captive free. I next covered one up with a pie
of clay, leaving only the ends of its antennae projecting. It vii
soon discovered by its fellows, which set to work immediatelj
and by biting off pieces of the clay soon liberated it. Anothfl
time I found a very few of them passing along at intervals,
confined one of these under a piece of clay at a little distaDJ
from the line, with his head projecting. Several ants passed i|
but at last one discovered it and tried to pull it out, but cou
not. It immediately set off at a great rate, and I thought |
had deserted its comrade, but it had only gone for assistanM
for in a short time about a dozen ants came hurrying up, eij
dontly fully informed of the circumstances of the case, for thtj
made directly for their imprisoned comrade and soon set hij
free. I do not see how this action could be instinctive. It n
sympathetic help, such as man only among the higher mai
malia shows. The excitement and ardour with which thj
carried on their unflagging exertions for the rescue of tha
comrade could not have been greater if they had been humij
beings.

This observation seems unequivocal as proving felloj
feeling and sympathy, so far as we can trace any analoj
between the emotions of the higher animals and those]

' Thfi Naturalist in Nicaragua, 1874, p. 26.

ANTS— COMMUNK'A TION.

^sects. That insects with such highly organised social

ibits, and depending so greatly on the principles of co-

)eration, should manifest emotions or instincts of an inci-

Iciitly altruistic character, is no more than we should

itecedently expect on the general principle of survival

the fittest. Our only surprise should be that these

notions, or instincts, should appear to be so feebly de-

koped in some species of ants, and, as we shall subse-

lently see, also of bees. But it may be worth while in

[is connection to point out that the valuable observation

Mr. Belt above quoted refers to the species of ant which,

we shall subsequently find, presents the most highly

ranised instincts of co-operation that are to be met with

long ants, and therefore the greatest dependence of the

^Ifare of the individual on that of the community. And

(e same remark is applicable to our native species, F. san-

tinea, which the Rev. \^^ W. F. White has repeatedly

3n rescuing buried companions very much in the manner

[scribed by Mr. Belt ; and he does not appear to be ac-

lainted with Mr. Belt's observations. He figures one

se in which he saw three ants co-operating to dig out

)uried comrade

Powers of Gomniunication.

Huber, Kirby and Spence, Dugardin, Burmeister,

[anklin, and other observers have all expressed them-

Ives as more or less strongly of the opinion that members

Ithe same community of ants, and other social Hymen-

tera, are able to communicate information to one

)ther by some system of language or signs. The facts,

mver, on which their opinion rests have not been stated
th that degree of caution and detail which the accept-
ce of the conclusion requires. Thus, Kirby and Spence
^e only one instance of supposed communication between
ts,2 and even this one is inconclusive, as the facts de-
ibed admit of being explained by supposing that the
ts simply tracked one another by scent ; while Huber

> See Leisure Hour, 1880, p. 390.
' Introduotmn to Entomoloy ij , vol. ii. p. 524.

ANIMAL liNTKLLIGENCE.

merely deals in general statements as to * contact a
ancennoe,' without narrating any particulars of his observa
tions. Therefore, until within the last few years then
was really no sufficient evidence to sustain the generJ
opinion that ants are able to communicate with oj
another ; but the observations which I shall now data
must be regarded as fully substantiating that generJ
opinion by facts as abundant and conclusive as the moj
critical among us can desire. I shall first narrate in
own words the more important of Sir John Lubbocl;|
experiments in this connection : —

I took three tapes, each about 2 feet 6 inches long, ad
aiTanged them parallel to one another and about 6 inctj
apart. An end of each I attached to one of the nests {F. nigci
and at the other end I placed a glass. In the glass at the ei|
of one tape I placed a considerable number (300 to 600) i
larv86. In the second I put two or three larvae only, in
third none at all. The object of the last was to see whet
many ants would come to the glasses under such circumstancj
by mere accident, and I may at once say that scarcely
did so. I then took two ants, and placed one of them to 1
glass with many larvae, the other to that with two or thn
Each of them took a larva and carried it to the nest, retui
for another, and so on. After each journey I put anotll
larva in the glass with only two or three larvae, to replace tlj
which had been removed. Now, if several ants came under t
above circumstances as a mere matter of accident, or accoi
panying one another by chance, or if they simply saw the Ian
which were being brought, and consequently concluded tlj
they might themselves find a larva in the same place, then I
numbers going to the two glasses ought to be approximatf
equal. In each case the number of journeys made by the
would be nearly the same ; consequently, if it was a matter!
scent, the two glasses would be in the same position. It woif
be impossible for an ant, seeing another in the act of bring,
a larva, to judge for itself whether there were few or maf
left behind. On the other hand, if the strangers were brou^
then it would be curious to see whether more were broii
to the glass with many larvae than to that which only contaii
two or three. I should also mention that every stranger
imprisoned until the end of the experiment.

The results of these experiments were that duiil

ANTS — COMMUNICATION.

b- hours the ants which Imd nccess to a glass containing
Imerous larvae brought 257 friends to their assistance ;
lile during an interval 5^ hours longer those which
litt'd the glass with only two or three larvre brought only

friends ; and, as already mentioned, no single ant came
Ithe glass which contained no larvae. Now, as all the
isses were exposed to similar conditions, and as the
^ds to the first two must, in the first instance at all
mts, have been equally scented by the passage of ants
fr them, these results look very conclusive as proving

le power of definite communication, not only that

/SB are to be found, but even where the largest store is

)e met with.

To this interesting account Sir John Lubbock adds, —

I One case of apparent communication struck me very much.
id had an ant (F. niger) under observation one day, during
[ch she was occupied in carrying off larvae to her nest. At
it I imprisoned her in a small bottle ; in the morning I let
I out at 6.15, when she immediately resumed her occupation,
ring to go to London, I imprisoned her again at 9 o'clock,
bn I returned at 4.40 I put her again to the larva). She
lined them carefully, and went home without taking one.
Ithis time no other ants were out of the nest. In less than
inute she came out again with eight friends, and the little
made straight for the heap of larvoe. When they had gone
-thirds of the way I again imprisoned the marked ant;
others hesitated a few minutes, and then with curious quick-
returned home. At 5.15 I put her again to the larvae.
I again went home without a larva^ hut after only a few
jnds' stay in the nest, came out with no less than thii-teen
ids. They all went towards the larvae, but when they had
ibout two-thirds of the way, although the marked ant had
[he previous day passed over the ground about 150 times,
] though she had just gone straight from the larvae to the
she seemed to have forgotten her way, and considered ;
[after she had wandered about for half an hour, I put her to
larvae. Now, in this case, the twenty-one ants must have
brought out by my marked one, for they came exactly
I her, and there were no other ants out. Moreover, it would
that they must have been told, because (which is very
Dus in itself) she did not in either case bring a larva, and

E 2

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

consequently it cannot have been the mere sight of a lai]
which had induced them to follow her.

Further experiments proved, as we might have ei
pected, that although an ant is able to communicate [
her friends in the nest that she has found treasure sod
where outside, she is not able to describe to them its pJ
cise locality. Thus, having exposed larvae and placed |
ant upon them as before. Sir John watched every time :
came out of the nest with friends to assist her, but instt|
of allowing her to pilot the way, he took her up
carried her to the larvae, allowing her to return witlj
larva upon her own feet. Under these circumstances
friends, dlthough evidently coming out with the intent}
of finding some treasure, were never able to find it ; i
wandered about in various directions for a while, and tlf
returned to the nest. Thus, during two hours
brought out in her successive journeys altogether nol
than 120 ants, of which number only 5 in their unguiJ
wanderings happened to find the sought-for treasif
This result seems to prove, as we might have expectj
that the communication is of the nature of some
amounting to no more than a * follow me.' Other ej
ments confirmed this result, and also brought out
fact that ' some species act much more in association t!j
others — Formica fusca, for instance, much less tj
Lasiua niger,^ Thus Sir John Lubbock placed some hoi|
before a marked specimen of the former species ;
although she visited and revisited the honey during!
entire day, she brought out no friends to share it;
although in her journeys to and from the nest she happej
to pass and repass many other individuals, they took]
notice of each other.

The obvious objection to these experiments, thai
ant observing a friend bringing home food or a pi
might infer, without being told, that by accompany
the friend on the return journey she 'might participate
the good things,' has been partly met by the fact alrej
stated, viz., that there is so very marked a differenc
the result if, on experimenting on two ants, one had ao
to a large treasure and the other only to a small one.

ANTS — COMMUNICATION.

put this matter beyond question, Sir John Lubbock
[ied the experiment of pinning down a dead fly, so that
le ant which found it was unable, with all her tugging,

move it towards the nest. At length she went back

the nest for assistance, and returned accompanied by
^ven friends. So great was her excitement, however,
lat she outran these friends, * who seemed to have
\me out reluctantly, as if they had been asleep, and were
ily half awake ; ' and they failed to find the fly, slowly
leandering about for twenty minutes. After again tug-
lug for a time at the fly, the first ant returned a second

le to the nest for assistance, and in less than a minute
Ime out with eight friends. They were even less energetic
Ian the first party, and having lost sight of their guide in
le same manner as happened before, they all returned to
ie nest. Meanwhile several of the first party, which had

the while been meandering about, found the fly, and
^oceeded to dismember it, carrying the trophy to the
pst, and calling out more friends in the ordinary way.

lis experiment was repeated several times and on difFer-
kt species, always with the same result. Now, as Sir
mn remarks, ' the two cases (i.e. those in which the ant
[ought out friends to her assistance even when she had

booty to show) surely indicate a distinct power of com-

mication. ... It is impossible to doubt that the friends
ere brought out by the first an^ ; and as she returned

ipty-handed to the nest, the others cannot have been

luced to follow her by merely observing her proceedings.

conclude, therefore, that they possess the power of re-
lesting their friends to come and help them.'
In order to ascertain whether the signs which com-

micating ants make to one another are made by means

sound, Sir John Lubbock placed near a nest of Lasius
ivus six small upright pillars of wood about 1 J inch high,
Id on one of these he put a drop of honey. ' I then put
jree ants to the honey, and when each had sufficiently

, I imprisoned her, and put another ; thus always keep-
three ants at the honey, but not allowing them to go
Une. If, then, they could summon their friends by

md, there ought soon to be many ants at the honey.*

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

The result showed that the ants were not able thus to
to one another from a distance.

As additional proof of the general fact that at
events some ants have the power of communicating infoi
mation to one another, it will be enough here to quote i
exceedingly interesting observation of the distinguislJ
geologist Hague. The quotations are taken froi
his letters written to Mr. Darwin, and published
Nature : * —

On the mantelshelf of our sitting-room my wife has
habit of keeping fresh flowers. A vase stands at each end,
near the middle a small tumbler, usually filled with violeij
Some time ago 1 noticed a pile of very small red ants on the m
above the left-hand vase, passing upward and downward
tween the mantelshelf and a small hole near the ceiling, atl
point where a picture nail had been driven. The ants, wM
first observed, were not very numerous, but gradually increasj
in number, until on some days the little creatures formed
almost unbroken procession, issuing from the hole at the
descending the wall, climbing the vase directly below the m,
satisfying their desire for water or perfume, and then returnin
The other vase and tumbler were not visited at that time.

As I was just then recovering from a long illness it b
pened that I was confined to the house, and spent my days in \
room where the operations of these insects attracted my atteJ
tion. Their presence caused me some annoyance, but I knexvj
no effective means of getting rid of them. For several days I
succession I frequently brushed the ants in great numbers froj
the wall down to the floor ; but as they were not killed the :
suit was that they soon formed a colony in the wall at the k
of ihe mantel, ascending thence to the shelf, so that before lot]
the vase was attacked from above and below.

One day I observed a number of ants, perhaps thirty
forty, on the shelf at the foot of the vase. Thinking to
them, I struck them lightly with the end of my finger, killiij
some and disabling the rest. The effect of this was immediaj
and unexpected. As soon as those ants which were approacl
ing arrived near to where their fellows lay dead and sufferiij
they turned and fled with all possible haste. In half an m
the wall above the mantelshelf was cleared of ants.

During the space of an hour or two the colony from belcj

» Vol. vii. pp. 443-1.

ANTS— COMMUNICATION.

jntinued to ascend until reaching the lower bevelled edge of
le shelf, at which point the more timid individuals, although
[nable to see the vase, somehow became aware of trouble, and
imed about without further investigation, while the more
iring advanced hesitatingly just to the upper edge of the
lelf, when, extending their antennae and stretching their necks,
ley seemed to peep cautiously over the edge until beholding
leir suffering companions, when they too turned and followed
le others, expressing by their behaviour great excitement and
jiTor. An hour or two later, the path or trail leading from
le lower colony to the vase was almost entirely free from ants.

I killed one or two ants on their path, striking chem with
iy finger, but leaving no visible trace. The effect of this was
lat as soon as an ant ascending towards the shelf reached the
)t where one had been killed, it gave signs immediately of

it disturbance, and returned directly at the highest possible
sed.

A curious and invariable feature of their behaviour was
[lat when such an ant, returning in fright, met another ap-
Daching, the two would always communicate, but each would
irsue its own way, the second ant continuing its journey to
^e spot where the fir;jt had turned about, and then following
pt example.

For some days after this there were no ants visible on the
ill, either above or below the shelf.

Then a few ants from the lower colony began to reappear,
lit instead of visiting the vase which had been the scene of the

ister, they avoided it altogether, and following the lower
3nt edge of the shelf to the tumbler sta^iding near the middle,
ule their attack upon that. I repeated the same experiment
^re with precisely the same result. Killing or maiming a few
the ants and leaving their bodies about the base of the tum-
fcr, the others on approaching, and even before arriving at the
|)per surface of the shelf where their mutilated companions
ere visible, gave signs of intense emotion, some running away
jmediately, and others advancing to where they could sm-vey
je field and then hastening away precipitately.

Occasionally an ant would advance towards the tumbler
^til it found itself among the dead and dying ; then it seemed
I lose all self-possession, running hither and thither, making
Ida circuits about the scene of the trouble, stopping at times
Id elevating the antennaj with a movement suggestive of
tinging them in despair, and finally taking flight. After this
lother interval of several days passed, during which no ants

■ \i{.'

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

appeared. Now, three months later, the lower colony has been!
entirely abandoned. Occasionally, however, especially wheJ
fresh and fragrant violets have been placed on the shelf, a fewl
' prospectors ' descend from the upper nail-hole, rarely, almostl
never, approaching the vase from which they were first drivecl
away, but seeking to satisfy their desire at the tv;mbler. Tcj
turn back these stragglers and keep them out of sight for
number of iays, sometimes for a fortnight, it is sufficient tcj
kill one or two ants on the trail which they follow descendinj
the wall. This I have recently done as high up as I can reaclij
three or four feet above the mantel. The moment this spot
reached, an ant turns abruptly and makes for home, and in
little while there is not an ant visible on the wall.

In a subsequent volume of * Nature ' (viii. p. 244J
JNIr. Darwin publishes another letter which he received froif
Mr. Hague upon the same subject. It seems that Mr. Mog
gridge suggested to Mr. Darwin that, as he and others haj
observed ants to be repelled by the mere scent of a fingcf
drawn across their path, the observation of Mr. Hagii
might really resolve itself into a dislike on the part of ttj
aDts to cross a line over which a finger had been drawif
and have nothing to do with intelligent terror inspired
the sight of their slaughtered companions. The followiEJ
is Mr. Hague's reply to Mr. Darwin's request for furtli(
experiments to test this point : —

Acting on Mr. M 's suggestion, I first tried making simpl

finger-marks on their path (the mantel is of marble), and fouiil
just the results which he describes in his note as observed ll
himself at Mentone, that is, no marked symptoms of fear, biiti
dislike to the spot, and an effort to avoid it by going around iJ
or by turning back and only crossing it again after an intervJ
of time. I then killed several ants on the path, using a smootj
stone or piece of ivory, instead of my finger, to crush them,
this case the ants approaching all turned back as before,
with much greater exhibition of fear than when the simpJ
finger-mark was made. This I did repeatedly. The final
suit was the same as obtained last winter. They persisted!
coming for a week or two, during which I continued to
them, and then they disappeared, and we have seen none sina
It would appear from this that while the taint of the hand i
sufiicient to turn them back, the killing of their fellows withj
stone or other material produces the efloct described in my

ANTS— SWAEMING.

lote. This was made clear to me at that time, from the be-
laviour of the ants the first day I killed any, for on that occa-
sion some of them approaching the vase from below, on reaching
[he upper edge of the mantel, peeped over, and drew back on
keeing what had happened about the vase, then turned away a
[ittle, and after a moment tried again at another and another
point along the edge, with the same result in the end. More-
over, those that found themselves among the dead and dying

rent from one writhing ant to another in great haste and ex-
citement, exhibiting the signs of fright which I described.

I hardly hope that any will return again, but if they do,
Ind give me an opportunity, I shall endeavour to act further on

[r. M 's suggestion.

With this quotation I shall conclude the present division
[f the chapter ; for, looking to all the other observations
reviously mentioned, there can be no question concern-
ig the general fact that ants have the power of commu-
licating with one another. And under subsequent head-
igs abundant additional evidence on this point will be
)und implicated with the other facts detailed.

Habits General in Sundry Species.

Swarming. — The precise facts with regara to the

farming of ants are not yet certainly established. As

3gards some of the facts, however, there is no doubt.

[he winged males and females first quit the nest in enor-

lous numbers, and choose some fine afternoon in July

August for their wedding flight. The entrances to

le nest are widened by the workers and increased in

lumber, and there is a great commotion on the sur-

ice of the nest. The swarm takes place as a thick

loud of all the male and female insects, rising together

a considerable height. The flight continues for
3veral hours, usually circling round some tree or
)wer, and it is during the flight that fertilisation is
[ffected. After it is effected, the swarm returns to
le ground, when the males perish, either from falling
prey, in their shelterless condition, to birds or spiders,
f, on account of not being able to feed themselves, from
tarvation. ' The workers, or neuter ants, of their own

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

colony have lost all interest in them from the moment oi
their return, and trouble themselves no more about them,!
for they we.U know that the males have now fulfilled theuf
vocation.' The great majority of the fertilised femalej
share the same fate as the males. But a small proportio(
find concealment in holes, which they either dig for thenij
selves, or happen to find ready made, and there found i
new colony. The first thing they do is to pull off theij
now useless wings, by scratching and twisting them, onJ
after the other, with the clawed ends of their feet. Thej
then lay their eggs, and become the queens of nei|
colonies.

Forel says that no fertilised female ever returns to bej
original home ; but that the workers keep back a certaiij
number of females which are fertilised before the swarmii
takes place ; in this case the workers pull off the wing]
of the fertilised females. The majority of observers, how]
ever, maintain that some of the females composing tli|
swarm return to their native home to become motherj
where they had been children. Probably both statement!
are correct. A writer in the * Grroniger Deekblad ' foi|
June 16, 1877, observes that, looking to the injuriou
effects of in-breeding, the facts as related by Forel are les]
probable than those related by other observers, and that, ]
they actually occur, the females fertilised before flight arJ
probably kept by the ants as a sort of ' reserve corps tl
which the workers resort only in case of need, and if thei
fail to secure any returning queens.'

Nursing. — The eggs will not develop into larvae m\
less nursed. The nursing is effected by licking tlif|
surface of the eggs, which under the influence of tbij
process increase in size, or grow. In about a fortnightj
during which time the workers carry the eggs from highej
to lower levels of the nest, and vice versa, according to tttl
circumstances of heat, moisture, &c., the larvae are hatchei
out, and require no less careful nursing than the egm
The workers feed them by placing mouths together and rej
gurgitating food stored up in the crop or proventricului
into the intestinal tract of the young. The latter she/
their hunger by ' stretching out their little brown heads!

ANTS — NURSING AND EDUCATIOIS.

ims to he;
t a certai
5 swarmiiij
the wingi
•vers, how
posing tilt
e motheii
statements
fkblad' foi

injurioi
rel are le«
md that,

flight ai(
corps t(
nd if thei

larvae m-
eking till
ce of tliii
fortnight,
•om highei
ling to tilt
re hatche
the eggs
ler and re
entricukj
tter she
iwn heads'

Great care is also taken by the workers in cleaning the
larvae, as well as in carrying them up and down the
ihambers of the nest for warmth or shelter.

When fully grown the larvae spin cocoons, and are then
upae, or the * ants' eggs ' of bird-fanciers. These require
food, but still need incessant attention with reference
,0 warmth, moisture, and cleanliness. When the time
ives for their emergence as perfect insects, the workers
ssist them to get out of their larval cases by biting
hrough the walls of the latter. It is noticeable that in
oing this the workers do not keep to any exact time,
ut free them sometimes earlier and sometimes later, in
ceordance with their rate of development. ' The little
nimal when freed from its chrysalis is still covered with
thin skin, like a little shirt, which has to be pulled off.
hen we see how neatly and gently this is done, and
ow the young creature is then washed, brushed, and
d, we are involuntarily reminded of the nursing of
uman babies. The empty cases, or cocoons, are carried
utside the nest, and may be seen heaped together there
r a long time. Some species carry them far away from
e nest, or turn them into building materials for the
welHng.' '

Education, — ^The young ant does not appear to come
to the world with a full instinctive knowledge of all its
ties as a member of a social community. It is led about
e nest, and ' trained to a knowledge of domestic duties,
pecially in the case of the larvae.' Later on the young
ts are taught to distinguish between friends and foes.
f^hen an ants' nest is attacked by foreign ants, the young
es never join in the light, but confine themselves to
moving the pupae ; and that the knowledge of hereditary
emies is not wholly instinctive in ants is proved by the
Hewing experiment, which we owe to Forel. He put
ung ants belonging to three different species into a glass
se with pupae of six other species — all the species being
turally hostile to one another. The young ants did
t quarrel, but worked together to tend the pupae. When
e latter hatched out, an artificial colony was formed of
' Biichner, Geisteslehcn der Thiere, pp. 66-7-

«0

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

a number of naturally hostile species all living together!
after the manner of the ' happy families ' of the showmen.
Habit of keeping Aphides. — It is well known that!
various species of ants keep aphides, as men keep milch
cows, to supply a nutritious secretion. Huber first ob«|
served this fact, and noticed that the ants collected thel
eggs of the aphides and treated them exactly as thejl
treated their own, guarding and tending them with thel
utmost care. When these eggs hatch out the aphides are!
usually kept and fed by the ants, to whom they yield al
sweet ho- 3y-like fluid, which they eject from the abdomenl
upon being stroked on this region by the antennae of thel
ants. Mr. Darwin, who has watched the latter process
observes with regard to it, —

I removed all the ants from a groupof about a dozen aphidesj
on a dock plant, and prevented their attendance during severall
hours. After this interval, I felt sure that the aphides wouldl
want to excrete. I watched them for some time through aj
lens, but not one excreted ; I then tickled them with a hair iEl
the same manner, as well as I could, as the ants do with theiij
antennae ; but not one excreted. Afterwards I allowed an antl
to visit them, and it immediately seemed, by its eager way o|
running about, to be well aware what a rich flock it had dis-j
covered ; it then began to play with its antennae on the abdoj
men, first of one aphis and then of another ; and each, as sooil
as it felt the antennae, immediately lifted up its abdomen ani
excreted a limpid drop of sweet juice, which was eagerly de-j
voured by the ant. Even quite young aphides behaved in
manner, showing that the action was instinctive, and not tlie|
result of experience.

The facts also show that the jdelding of the secretioij
to the ants is, as it were, a voluntary act on the part of m
aphides, or, perhaps more correctly, that the instinct ti|
yield it has been developed in such a relation to the re
quirements of the ants, that the peculiar stimulation sup
plied by the antennae of the latter is necessary to start m
act of secretion ; for in the absence of this particular stimuj
lationthe aphides will never excrete until compelled todl
so by the superabundance of the accumulating secretioij
The question, therefore, directly arises how, on evolutions

i I '(

ANTS — KEEPING AI»HIDES

principles, such a class of fiicts is to be met ; for it is cer-
tainly difficult to understand the manner in which this
instinct, so beneficial to the ants, can have arisen in the
j aphides, to which it does not appear, at first sight, to offer
any advantages. Mr. Darwin meets the difficulty thus :
Although there is no evidence that any animal performs
an action for the exclusive good of another species, yet
I each tries to take advantage of the instincts of others ;'
and *as the secretion is extremely viscid, it is no doubt a
convenience to the aphides to have it removed ; therefore
probably they do not excrete solely for the good of the
hints.'*

Some ants which keep aphides l^uild covered ways, or

I tunnels, to the trees or shrubs where the aphides live.

Forel saw a tunnel of this kind which was taken up a wall

land down again on the other side, in order to secure a

Isafe covered way from the nest to the aphides. Occasion-

lally such covered ways, or tubes, are continued so as to

lenclose the stems of the plants on which the aphides live.

[The latter are thus imprisoned by the walls of the tube,

[which, however, expand where they take on this additional

function of stabling the aphides, so that these insects are

really confined in tolerably large chambers. The doors of

these chambers are too small to allow the aphides to escape,

fhile large enough for the ants to pass in and out. Forel

saw such a prison or stable shaped like a cocoon, and

ibout a centimetre long, which was hanging on the branch

)f a tree, and contained aphides carefully tended by the

ints. Huber records similar observations.

Sir John Lubbock has made an interesting addition to
)ur knowledge respecting this habit as practised by a
3ertain species of ant {Lasius fiavus), which departs in a
^ery remarkable manner from the habit as practised by
)ther species. He says : * The ants took the greatest care
)f these eggs, carrying them off to the lower chambers
nth the utmost haste when the nest was disturbed.' But
the most interesting of Sir John Lubbock's observations
In this connection is new, and reveals an astonishing

Origin of Species, 6th ed. pp. 207-8.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

amount of method shown by the ants in farming their j
aphides. He says : —

When my eggs hatched I naturally thought that the aphides
belonged to one of the species usually found on the roots of I
plants in the nests of Lasius Jlavus. To my surprise, however,
the young creatures made the best of their way out of the nest, |
and, indeed, were sometimes brought out by the ants them-
selves. In vain I tried them with roots of grass, <fec. ; they I
wandered uneasily about, and eventually died. Moreover, tbev
did not in any way resemble the subterranean species. In 1878
I again attempted to rear these young aphides ; but though 1 1
hatched a great many eggs, I did not succeed. This year, how-
ever, I have been more fortunate. The eggs commenced toj
hatch the first week in March. Near one of my nests of ZasMw
Jlavus, in which I had placed some of the eggs in question, was
a glass containing living specimens of several species of plants
comnionly found on or around ants' nests. To this some of I
the young aphides were brought by the ants. Shortly after-
wards I observed on a plant of daisy, in the axils of the leaves,
some small aphides, very much resembling those from my nest,
though we had not actually traced them continuously. They
seemed thriving, and remained stationary on the daisy. More-
over, whether they had sprung from the black eggs or not, the
ants evidently valued them, for they built up a wall of earth
round and over them. So things remained throughout the
summer, but on October 9 I found that the aphides had laid
some eggs exactly resembling those found in the ants' nests;
and on examining daisy plants from outside, I found on many
of them similar aphides, and more or less of the same eggs.

I confess these observations surprised me very much. The!
statements of Huber have not, indeed, attracted so much notice
as many of the other interesting facts which he has recorded;!
because if aphides are kept by ants in their nests, it seems onlyj
natural that their eggs should also occur. The above cas^
however, is much more remarkable. Here are aphides, not!
living in the ants' nests, but outside, on the leaf-stalks of plants,
The eggs are laid early in October on the food-plant of the in-
sect. They are of no direct use to the ants, yet they are not!
left where they are laid, where they would be exposed to the
severity of the weather and to innumerable dangers, but brought]
into their nests by the ants,|and tended by them with the ut.
most care through the long -v^inter months until the following!
March, when the young onea are brought out and again placed

ANTS — KEEWNG APHIDES.

3n the young shoots of the diUBy. This seems to mo a most
kmarkable case of prudence. Our ants may not perhaps lay
ip food for tlie winter, but they do more, for they keep during
\]X months the eggs which will enable them to procure food

luring the following summer.

The following, which is taken from Buchner's
I G eistesleben der Thiere ' is perhaps a still more striking
Derformance of the same kind as that which Sir John
jubbock observed : —

The author is debtor to Herr Nottebohm, Inspector of Build-
gs at Karlsruhe, who related the following on May 24, 1876,
nder the title, * Ants as Founders of Aphides' Colonies : ' — * Of
vo equally strong young weeping ashes, which I planted in my
irden at Kattowitz, in Upper Silesia, one succeeded well, and
about five or six years showed full foliage, while the other
igularly every year was covered, when it began to bud, with
illions of aphides, which destroyed the young leaves and
routs, and thus completely delayed the development of the
tee. As I perceived that the only reason for this was the
jition of the aphides, I determined to destroy them utterly.

in the March of the following year I took the trouble to
ean and wash every bough, sprig, and bud before the bursting
the latter, with the greatest care, by means of a syringe. The
[suit was that the tree developed perfectly healthy and vigor-
js leaves and young shoots, and remained quite free from the
pides until the end of May or the beginning of June. My

was of short duration. One fine sunny morning I saw a

[rprising number of ants running quickly up and down the

ink of the tree ; this aroused my attention, and led me to

[)k more closely. To my great astonishment I then saw that

my troops of ants were busied in carrying single aphides up

stem to the top, and that in this way many of the lower
Lves had been planted with colonies of aphides. After some
^eks the evil was as great as ever. The tree stood alone on
fe grass plot, and offered the only situation for an aphides*
[ony for the countless ants there present. I had destroyed
Is colony ; but the ants replanted it by bringing new colonists
|m distant branches, and setting them on the young leaves.*

Again —

MacCook noticed, of the mound-making ants, that of the

• Loo. cit. p. 121.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

workers returning to the nest from the tree on which the milkl
ing was going on, a far smaller number had diatentled abdouienil
than among those desc(mding the tree itself. A closer investii
gation showed that at the roots of the trees, at the outlets of
the subterranean galleries, a number of ants were assemljledl
which were fed by the returning ants after the fashion alreiidj
described in feeding the larvas, and which were distinguish. [
by the observer as * pensioners.' MacCook often observed tli
same fact later, among, with others, the already descriUJ
Peniisylvanian wood-ant. Distinguished individuals in ttj
body-guard of the queen were fed in like fashion. MacCook i
inclined to think that the reason of this proceeding is to iJ
found in the * division of labour ' so general in the ant repuJ
lie, and that the members of the community which are eiJ
ployed in building and working within the nest, loavo to til
others the care of providing food for themselves as well as fu{
the younger and helpless members; they thus have a claim i
receive from time to time a reciprocal toll of gratitude, aDJ
take it, as is shown veiy clearly, in a way demanded by tlj
welfare of the community.^

Aphides are not the only insects which ants employ ;
cows, several other insects which yield sweet secretioil
being similarly utilised in various parts of the worlj
Thus, gall insects and cocci are kept in just the same vaj
as aphides; but MacCook observed that where aphi(l|
and cocci are kept by the same ants, they are kept
separate chambers, or stalls. The same observer sal
caterpillars of the genus Lycoena kept by ants for the sal|
of a sweet secretion which they supply.

Habit of making Slaves. — This habit, or instinci
obtains among at least three species of ant, viz., Formii
rufescens, F. sanguinea, and strongylognathus. It n
originally observed by P. Huber in the first-named specit
Here the species enslaved is F.fusca, which is appropriate]
coloured black. The slave-making ants attack a nest
F. fusca in a body ; there is a great fight with muJ
slaughter, and, if victorious, the slave-makers carry off tlj
pupae of the vanquished nest in order to hatch them oj
as slaves. Mr. Darwin gives an account of a battle whiij
he himself observed.'^

» Zoc. cit. p. 123.

' Origin of Species, 6th ed. p. 218.

ANTS -SLAVE-MAKING.

When the pupa3 hatch out in the iiest of their captors,

[he young slaves begin their life of work, and seem to

legard their master's home as their own ; for they never

Ittempt to escape, and they fight no less keenly than their

lasters in defence of the nest. F, sanguinea content

jhemselves with fewer slaves than do F, rufescena ; and

le work that devolves upon the slaves differs according

the species which has enslaved them. In the nests of

''. sanguinea the comparatively few captives are kept as

lousehold slaves ; they never either enter or leave the

lest, and so are never seen unless the nest is opened.

fhey are then very conspicuous from the contrast which

leir black colour and small size present to the red colour

id much larger size of j^. rufescena. As the slaves are

this species kept strictly indoors, all the outdoor work

foraging, slave-capturing, &c., is performed by the

lasters ; and when for any reason a nest has to migrate,

18 masters carry their slaves in their jaws. F, rufescenSy

the other hand, assigns a much larger share of labour

the slaves, which, as we have already seen, are present

much larger numbers to take it. In this species the

^ales and fertile females do no work of any kind ; and

16 workers, or sterile females, though most energetic in

|ipturing slaves, do no other kind of work. Therefore

^e whole community is absolutely dependent upon its

ives. The masters are not able to make their own nests

to feed their own larvae. When they migrate, it is the

ives that determine the migration, and, reversing the

[der of things that obtains in F. sanguinea^ carry their

isters in their jaws. Huber shut up thirty masters

Ithout a slave and with abundance of their favourite

)d, and also with their own larvae and pupae as a stimulus

work ; but they could not feed even themselves, and

my died of hunger. He then introduced a single slave,

[d she at once set to work, fed the surviving masters,

tended to the larvae, and made some cells.

In order to confirm this observation, Lesp^s placed a

Jce of sugar near a nest of slave-makers. It was soon

md by one of the slaves, which gorged itself and re-

rned to the nest. Other slaves then came out and did

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

fii' ■;

likewise. Then some of the masters came out, and, bJ
pulling the legs of the feeding slaves, reminded them thaj
they were neglecting their duty. The slaves then imme
diately began to serve their masters with the sugar. Forel
also has confirmed all these observations of Huber. Indeed
in the case of F. riifescens^ the structure of the animal ii
such as to render self-feeding physically impossible. Itj
long and narrow jaws, adapted to pierce the head of aj
enemy, do not admit of being used for feeding, unlesj
liquid food is poured into them by the mouth of a slave
This fact shows of how ancient an origin the instinct i
slave-making must be ; it has altered in an importaij
manner a structure which could not have been so alterei
prior to the establishment of the instinct in question.

Mr. Darwin thus sums up the differences in the officei
of the slaves in the nests of F, sanguinea and F. nt/escerj
respectively : —

The latter does not build its own nest, does not determine ij
own migrations, does not collect food for itself or for its fellowJ
and cannot even feed itself ; it is absolutely dependent on its nij
merous slaves. Formica sanguinea, on the other hand, possess
much fewer slaves, and in the early part of the summer extremelj
few ; the masters determine when and where a new nest sh^
be formed, and when they migrate, the masters carry the slavej
Both in Switzerland and England the slaves seem to have tlf
exclusive care of the larvae, and the masters alone go on slavJ
making expeditions. In Switzerland the slaves and mastej
work together, making and bringing materials for the nest
both, but chiefly the slaves, tend and milk, as it may be calld
their aphides ; and thus both collect food for the community.
England the masters alone usually leave the nest to collej
building materials and food for themselves, their slaves
larv£e. So that the masters in this country receive much
service from their slaves than they do in Switzerland.

Mr. Dnrwin further observes that * this difference 1
the usual habits of the masters and slaves in the ii
countries probably depends merely on the slaves beiii
captured in greater numbers in Switzerland than in Eij
land ; ' and records that he has observed in a communil
of the English species having an unusually large stock |
slaves that *a few slaves mingled with their mastfl

ANTS — SLAVE-MAKINa.

paving the nest, and marched along the same road to a

ill Scotch fir tree, tAventy-five yards distant, which they

scended together, probably in search of aphides or cocci.'

Ind, according to Huber, the principal office of the slaves

Switzerland is to search for aphides.

Mr. Darwin also made the following observation : —

)esiring to ascertain whether F, sanguinea could dis-

iguish the pupae of F. fusca, which they habitually

[ake into slaves, and which are an unwaiiike species,

3m F, flava, which they rarely capture, and never

ithout a severe fight,' he found * it was evident that

ley did at once distinguish them ; ' for while * they

jerly and instantly seized the pupae of F. fusca, they

fre much terrified when they came across the pupae, or

[en the earth from the nest, of F. fiava, and quickly ran

jay ; but in about a quarter of an hour, shortly after

little yellow ants had crawled away (from their nest

ying been disturbed by Mr. Darwin), they took heart

carried off the pupae.'

Concerning the origin of this remarkable instinct,
f. Darwin writes : —

I As ants which are not slave-makers will, as I have seen,

ry off pupaB of other species if scattered near their nests, it

possible that such pupae originally stored as food might be-

pie developed, and the foreign ants thus unintentionally

red would then follov/ their proper instincts, and do what

jk they could. If their presence proved useful to the species

Ich had seized them — if it were more advantageous to the spe-

to capture workers than to procreate them — the habit of

3cting pupse, originally for food, might by natural selection be

[ngthened and rendered permanent for the very different

3ose of raising slaves. When the instinct was once acquired,

irried out to a much less extent even than in our British

\anguinea, which, as we have seen, is less aided by its slaves

the same species in Switzerland, natural selection might

[ease and modify the instinct, always supposing such modifi-

3n to be of use to the species, until an ant was found as

ctly dependent on its slave as is the Formica rit/escens.

^nts do not appear to be the only animals of which
make slaves ; for there seems to be at least one case

F 2

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

!■*

in which these wonderful insects enslave insects of anothJ
species, which therefore may be said to stand to the anj
in the relation of beasts of burden. The case to whicli|
allude is one that is recorded in Perty's ' Intellectual LiJ
of Animals ' (2nd ed. p. 329), and is as follows : —

According to Audubon certain leaf-bugs are used as sla^
by the ants in the Brazilian forests. When these ants wantj
bring home the leaves which they have bitten off the trei
they do it by means of a column of these bugs, which go
pairs, kept in order on either side by accompanying ants. Ttj
compel stragglers to re-enter the ranks, and laggards to kej
up by biting them. After the work is done the bugs are slj
up within the colony and scantily fed.

Wars. — On the wars of ants a great deal might be sail
as the facts of interest in this connection are very nunl
rous ; but for the sake of brevity I shall confine myself!
giving only a somewhat meagre account.

One great cause of war is the plundering of ants' nel
by the slave-making species. Observers all agree that tJ
plundering is effected by a united march of the whJ
army composing a nest of the slave-making specij
directed against some particular nest of the species wli
they enslave. According to Lesp^s and Forel, single scoJ
or small companies are first sent out from the nest tos
plore in various directions for a (suitable nest to atta
These scouts afterwards serve as guides to the maraud
excursion. Forel saw several of these scouts of the sped
F, riJifescens or Amazon carefully inspecting a nestl
F. fusca which they had found, investigating especiaf
the entrances. These are purposely made difficult to ;
by their architects, and it not unfrequently happens tj
after all precautions and inspections on the part ofi
invaders, an expedition fails on account of not finding
city gates.

When the scouts have been successful in disco verii
suitable nest to plunder, and have completed their stl
tegical investigations of the locality to their satisfactij
they return straight to their own nest or fortress. Ff
has then seen them walking about on the surface of tl
nest for a long time, as if in consultation, or makinj

ANTS— WARS.

fcheir minds. Then some of them entered the nest, soon
Ifter which hosts of warriors streamed out of the entrances,
tnd ran about tapping each other with their heads and
[ntennse. They then formed into column and set out to
pillage the nest of the slave ants. The following is the
Iccount which Lesp^s gives of such expeditions : —

They only take place towards the end of the summer and in

btumn. At this time the winged members of the slave species

[F.fuaca and F. cunicularia) have left the nest, and the

Lmazons will not take the trouble to bring back useless con-

lumei'S. When the sky is clear our robbers leave their town in

[he afternoon at about three or four o'clock. At first no order

Is perceptible in their movements, but when they are all

jaiihered together they form a regular column, which then moves

forward quickly, and each day in a different direction. They

larch closely pressed together, and the foremost always appear

to be seeking for something on the ground. They are each

loment overtaken by others, so that the head of the column k

Continually growing. They are in fact seeking the traces of the

Uts which they propose to plunder, and it is scent that guides

Lhem. They snuff over the ground like hounds following the

track of a wild animal, and when they have found it they

plunge headlong forward, and the whole column rushes on be-

lind. The smallest armies I saw consisted of several hundred

Individuals, but I have also seen some four times as large.

[hey then form columns which may be five metres long, and as

luch as fifty centimetres wide. After a march, which often

lasts a full hour, the column arrives at the nest of the slave

ppecies. The F. cunicularice, which are the strongest, offer

ieen opposition, but without much result. The Amazons soon

penetrate within the nest, to come out again a moment later,

rhile the assailed ants at the same time rush out in masses.

)uring the whole time attention is directed solely to the larvse

|ind pupae, which the Amazons steal while the others try to

bave as many as possible. They know very well that the Ama-

Kons cannot climb, so they fly with their precious burdens to

the surrounding bushes or plants, whereto their enemies cannot

rollow them. They then pursue the retreating robbers and try

b take away from them as much of their booty as possible.

Jut the latter do not trouble themselves much about them, and

lasten on home. On their return they do not follow the short-

5t road, but exactly the one by which they came, finding their

ray back by smell. Ar lived at their nest, they immediately

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

hand over their booty to the slaves, and trouble themselves no]
more about it. A few days afterwards the stolen pupae
iiymphse emerge, without memory of their childhood, and imme-l
ciiately and without compulsion take part in all tasks.

According to Biichner's account,' —

From time to time the army makes a short halt, partly t(|
let the rearguard close up, partly because different opinion
aiise as to the direction of the host, or because the place
which they are is unknown to them. Forel several times si
the army completely lose its way — an incident only once ofr
served by Huber. Forel puts the number of warriors in suclj
an army at from one hundred to more than two thousand. Itj
speed is on an average a metre per minute, but varies muclJ
according to circumstances, and is naturally least when retunl
ing laden with booty. If the distance be very great, suclj
. bodily fatigue may at last be felt that the whole attack on tli|
hostile nest is given up, and a retreat is begun ; Forel once saii
this happen after they had passed over a distance of two hunj
dred and forty yards. Sometimes it seems as though, on comii]|
within sight of the hostile nest, a kind of discouragement tooi
possession of them, and prevented their making the attack. Ill
the nest cannot at once be found, the whole army halts, anij
some divisions are sent forward to search for it, and these w
gradually seen returning towards the centre. Forel also sanl
such an army only searching the first day, advancing zigzaj
and with frequent halts, whereas on the following day it weni
forward to its aim swiftly and without delay, having found ouJ
the road. It seems that a single ant, even if it knows the waf
and the place, is not able alone to lead a large army, but that i
considerable number must be employed in this duty. Mistakf«
as to the road occur with special ease during the return journey I
because the several ants are laden with booty and cannot readilj
understand each other. Individual ants are then seen to wandeJ
about in every direction often for a long time, until they at laji
reach a spot known bo them, and then advance swiftly to tlieil
goal. Many never come back at all. These mistakes easili
occur when the robbers which have passed into a hostile nest da
not come out again at the same holes whereby tbey entered, bu|
by others at some distance — for instance, by a subterraneaif
canal. Coming out thus in a strange neighbourhood, they do no|
know which way to take, and only some chance to find therigtf
road during their aimless wanderings about, and recognise aii|

' Geistesh'ben dor Thierc, pp. 145-9.

ANTS — WARS.

jllow it by smell. On the other hand, such mistakes scarcely
rer happen to individuals in an unladen train, kept in good
nay. Other species of ants {F. fusca^ rufa, sanguinea) know
itter how to manage under such circumstances than do the
^mazons. The laden ones lay down their loads, first find where
ley are, and only take them up again after they have found
leir way. If the booty seized in the nest first attacked is too
irge to be all taken at once, the robbers return once, or oftener,

as to complete their work The ants, as already said,

ive no regular leaders nor chiefs, yet it is certain that in each
^pedition, alteration of road, or other change, the decision
iiing that event comes from a small knot of individuals, which
Lve previously come to an understanding, and carry the rest
^d the undecided along with them. These do not always
Pow immediately, but only after they have received several
3S on the head from the members of the ' ring,' The pro-
Bsion does not advance until the leaders have convinced them-
^ves by their own eyesight that the main part of the army is
lowing.

One day Forel saw some Amazons on the sui'face of a nest

the F. fusca seeking and sounding in all directions, without

ig able to find the entrance. At last one of them found a

ry Uttle hole, hardly as large as a pin's head, through which

robbers penetrated. But since, owing to the smallness of

hole, the invasion went on slowly, the search was continued,

an entrance was found further off, through which the

lazon army gradually disappeared. All was quiet. About

|e minutes later Forel saw a booty-laden column emerge from

ph hole. Not a single ant was without a load. The two

iiimns united outside and retreated together.

A marauding excursion of the Amazons against the F.

ibarbis, a sub-species of the F. fusca, or small black ants,

|)k place as follows : — The vanguard of the robber army found

it it had reached the neighbourhood of the hostile nest more

tckly than it had expected ; for it halted suddenly and de-

ledly, aid sent a number of messengers which brought up the

iui body and the rearguard with incredible speed. In less

m thirty seconds the whole army had closed up, and hurled

elf in 9 mass on the dome of the hostile nest. This was the

kre necessary as the ruflbarbes during the short halt had dis-

Vered the approach of the enemy, and had utilised the time to

[er the dome with defenders. An indescribable struggle

lowed, but the superior numbers of the Amnzons overcime,

they penetrated into the lest, while the defenders poured

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

"by thousands out of the same holes, with their larvae and pup
iu their jaws, and escaped to the nearest plants and bushesj
running over the heaps of their assailants. These looked oil
the matter as hopeless, and began to retreat. But the ruj,
barbes, furious at their proceedings, pursued them, and en,
deavoured to get away from them the few pupse they had oil
tained, by trying to seize the Amazons* legs and to snatch awaij
the pupae. The Amazon lets its jaws slip slowly along m
captive pupa, as far as the head of its opponent, and pierces it!
if it does not, as generally happens, draw back. But it ofteij
manages to seize the pupa at the instant at which the Amazoj
lets it go and flies with it. This is managed yet more easilj
when a comrade holds the robber by the legs, and compels it tj
loose its prey in order to guard itself against its assailanj
Sometimes the robbers seize empty cocoons and carry thea
away, but they leave them on the road when they have di|
covered their mistake. In the above case the strength of
rufibarbes proved at last so great that the rearguard of 'the i
treating army was seriously pressed, and was obliged to givei
its booty. A number of the Amazons also were overpowerfj
and killed, but not without the rufibarbes also losing mail
people. None the less did some individuals, as though desM
rate, rush into the thickest hosts of the enemy, penetrattj
again into the nest, and carried off several pupae by sheer
dacity and skill. Most of them left their prey to go to til
help of their comrades when assailed by the rufibarbes. lk
minutes after the commencement of the retreat all the Amazoj
had left the nest, and, being swifter than their opponents, tli|
were only pursued for about halfway back. Their attack 1
failed on account of a short delay !

On another occasion observed by Forel, in which sevr
fertile Amazons also took part and killed many enemies, tl
nest was thoroughly ravished, but the retreat was also in tJ
case very much disturbed and harassed by the superior numbej
of the enemy. There were many slain on both sides. That]
spite of the above-mentioned unanimity different opinions amoj
the members of an expedition sometimes hinder its conduct,
following observation seems to show : — An advancing coluii
divided after it had gone about ten yards from the nest. Hj
turned back, while the other half went on, but after some tiij
hesitated and also turned back. Arrived at home, it fou
those which had formerly turned back putting themselves!
motion in a new direction. The newly returned followed thfl
and the reunited army, after various wheelings, halts, <fec,,

ANTS — WARS.

inions amol

st turned home again by a long way round. The whole bnsi-
lesa looked like a promenade. But apparently different parties
lad different nests in view, while others were entirely against
[he expedition. Yet perhaps it was only a march for exercise.

Outer obstacles do not, as a rule, hinder the Amazons when
[hey are once on the march. Forel saw them wade through

3me shallow water, although many were drowned in it, and

len march over a dusty high road, although the wind blew
[alf of them away. As they returned, booty-laden, neither

rind, nor dust, nor water could make them lay down their
jrey. They only got back with great trouble, and turned back

Tain to bring fresh booty, although many lost their lives.

The following is also quoted from BUchner's excellent
3itome of Forel's observations in this connection : —

The most terrible enemy of the Amazons is the sanguine
it {F. sanguinea)f which also keeps slaves, and thereby often
}mes into collision with the Amazons on their marauding ex-
irsions. It is not equal to it in bodily strength or fighting
|ipacity, but surpasses it in intelligence ; according to Forel it
the most intelligent of all the species of ants. If Forel, for
istance, poured out the contents of a sack filled with a nest of
16 slave species near an Amazon nest, the Amazons apparently
Bnerally regarded the tumbled together heap of ants, larvse,
ipse, earth, building materials, <fec., as the dome of a hostile
Bst, and took all imaginable but useless pains to find out the
itrances thereinto, leaving on one side for this investigation
[leir only object, the carrying off the pupae ; but the sanguine
its under similar circumstances did not allow themselves to be
^ceived, but at once ransacked the whole heap.

On another occasion, while a procession of Amazon
its was on its way to plunder a nest of F. fusca, before
arrived Forel poured out a sack-full of sanguine ants,
id made a break in the nest : —

The sanguine ants pressed in, while the fusca came out to

^fend themselves. At this moment the first Amazons arrived.

len they saw the sanguine ants they drew back and awaited

[e main army, which appeared much disturbed at the news.

it onco united, the bold robbers rushed at their foes. The

Iter gathered together and beat back the first attack, but the

la^ons closed up their ranks and made a second assault, which

|rried them on to the dome and into the midst of the enemy.

lese were overthrown, as well as a number of F. pratensis,

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

•i'lfl

which Forel at this moment poured out on the nest. The con]
quorors delayed for a moment on the dome after their victoryj
and then entered the nest to bring out a little of the valuabU
booty. A few A.mazons which were mad with anger did noil
return with the main army, but went on slaughtering blindljj
among the conquered and the fugitives of the three specie
fusca, pratensis, and aanyuinea.

The ravished rufibarhes once became so desperate at theiJ
overthrow that they followed the robbers to their own nest]
and the latter had some trouble in defending it. The rufiharll
let themselves be killed in hundreds, and really seemed n]
though they courted death. A small number of the Amazoii
also sank under the bites of their enemies. The nest containe
slaves of the rufiharhis species, which on this emergency fougli
actively against their own race. There were also slaves
the species /«*sca, so that the nest included three different specid
of ants.

The same nest is often revisited many times on the same daj
or at different periods, until either there is no more to st
or the plundered folk have hit upon better modo of defena
A column which was in the act of going back to such a plml
dered nest turned when halfway there, and halted, apparentlj
on no other ground than because it had met the rearguaif
of the army, and had learned that the nest was exhauste|
and that there was nothing more to be had there,
robbers then went off to a rufiharhis nest which was
the neighbourhood, and killed half the inhabitants whJ
plundering the nest. The surviving rufibarhes retm-nd
after the robbery and brought up new progeny ; but thirte
days later the Amazons again reaped a rich harvest froij
the same nest. The Amazon army often severs itself into \i
separate divisions when there is not enough for both to
at the same spot. Sometimes one division finds somethim
and the other nothing, and they then reunite. If any obstacj
be placed in their way th-^y try to overcome it, in doing wiiiJ
some leave the main army, lose themselves, and only find tkl
way home again with difficulty. Forel has tried to establd
the normal frequency of expeditions, and found that a coloij
watched by himself for a space of thirty days sent out no
than forty-four marauding excursions. Of these about eiglij
and-twenty were completely, nine partially, and the remaindj
not at all successful. He four times saw the army divide inj
two. Half the expeditions were levelled against the rufiharh.
half against the fuscce. On an average a successful expeditiJ

ANTS — WARS.

irould bring back to the colony a thousand pupae or larvae.

^n the whole, the number of future slaves stolen by a strong

Dlony during a favourable summer may be reckoned at forty

lousand !

The internecine battles which occasionally break out
long the Amazons themselves are naturally the most cruel,
ley tear each other to pieces with incredible fury, and knots
five or six individuals which have pierced each other may be
Bn rolling over each other on the ground, it being impos-
)\e to distinguish between friend and foe. Civil wars among

len are also known to be the most embittered and the most
)ody.

The mode of attack practised by the other best known
lecies of slave-making ant, sanguinea, is somewhat
liferent : —

They march in small ti-oops which, in case of need, summon
Enforcements, and therefore as a rule only reach their goal
Wly. Between the individual troops messengers or scouts
continually backwards and forwards. The first troop
[lieh arrives at the hostile nest does not rush at it, as do the
iMons, but contents itself with making provisional re-
maissances, wherein some of the assailants are generally
^de prisoners by the enemy, which have time to bethink
to collect themselves. Reinforcements are now brought
and a regular siege of the nest begins. A sudden invasion,
that of the Amazons, is never seen. The besieging army
IS a complete ring round the hostile nest, and the besiegers
|d this with mandibles open and antennae drawn back, with-
going nearer. In this position they beat off all assaults of
besieged, until they feel themselves strong enough to advance
the attack. This attack scarcely ever fails, and has for its
jf object the mastering of the entrances and outlets of the
A special troop guards each opening, and only allows
of the besieged to pass out as carry no pupse. This man-
re gives rise to a number of comical and characteristic
les. By this means the sanguine ants in a few minutes manage
lave all the defenders out of the nests and the pupae left
|ind. This is the case at least with the rujibarbes, while
[rather less timid fuscce try, even at the last moment when
useless, to stop up or barricade the entrances. The sanguine
I do not indeed possess the terrible weapons and the warlike
[etuosity of the Amazons, but they are stronger and larger,
l/wsm or a rujiharhis fights with a sanguine ant for the pos-

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

^essior of a pupa, it is generally very soon overcome. "While^
the main part of the army is penetrating into the nest to steall
the piipce, some divisions pursue the fugitives, to tsike away froiJ
them the few pupcB which may chance to have been savodl
They drive them even out of the cricket-holes in which thejl
have meanwhile taken refuge. In short, it is a razzia, or sweeJ
ing burglary, as complete as can be imagined. In the retreal
the robbers in no wise huiry themselves, for they know thaj
they are threatened by no danger and no loss, and the completi
emptying of a large and distant nest often takes several days d
accomplishing. The ants which have been so thoroughly robb
scarcely every return to their former abode.

It must be admitted that a human army, robbing a foreio]
town or fortress, could not behave better or more prudently.

Huber gives the following account of a battle wagJ
by sanguine ants : —

At ten, in a July moi'ning, he noticed a small band of theJ
emerge from their nest, and march rapidly towards a nesti
negroes, around which it dispersed. A number of the bla
rushed out, gave battle, and succeeded in defeating their
vaders, and in making several of them prisoners. Upon tli
the remainder of the attacking force waited for a reinforcemeij
"When this came up, they still declined further proceedin
and sent more aides-de-camp to their own nest. The resultl
these messages was a much larger reinforcement ; but even i
the pirates appeared to shun the combat. At last, the neg.,
marched out from their nest ^*n a phalanx of about two I
square, and a number of skirmishes began, which soon ended]
a general melee. Long before the event seemed certain,
negroes carried off their pupBe to the most distant part oft
nest ; and when, after a longer encounter, they appeared to ttij
further resistance vain, they retreated, attempting to take
them their young. In this, however, they were prevented, s
the invaders obtained possession of their nest and the m
When they had done this, they put in a garrison, and occuri
the night and the succeeding day in carrying off their spoil. |

Biichner says —

Battles between ants of the same species often end •witl
lasting alliance, especially when the number of the workeisj
both sides is comparatively small. The wise little animals i
such circumstances discover, much more quickly and better t
men, that they can only destroy each other by fighting, t|
union would benefit both parties. Somedmes they drive (

ANTS— WARS.

jther out of their nests in a (luite friendly way. Forel laid on
table a piece of bark with a nest of the gentle Leptothorax
\icnvorum, and then put on it the contents of another nest of
the same species. The last comers were by far the more nume-
rous, and soon possessed themselves of the nest, driving out the
imates. But the latter did not know whither to go, and
turned back again. They were then seized by their opponents
)ne after the other, carried away as far as possible fi'om the nest,
iind there put down. The ofteuer they came back the further
rare they carried away. One of the carriers arrived in this
kashion at the edge of the table, and after it had by means of its
feelers convinced itself that it had rejiched the end of the world,
lercilessly let its burden drop into the fathomless abyss. It
mited a moment to see if it had attained its object, and then
kirned back to the nest. Forel picked ap the ant which had
(alien on the floor, and put it down right in front of the return-
ig ant. The latter repeated the same manceuvre as at fii'st,
[»nly stretching its neck further over the edge of the table. He
Bveral times reiterated his experiment, and always with the
ime result. Later the two colonies were shut up together in
glass case, and gradually learned to agree.

At other times, however, warlike ants show great and
leedless cruelty to one another : —

They slowly pull from their victim, that is rendered defence-
B88 by wounds, exhaustion, or terror, first one feeler and then
le other, then the legs one after another, until they at last
till it, or pull it in a completely mutilated and helpless con-
ition to some out-of-the-way spot where it perishes miserably.
["et some compassionate hearts are to be found among the
[ictors, which only pull the conquered to a distant place in order
get rid of them, and there let them go without injuring
lem.

The following account is also taken from Biichner's
[ind in Animals,' p. 87 : —

The doors are often guarded by special sentries, which fulfil
leir important duty in various ways. Forel saw a nest of the
\olohopsis truncata, the two or three very small round open-
igs of which were watched by soldiers, arranged so that
leir thick cylindrical heads stopped them up, just as a cork
[lops up the mouth of a bottle. The same observer saw the
[yrmecina Latreillei defend themselves against the invasions
the slave-making Strongylognathus, by placing a worker at
ich of the little openings of the nest, which quite stops up

IMAGE EVALUATION
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Sdences

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ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the opening either with its head or abdomen. The Campo-t
notus species also defend their nests by stretching their head/
in front of the openings, drawing back the antennae. Eaccj
approaching enemy thus receives a sharp blow or bite delivereil
with the whole weight of the body. MacOook noticed in the nesul
of the soon to be described Pennsylvanian mound-building antJ
the employment of special sentries, which lay watching withici
the nest entrances, and sprang out at the first sight of dangeT
to attack the enemy ; and it was wonderful to see with whaJ
swiftness the news of such an alarm spread through the nesti
and how the inhabitants came out en masse to meet the enemTJ
The Lasius species defend their large, strong, and very extensirJ
nests against hostile attack or sieges with equal courage aiii
skill, while other timid species seek to fly as speedily as possible j
with their larvse, pupae, and fruitful queens. There is, as For
tells us, a regular barricade fight. Passage after passage
stopped and defended to the uttermost, so that the assailana
can only advance step and step. Unless the latter are in ati
enormous majority, the struggle may last a very long time witl|
these tactics. During this time, other workers are busy pp
paring subteiTanean passages backwards for eventual flight]
Generally such passages are already made, and during a fight !
new dome of the Lasius may be seen rising at a distance, it no|
being diflScult for them to make this with the help of their ei]
tended subterranean passages and communications.

The F. exsecta or pressilabris fights in a peculiar way, which i
due to care of their small and very tender bodies. It avoids ;
single combats, and always fights in closed ranks. Only wheJ
it thinks victory secure does it spring on its enemy's back. Bn
its chief strength lies in the fact that many together alwn\j
attack a foe. They nail down their opponent by seizing its lea
and holding them firmly to the ground, while a comrade sprica
on the back of the defenceless creature and tries to bite throudl
its neck. But if threatened the holders sometimes take flight]
and so it happens that in battles between the exsectcB and thj
much stronger pratenses not a few of the latter are seen runni
about with a small enemy clutching their shoulders, and maki
violent eflforts to tear the neck of its foe. If the bearer is tlirJ
seized with cramp, the nervous cord has been injui'ed. On til
other hand, if an exsecta is seized by the back by a, pratensisi
is at once lost.

The tactics of the turf ants resemble those of the exs^di
three or four of them seizing an opponent and pulling off
legs. In similar fashion the attack of the Lasius species:

AN'i'S— WARS.

ay, which i
[t avoids

Only whe!

back. Bill
ther alwiv
izing its les
rade sprin!
)ite throiij

take fligt'
ectcB and tli|
een runnii

and maki
Barer is tlifi

ed. Ontl^

prat en

the €Xs>'cH
Uing off
us species

liefly directed against the legs of its enemies, three, four, or
Ive uniting in the effort. They understjind barricade fighting
irticularly well in their largo well-built dwellings, and if it
3mes to the worst fly by subterranean passages. They are
i-ired by most ants on account of their numerical superiority,
[orcl one day poured the contents of ten nests of pratenses in
Innt of a tree trunk inhabited by Lasius fuliginoaus (jet ant).

le siege at once began ; but the jet ants called in help from
|e nests connected with their colony, and thick black columns

pre at once seen coming out from the surrounding trees. The
\aten8e8 were obliged to fly, and left behind them a mass of dead

I well as their pupae, which last were carried off by the victors

their nests to be eaten.

Battles, however, are not confined to species of ants
iving warlike and slave-making habits. The agricultural
[ts likewise at times wage fierce wars with one another.
le importance of seeds to these ants, and the consequent
[lue which they set upon them, induce the animals,
len supplies are scarce, to plunder each other's nests.
ms Moggridge says, —

By far the most savage and prolonged contests which I
'e witnessed were those in which the combatants belong to
different colonies of the same species. . . . The most
Igular contests are those which are waged for seeds by A.
\hara, when one colony plunders the stores of an adjacent
\i belonging to the same species, the weaker nest making
llonged though, for the most part, inefl&cient attempts to
)ver their property.

In the case of the other species of ant which I have watched

iting, the strife would last but a short time — a few hours or

lay — but A. Barbara will carry on the battle day after day

week after week. I was able to devote a good deal of time

vatching the progress of a predatory war of this kind, waged

)ne nest of harhara against another, and which lasted for

[ysix days, from January 18 to March 4 !

11 cannot of course declare positively that no cessation of

tilities may have taken place during the time, but I can

^m that whenever I visited the spot — and I did so on twelve

3, or as nearly as possible twice a week — the scene was one

^ar and spoliation such as that which I shall now describe.

n active train of ants, nearly resembling an ordinary

nesting train, led from the entrance of one nest to that of

ler lower down the slope, and fifteen feet distant ; but on

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

closer examination it appeared that though the great mafjs oi
seed-bearers were travelling towards the upper nest, some fei
were going in the opposite direction and making for the loweJ
Besides this, at intervals, combats might be seen taking pla«J
one ant seizing the free end of a seed carried by another, m
endeavouring to wrench it away, and then frequently, as noitli
would let go, the stronger ant would drag seed and opponeij
towards its nest. At times other ants would interfere and seu
one of the combatants and endeavour to drag it away, this oft^
resulting in terrible mutilations, and especially in the loss of tij
abdomen, which would be torn off while the jaws of the victci
retained their indomitable bull-dog grip upon the seed. Tlitj
the victor might be seen dragging away his prize, while its i
versary, though now little more than a head and legs, offereilj
vigorous though of course ineffectual resistance. I frequenJ
observed that the ants during these conflicts would endeMvoi
to seize one another's antennae, and that if this were effectff
the ant thus assaulted would instantly release his hold, whetti
of seed or adversary, and appear utterly discomfited. No doiii
the antennse are their most sensitive parts, and injuries inflictj
on these organs cause the greatest pain.

It was not until I had watched this scene for some daystk
I apprehended its true meaning, and discovered that the antl
the upper nest were robbing the granaries of the lower,
the latter tried to recover the stolen seeds both by fighti
for them and by stealing seeds in their turn from the
of their oppressors. The thieves, however, were eviden
the stronger, and streams of ants laden with seeds arrii
safely at the upper nest, while close observation showed
very few seeds were successfully carried on the reverse jou
into the lower and plundered nest.

Thus when I fixed my attention on one of these robbed a
surreptitiously making its exit with the seed from the tliiej
nest, and having overcome the opposition and dangers meti
on its way, reaching, after a journey which took six minute
accomplish, the entrance to its own home, I saw that iti
violently deprived of its burden by a guard of ants stationed til
apparently for the purpose, one of whom instantly started!
and carried the seed all the way back again to the upper ne^

This I saw repeated several times.

After March 4 I never saw any acts of hostility heU\
these nests, though the robbed ncot was not abandoned.
another case of the same kind, however, where the strii
lasted thirty-one days, the robbed nest was at length complfll

ANTS— WARS.

Ibandoned, and on opening it I found all the gi-anaries empty
nth one single exception, and this one was pierced by the
latted roots of grasses and other plants, and must therefore
we been long neglected by the ants. Strangely enough, not
]e of the seeds in this deserted granary showed traces of
ermination.

No doubt some very pressing need is the cause of these
Istematic raids in search of accumulations of seeds, and there
^n be little doubt that the requirements of distinct colonies of
its of the same species are often different even at the same
Dii and date. Thus these warring colonies of ants were
ktive on many days when the m.ojority of the nests were com-
(etely closed ; and I have even seen these robbers staggering

3ng, enfeebled by the cold, and in wind and rain, when all

aer ants were safe below ground.

The agricultural ants of Texas do not appear to be
BS pugnacious than their European congeners. Thus
[acCook says : —

A young community has sometimes to struggle into perma-
it prosperity through many perils. The following example
[found in the unpublished Lincecum manuscripts. One day a
ant-city was observed to be located within ten or twelve
rds of a long-established nest, a distance that the doctor
ought would prove too near for peaceable possession — for the
iculturals seem to pre-empt a certain range of territory
Dund their formicary as their own, within which no intrusion
allowed. He therefore concluded to keep these nests under
observation, and visited them frequently. Only a day or
|o had elapsed before he found that the inhabitants of the old
had made war upon the new. They had surrounded it in
it numbers, and were entering, dragging out and killing the
Izens. The young colonists, who seemed to be of less size
jin their adversaries, fought bravely, and, notwithstanding
ky were overwhelmed by superior numbers, killed and maimed
ly of their assailants. The parties were scattered in strug-
ag pairs over a space ten or fifteen feet around the city gate,
the ground was strewed with many dead bodies. The new
Dnists aimed altogether at cutting off the legs of their larger
which they accomplished with much success. The old-city
riors, on the contrary, gnawed and clipped off the heads and
lomens of their enemies. Two days afterward the battle-
was revisited, and many ants were found lying dead
locked together by legs and mandibles, while hundreds

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

of decapitated bodies and severed heads were strewed over ti.J
ground.

Another exam i)le, which is given in the published paper,;
quite similar, and had like result. In forty-eight hours theolj
settlers had exterminated the new. The distance between ttJ
nests was about 20 feet. While the young colonists remainf[
in concealment they were not disturbed, but as soon as tliej
began to clear away their open disk war was declared.

MacCook, however, says that * these ants are not alwaJ
so jealous of territorial encroachment, or at least m\il
have different standards of rights.' For he observed maj
cases of nests situated within twenty, and even ten fh
of one another, without a battle ever occurring betwetj
members of the two communities. Therefore, withoJ
questioning the accuracy of Lincecum's observation^
which, indeed, present no scope for inaccuracy — he adiij
*That neighbouring ants, like neighbouring nations
civilised men, will fall out and wage war Lincecum's eJ
amples show. Perhaps we should be quite as unsuccessf[
in case of these ants as of our human congeners, shon
we seek a sufficient reason for these wars, or satisfactoi
cause for these differences in dealing with neighbou
which appear from the comparison of Lincecum's obsenj
tions with mine.'

In connection with the wars of these ants, the folloj
ing quotations may also be made from the same author:]

The erratic ants do not appear to be held as common eJ
mies by the agricultural, and they are even permitted [
establish their formicaries within the limits of the open
Sometimes, however, the diminutive hillocks which marki
entrance to an erratic ant-nest multiply beyond the limit of tj
agriculturals' forbearance. But they do not declare war,
lesort to any personal violence. Nevertheless, they get rid
them, oddly enough, by a regular system of vexatious obstn
tions. They suddenly conclude that there is urgent demaj
for improving their public domain. Forthwith they sally foi
in large numbers, fall eagerly to work gathering the little bli
balls which are thrown up by the earth-worms in great quantiij
everywhere in the prairie soil, which they bring and heap m
the paved disk until all the erratic ant-nests are covered !
entire pavement is thus raised an inch or so, and pains are tall

ANTS — KEEPING PETS.

1 overtlj

d paper, ;
urs the
etween til
i remainej
3n as tlifj
d.

not alwa
[east nui'
jrved mail
;n ten fi
ig betwetl
•e, witho
ervation^
f — he adi
nations
cecum's ei
msuccess)
lers, sho
satisfacto!
neighboi
n's obsen

Itleposit more balls upon and around the domiciles of their
[y neighbours than elsewhere. The erratics struggle vigor-
ply agai^^'^* *^^^ Pompeian treatment ; they bore through

avalanche of balls, only to find barriers laid in their way.

obstructions at length become so serious that it is impos-
le to keep the galleries open. The dwarfs cease to contend
[inst destiny, and, gathering together their household stores,
[etly evacuate the premises of the inhospitable giants. It is

triumph of the policy of obstruction, a bloodless but effec-

opposition.

Lastly, MacCook records the history of an interesting

agement which he witnessed between two nests of

Iramorium ca^spitum. It took place between Broad

eet and Penn Square in Philadelphia, and lasted for

ly three weeks. Although all the combatants belonged

he same species, however great the confusion of the

t, friends were always distinguished from foes — ap-

ntly by contact of antennae.

Habit of keeping Domestic Peis.— Many species of
display the curious habit of keeping in their nests
Idry kinds of other insects, which, so far as observation
nds, are of no benefit to the ants, and which there-
have been regarded by observers as mere domestic
. These * pets ' are for the most part species which
r nowhere else except in ants' nests, and each species
pet' is peculiar to certain species of ants. Thus
gridge found ' a large number of a minute shining
beetle moving about among the seeds ' in the nests
e harvesting ant of the south of Europe, ' belonging
e scarce and very restricted genus Golnocera, called
raatz (7. attce, on account of its inhabiting the nests
ts belonging to the genus Atta.^ He also observed
biting the same nests a minute cricket * scarcely
r than a grain of wheat' {Gryllus myrmecophilus),
h had been previously observed by Paolo Savi in the
le little bliBg of several species of ants in Tuscany, where it lived
eat quantii^g ^^^^ terms with its hosts, playing round the nests
rm weather, and retiring into them in stormy weather,
allowing the ants to carry it from place to place
g migrations. Again, Mr. Bates -observes that

G 2

, the folk
e author;

common ei
permitted
le opendi
ich mark
e limit of
are war,
ley get riw
ious obsti
gent del
ley sally foi

nd heap uj
overed !
■ains aie tal

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

■i

* some of the most anoiualous fcniiis of coleopterous in.s,,|
are those which live solely in the nests of ants.'
John Lubbock also, and other observers whom we n&
not wait to cite, mention similar facts. The Rev.
White says that altogether 40 distinct species of Coleopte
most of which he has in his own collection, are knoi
to inhabit the nests of various species of ants, anfl|
occur nowhere else.

As in all these cases the ants live on amicable ten
with their guests, and in some cases even bestow lal>|
upon them (as in carrying them from one nest to anot{
during migration), it is evident that these insects are J
only tolerated, but fostered by the ants. Moreover, al
seems absurd to credit ants with any mere fancy or caprf
such as that of keeping pets, we can only conclude ti|
these insects, like the aphides, are of some use to tt
hosts, although we are not yet in a position to sim
what this use can be.

Habits of Sleep and Cleanliness. — It is probable t|
all species of ants enjoy periods of true sleep alternatf
with those of activity; but actual observations on
subject have only been made on two or three spec!
The following is MacCook's account of these habits inf
harvesting ant of Texas : —

The observation upon the ants now before me begai
8 o'clock; at 11 p.m. the cluster had nearly dissolved, oii|
few being asleep. To illustrate the soundness of this sle
take the quill pen with which I wi'ite, and apply the fej
end of it to an ant who is sleeping upon the soil. Shel
chosen a little oval depression in the surface, and liesi
abdomen upon the raised edge, and face toward the lamp,
legs are drawn up close to the body. She is perfectly stilll
gently draw the feather tip along the body, stroking * witil
fur,' if I may so say. There is no motion. Again and i
this action is repeated, the stroke gradually being made hei
although always quite gentle. Still there is no change,
strokes are now directed upon the head, with tho same re^
Now the tip is applied to the neck, the point at which thel
is united to the pro-thorax, with a waving motion intendej
produce a sensation of tickling. The ant remains motion
After continuing these experiments for several minutJ

ANTS— SLEEP AND CLRANLINESS.

luse the sleeper by a sharp touch of the quill. She stretches

It her head, then her legs, which she also shakes, steps nearer

]the lij,'ht, and begins to cleanse lierself in the manner nlroady

scril)e<i This act invaiiably follows the waking of ants from

an. The above description applies to the genernl habit of

iinolence as observed upon the two named species of harvcst-

iints for nearly i'owr months. I have often applied the

pll, and even the point of a lead pencil, to the sleeping Flo-

lians without breaking their slumber. There are some other

tills which have not appeared in the behaviour of the indi-

Inal just put under observation.

Thus, I have several times seen the ants {Crudelis) yawning
awaking. I use this word for lack of one which more
curately expresses the behaviour. The action is very like
it of the human animal ; the mandibles are thrown open
th the peculiar muscular strain which is familiar to all
(tders ; the tongue also is .sometimes thrust out, and the limbs
etched with the appearance, at least, of that tension which
companies the yawn in the genus homo. During sleep the
Bnnse have a gentle, quivering, apparently involuntary nio-
[n, which seemed to me, at times, to have the regulaiity of
kthing. I also often noted an occasional regular lifting up
setting down of the fore-feet, one leg after anothei*, with
lost a rhythmic motion.

The length of time during which sleep is prolonged appears

vary according to circumstances and, perhaps, organism.

|e large head-soldiers of the Floridian harvesters appear to

e a more sluggish nature than the smaller workers. Their

ep is longer and heavier. The former fact the watch readily

ermined. The latter appeared from the greater stolidity of

creatures under disturbance. While the ants of one group

taking sleep others may be busy at work, and these stalk

[ong and over the sleepers, jostling them quite vigorously at

les. A gain, new members occasionally join the group, and,

their desire to get close up to the heat and light, crowd their

[)wsy comrades aside. I have seen ants who had been at

|rk in the galleries drop their pellets, push thus into the

ster, and presently be apparently sound asleep. This rough

itment is invariably received with perfect good humour, as

likejostlings when the ants are awake. I have never seen

slightest display of anger or attempt to resent disturbance

^n under these circumstances, so peculiarly calculated to ex-

the utmost initation in men. But of course some of the

Bpers are aroused. They change position a little, or give

ANIMAL JNTKLLIOENCE.

therasolves a brief combing, and then resume their nap, uiilJ
indeed, they are satiHfied. In watching those movements itwl
quite evident that the Florida soldiers were far less easily
turl)ed than their smaller fellows. They slept on stolidly wL
all the others were in agitation around them. Moreover, tliJ
very appearance, particularly when awaking out of sleep, inj
cated the greater sluggishness of their temperament in tl
respect.

The ordinary duration of sleep MacCook takes to:
about three hours.

Ants, like many other insects, are in the habit
cleaning themselves, being, like them, provided by natii
with combs and brushes, &c., for the purpose. But, unliJ
other insects, several species of ants are also in the haJ
of assisting each other in the performance of their toilJ
The author last quoted gives the following account of tlj
process in the genus Atta: ~

We take a couple ; the cleanser has begun at the face, whij
is licked thoroughly, even the mandibles being cared for, tli
being held apart for convenient manipulation. From the I
the cleanser passes to the thorax, thence to the haunch, and I
along the first leg, along the second and third in the sad
manner, around to the abdomen, and thence up the other side!
the ant to the head. A third ant approaches and joins int
friendly task, but soon abandons the field to the or
cleanser. The attitude of the cleansed all this while is one I
intense satisfaction, quite resembling that of a family dog wh
one is scratching the back of his neck. The insect stretd
out her limbs, and, as her friend takes them successively id
hand, yields them limp and supple to her manipulation ; it
rolls gently over upon her side, even quite over upon her bacf
and with all her limbs relaxed presents a perfect picture of ma
cular suri'ender and ease. The pleasure which the creaturj
take in being thus * combed ' and ' sponged ' is really enjoyai
to the observer. I have seen an ant kneel down before anottf
and thrust forward the head, drooping, quite under the faa
and lie there motionless, thus expressing, as plainly as sia
language could, her desire to be cleansed. I at once iinda
stood the gesture, and so did the supplicated ant, for she j
once went to work. If analogies in nature-studies were not!
apt to be misleading, one might venture to suggest that oi

act friends ai-e

imetonian Turki

The acrobatic si

amusement, ami

[ly shown one mc

iry was taken fi

[lied, and placed

\ove an open-gi*iit<

)Ughout the nesi

ity. A tuft of g

bred with them.

led round and

iDasts performic

rarious positions,

rth pairs of legs,

lir heads with th<

lick the abdom(

)ne case a triple

cribed. The cles

side and a hind

at full length, v

}w, and reachei

mt process, i

jsture on the

lost agility.

Similarly, Late
kher genus of i

Here and there
land then anothe
Its conuudes, wh
ireen the jaws an
idly wipe.

\ Habits of Pla
(work, or, at lea
eies, at any rat
lulged in.
] Biichner (* Geii
[owing abstract
connection :-

lit was of the pri

ching its gymna

ANTS— PLAY AND LKISURK.

ect friends ui-e thus in possoHsiou of a modiiiud sort of
imetonian Turkish bath.

The acrobatic skill of these ants, wliich has often furnished

I amusement, and which I shall yet further illustrate, was

iy shown one morning in these offices of ablution. The foi-

J[aiy was taken from tlie study, where the air had become

[lied, and placed in an adjoining chamber upon the hearth,

fore an open-grate fire. The genial warmth was soon diffusoJ

)Ughout the nest, and aroused its occupants to unusual ac-

ity. A tuft of grass in the centre of the box was presently

U-ed with them. They climbed to the very top of the spires,

aed round and round, hanging by their paws, not unlike

inasts performing upon a turning-bar. They hung or clung

rarious positions, grasping the gi-ass blade with the third and

rth pairs of legs, which were spread out at length, cleansing

|ir heads with the fore-legs or bending underneath to comb

lick the abdomen. Among these ants were seveml pairs,

)ne ease a triplet, engaged in the cleansing operation just

cribed. The cleanser clung to the grass, having a fore-leg on

side and a hind leg on the other side of the stem, stretched

i at full length, while the cleansed hung in a like position

)w, and reached over and up, submitting herself to the

mt process. As the progress of the act required a change

jsture on the part of both insects, it was made with the

lost agility.

Similarly, Bates thus describes the cleansing process in
kher genus of Sints( Ecitons) : —

Here and there an ant was seen stretching forth first one
I and then another, to be brushed and washed by one or more
Its comrades, who performed the task by passing the limb
ireen the jaws and tongue, finishing by giving the antennae a
idly wipe.

iHahits of Play and Leisure. — The life of ants is not
jwork, or, at least, is not so in all species ; for in some
cies, at any rate, periods of recreation are habitually
lulged in.

1 Biichner (* Greistesleben der Thiere,' p. 163) gives the
(owing abstract of Huber's celebrated observations in
connection : —

jit was of the pratenais that Huber wrote the observations
ching its gymnastic sports which became so famous. He

il-

ANIMAL INTKLLIOENCE.

haw thcbe ants on a IIik; day iusstiiubled on tliu suiface of thi
ni'Ht, and behaving in a way that Lo could only uxpluin
Hiiuidating festival sports or other games. They raised tite
M'lvt's on their hind legs, embraced each other with their f(
legs, seized each other by the antennte, feet, or mandibles, ■,\
wrestled — but all in friendliest fashion. They then let go, i
after each other, and played hide-and-seek. When one »
victorious, it seized all the others in the ring, and tumbled ihi
over like ninepins.

This account of Ruber's found its way into many popui
books, but in spite of its clearness won little credence from
reading public. * I found it hard to believe Huber's c'sj
vation,' writes Forel, 'in spite of its exactness, until I m
had seen the same.* A colony of the pratenais several ti
gave him the opportunity when he approached it carefui
The players caught each other by the feet or jaws, rolled o
each other on the ground like boys playing, pulled each ot
inside tlie entrances of their nest, only to come out again, and
on. All this was done without bad temper, or any spurtbgfcdes. This hab
poison, and it was clear that all the rivalry was friendly. Tppecies of ants,
least brejith from the side of the observer was enough to putBiients thus beco
end to the games. *I understand,' continu'.>s Forel, 'thatljtural selection
affair must seem marvellous to those who have not seenBjjf „..„ fk^^ -pi,
especially when we remember that sexual attraction can t"
play no part.'

[ion. When tli
Jill the forest. T

ulumns, at thois
(ions ; but instea
li^rht and left, tl
.uddon fit of hizii
noro brushing i
liDllest sight WW
il»ove-quoted pasi
iiinplo indulgence
he»e hours of rel
\i') effective perfc

.)king at them,

erely in play wa

Funereal Ho

ten stated thai

icry careful in c

MacCook also gives an account of habits of play asj
dulged in among ants of the other Hemisphere : —

There is nothii
ihe life-history of
inereal habits.
bserved are quite
ead, and for the
ppear to treat wi
nt of giving the

At one formicary half a dozen or more young queens
out at the same time. They would climb up a large pel
near the gate, face the wind, and assume a rampant posti» mi i , ,
Several having ascended the stone at one time, there ©i^suaK ' ii ^ '
little plaj^ul passage-at-arms as to position. They nipped «{ j ,.^ ®P°''
other gently with the mandibles, and chased one another m^'^ „ x ^
fiivourite spots. They, however, never nipped the workM^. . 4- j
These latter evidently kept a watch upon the sportive pffgi„i>i. f ^Y^^"^
cesses, occasionally saluted them with their antennae in Ku^j. i /. ^^" . ,
usual way, or touched them at the abdomen, but appare- ^^^ ^

allowed them full liberty of action.

As to leisure, Bates writes : —

The life of these Ecitons is not all work, for I frequently]
them very leisurely employed in a way that looked like

ery soon after tl
iewhome,anumbe
nd began carrying
'he next day this

' Zoc. cit.

face of th«

,h tbt'ir foi
.luUblos, lit
u let go, r
lien one «
iimbled ib

ANT.S FUNERKAL HABITS.

tion. When this hnppeucd the pUor was always a suiuiy noolc
in the forest. The main coliiiim of the aniiy and tho branch

^ . "V , IroUiinnH, at those times, were in tlicir ordinaiy rehitive posi
raised tliei .. i... • „i„..,i ^v ..- :...- c. i _...i i -,i i. ...:.. .

lany popui
mce from
liber's C^i
ntil I m
several tu

it careful
s, rolled of
Lid each otl

again, ami
ly spurting

tions; but instead of pressing forward eagerly and plundering
ii'ht and left, they seemed to have ln't-n all smitten with a
uddcn fit of laziness. Some were walking sternly about, othors
ttcio brushing their antenna) with their fore-feet ; but the
holiest sight was their cleaning each other. [Hero follows the
ilK)ve-quoted pjissage.] Tlie actions of these ants looked like

iiuplo indulgence in idle amusement It is probable that

hese hours of relaxation and cleaning may be incfispensable to
h'! effective performance of their harder burdens ; but whilst
iking at them, the conclusion that the ants were engaged
„erely in play was irresistible.*

ugh to put
)rel, 'that
) not seen
tion can

)f play as
jre: —

queens ^
L large pel
pant posti
here ensue
y nipped «
another fi
the work

Funereal Habits, — In another connection it has already

It'll stated that Sir John Lubbock found his ants to be

ry careful in disposing of the dead bodies of their com-

ades. This habit seems to be pretty general among many

piendly. 1 pecies of ants, and is no doubt due to sanitary require-
iients, thus becoming developed as a beneficial instinct by
i;itiiral selection. The funereal habits of the agricultural
nt are thus related by MacCook : ^ —

There is nothing which is apt to awaken deeper interest in
he life-history of ants than what may properly he called their
unereal habits. All species whose manners I have closely
bserved are quite alike in their mode of caring for their own
ead, and for the dry carcasses of aliens. The former they
ppear to treat with some degi*ee of reverence, at least to the ex-
ent of giving them a sort of sepulture without feeding upon
hem. The latter, after having exhausted the juices of the body,
hey usually deposit together in some spot removed from the
est. I did not see any of the * cemeteries ' of the agricul-
iiral ant upon the field, nor, indeed, observe any of their
ehaviour towards the dead, but my artificial nests gave me some

^P^^^®. J isight of this. In the first colony had been placed eight agri-
ulturals of another nest, which were literally cut to pieces.

ut apparei t^^^ ^^^^^ after the ants were comfortably established in their
ewhome,a number of them laid hold upon these disjecta memhraf
nd began carrying them hack and foi-th around the formicarium.
he next day this continued, and several of their own number

frequently
:ed Uke n

' Loc. cit.

Loe. cit. p. 337.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

who had died were being treated in like manner. Back and
forth, up and down, into every corner of the box the bearers I
wandered, the very embodiment of restlessness. I'or four day* "
this conduct continued without any intermission. No sooner I
would a body or fragment thereof be dropped by one bearer |
than another would take it up and begin the restless circuit,
The difficulty, I easily understood, was that there was no point I
to be found far enough removed from the living-rooms of the
insects in which to inter these dead. Their desire to have their
dead buried out of their sight was strong enough to keep them I
on this ceaseless round, apparently under the continuous influ
ence of the hope that something might turn up to give them a I
more satisfactory burial-ground. It does not appear greatly t-
the credit of their wisdom that they were so long discovering!
that they were limited to a space beyond their power to enlarge,!
When, however, this fact was finally recognised they gave their}
habit its utmost bent, and began to deposit the carcasses in thel
extreme comer of the flat, as distant as possible from thel
galleries on the terrace above. Here a little hollow was madel
in the earth, quite up against the glass, wherein a number ofl
bodies were laid. Portions of bodies were thrust into the chinks!
formed in the dry sod. This flat became the permanent
charnel-house of the colony, and here, in corners, crevices, and
holes, for the most part out of sight, but not always so, the
dead were deposited. But the living never seemed quite recon
ciled to their presence. Occasionally, restless resurrectionists!
would disentomb the dead, shift them to another spot, or start
them once more upon thair unquiet wanderings. Even afterl
the establishment of this cemetery, the creatures did not seem I
able to lay away their newly deceased comrades — for there wewl
occasional deaths in the formicary — without first indulging IqI
this funereal promenade.

In the formicaries established in glass jars, both of barbatwl
and crudelis, the same behaviour appeared. So great was thel
desire to get the dead outside the nest, that the bearers wouliil
climb up the smooth surface of the glass to the very top of thel
jar, laboriously carrying with them a dead ant. This was sevei-el
work, which was rarely undertaken except under the influencel
of this funereal enthusiasm. The jar was very smooth a73d quite|
high. Falls were frequent, but patiently the little * undertaker'
would follow the impulse of her instinct, and try and try agahil
Finally, as in the large box, the fact of a necessity seemed tol
dawn upon the ants, and a portion of the surface opposite fronil
the entrance to the galleries, and close up against the glass, wasl

ANTS — FUNEREAL HABITS.

ss circuit,

used as burial-ground and sort of kitchen-midden, where all the
refuse of the nest was deposited. Mrs. Treat has informed me
that her artificial nests of crudelis behaved in precisely the
Isame way.

An interesting fact in the funereal habits of Formica san-

\guinea was related to me by this lady. A visit was paid to a large

jcolony of these slave-makers, which is established on the grounds

ladjoining her residence at Vineland, New Jersey. I noticed

|that a number of carcasses of one of the slave species, Formica

fusca, were deposited together quite near the gates of the nest.

[These were probably chiefly the dry bodies of ants brought in

from recent raids. It was noticed that the dead ants were all

af one species, and thereupon Mrs. Treat informed me that the

slave-makers never deposited their dead with those of

^heir black servitors, but always laid them by themselves, not

groups, but separately, and were careful to take them a

considerable distance from the nest. One can hardly resist

Uinting here another likeness between the customs of these

}ocial h)nnenopters and those of human beings, certain of whom

irry their distinctions of race, condition, or religious caste, even

the gates of the cemetery in which the poor body moulders

ito its mother dust !

It will be observed that none of these accounts furnish
Evidence of ants burying their dead, as Pliny asserts to
lave been the case with ants in the south of Europe. In
[he Proceedings of the Linnaean Society, however (1861),

lere is a very definite account of such a practice as
[btaining among the ants of Sydney ; and although it is
rom the pen of an observer not well known, the observa-
lioii seems to have been one about which there could

^arcely have been a mistake. The observer was Mrs.

[utton, and this is her account. Having killed a number
' soldier ants,' and returning half an hour afterwards to

le place where the dead bodies were lying, she says :

I saw a, large number of ants surroutding the dead ones. I
termined to watch their proceedings closely. I followed four
five that started oflf from the rest towards a hillock a short
''^ance off, in which was an ants' nest. This they entered, and
out five minutes they reappeared, followed by others. All
1 into rank, walking regularly and slowly two by two, until
ey arrived at the spot where lay the dead bodies of the soldier
ts. In a few minutes two of the ants advanced and took up

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

'1':
1'

the dead body of one of their comrades ; then two others, and
so on, until all were ready to march. First walked two ant> I
bearing a body, then two without a burden ; then two others
with another dead ant, and so on, until the line was extended j
to about forty pairs, and the procession now moved slowly on-
wards, followed by an irregular body of about two hundred ant, I
Occasionally the two laden ants stopped, and laying down the
dead ant, it was taken up by the two walking unburdened behind!
them, and thus, by occasionally relieving each other, theTJ
arrived at a sandy spot near the sea. The body of ants nod
commenced digging with their jaws a number of holes in the)
ground, into each of which a dead ant was laid, where they now!
laboured on until they had filed up the ants* graves. Thiij
did not quite finish the remarkable circumstances attendiDol
this funeral of the ants. Some six or seven of the antJ
had attempted to run off without performing their share otj
the task of digging ; these were caught and brought back, wbeil
they were at once attacked by the body of ants and killed upoEJ
the spot. A single grave was quickly dug, and they were alij
dropped into it.

The Key. W. Farren White also, in his papers on ant«
published in the * Leisure Hour' (1880), after alluding t(i
the above case, corroborates it by some interesting obser-
vations of his own. He says : —

Several of the little sextons I observed with dead in theiil
mandibles, and one in the act of burying a corpse. .
I should mention that the dead are not interred without cocJ
siderable difficulty, in consequence of the sides of the trays beinJ
almost perpendicular. The work of the sextons continued until
no dead bodies remained upon the surface of the nest, but alj
were interred in the extramural cemeteries. Afterwards
removed the trays, and turned the contents of the formicariun
upside down, and then I placed six trays on the surface of tlj
earth, two of which I filled with sugar for food. All six weif
used freely as cemeteries, being crowded with the corpses!
the little people and their young, the larvse which had perisbe
in the disruption of their home.

I have noticed in one of my formicaria a subterraneaj
cemetery, where I have seen some ants burying their dead i
placing earth above them. One ant was evidently much affect*
and tried to exhume the bodies, but the united exertions of thi
yellow sextons were more than sufficient to neutralise the effoj
of the disconsolate mourner. The cemetery was now convera

LEAF-CUTTING ANTS.

into a large vault, the chamber where the dead were placed,
together with the passage which led to it, being completely
covered in.

Habits Peculiar to Certain Species.

Leaf'Owtting Ants of the Amazon (CEcodoma cephal-
otes). — The mode of working practised by these ants is
thus described by Mr. Bates : —

They mount a tree in multitudes. . . . Each one places

I itself on the surface of a leaf, and cuts with its sharp scissor-

i like jaws a nearly semicircular incision on the upper side ; it

I then takes the edge between its jaws, and by a sharp jerk

detaches the piece. Sometimes they let the leaf drop to the

ground, where a little heap {iccumulates, until carried off by

another relay of workers; but generally each marches off with

the piece it has operated on, and as all take the same road to

the colony, the path they follow becomes in a short time smooth

and bare, looking like the impression of a cart-wheel through

1 the herbage.

Each ant carries its semicirculsir piece of leaf upright
lover its head, so that the home-returning train is rendered
[very conspicuous. Nearer observation shows that this
Ihome-returning or ladened train of workers keeps to one
[side of the road, while the outgoing or empty-handed
train keeps to the other side ; so that on every road there
is a double train of ants going in opposite directions,
^hen the leaves arrive at the nest they are received by a
smaller kind of workers, whose duty it is to cut up the
)ieces of leaf into still smaller fragments, whereby the
Reaves seem to be better fitted for the purpose to which,
IS we shall presently see, they are put. These smaller
l^vorkers never take any part in the outdoor labours ; but
they occasionally leave the nest, apparently for the sole
3urpose of obtaining air and exercise, for when they leave
^he nest they merely run about doing nothing, and fre-
quently, as if in mere sport, mount some of the semi-
circular pieces of leaf which the carrier ants are taking to
pe nest, and so get a ride home.

From his continued observation of these ants. Bates con-
cludes — and his opinion has been corroborated by that

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

both of Belt and Miiller — that the object of all this labour
is highly interesting and remarkable. The leaves when
gathered do not themselves appear to be of any service to
the ants as food ; but when cut into small fragments ard
stored away in the nests, they become suited as a nidus
for the growth of a minute kind of fungus on which the
ants feed. We may therefore call these insects the
' gardening ants,' inasmuch as all their labour is given to
the rearing of nutritious vegetables on artificially prepared
soil. They are not particular as to the material which they
collect and store up for soil, provided that it is a material
on which the fungus will grow. Thus they are very partial
to the inside white rind of oranges, and will carry ofif the {
flowers of certain shrubs while leaving the leaves untouched, j
But, to quote again from Bates, —

They are very particular about the ventilation of their under-
gi'ound chambers, and have numerous holes leading up to the I
surface from them. These they open out or close up, apparently
to keep up a regular degree of temperature below. The grea;
care they take that the pieces of leaves they carry into the
nest should be neither too dry nor too damp, is also consistent
with the idea that the object is the growth of a fungus that re-
quires particular conditions of temperature and moisture to
ensure its vigorous growth. If a sudden shower should come
on, the ants do not carry the wet pieces into the burrows, but
throw them down near the entrances. Should the weather
clear up again, these pieces are picked up when nearly dried,
and taken inside : should the rain, however, continue, they get
sodden down into the ground, and are left there. On the con-
trary, in dry and hot weather, when the leaves would get dried
up before they could be conveyed to the nest, the ants, when in
exposed situations, do not go out at all during the hot hours, but
biiug in their leafy burdens in the cool of the day and during
the night. As soon as the pieces of leaves are carried in thev
must be cut up by the small class of workers into little pieces,
Some of the ants make mistakes, and carry in unsuitable leaves, f
Thus grass is always rejected by them, but I have seen some
ants, perhaps young ones, carrying leaves of grass ; hut after a
while these pieces are always brought out again and thrown [
away. I can imagine a young ant getting a severe ear-wigging
from one of the major-domos for its stupidity.

When a nest is disturbed and the masses of ant-food spread I

LEAF-CUTTING ANTS.

ibout, the ants are in great concern to carry every morsel of it
inder shelter again ; and sometimes, when I had dug into a nest,

found the next day all the earth thrown out filled M^th little
3its that the ants had dug into it to get out the covered-up
lood. When they migrate from one part to another, they
ilso CJirry with them all the ant-food from their old habita-
tions.

In Biichner's ' Geistesleben der Thiere ' there is pub-
lished an interesting description of the habits of these ants,

;hieh was communicated to the author by Dr. Fr. Ellen-

iorf of Wiedenbriick, who has lived many years in Central

Lraerica. Dr. EUendorf says that —

[t would be quite impossible for them to creep even through
lort grass with loads on their heads for miles. They therefore
[>ite off the grass close to the ground for a breadth of about five
iches, and throw it on one side. Thus a road is constructed,
rhich is finally made quite smooth and even by the continual
Massing to and fro of millions upon millions night and day. . .
the road is looked down upon from a height with these
lillions thickly pressed together, and all moving along with
leir green bannerets over their heads, it looks as though a
mt green snake were gliding slowly along the ground ; and
lis picture is all the more striking in that all these bannerets
re swaying backwards and forwards.*

This observer made the experiment of interrupting the
ivance of a column of these ants, with the interesting
isult which he describes : —

I wished to see how they would manage if I put an obstacle

their way. Thick high grass stood on either side of their

in-ow road, so that they could not pass through it with the

[ad on their heads. I placed a dry branch, nearly a foot in

[ameter, obliquely across their path, and pressed it down so

?htly on the ground that they could not creep underneath.

le first comers crawled beneath the branch as far as they

fuld, and then tried to climb over, but failed owing to the

sight on their heads. Meanwhile the unloaded ants from

ke other side came on, and when these succeeded in climbing

|er the bough there was such a crush that the unladen ants

|d to clamber over the laden, and the result was a terrible

luddle. I now walked along the train, and found that all the

p with their bannerets on their heads were standing still,

' Loo. cit. p. 97.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

thickly pressed together, awaiting the word of command froul
the front. When I turned back to the obstacle, I saw witj
astonishment that the loads had been laid aside by more than J
foot's length of the column, one imitating the other. AiJ
now work began on both sides of the branch, and in about hi
an hour a tunnel was made beneath it. Each ant then took rj
its burden again, and the march was resumed in the most |)eij
feet order.

A migration of these ants is thus described by the saiij
observer : —

The road led towards a cocoa plantation, and here I socj
discovered the building which I afterwards visited daily. As
again went thither one day I was met, at a considerable dij
tance from the nest, by a closely pressed column coming thencj
and all the ants laden with leaves, beetles, pupae, butterflies
&c. ; the nearer I came to the nest, the greater was tii
activity. It was soon plain to me that the ants were in
act of leaving their dwelling, and I walked along the tniii
to discover the new abode. They had gone for some distanJ
along the old road, and had then made a new one through til
grass to a cooler place, lying rather higher. The grass on tii
new road was all bitten off close to the ground, and thousani
were busy carrying th© path on to the new building. At til
new home itself was an unusual stir of life. There were:
sorts of labourers — architects, builders, carpenters, sappenj
helpers. A number were busy digging a hole in the grouij
and they carried out little pellets of earth and laid tbei
together on end to make a wall. Others drew along little twi;
straws, and grass-stalks, and put them near the place of builJ
ing. 1 was anxious to know why they had quitted their oj
home, and when the departure was complete, I dug it up m
a spade. At a depth of about a foot and a half I found seven
tunnels of a large marmot species, the terror of cocoa planter!
because in making their passages they gnaw off the thickej
roots of the cocoa plants. The interior of the ant-hill had
parently fallen in through these mines. Unfortunately I wj
unable to follow further the progress of the new building, for j
was obliged to leave the noxt day for San Juan del Sur. \V1
I returned at the end of a week the building was finished, i
the whole colony was again busy with the leaves of the cof|
plants.

Harvesting Ants (Atta). — The ants which, so far as

HARVESTING ANTS.

)resent known, practise the peculiai* and distinctive

iabits to be described under this division belong for the

nost part to one genus, ^^to, which, however, comprises a

lumber of species distributed in localised areas over all the

[our quarters of the globe. Hitherto nineteen species-

|ave been detected as having the habits in question.

These consist of gathering nutritious seeds of grasses

iuring summer, and storing them in granaries for winter

lonsumption. We owe our present knowledge concerning

■hese insects to Mr. Moggridge," who studied them in the

)uth of Europe, Dr. Lincecum,^ and Mr. MacCook,^ who

tudied them in Texas, and Colonel Sykes* and Dr. Jerdon,**

[bo made some observations upon them in India. They

kso occur scattered over a great part of Europe and in

[alestine, where they were clearly known to Solomon and

ther classical writers of antiquity,^ whose claim to accu-

Lte observation, although long disputed (owing to the

ithority of Huber), has now been amply vindicated.

Mr. Moggridge, who was a careful and industrious
3server, found the following points of interest in the
ibits of the European harvesters. From the nest in
Jirious directions there proceed outgoing trains, which
lay be from twenty to thirty or more yards in length, and
|ch consists of a double row of ants, moving, like the

if-cutting ants, in opposite directions. Those in the
Jitgoing row are empty-handed, while those in the in-
Iming row are laden. But here the burdens are grass
leds. The roads terminate in the foraging ground, or
[t-fields, and the insects composing the columns there
[come dispersed by hundreds among the seed-yielding

isses. The following is their method of collecting seeds ;

juote from Moggridge : —

' Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders, London, 1873 and Sup-
^ment, 1874.

^ Jowmal Linn Soc, vol. vi. p. 29, 1862.

' Agricultural Ant of Texas, Philadelphia, 1880

* Trans. Ent. Soc Land., i. 103, 1836.

' Madras Journ. Lit. So. 1851.

' For this see Moggridge, loc. cit. pp. 6-10, where, besides Prov. iv.
8, and XXX. 25, quotations are given from Horace, Virgil, Plautus,
'. others.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

■k'i

It is not a little surprising to see that the ants bring in nq

only seeds of large size and fallen grain, but also green capsule

the torn stalks of which show that they have been freshjj

gathered from the plant. The manner in which they accompliijl

this feat is as follows. An ant ascends the stem of a fruitJD

plant of shepherd's-purse {Capsella bursa-pastoris), let us i

and selects a well -filled but green pod about midway up

stem, those below being ready to shed their seeds at a touciJ

Then, seizing it in its jaws, and fixing its hind legs firmly a^ j

pivot, it contrives to turn round and round, and so strain tli

fibres of the fruit-stalk that at length they snap. It then

scends to the stem, patiently backing and turning upwa

again as often as the clumsy and disproportionate burdd

becomes wedged between the thickly set stalks, and joins

line of its companions on their way to the nest. In this mar

capsules of chickweed {Stellaria media) and entire calyces,

taining the nutlets of calamint, are gathered ; two ants

sometimes combine their efforts, when one stations itself nei

the base of the peduncle and gnaws it at the point of great<

tension, while the other hauls upon and twists it. I

never seen a capsule severed from its stalk by cutting aloj

and the mandibles of this ant are perhaps incompetent to |

form such a task. I have occasionally seen ants engi

cutting the capsules of certain plants, drop them, and allow 1

companions below to carry them away ; and this correspod

with the curious account given by ^^lian of the manner!

which the spikelets of corn are severed and thrown down ■

the people below,* tw Si^fuo t<3 Karo>.

The recognition of the principle of the division I
labour which the latter observation supplies, is furti]
proved by the following quotation from the same auth
A dead grasshopper which was being carried into tH
nest was —

Too large to pass through the door, so they tried to dismemj
it. Failing in this, several ants drew the wings and legs asj
back as possible, while others gnawed through the mu^
where the strain was greatest. They succeeded at last in l
pulling it in.

The same thing is strikingly shown by the follow
quotation from Lesp^s : —

If the road from the place where they are gathering I

HAEVESTING ANTS.

^est to the nest is very long, they make regular depots for
eir provisions under large leaves, stones, or other suitable

ces, and let certain workers have the duty of carrying them
Im depot to depot.

Biichner (loc, cit, p. 101) also makes the following
Jerenees to the statements of previous observers : —

[The subterranean workers of this remarkable genus are veiy
jer. The Rev. H. Clark reports from Rio de Janeiro, that
Sa-ubas have made a regular tunnel under the bed of the
^r Parahyba, which is there as broad as the Thames at
jidon, in order to reach a storehouse which is on the opposite
Bates tells us that close to the Magoary rice-mills, near
i, the ants bored through the dam of a large i-eservoir, and
I water escaped before the mischief could be remedied. In
[Para Botaiiical Gardens an enterprising French gardener
Bverything he could to drive the Sa-uhas away. He lit fires
le chief entrances of their nests, and blew sulphur vapour
I their galleries by means of bellows. But how astonished
I Bates when he saw the vapour come out at no less a dis-
than seventy yards ! Such an extension have the sub-
(mean passages of the Sa-uhUs.

Phe recognition of the principle of the division of
ir, which is shown by the above observations, is further
pborated by the following quotation from Belt : —

^etween the old burrows and the new one was a steep
Instead of descending this with their burdens, they cast
down on the top of the slope, whence they rolled down to
3ttom, where another relay of labourers picked them up
irried them to the new burrow. It was amusing to watch
its hurrying out with bundles of food, dropping them over
lope, and rushing back immediately for more.

[he same thing has been observed, as already stated,
le leaf-cutting ants — those engaged in cutting fre-
bly throwing down the fragments of leaf which they

the carriers below. The prevalence of this habit
Ig various species of ants therefore renders credible
[ollowing statements of Vincent Gredler of Botzen,

are thus recorded in * der Zool. Gart.,' xv. p. 434 : —

Herr Gredler's monastery one of the monks had been
)med for some months to put food regularly on his window-

H 2

100

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

.''.5

sill for ants coming up from the garden. In consequence
Herr Gredler's communications he took it into his head top^
the bait for the ants, pounded sugar, into an old inkstand,
hung this up by a string to the cross-piece of his window, ;
left it hanging freely. A few ants were in with the
These soon found their road out over the string with their grJ
of sugar, and so their way back to their friends. Before loiiJ
procession was arranged on the new road fi'om the window «j
along the string to the spot where the sugar was, and so tliiij
went on for two days, nothing fresh occurring. But onec
the procession stopped at the old feeding-place on the wind]
sill, and took the food thence, without going up to the pemii
sugar-jar. Closer observation revealed that about a dozer|
the rogues were in the jar above, and were busily and unwe
ingly carrying the grains of sugar to the edge of the potj
throwing them over to their comrades down below.

Many other instances of the division of labour
be given besides these, and those to be mentioned \i\
after in other connections throughout the course of j
present chapter ; but enough has been said to show i
the principle is unquestionably acted upon by si
species of ants.

That ants are liable to make mistakes, and, when i
do, that they profit by experience, is shown by the folll
ing experiment made by Moggridge ; and many otheij
stances might be given were it desirable : —

It sometimes happens that an ant has manifestly made al
selection, and is told on its return that what it has brof
home with much pains is no better than rubbish, and is hu
out of the nest, and forced to thi-ow its burden away. In i
to try whether these creatures were not fallible like
mortals, I one day took out with me a little packet of giejj
white porcelain beads, and scattered these in the path of a
vesting train. They had scarcely lain a minute on thee
before one of the largest workers seized upon a bead, andi
some difficulty clipped it with its mandibles and trotted
a great pace to the nest. I waited for a little while, my i
tion being divided between the other ants who were vainlj
deavouring to remove the beads, and the entrance down i
the worker had disappeared, and then left the spot. Oil
return in an hour's time, I found the ants passing unconcen
by and over the beads which lay where I had strewed tliij

HARVESTING ANTS.

101

nparently undiminished quantities ; and I conclude from this
[at they had found out their mistake, and had wisely returned
their accustomed occupations.

When the grain is thus taken into the nest, it is
3red in regular granaries, but not until it has been de-
ided of its ' husks ' or * chaff.* The denuding process is
rried on below ground, and the chaff is brought up to
le surface, where it is laid in heaps to be blown away by
|e wind.

It is a remarkable thing, and one not yet understood,
k the seed, when thus stored in subterranean chambers
^t far enough below the surface to favour germination,
3S not germinate. Moggridge says that out of twenty-
nests and among many thousands of seeds that he
imined, he only found twenty-seven cases of incipient
rmination. Moreover, all these cases occurred in months
|in November to February, while in the nests opened in
tober, March, April, and May, no sprouted seeds were
covered, though these are the months highly favourable
termination. He is at a loss to suggest the treatment
rhich the ants expose the seeds in order to prevent
[ir sprouting. ' Apparently it is not that moisture or
^mth or the influence of atmospheric air is denied to
seeds, for we find them in damp soil in genial weather,
oftoii at but a trifling distance below the surface of
ground ; ' and he has proved that the vitality of the
is is not impaired, for he succeeded in raising crops of
[ng plants from seeds removed from the granaries.
[He also says, —

?y a fortunate chance T have been able to prove that the
Is will germinate in an undisturbed granary when the ants
Iprevented from obtaining access to it : and this goes to show
[only that the structure and nature of the granary chamber
]>t suflScient of itself to prevent germination, but also that the
|ence of the ants is essential to secure the dormant condition
le seeds.

discovered in two places portions of distinct nests of Atta

dor which had been isolated owing to the destruction of the

Dw wall behind which they lay, and then the granaries well

up and literally choked with growing seeds, though the

in which they lay completely enclosed and concealed them

102

ANIMAL INTFXLI0P:NCE.

until by chance I laid them bare. In one case I knew that i
destruction of the wall had only taken place ton days before,]
that the seeds had sprouted in the interval.

My experiments also tend to confirm this, and to favour;
belief that the non-germination of the seeds is due to soil
direct influence voluntarily exercised by the ants, and
merely to the conditions found in thf» nest, or to acid vapod
which in certiiin cases are given 03" by the ants themselves.

These experiments consisted in confining a laij
number of harvesting ants with their queen and larv»
a glass test-tube partly filled with damp soil and varij
seeds, the whole being closed with a cork in the inoj
of the test-tube. Under these circumstances the sej
all sprouted, showing that mere confinement in an atu
sphere of exhalations from the ants did not prevent ger
nation. Another series of experiments, undertaken att
suggestion of Mr. Darwin, on the eflfects of an atmospttj
of formic acid, showed that although this vapour was vj
injurious to the seeds, it did not prevent their incipiJ
germination. Therefore it yet remains to be ascertain
why the seeds do not germinate in the granaries of
ants.

But in whatever way the ants manage to prevent g
mination, it is certain that they are aware of
importance in this connection of keeping the seeds!
dry as possible ; for Moggridge repeatedly observed til
when the seeds which had been stored proved over-mcs
the ants again took them out and spread them in the:
to dry, to be again brought into the nest after a suffici^
exposure.

Lastly, he also repeatedly observed the most surpri:
and interesting fact that when, as we have seen was
sionally the case, the seeds did begin to germinate inc
nests, the ants knew the most effective method of
venting the germination from proceeding ; for he fod
that in these cases the ants gnawed off the tips ofi
radicles. This fact deserves to be considered as onei
the most remarkable among the many remarkable factij
ant-psychology.

Passing on now to the harvesting or agricultural i

HARVESTING ANTS.

103

Texas, attention was first called to the habits of this

isect by Mr. Buckley in I860,' and by Dr. Lincecum,

^ho sent an account of his observations to Mr. Darwin,

whom they were communicated to the Linnsean Society

1861. Five years later a paper was published in the

[roceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of

[hiladelphia from the MS. of Dr. Lincecum. Lastly, in

m Mr. MacCook went to Texas expressly to study the

ibits of these insects, and he has recently embodied the

Isults of his observations in a book of three hundred

iges.* These observations are for the most part confir-

(atory of those of Lincecum, and for this as well as for

isons to be deduced from the work itself, they deserve

I be accepted as trustworthy, notwithstanding that in some

888 they are provokingly incomplete. The following is

epitome of these observations.

The ants clear away all the herbage above their nest in

form of a perfect circle, or 'disk,' 15 or 20 feet in

imeter, by carefully felling every stalk of grass or weed

it may be growing thereon. As the nests are placed in

Sckly grown localities, the eflfect of these bald or shaven

tks is highly conspicuous and peculiar, exactly resembling

I miniature the clearings which the settlers make in the

lerican backwoods. The disk, however, is not merely

|ared of herbage, but also carefully levelled, all inequali-

|s of the surface being reduced by building pellets of

into the hollows to an extent sufficient to make a

tformly flat surface. The action of rain and the constant

)tion of multitudes of ants cause this flat surface to

borne hard and smooth. In the centre of the disk is the

Jeway of the nest. This may be either a simple hole

hollow cone.

From the disk in various directions there radiate ant-

[ds or avenues, which are cleared and smoothed like the

itself, and which course through the thick surround-

grass, branching and narrowing as they go till they

^ntually taper away. These roads are usually three or

in number before they begin to branch, but may be

l+nrnl 9^B ^°°- ^^^^- -^cad. Nat. Sci., xli. p. 445.
■•iCUlturdi ^^ Agricultural Ant of Texas (Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia,1880).

104

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

as many as seven. They are usually two to three inchesi
wide at their origin, but in large nests may be as much ju|
five. MacCook found no road longer than sixty feet, but!
Jjincecum describes one of three hundred feet. AIodJ
these hard and level roads there is always passing, durirjl
the daytime of the harvesting season, a constant streattl
of ants — those going from the nest being empty-handedl
and those returning to it being laden with seeds, m
course the incoming ants, converging from all quarterif
upon the road, and therefore increasing in numbers as theJ
approach the nest, require greater space for free locomil
tion ; while the outgoing ants, diverging as they get furthJ
from home, also require greater proportional space i\\
less their distance from the nest: hence the gradi]
swelling in the width of the roads as they approach tij
nests.

The manner of collecting the seeds in the jungle suij
rounding the roads is thus described by MacCook : —

At last a satisfactory seed is found. It is simply lifted froJ
the ground, or, as often happens, has to be pulled out of t!(
soil into which it has been tightly pressed by the rain or I
passing feet. Now follows a moveruent which at first]
thought to be a testing of the seed, and which, indeed, mayl
partially that; but finally I concluded that it was the adjustii
of the burden for safe and convenient carriage. The ant pu
at the seed-husk with its mandibles, turning and pinching i
* feeling * it on all sides. If this does not satisfy, and commoij
it does not, the body is raised by stifiening out the legs, i
abdomen is curved underneath, and the apex applied to the see]
I suppose this to be simply a mechanical action for the betii
adjusting of the load. Now the worker starts homeward,
has not lost itself in the mazes of the grass forest. It tu
directly towards the road with an unerring judgment. Tliej
are many obstacles to overcome. Pebbles, pellets of earth, Hj
of wood, obtruding rootlets, or bent-down spears of grass hh
up or hinder the way. These were scarcely noticed wheni
ant was empty-handed. But they are troublesome barriers noj
that she is burdened with a seed quite as thick, twice as wi|
and half as long as herself. It is most interesting to see i
skill, strength, and rapidity with which the little harvess
swings her tieasure over or around, or pushes it beneath thJ
obstacles. Now the seed has caught against the herbage as i

HARVESTING ANTS.

105

Di-ter dodges under a too naiiow oijening. She backs out and
tries another passage. Now the sharp points of the husk are
pntangled in the grass. She jerks or pulls the burden loose, and
lUiTies on. The road is reached, and progress is comparatively
pasy. Holding the grain in her mandibles well above the
surface, she breaks into what I may describe with suffi-
cient accuracy as ' a trot,' and with little fuither interruption
reaches the disk and disappears within the gate. There are

variations from this behaviour, more or less marked, according
the nature of the grounds, the seex:ls, and (I suppose) the indi

^duality of the harvesters ; but the mode of ingathering the
t;rop is substantially as above. Each ant operated independently.

)nc9 only did I see anything like an effort to extend sympathy
id aid. A worker minor seeming to have difficulty in testing

br adjusting a large seed of buffalo-grass, was assisted (ap-

pai-ently) by one worker major, and then by another, after

v'hich she went on her way.

But these ants do not confine their harvesting opera-
[ions to gathering fallen seeds ; they will, like the ants of
ilurope, also cut seeds from the stalk.

In order to test the disposition of cruddis to garner the
eeds from the stem, bunches of millet were obtained from the
forth, and stalks eighteen inches high, crowned by the boll of

llose-set seeds, were stuck in the mound of an active formicary.

The ants mounted the stems and set to work vigorously to
ecure the seeds, clusters of twenty or more being engaged at

Ince upon one head. The seeds were carried off and stored
dthin the nest. This experiment proved pretty conclusively
lat in the seeding season crudelis does not wait for the seeds
drop, but harvests them from the plant.

The ' granaries ' into which the seeds are brought are
[ept distinct from the * nurseries ' for the pupae. Their
rails, floor, and roof are so hard and smooth, that MacCook
links the insects must practise upon them * some rude
lason's craft.'

He traced these granaries to a depth of four feet
[elow the surface of the ground, and believes, firora the
tatements of a native peasant, that they, or at least the
)rmicaries, extend to a depth of fifteen feet.

As regards the care that the ants take of the gathered
rain, Lincecum describes the same habit as Moggridge
id Sykes describe — viz., the sunning of wet seeds to

106

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

dry. MacCook, however, neglected to make any experi-
ments on this subject. Neither has he been able to throw I
any light upon the question as to why the stored seeds do
not germinate, and is doubtful whether the habit ofl
gnawing the radicle of sprouting seeds, which prevail; I
in the European species, is likewise practised by tM
American. On two other points of importance MacCook'sl
observations are also incomplete. One of these has referf
ence to an alleged statement, which he is disposed t(i
believe, that when some ants in a community have beeii|
killed by poison, the survivors avoid the poison : he, howj
ever, made no experiments to test this statement.

The other main point on which his observations art!
defective has reference to a remarkable statement madfl
by Lincecum in the most emphatic terms. This statel
ment is that upon the surface of their disk the antil
sow the seeds of a certain plant, called ant-rice, for iU
purpose of subsequently reaping a harvest of the graiil
There is no doubt that the ant-disks do very often sup-j
port this peculiar kind of grass, and that the ants artl
particularly fond of its seed; but whether the plant iJ
actually sown in these situations by the insects, or groiJ
there on account of these situations being more opei|
than the general surface of the ground — this questi
MacCook has failed to answer, or even to further. Wc arei
therefore, still left with Dr. Lincecum's emphatic assur-
ance that he has witnessed the fact. His account is tk\
the seed of the ant-rice, which is a biennial plant, is sorJ
in time for the autumnal rains to bring up. At the bl
ginning of November a green row or ring of ant-ricfJ
about four inches wide, is seen springing up round the cirj
cumference of the disk. In the vicinity of this circukj
ring the ants do not permit a single spire of any othej
grass or weed to remain a day, but leave the aristida,
ant-rice, untouched until it ripens, which occurs in Juneol
the next year. After the maturing and harvesting of tli|
seed, the dry stubble is cut away and removed from ttj
pavement or disk, which is thus left unencumbered untij
the ensuing autumn, when the same species of grass agaii
appears as before, and so on. Lincecum says he has seeil

HARVESTING ANTS.

107

the process go on year after year on the same ant-farms,
and adds, —

There can be no doubt of the fact that the particular species
of grain-bearing grass mentioned above is intentionally planted.
In farmer-like manner the ground upon which it stands is care-
fully divested of all other grasses and weeds during the time it is
growing. When it is ripe the grain is taken care of, the dry
stubble cut away and carried off, the paved area being left un-
encumbered until the ensuing autumn, when the same * ant-rice *
reappears within the same circle, and receives the same agri-
cultural attention as was bestowed upon the previous crop — and
so on year after year, as I know to be the case, in all situations
when the ant's settlements are protected from graminivorous
animals.

In a second letter Dr. Lincecum, in reply to an inquiry
I from Mr. Darwin whether he supposed that the ants plant
I seeds for the ensuing crop, says : —

I have not the slightest doubt of it. And my conclusions
[have not been arrived at from hasty or careless observation, nor
from seeing the ants do something that looked a little like it,
md then guessing at the results. I have at all seasons watched
the same ant-cities during the last twelve years, and I know
that what I stated in my former letter is true. I visited the
kme cities yesterday, and found the crop of ant-rice growing
inely, and exhibiting also the signs of high cultivation, and not
blade of any other kind of grass or weed was to be seen
dthin twelve inches of the circular row of ant-rice. — {Journ.
'jirM. Soc.j vol. vi. p. 30-1.)

Now, MacCook found the ant-rice growing as described,

)ut only on some nests. Why it does not grow upon all

[he nests he does not understand. So far, then, as his

jbservations go, they confirm those of Dr. Lincecum ; but

ie does * not believe that the ants deliberately sow a crop

[s Lincecum asserts ;' he thinks * that they have for some

iason found it to their advantage to permit the aristida

grow upon their disks, while they clear off all other

lerbage ; ' but finally concludes ' that there is nothing

reasonable, nor beyond the probable capacity of the

imet intellect, in the supposition that the crop is actually

)wn. Simply, it is the Scotch verdict — " Not proven." '

108

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

'^ The following facts with regard to * modes of mining'
are worth quoting from MacCook : —

In sinking the galleries the difficulty of carrying is not
great in a moist or tough soil, which permits the ant to obtain
goodly-sized pellets for portage. But when the soil is light and
dry, so that it crumbles into dust as it is bitten off, the diffi-
culty is greatly increased. It would be a very tedious task!
indeed to take out the diggings grain by grain. This difficulty
the worker overcomes by balling the small particles against the
surface of the gallery, the under side of the head, or within and
against the mandibles. The fore-feet are used for this purpose,
being pressed against the side face, turned under, and pushed
upward with a motion similar to that of a man putting his
hand upon his mouth. The abdomen is then swung undemeati
the body and the apex pressed against the little heap of graiiii|
of dirt massed against the under side of the mandibles, or bei
tween that and the smooth under surface of the head. Thus the
dust is compressed into a ball which is of sufficient size to justifjl
deportation.

The same operation is observed in the side-galleries, where!
the ants work very frequently upon their sides or backs, prej
cisely as I have seen colliers do in Pennsylvania coal-mines.

The following is likewise worth quoting from the samej
author : —

Seeds are evidently not the only food of our agriculturalJ
When the ants at disk No. 2 had broken through the sligli
mud-sediment that sealed up their gate, as described above]
they exhibited a peculiar behaviour. Instead of heading foil
the roads and pressing along them, they distributed themselye«|
at once over the entire disk, radiating from the gate to all
points in the circumference, from which they penetrated tlif
jungle of grass beyond. In a moment a large number wenj
returning across the roads, out of the grass, over the pavemeEJ
toward the entrance. They bore in their mandibles objectj
which I presently found to be the males and females of whit]
ants {Termes Jlavipes), which were filling the air, diulng at I
after the rain, in marriage flight. They had probably swarmej
just before the shower. The agricultural were under
excitement, and hurried forth and back at the top of theiJ
speed. The number of ants bearing termites was soon so greil
that the vestibule became choked, and a mass of strugglii
anthood was piled up around the gate. A stream of eag^
insects continually poured out of the door, pushing their wi

HAEVESTING ANTS.

109

through the crowd that vainly but persistently endeavoured to
aet in with their burdens. The outcoming ants had the ad-
vantage, and succeeded in jostling through the quivering rosette
of antennae, legs, heads, and abdomens. Occasionally a worker
gained an entrance by dint of sheer physical force and perse-
verance. Again and again would the crowd rush from all
sides upon the gate, only to be pushed back by the issuing
throng. In the meanwhile quite a heap of termites, a good
handful at least, had been accumulated at one side of the gate,
the ants having evidently dropped them, in despair of entrance,
and hurried off to garner more.

In due time the pressure upon the vestibule diminished,

the laden workers entered more freely, and in the end this heap

was transferred to the interior. The rapidity with which the

ants were distributed to aU parts of their roads, after the first

opening of the gates, was truly surprising. I was greatly

[puzzled, at the first, to know what the cause of such a rush

might be. The whole behaviour was such as to carry the con-

I viction that they knew accurately what effect the rain would

I have, had calculated upon it, and were acting in accordance

with previous experience. I had no doubt at the time, and

have none now, that the capturing of insects beaten down by

the rain is one of the well-established customs of these ants. I

saw a few other insects taken in, and one milliped, but chiefly

ithe white ants.

That very afternoon I found in a formicary which I then

lopeued several large colonies, or parts of one colony of ter-

Imites, nested within the limits of the disk and quite at home.

[The next day numbers of the winged white ants were found

stored within the granaries of a large formicary. There is no

reason to doubt that these insects were intended for food, in

accordance with the quite universal habit of the Formicarice.

A curious habit has been noticed by most observers to
3ceur in many species of ant, and it is one on which Mr.

[acCook has a good deal to say. The habit in question
Bonsists in the ants transporting one another from place to
place. The carrying ant seizes her comrade by the middle,
md hurries along with it held aloft — the ant which is
carried remaining quite motionless with all her legs drawn
together. Huber supposed the process to be one enjoy-
ible to both the insects concerned, and to be performed by

mtual understanding and consent; but MacCook, in
jommon with most other observers, supposes that it is

110

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

merely a rough and primitive way of communicating to
fellow-workers the locality where their services are re-]
quired. He says : —

Keeping these facts in mind, we have a key to the solution
of the press-gang operations which Lincecum observed among j
the agriculturals, and which have been fully described in other
species. In the absence of any common head or directory, and |
of all executive officers, a change of location or any other con-
certed movement must be carried forward by the willing co I
operation of individuals. At first sight, the act of seizing and
carrying off* workers does not appear like an appeal to free-will, I
It is indeed coercive, so far as the first act goes. But, in point
of fact, the coercion ceases the moment the captive is set down
within the precincts of the new movement. The carrier-ant
has depended upon securing her consent and co-operation by
thus bringing her within the circle of activity for which her I
service is sought. As a rule, no doubt, the deported ant
once yields to the influence around her, and drops into the I
cuiTcnt of fresh enterprise, in which she moves with as entire |
freedom and as independently as any other worker. But she is
apparently under no restraint, and if she so please, may retiu'D|
to her former haunts.

Gertaw, Ants of Africa. — Livingstone says of certain
ants of Africa : —

They have established themselves on the plain where water
stands so long annually as to allow the lotus and other aqueous I
plants to come to maturity. When all the ant-horizon issul>l
merged a foot deep, they manage to exist by ascending to little
houses built of black tenaceous loam on stalks of grass, and!
placed higher than the line of inundation. This must havel
been the result of experience, for, if they had waited till the!
water actually invaded their terrestrial habitations, they would I
not have been able to procure materials for their aerial quarters]
unless they dived down to the bottom for every mouthful ol j
clay. *

The Tree Ant of India and New South Wales, — Thesel
ants are remarkable from their habit of forming rests onljl
in trees. According to Col. Sykes' account^ the shape oil
the nest is more or less globular, and about ten inches inl
diameter. It is formed entirely of cow-dung, which the|

* Missionary Travels, p. 328

HONEY-MAKING ANTS.

Ill

Insects collect from the ground beneath, and work into
|he form of thin scales. These are then built together in
In imbricated manner, like tiles or slates upon the roof of a
buse, the upper or outer scale, however, being one un-
broken sheet, which covers the whole nest like a skull-cap.
jelow this the scales are placed one upon another in a
?avy or scalloped manner, so that numerous little arched
jntrances are left, and yet, owing to the imbricated
lanner in which the scales are arranged, the interior of
le nest is perfectly protected from rain. This interior
insists of a number of irregular cells, the walls of which
re formed by the same process as the exterior.

In New South Wales there is another species of ant

[hich also frequents trees, but builds within the stem and

ranches. In the report of Captain Cook's expedition its

ibits are thus described : — * Their habitations are the

isides of the branches of a tree, which they contrive to

tcavate, by working out the pith almost to the extremity

the slenderest twig ; the tree at the same time flourish-

|g as if it had no such inmate.' On breaking one of the

iches the ants swarm out in legions. Some of our

|tive species also have the habit of excavating the in-

jrior of trees, though not on so extensive a scale.

Honey-Tnaking Ant (Myrmecocystus mexicanus). —

lis ant is found in Texas and New Mexico. Capt. W.

Fleeson has observed its habits, and his observations

Ive been communicated to the Californian Academy of

[iences, and also, by Mr. Henry Edwards, to Mr. Darwin.

^e following are the chief points of interest in Capt.

meson's results : —

The community appears to consist of three distinct kinds of
fs, probably of two separate genera, whose offices in the
aeral order of the nest would seem to be entirely apart from
^h other, and who perform the labour allotted to them with-
the least encroachment upon the duties of their fellows.
[ese three kinds are —
I. Yellow workers ; nurses and feeders of II.
IT. Yellow honey-makers ; sole function to secrete a kind of
honey in their large globose abdomens, on which the
other ants are supposed to feed. They never quit
the nest, and are fed and tended by I.

112

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

III. Black workers, guards, and purveyors ; surround ttJ
nest as guards or sentinels, in a manner presents
to be described, and also forage for the food requii-ej
for I. They are much larger and stronger insf^J
than either I. or II., and are provided with verj
formidable mandibles.

The nest is placed in sandy soil in the neighbourhooi
of shrubs and flowers, is a perfect square, and occupit
about four or five square feet of ground, the surface
which is kept almost unbroken. But the boundaries
the nest are rendered conspicuous by the guard of hki
workers (III.), which continuously parade round three
its sides in a close double line of defence, moving
opposite directions. In the accompanying diagram tl
sentry path is represented by the thick black lines. Theii
always face the same points of the compass, and
direction in which the sentries march is one column h
south-west to south-east, and the other column from soutj
east to south-west — each column, however, moving
regular order round three sides of a square. The southe
side of the encampment is left unguarded ; but if
enemy approaches on this or any other side, a number!
the guards leave their stations, and sally forth to face til
foe — raising themselves on their hind tarsi on meeting!
enemy, and moving their large mandibles in defia
Spiders, wasps, beetles, and other insects, if they venttj
too near the nest, are torn to pieces by the guard i:|
most merciless manner, and the dead body of the vif
quished is speedily removed from the neighbourhood of ti
nest — the guard then marching back to resume ttj
places in the line of defence, their object in destroji]
other insects being the defence of their encampment, s
not the obtaining of food.

The object of leaving the southern side of the sqi^
encampment open is as follows. While some of the bli
workers are engaged on duty as guard, another and laii
division are engaged on duty as purveyors. These en
and leave the quadrangle by its open or southerns
along the dotted line marked a to the central pokj
The incoming line is composed of individuals eachbea

HONEY-MAKING ANTS.

113

burden of fragments of flowers or aromatic leaves.
these are all deposited in the centre of the quadrangle

Along the other diagonal e there is a no less incessantly
loving double line of yellow workers (I.), whose office it

to convey the supplies deposited by the black workers

c to 6, which is the gateway of the fortress. It is re-
larkable that no black ant is ever seen upon the line r,

/ \

Fig. 7.

no yellow one upon the line a ; each keeps his own
ite station, and follows his own particular duty with
beadfastness and apparent adherence to discipline that
[most astonishing. The hole at d seems to be a venti-

ig shaft ; it is never used as a gateway.

Section of the nest reveals, besides galleries, a small
(mber about three feet below the surface, across which

jread, like a spider's web, a network of squares spun
the insects, the squares being about J inch across, and

114

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the ends of the whole net being fastened to the eartheil
walls of the chamber. In each one of the squares, siip.1
ported by the web, sits one of the honey-making ants (II. j
Here these honey makers live in perpetual confinemenj
and receive a constant supply of flowers, pollen, &c., whiei
is continually being brought them by (I.), and which, U
a process analogous to that performed by the bee, thei|
convert into honey.

Such is an epitome of the only account that the worij
has yet received of the habits and economy of this wondeii
ful insect, whose instincts of military organization seeij
to be not less wonderful than those of the Ecitons, thoug
in this case they are developed with reference to defeDc^l
and not to aggression. It is especially noteworthy tk]
the black and yellow workers are believed to belong!
* two separate genera ;' for if this is the case, it is the onll
one I can recall of two distinct species co-"r)erating fori
common end ; for even the nearest parallel which we fii(
supplied in other species of ants maintaining aphides,
not quite the same thing, seeing that the aphides
merely passive agents, like Class II., of the honey-makiii
ant, and not actively co-operating members of the coij
munity, like Class I.

Ecitons, — We have next to consider the habits of
wonderful ' foraging,' or, as it might be more appropriatJ
called, the military ant of the Amazon. These insec|
which belong to several species of the same genus, 1
been carefully watched by Belt, Bates, and other nnti
ists. The following facts must therefore be accepted]
fully established.

Eciton legionis moves in enormous armies, and eveij
thing that these insects do is done with the most perfj
instinct of military organization. The army marches [
the form of a rather broad and regular column, hundrfj
of yards in length. The object of the march is the capt]
and plunder of other insects, &c., for food, and as
well-organised host advances, its devastating legions |
all other terrestrial life at defiance. From the m
column there are sent out smaller lateral columns,
composing individuals of which play the part of

MILITARY ANTS.

115

inching oflf in various directions, and searching about

Ith the utmost activity for insects, grubs, &c., over every

f under every fallen leaf, and in every nook and cranny

lere there is any chance of finding prey. When their

rand is completed, they return into the main column.

(the prey found is sufficiently small for the scouts them-

]v'es to manage, it is immediately seized, and carried

?k to the main column ; but if the amount is too large

the scouts to deal with alone, messengers are sent back

the main column, whence there is immediately dis-

tched a detachment large enough to cope with the re-

irements. Insects which when killed are too large for

[gle ants to carry, are torn in pieces, and the pieces

iveyed back to the main army by different individuals.

Lny insects in trying to escape run up bushes and shrubs,

jre they are pursued from branch to branch and twig

twig by their remorseless enemies, until on arriving at

le terminal ramification they must either submit to

lediate capture by their pursuers, or drop down amid

murderous hosts beneath. As already stated, all the

|ils that are taken by the scouts or by the detachments

(t out in answer to their demands for assistance, are

lediately taken back to the main column. When they

[ve there, they are taken to the rear of that column by

smaller columns of carriers, which are constantly

Ining, one on either side of the main column, with the

[plies that are constantly pouring in from both sides.

}h of these outside columns is a double line, the ants

iposing one of the two lines all running in the same

[ction as the main army, and the ants composing the

sr line all running in the opposite direction. The

ler are empty-handed carriers, which having deposited

burdens in the rear, are again advancing to the

J for fresh burdens. Those composing the other line

lall laden with the mangled remains of insects, pupse

ither ants, &c. On either side of the main column

|e are also constantly running up and down a few in-

luals of smaller size and lighter colour than the other

which seem to play the part of officers ; for they

sr leave their stations, and while running up and

I 2

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

down the outsides of the column, they every now ail
again stop to touch anteniue with some member of d
rani^ and tile, as if to give instructions. When the scoi]
discover a wasp's nest in a tree, a strong force is sentf
IVom the main army, the nest is pulled to pieces, and
tlie larva? carried to the rear of the army, while the wA
Hy around defenceless against the invading multitiJ
i)v, if the nest of any other species of ant is found, |
similarly strong force, or perhaps the whole army is.
fleeted towards it, and with the utmost energy the iD[|
merable insects set to work to sink shafts and dig niij
till the whole nest is rifled of its contents. In m
mining operations the ants work with an extraordiiu
display of organized co-operation ; for those low do^vnl
the shafts do not lose time by carrying up the earth wli
they excavate, but pass on the pellets to those above ; ;
the ants on the surface, when they receive the pelltj
carry them, * with an appearance of forethought thatqc
staggered ' Mr. Bates, only just far enough to ensure i
they shall not roll back again into the shaft, and, af|
depositing them, immediately hurry back for mi
But there is not a rigid division of labour, although 1
work * seems to be performed by intelligent co-operad
amongst a host of eager little creatures ; ' for soine|
them act * sometimes as carriers of pellets, and at anotj
as miners, and all shortly afterwards assume the officj
conveyors of the spoil.' Again, as showing the instiif
of co-operation, the following may also be quoted
Bates's account : —

On the following morning no trace of ants could be I
near the place where I had seen them the preceding dav,j
were there signs of insects of any description in the thiol
but at the distance of eighty or one hundred yards, I
upon the same army, engaged evidently on a razzia of a
kind to that of the previous evening ; but requiring other!
sources of their instinct, owing to the nature Of the grot[
They were eagerly occupied on the face of an incUned
light earth in excavating mines, whence, from a depth of i
or ten inches, they were extracting the bodies of a bulky sp
of ant of the genus Formica. It was curious to see them cr
ing round the orifices of the mines, some assisting their

MILITARY ANTS.

117

iles tx) lift out the bodies of tho Formicte, anfl others tearing
Coin in pieces, on account of thoir weight being too great for a
HL'lo Eciton ; a number of carriera seizing each a fmgment,
id currying it off down tho slope.

These Ecitons have no fixed nest themselves, but live,

it were, on fi perpetual campaign. At night, however,

ey call a halt and pitch a camp. For this puipose they

suivlly select a piece of broken ground, in the interstices

[ which they temporarily store their plunder. In the

[orning the army is again on the march, and before an

1)01' or two has passed not a single ant is to be seen

lere the countless multitudes had previously covered

le ground.

Another and larger species of Eciton (E. humata)
mts sometimes in dense armies, and sometimes in
lumns, according to the kind of prey of which they are

search. When in columns they are seeking for the
Ists of a certain species of ant which have their young
] holes of rotten logs. These Ecitons when seeking for

3se nests hunt about, like those just described, in
lumns, which branch ofif in various directions. When a
lien log is reached, the column spreads over it, search-
through all the holes and cracks. Mr. Belt says of

3m: —

The workers are of various sizes, and the smallest are here

[iise, for they squeeze themselves into the narrowest holes,

search out their prey in the furthest ramifications of the

bts. When a nest of the Uypoclinea is attacked, tho ants

p out, carrying the larvae and pupae in their jaws, but are

lediately despoiled of them by the Ecitons, which are i-un-

jig about in every direction with great swiftness. Whenever

fey come across a Hypoclinea can-ying a larva or pupa, they

pe it from it so quickly, that I could never ascertain exactly

it was done.

As soon as an Eciton gets i. 'd of its prey, it rushes off back

ig the advancing column, which is composed of two sets,

hurrying forward, the other returning laden with their

bty, but all and always in the gi-eatest haste and apparent

pry. About the nest which they are harrying, all appears in

fusion, Ecitons running here and there and everywhere in

greatest haste and disorder ; but the result of all this ap-

118

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

♦ .■.':-i

parent confusion is that scarcely a single Hypoclinea gets ay
with a pupa or larva. I never saw the Ecitons injure t;l
Hypoclineas themselves, they were always contented with
spoiling them of their young.

The columns of this species ' are composed almcs
entirely of workers of different sizes ; ' but, as in
species previously mentioned, *at intervals of two
three yards there are larger and lighter coloured iai
viduals that often stop, and sometimes run a little bacil
ward, stopping and touching some of the ants with thJ
antennas,' and looking ' like ojBficers giving orders and i]
recting the march of the column.'

Concerning the other habits of this species, the sau
author writes ; —

The eyes in the Ecitons are very small, in some of i
species imperfect, and in others entirely absent ; in this tlJ
differ greatly from the Paeudomyrma ants, which hunt m^
and which have the eyes greatly developed. The imperfedJ
of eyesight in the Ecitons is an advantage to the commiinit|
and to their particular mode of hunting. It keeps them
gether, and prevents individual ants from starting off aid
after objects that, if their eyesight was better, they might (
cover at a distance ; the Ecitons and most other ants M\
each other by scent, and, I believe, they can communicate
presence of dangei", of booty, or other intelligence, to a diata
by the different intensity or qualities of the odours given off.
one day saw a column of Eciton ha/mata running along the fcJ
of a nearly perpendicular tramway cutting, the side of whiij
was about six feet high. At one point I noticed a sort i
assembly of about a dozen individuals that appeared in const|
tation. Suddenly one ant left the conclave, and ran with gn
speed up the perpendicular face of the cutting without stoppii!
It was followed by others, which, however, did not keep straij|
on like the first, but ran a short way, then returned, then ag
followed a little further than the first time. They were eij
dently scenting the trail of the pioneer, and making it
manently recognisable. These ants followed the exact
taken by the first one, although it was far out of sight. Whfi
ever it had made a slight detour they did so likewise. I scrap
with my knife a small portion of the clay on the trail, and tlj
ants were completely at fault for a time which way to
Those ascending and those descending stopped at the scrap

MILITARY ANTS.

119

rtion, and made short circuits until they hit the scented trail
ain, when all their hesitation vanished, and they ran up and
iwn it with the greatest confidence. On gaining the top of
e cutting, the ants entered some brushwood suitable for hunt-
In a very short space of time the information was com-
unicated to the ants below, and a dense column rushed up to
rch for their prey. The Ecitons are singular amongst the
ts in this respect, that they have no fixed habitations, but
lOve on from one place to another, as they exhaust the hunting
■oundfi around them. I think Edton hamata does not stay
ore than four or five days in one place. I have sometimes
ime across the migratory columns ; they may easily be known,
ere and there one of the light-coloured officers moves back-
rds and forwards directing the columns. Such a column is
enormous length, and contains many thousands if not millions
individuals. I have sometimes followed them up for two or
lee hundred yards without getting to the end.
They make their temporary habitations in hollow trees, and
etimes underneath large fallen trucks that offer suitable
Hows. A nest that I came across in the latter situation was
en at one side. The ants were clustered together in a dense
1, like a great swarm of bees, hanging from the roof but
ihing to the ground below. Their innumerable long legs
ked like brown threads binding together the mass, which
st have been at least a cubic yard in bulk, and contained
ndreds of thousands of individuals, although many columns
re outside, some bringing in the pupae of ants, others the legs
id dissected bodies of various insects. I was surprised to see
this Hving nest tubular passages leading down to the centre
the mass, kept open just as if it had been formed of inorganic
terials. Down these holes the ants who were bringing in
ty passed with their prey. I thrust a long stick down to
centre of the cluster, and brought out clinging to it many
holding larvae and pupae, which probably were kept warm
the crowding together of the ants. Besides the common
k-coloured workers and light-coloured officers, I saw here
ny still larger individuals with enormous jaws. These
y go about holding wide open in a thi'eatening manner.

It was this ant which, as previously stated, showed
ipathy and fellow-feeling with companions in diffi-

Ities.
The habits of E, drepanophora are closely similar

I those of the species already described ; and, indeed.

-i

120

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

except in matters of detail, all the species of Ecitons havei
much the same habits. Mr. Bates records an interestinj
observation which he made on one of the moving coluniii;|
of this species. He says : ' When I interfered with M
column or abstracted an individual from it, news of tlj
disturbance was quickly communicated to a distance o:j
several yards to the rear, and the column at that poinf
commenced retreating.' The main column is in tlii|
species narrower, viz., * from four to six deep,' but extendi
to a great length, viz., half a mile or more. It was tHi
species of Eciton that the same naturalist describes as en.
joying periods of leisure and recreation in the * sudei|
nooks of the forest.'

Next we have to consider E. jprcedator, of which tlj
same observer writes : —

This is a small dark reddish species, very similar to
common red stinging ant of England. It differs from all othd
Ecitons in its habit of hunting, not in columns, but in de
phalanxes consisting of myriads of individuals, and was first m^
mth at Ega, where it is very common. Nothing in
movements is more striking than the rapid march of tka
large and compact bodies. Wherever they pass, all the rest]
the animal world is thrown into a state of alarm. They strea:
along the ground and climb to the summits of all the M
trees, searching every leaf to its apex, and whenever theye
counter a mass of decaying vegetable matter, where booty]
plentiful, they concentrate, like other Ecitons, all their fon
upon it, the dense phalanx of shining and quickly-mod
bodies, as it spreads over the surface, looking like a flood :
dark- red liquid. They soon penetrate every part of the coj
fused heap, and then, gathering together again in marchi^
order, onward they move. All soft-bodied and inactive insft
fall an easy prey to them, and, like other Ecitons, they td
their victims in pieces for facility of carriage. A phalanx
this species, when passing over a tract of smooth ground, occj
pies a space of from four to six square yards ; on examin
the ants closely they are seen to move, not all together in oij
straightforward direction, but in variously spreading contiguoi
columns, now separating a little from the general mass, wl
reuniting with it. The margins of the phalanx spread outf
times like a cloud of skirmishers from the flanks of an aii|
1 was never able to find the hive of this species.

MILITAEY ANTS.

121

Lastly, there are two species of Eciton totally blind,
ind their habits dififer from those of the species which
re have hitherto considered. Bates writ s of them : —

The armies of E. vastator and M. erratica move, as far as I
could learn, wholly under covered roads, the ants constructing
them gradually but rapidly as they advance. The column of
foragers pushes forward step by step, under the protection of
these covered passages, through the thickets, and on reaching a
totting log, or other promising hunting-ground, pour into the
crevices in search of booty. I have traced their arcades, occa-
sionally, for a distance of one or two hundred yards ; the grains
)f earth are taken from the soil over which the column is pass-
ling, and are fitted together without cement. It is this last-
lentioned feature that distinguishes them from the similar
covered roads made by termites, who use their glutinous saliva
to cement the grains together. The blind Ecitons, working in
lumbers, build up simultaneously the sides of their convex
ircades, and contrive, in a surprising manner, to approximate
them and fit in the key-stones without letting the loose un-
cemented structure fall to pieces. There was a very clear di-
nsion of labour between the two classes of neuters in these
oUnd species. The large-headed class, although not possessing
lonstrously lengthened jaws like the worker-majors in U.
kamata and B. drepanophora, are rigidly defined in structure
from the small-headed class, and act as soldiers, defending the
(working community (like soldier termites) against all comers.
Whenever I made a breach in one of their covered ways, all
the ants underneath were set in commotion, but the worker-
linors remained behind to repair the damage, whilst the large-
3eads issued forth in a most menacing manner, rearing their
leads and snapping their jaws with an expression of the fiercest
rage and defiance.

Annornia arcens. — This is the so-called ' driver ' or
marching ' ant of West Africa, which in habits and intel-
ligence closely resembles the military ants of the other
lemisphere. I shall therefore not wait again to describe
these habits in detail. Like the Ecitons, the marching
luts of Africa have no fixed nest, but make temporary halts
in the shade of hollow trees, overhanging rocks, &c.
They march in large armies, and, like the Ecitons, always
fn the form of a long close column ; but in this case the
relative position of the carriers of spoil and larvae is re-

'11

t i

122

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

versed, for while these occupy the raiddle place the
soldiers and officers march on either side. These have!
large heads armed with powerful jaws, and never takj
part in carrying ; their function is to maintain order, act
as scouts, and attack prey. The habits of these ant; I
resemble most closely those of the blind Ecitons in thai I
they very frequently, and indeed generally, build covered I
ways ; they do so apparently in order to protect themselvejl
from the heat of the African sun. Their line of marcli|
is therefore marked by a continuous arch or tunnel, whicll
is always being constructed by the van of the columiiJ
The structure is made of earth moulded together btl
saliva, and is very quickly built. But it is only built iil
places where the line of march is exposed to the suiif
light ; at night, or in the shadow of trees or long grass, i;|
is not made. If their camp is flooded by a tropical rain
storm, the ants congregate in a close mass, with tlicl
younger ants in the centre ; they thus form a floatinff
island.

It is remarkable that ants of different hemisphere;!
should manifest so close a similarity with respect to alll
these wonderful habits. The Chasseur ants of Trinidadj
and, according to Madame Merian, the ants of visitatioD|
of Cayenne, also display habits of the same kind.

General Intelligence of Various Species,

Many of the foregoing facts display an astonishing de-l
gree of intelligence as obtaining among ants ; for I tliiDl;|
that however much latitude we may be inclined to allow tol
* blind instinct ' in the way of imitating actions elsewherel
due to conscious purpose, some at least of these foregoing
facts can only be fairly reconciled with the view that the I
insects know what they are doing and why they are doing I
it. But as I am myself well aware of the difficulty thaij
arises in all such cases of drawing the line between pin-
poseless instinct and purposive intelligence, I have thought I
it desirable to reserve for this concluding division of the
present chapter several isolated facts which have been ob-
served among sundry species of ants, and which do not I

ANTS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

123

geem to admit of being reasonably comprised under the
Icategory of instinctive action, if by the latter we mean
laction pursued without knowledge of the relation between
Ithe means adopted and the ends attained.

It will be remembered that our test of instinctive as
distinguished from truly intelligent action is simply
Iwhether all individuals of a species perform similar adap-
Itive movements under the stimulus supplied by similar
laud habitual circumstances, or whether they manifest in-
dividual and peculiar adaptive movements to meet the
lexigencies of novel and peculiar circumstances. The im-
portance of this distinction may be rendered manifest by
the following illustrations.

We have already seen that the ants which Sir John
jubbock observed display many and complex instincts,
rhich together might seem to justify us in anticipating
that animals which present such wonderful instincts must
dso present sufficient general intelligence to meet simple
though novel exigencies by such simple adaptations as the
mfamiliar circumstances require. Yet experiments which

w»

^"^^ji^:.^

Fig. 8.

le made in this connection seem to show that such is not
the case, but that these ants, with all their wealth of
Instinctive endowments, are utterly destitute of intelli-
gent resources; they have abundance of common and
letailed knowledge (supposing the adaptations to be made
Consciously) how to act under certain complex though
[amiliar circumstances, but appear quite unable to origi-
aate any adaptive action to obviate even the simplest
|!onceivable difficulty, if this is of a kind which they have
lot been previously accustomed to meet. Thus, on a
lorizontal rod b supported in a saucer of water s, and
therefore inaccessible to the ants from beneath, he placed
[ome larvae A. On the nest N he then placed a block of
rood c D, constructed so that the portion D should touch

'Hi

124

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the larvae at a. When the ants had made a number of
journeys over c D A and back again, he raised the block ci
so that there \ras an interval -p^ of an inch between tlicj
end of the block d and the larvae at A.

The ants kept on coming, and tried hard to reach dowi
from D to A, which was only just out of their reach. . . . Afterl
a while they all gave up their efforts and went awavj
losing their prize in spite of most earnest efforts, because ii
did not occur to them to drop j^ of an inch. At the mo
ment when the separation was made there were fifteen ants oil
the larvae. These could, of course, have returned if one hacl
stood still and allowed the others to get on its back. This,l
however, did not occur to them ; nor did they think of lettinjj
themselves drop from the bottom of the paper (p) on to the I
nest. Two or three, indeed, fell down, I have no doubt bjl
accident ; but the remainder wandered about, until at lengti|
most of them got into the water.

In another experiment he interposed a light strai
bridge on the way between the nest and the larvae, aDd
when the ants had well learnt the way, he drew thei
bridge a short distance towards the nest, so that a small
chasm was made in the road. The ants tried hard andl
ineffectually to reach across it, but it did not occur t«|
them to push the straw into its original position.

The following experiment is still more illustrative oil
the absence of intelligence, because the adjustive actioDl
required would not demand the exercise of such higll
powers of imagination and abstraction as would have beecl
required for the moving forwards of the paper drawbridge;

To test their intelHgence I made the following experiments;
I suspended some honey over a nest of Lasius Jlavus at a|
height of about ^ an inch, and accessible only by a paper bridge |
more than 10 feet long. Under the glass I then placed al
small heap of earth. The ants soon swarmed over the eaitli|
on to the glass, and began feeding on the honey. I then re |
moved a little of the earth, so that there was an interval (
about ^ of an inch between the glass and the earth; but,!
though the distance was so small, they would not jump downf
but preferred to go round by the long bridge. They tried in I
vain to stretch up from the earth to the glass, which, however,
was just out of their reach, though they could touch it witil

ANTS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

125

)t occur tol

their antennae ; but it did not occur to them to heap the eai-th
up a 'ittle, though if they had moved only half a dozen particles
ofef th they would have 3cured for themselves direct access to
the food. This, however, never occurred to them. At length
they gave up all attempts to reach up to the glass, and went
round by the paper bridge. I left the arrangement for several
weeks, but they continued to go round by the long paper
bridge.

Another and somewhat similar experiment consisted
in placing an upright stick A, supporting at an angle
another stick B, which nearly but not quite touched
tlie ground at C. At the end of the stick B there were
placed some larvae in a horizontal glass cell at D. Into
this cell were also placed a number of ants along with the
larvae. The drop from D to c was only | an inch ; ' still,
though the ants reached over and showed a great anxiety
to take this short cut home, they none of them faced the
leap, but all went round by the sticks, a distance of nearly
7 feet.' Sir John then reduced the interruption to f of
an inch, so that the ants could even touch the glass cell
with their antennae ; yet all day long the ants continued
to go the long way round rather than face the drop. Next,
therefore, he took still longer sticks and tapes, and ar-
ranged them as before, only horizontally instead of verti-
cally. He also placed some fine earth under the glass
cell containing the larvae. The ants as before continued
to go the long way round (16 feet), though the drop
could not have hurt either themselves or the larvae, and
though even this drop might have been obviated by heap-
ing up the fine earth into a little mound J of an inch high,
so as to touch the gla^s cell.

It is desirable, however, here to state that all species
of ants do not show this aversion to allowing themselves
to drop through short distances ; for Moggridge describes
the harvesting ants of Europe as seeming rather to enjoy
acrobatic performances of this kind ; and the same fact is
recorded by Belt of the leaf-cutting ants of the Amazons.
Dr. Bastian, in his work on * Brain as an Organ of Mind,*
suggests that the * seeming lack of intelligence betrayed
by our English ants, from their disinclination to take a
small leap, may be due simply to their defective sight *

126

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

(pp. 241-2). But even this consideration does not ex.'
tenuate the stupidity of the ants which failed to heap up
the fine earth to reach the glass cell which they were able |
to touch with their antennae.

That the species of ants on which Sir John Lubboel^
experimented were not, however, quite destitute of intel-
ligence is proved by the result of the following expeii-
ment : —

I put some provisions in a shallow box with a glass top and
a single hole in one side ; I then put some specimens of Lasim
niger to the food, and soon a stream of ants was at work busilv
carrying supplies off to the nest. When they had got to know
their way thoroughly, and from thii'ty to forty were so occupied,
I poured some fine mould in front of the hole, so as to cover it
to a depth of about ^ an inch. I then took out the ants which
were actually in the box. As soon as the ants had recovered
from the shock of this unexpected proceeding on my part, they
began to run all round and about the box, looking for some
other place of entrance. Finding none, however, they begi
digging down into the earth just over the hole, carrying off the I
grains of earth one by one and depositing them without anj
order all round at a distance of from ^ to 6 inches, until they
had excavated down to the doorway, when they again begai]
carrying off the food as before.

This experiment was several times repeated on L. nig&\
and on L.flavus, always with the same result.

Thus, then, we may conclude that the reasoning power I
of these ants, although shown by the first experiments to
be almost nil, is shown by this experiment to be not quite
nil ; for the attempt to meet the exigencies of the case
by first going round the box to seek another entrance,
before taking the labour to remove the earth from the I
known entrance, implies a certain rudimentary degree of
adaptive capacity which belongs to the category of the
rational.

Another point of considerable interest, as bearing on I
the general intelligence of ants, is one that was brought I
out as the result of a laborious series of hourly observa- 1
tions, extending without intermission from 6.30 a.m. to
10 P.M. for a period of three months. The object of these
observations was to ascertain whether the principle of the

ANTS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

127

livision of labour is practised by the ants. The result of
lese observations was to show that during the winter-
Ime, when the ants are not active, certain individuals are
3ld off to forage for supplies, and that when any casualty
^ertakes these individuals, others are told off to supply
leir places. Thus, in the words of Sir John Lubbock's
[nalysis of his lengthy tables, —

The feeders at the beginning of the experiment were those

lown to us as Nos. 5, 6, and 7. On the 22nd of November a

kend, registered as No. 8, came to the honey, and again on the

|lth December ; but with these two exceptions the whole of

le supplies were carried in by Nos. 5 and 6, with a little help

torn No. 7. Thiiiking now it might be alleged that possibly these

fere merely unusually active or greedy individuals, I im-

risoned No. 6 when she came out to feed on the 5th. As will

seen from the table, no other ant had been out to the honey
[ir some days ; and it could therefore hardly be accidental that

that very evening another ant (then registered as No. 9)
ime out for food. This ant, as will be seen from the table,
len took the place of No. 6 (No. 5 being imprisoned). On the
|ltb January No. 9 took in all the supplies, again with a little
elpfrom No. 7. So matters continued until the 17th, when I
iprisoned No. 9, and then again, i.e. on the 19th, another ant
Jo. 10) came out for the food, aided, on and after the 22nd,
' another (No. 11). This seems to me very curious. From the 1 st
i'ovemher to the 5th January, with two or three casual excep-
[ons, the whole of the supplies were carried in by three ants,
le of whom, however, did comparatively little. The other two
re imprisoned, and then, but not till then, a fresh ant appears

the scene. She carries in the food for a week, and then she
Bing imprisoned, two others undertake the task. On the
kher hand, in nest 1, when the first foragers were not im-
risoned, they continued during the whole time to carry in
le necessary supplies.

The facts, therefore, certainly seem to indicate that
3rtain ants are told off as foragers, and that during
^nter, when but little food is required, two or three such
Dragers are sufficient to provide it.

Although Sir John Lubbock's ants showed such meagre
ssources of intelligent adjustment, other species of ants,
^hich we have already had occasion to consider, appear to

as remarkable in this respect as they are in respect of

128

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

their instinctive adjustments. Unfortunately observatioj
on this subject are very sparse, but such as they are the{
hold out a strong inducement for any one who has tli|
opportunity to experiment with the view of testing tl >|
intelligence of those species in connection with which tj
following observations have been made, u

Reaumur states that ants will make no attempt to enter a;|
inhabited beehive to get at the contained honey, knowing tb
the bees will slaughter them if they do so. But if the hivei|
uninhabited, or the bees all dead, the ants will swarm into i
hive as long as any honey is to be found there.

P. Huber records that a wall which had been partj
erected by ants was observed by him —

As though it were intended to support the still unfinishs
arched roof of a large room, which was being built from tti
opposite side. But the workers which had begun the arch M
given it too low an elevation for the wall on which it was
rest, and if it had been continued on the same lines it woulil
have met the partition wall halfway up, and this was to M
avoided. I had just made this criticism to myself, when a nei
arrival, after looking at the work, came to the same concIusioJ
For it began at once to destroy what had been done, and tt|
heighten the wall on which it was supported, and to make
new arch with the materials of the old one under my very eyd
When the ants begin an undertaking it seems exactly as if ai|
idea slowly ripened into execution in their minds. Thus if oiii
of them finds two stalks lying crosswise on the nest, which
possible the formation of a room, or some little rafters whicll
suggest the walls and the corners, it first observes the varioi
parts accurately, and then quickly and neatly heaps little pelled
of earth in the interspaces and alongside the stalks. It bringj
from every side materials that seem appropriate, and somi
times takes such from the uncompleted works of its companiod
so much is it urged on by the idea which it has once conceivel
and by the desire to execute it. It goes and comes and turisl
back again, until its plan is recognisable by the others.

Ebrard, in his * Etudes de Moeurs ' (p. 3), gives m
following remarkable instance of the display of intellij
gence of F. fusca : —

The earth was damp and the workers were in full swi

ANTS — GENERAL INTELLIG EXC E.

129

was a constant coming and going of ants, coming forth
foiii their underground dwelling, and carrying back little
ellcts of earth for building. In order to concentrate my
kention I fixed my gaze on the largest of the rooms which
[ere being built, wherein several ants were busy. The work
made considerable progress; but although a projection
ul(i be plainly seen along the ui>per edge of the wall, there
iiuained an interspace of about twelve or fifteen millimetres
fill in. Here would have been the place, in order to support
e earth still to be brought in, to have had recourse to those
liars, buttresses, or fragments of dried leaves, which many
ts are wont to use in building. But the use of this expedient
not customary with the ants I was obsei'ving {F. fnsca).
Ii:r ants, however, were sufficient for the occasion. For
moment they seemed inclined to leave their work, but
■m turned instead to a grass-plant growing near, the long
Lrrow leaves of which ran close together. They chose the
Rarest, and weighted its distal end with damp earth, until its
ex just bent down to the space to be covered. Unfortunately
Pe bend was too close to the extremity, and it threatened to
eak. To prevent this misfortune, the ants gnawed at the
se of the leaf until it bent along its whole length and covered
[e space required. But as this did not seem to be quite enough,
ley heaped damp earth between the base of the plant and that
' the leaf, until the latter was sufficiently bent. After they
^d thus attained their object, they heaped on the buttressing
Elf the materials required for building the arched roof.
The characteristic trait of the building of ants, says Forel,
the almost complete absence of an unchangeable model,
culiar to each species, such as is found in wasps, bees, and
lers. The ants know how to suit their indeed little perfect
3rk to circumstances, and to take advantage of each situation,
sides, each works for itself and on a given plan, and is only
sionally aided by others when these understand its plan,
iturally many collisions occur, and some destroy that which
iera have made. This also gives the key to understanding
|e labyi'inth of the dwelling. For the rest, it is always those
)rkers which have discovered the most advantageous method,
which have shown the most patience, which win over to their
the majority of their comrades and at last the whole colony,
though not without many fights for supremacy. But if one
iceeds in obtaining a second to follow it, and this second
iws the others after it, the first is soon lost again in the
)wd.

;* it

130

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Espinas also observed (' Thierischen Gesellschafte
German translation, 1879, p. 371) that each single ,
made its own plan and followed it until a comrade, wlij
had caught the idea, joined it, and then they worked i
gethor in the execution of the same plan.

Bloggridge says of the harvesters of Europe, —

I have observed on more than one occasion that when]
digging into an ants' nest I have thrown out an elater lar
the ants would cluster round it and direct it towards soa
small opening in the soil, which it would quickly enlarges
disappear down. At other times, however, the ants would
no notice of the elater ^ and it is my belief that the attentifj
paid to it on former occasions were purely selfish, and ilj
they intended to avail themselves of the tunnel thus m
down into the soil, with the view of reopening communicatiij
with the galleries and granaries concealed below, the approaq
to which had been covered up. I have frequently watched t
ants make use of these passages mined by the e later on thd
occasions.

And again, as showing apparently intelligent adaptatij
of their usual habits to altered circumstances, he gives s
account of the behaviour of these ants when a gra
crowd of them were confined by him in a glass jar coj
taining earth. He says : —

On the following morning the openings were ten in numh
and the greatly increased heaps of excavated earth showed i
they must probably have been at work all night. The amoui
of work done in this short time was truly surprising, for I
must be remembered that, eighteen hours before, the earth pij
sented a perfectly level surface, and the larvae and ants, nij
housed below, found themselves prisoners in a strange pla
bounded by glass walls, and with no exit possible.

It seems to me that the ants displayed extraordinary intel]
gence in having thus at a moment's notice devised a planf
which the superabundant number; of workers could be e^
ployed at one time without coming in one another's way.
soil contained in the jar was of course less than a tenth part]
that comprised within the limits of an ordinary nest, while t
number of workers was probably more than a third of the toij
number belonging to the colony. If therefore but one or
entrances had been pierced in the soil, the workers would bj
been for ever running against one another, and a great numlf

ANTS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

131

luM never have got below to help in the all-important task
I preparing passages and chambers for the accommodation of
1} larva). These numerous and funnel-shaped entrances ad-
jtted of the simultaneous descent and ascent of large numbers
[ants, and the work progressed with proportionate rapidity,
ftcr a few days only t' oe entrances, and eventually only one,
mined open.

Concerning the harvesting ant of Texas, the following
lotation may be made, under the present head, from
lacCook. After remarking that these ants always select
Inny places wherein to build their nests, or disks, he
\es on to say that within a few paces of his tent —

A nest was made which was partly shaded by a small mea-
^te tree that stood just beyond the margin of the clearing,
[le sapling had probably grown up after the location of the

imunity, and for some reason had been permitted to remain
^til too old to kill off. The shadow thrown upon the pave-
Dnt was very slight ; nevertheless, fifteen feet distant a new
miicary was being established. The path from the ranch to

spring ran between this new hill and the old one, and ants
Ere in commimication between the two. An opening had
en made in the ground, and the beginnings of a new formicary
^re quite apparent. This is the only instance observed of
aat seemed an attempt at colonising or removing, and I as-
ciated it with the presence of the small but growing shadow
[the young tree.

He also gives us a still more remarkable observation,
lich indeed, I must candidly say, does not appear to me
Bdible. I am, therefore, glad to add that it does not
ipear very distinctly from the account whether the
jthor himself made the observation, or had it narrated
him by his guide. But here is the observation in his
words : —

While studying the habits of the cutting ant I was tempted
I make a night visit to a farm some distance from camp, by

farmer's story of depredations made by these insects upon
btaui plants and vegetables. A long, dark tramp, a blind
Id vain search among the fields, compelled us at last to call
|t the countryman from his bed. He led us directly to one

the cutting ants* nests, which was overshadowed by a
|ung peach tree. * There they be, sir,' cried he triumphantly.

K 2

132

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

They were agriculturals ! So also were the other nests sho\t
The reason for this confounding of the two ants on the panj
the people hereabouts, and the reason for the ' cutting ' operatif*
of our harvesters, will be explained farther on. It is oiilv]
point here to say that the farmer affirmed that the ants unJ
the peach tree had stripped off the first tender leaves last spiiil
so that scarcely one had been left upon the limbs. I am
vinced that the reason for this onslaught was the desire toljej
of the obnoxious shade, and open the formicary to the full H-
of the sun.

From this account it is not very clear whether
writer himself saw evidence of the former denudation I
the tree, and if so whether there was any indicatifi
other than the word of the farmer, that the deniidati
had been effected by the ants. To make this conclui!;]
credible the best conceivable evidence would be requmj
and this, unfortunately, is just what we find wantii^
Somewhat the same remarks may be made on the follcii
ing quotation from the same writer, though in this cJ
his view is to some extent supported by an observationj
Moggridge, as well as by that of Ebrard already quoted J

Here I observed what appeared to be a new mode of opeij
tion. The workers, in several cases, left the point at wtii
they had begun a cutting, ascended the blade, and passed
far out toward the point as possible. The blade was tliusboiJ
downward, and as the ant swayed up and down it real
seemed that she was taking advantage of the leverage
gained, and was bringing the augmented force to bear upon!
fracture. In two or three cases there appeared to be a divisil
of labour ; that is to say, while the cutter at the roots keptJ
with her work, another ant climbed the grass blade and applii
the power at the opposite end of the lever. This position
have been quite accidental, but it certainly had the appearai
of a voluntary co-operation. I was sorry not to be able to«
tablish this last inference by a series of observations, as
facts were only observed in this one nest.

The observation of Moggridge, to which I have alludtl
as in some measure rendering support to the foregoing,
as follows. Speaking of European harvesters which
kept in an artificial nest for the purposes of close obse|
vation, he says :—

A.NTS -GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

133

I was also in this way able to see for myself much that I
lerwise could not have seen. Thus I was able to watch the
Bration of removing roots which had pierced through their
[Ueries, belonging to seedling plants growing on the suiface,
Id which was performed by two ants, one pulling at the free
(d of the root, and the other gnawing at its fibres where the
hun was gi'eatest, until at length it gave way.

And again, —

Two ants sometimes combine their efforts, when one stations
3lf netir the base of the peduncle, and gnaws it at the point of
patest tension, while the other hauls upon and twists it. . . .
liave occasionally seen ants engaged in cutting the capsules
[certain plants, drop them, and allow their companions below
[carry them away.

Lastly, the statements of these three observers taken
rether serve to render credible the following quotation
m Bingley,^ who says that in Captain Cook's expedition
|Xew South Wales ants were seen by Sir Joseph Banks

others —

green as a leaf, which live upon trees and build their
)ts of various sizes, between that of a man's head and his fist.
jese nests are of a very curious structure : they are formed by
ading down several of the leaves, each of which is as broad
|a man's hand, and gluing the points of them together so as
form a purse. The viscous matter used for this purpose is
laiiimal juice. . . . Their method of bending down leaves we

no opportunity to observe ; but we saw thousands uniting
[their strength to hold them in this position, while other busy
[Ititudes were employed within, in applying this gluten, that

to prevent their returning back. To satisfy ourselves that
1 leaves were bent and held down by the efforts of these dimi-
live artificers, we disturbed them in their work ; and as soon
they were driven from their station, the leaves on which they
re employed s]n'ang up with a force much greater than we
jld have thought them able to conquer by any combination
|heir strength.

This remarkable fact also seems to be corroborated
I the following independent observation of Sir E.
inent: —

.•1;

Animal J)wf/raj)Jft/, *Ants.'

134

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

The most formidable of all is the great red ant, or DimiJ
It is particularly abundant in gardens and on fruit-trees;]
constructs its dwellings by gluing the leaves of such species
are suitable from their shape and pliancy into hollow balls,
these it lines with a kind of transparent paper, like that mar]
factured by the wasp. I have watched them at the interest!;
operation of forming these dwellings ; — a Hne of ants standi!
on the edge of one leaf bring another into contact with it,
hold both together with their mandibles till their companid
within attach them firmly by means of their adhesive paper,
assistants outside moving along as the work proceeds. If itj
necessary to draw closer a leaf too distant to be laid hold ofl
the immediate) workers, they form a chain by depending
from the other till the object is reached, when it is at leu;]
brought into contact, and made fast by cement.

I shall now pass on to the remarkable observation ccj
municated to Kirby by Colonel Sykes, F.R.S., and ^\
is thus narrated by Kirby in his * History, Habits,
Instincts of Animals : ' —

When resident at Poena, the dessert, consisting of fn
cakes, and various preserves, always remained upon a smalls
table, in a verandah of the dining-room. To guard agaiJ
inroads, the legs of the table were immersed in four basins fiil
with water ; it was removed an inch from the wall, anAJ
keep ofi" dust from open windows, was covered with a tableckl
At first the ants did not attempt to cross the water, but as (
strait was very narrow, from an inch to an inch and a half.s
the sweets very tempting, they appear, at length, to have braij
all risks, to have committed themselves to the deep, to 1
scrambled across the channel, and to have reached the oVi
of their desires, for hundreds were found every morning revelli
in enjoyment : daily vengeance was executed upon them uij
out lessening their numbers ; at last the legs of the table t|
painted, just above the water, with a circle of turpentine,
at first seemed to prove an efiectual barrier, and for some (
the sweets were unmolested, after which they were again i
tacked by these resolute plunderers ; but how they got
them seemed totally unaccountable, till Colonel Sykes, whoofj
passed the table, was surprised to see an ant drop from the i
about a foot above the table, upon the cloth that covered!
another and another succeeded. So that though the turpenq
and the distance from the wall appeared efiectual barriers,!

ANTS — GENER.iL INTELLIGENCE.

135

le resources of the animal, when determined to carry its point,
Rre not exhausted, and by ascending the wall to a certain

[jffht with a slight effort against it, in falling it managed to
id in safety upon the table.

Colonel Sykes was a good observer, so that this state-
lent, standing upon his authority, ought not, perhaps, to
questioned. But in all cases of remarkable intelligence
[splayed by animals, we naturally and properly desire
Irroboration, however good the authority may be on
lich the statement of such cases may rest. I will, there-
add the following instances of the ingenious and
ttermined manner in which ants overcome obstacles, and
lich so far lend confirmation to the above account.

Professor Leuckart placed round the trunk of a tree,
lich was visited by ants as a pasture for aphides, a broad
)th soaked in tobacco-water. When the ants returning
\me down the trunk of the tree arrived at the soaked
)th, they turned round, went up the tree again to some

the overhanging branches, and allowed themselves to
[op clear of the obnoxious barrier. On the other hand,
le ants which desired to mount the tree first examined
|e nature of the barrier, then turned back and procured
)m a distance little pellets of earth, which they carried

their jaws and deposited one after another upon the
bacco-cloth till a road of earth was made across it, over
lich the ants passed to and fro with impunity.

This interesting, and indeed surprising observation of
bckart's is, in turn, a corroboration of an almost
entical one made more than a century ago by Cardinal
leury, and communicated by him to Reaumur, who
Iblished it in his 'I'Histoire des Insect 93' (1734).
|ie Cardinal smeared the trunk of a tree with birdlime

order to prevent the ants from ascending it ; but the
sects overcame the obstacle by making a road of earth,
lall stones, &c., as in the case just mentioned. In
lother instance the Cardinal saw a number of ants make
Dridge across a vessel of water surrounding the bottom

an orange-tree tub. They did so by conveying a
Imber of little pieces of wood, the choice of which
iterial instead of earth or stones, as in the previous case,

1 I

136

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

seems to betoken no small knowledge of practical engineer!
ing.

Biichner, after quoting these cases, proceeds to sail
(loc, cit, p. 120), —

The ants behaved in yet more ingenious fashion under tij
following very similar circumstances. Herr G. Theuerka
the painter (Wasserthorstr. 49, Berlin), writes to the authoi
November 18, 1875: *A maple tree standing on the grounj
of the manufacturer, Vollbaum, of Elbing (now of Dantzicl
swarmed with aphides and ants. In order to check the mij
chief, the proprietor smeared about a foot width of the grouil
round the tree with tar. The first ants who wanted to ciosl
naturally stuck fast. But what did the next ? They turiitf
back to the tree and carried down aphides, which they stuck do?
on the tar one after another until they had made a bridge ovJ
which they could cross the tarring without danger. The aboJ
named merchant, Yollbaum, is the guarantor of this stonj
which I received from his own mouth on the very spot wherei
it occurred.

Biichner also gives the following case on the authoritJ
of Karl Vogt (loc, cit., p. 128). An apiary of a friend waf
invaded by ants : —

To make this impossible for the future, the four legs of \i
beehive-stand were put into small, shallow bowls filled wit|
water, as is often done with food in ant-infested places,
ants soon found a way out of this, or rather a way into theil
beloved honey, and that over an iron staple with which ta
stand was attached to a neighbouring wall. The staple ra
removed, but the ants did not allow themselves to be defeats
They climbed into some linden trees standing near, the branctsl
of which hung over the stand, and then dropped upon it froJ
the branches, doing just the same as their comrades do witf
respect to food surrounded by water, when they drop upon il
from the ceiling of the room. In order to make this imp
sible, the boughs were cut away. But once more the an*!
were found in the stand, and closer investigation sho^v«
that one of the bowls was dried up, and that a crowd of affJ
had gathered in it. But they found themselves puzzled howtJ
go on with their robbery, for the leg did not, by chance, rest oi
the bottom of the bowl, but was about half an inch from ill
The ants were seen rapidly touching each other with tlieii
antennae, or carrying on a consultation, until at last a rathej

ANTS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

137

ifctev ant came forward and put an end to the difficulty. It
ose to its full height on its hind legs, and struggled until at
ist it seized a rather projecting splinter of the wooden leg, and
janaf'ed to take hold of it. As soon as this was done other
[nts ran on to it, strengthened the hold by clinging, and so made
little living bridge, over which the others could easily pass.

The same author publishes the following very remark-
Ible observation, quoted from a letter to him by Dr. EUen-
lorf: —

It is a hard matter to protect any eatables from these
features, let the custody be ever so close. The legs of cup-
3ards and tables in or on which eatables are kept are placed in
[essels of water. I myself did this, but I none the less found
lousands of ants in the cupboard next morning. It was a
luzzle to me how they crossed the water, but the puzzle was
3on solved ; for I found a straw in one of the saucers, which
Ly obliquely across the edge of the pan and touched the leg
[ tie press : this they had used for a bridge. Hundreds were
rowned in the wat«r, apparently because disorder had reigned

first, those coming down with booty meeting those going up.
^iit now there was perfect order ; the descending stream used
16 side of the straw, the ascending the other. I now pushed
lie straw about an inch away from the cupboard leg ; a terrible
tjnfus'-n arose. In a moment the leg immediately over the
[ater was covered with hundreds of ants, feeling for the bridge

every direction with their antennae, running back again and
[iming in ever larger swarms, as though they had communicated
I their comrades within the cupboard the fearful misfortune
lat had taken place. Meanwhile the new-comers continued

run along the straw, and not finding the leg of the cupboard
lie greatest perplexity arose. They hurried round the edge of
p pan, and soon found out where the fault lay. With united
frees they quickly pulled and pushed at the straw, until it
jain came into contact with the wood, and the communication
[as again restored.

This observation is strikingly, though unconsciously,
)nfirmed by a recent writer in the Leisure Hour (1880,
). 718-19), who having been much troubled by small red
its in the tropics swarming over his provisions, placed
16 latter in a meat-safe detached from the wall and
mding on four legs, each of which was placed in a little
[n vessel containing water. Eight or ten days afterwards

f !

138

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

he found his provisions in the safe swarming with antsai
before, and on investigating their mode of access to thee
found —

Proceeding along the whitewashed wall a string of antil
going and coming from the outer door to a height of four feJ
on my wall, and corresponding with that of the safe ; and looij
ing between it and the wall, I discovered the secret — the brid?
which these persevering little insects had made. It consisted J
a broken bit of straw, which rested with one end on a nin
buttress fixed to the wall, and the other on the overhanging i
projecting top of the safe, which came within an inch and a hail
of the wall. So they must have carried the straw up from i
floor, and resting their end of it on the support they had pn
pared, let it fall until its other end reached the safe, and thes
crossed and completed the structure, for it was fastened at M
ends with the mortar composed of their saliva and fine eartll
Ruthlessly I destroyed the bridge, and moving the safe fartteT
from the wall, managed to prevent their inroads for that se&scJ
at least. Since then I have frequently seen short bridges, con)
posed entirely of the concrete or mortar which the white anJ
use to cover up their workings, extending from a damp earthef
wall to anything not more than three-quarters of an inq
from it.

Of the Ecitons Mr. Belt says : —

I shall relate two more instances of the use of a reasoniiij
faculty in these ants. I once saw a wide column trying to pai
along a crumbling, nearly perpendicular slope. They woulJ
have got very slowly over it, and many of them would ha^
fallen, but a number having secured their hold, and reachliil
to each other, remained stationary, and over them the maif
column passed. Another time they were crossing a watercouil
along a small branch, not thicker than a goose-quill. Tlief
widened this natural bridge to three times its width by
number of ants clinging to it and to each other on each sid]
over which the column passed three or four deep; where
excepting for this expedient they would have had to pass ot^
in single file, and treble the time would have been consumei
Can it be contended that such insects are not able to determiil
by reasoning powers which is the best way of doing a thing '

Another observer, writing from the same part of tlj
world to Biichner, gives a still more wonderful account!
the ingenuity of Ecitons in crossing water. This observd

ANTS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

139

Herr H. Kreplin, of Heidemiihl (Station Ducherom),
Fwho lived for nearly twenty years in South America as
In engineer, and had often the opportunity of seeing the
jriver ants in the forests there.' He writes to Biichner,
inder date May 10, 1876, as follows: —

On both sides of the train, at about 10 mm. distance from

iach othe:', stronger ants are to be seen, distinguishable from

le others by their foxy colour and very thick heads with

rigantic mandibles. These * thickheads ' play the same r6U in

Jhe ant-state for which they are cast in cultured communities.

[bey look after the order of the march, and allow none to turn

kther to the right or left» The least confusion in the regularity

If the march makes them turn round and put things straight

itrain. While the procession of the brown workers streams

^n unceasingly with a swarming motion, the ' officers,' as the

aatives call these thickheads, run constantly backwards and

Ibrwards, ready to take the command on meeting any difficulty.

Che crossing of streams by these creatures is the most interest-

ig point. If the watercourse be narrow j the thickheads soon

ind trees, the branches of which meet on the bank on either

^ide, and after a short halt the column set themselves in motion

Dver these bridges, rearranging themselves in the narrow train

rith marvellous quickness on reaching the further side. But

no natural bridge be available for the passage, they travel

silong the bank of the river until they arrive at a fiat sandy

fehore. Each ant now seizes a bit of dry wood, pulls it into the

rater, and mounts thereupon. The hinder rows push the front

raes even further out, holding on to the wood with their feet

and to their comrades with their jaws. In a short time the

rater is covered with ants, and when the raft has grown too

large to be held together by the small creatures' strength, a part

Weaks itself off and begins the journey across, while the antis

left on the bank busily pull their bits of wood into the water,

md work at enlarging the ferry-boat until it again breaks.

Phis is repeated as long as an ant remains on shore. I had

often heard described this method of crossing riversj but in the

fear 1859 I had the opportunity of seeing it for myself.

It is remarkable that the military or driving ants of

Lfrica exhibit precisely similar devices for the bridging; of

Btreams, namely, by forming a chain of individuals over

fhich the others pass. By means of similar chains they

ilso let themselves down from trees. It must be observed,

140

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

however, that these and all the above observations, beiml
independently made and separately recorded, serve to corJ
roborate one another so strongly that we can entertain nJ
reasonable doubt concerning the wonderful facts whiciil
they convey.

I shall now bring these numerous instances to a clo>J
with a quotation from Mr. Belt, which reveals in the mostl
unequivocal manner surprising powers of observation acdl
rational action on the part of the leaf-cutting ants oil
South America, whose general habits we have already conJ
sidered : —

A nest was made near one of our tramways, and to get
the trees the ants had to cross the rails, over which the waggonjl
were continually passing and repassing. Every time.they camel
along a number of ants were crushed to death. They perse^l
vered in crossing for some time, but at last set to work anji
tunnelled underneath each rail. One day, when the waggoDsl
were not running, I stopped up the tunnels with stones ; but!
although ffreat numbers carrying leaves were thus cut off froml
the nest, they would not cross the rails, but set to work making
fresh tunnels underneath them.

Anatomy and Physiology of Nerve-centres and

Sense-organs.

The foregoing facts concerning the intelligence ofl
ants fully justifies Mr. Darwin's observation that 'the!
brain of an ant is one of the most marvellous atoms oil
matter in the world, perhaps more so than the brain of
man.' It may therefore be interesting in this particular|
case to depart from the lines otherwise laid down through-
out the present work, and to devote a short section to the |
anatomy and physiology of this nerve-centre with its ap-
pended organs of sense.

The brain of an ant, then, is proportionally larger than I
that of any other insect. (See Titus Grraber, ' Insects,' vol
i. p. 255.) In structure, also, the brain of an ant is in
advance of that of other insects, its nearest analogue beiag
the brain of a bee. The superiority of development is
particularly remarkable with reference to the ' stalked
bodies ' of Dujardin ; and these are largest in neuter

ANTS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

141

)rkers, which are the most intelligent members of the
ommunity.

Injury of the brain causes, as in higher animals,
etanic spasms and involuntary reflex movements, followed
y stupefaction.

An ant, whose brain has been perforated by the pointed
anclibles of an amnzon, remains as though nailed to its place ;
shudder runs from time to time through its body, and one of
ts legs is lifted at regular intervals. It occasionally makes a
ihort and quick step, as though driven by an unseen spring,
)ut, like that of an automaton, aimless and objectless. If it is
ulled, it makes a movement of avoMance, but falls back into
ts stupefied condition as soon as it is released. It is no longer
apable of action consciously directed to a given object; it
either tries to escape, nor to attack, nor to go back to its
ome, nor to rejoin its companions, nor to walk away ; it feels
either heat nor cold, it knows neither fear nor desire for food.
t is merely an automatic and reflex machine, and is exactly
imilar to one of those pigeons from which Flourens removed
he hemispheres of the cerebrum. Just in the same way behaves
he body of an ant from which the head has been taken away.
n the numerous fights between amazons and other ants, count-
cases have been observed of slight injury to the brain,

ess

trhich have caused the most remarkable phenomena. Many of
[lie wounded were seized with a mad rage, and flung them-
elves at every one that came in their way, whether friend or
loe. Others assumed an appearance of indifference, and walked
Brenely about in the midst of the fighting. Others exhibited
sudden failure of strength ; but they still recognised their
lemies, approached them, and tried to bite them in cold
[lood, in a way quite foreign to the behaviour of healthy ants.
They were also often observed to run round and round in a

ircle, the motion

resembling

the manege, or riding-school

ction of mammals, when one of the crura cerebri has been

emoved.
If an ant is cut in half through the thorax, so that the great

[erve ganglia of the pro-thorax remain untouched, the behaviour
the head shows that intelligence also remains untouched.
nts mutilated in this way try to go forwards with their two
g legs, and beg with their antennsB for their com-
mons' aid. If one of these latter lets itself be stopped, then

[e observe a lively interchange of thanks and sympathy ex-

ressed by the actively moving antennae. Forel placed near to

( .1

142

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

each other two such mutilated bodies of the F. ru/ibarbis. TheJ
conversed with each other in the above-described way, and aJ
peared each to beg for help. But when he put in some simJ
larly mutilated ants of a hostile species, F. sanguinea, M
picture was changed; war broke out between these cripple.!
just in the same way and with the same fury as between per]
feet ants.'

The antennae appear to be the most important of til
sense-organs, as their removal produces an extraordinarl
disturbance in the intelligence of the animal. An ant « [
mutilated can no longer find its way or recognise coul
panions, and therefore is unable to distinguish betweeJ
friends and foes. It is also unable to find food, ceases t[
engage in any labour, and loses all its regard for larvjj
remaining permanently quiet and almost motionless,
somewhat similar disturbance, or rather destruction, of til
mental faculties is observable as a result of the saif
mutilation in the case of bees.^

' Biichner, Geisteslchen der Thiere, English translation, p. 49.

2 While this work is passing through the press, an interesti!i|
Essay has been published by Mr. MacCook on the Honey -making Ai
I am not here able to refer to this Essay at greater length, but haij
done so in a review in Nature (March 2, 1882.) — G. J. R.

143

CHAPTER IV.

BEES AND WASPS.

[rranging this chapter under the same general headings
the one on ants, we shall consider first —

Powers of Special Sense.

Bees and wasps have much greater powers of sight
mn ants. They not only perceive objects at a greater

kstance, but are also able to distinguish their colours.

[his was proved by Sir John Lubbock, who placed honey
slips of paper similarly formed, but of different colours ;

[hen a bee had repeatedly visited a slip of one colour (A),
transposed the slips during the absence of the bee ; on

Is return the insect did not fly to slip B, although this now
[icupied the position which had been previously occupied
slip A, but again visited slip A, although this now occu-

Eed the position which had been previously occupied by

[ip B. Therefore, as these experiments were again and
jain repeated both on bees and wasps with uniform re-
Its, there can be no question that the insects by their
rst visits to slip A established an association between
le colour of A and the honey upon it, such that, when
ley again returned and found B in the place of A, they

^ere guided by their memory of the colour rather than
their memory of the position. It was thus shown that
16 insects could distinguish green, red, yellow, and blue.

these experiments also brought out the further fact that
3th bees and wasps exhibit a marked preference for some
)loiirs over others. Thus, in a series of black, white,

lellow, orange, green, blue, and red slips, two or three

lees paid twenty-one visits to the orange and yellow, and
i]y four to all the other slips. The slips were then moved,

144

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

after which, out of thirty-two visits, twenty-two were
the orange and yellow. Another colour to which a simili;
preference is shown is blue.

As regards scent, Sir John found that on putting a h
drops of eau de Cologne at the entrance of a beehivj
' immediately a number (about 15) came out to see wlia
was the matter.' Other scents had a similar effect ; bj
on repetition several times the bees became accustom^
to the scent, and no longer came out.

As in ants, so in bees. Sir John's experiments failed]
yield any evidence of a sense of hearing. But in this conne
tion we must not forget the well-known fact, fir^t obserw
by Huber, that the queen bee will answer by a certain soui;|
the peculiar piping of a pupa queen ; and again, by makin
a certain cry or humming noise, will strike consteraati]
suddenly on all the bees in the hive — these remaining fj
a long time motionless as if stupefied.

Sense of Direction,

The following are Sir John Lubbock's ohservatioii|
upon this subject in the case of bees and wasps : —

Every one has heard of a * bee-line.* It would be no
correct to speak of a wasp-line. On August 6 I marked |
wasp, the nest of which was round the corner of the house,
that her direct way home was not out at the window by whid
she had entered, but in the opposite direction, across the rooii
to a window which was closed. I watched her for some ho^l^J
during which time she constantly went to the wrong windoJ
and lost much time in buzzing about at it. For ten consecutii[
days this wasp paid numerous visits, coming in at the op
window, and always trying, though always unsuccessfully,
return to her nest in the * wasp-line ' of the closed window-
buzzing about that window for hours at a time, thoii^
eventually on finding it closed she returned and went rou
through the open window by which she always entered;

This observation shows how strong must be the instincl
in a wasp to take the shortest way home, and how muc|
the insect depends upon its sense of direction in so doina
It also shows how long a time it requires to learn by indij
vidual experience the properties of a previously unknot

BEES AND WA8PH SENSE OF DIKECTION.

14')

Ibstance such as glass. But to this latter point we shall
lesently have occasion to return.

Next we must adduce evidence to show that in way-
iding the * sense of direction ' in bees appears to

largely supplemented by observation of particular
iects.

Sir John Lubbock observes : * I never found bees to
turn if brought any considerable distance at once. By
[ing them, however, some twenty yards each time they
me to the honey, I at length trained them to come to

room ; ' that is to say, bees require to learn their way
tie by little before they can return to a store of honey
lich they may have been fortunate enough to find ; their
leral sense of direction is not in itself a sutiicient
lide. This, at least, is the case where, as in the experi-
^nts in question, the bees are carried from the hive to
store of honey (here a distance of less than 200
rds): possibly if they had found the honey by them-
Ives flying towards it, and so probably taking note of
jects by the way, one journey might have proved suffi-
[nt to teach them the way. But, whether or not this
iild have been the case, the fact that when carried they
mired also to be taught the way piece by piece, is con-
[sive proof that their sense of direction alone is not

icient to enable them to traverse a route of 200 yards

3cond time.

The same result is brought out by other experiments
iducted on a different plan, though not apparently
|h this object. ' My room is square, with two windows

the south-west side, where the hive was placed, and
on the south-east.' Besides the ordinary entrance
outside, the hive had a small postern door opening

the room.

6.50 a bee came out through the little postern door. After
she had fed, she evidently did not know her way home ;
so I put her back.
7,10 she came out again. I again fed her and put her
I back.

110.15 she came out a third time ; and again I had to put
her back.

146

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

At 10.55 she came out again, and still did not remember tk.

door. Though I was satisfied that she really wisy

to return, and was not voluntarily remaining outside f

still, to make the matter clear, I turned her out s|

a side window into the garden, when she at onj

returned to the hive.
At 11.15 she came out again ; and again I had to show hertj

way back.
At 11.20 she came out again; and again I had to show hertJ

way back (this makes five times) ; when, however,-!
At 11.30 she came out again after feeding, she returned straifj

to the hive.
At 11.40 she came out, fed, and returned straight to the hive
At 11.50 she came out, fed, and returned straight to the hiv

she then stayed in for some time.
At 12.30 she came out again, but seemed to have forgotten tlJ

way back ; after some time, however, she found ti^

door and went in.
Again : — August 24 at 7.20 a bee came through the
em : I fed her ; and though she was not frightened or disturb
when she had finished her meal she flew to the window and 1
evidently lost her way ; so at 8 o'clock I in pity put her b
myself.

August 29. — A bee came out to the honey at 10.10; atlCJ
she flew to the window, and remained buzzing about till 11,!|
when, being satisfied that she could not find her way, I
her in.

Nay, even those who seemed to know the postern, if taksj
near the other window, flew to it, and seemed to have
themselves.

This cost me a great many bees. Those which got intoEi
room by accident continually died on the floor near i:j
window.

These observations show that even when a bee is ii
carried from the hive to the honey, but heraeU flies toi
her sense of dirf action is not alone sufficient to enable tl
to find the way back to the hive — or, rather, to the unaj
customed entrance to the hive from which she had coe
out. Probably if the side window had been open, the
would have returned to the hive round the corner of tlJ
house, and through the entrance to which she was nicj
accustx)med. But as it was she had to learn, by five

BEES AND WASPS — SENSE OF DIRECTION. 147

h ioumeys, the way between the postern entrance and

le food.

But the following observation on a wasp is in this eon-
iection the most conclusive.

A marked wasp visited honey exposed in the room
[efore mentioned. ' The next morning she came —

it 7.25, and fed till 7.28, when she began flying about the
room and even into the next ; so I thought it well to
put her out of the window, when she flew straight
away to her nest. My room, as already mentioned,
had windows on two sides ; and the nest was in the
direction of a closed window, so that the wasp had to
go out of her way in going out through the open one.

^t 7.45 she came back. I had moved the glass containing the
honey about two yards ; and though it stood conspi-
cuously, the wasp seemed to have much difliculty
in finding it. Again she flew to the window in the
direction of her nest, and I had to put her out, which
I did at 8.2.

i.t 8.15 she returned to the honey almost straight. 8.21, she
flew again to the closed window, and apparently could
not find her way ; so at 8.35 I put her out again. It
seems obvious from this that wasps have a sense of
direction, and do not find their way merely by sight.

it 8.50 back to honey, and 8.54 again to wrong window ; but
finding it closed, she took two or three turns round
the room, and then flew out through the open
window.

It 9.24 back to the honey; and 9.27 away, first, however,
paying a visit to the wrong window, but without
alighting.

[t .9.36 back to the honey, and 9.39 away, but, as before, going

first to wrong window.

She was away therefore 9 minutes.

„ 9.53 away, this time straight. „ 11

10. 7

9.50
10
10.19
10.35
10.47
11. 4
11.21
11.34
11.49

)}

10.22
10.39
10.50
11. 7
11.24
11.37
11.52

>»

))

it
1)

»>

»)

14
14
10
1

>»

»>

L 2

148

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

12. 3 bock to

12. 5 aw

the honey,

12.13

12.15i ,

12.25

12.28 ,

12.39

12.43 ,

12.54

12.57 ,

1.15

1.19 ,

1.27

1.30 ,

12. 5 away. Away therefore U minutiea^»)bstructed to a

n
it
if
a
a
a

8
10
11
11

8 minutes,'!
&c., &c., the way being now clearly well learnt.

But that the sense of direction is of much service t(|
bees in finding the locality of their hives seems to k\
indicated by the following observation thus narrated, oil
the authority of the authors themselves, by Messrs. KirbJ
and Spence : —

In vain, during my stay at St. Nicholas, I sallied out a
every outlet to try to gain some idea of the extent and formt
the town. Trees, trees, trees, still met me, and intercepted ttJ
view in every direction ; and I defy any inhabitant bee of M
rural metropolis, after once quitting its hive, ever to gain I
glimpse of it again until nearly perpendicularly over it. Ikl
bees, therefore, .... must be led to their abodes by instinct, iJ

The observation, however, is not so conclusive as iJ
authors suppose ; for there is nothing to show that tlif
bees did not take note of particular objects on their a J
customed routes, and so learn these routes by stages, ij
would be worth while in this connection to try the effeJ
of hooding the eyes of a bee, or, if this were deemed to|
disturbing an experiment, removing the hive bodily to i
distance from its accustomed site, and observing whethel
the bees start away boldly as before for long flights, (J
learn their new routes by stages.

In this connection I may quote the following.

Mr. John Topham, of Marlborough House, Torquajj
writing to * Nature,' ^ says : —

On October 29, 1873, I removed a hive of bees in ml
garden, after it was quite dark, for a distance of 12 yards froij
the place in which it had stood for several months;
between its original situation and the new one there wasj
bushy evergreen tree, so that all sight of its former place '

' Vol. ix. p. 484.

BEES AND WASPS— SENSE OF DIRECTION.

149

11 minuter ^l)bstructed to a person looking from the new situation of the

ive.

Notwithstanding this change, the bees every day flew to the
locality where they formerly lived, and continued flying around
^he site of what had been their home until, as night came on,
they many of them sank upon the grass exhausted and chilled
W the cold. Numbers, however, returned alive to their new
position, after having looked in vain for their hive in its old
place. At night I picked the exhausted bees up, and having
festered warmth to them (by leaving them for a time on my

oat-sleeve), I returned them to their companions.

Here was an illustration that the faculty of memory was
liiperior to that of observation ; but that was not all. Nearly
fevery bee which I picked up during the 23 days through which
[his effort of memory lasted was an old one, as was easily de-
luced from observing the worn edges of the wings ; showing

aat whilst the young insects were quick in receiving new im-
pressions and in correcting errors, the nervous system of the
fid bees continued acting in the direction which early habit had

feded. So true it is that *one touch of nature makes the

rhole world kin.*

A closely similar observation has been told me by a
Hend, Mr. Greorge Tmner. He found that when he
|emoved a beehive only a yard or two from its accus-
omed site, the bees, on returning home, flew in swarms
round the latter, and for a long time were unable to find
le hive. And several other similc«r cases might be
Iduced. Lastly, Thompson says : —

It is highly remarkable that they [bees] know their hive
[lore from its locality than from its appearance, for if it be re-
loved during their absence and a similar one be substituted,
aey enter the strange one. If the position of a hive be changed,
lie bees for the first day take no distant flight till they have
horoughly scrutinised every object in its neighbourhood.^

On the other hand, the writer of the article on ' Bees '
the * Encyclopaedia Britannica ' says that in certain parts
If France it is the habit of bee-keepers to place a number
[f hives upon a boat, which, in charge of a man, floats
lowly down a river. The bees are thus continuously
panging their pasture-ground, and yet do not lose their
ocomotive hives.

' Passions of AnimalSy p. 53.

f: •

f:-

u , ■ 1

1- ■

'r i

I ■'- • \ i

<: 4

150

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

It may be here worth while to add, parentheticallj, ^
the only authentic observation with which I am acquaintel
concerning the distance that bees are accustomed
forage, the following statement of Prof. Hugh BlackburB,[
Writing from Glasgow University to * Nature,' ' he savil
that bees ave found in a certain peach-house every spriiJ
at the time of blossom, although, so far as he can ascerf
tain, the beehives nearest to the peach-house in questk|
are his own, and these are at a distance of ten miles.

On the whole, then, and in the absence of furtlieii
experiments, we must conclude it to be probable that tlj
sense of direction with which hymenopterous insects ar?,
as shown by some of Sir John Lubbock's experiments, ur,
questionably endowed, is of no small use to them in firj;
ing their way from home to food and vice versa ; althoiii I
it appears certain, from other of his experiments, tliJ
this sense of direction is not in all cases a sufficient guid ,1
and therefore requires to be supplemented by the definii:|
observation of landmarks.

But the most conclusive evidence on this latter poiii]
is afforded by a highly interesting observation of )tl
Bates on the sand-wasps at Santurem, which may here Ivl
suitably introduced, as the insects are not distantly alliedl
He describes these animals as always taking a few tiLiI
in the air round the hole they had made in the sanl
before leaving to se«k for flies in the forest, apparently iil
order to mark well the position of the burrow, so that o:|
their return they might find it without difficulty. TtiJ
observation has been since confirmed in a striking maniit:
by Mr. Belt, who found that the sand-wasp takes the luoi
precise bearings of an object the position of which sli
desires to remember. This observation is so interestiul
that it deserves to be rendered in extenso : —

A specimen of Polistes carni/ex (i.e. the sand-wasp noticej
by Mr. Bates) was hunting about for caterpillars in my gardeJ
I found one about an inch long, and held it out towards it o|
the point of a stick. It seized it immediately, and eommeno
biting it from head to tail, soon reducing the soft body to a niaij
of pulp. It rolled up about one-half of it into a ball, and pK

» Vol. xii. p. 68.

BEES AND WASPS — MEMORY.

151

jired to carry it off. Being at the time amidst a thick mass of

fine-leaved climbing plant, it proceeded, before flying away,

take note of the place where it was leaving the other half.

Fo do this, it hovered in front of it for a few seconds, then took

lall circles in front of it, then larger ones round the a\ hole

ilant. I thought it had gone, but it returned again, and had

Inother look at the opening in the dense foliage down which

ae other half of the caterpillar lay. It then flew away, but

lust have left its burden for distribution with its comrades at

jhe nest, for it returned in less than two minutes, and making

be circle around the bush, descended to the opening, alighted

In a leaf, and ran inside. The green remnant of the catei-

lillar was lying on another leaf inside, but not connected with

[he one on which the wasp alighted, so that in running in it

lissed it, and soon got hopelessly lost in the thick foliage.

boming out again, it took another circle, and pounced down on

le same spot again, as soon as it came opposite to it. Three

[mail seed-pods, which here grew close together, formed the

larks that I had myself taken to note the place, and these the

rasp seemed also to have taken as its guide, for it flew directly

(own to them, and ran inside ; but the small leaf on which the

ragment of caterpillar lay not being du'ectly connected with

Iny on the outside, it again missed it, and again got far away

rom the object of its search. It then flew out again, and the

ime process was repeated again and again. Always when in

ircling round it came in sight of the seed-pods down it pounced,

[lighted near them, and recommenced its quest on foot. I was

kirprised at its perseverance, and thought it would have given

»p the search ; but not so, it returned at least half-a-dozen

jimes, and seemed to get angry, hurrying about with buzzing

rings. At last it stumbled across its prey, seized it eagerly,

id as there was nothing more to come back for, flew straight

Iff to its nest, without taking any further note of the locality.

Such an action is not the result of blind instinct, but of a

linking mind ; and it is wonderful to see an insect so differ-

itly constructed using a mental process similar to that of

lan.

Memory.

We may here first allude to an observation of Sir
[ohn Lubbock already quoted in another connexion (see

147). It is here evident that the wasp, after find-
ig the store of honey in the room, and after finding
lie window closed in the * wasp-line ' direction to its nest,

■^;f«

152

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

required three repeated lessons from Sir John before !<lie|
leaimt that the window on the other side of the room, am]
away from the direction of her nest, afforded no obstacle i
to her exit. Having learnt this, the fourth time shJ
came she again flew to the closed window as before, and
then, as if but dimly remembering that there was another
opening somewhere that offered no such mysterious |
resistance to her passage, ' she took two or three turns
round the room, and then flew out through the open I
window.' Having now taken the bearings of all the room
upon her own wings, and having again found the difference
between the two windows in respect of resistance, although
in all other respects so much alike, the next time sie|
came she made in the first instance as it were an experi-
mental flight towards the closed window, but clearly hadl
the alternative of going to the open one in her memory;
for on finding the window closed as before, she did not
alight, but flew straight from the closed to the open windoifi
The same thing happened once again, but now, mi
the distinction between the two windows thus fully learnt, I
and with it the perception that in this case * the shortl
est cut was the longest way round,' she never again flewtol
the closed window ; in the forty successive visits which she
paid through the remainder of that day, and the hundredl
visits or so which she made during the two following days,|
she seems to have uniformly flown to the open window.

As evidence of forgetfulness, it will be enough to refer!
to the case of another wasp which, under precisely similai]
circumstances to those just detailed, learnt her way out
the open window one day, having made fifty passages]
through it in five hours. Yet Sir John remarks, —

It struck me as curious that on the following day this waspl
seemed by no means so sure of her way, but over and over|
ai'ain went to the closed window.

It is further of interest to note, as showing the simil
larity of the memory displayed by these insects with tbtl
of the higher animals, that there are considerable indij
vidual differences to be found in the degree of
manifestation.

Mi:

BEES AND WASPS — MEMORY.

153

In this respect they certainly differ considerably. Some of

Ithe bees which came out of the little postei'n door (already de-

Bcribed) were able to find their way back after it had been shown

to them a few times. Others were much more stupid ; thus one

Itee came out on the 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 14th, 15th, 16th,

|l7th 18th, and 19th, and came to the honey; but though I

repeatedly put her back through the postern, she was never

^ble to find her way for herself.

I often found that if bees which were brought to honey did
lot return at once, still they would do so a day or two after-
i-ards. For instance, on July 11, 1874, a hot thundery day,
ind when the bees were much out of humour, I brought
twelve bees to some honey ; only one came back, and that one
piily twice ; but on the following, day several of them returned.

This latter observation is important, as proving that
bees can remember for at least a whole day the locality
fhere they have found honey only once before, and that
Ihey so far think about their past experiences as to return
to that locality when foraging.

As the association of ideas by contiguity is the prin-
iple which forms the basis of all psychology, it is de-
lirable to consider still more attentively this the earliest
anifestation that we have of it in the memory of the
ymenoptera. That it is not exercised with exclusive
eference to locality is proved by the following observation
f Sir John Lubbock : —

I kept a specimen of Polistes Gallica for no less than nine
aonths.' ... I had no difficulty in inducing her to feed on
(ly hand ; but at first she was shy and nervous. She kept her
ting in constant readiness. . . . Gradually she became quite
[ised to me, and when I took h'^r on my hand apparently ex-
ected to be fed. She even allowed me to stroke her without
Iny appearance of fear, and for some months I nerer saw her
Iting.

One other observation which goes to prove that other

lings besides locality are noted and remembered by

pees may here be quoted. Sir John placed a bee in

bell jar, the closed end of which he held toward^ a

Hndow. The bee buzzed about at that end trying to

' ' Three months ' in the Journal of the Linnsean Society, but Sir
ohn Lubbock informs me that thi'^ is a misprint.

154

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

make for the open air. He then showed her the way out I
of the open end of the jar, and after having thus learnt
it, she was able to find the way out herself. This seems
to show that the bee, like the wasp on the closed window-
pane, was able to appreciate and to remember the differ,
ence between the quality of glass as resisting and air a;
permeable, although to her sense of vision the difference!
must have been very slight. In other words, the bee
must have remembered that by first flying away from tlie
window, round the edge of the jar, and then towards tlifl
window, she could surmount the transparent obstacle;
and this impUes a somewhat different act of memory fror
that of associating a particular object — such as honej-l
with a particular locality. It is noteworthy that a fly undir
similar circumstances did not require to be taught to finil
its way out of the jar, but spontaneously found its owb
way out. This, however, may be explained by the fac:
that flies do not always direct their flight towards windousj
and therefore the escape of this one was probably not duf
to any act of intelligence.

While upon the subject of memory in the Hymenopfcera,!
it is indispensable that we should again refer to the m
servation of Messrs. Belt and Bates already alluded to oil
pages 150-51. For it is fi:om that observation renderell
evident that these sand-wasps took definite pains, as it I
were, to teaxih themselves the localities to which thejl
desired to return. Mr. Bates further observed that afteil
thus taking a careful mental note of the place, they woulil
return to it without a moment's hesitation after an absenccl
of an hour. The observation of Mr. Belt, already quotdl
in extensOf proves that these mental notes may be takeol
with the utmost minuteness, so that even in the nio?t|
intricate places the insect, on its return, is perfectly coii|
fident that it has not marie a mistake.

With regard to the duration of memory, Sticknejl
relates a case in which some bees took possession ofi
hollow place beneath a roof, and having been then rel
moved into a hive, continued for several years to retun|
and occupy the same hole with their successive swarms.'
* See Kirby and Spenoe vol. ii. p. 591.

BEES AND WASPS— EMOTIONS.

155

pains, as

Similarly Huber relates an observation of his own
gliowing the duration of memory in bees. One autumn

put some honey in a window, which the bees visited in
111 roe numbers. During the winter the honey was taken
iway and the shutters shut. When they were again
ipeiied in the spring the bees returned, although there
IMS no honey in the window.

These two cases amply prove that t]\3 memoiy of bees
iv comparable with that of ants, which, as we have seen
from analogous facts, also extends at least over a period
)f many months.

Emotions,

Sir John Lubbock's experiments on this head go to
^how that the social sympathies of bees are even less de-
veloped than he found them to be in certain species of
mts. Thus he says :- -

I have already mentioned with reference to the attachment
i hich bees have been said to show for one another, that though

have repeatedly seen them lick a bee which had smeared her-
Blf in honey, I never observed them show the slightest atten-
tion to any of their comrades who had been drowned in watei*.
Far, indeed, from having been able to discover any evidence of
Itffection among them, they appear to be thoroughly callous and
litterly indifferent to one another. As already mentioned, it
ras necessary for me occasionally to kill a bee ; but I never
[bund that the others took the slightest notice. Thus on the
ilth of October I crushed a bee close to one which was feeding

-in fact, so close that their wings touched ; yet the survivor
[ook no notice whatever of the death of her sister, but went on
leeding with every appearance of composure and enjoyment,
just as if nothing had happened. When the pressure was re-

loved, she remained by the side of the corpse without the
[lightest appearance of apprehension, sorrow, or recognition.
It was, of course, impossible for her to understand my reason
lor killing her companion ; yet neither did she feel the slightest
pmotion at her sister's death, nor did she show any alarm lest
[lie same fate should befall her also. In a second case exactly
[lie same occurred. Again, I have several times, while a bee
m been feeding, held a second bee by the leg close to her ; the
Jirisoner, of course, struggled to escape, and buzzed as loudly as
[lie could ; yet the selfish eater took no notice whatever. So

166

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

BEES AND y

far, therefore, from being at all affectionate, I doubt whether
bees are in the least fond of one another.

Keaumur, however (* Insects,' vol. v., p. 265), nar.
rates a case in which a hive-bee was partly drowned a&J
so rendered insensible ; the others in the hive carefullJ
licked and otherwise tended her till she recovered. TliiJ
seems to show that bees, like ants, are more apt to havj
their sympathies aroused by the sight of ailing or iiijure<i|
companions than by that of healthy companions in distress;!
but Sir John Lubbock's observations above quoted go tj
prove that even in this case display of sympathy is cer|
tainly not the rule.

Poivers of Communication,

Huber says that when one wasp finds a store of honetl
*it returns to its nest, and brings oif in a short time 11
hundred other wasps ; ' and this statement is confirmeiil
by Dujardin, who witnessed a somewhat similar perform-
ance in the case of bees — the individual which first hum
a concealed store informing other individuals of the fact,|
and so on till numberless individuals had found it.

Although the systematic experiments of Sir Jolul
Lubbock have not tended to confirm these observatioibl
with regard to bees and wasps, we must not too readily alloil
his negative results to discredit these positive observatii
— more especially as we have seen that his later experi|
ments have fully confirmed the opinion of these previc
authors with respect to ants. His experiments on beeil
and wasps consisted in exposing honey in a hidden sitmf
tion, marking a bee or wasp that came to it, and obsemni
whether it afterwards hrought any companions to shaifl
the booty. He found that although the same insecti
would return over and over again, strangers came m
rarely that their visits could only be attributed to accil
dental and independent discovery. Only if the hoDe|
were in an exposed situation, where the insects could m
one another feeding, would one follow the other to tlifj
food.

But we have the more reason not to accept unreservedlj

same insect!

BEES AND WASPS -POWERS OF COMMUNICATION. 157

the conclusion to which these experiments in themselves
light lead, because the very able observer F. Miiller
States an observation of his own which must be consider<'d
alone sufficient to prove that bees are able to com-
iiunicate information to one another: —

Once (he says') I assisted at a curious contest, which took
[)lace between the queen and the other bees iu one of my hives,
rhich throws some light on the iutellcctual faculties of these
inimals. A set of forty-seven cells have been filled, eight on a
newly completed comb, thirty-five on the following, and four
ftiound the first cell of a new comb. When the queen had
jnid eggs in all the cells of the two older combs she went several
Itimes round their circumference (as she always does, in order to
ascertain whether she has not forgotten any cell), and then pre-
pared to retreat into the lower part of the breeding-room. But

she had overlooked the four cells of the new comb, the
rorkers ran impatiently from this part to the queen, pushing
ber, in an odd manner, with their heads, as they did also other
rorkers they met with. In consequence the queen began again
ko ffo around on the two older combs ; but as she did not find
iny cell wanting an egg she tried to descend, but everywhere
khe was pushed back by the workers. This contest lasted for a
[nther long while, till the queen escaped without having com-
bleted her work. Thus the workers knew how to advise the
jueen that something was as yet to be done, but they knew not
Sow to show her where it had to be done.

Again, Mr. Josiah Emery, writing to * Nature,' ^ with
Reference to Sir John Lubbock's experiments, says that the
faculty of communication which bees possess is so well
Ind generally known to the * bee-hunters ' of America,
[hat the recognised method of finding a bees' nest is to
let upon the faculty in question : —

Going to a field or wood at a distance from tame bees,
rith then box of honey they gather up from the flowers and

iprison one or more bees, and after they have become auffi-
fcently gorged, let them out to return to their home with their

sily gotten load. Waiting patiently a longer or shorter time,

tjcording to the distance of the bee-tree, the hunter scarcely

fver fails to see the bee or bees return accompanied with other

ees, which are in like manner imprisoned till they in turn are

' Letter to Mr. Darwin, published in NdUire, vol. x., p. 102
' Vol. xii., pp. 25-6.

158

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

filled, when one or more are let out at places distant from eacL
other, and the direction in each case in which the bee Diej
noted, and thuH, by a kind of triangulation, the position of rli^
bee-tree proximately ascertained.

Those who have stored honey in their houses understiiil
very well how impoiiant it is to prevent a single bee from dij.
covering its location. Such discovery is sure to be followed li,
a general onslaught from the hive unless all means of access; ij i
prevented. It is possible that our American are more inteili
gent than European bees, but hardly probable ; and I certainh
shall not ask an Englishman to admit it. Those in AmeritJ
who are in the habit of playing first, second, and third tiddlJ
to instinct will probably attribute this seeming intelligence to |
that principle.

According to De Fravi^re, bees have a number of differ-
ent notes or tones which they emit from the stigmata of
the thorax and abdomen, and by which they communicate!
information. He says : —

As soon as a bee arrives with important news, it is at ocft
surrounded, emits two or three shrill notes, and taps a com-
rade with its long, ^exible, and very slender feelera, or antennie,]
The friend passes on the news in similar fashion, and the intel
ligence soon traverses the whole hive. If it is of an agreealkl
kind — ^if, for instance, it concerns the discovery of a store oil
sugar or of honey, or of a flowering meadow — all remaicjl
orderly. But, on the other hand, great excitement arises if tit
news presages some threatened danger, or if strange animals
are threatening invasion of the hive. It seems that such intel I
ligence is conveyed first to the queen, as the most important j
person in the state.

This account, which is quoted from Biichner, 111
doubt bears indications of imaginative colouring ; but i'l
the observation as to the emission of sounds is correct-l
and, as we shall see, this point is well confirmed by otlieil
observers — it is most likely concerned in communicating
by tone a general idea of good or harm : probably in M
former case it acts as a sign, ' follow me ;* and in the latteil
as a signal of danger. Biichner further says that, accoid[
ing to Landois, if a saucer of honey is placed before
hive, a few bees come out, which emit a cry of tut, tuil
tut. This note is rather shrill, and resembles the cry ol

IJKKS AND WASPS— POWERS OF COMMUNICATION. 159

an attacked bee. Hereupon a large number of bees come
out of the hive to collect the offered honey.
Again, —

The best way to observe the power of communication pos-
sessed by bees by means of their interchange of touches, is to
take iiway the queen from a hive. In a little time, about an
hour afterwards, the sad event will be noticed by a small part
I of the community, and these will stop working and run hastily
I about over the comb. But this only concerns part of the hive,
1 and the side of a single comb. The excited bees, however, soon
leiive the little circle in which they at first revolved, and when
I they meet their comrades they cross their antennae and lightly
toucli the others with them. The bees which have received some
I impression from this touch now become uneasy in their tuin,
ami convey their uneasiness and distress in the same way to
the other parts of the dwelling. The disorder increases rapidly,
spreads to the other side of the comb, and at last to all the
people. Then arises the general confusion before described.

Huber tested this communication by the antennse by a
[striking experiment. He divided a hive into two quite sepa-
rate parts by a partition wall, whereupon great excitement
arose in the division in which there was no queen, and this
was only quieted when some workers began to build royal cells.
He then divided a hive in similar fashion by a trellis, through
which the bees could pass their feelers. In this case all re-
mained quiet, and no attempt was made to build royal cells :
tlie queen could also be clearly seen crossing her antennte with
he workers on the other side of the trellis.

Apparently the feelers are also connected with the exceed-
ingly fine scent of the bees, which enables them, wondeiful as
t may seem, to distinguish fiiend and foe, and to recognise
he members of their owii hive among the thousands and
housands of bees swarming around, and to drive back from the
ntrance stranger or robber bees. The bee-masters, therefore,
hen they want two separate colonies or the members of them
unite in one hive, sprinkle water over the bees, or stupefy
hem with some fumigating substance, so as to make them to a
ertain extent insensible to smell, in order to attain their
bject. It is always possible to unite colonies by making the
s smell of some strong-smelling stuff, such as musk.^

Lastly, under the present heading I shall quote one
other observation, for which I am also indebted to

' Loo. cit.

■J

160

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Buchner's very admirable collection of facts relating to the
psychology of Hymenoptera : —

Herr L. Brofil relates, in * der Zoologische Garten ' (XVIII,
Year, No. 1, p. 67), that a poor and a rich hive stood next each
other on his father's bee-stand, and the latter suddenly lost its
queen. Before the owner had come to a decision thereupon the
bees of the two hives came to a mutual understanding as to the
condition of their two states. The dwellers in the queenles
hive, wich their stores of provisions, went over into the less
populous or poorer hive, after they had assured themselves, bv
many influential deputations, as to the state of the interior of
the poor hive, and, as appeared, especially as to the presence of
an egg-laying queen !

I It

General Habits.

The active life of bees is divided between collecting
food and rearing young. We shall therefore consider
these two functions separately.

The food collected consists of two kinds, honey (which,
although stored in the * crop ' for the purpose of carriage
from the flowers to the cells, appears to be but the con-
densed nectar of flowers) and so-called ' bee-bread.' This
consists of the pollen of flowers, which is worked into a kind
of paste by the bees and stored in their cells till it is re-
quired to serve as food for their larva3. It is then partly
digested by the nurses with honey, so that a sort of chyle
is formed. It is observable that in each flight the ' carrier
bees ' collect only one kind of pollen, so that it is possible
for the * house bees ' (which, by the way, are the younger
bees left, at home to discharge domestic duties with onlj
a small proportion of older ones, left probably to direct
the more inexperienced young) to sort it for storage in
different cells. In the result there are several differeni
kinds of bee-bre^ad, some being more stimulating ornn-
tritious than others. The most nutritious has the effect.
when given to any female larva, of developing that larva
into a queen or fertile female. This fact is well known
to the bees, who only feed a small number of larvae in tlii;
manner, and the larvae which they select so to feed thej
place in larger or * royal ' cells, with an obvious fore

BEES AND WASPS -GENERAL HABITS.

161

knowledge of the increased dimensions to which the
[nimal will grow under the influence of this food. Only
[ne queen is required for a single hive; but the bees
[iways r3,ise several, so that if any mishap should occur to
[ne other larvae may be ready to fall back upon.

Besides honey and bee-bread two other substances are
Bund in beehives. These are propolis and beeswax.
fhe former is a kind of sticky resin collected for the most
irt from coniferous trees. This is used as mortar in
luilding, &c. It adheres so strongly to the legs of the
ee whioh has gathered it, that it can only be detached
the help of comrades. For this purpose the loaded
Be presents her legs to her fellow-workers, who clean it
with their jaws, and while it is still ductile, apply it
[)und the inside of the hive. According to Huber, who
^ade this observation, the propolis is applied also to the
sides of the cells. The workers first planed the surfaces
[ith their mandibles, and one of them then pulled out a
iread of propolis from the heap deposited by the carrier
pes, severed it by a sudden throwing back of the head,
id returned with it to the cell which it had previously
Sen planing. It then laid the thread between the two
ills which it had planed ; but, proving too long, a portion
[the thread was bitten off. The properly measured portion
IS then forced into the angle of the cell by the fore-feet
id mandibles. The thread, now converted into a narrow
bbon, was next found to be too broad. It was therefore
^awed down to the proper width. Other bees then com-
Bted the work which this one had begun, till all the walls
I the cells were framed with bands of propolis. The ob-
pt of the propolis here seems to be that of giving strength
I the cells.
The wax is a secretion which proceeds from between
segments of the abdomen. Having ingested a largt^
Bal of honey, the bees hang in a thick cluster from the
of their hive in order to secrete the wax. When it
jins to exude, the bees, assisted by their companions,
' it off into heaps, and when a sufficient quantity of the
|iterial has been thus collected, the work begins of build-
[ the cells. As the cells are used both for storing food and

162

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

rearing young, I shall consider them later on. Now we|
have to pass to the labours incidental to propagation.

All the eggs are laid by one queen, who requires during i
this season a large amount of nourishment, so mucH
indeed, that ten or twelve working bees (i.e. sterile females
are set apart as her feeders. Leaving the * royal cell
she walks over the nursery-combs attended oy a retinufl
of workers, and drops a single egg into each open eel,
It is a highly remarkable fact that the queen is abletJ
control the sex of the eggs which she lays, and onlJ
deposits drone or male eggs in the drone cells, ancl
worker or female eggs in the worker cells — the cells pre-l
pared for the reception of drone larvae being larger tliail
those required for the worker larvae. Young queens k\
more worker eggs than old queens, and when a queeJ
from increasing age or any other cause, lays too large jl
proportion of drone eggs, she is expelled from the coiii.|
munity or put to death. It is remarkable, also, undtil
these circumstances, that the queen herself seems to knoifl
that she has become useless, for she loses her propensit(
to attack other queens, and so does not run the risk oil
making the hive virtually queenless. There is nowi|
doubt at all that the determining cause of an egg h
ing out male or female is that which Dzierzon has slio\(
namely, the absence or presence of fertilisation — unfertiJ
lised eggs always developing into males, and fertilisej
ones into females. The manner, therefore, in which i
queen controls the sex of her eggs must depend on soi
power that she has of controlling their fertilisation.

The eggs hatch out into larvaE;, which require consta
attention from the workers, who feed them with the clijlj
or bee-bread already mentioned. In three weeks lioij
the time that the egg is deposited, the white worm-lil
larva has passed through its last metamorphosis. ^SU
it has emancipated itself its nurses assemble round it J
wash and caress it, as well as to supply it with fooj
They then clean out the cell which it has left.

When so large a number of the larvae hatch out asj
overcrowd the hive, it is the function of the queen to k
forth a swarm. Meanwhile several larval queens have bei

BEES AND WASPS — SWARMING.

163

e IS noY?!

course of development, and matters are so arranged by

[lie foresight of the bees, that one or more young queens

ire ready to emerge at a time when otherwise the hive

Fould be left queenless. But the young queen or queens,

[ithough perfectly formed, must not escape from their

['ml prison-houses until the swarm has fairly taken place ;

iie worker bees will even strengthen the coverings of

Jiese prison-houses if, owing to bad weather or other

luses, swarming is delayed. The prisoner queens,

Irhich are fed through a small hole in the roof of their

ells, now continually give vent to a plaintive cry, called

ly the bee-keepers ' piping,' and this is answered by the

lother queen. The tones of the piping vary. The

eason why the young queens are kept such close

Irisoners till after the departure of the mother queen

lith her swarm, is simply that the mother queen would

lestroy all the younger ones, could she get the chance,

stinging them. The workers, therefore, never allow

le old queen to approach the prisons of the younger

They establish a guard all round these prisons or

les.

byal cells, and beat off the old queen whenever she

ideavours to approach. But if the swarming season is

irer, or anything should prevent a further swarm fiom

sing sent out, the worker bees offer no further resistance

the jealousy of the mother queen, but allow her in cold

|ood to sting to death all the young queens in their nursery

isons. As soon as the old queen leaves with a swarm,

lie young queens are liberated in succession, but at

[tervals of a few days ; for if they were all liberated at

ke they would fall upon and destroy one another. Each

bung queen as it is liberated goes off with another

parm, and those which remain unliberated are as carefully

larded from the liberated sister queen as they were

[eviously guarded from the mother queen. When the

ison is too late for swarming the remaining young

^eens are liberated simultaneously, and are then allowed

fight to the death, the survivor being received as

rereign.

The bees, far from seeking to prevent these battles, appear
|excite the combatants against each other, surrounding and

M 2

n^i

164

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

bringing them back to the charge when they are disposed to I
recede from each other ; and when eithei? of the queens shows
disposition to approach her antagonist, all the bees forming tie I
cluster instantly give way to allow her full liberty of attack
The first use which the conquering queesn makes of her victorv
is to secure herself against fresh dangers by destroying all her
future rivals in the royal cells ; while the other bees, wLichare
spectators of the carnage, share in the spoil, greedily devourinj
any food which may be found at the bottom of the cells, anil
even sucking the fluid from the abdomen of the pupae befoi
they toss out the carcasses.*

Similarly, when a strange queen is put into a hivj]
already provided with a queen —

A circle of bees instinctively crowd around the invader, not I
however, to attack her — for a worker n ever assaults a queen-l
but to respectfully prevent her escape, in order that a comkl
may take place between her and their reigning monarch. Tbl
lawful possessor then advances towards the part of the comll
where the invader has established herself, the attendant workeni
clear a space for the encounter, and, without interfering, \vai;|
the result. A fearful encounter then ensues, in which onetl
stung to death, the survivor mounting the throne. Althou'il
the workers of a de facto monarch will not fight for her defeDCfl
yet, if they perceive a strange queen attempting to enter tkj
hive, they will surround her, and hold her until she is starvfil
to death ; "but such is their respect for royalty that they neT9[
attemot to sting her.^

All these facts display a wonderful amount of m
parently sagacious purpose on the part of the workerJ
although they may not seem to reflect much credit oiittj
intelligence of the queens. But in this connection u
must remember the observation of F. Huber, who sai
two queens, which were the only ones left in the hivJ
engaged in mortal combat; and when an opportuniij
arose for each to sting the other simultaneously, tlitf
simultaneously released each other's grasp, as if in honJ
of a situation that might have ended in leaving the liiJ
queenless. This, then, is the calamity to avert which s

' Art. • Bees,' EnGyol. Brit.

^ Dr. Kemp, Indications oj Instinct,

BEES AND WASPS — KILLING DRONES.

IGo

[he instincts both of workers and queens are directed.

^nd that these instincts are controlled by intelligence is

Inffgested, if not proved, by the adaptations which they

[how to special circumstances. Thus, for instance, F.

luber smoked a hive so that the queen and older l3ees

Effected their escape, and took up their quarters a short

listance away. The bees which remained behind set

[bout constructing three royal cells for the purpose of

[earing a new queen. Huber now carried back the old

Lieen and ensconced her in the hive. Immediately the

hees set about carrying away all the food from the royal

[ells, in order to prevent the larvae contained therein from

Jeveloping into queens. Again, if a strange queen is pre-

[ented to a hive already provided with one, the workers do

lot wait for their own queen to destroy the pretender, but

lemselves sting or smother her to death. When, on the

Ither hand, a queen is presented to a hive which is with-

lut one, the bees adopt her, although it is often necessary

Dr the bee-master to protect her for a day or two in a

reUis cage, until her subjects have become acquainted

nth her. When a hive is queenless, the bees stop all

fork, become restless, and make a dull complaining noise.

[his, however, is only the case if there is likewise a total

Dsence of royal pupae, and of ordinary pupae under three

ays of age — i.e. the age during which it is possible to

Bar an ordinary larva into a queen.

As soon as the queen has been fertilised, and the
)rvices of the drones therefore no longer required, the
[orker bees fall upon their unfortunate and defenceless
(•others to kill them, either by direct stinging or by
growing them out of the hive to perish in the cold. The
j:ones' cells are then torn down, and any remaining drone
jgs or pupjB destroyed. Grenerally all the drones — which
tay number more than a thousand — are slaughtered in
^p course of a single day. Evidently the object of this
bssacre is that of getting rid of useless mouths ; but
jere is a more difficult question as to why these useless
iouths ever came into existence. It has been suggested
jiat the enormous dispropor ' ion between the present
imber of males and the single fertile female refers to

■r

166

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

a time before the social instincts became so complex of
consolidated, and when, therefore, bees lived in lesset
communities. Probably this is the explanation, although
I think we might still have expected that before tk.
period in their evolution had arrived bees might have de.
veloped a compensating instinct, either not to alW $
queen to lay so many drone eggs, or else to massacre tlf
drones while still in the larval state. But here we mustr^
member that among the wasps the males do work (chieii
domestic work, for which they are fed by their foragiD;
sisters) ; so it is possible that in the hive-bee the drone<
were originally useful members of the community, ani
that they have lost their primitively useful instincts. Bm
whatever the explanation, it is very curious that herj
among the animals which are justly regarded as exhibitinJ
the highest perfection of instinct, we meet with perhafj
the most flagrant instance in the animal kingdom li
instinct unperfected. It is the more remarkable tk;
the drone-killing instinct should not have been better de-
veloped in the direction of killing the drones at the mos
profitable time — namely, in their larval or oval state-
from the fact that in many respects it seems to have been
advanced to a high degree of discriminative refinemeDtl
Thus, to quote Buchner, —

That the massacre of the drones is not performed entirelJ
from an instinctive impulse, but in full consciousness of tt
object to be gained, is proved by the circumstance that it
carried out the more completely and mercilessly the more ferl
tile the queen shows herself to be. But in cases where tliil
fertility is subject to serious doubt, or when the queen has
fertilised too late or not at all, and therefore only lays dronesl
eggs, or when the queen is barren, and new queens, to be feij
tilised later, have to be brought up from working-bee lam
then all or some of the drones are left alive, in the clear pn
vision that their services will be required later. . . . This ^vL»^
calculation of consequences is further exemplified in that sonitj
times the massacre of the drones takes place before the time I
swarming, as, for instance, when long-continued unfix vouwWj
weatlipr succeeds a favourable beginning of spring, and mafe
the bees anxious for theii' own welfare. If, however, tlJ
weather breaks, and work again becomes possible, so that tliJ

BEES AND WASPS — KILLING DRONES.

167

Ibees take courage anew, they then biing up new drones, and
orepare them in time for the swarming. This killing of droneK
IS distinguished from the regular drone massacre by the fact

Ithat the bees then only kill the developed drones, and leave the
Irone larvse, save when absolute hunger compels their destruc-
Not less can it be regarded as a prudent calculation of

tion.

circumstances w hen the bees of a hii'e, brought from our tempe-
ate climate to a more southern country, where the time of col-
lecting lasts longer, do not kill the drones in August, as usual,
3ut at a later period, suitable to the new conditions

But the philosophy of drone-killing is, I think, even
lore difficult in the case of the wasps than in that of the
3ees. For, unlike the bees, whose communities live from
fear to year, the wasps all perish at the end of autumn,
nth the exception of a very few fertilised females. As
^his season of universal calamity approaches, the workers
iestroy all the larval grubs — a proceeding which, in the
[ipinion of some writer>^, strikingly exemplifies the bene-
^cence of the Deity ! Now, it does not appear to me easy
\o understand how the presence of such an instinct in this
base is to be explained. For, on the one hand, the indi-
Hdual females which, are destined to live through the
dnter cannot be conspicuously benefited by this slaughter
k grubs ; and, on the other hand, the rest of the com-
lunity is so soon about to perish, that one fails to see of
rhat advantage it can be to it to get rid of the grubs. If
[he whole human race, with the exception of a few women,
rere to perish periodically once in a thousand years, the
ice would profit nothing by destroying, a few months
jieforethe end of each millennium, all sick persons, lunatics,
jind other * useless mouths.' I have not seen this difficulty
nth regard to the massacring instinct in wasps mentioned
kfore, and I only mention it now in order to draw atten-
ion to the fact that there seems to be a more puzzling
[roblem presented here than in the case of the analogous
istinct as exhibited by bees. The only solution which
kas suggested itself to my mind is the possibility that in
larlier times, or in other climates, wasps may have re-
smbled bees in living through the winter, and that the
hub-slaying instinct is in them a survival of one which

168

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

WJis tli(^n, as in the case of the bees now, a clearly beneficial |
instinct.

For some days b(;fore swarming begins, there is n
great excitement and buzzing in the hive, the temperatinv
of which rises from \)2° to 104°. Scouts having been jirf.
viously sent out to explore for suitable quarters wheniii I
to plant the new colony, these now act as guides. Thf
swarm leaves the hive with their queen. The bees whicll
remain behind busy themselves in rearing out the puj®^
which soon arriving at maturity, also quit the hiveioi
successive swnrms. According to Buchner, * secondarv
swarms with young queens send out no scouts, but Hyi
random through the air. They clearly lack the experience
and prudence of the older bees.' And, regarding M
behaviour of the scouts sent out by primary swarms, tliiil
author says : —

M. de Fravi6re had the opportunity of observing the manner |
in which such an examination is carried on, and with what pm
dence and accuracy. He placed an empty beehive, made in a w I
style, in front of his house, so that he could exactly watch from
liis own window what went on inside and out without disturb
ance to himself or to the bees. A single bee came and examined)
the building, flying all round it and touching it. It then let|
itself down on the board, and walked carefully and thorouglik
over the interior, touching it continually with its antennae soajj
to subject it on all sides to a thorough investigation. Tkl
result of its examination must have been satisfactory, for afterl
it had gone away it returned accompanied by a crowd of somfj
fifty friends, which now together went through the same prof
cess as their guide. This new trial must also have had a gooij
result, for soon a whole swarm came, evidently from a, distanti
spot, and took possession. Still more remarkable is tlitl
behaviour of the scouts wheii they take possession of a satii-l
factory hive or box for an imminent or approaching swaml
Although it is not yet inhabited they regard it as their propertvl
watch it and guard it against stranger bees or other assailanfej
and busy themselves earnestly in the most careful cleansing c
it, so far as this cleansing is impossible to the setter up oil
the hive. Such a taking possession sometimes occurs eight davi[
before the entrance of the swarm.

Wars. — As with ants, so with bees, the great cause i

BEES AND WASPS — WARS.

169

war is plunder ; and facts now well .substantiated by
numberlesH observers concerning ' robber-bees ' indicate
a large measure of intelligence. These aim at lessening
their labour in collecting honey by plundering the store
of other hives. The robberies may be conducted singly oi
I in concert. When the thieving propensity is developed
onlv in individual cases, the thieves cannot rely on force
lin plundering a foreign state, and so resort to cautious
iitealtli. * They show by their whole behaviour — creeping
into the hive with careful vigilance — that they are per-
tly conscious of their bad conduct ; whereas the workers
belonging to the hive fly in quickly and openly, and in
ifull consciousness of their right.' If such solitary burglars
e successful in obtaining plunder, their bad example
eads other members of their own community to imitate
hem; thus it is that the whole bee-nation may de-
elop marauding habits, and when they do this they act
in concert to rob by force. In this case an anny of bees
)recipitates itself upon the foreign hive, a battle ensues,
nd if successful in overcoming resistance, the invaders
irst of all search out the queen-bee and put her to death,
ivhereby they disorganise their enemies and plunder the
ive with ease. It is observed that when this policy is once
uccessful, the spirit of aggrandisement is encouraged, so
hat the robber-bees ' find more pleasure in robbery than
n their own work, .nnd become at last formidable robber-
tates.' When an invaded hive is fairly overcome by
he invaders killing the (jueen, the owners of the hive,
nding that all is lost, not only abandon further resistance,
lit very often reverse their policy and join the ranks of
lieir conquerors. They assist in the tearing down of
heir cells, and in the conveyance of the honey to the
ive of their invaders. 'When the assailed hive is
mptied, the next ones are attacked, and if no effective
esistance is offered, are robbed in similar fashion, so that
in tliis way a whole bee-stand may be gradually destroyed.'
iebold observed the same facts in the case of wasps
Polistes gallica). If, however, the battle turns in favour
f the defenders, they pursue the flying legions of their
iiemies to a distance from their home. It sometimes

170

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

happens that the plundered hive offers no resistance at all
owing to the robbers having visited the same flowers as |
the robbed, and so probably (having much the same smell
not being recognised as belonging to a different com.
munity. The thieves, when they find such to be the case,
may become so bold as to stop the bees that are returnin?
to the hive with their loads, of which they deprive tliem I
at the entrance of the hive. This is done by a process
which one observer, Weygandt,* calls * milking,' and it
seems that the milking bee attains the doubl e advantage
of securing the honey from the milked one and disarminJ
suspicion of the other bees by contracting its smell and
entering the hive loaded, into which it is admitted ^vitli.|
out opposition to continue its plunder.

Sometimes robber-bees attack their victims in tlie|
fields at a distance from the hives. This sort of higlj.
way robbery is generally conducted by a gang of four on
five robber-bees which set upon a single honest bee,
* hold him by the legs, and pinch him until he unfold; I
his tongue, which is sucked in succession by his assailant!,
who then suffer him to depart in peace.'

It is strange that hive-bees of dishonest temperal
raents seem able to coax or wheedle humble-bees into M
voluntary yielding of honey. * Humble-bees have beeiil
known to permit hive-bees to "'^ke the whole honey tktl
they have collected, and to go on gathering more, aiiJ
handing it over, for three weeks, although they refuse t:]
part with it, or seek refuge in flight, when wasps mm
similar overtures.' ^

Besides theft and plunder, there are other causes oil
warfare among bees, which, however, are only apparent isl
their effects. Thus, for some undiscernible reason, duel;|
are not infrequent, which generally end in the death (
one or both combatants. At other times, equally withou'l
apparent reason, civil war breaks out in a hive, whicli ii|
sometimes attended with much slaughter.

Architecture. — Coming now to the construction of tJirl
cells and combs, there is no doubt that here we meet w

» The Bee, 1877, 'iHo.l.

2 Dr. Lindley Kemp, Indications of Instinct.

BEES AND WASPS— ARCHITECTURE.

171

er causes!

the most astonishing products of instinct that are pre-
sented in the animal kingdom. A great deal has been
written on the practical exhibition of high mathematical
principles which bees display in constructing their combs
in the form that secures the utmost capacity for storage
of honey with the smallest expenditure of building
i material. The shortest and clearest statement of the
subject that I have met with is the following, which has
i been given by Dr. Reid : —

There are only three possible figures of the cells which can

I make them all equal and similar, without any useless interstices.

These are the equilateral trimgle, the square, and the regular

hexagon. Mathematicians know that there is not a fourth way

possible in which a plane may be cut into little spaces that

1 shall be equal, similar, and regular, without useless spaces. Of

[the three figures, the hexagon is the most proper for convenience

land strength. Bees, as if they knew this, make their cells

[regular hexagons.

Again, it has been demonstrated that, by making the bottoms
lof the cells to consist of three planes meeting in a point, there
lis a saving of material and labour in no way inconsiderable.
[The bees, as if acquainted with these principles of solid
eometry, follow them most accurately. It is a curious mathe-
matical problem, at what precise angle the three planes which
compose the bottom of a cell ought to meet, in order to make
the greatest possible saving, or the least expense of material and
labour. This is one of the problems which belong to the higher
parts of mathematics. It has accordingly been resolved by
kome mathematicians, particularly by the ingenious Maclaurin,
py a fluctionary calculation, which is to be found in the Transac-
jtions of the Royal Society of London. He has determined
precisely the angle required, and he found, by the most exact
Qensuration the subject would admit, that it is the very angle
which the three planes in the bottom of the cell of a honey-
comb do actually meet.^

Marvellous as these facts undoubtedly are, they may

low be regarded as having been satisfactorily explained.

.iong ago Buffon sought to account for the hexagonal

form of the cells by an hypothesis of mutual pressure.

pupposing the bees to have a tendency to build tubular

' Handcock on Instinct, p. 18.

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172

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

cells, if a greater number of bees were to build in a given
space than could admit of all the parallel tubes beinjr
completed, tubes with flat sides and sharp angles migli!
result, and if the mutual pressure were exactly equal ir,
all directions, these sides and angles would assume the foin
of hexagons. This hypothesis of Buffon was sustained h
such physical analogies as the blowing of a crowd of soaj^
bubbles in a cup, the swelling of moistened peas in a con.
lined space, &c. The hypothesis, however, as thus prf-
sented was clearly inadequate ; for no reason is assignei
why the mutual pressure, even if conceded to exist, should
always be so exactly equal in all directions as to conver
all the cylinders into perfect hexagons — even the ana-
logy of the soap-bubbles and the moistened peas failing.
as pointed out by Brougham and others, to sustain it,
seeing that as a matter of fact bubbles and peas unde:
circumstances of mutual pressure do not assume the forii
of hexagons, but, on the contrary, forms which are coi ■
spicuously irregular. Moreover, the hypothesis fails t( j
account for the particular prismatic shape presented K
the cell base. Therefore it is not surprising that thiil
hjrpothesis should have gained but small acceptance,
Kirby and Spence dispose of it thus : — *He (BufFon) gravely
tells us that the boasted hexagonal cells of the bee are I
produced by the reciprocal pressure of the cylindricJ
bodies of these insects against each other!!" Tie I
double note of admiration here may be taken to expre>-
the feelings with which this hypothesis of Buffon was re-
garded by all the more sober-minded naturalists. Yet i'
turns out to have been not very wide of the mark. Asi I
often the case with the gropings of a great mind, the ides
contains the true principle of the explanation, although i!|
fails as an explanation from not being in a position t
take sufficient cognizance of all the facts. Safer it is k
lesser minds to restrain their notes of exclamation wLiitl
considering the theories of a greater ; however crude (I
absurd the latter may appear, the place of their birtll
renders it not impossible that some day they may piovtl
to have been prophetic of truth revealed by fuller knovj

' Introd. Ent., ii., p. 465.

BEES AND WASPS— ARCHITECTURE.

173

in a given

ibes beino

rles rnigli!

ly equal it,

ae the fom.

iistained k

wd of soajK

IS in a coii-

3 thus pr(-
is assigLfi'i

jxist, shouM
to conver

;n the anp.-

peas failing.

» sustain it,
peas undt:

me the forii:

ch are coi-

esis fails t(.

presented by

ag that tlii>
acceptaiitt,

.ffon) gravely
the bee are
cvlindric;;.
Tl.

n to expre?-
uffon was re-
ists. Yetr
mark. A? v
lind, the ide?
, althouglii*
a position t'
Bafer it is f^
imation wliiit
ver crude c
if their birti-
sy may pi'ov*
f fuller know-

|er!!'»

led^e. Usually in such cases the final explanation is
eventually reached by the working of a yet greater mind,
itul in this case the undivided credit of solving the
|,roblem is to be assigned to the genius of Darwin.

Mr. Waterhouse pointed out ' that the form of the cell
•tands in close relation to the presence of adjoining cells.'
Starting from this fact, Mr. Dju'win says, —

Let us look to the great principle of gradation, and see
whether Nature does not reveal to us her method of work. At
one end of a short series we have hunihle-bees, which use their
old cocoons to hold honey, sometimes adding to them short
tiil)es of wax, and likewise making separate and very irregular
rouuded cells of wax. At the other end of the series we have
the cells of the hive-bee, placed in a double layer. ... In the
series between the extreme perfection of the cells of the hive-
liee and the simplicity of those of the humble-bee we have the
jcells of the Mexican Me.lipona domestica, carefully described
and figured by Pierre Huber. ... It forms a nearly regular
waxen comb of cylindrical cells, in which the young are hatched,
and, in addition, some large cells of wax for holding honey.
These latter cells are nearly spherical and of nearly equal sizes,
land are aggregated into an irregular mass. But the important
thing to notice is, that these cells are always made at that degree
)f nearness to each other that they would have intersected or
broken into each other if the spheres had been completed ;
)ut this is never permitted, the bees building perfectly flat cells
)f wax between the spheres which thue tend to intersect. Hence
each cell consists of an outei* spherical portion ; and of two,
[hree, or more flat surfaces, according as the cell adjoins two,
three, or more other cells. When one cell rests on three other
:ells, which, from the spheres being nearly of the same size, is
rery frequently and necessarily the case, the three flat surfaces
lie united into a pyramid ; and this pyramid, as Huber has
Remarked, is manifestly a gross imitation of the three-sided
Ki-amidal base of the cell of the hive-bee. . . .

Reflecting on this case, it occurred to me that if the Meli-

>na had made its spheres at some given distance from each

[ther, and had made them of equal sizes, and had arranged them

mmetrically in a double layer, the resulting structure would

lave been as perfect as the comb of the hive-bee. Accordingly

wrote to Prof. Miller of Cambridge, and this geometer has

dndly read over the following statement, drawn up from his

iformation, and tells me that it is strictly correct.

lit

174

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

This statement having fully borne out his theory, Mr
Darwin continues : —

Henco we may safely coiicludo that, if wo could 5;lightlv
modify the instincts already possessed by the Melipona, and \u
themselves not very wonderful, this bee would make a structuii
IS wonderfully perfect as that of the hive-bee. We must sup-
pose the Melipona to have the power of forming her cells trulv
spherical, and of equal sizes ; and this would not be very siu
prising, seeing that she already does so to a certain extent, anij
seeing what perfectly cylindrical burrows many insects make iii
wood, apparently by turning round on a fixed point. We mm
suppose the Melipona to arrange her cells in level layers, as siie
already does her cylindrical cells ; and we must further suppose
— and this is the greatest difficulty— that she can somehow judi-
accurately at what distance to stand from her fellow-laboureii;
when several are making theii* spheres ; but she is already so
far able to judge of disttince that she always describes her
spheres so as to intersect to a certain extent ; and then she
unites the points of intersection by perfectly flat surfaces, llv
such modifications of instinct, which in themselves are not ven
wonderful — hardly more wonderful than those which guide a
bird to make its nest, — I believe that the hive-bee has acquired i
through natural selection her inimitable architectural powers.

Mr. Darwin next tested this theory by the experiment
of introducing into beehives plates of wax, and observiug I
that the bees worked upon these plates just as the theorv
required. That is to say, they made their cells by ^y.-
cavating a number of little circular pits at equal distance?
from one another, so that by the time the pits had ac-
quired the width of an ordinary cell, the sides of the pits
intersected. As soon as this occurred the bees ceased to
excavate, and instead began to build up flat walls of wai
on the lines of intersection. Other experiments with very
thin plates of vermilion-coloured wax showed that the
bees all worked at about the same rate, and on opposite
sides of the plates, so that the common bottoms of any
two opposite pits were flat. These flat bottoms *were
situated, as far as the eye could judge, exactly along the
planes of imaginary intersection between the basins on
the opposite sides of the ridge of wax;' so that if the|

' Oriffin of Species, * Cell- making Instinct.'

]]EES AND WASPS —ARCHITECTURE.

175

piiite of wax had been thick enough to admit of the oppo-
site basins being deepened (and widened) into cells, the
mutual intersection o^ adjacent as well as opposite bottoms
would have given rise, as in the first experiment with the
thick plate of wax, to the pyramidal bottoms. Experi-
ments with the vermilion wax also showed, as Huber had
meviously stated, that a number of individual bees work
|bv turns at the same cell ; for by covering parts of grow-
I ing cells with vermilion wax, Mr. Darwin —

Invariably found that the coloiu' was most delicately diffused
I bv the bees — as delicately as a painter could have doue it with
j his brush — by atoms of the coloured wax having been taken

from the spot on which it hrtd been placed, and worked into the
Urowing edges of the cells all round.

Such, omitting details, is the substance of Mr. Darwin's
Itheory. In summary he concludes, —

The work of construction seems to be a sort of balance
Istrnck between many l>ees, all instinctively standing at the
l&ime relative distance fi-om each other, all trying to sweep
lequal spheres, and then building up, or leaving ungnawed, the
[planes of intereection between these spheres.

This theory, while serving as a full and simple expla-
aation of all the facts, has, as we have seen, been so fully
Bubstantiated by observation and experiment, that it de-
serves to be regarded as raised to the rank of a completed
lemonstration. It differs from the theory of BufFon in
^wo important particulars: it embraces all the facts,
md supplies a cause adequate to explain them. This
jiause is natural selection, which converts the random
[pressure ' in Buffon's theory into a precisely regulated
principle. Eandom pressure alone could never produce
[he beautifully symmetrical form of the hexagonal cell
rith the pyramidal bottom ; but it could and must have
produced the intersection of cylindrical cells among pos-
[ibly many extinct species of bees, such as the Meiipona.
whenever this intersection occurred in crowded nests, it
lust clearly have been of great benefit in securing
^conomy of precious wax ; for in every case where a flat
rail of partition between two adjacent cells did duty

l'!|

176

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

instead of a double cylindrical wall of separate cells, there
wax should have been saved. Thus we can see liow
natural selection would have worked towards the develoj).
ing of an instinct to excavate cells near enough together
to produce intersection ; and once begun, there is n*
reason why this instinct should not have been perfectni
by the same agency, till we meet with its ideal perfection
in the hive-bee. For as Mr. Darwin observes, —

With respect to the formation of wax, it is known that
bees are often hard pressed to get sufficient nectar ; and I am
informed by Mr. Tegetmeier that it has been experimentallr
proved that from twelve to fifteen pounds of dry sugar are coii-
sumed by a hive of bees for the secretion of a pound of wax ; so
that a prodigious quantity of fluid nectar must be collected and
consumed by the bees in a hive for the secretion of the v^m
necessary for the construction of their combs. Moreover, inanv
bees have to remain idle for many days during the process ff
secretion. . . . Hence it would continually be more and more
advantageous to our humble-bees if they were to make their
cells more and more regular, nearer together, and aggregated into
a mass, like the cells of Melipona ; for in this case a large part
of the bounding surface of each cell would serve to bound the I
adjoining cell, and much labour and wax would be saved.
A gain, from the same cause, it would be advantageous to the I
Melipona if she were to make her cells closer together, and
more regular in every way than at present ; for then, as we
have seen, the spherical surfaces would wholly disappear and he]
replaced by plane surfaces ; and the Melipona would make i
comb as perfect as that of the hive-bee. Beyond this stage of I
perfection in architecture, natural selection could not lead; for
the comb of the hive-bee, as far as we can see, is absolutely [
perfect in economising labour and wax.

The problem, then, as to the origin and perfection of
the cell-making instinct appears thus to have been fullvl
and finally solved. I tihall now adduce a few facts to shoit
that while the general instinct of building hexagonal
cells has doubtless been acquired by natural selection in
the way just explained, it is nevertheless an instinct not
wholly of a blind or mechanical kind, but is constant!)
under the control of intelligent purpose. Thus Mr. Darwin]
observes, —

tunes recurrm

BEES AND WASPS— ARCHITECTUKE.

177

known tlw.
; and I iiiii
perimentally
gar are con-
d of wax ; so
collected and
I of the WiL\
reover, many
he process fit"
ore and more
make their
'gregated into
3 a large pan
to bound the
lid be saved.
tageons to the

lOgether, ani

then, as we
jappear andbe
vould make a

this stage ot'
not lead; for

is absolutely

perfection <
ive been fully I
factstosho^l
ig hexagonall
selection inl
instinct not
IS constaiitlyl
IS Mr. J)a.m\

It was really curious to note in cases of difficulty, as when
It wo pieces of comb met at an angle, how often the bees would
pull down and rebuild in difftsrent ways the same cell, some-
times recurring to a shape which they had at first rejected.'

Again, Huber saw a bee building upon the wax which
|li:iil ahciidy been put together by her comiades. I^ut she
Llid not arrange it properly, or in a way to continue the
Idi'sign of her predecessors, so that her building made an
lundesirable corner with theirs. ' Another bee perceived
111, pulled down the bad work before our eyes, and gave
to the first in the requisite order, so that it might
Itxactly follow the original direction.' Similarly, to quote
l^uclmer, —

All the cells have not the same shape, as would bo the case
' the bees in building worked according to a perfectly instinctive
id unchangeable plan. There are very manifold changes and
liTecnilarities. Almost in every comb irregular and unfinished
pellb are to be found, especially where the several divisions of a
tomb come together. The small architects do not begin theii'
omb from a single centre, but begin building from many differ-
ent points, so as to progi*ess as rapidly as possible, and so that
[he gi-eatest number may work simultaneously ; they therefore
liuild from above downwards, in the shape of flat truncated
31163 or hanging pyramids, and these several portions are after-
»ards united together during the winter budding. At these
ines of junction it is impossible to avoid irregular cells between
pressed together or unnatui-ally lengthened ones. The
nme is true more or less of the passage cells, which are made
I unite the large cells of the so-called drone wax with the
Qaller ones of the working bees, and which are generally
Jaced in two or three rows. The cells also which they usually
iiild from the combs to the glass walls of their hives, in order
' hold them up, show somewhat irregular forms. Finally, in
aces where special conditions of the situation do not other-
lise permit, it may be observed that the bees, far from clinging
stinately to theii" plan, very well undei-stand how to accom-
odate themselves to circumstancces not only in cell-building,
It also in making their combs. F. Huber tried to mislead
pir instinct, or rather to put to the proof their reason and
[vemess in every possible way, but they always emerged tri-
|phant from the ordeal. For instance, he put bees in a hive

• Origin of Species, p. 225

178

ANIM.VI. INTKLLIGENCE.

the floor iiud roof of which wor(^ injido of glass, that is of al)0(lv
which tho boos use very unvvilliii<^ly for the attachment of thei:
combs, on account of its smootimcss. Thus the possibilitv oi
building as usual from abovo downwards, and also from Wlow
upwards, was taken away from them ; they had no point of suji-
]»ort save the i)erpendicular walls of their dwelling. Thtv
tlx'reupon built on one of these walls a regular stratum <a
cells, fi'om which, building sideways, they tried to carry 4
comb to the opposite side of the hive. To prevent this Hut>r
covered that side also with glass. But what way out of tlr
(liiiiculty was found by the clever insects? Instead of buiMin^
fuilher in the projected direction, they lient the comb roiiinl a-
the extreme j)oint, and carried it at a right angle towards ok
of tho inner sides of the hive which was not covered with gK,>,
and there fastened it. The form and dimensions of the ceiil
must necessarily have been altered thereby, and the arran^^l
mcnt of their work at the angle must have been quite diffm!:;
IVom the usual. They made the cells of the convex side j.J
much broader than those of the concave that they had J
diameter two or three times as great, and yet they managed!
join tliem properly with the others. They also did not waitwl
bend tlie comb until they caine to the glass itself, but reco^f
nised the difficulty beforehand,* which had been interposed f;!
Huber while they were building with a view to overcome i't'|
first difficulty.

Special Habits.

The Mason-Bee. — This insect closes the roof of ij
larval cell with a kind of mortar, which sets as hard
stone. A little hole, closed only with soft mud, is, \m\
ever, left in one part of the roof as a door of exit fortlij
matured insect. It is said that when a mason-bee Ml
an old and deserted nest, it saves itself the trouble
making a new one — utilising "^he ready-made nest aftd
having well cleaned it. In Algiers the mason-bees liavj
been observed in this way to utilise empty snail-shelJ
According to Blanchard, some individuals avoid the lai
of making their own nests or houses for their young.!
possessing themselves of their neighbours' houses eittil
by craft or by force. ' Does the mason-bee act like[
machine,' says E. Menault, ' when it directs its work

' Mind in Animals, pp. 252-3.

BEES AND WASPS SPECIAL HABITS.

179

Lonliiig to circumstances, possesses itself of old nests,
( Kaiif^t'S and improves them, and thereby shows that it can
fjilly appreciate the immediate position ? Can one believe
Itliat no kind of reflection is here necessary ? '

The Tapestrij-Bee. — The so-called tapestry-bee digs
llioles for her larvju three or four inches deep in the earth.
liiud lint-'S the walls and floor of the chamber with petals of
the poppy laid perfectly smooth. Several layers of petals
^le used, and when the eggs are introduced the chamber
js closed by drawing all the leaves together at the top.
Loose earth is then piled over the whole structure in order
\o conceal it. The so-called rose-bee (MegachUe centitn-
ndans) displays very similar habits.^

The Carpenter-Bee, — This was first observed and de-
Lribecl by Reaumur.- It makes a long cylindrical tube iu
[he wood of beams, palings, &c. This it divides into a,
lumber of successive chambers by partitions made of
[jcrlutinated saw-dust built across the tube at right
lui^les to its axis. In each chamber there is deposited a
ingle egg, together with a store of pollen for the nourish-
lent of the future larva. The larvae hatch out in suc-
?ssion and in the order of their age — i.e. the dates at
l^hich they were deposited. To provide for this, the bee
K)ies a hole from the lower cell to the exterior, so that
acli larva, when ready to escape from its chamber, finds
open way from the tube. The larvae have to cut their
m way out through the walls of their respective chambers,
id it is remarkable that they always cut through the wall
tiat faces the tubular passage left by the parent ; they
Bver bore their way out in the opposite direction, which,
[ere they to do so, would entail the destruction of all the
]her and immature larvae.

The Carding-Bee. — This insect surrounds its nest

Kth a layer of wax, and then with a thick covering of

loss. For this purpose a number of bees co-operate,

id in order to save time each bee does not find and carry

own moss, but, with a division of labour similar to that

' For u complete account of these habits see Bingley, Animal
w/raphy, vol, iii., pp. 272-5.
Mhi, mr les Tnscctes, torn, ri., p. 39.

N 2

180

A N LM A L I N r I-: L I . l( ] KN C I).

wliicli Nvr Imvr iilrcudy noticed in lli<' (.'asc of ciTlaiii unt,
<i row of Imm's is foniunl, Jiiid the hits of moss passed i'h,iQ
one to another along the line. 'I'here is a Ic^ng passaij^
to the nest, througli whicli tlie moss has to be passed, m,,]
it is said tliat at tlie month of the tunnel a guard :.
stationed to drivv away ants oi otlier intruders.

Wanpn. — These usually eoustruet their nests of \v(i(k1.
(Inst, which they scra}>e otV the weather-worn surfaces if
l)oar(ls, ])alings, Sic, and work into a kind of paper wit;
tlieir saliva. If they liappen to tind any real pa])er, tin,
])erceive that it so much rt?send)les the product of tlitirl
own manufacture that they utilise it forthwith. Tli^|
wasps do not Require any special cells or chambers for tli-
storage of honey, as they do not lay up any supply fortlJ
winter. The cells which they construct are therefore \i<\%\
exclusively lor the rearing of larva;. lu fonn these t'e!!>
are sometimes cylindrical or globular, but more usuallvl
hexagonal, like those of the hive-bee. Although tlr
mode of building is different from that employed bvt[ir|
bees, there can be little doubt that if it were as cnrf.
fully investigated Mr. Darwin's theory of transition froml
the cylindrical to the hexagonal form would be found ti
apply here also, seeing that both forms so frequeiitk
occm" in the same nest.

The Masoii- Wasp. — The habits of this insect are de
scribed by JNlr. Bates. It constructs its nest of clay. Eaoiil
pellet that the insect brings it lays on the top of its nerf
wall, and then spreads it out with its jaws, and treads it
smooth with its feet. The nest, which is suspended on \\n
branch of a tree, is then stocked with spiders and iusecis
paralysed by stinging. The victims, not being wholkj
deprived of life, keep fresh until required as food of \\\
developing larvae.

The Butcher-Wasps. — These also paralyse their prej
in a similar manner, and for a similar purpose. FabrJ
removed from a so-called sphex-wasp a killed gras*
hopper, which it was conveying to its nest and hal
momentarily laid down at the mouth of the burrow— 3|
these insects always do on returning with prey, in ordei
to see that nothing has intruded into the burrow durin

mVS AND WASra-GKNKKAL INTKLLKlENCE. 181

thf'ir iibseiice. Fjibn^ cjn'..('(l tlu* dciul or ])!iralyR('(l
(Massh«»pp<'r to !i considerable distjinco IVoin the bole.
On ('(•tnini,' out tlu; iiiat'ct scarcbcd about until it found
Its pr*')'. It tbcn again carried it to tlie nioutli of its
biim»w, and again laid it down wbile it once more wmt
in to see that all was right at home. Again I'abre
ivinovcd the grasshopju^r, and so on for forty times in
siitTcsHion — the si)hex never omitting to go tbrougb its
tixt'd routine of examining the int<'rior of its l)urrow
Lverv time that it brought tlie prey to its mouth.

Mr. Mivart, in his * I wessons from Nature,' points to the

I instinct of this animal in the stinging of the ganglion of

its prey as one that cannot be explained on Mi-. Darwin's

theory concerning the origin of instincts. In my next

Iwork, which will have to deal with this theory, I shall

jconsiderJMr. Mivart 'h diflHculty, and also the dilhculty first

liiointed out by Mr. Darwin liimself as to why neuter

liiisects, separated as they appear to be from the ]»ossi-

Ibility of communicating by heredity any instinctive

lacquirements of the individual to the species, should

[iresentany instincts at all.

General Intellir/ence.

Beginning with Sir John Lubbock's observations on
[his head, I shall first qnote his statements with regard to
!ray-finding :- —

I have fonnd, he says, that some bees ai-© much moi-e intel-
ligent in this respect than others. A bee whicli I had fe<l
eveml times, and which had flown alx)ut in the room, foimd its
m out of the glass in a quarter of an hour, and when put in a
cond time came out at once. Another bee, when I closed the
ostera door, used to come round to the honey through an
|)pen window.

Bees seem to me much less clever in finding things than I
had expected. One day (April 14, 1872), when a number of
jhem were very busy on some barberries, I put a saucer with
ome honey between tw^o bunches of flowers ; these were re-
beatedly visited, and were so close that there was hardly room
or the saucer betweeen them, yet from 9.30 to 3.30 not a
fugle bee took any notice of the honey. At 3.30 I put some

182

ANIM.VL INTKLUO KN'CK.

liouoy on ouo of the bunchos of flowiMS, and it was ra^'crJ
Huckod l)y the bees; two kept continually roturuini? till i^.
live in the evening.

One day when I came homo in the afternoon I found rl;,-
at least a hundred bees had got into my room through tli(« j^ ,
tern and were on the window, yet not one was attracted bv a:
open jar of honey which stood in a shady corner about 3 f.«- 1
() inclies from the window.

One day (29th April, 1872) I placed a saucer of honey cio^ |
to some forget-me-nots, on which bees were numerous uij,]
busy ; yet from 10 a.m. till G oaly one bee went to the hontv,

I put some honey in a hollow in the garden wall oppoi-J
the hives at 10.30 (this wall is about five feet high andfoi'
feet from the hives) ; yet the bees did not find it during ti^
whole day.

On the 30th March, 1873, a fine sunshiny day, when iLf
boes were very active, I placed a glass containing honey atl)i:|
the morning on the wall in front of the hives ; but not a sin»it|
bee went to the honey the whole day. On April 20 I tried the
same expenment, with the same result.

September 19. — At 9.30 I placed some honey in a <il\>]
about foui* feet from and jast in front of the hive ; but dun:. J
the whole day not a l)ee observed it.

As it then occuired to me that it might be suggested tki
there was something about this honey which rendered it iiiwil
tractive to the bees, on a following day I placed it again on M
top of the wall for three hours, during which not a single k\
came, and then moved it close to the alighting-board ofthJ
hive. It remained unnoticed for a quai-ter of an hour, wLeil
two bees observed it ; and others soon followed in considemlirf
numbers. . . . On the whole, wasps seem to me more clever i:|
finding their way than bees. I tried wasps with the gl;ivl
mentioned on p. 124 [i.e. the bell-jar], but they had no M.\
culty in finding their way out.

We shall now conclude this resume of Sir JolJ
Lubbock's observations by quoting two other passaiir
bearing on the general intelligence of bees and wasps:-!

The following fact struck me as rather remarkable. Tbl
wasp already mentioned at the foot of p. 135 one day smearwj
her wings with syrup, so that she could not fly. When tli|
happened to a bee, it was only necessary to carry her to tk
alighting-board, when she was soon cleaned by her coraraJt
But I did not know where this wasp's nest was, and therefoij

IJEKS AND WASPS — GKNKUAI. IN TKLLKJKNCK. 1 8H

ney in a <:l;i>.

coiilil ^^'^^ pui'HUo a siiniliir course with her. At first, tlu'ii, I was
)ifi;ii(l that hIio was doomed. I thou^'lit. Imwevor, that I -.votild
w;ish hf'i'. fully oxpoctinj?, indeed, to terrify her so much tii.it
,|io would not retui'n a^'ain. I theivfore caui,'ht her, put hei- in
;i hottlo half full of water, and shook her up wt^U til! the honey
\v;is washed off. I then transfern>d her to a dry ))ottle and put
hor in the 8un. Wlien sho was dry I let her out, and she at
diicp flew to her nest. To my surprise, in thirteen minutes sho
ii'turned, as if nothing ha<l happened, and continued her visits
u> tlie honey all the afternoon.

This experiment interested mo so much that I repeated it
with another marked wasp, this time, liowever, keeping the
[wasp in the water till she was quite motionless and insensible.
^\ lien taken out of the water she soon recovered ; I fed her ;
glic went quietly away to her nest as usual, and leturned after
tlio usual absence. The next morning tliis wasp was the first
I to visit the honey.

I was not able to watch any of the above-mentioned wasps
Iformore than a few days ; but I kept a specimen of Polistes
\i!nUlca for no less than nine months.

This is the wasp which has already been alluded to
lunder the heading * Memory ; ' but it is evident that the
capacity which the insect displayed of becoming tamed
implies no small degree of general intelligence ; its
lliereditary instincts were conspicuously modified by the
jindividual experiences incidental to its domestication.

The remaining passages that deserve quotation are the
|following : —

It is sometimes said of bees that those of one hive all know

lone another, and immediately recognise and attack any intruder

from another hive. At first sight this certainly implies a great

Ideal of intelligence. It is, however, possible that the bees of

Iparticular hives have a particular smell. Thus Langshaft, in

lis interesting ' Treatise on the Honey-Bee,' says : ' Members of

lifferent colonies appear to recognise their hive companions by

Ithe sense of smell ; and I believc; that if colonies are sprinkled

Kith scented syrup, they may generally be safely mixed. Moi-e-

Dver, a bee returning to its own hive with a load of treasure is

very different creature from a hungry marauder ; and it is

sid that a bee, if laden with honey,, is allowed to enter any

bive with impunity.' Mr. Langshaft continues, * There is an

ftir of roguery about a thieving bee which, to the expert, is as

!■

184

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

characteristic as are the motions of a pickpocket to a skilful
policeman. Its sneaking look, and nervous, guilty agitatioL,
once seen, can never be mistaken.' It is, at any rate, natural th::t
a bee which enters a wrong hive by accident should be mut})
surprised and alarmed, and would thus probably betray herself,

On the whole, then, I do not attach much importance to
their recognition of one another as an indication of intelligence,

Since their extreme eagerness for honey may be attribut^^l
rather to their anxiety for the common weal than to their desire
for personal gratification, it cannot fairly be imputed as {^reedi
ness ; still the following scene, one which most of us have wit-
nessed, is incompatible surely with much intelligence. Thcsa^
fate of their unfortunate companions does not in the least deter
others who approach the tempting lure from madly alightinj
on the bodies of the dying and dead, to share the same miserable
end. No one can understand the extent of their infatuation
until he has seen a confectioner's shop assailed by myriads of
hungry bees. I have seen thousands strained out from tlie
syrup in which they had perished ; thousands more alighting
even upon the boiling sweets, the floor covered and windows
darkened with bees, some crawling, others flying, and othere
still, so completely besmeared as to be able neither to crawl nor
fly, not one in ten able to carry home its ill-gotten spoils, and
yet the air filled with new hosts of thoughtless comers.

Passing on now to the statements of other observen.
Huber first noticed the remarkable fact that when bee-
hives are attacked by the death's-head moth the hee;
close the entrance of their hive with wax and propolis to
keep out the marauder. The barricade, which is built
immediately behind the gateway, completely stops it up
— only a small hole being left large enough to admit a
bee, and therefore of course too small to admit the motli
Huber specially states that it was not until the beehives
had been repeatedly attacked and robbed by the deathV
head moth, that the bees closed the entrance of their hive
with wax and propolis. Pure instinct would have induced
the bees to provide against the first attack. Huber also
observed that a wall built in 1804 against the deatliV
head hawk-moth was destroyed in 1805. In the latter
year there were no death's-head moths, nor were any seen
during the following. But in the autumn of 1807 a large
number again appeared, and the bees at once protecteii

Ian even more

BEES AND WASPS— GENEKAL INTELLIGENCE. 185

themselves against their enemies. The bulwark was de-
stroyed again in 1808.

Again, Huber (loc. cit., torn, ii., p. 280) gives a case
of apparent exercise of reason, or power of inference
I from a particular case to other and general cases. A
piece of comb fell down and was fixed in its new position by
wax. The bees then strengthened the attachments of
all the other combs, clearly because they inferred that
they too might be in danger of falling. This is a very
remarkable case, and leads Huber to exclaim, * I admit
that I was unable to avoid a feeling of astonishment in
the presence of a fact from which the purest reason seemed
|to shine out.'

A closely similar, and therefore corroborative case of
Ian even more remarkable kind is thus narrated in Watson's
'Reasoning Power of Animals ' (p. 448) : —

Dr. Brown, in his book on the bee, gives another illustration
of the reasoning power of bees, observed by a friend of his. A
jcentre comb in a hive, being overburdened with honey, had
parted from its fastenings, and was pressing against another
pomb, so as to prevent the passage of the bees between them.
[his accident excited great bustle in the colony, and as soon as

keir proceedings could be observed, it was found that they had

onstructed two horizontal beams between the two combs, and
kad removed enough of the honey and wax above them to admit
[he passage of a bee, while the detached comb had been secured
by another beam, and fastened to the window with spare wax.

3ut what was most remarkable was, that, when the comb was
Ihus fixed, they removed the horizontal beams first constructed,
Is being of no further use. The whole occupation took about

en (lays.

Again, Mr. Darwin's MS. quotes from Sir B. Brodie's
I Psychological Inquiries ' (1854, p. 88) the following case,
(^hich is analogous to the above, exc?pt that the supports
(equired had to be made in a vertical instead of in a
lorizontal direction : —

On one occasion, when a large portion of the honeycomb
1 been broken off", they pursued another course. The frag-
hent had somehow become fixed in the middle of the hive, and
lie bees immediately began to erect a new structure of comb on
be floor, so placed as to form a pillar supporting the fragment,

186

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

and preventing its further descent. They then filled up the
space above, joining the comb which had become detached to
that from which it had been separated, and they concluileil
their labours by removing the newly constructed comb l)e]ow
thus proving that they had intended it to answer a merely tem-
porary purpose.

Similarly, Dr. Dzierzon, an experienced keeper of
bees, and the observer who first discovered the fact of their
parthenogenesis, makes the general remark, —

The cleverness of the bees in repairing perfectly injuries to
their cells and combs, in suppoi-ting on pillars pieces of their i
building accidentally knocked down by a hasty push, in fasten-
ing them with rivets, and bringing everything again into proper I
unity, making hanging bridges, chains, and ladders, compels our
astonishment.

Lastly, as still further corroboration of such facts. I
shall quote the following from Jesse's * Grleanings : ' ' —

Bees show great ingenuity in obviating the inconvenience
they experience from the slipperiness of glass, and certain]
beyond what we can conceive that mere instinct would
them to do. I am in the habit of putting small glass globes
the top of my straw hives, for the purpose of having them filled
with honey ; and I have invariably found that before the bee
commence the construction of combs, they place a great number
of spots of wax at regular distances from each other, wliicli
serve as so many footstools on the slippery glass, each k
resting on one of these with its middle pair of legs, while tht
fore claws were hooked with the hind ones of the bee next alxivf
him ; thus forming a ladder, by means of which the workers
were enabled to reach the top, and begin to make their conilij
there.

Herr Kleine, in his pamphlet on Italian Bees and Bee
keeping (Berlin, 1855), says that on substituting duriDj
the absence of the bees a hive filled with empty comb f(l
their own hive, the returning bees exhibit the utmorf
perplexity. As the substituted hive stands :n the exac:
spot previously occupied by their own hive, the retuiij
ing bees fly into it without observing the change, m
finding only empty combs inside, * they stop, do not knoj

• Vol. i., pp. 22-3 (3rd ed.).

enable ■sufferance, ai

BEES AND WASPS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 187

where they are, come out of the hole again without
depositing their loads, fly off, look most carefully round
the stand to assure themselves that they have made no
mistake, and go in once more when convinced that they
;ire at the right place. The same thing is repeated over
and over again, until the bees at last bow to the incom-
prehensible and unavoidable, lay down their loads, and
set to work at those tasks made necessary by the new
circumstances of the hive. But as all the newly arriving
bees behave in similar fashion, the disturbance lasts till
late in the evening, and the uncertainty and anxiety of
the bees is so great that the bee-master cannot contem-
plate it without deep sympathy.' Under such circum-
stances the bees take quickly to a substituted queen ; * for
the feeling of the first comers that they have no right to
the new dwelling, having,- as they suppose, made some
inexplicable mistake which they cannot remedy, prevents
I them from feeling any hostility to the new queen which
j they find ; they probably consider themselves as merely on
i sufferance, and feel that they should be grateful that no
action is taken against them for their illegal entry, as
generally happens in bee-experience.' Hence the writer
adopts this device when he desires to exchange or substi-
jtute queens.

Biichner, after alluding to this case, supplements it
|\vith the following : —

The wind threw down from the .stand of a bee-maater — a
friend of the author's, whose name will soon become known —
la straw beehive, the inmates of which were surprised in full
Vork, and no small disorder in the interior was the result. Tho
owner repaired the hive, put the loose comb back in its place,
and replaced it in such a manner that the wind could not again
atch it, hoping that the accident would have no further results.
M when he examined the hive a few days later, he found that
khe bees had left their old home in the lurch, and had tried to
pter other hives, clearly because they could no longer trust the
f^eather, and feared that the terrible accident might again be-
ill them.

Dr. Erasmus Darwin, in his ' Zoonomia,' asserts that
bees, when transported to Barbadoes, where there is no

188

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

winter, cease to lay up honey. In contradiction to this
statement, however, Kirby and Spence say, * It is kno\\Ti
to every naturalist acquainted with the fact, that manv
different species of bees store up honey in the hottest
climates, and that there is no authentic instance on recora
of the hive-bees altering in any age or climate their
peculiar operations.'

On the other hand, more recent observation has shown
that Dr. Darwin's statement is probably correct. For,
according to a note in iVft^ure,^ European bees, when trans-
ported to Australia, retain their industrious habits only
for the first two or three years. After that time thev
gradually cease to collect honey till they become wholly
idle. In a subsequent number of the same periodical
(p. 411) a correspondent writes that the same fact is |
observable with bees transported to California, but h\
obviated by abstracting honey as the bees collect it.

There seems to be no doubt that bees and wasps are |
able to distinguish between persons, and even to recog.
nise those whom they are accustomed to see, and to I
regard as friends. Bee-masters who attend much to their
bees, so as to give the insects a good chance of knowing
them, are generally of the opinion that the insects do
know them, as shown by the comparatively sparing use of
their stings. Again, many instances might be quoted,!
such as that given by Guerinzius,^ who allowed a species |
of wasp native to Natal to build in the doorposts of tisi
house, and who observed that although he often interferedl
with the nest, he was only once stung, and this byal
young wasp ; while no Cafifre could venture to approacli|
the door, much less to pass through it.^ This power i
distinguishing between persons indicates a higher ordel
of intelligence than we might have expected to meetl
with among insects ; and, according to Bingley, bees
not only learn to distinguish persons, but even lend theml
selves to tuition by those whom they know. For he m\

» VoL xvii., p. 373.

2 See Brehm, Thierleben, ix., p. 252.

3 An exactly similar case is recorded by Stodmann in his TraveJn
Surinam, 11. , p. 286.

a in his Traveh^

BEES AND WASPS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 189

<Mr. Wildman, whose remarks on the management of
bees are well known, possessed a secret by which he could
at any time cause a hive of bees to swarm upon his head,
shoulders, or body, in a most surprising manner. He has
been seen to drink a glass of wine with the bees all over
his head and face more than an inch deep ; several fell
into the glass, but did not sting him. He could even
act the part of a general with them, by marshalling them
in battle array on a large table. Then he divided them
'into regiments, battalions, and companies, according to
military discipline, waiting only for his word of command.
I xhe moment he uttered the word march ! they began to
march in a very regular manner in rank and file, like
soldiers. To these, his Lilliputians, he also taught so
much politeness that they never attempted to sting any
of the numerous company which, at different times, re-
1 sorted to admire this singular spectacle."

Huber's observation, since amply confirmed, of bees

Ibiting holes through the base of corollas in order to get

lat the honey which the length of the corollas prevent

Ithem from reaching in the ordinary way, also seems to

[indicate a rational adjustment to unusual circumstances.

^r the bees do not resoit to this expedient until they

ind from trial that they cannot reach the nectar from

above ; but having once ascertained this, they forthwith

proceed to pierce the bottoms of all the flowers of the

fcame species. From an interesting account by Mr.

rancis Darwin ^ (unfortunately too long to quote) it

bpears that, even when the nectar may be reached from

Ibove, bees may still resort to the expedient of biting

[hrough corollas in order to save time.

In connection with biting holes in corollas I may quote
[n observation communicated to me by a correspondent,
|ir J. Clarke Jervoise. Speaking of a humble-bee, he
ays : 'I watched him into the flower of a foxglove, and,
men out of sight, I closed the lips of the flower with my
jnger and thumb. He did not hesitate a moment, but
It his way out at the further end as if he had been
erved the same trick before. I never did it.'

• Nature, ix., p. 189.

190

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Bees are highly particular in the matter of keepin,r
their hives pure, and their sanitary arrangements oittl
exhibit intelligence of a high order.

The following is quoted from Biichner {toe. cit, p
248):—

Impure air within the hive is that which the bees mm
above all things fear and avoid, for with the pressure togetliei
of so many individuals in a comparatively small space, it would
not only be directly harmful to individual bees, but would pio.
duce among them dangerous diseases. They therefore also never
void their excrements within, but always outside the hiv,
While this is very easy to do in summer, it is, on the contran,
very difficult in the winter, when the bees sit close togetbei
and generally motionless in the upper part of the hive, urni
when, from impure air and foul evaporations, as well as from
bad and insufficient food, dysentery-like diseases break out
among them, and often carry off the whole commrmity in a brief
space of time. In such cases they utilise the first tine day to
relieve themselves, and in the spring they take a long general
cleansing flight. But they also know how to take advantage of
special circumstances so as to perform the process of purification
in the way least harmful to the hive. Herr Heinrich Lehr, nf I
Darmstadt, a bee-keeping friend of the author, has sent the fol-
lowing communication : — Duiing an epidemic of dysenter}' in i
^vinte^, from which most of his hives suffered (as the bees weit
no longer able to retain their excrements), one nive suffered less
than the others. Exact investigation showed that this hive was
soiled all over at the back with the excrement of the bees, and
that the inmates had here m£ide a kind of drain. On this spot
ji little opening had been made by the falling off of the covering
clay, which led directly to the upper part of the hive, where tlie
bees were accustomed to sit together during the winter. TMj
excellent opportunity, whereby they could reach in the shorttst
way an otherwise difficult object, and one rendered complicated |
by circumstances, did not escape them.

It sometimes happens that mice, slugs, &c., enter I
a beehive. They are then killed and covered with
coating of propolis. Reaumur says ^ that he once saw a I
snail enter a hive in this way. The hard shell was m
effective protection against the stings of the bees, so tlie
insects smeared roimd the edges of the shell with wax aii(l|

' See Kirby and Spcnce, vol. ii., p. 229.

BEES AND WASPS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 191

it'siH) fastening clown the animal to the wall of the hive,
<o that it died of starvation or want of air. If the en-
easing of an animal (such as a mouse) with propolis is
jiot sufficient to prevent its putrefaction, the bees gnaw
awav all the putrescible parts of the carcass and carry
them out of the hive, leaving only the skeleton behind.
I The dead bodies of their companions are also carried out
1 of the hive and deposited at a distance. There is no
Ituestion about this fact (which it will be remembered is
I aualogous to that already mentioned in the case of ants) ;
iH'cording to Biichner, however, bees not only remove their
(lead, but also, occasionally at least, bury them. But as
he gives very inadequate evidence in support of this asser-
Ition, we may safely set it aside as insufficiently proven.

Biichner, however, gives an admirable summary, and
Imakes some judicious remarks on the well-known and
Ihif'hly remarkable habit which bees practise for the
|((b7ious purpose of ventilating their hives. As this
laccount gives all the facts in a brief compass, I cannot do
Ihetter than quote it : —

Very interesting, imd closely connected with this charaeter-
ii>tic of cleanliness, is the conduct of the so-called ventilating-
bees, which have to take care that in summer or hot weather the
lir necessary for respiration of the bees in the interior of the
\[\yQ is renewed, and the too high temperature cooled down.
[he latter precaution is necessary, not only on account of the
bees working within the hive, to whom, as already said, a tem-

erature risen beyond a certain point would be intolerable, but
ilso to guard against the melting or softening of the wax. The

ees charged with the care of the ventilation divide themselves
[nto rows and stages in regular order through all parts of the
liive, and by swift fanning of their wings send little currents of

lir in such fashion that a powerful stream or change of air
basses through all pai-ts of ti^ hive. Other bees stand at the

aouth of the hive, which fan m the same way and considerably

ccelerate the wind from within. The current of air thus caused

so strong that little bits of paper hung in front of the mouth

[re rapidly moved, and that, according to F. Huber, a lighted

natch is extinguished. The wind can be distinctly felt if the
land be held in front.

The motion of the wings of the ventilating bees is so i-apid

bat it is scarcely perceptible, and Huber saw some bees working

'i'-"

192

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

their wings in this way for five-nnd-twenty minutes. V^%^
they are tired they are rehevod by others. According to Jt^ssf.
the bees in very hot weatliei", in spite of all their effui-ts m
unable to suflf^ciently lower the temperature, and prevent tli.-
melting of some of the wax ; they then get into a condition of
great excitement, and it is dangerous to approach them. In sikIj
a case they also try to mend matters by a number leaving tiie
hive and settling in large masses on its surface, so as to protirt
it as much as possible from the scorching rays of the sun.

Although the described plan of ventilation is renuukablf
enough in itself, it is yet more remarkable in that it is cleuih
only the result of bee-keeping, and is evoked by this misfortune
For ther-e could be no need of such ventilation for bees in ;,
state of nature, whose dwellings in hollow trees and clefts of
rocks leave nothing to be desired as to roominess and ainne^s
while in the narrow artificial hive this need at once comes out
strongly. In fact, the fanning of the bees almost entirely ceiiseii
when Huber brought them into lai'ge hives five feet high, in
which there was plenty of air. It follows, therefoi-e, tliat tlje
fanning and ventilating can have absolutely nothing to do wiia
an inborn tendency or instinct, but have been gi'adually evoked
by necessity, thought, and experience.

As the following observation on the cautious sagacity
of wasps is, so far as I am aware, new, and as it ceitiunk
does not admit of mal-observation, I introduce it on the
authority of a correspondent, the Eev. Mr. J. W. MossuiaD.
who writes from Tarrington Kectory, Wragby. He found
an apple in his orchard which had fallen from a tree in
apparently good condition ; but on taking it up observed
that it was little more than a shell filled with wasps.
Giving the apple a shake, he saw a wasp slowly emergiDJ
from a single small aperture in the rind : —

This aperture was sufiicient, and only just sufficient, to admiil
of the ingress or egress of a single wasp. The circumstaiwl
which struck me as very remarkable was this — that the waspl
did not make its way through the aperture with its head first, I
as I should have expected, but with its tail, darting out itsj
sting to its utmost extent, and brandishing it furiously. In t
manner it came out of the apple backwards. Then, finding itsell
in the open air upon the outer surface of the apple, it turnedl
round, and without any attempt to molest me, flew off* in tlie|
usual way. The moment this first wasp had emerged, the stinj

BEES AND WASPS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 193

tes. When
ng to Jesse,
' efforts, aw
prevent tli-
condition of
jin. In such
leaving the
us to protat
8 suu.
5 renuu'kaijlf
t it is cleai'lv
IS misfortuuv,
"or bees in ;i
and clefts of
and aiiine^s,
ice comeiiout
mtirely ceiiseii
I feet high, in
sfoi'e, that the
Lng to do wiik
idually evoked I

ious sagacity I
IS it certainly!
ice it on the I
W. MossmanJ
■f. He founcl
om a tree in
b up observeti
i with wasps/
wly emerging

ficient, to admit!
e circumstancfj
—that the waspl
h its head first!
darting out its!
iously. Inttel
en, finding itsell
apple, it t\irnci|
, flew off in the!
lerged, the sticj

and tail of another was seen protruding. This, too, I watched
with much interest, and exactly the same process was i-opeated
JUS in the case of the first. I held the apple in my hand until
some ten or a dozen wasps had made their exit in the same
i identiciil manner in each individual case. I then threw down
i the apple, inside of which, however, tliere were still ap})arently
[affood many wasps.

It seemed to me at the time, and I have always felt since,
I that the wasps coming out of the apple backwards, brandishing
their stings as a defensive weapon against possible enemies,
hvhom of coui-se they were not able to see, Avas an evidence ot
Iwiiat would be called thought and reflection in the case of
lliuman beings. It seems to me that these wasps must have re-
flected that if they came out of the narrow aperture in the apple,
hvhich was their only possible means of ready egress, in the
usual manner, head first, they might be taken at a disadvantage
by a possible enemy, and destroyed in detail. They, therefore,
nth great prudence and foresight, came out of the api)le back-
v?.rds, protecting themselves by means of their chief offensive
ad defensive weapons, their stings, which, according to their
[lormal method of locomotion, would have been useless to them
1 long as they were making their exit.

With regard to the tactics displayed by hunting wasps
may quote the following cases : —

Mr. Seth Green, writing to the New York World of May

|4, says that one morning when he was watching a spider's

est, a wasp alighted within an inch or two of the nest, on the

|de opposite the opening. Creeping noiselessly around towards

lie entrance of the nest the wasp stopped a little short of it,

[id for a moment remained perfectly quiet ; then reaching out

Qe of his antennae he wriggled it before the opening and with-

ew it. This overture had the desired effect, for the boss of

|ie nest, as large a spider as one ordinarily sees, came out to

hat was wrong and to set it to rights. No sooner had the

bider emerged to that point at which he was at the worst dis-

Jvantage than the wasp, with a quick movement, thi'ust his

jing into the body of his foe, killing him easily and almost iii-

ntly. The experiment was repeated on the part of the wasp,

^d when there was no response from the inside he became

tisfied, probably, that he held the fort. At all events, he pro-

eded to enter the nest and slaughter the young spiders, which

^re afterwards lugged off one at a time.

194

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Mr. Henry Cecil writes as follows (Nature^ vol.
xviii., p. 311): —

I was sitting one summer's afternoon at an open window
(my bedroom) looking into a garden, when I was surprised to
observe a large and rare species of spider run across the window.
sill in a crouching attitude. It struck me the spider was tvi.
dently alarmed, or it would not have so fearlessly approaclih]
me. It hastened to conceal itself under the pi-ojecting ledj^i „f
the window-sill inside the room, and had hardly done so wlien
a very fine large hunting wasp buzzed in at the open window
and flew about the room, evidently in search of somethii,;r,
Finding nothing, the wasp returned to the open window ■ai\
settled on the window-sill, ninning backwards and forwards a,
a dog does when looking or searching for a lost scent. It sooa
alighted on the track of the poor spider, and in a moment i.
discovered its hiding-place, darted down on it, and no doult
inflicted a wound with its sting. The spider rushed oflf again,
and this time took refuge under the bed, trying to conceal itst!:
under the framework or planks which supported the mattre>s,
The same scene occurred here; the wasp now appeared to folloir
the spider by sight, but ran backwards and forwards in larw
circles like a hound. The moment the trail of the spider wiis
found the wasp followed all the turns it had made till it cam^
on it again. The poor spider was chased from hiding-place tj
hiding-place, out of the bedroom, across a passage, and into tb
middle of another large room, where it finally succumbed to tk
repeated stings inflicted by the wasp. Rolling itself up into a
ball the wasp then took possession of its prey, and after asm
taining it could make no resistance, tucked it up under its
very long hind legs, just as a hawk or eagle carries off its quarry,
when I interposed and secured both for my collection.

Mr. Belt, in his work already frequently quot«i.|
gives the following account of a struggle which not
frequently occurs between wasps and ants for the swef|
secretion of * frog-hoppers : ' —

Similarly as, on the savannahs, I had observed a wasp at|
tending the honey-glands of the buU's-hom acacia along
the ants ; so at Santo Domingo another wasp, belonging to quit*
a different genus (Nectarina), attended some of the clusters c
frog-hoppers, and for the possession of others a constant i
mishing was going on. The wasp stroked the young hoppersj
and sipped up the honey when it was exuded, just like the ana

BEES AND WASPS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 195

When an ant camo up to a cluster of leaf-lioppers attended hy
I ft wasp, the latter would not attempt to grapple with its i-ival
outhe leaf, but would fly off and hover over the ant; then
when its little foe was well exposed, it would dart at it and
Ltiike it to the ground. The action was so quick that I could
not determine whether it struck with its fore-feet or its jaws ;
but I think it was with the feet. I often saw a wasp trying to
clear a leaf from ants that were already in full possession of a
I cluster of leaf-hoppers. It would sometimes have to strike
Ithree or four times at an ant before it made it quit its hold and
Ifall. At other times one ant after the other would be struck
|off>vith great celerity and ease, and I fancied that some wasps
Ivere much cleverer than others. In those cases where it suc-
eeded in clearing the leaf, it was never left long in peace ; for
i-esh relays of ants were continually arriving, and generally
jtired the wasp out. It would never wait for an ant to get near
It, doubtless knowing well that if its little rival once fastened
^u its leg, it would be a difficult matter to get rid of it again,
'a wasp first obtained possession, it was able to keep it; for
lie first ants that came up were only pioneers, and by knocking
kese off, it prevented them from returning and scenting the
rail to communicate the intelligence to others.

Dr. Erasmus Darwin records an observation * Zoo-

homia,' i., p. 183) which, from having since been so widely

[uoted, deserves to be called classical. He saw a wasp

[pon the ground endeavouring to remove a large fly which

ras too heavy for it to carry off. The wasp cut off the

lead and abdomen, and flew away with the thorax alone.

The wind, however, catching the wings of this portion

|iade it still too unwieldy for the wasp to guide. It

ierefore again alighted, and nipped off first one wing

ad then the other, when it was able to fly off with its

Doty without further difficulty.

This observation has since been amply confirmed. I
[lall quote some of the confirmatory cases.
Mr. E. S. Newall, F.R.S., in Nature, vol. xxi., p. 494,

Many years ago I was examining an apple tree, when a wasp

Ighted on a leaf which formed a caterpillar's nest neatly rolled

The wasp examined both ends, and finding them closed, it

on clipped a hole in the leaf at one end of the nest about one-

thth of an inch in diameter. It then went to the other end

o 2

196

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

and made a noise which frightene<l the caterpillar, whicli cum,:
rushing out of the hole. It was immediately seized by the vfm
who finding it too large to carry ofl' at once, cut it in two iin(i
went off with his game. I waited a little and saw the ^m
come back for the other half, with which it also flew away.

Again, Biichner (loc. cit., p. 297) gives the foUowiiir
account in the words of his informant, Herr H. Lowenfelj,
who himself witnessed the incident : —

I here found a robber- wasp busied in lifting from the gronnd
a large fly which it had apparently killed. It succeeded indeeii
in its attempt, but had scarcely raised its prey a few inches above I
the ground when the v^ind caught the wings of the dwid tiv,
and they began to act like a sail. The wasp was clearly unabl
to resist this action, and was blown a little distance in ttt I
direction of the wind, whereupon it let itself fall to the gioimd
with its prize. It now made no more attempts to fly, but v,t\\
eager industry pulled off" with its teeth the fly's wings whict
hindered it in its object. When this was quite done it seued
the fly, which was heavier than itself, and flew off with it un
troubled on its journey through the air at a height of about tivt|
feet.

Biichner also records the two following remarkablt
observations, which from being so similar corroborate
another. The first is received from Herr Albert SchliiterJ
who writing from Texas says that he there saw a cicadal
pursued by a large hornet, which threw itself upon it;|
prey and seemed to sting it to death : —

The murderer walked over its prey, which was considewM
larger than itself, grasped its body with its feet, spread out ill
wings, and tried to fly away with it. Its strength was
suflicient, and after many efforts it gave up the attempt. M
a minute went by ; sitting astride on the corpse and motionle
— only the wings occasionally jerking — it seems to reflect, ais
indeed not in vain. A mulberry tree stood close by, really onlj
a trunk — for the top had been broken off, clearly by the k«
flood — of about ten or twelve feet high. The hornet saw tt
trunk, dragged its prey toilsomely to the foot of it, and theniij
to the top. Arrived thereat, it rested for a moment, grasp
its victim firmly, and flew off with it to the prairies. That whicj
it was unable to raise off the ground it could now cany
once high in the air.

BKIvS AND WASPS- -GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. 197

The other instance is as follows : —

Th. Meenan (' Proc. of the Aciid. of Nat.,' Philadelphia, Jan.
'^•1 1878) observed a very similar caso with Vespa vinculata.
ill' sjiw one of these wasps try in vain to raise from the ground
a rriusshopper it had killed. When all its efforts proved to he
•u vain, it pulled its pi-ey to a maple tree, about thirty feet off,
mounted it with its prize, and flew away from it. ' This,' adds
the writer, 'was more than instinct. It was reflection and
liudgtnent, and the judgment was proved to bo correct.'

Depriving bees of their antennre has the efifect of pro-
Iducing an even more marked bewilderment than results
from this operation in the case of ants. A queen thus
I mutilated by Huber ran about in confusion, dropping her
eggs at random, and appeared unable to take with preci-
sion the food that was offered her. She showed no resent-
linent to a similarly mutilated stranger queen that was
lintroduced: the workers also heeded not the mutilated
Itranger ; but when an unmutilated stranger was intro-
luced they fell upon her. When the mutilated queen
vns allowed to escape, none of the workers followed.

198

CHAPTEK V.

TERMITES.

The habits of the Termites, or so-called White Ants
have not been so closely studied as they deserve. Cm
chief knowledge concerning them is derived from thel
observations of Jobson, in his * History of Gambia;'
Bastian, in * The Nations of Eastern Asia ; ' Forsteal,
Lesp^s, Konig, Sparman, Hugen, Quatrefages, Fritz!
Miiller, and most of all, Smeathman, in 'Philosophical!
Transactions,' vol. Ixxi. In Africa these insects raise their
hills to a height of between ten and twenty feet, and con- 1
struct them of earth, stones, pieces of wood, &c., glued to-
gether by a sticky saliva. The hills are in the form of a cone,
and so strong that it is said the buffaloes are in the habit of I
using them as watch-towers on which to post sentries, and
that they will even support the weight of an elephant.
The growth of these gigantic mounds is gradual, increa^
ing with the increase of the population. From the moimil|
in all directions there radiate subterranean tunnels, which
may be as much as a foot in width, and which serve as I
roadways. Besides these tunnels there are a number ofl
other subterranean tubes, which serve the purpose of!
drainage to carry off the floods of water to which the nest I
is exposed during tropical showers. Biichner calculates
that a pyramid built by man on a scale proportional to m
size would only equal one of these nests if it attained tol
the height of 3,000 feet. The following is this authoi'il
description of the internal structure : —

These internal arrangements are so various and so coml
plicated that pages of description might be written tbeie-j
upon. There are myriads of rooms, cells, nurseries, provL«;ioiil

TERMITES.

199

chambers, guard-rooms, passages, corridors, vaults, bridges,
subterranean streets and canals, tunnels, arched ways, steps,
I smooth inclines, domes, <fec., &c,, all arranged on a definite, co-
herent, and well-considered plan. In the middle of the build-
incT sheltered as far as possible from outside dangers, lies the
I stately royal dwelling, resembling an arched oven, in which the
royal pair reside, or rather are imprisoned ; for the entrances
I <ind outlets are so small, that although the workers on ser-
vice can pass easily in and out, the queen cannot ; for during
j the egg-laying her body swells out tc an enormous size, two or
three thousand times the size and weight of an ordinary worker.
The queen, therefore, never leaves her dwelling, and dies
therein. Round the palace, which is at first small, but is later
enlarged in proportion as the queen increases in size until it is
I at least a yard long and half a yard high, lie the nurseries, or
[cells for the eggs and larvae ; next these the servants* rooms, or
Icells for the workers which wait on the queen ; then special
Ichambers for the soldiers on guard, and, between these, nume-
[rous store-rooms, filled with gums, resins, dried plant-juices,
1, seeds, fruits, worked-up wood, &c. According to Bett-
iech-Beta, there is always in the midst of the nest a large
[cominon room, which is used either for popular assemblies or as
the meeting and starting point of the countless passages and
chambers of the nest. Others are of the opinion that this space
serves for purposes of ventilation.

Above and below the royal cell are the rooms of the workers
and soldiers which are specially charged with the care and de-
fence of the royal pair. They communicate with each other, as
rell as with the nursery-cells and store-rooms, by means of
galleries and passages which, as already said, open into the
common room in the middle under the dome. This room is
BuiTounded by high, boldly projected arched ways, which lose
Iheraselves further out in the walls of the countless rooms and
kalleries. Many roofs outside and in protect this room and
the surrounding chambers from rain, which, as already said, is
Irained away by countless subterranean canals, made of clay
bd of a diameter of ten or twelve centimetres. There are
po, under the layer of clay covering the whole building,
broad spirally winding passages running from below to the
ighest points, which communicate with the passages of the
iterior, and apparently, as they mainly consist of smooth in-
[liiies, serve for carrying provisions to the higher parts of the
lest.'

' Loc. oit., p. 189.

200

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

The termites, like many species of true ants, are
divided into two distinct castes, the workers and the
soldiers. If a breach is made in the walls of the dome
the soldiers rush out to meet the enemy, and fight
desperately with any enemy that they may find. Here,
again, I cannot do better than quote Biichner's epitoni^
of facts : —

If the assailant withdraws beyond their reach and inflicts no |
further injury, they retire within their dwelling in the corns
of half an hour, as though they had come to the conclusion |
that the enemy who had done the mischief had fled. Scarcely
have the soldiers disappeared when crowds of workers appear
In the breach, each with a quantity of read;)-made mortar initil
mouth. As soon as they arrive they stick this mortar rouni
the open place, and direct the whole operation with such swift-
ness and facility that in spite of their great number they never |
hinder each other, nor are obliged to stop. During this spec
tacle of apparent restlessness and confusion the observer ij I
agreeably surprised to see arising a regular wall, filling up M
gap. During the time that the workers are thus busied the
soldiers remain within the nest, with the exception of a few,
which walk about apparently idly, never touching the mortar,
among the hundreds and thousands of workers. !N'evertheles;
one of them stands on guard close to the wall which is bein?
built. It turns gently each way in turn, lifting its head at in-
tervals of one or two minutes to strike the building with ib
heavy mandibles, making the before-mentioned crackling noise.
This signal is immediately answered by a loud rustling fro rathe
interior of the nest and from all the subterranean passages]
and holes. There is no doubt that this noise arises from the
workers, for as often as the sign is given they work with in-
creased energy and speed. A renewal of the attack instan-l
taneously changes the scene. 'At the first stroke,' says I
Smeathman, ' the workers run into the many tunnels and pas-f
sages which run through the building, and this happens sol
quickly that they seem regularly to vanish. In a few seconQ!l
they are all gone, and in their stead appear the soldiers oncel
more, as numerous and as pugnacious as before. If they findl
no enemy, they turn back slowly into the interior of the hillj
and immediately tlie mortar-laden workers again appear, anJ
among them a few soldiers, which behave just as on the firjtl
occasion. So one can have the pleasure of seeing them wortl
and fight in turn, as often as one chooses ; and it will be founJl

TERMITES.

201

each time that one set never fight, and the other never work,
however great the need may be.' '

Similar facts have been observed by Fritz Miiller of
the South American species.

The Termites, being like the Ecitons blind, like them
make all their expeditions under the protection of covered
^ays. These are underground tunnels in all cases where
circumstances permit, but on arriving at a rock or other
impenetrable obstruction, they build a tubular passage
upon the surface. According to Biichner, —

They can even carry their viaducts through the air, and that
in such bold arches that it is diflScult to understand how they
were projected. In order to reach a sack of meal which was
well protected below, they broke through the roof of the room
in which it was, and built a straight tube from the breach they
had made down to the sack. As soon as they tried to carry off
their booty to a safe place, they became convinced that it was
impossible to pull it up the straight road. In order to meet
this difficulty, they adopted the principle of the smooth incline,
the use of which we have already seen in the interior of their
nests, and built close to the first tube a second, which wound
spmilly within, like the famous clock tower of Venice. It was
now an easy task to carry their booty up this road and so away.
. . . Either from the desire to remain undiscovered, or from their
liking for darkness, they have the remarkable habit of destroy-
ing and gnawing eveiything from within outwards, and of
leaving the outside shell standing, so that from the outside ap-
pearance the dangerous state of the inside is not perceptible.
If, for instance, they have destroyed a table or other piece of
household furniture, in which they always manage from the

I ground upwards to hit exactly the places on which the feet of
the article rest, the table looks perfectly uninjured outside, and
people are quite astonished when it breaks down under the
slightest pressure. The whole inside is eaten away, and only
the thinnest shell is left standing. If fruits are lying on the
tible, they also are eaten out from the exact spot on which they

I rest on the surface of the table.

In similar fashion things consisting wholly of wood, such as

I wooden ships, trees, &c., are destroyed by them so that they

Ifinally break in with out any one having noticed the mischief.

lYet it is said that they go so prudently to work in their de-

' Ibid., p. 119.

202

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

struction that the main beams, the sudden breakage of which
would threaten the whole building and themselves therewith
are either spared, or else so fastened together again with a ce-
ment made out of clay and earth that their strength is greater
than ever ! (?) Hagen also states that they never cut right
through the corks which stop up stored bottles of wine, but
leave a very thin layer, which is sufficient to prevent the out-
flow of the wine and the consequent destruction of the workers.
The same author relates that in order to reach a box of wax
lights they made a covered road from the ground up to the
second story of a house. ^

It is needless to give a special description of any of
the other habits of these insects, such as their swarming,
breeding, &c., for they all more or less closely resemble
the analogous habits of ants and bees. It is very remark-
able that insects of two distinct orders should both
manifest such closely similar social habits of such high
complexity, and it rather surprises me that more has not
been made of this point by writers opposed to the
principles of evolution. Of course if the point were
raised, the argument in answer would require to be, either
that the similar instincts were derived from common and
very remote progenitors (in which case the fact would form
by far the most remarkable instance of the permanency
of instincts among changing species), or more probably,
that similar causes operating in the two orders have
produced similar effects — complex and otherwise unique
though these effects undoubtedly are.

In connection with the theory of evolution I may
conclude this chapter with the following quotation from
Smeathman, as it shows how natural relation may develop |
for the benefit of the species instincts which are detri-
mental to the individual. Speaking of the soldiers he |
says : —

I was always amused at the pugnacity displayed when, in
making a hole in the earthy cemented archway of their covered
roads, a host of these little fellows mounted the breach to cover
the retreat of the workers. The edges of the rupture bristled
with their armed heads as the courageous warriors ranj

' Geisteslehen der Thiere, pp. 194 and 199-200.

TERMITES.

203

n of any of

swarming,
ly resemble
ery remark-
hould botli
f sucli higli
Qore lias not
3sed to the

point \vere
to be, either
jommon and
'twould form

permanency
ore probably,

orders bave
rwise unique

ution I may
lotation from

, may develop
ch are detri-
e soldiers lie I

layed wben,inl
,f their covered
jreacbi to cover
upture bristled I
arriors ranged

themselves in compact line around them. They attacked fiercely
any intruding object, and as fast as their front ranks were de-
stroyed, others filled up their places. When the jaws closed in
the flesh, they suffered themselves to be torn in pieces rather
than loosen their hold. It might be said that this instinct is
rather a cause of their ruin than a protection when a colony is
attacked by the well-known enemy of termites, the ant-bear ;
but it is the soldiers only which attach themselves to the long
worm-like tongue of this animal, and the workers, on whom the
prosperity of the young brood immediately depends, are left for
the most part unharmed. I always found, on thrusting my
finger into a mixed crowd of termites, that the soldiers only
fastened upon it. Thus the fighting caste do in the end serve
w protect the species by sacrificing themselves to its good ^

' Phil. Trans., loo. oit

200.

204

CHAPTER VI.

SPIDERS AND SCORPIONS.

Emotions.

The emotional life of spiders, so far as we can observe it
as expressed in their actions, seems to be divided between
sexual passion (including maternal affection) and the
sterner feelings incidental to their fiercely predaton
habits. But the emotions, although apparently few auil
simple in character, are exceedingly strong in force. lu
many species the male spider in conducting his courtship
has to incur an amount of personal danger at the hands
(and jaws) of his terrific spouse, which might well daunt
the courage of a Leander. Ridiculously small and weak
in build, the males of these species can only conduct the
rites of marriage with their enormous and voracious brides
by a process of active manoeuvring, which if unsuccessful
is certain to cost them their lives. Yet their sexua!
emotions are so strong that, as proved by the continuance
of the species, no amount of personal risk is sufficient tj
deter them from giving these emotions full play. There
is no other case in the animal kingdom where courtshiii
is attended with any approach to the gravity of danger I
that is here observable. Among many animals the maleH
have to meet a certain amount of inconvenience from the I
coquetry or disinclination of the females ; but here the
coquetry and disinclination has passed into the hungry I
determination of a ferocious giantess. The crse, therefore,
because unique, is of interest from an evolutionary point
of view. We can see a direct advantage to species from
the danger incurred by males on account of mutual
jealousy ; for this, giving rise to what Mr. Darwin hai

SPIDERS— EMOTIONS.

205

called * the law of battle,' must obviously be a constant
source of the creation and the maintenance of specific
proficiency : the law of battle determines that only the
wrongest and most courageous males shall breed. But
the benefit to species is not so obvious where the danger
of courtship arises from the side of the female. Still, that
there must be some benefit is obvious, seeing that the
whole structure of the male, if we take that of the female
lis the original type, has been greatly modified with refer-
ence to this danger : had the latter been wholly useless,
either it would not have been allowed to arise, or the
species must have become extinct. The only suggestion
[ can make to meet this aberrant case is that the courage
and determination required of the male, besides being no
doubt of use to him in other relations in life, may be of
benefit to the species by instilling these qualities into the
psychology both of his male and female descendants.

The courage and rapacity of spiders as a class are too
well and generally known to require special illustration.
One instance, however, may be quoted to show the strength
of their maternal emotions. Bonnet threw a spider with
her bag of eggs into the pit of an ant-lion. The latter
seized the eggs and tore them away from the spider ; but
j although Bonnet forced her out of the pit, she returned,
and chose to be dragged in and buried alive rather than
I leave her charge.

The only other point that occurs to me with reference
I to the emotions of spiders is the somewhat remarkable one
concerning their apparent fondness of music. The testi-
mony is so varied and abundant on this matter that we
can scarcely doubt the truth of the facts. These simply
[are that spiders — or at any rate some species or individuals
-approach a sounding musical instrument, ' especially
hvhen the music is tender and not too loud.' They usually
lapproach as near as possible, often letting themselves down
Ifrom the ceiling of the room by a line of web, and remain
[suspended above the instrument. Should the music
lecome loud, they often again retreat. Professor C.
ieclain, during a concert at Leipsic, saw a spider descend
fn this way from one of the chandeliers while a violin solo

206

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

was being played ; but as soon as the orchestra began to
sound it quickly ran back again.* Similar observations
have been published by Rabigot, Simonius, von Hartmanii
and others.

A highly probable explanation of these facts has re-
cently been given by JNIr. C. V. Boys, which relieves us of
the necessity of imputing to animals so low in the scale
any rudiment of aesthetic emotion as aroused by musical
tones. As the observation is an interesting one, I shall
quote it m exteoiso : —

Having made some observations on the garden spider whicl;
are I believe new, I send a short account of them, in the hope
that they may be of interest to the readers of Nature.

Last autumn, while watching some spiders spinning tlicii
beautiful geometrical webs, it occurred to me to try what effect
a tuning-fork would have upon them. On sounding an A fork,
and lightly touching with it any leaf or other support of tlie
web, or any portion of the web itself, I found that the spider, if
at the centre of the web, rapidly slues round so as to face the
direction of the fork, feeling with its fore-feet along which
radial thread the vibration travels. Having become satisfied
on this point, it next darts along that thread till it reaches
either the fork itself or a junction of two or more threads, the
right one of which it instantly determines as before. If the
fork is not removed when the spider has arrived it seems to
have the same charm as any fly ; for the spider seizes it, em-
braces it, and runs about on tlie legs of the fork as often as it k
made to sound, nevei- seeming to learn by experience that
other things may buzz besides its natural food.

If the spider is not at the centre of the web at the time tli
the fork is applied, it cannot tell which way to go until it has
been to the centre to ascertain which radial thread is vibrating,
unless of course it should happen to be on that particular I
thread, or on a stretched supporting thread in contact with the [
fork.

If, when a spider has been enticed to the edge of the web I
the fork is withdrawn, and then gradually brought near, the
spider is aware of its presence and of its direction, and reacbfc
out as far as possible in the direction of the fork; but if a
sounding fork is gradually brought near a spider that has not
been disturbed, but which is waiting as usual in the middle of

' Body and Mind, p. 275.

SPIDERS — WEB-BUILDING.

207

the web, then, instead of reaching out towards the fork, the
spider instantly drops — at the end of a thread, of course. If
under these conditions the fork is made to touch any part of the
web, the spider is aware of the fact, and climbs the thread and
reaches the fork with marvellous rapidity. The spider never
leaves the centre of the web without a thread along which to
travel back. If after enticing a spider out we cut this thread
with a pair of scissors, the spider seems to be unable to get back
without doing considerable damage to the web, generally gum-
ming together the sticky parallel threads in groups of thi'ee and

four.

By means of a tuning-fork a spider may be made to eat
what it would otherwise avoid. I took a fly that had been
drowned in paraffin and put it into a spider's web, and then at-
tnicted the spider by touching the fly with a fork. When the
spider had come to the conclusion that it was not suitable food,
and was leaving it, I touched the fly again. This had the same
effect as before, and as often as the spider began to leave the fly
I a^in touched it, and by this means compelled the spider to
I eat a large portion of the fly.

The few house-spiders that I have found do not seem to
I appreciate the tuning-fork, but retreat into their hiding-places
ks when frightened ; yet the supposed fondness of spidera for
music must surely have some connection with these observations ;
land when they come out to listen, is it not that they cannot tell
[which way to proceed 1

The few observations that I have made are necessarily im-
Iperfect, but I send them, as they afford a method which might
jlead a naturalist to notice habits otherwise difficult to observe,
land so to arrive at conclusions which I in my ignorance of
Inatural history must leave to others.^

General Habits,

Coming now to general habits, our attention is claimed
()Y the only general habit that is of interest — namely, that
pf web-building. The instinct of constructing nets for
pe capture of prey occurs in no other class of animals,
rhile in spiders it not only attains to an extraordinary
Begree of perfection (so that, in the opinion of some
pmeters, the instinct is not less wonderful in this re-
pect than is that displayed by the hive-bee in the con-

' Nature, xxiii., pp. 149-50.

208

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

struction of its cells), but also ramifies into a number of
diverse directions. Thus we have, in different species,
wide open networks spread between the branches of bushes
v!tc., closely woven textures in the corners of buildings,
earth tubes lined with silk, the strong muslin-like snare
of the Mygale, which, as first noticed by Madame Merian,'
and since confirmed by Bates,^ is able to retain a struggling
humming-bird while this most beautiful animal in creation
is being devoured by the most repulsive ; and many other
varieties might be mentioned. It may at first sight ap-
pear somewhat remarkable that this instinct of spreading
snares should on the one hand occur only in one class of
the animal kingdom, while on the other hand, in the class
where it does occur, it should attain such extreme perfec-
tion, and run into so much variety. But we must here
remember that the development of the instir :t obviously
depends upon the presence of a web-secreting apparatus,
which is a comparatively rare anatomical feature. In
caterpillars, which are not predaceous, the web is used only
for the purposes of protection and locomotion ; and it is
easy to see that the spreading of snares would here be of
no use to the animals. But in spiders, of course, the case
is otherwise. Once granting the p .ver of forming a web,
and it is evident that there is much potential service to
which this power may be put with reference to the vora-
cious habits of the animal ; and therefore it is not to be i
wondered that both the anatomical structures and their I
correlated instincts should attain to extreme perfection in
sundry lines of development. The origin of the web-
building structure was probably due to the use of the
web for purposes of locomotion or of cocoon-spinning, as
we see it still so used in the same way that it is used by
caterpillars for descending from heights, and in the case
of the gossamer spider for travelling immense distances
through the air. As the anatomical structures in question I
differ very greatly in the case of spiders and in that ofl
caterpillars, we may wonder why analogous if not homolo-l

• Naturalist on Hie Amazon, p. 83.
2 For many other confirmations see Sir E. Tennent, Nat. Hist.Ceijhl
pp. k)8-6d.

SPIDEKS— WEB-BUILDINO.

209

'ist.Ceijh

gous structures should never have been developed in the
ease of any other animal having predaceous habits —
especially, perhaps, in that of the imago form of preda-
ceous insects. It is easy to see how, if there were any
original tendency to secrete a viscid substance in the
neighbourhood of the anus, this might be utilised in de-
scending from low elevations (as certain kinds of slugs use
their viscid slime as threads whereby to let themselves
down from low branches to the ground) ; and so we can
understand how natural selection might thus have the
material supplied out of which to develop such highly
specialised organs as the spinnerets of a spider. But if
y;e. are inclined to wonder why this should not have
(happened among other animals, we must remember that
lany expectation that it should rests on negative grounds ;
we have no reason to suppose that in any other case the
initial tendency to secrete a viscid substance was present.
ne inference, however, in the case of spiders seems per-
fectly valid. As this comparatively rare faculty of web-
ipinning occurs so generally throughout the class, it must
ave had its earliest origin very far back in the history of
hat class, though probably not so far back as to include
he common progenitors of the spiders and the scorpions,
eeing that the latter do not spin webs.

I shall now give a few details on the manner in which

liders' webs are made. Without going into the ana-

my of the subject further than to observe that a

ider's * thread ' is a composite structure made up of a

umber of finer threads, which leave their respective

inneret-holes in an almost fluid condition, and immedi-

[tely harden by exposure to the air, I shall begin at once

describe the method of construction.

The so-called * geometric spider ' constructs her web

|y first laying down the radiating and unadhesive rays,

dthen, beginning from the centre, spins a spiral line of

adhesive web, like that of the rays which it intersects.

'his line, in being woven through the radii in a spiral

om centre to jcircumference, serves as a scaffolding for the

ider to walk over, and also keeps the rays properly

retched. She next spins another spiral line, but this

210

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCK.

time from the circumference to near the centre, and
formed of web, covered with a viscid secretion to retain
prey. Lastly, she constructs her lair to hide and watoh
for prey, at some distance from the web but connected
with it by means of a line of communication or telegrapli,
the vibrations of which inform her of the struggling of an
insect in the net.'

According to Thompson, —

The web of the garden spider — the most ingenious and j^er-
feet contrivance that can he imagined — is usually fixed in a
perpendicular or somewhat oblique direction in an openin"
between the leaves of some plant or shrub ; and as it is obvious
that round its whole extent lines will bo required to whicii
those ends of radii that are farthest from the centre can be at-
tached, the construction of those exterior lines is the spider's
first operation. It seems careless about the shape of the area
they are to enclose, well aware that it can as readily inscribe a
circle in a triangle as a square ; and in this respect it is guided
by the distance or proximity of the points to which it can attacli
them. It spares no pains, however, to strengthen and keep them I
in a proper degree of tension. With the former view it com-
poses each line of five or six or even of more threads glued I
together ; and with the latter it fixes to them from different |
points a numerous and intricate apparatus of smaller threads;
and having thus completed the foundation of its snare, it pro- 1
ceeds to fill up the outline. Attaching a thread to one of the
main Hnes, it walks along it, guiding it Avith one of its hind legs,
that it may not touch in any part and be prematurely glued, and I
crosses over to the opposite side, where, by applying its spinners]
it firmly fixes it. To the middle of this diagonal thread, whicli|
is to form the centre of its net, it fixes a second, which in likel
manner it conveys and fastens to another part of the lines ii-f
eluding the area. The work now proceeds rapidly. Diirin^|
the preliminary operations it sometimes rests, as though itspla
required meditation ; but no sooner are the marginal lines (
the net firmly stretched, and two or three radii spun from itsl
centre, than it continues its labour so quickly and unremittingljj
that the eye can scarcely follow its progress. The radii, to tiie|
number of about twenty, giving the net the appearance of i
wheel, are speedily finiehed. It then proceeds to the centn
quickly turns itself round, pulls each thread with its feet td
ascertain its strength, breaking any one that seems defective, ani]

» Kirby, vol. ii., p. 298.

SPIDERS— WEB-BUILDING.

211

replacing it by another. Next it fflnes, immediately round
tlie centre, five or six Hmall concontric circles, distant about
half ft line from each other, and then four or live larger onen,
t'iich separated by the space of half an inch or more. These
lastset'vo as a sort of temporary scaffoldini,' to walk t)Vor, and
to keep the radii properly stretched while it gluos to them the
concentric circles that are to remain, which it now proceeds to
construct. Placing itself at the circumference, and fastening its
tliread to the end of one of the radii, it walks up that one,
towards the centre, to such a distance as to draw the thread
flora its body of a sufficient length to meet the next. Then
stepping across and conducting the thread with one of its hind
lo^s it glues it with its spinnors to the point in the adjoining
1 r idius to which it is to be fixed. This j)rocess it repeats until
it has filled up nearly the whole space from the circumference
to the centre with concentric circles, distant from each other
al)ont two lines. It always, however, leaves a vacant interval
1 around the smallest first spun circles that are nearest to the
Icentre, and bites away the small cotton like tuft that united all
Ithe radii, which bein" held now together by the circular threads
Ihave thus probably their elasticity increased ; and in the cir-
cular opening, resulting from this procedure, it takes its station
and watches for its prey, or occasionally retires to a little apart-
Qent formed under some leaf, which it also Tises as a slaughter-
buse.'

According to Biichner, —

The long main threads, with the help of which the spider

egins and attaches its web, are always the thickest and strong-

st ; while the others, forming the web itself, are considerably

mker. Injuries to the web at any spot the spid< r very

Quickly repairs, but without keeping to the original plan, and

ithout taking more trouble than is absolutely necessary.

^lost spiders* webs, therefore, if closely looked into, are found to

1 somewhat irregular. When a storm threatens, the spider,

rhich is very economical with its valuable spinning material,

pins no web, for it knows 1 ^ the storm will tear it in pieces

ad waste its pains, and it also does not mend a web which

las been torn. If it is seen spinning or mending, on the other

and, fine weather may be generally reckoned on. . . . The

Qerged young at first spin a very irregular web, and only

idually learn to make a larger and finer one, so that here, as

rerywhere else, practice and experience play a great part. • •

' Thompson, Passions of Animals, p. 145.
F 2

212

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

The position must also offer favourable opposite points for the
attachment of the web itself. People have often puzzled their
brains, wondering how spiders, without being able to fly, had
managed first to stretch their web through the air between two
opposite points. But the little creature succeeds in accomplisL.
ing this difficult task in the most various and ingenious ways,
It either, when the distance is not too great, throws a moist
viscid pellet, joined to a thread, which will stick where it
touches : or hangs itself by a thread in the air and lets itself be
driven by the wind to the spot ; or crawls there, letting out a
thread as it goes, and then pulls it taut when arrived at the
desired place ; or floats a number of threads in the air and
waits till the wind has thrown them here or there. The main
or radial threads which fasten the web possess such a higli
degree of elasticity, that they tighten themselves between two
distant points to which the spider has crawled, without it being
necessary for the latter to pull them towards itself. When the
little artist has once got a single thread at its disposition, it
strengthens this until it is sufficiently strong for it to run back-
wards and forwards thereupon, and to spin therefrom the web.'

Special Habits,

Water-spider, — The water-spider {Argyroneta aqua-
ilea), as is well known, displays the curious instinct of I
building her nest below the surface of water, and construct-
ing it on the principle of a diving-bell. The animal |
usually selects still waters for this purpose, and makes
her nest in the form of an oval hollow, lined with web,
and held secure by a number of threads passing in various!
directions and fastened to the surrounding plants. In|
this oval bell, which is open below, she watches for prey,
and, according to Kirby,^ passes the winter after havi
closed the opening. The air needful for respiration the I
spider carries from the surface of the water. To do thijj
she swims upon her back in order to entangle an aii-
bubble upon the hairy surface of her abdomen. With this I
bubble she descends, * like a globe of quicksilver,' to thel
opening of her nest, where she liberates it and returns for|
more.

• Zoo. 07 1., p. S16 et seq.

' Hist, Habits and Inst, of Animals, vol. ii., p. 296.

WOLF- AND TRAP-DOOE SPIDERS.

213

The Vagrant or Wolf Spider. — This insect catches its
prey by stealthily stalking it until within distance near
enough to admit of a sudden dart being successful in
effecting capture. Some species, before making the final
dart (e.g. Salticus scenicus), fix a line of web upon the
surface over which they are creeping, so that whether their
station is vertical or horizontal with reference to the prey,
they can leap fearlessly, the thread in any case preventing
their fall. Dr. H. F. Hutchinson says that he has seen
this spider crawling over a looking-glass stalking its own
reflection.^

The following is quoted from Biichner : —

Less idyllic than the water-spider is our native hunting-
spider (Dolomedes Jtmhriata), which belongs to those species
which spin no web, but hunt their victims like animals of prey.
As the Argyroneta is the discoverer of the diving-bell, so may
this be regarded as the discoverer or first builder of a floating
raft. It is not content with hunting insects on land, but
follows them on the water, on the surface of which it runs
about with ease. It, however, needs a place to rest on, and
makes it by rolling together dry leaves and such like bodies,
I binding them into a firm whole with its silken threads. On
this raft-like vessel it floats at the mercy of wind and waves ;
and if an unlucky water-insect comes for an instant to the sur-
face of the water to breathe, the spider darts at it with light-
ning speed, and carries it back to its raft to devour at its ease.
Thus everywhere in nature are battle, craft, and ingenuity, all
following the merciless law of egoism, in order to maintain
jtlieir own lives and to destroy those of others !

Trap-door Spiders. — These display the curious in-

Istinct of providing their nests with trap-doors. The nest

jconsists of a tube excavated in the earth to the depth of

lalf a foot or more. In all save one species the tube is

lunbranched ; it is always lined with silk, which is con-

Itiuuous with the lining of the trap-door or doors, of which

ft forms the hinge. In the species which constructs a

Dranching tube, the branch is always single, more or less

ptraight, takes origin at a point situated a few inches from

the orifice of the main tube, is directed upwards at an acute

* Natwe, vol. xx., p. 581.

2 Loo. cit., p. 323.

214

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

angle with that tube, and terminates blindly just below
the surface of the soil. At its point of junction with or
departure from the main tube it is provided with a trap-
door resembling that which closes the orifice of the main
tube, and of such a size and arrangement that when closed
against the opening of the branch tube it just fills that
opening ; while when turned outwards, so as to uncork
this opening, it just fills the diameter of the main tube:
the latter, therefore, is in this species provided with two
trap-doors, one at the surface of the soil, and the other at
the fork of the branched tube.

Each species of trap-door spider is very constant in
building a particular kind of trap-door ; but among the
different species there are four several kinds of trap-
doors to be distinguished. 1st. The single-door cork
nest, wherein the trap-door is a thick structure, and fits
into the tube like a cork into a bottle. 2nd. The single-
door wafer nest, wherein the trap-door is as thin as a
piece of paper. 3rd The double-door unbranched nest,
wherein there is a second trap-door situated a few inches
below the first one. And 4th, the double-door branched
nest already described. In all cases the trap-doors open j
outwards, and when the nest is placed, as it usually is, on
a sloping bank, the trap-door opens upwards; hence
there is no fear of its gaping, for gravity is on the side of I
holding it shut.

The object of the trap-door is to conceal the nest, and
for this purpose it is always made so closely to resemble
the general surface of the ground on which it occurs, that
even a practised eye finds it difficult to detect the struc-
ture when closed. In order to make the resemblance to
the surrounding objects as perfect as possible, the spiderl
either constructs the surface of its door of a portion of|
leaf, or weaves moss, grass, &c., into the texture. Mog-
gridge says,' —

Thus, for example, in one case where I had cut out a little I
clod of mossy earth, about two inches thick and three square I
on the surface, containing the top of the tube and the mossf
covered cork door of iV^. ccBmentaria, I found, on revisiting tliej

' Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders, p. 120.

TRAP-DOOR SPIDERS.

215

„i»w six days later, that a new door had been made, and that
the spider had mounted up to fetch moss from the undisturbed
bank above, planting it in the earth which formed the crown
of the door. Here the moss actually called the eye to the
trap, which lay in the little plain of brown earth made by my

If an enemy should detect the trap-door and en-
deavour to open it, the spider frequently seizes hold of
its internal surface, and, applying her legs to the walls
of the tube, forcibly holds the trap-door shut. In the
double trap-door species it is surmised that the second
trap-door serves as an inner barrier of defence, behind
which the spider retires when obliged to abandon the
first one. In the branched tube species (which, so far as
at present known, only occurs in the south of Europe) it
is surmised that the spider, when it finds that an enemy
is about to gain entrance at the first trap-door, runs
into the branch tube and draws up behind it the second
trap-door. The surface of this trap-door, being overlaid
with silk like the walls of the tube, is then invisible ; so
that the enemy no doubt passes down the main tube to
find it empty, without observing the lateral branch in
which the spider is concealed behind the closed door.

As showing that these animals are to no small extent
able to adapt their dwellings to unusual circumstances, I
shall here quote the following from Moggridge (loc, cit.,
p. 122) :—

Certain nests which were furnished with two doors of the
cork type were observed by Mr. S. S. Saunders in the Ionian
Islands. The door at the surface of these nests was normal in
position and structure, but the lower one was placed at the very
bottom of the nest, and inverted, so that, though apparently in-
tended to open downwards, it was permanently closed by the
suiTounding earth. The presence of a carefully constructed
door in a situation which forbade the possibility of its ever
being opened seemed, indeed, something difficult to account for.
However, it occurred to Mr. Saunders that, as these nests were
found in the cultivated ground round the roots of olive trees,
they may occasionally have got turned topsy-turvy when the
soil was broken up. The spider then, finding her door buried
below in the ground and the bottom of the tube at the surface,

216

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

would have either to seek new quarters or to adapt the nest to
its altered position, and make an opening and door at the ex-
posed end. In order to try whether one of these spiders would
do this, Mr. Saunders placed a nest, with its occupant inside
upside down in a flower-pot. After the lapse of ten days anew
door was made, exactly as he had conjectured it would be, and
the nest presented two doors like those which he had found at
first.

The most remarkable fact connected with these
animals, if we regard their peculiar instinct from the
standpoint of the descent theory, is the wide range of
their geographical distribution. In all quarters of the
globe species of trap-door spiders are found occurring in
more or less localised areas ; and as it is improbable that
so peculiar an instinct should have arisen independently
in more than one line of descent, we can only conclude
that the wide dispersion of the species presenting it has
been subsequent to the origin and perfecting of the in-
stinct. This conclusion of course necessitates the suppo-
sition that the instinct must be one of enormous antiquity ;
and in this connection it is worthy of remark that we
seem to have independent evidence to show that such is
the case. It is a principle of evolution that the earlier
any structure or instinct appears in the development of
the race, the sooner will it appear in the development of
the individual ; and read by the light of this principle we
should conclude, quite apart from all considerations as to
the wide geographical distribution of trap-door spiders,
that their instincts — as, indeed, is the case with the
characteristic instincts of many other species of spiders-
must be of immense age. Thus, again to quote Mog-
gridge,—

It seems to be the rule with spiders generally that the off-
spring should leave the nest and construct dwellings for them-
selves when very young.

Mr. Blackwall, speaking of British spiders, says : — * Com- 1
plicated as the processes are by which these symmetrical nets
are produced, nevertheless young spiders, acting under the
influence of instinctive impulse, display, even in their first
attempts to fabricate them, as consummate skill as the most |
experienced individuals.'

TRAP-DOOK SPIDERS.

217

Agaiuj Mr. F. Pollock' relates of the young of Epeira aurelia,
which he observed in Madeira, that when seven weeks old they
made a web the size of a penny, and that these nets have the
same beautiful symmetry as those of the full-grown spider.

And, speaking of trap-door spiders, Moggridge says,--

I cannot help thinking that these very small nests, built as
they are by minute spiders probably not very long hatched
from the egg, must rank among the most marvellous structures
of this kind with which we are acquainted. That so young
and weak a creatui*e should be able to excavate a tube in the
earth many times its own length, and know how to make a
perfect miniature of the nest of its parents, seems to be a fact
which has scarcely a parallel in nature.^

Regarding the steps whereby the instinct of building
trap-doors probably arose, Biichner quotes Moggridge

thus : —

To show, lastly, how various are the transitional forms and
gradations so important in deciding upon the gradual origin of
the forms of nests, Moggridge also alludes to the similar build-
ings made by other genera of spiders. Lycosa Narbotiensis, a
spider of Southern Franco much resembling the Apuleian
tarantula, and belonging to the family of the wolf spiders,
makes cylindrical holes in the earth, about one inch wide and
three or four inches deep, in a perpendicular direction ; when
they have attained this depth they run further horizontally,
and end in a three-cornered room, from one to two inches broad,
the floor of which is covered with the remnants of dead in-
sects. The whole nest is lined within with a thick silken
material, and has at its opening — closed by no door — an above-
ground chimney-shaped extension, made of leaves, needles,
moss, wood, &c., woven together with spider threads. These
chimneys show various diflerences in their manner of building,
and are intended chiefly, according to Moggridge, to prevent
the sand blown about by the violent sea- winds from penetrating
into the nests. During winter the opening is wholly and con-
tinuously woven over, and it is very well possible, or probable,
that the process of reopening such a warm covering in the spring,

' 'The History aud Habits of Epeira aitrelia,^ in Annals and Mag. of
\M. Hi«t. for June 1865.

• Harvesting Ants and Trap-door Spiders, p. 126. This admirable
|work, with its appendix, contains a very full account of the whole
economy of the interesting animals with which it is concerned.

218

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

after this opening was three-quarters completed, and was large
enough to let the spider pass out, may have long ago awaked
in the brain of i Dme species of spider the idea of making a per-
manent and moveable door. But from this to the practical
construction of so perfect a door as we have learned to know
and even to the building of the exceedingly complicated nest of
the iV. ManderstjerncB, through all the gradations which \ve
already know, and which doubtless exist in far greater number
is no great or impossible step.

General Intelligence,

Coming now to the general intelligence of spiders, I
think there can be no reasonable doubt, from the force of
concurrent testimony, that they are able to distinguish
between persons, and approach those whom they have
found to be friendly, while shunning strangers. This
power of discrimination, it will be remembered, also occurs
among bees and wasps, and therefore its presence in
spiders is not antecedently improbable. I myself know a
lady who has * tamed ' spiders to recognise her, so that
they come out to be fed when she enters the room where I
they are kept ; and stories of the taming of spiders by
prisoners are abundant. The following anecdote recorded |
by Biichner is in this connection worth quoting : —

Dr. Moschkau, of Gohlis, near Leipsic, writes as follows to
the author, on August 28, 1876 : — 'In Oderwitz(?), where I
lived in 1873 and 1874, 1 noticed one day in a half-dark corner
of the anteroom a tolerably respectable spider's web, in which [
a well-fed cross-spider had made its home, and sat at the nest-
opening early and late, watching for some flying or creeping!
food. I was accidentally several times a witness of the craft |
with which it caught its victim and rendered it harmless, ai
it soon became a regular duty to carry it fliej several times I
during a day, which I laid down before its door with a pair of
pincers. At fii'st this feeding seemed to arouse small confidence,
the pincers perhaps being in fault, for it let many of the flies
escape again, or only seized them when it knew that they were I
within reach of its abode. After a while, however, the spiderl
came each time and took the flies out of the pincers and spiml
them over. The latter business was sometimes done so super- [
ficially, when I gave flies very quickly one after the other, that!

SPIDERS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

21&

1(1 was large
ago awaked
lalcing a per-
the practical
ned to know
Lcated nest of
13 which ve
eater number,

of spiders, I
1 the force of
3 distinguisli
n they have
mgers. This I
}d, also occurs 1

presence in
lyself know a'
her, so that '
J room where
3f spiders by I

ote recorded |
ing:—

s as follows to
tz (?), where I
alf-dark corner
web, in which |
jat at the nest-
or creeping]
3 of the craft I
harmless, and
several times!
with a pair of
nail confidence,'
,ny of the
that they were I
ver, the spiderl
icers and spun
done so super- (
the other, that

some of the already ensnared flies found time and opportunity
to escape. This game was carried on by me for some weeks, as
it se aed to me curious. But one day when the spider seemed
very ravenous, and regularly flew at each fly offered to it, I
be(ran tea nl'^ig it. As soon as it had got hold of the fly I pulled
it back aga Ji with the pincers. It took this exceedingly ill.
Xhe first time, as I finally left the fly with it, it managed to
forgive me, but when I later took a fly right away, our friend-
ship was destroyed for ever. On the following day it treated
my offered flies with contempt, and would not move, and on the
third day it had disappeared.^

Jesse relates the following anecdote, which seems to
display on the part of a spider somewhat remote adapta-
tion of means to novel circumstances. He confined a
spider with her eggs under a glass upon a marble mantel-
piece. Having surrounded the eggs with web, —

She next proceeded to fix one of her threads to the upper
part of the glass which confined her, and carried it to the further
end of the piece of grass, and in a short time had succeeded in
raising it up and fixing it perpendicularly, working her threads
from the sides of the glass to the top and sides of the piece of
grass. Her motive in doing this was obvious. She not only
rendered the object of her care more secure than it would
been had it remained flat on the marble, but she was
aware that the cold from the marble would chill her

, and prevent their arriving at maturity : she therefore
raised them from it in the manner I have described.^

Mr. Belt gives the following account of the intelligence
[which certain species of South American spiders display in
[escaping from the terrible hosts of the Eciton ants : —

Many of the spiders would escape by hanging suspended by
thread of silk from the branches, safe from the foes that
Iswarmed both above and below.

I noticed that spiders generally were most intelligent in

iping, and did not, like the cockroaches and other insects,

:e shelter in the first hiding-place they found, only to be

riven out again, or perhaps caught by the advancing army of

its. I have often seen large spiders making off many yards

I advance, and apparently determined to put a good distance

* Loc. cU., p. 319.

* Gleanings, vol. i., p. 103.

220

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

between themselves and the foe. I once saw one of the false
spiders, or harvest-men {Phalangidce), standing in the midst of an
army of ants, and with the greatest circumspection and cool-
ness lifting, one after the other, its long legs, which supported
its body above their reach. Sometimes as many as five out of
its eight legs would be lifted at once, and whenever an ant ap-
proached one of those on which it stood, there was always a
clear space within reach to put down another, so as to be able
to hold up the threatened one out of danger.^

Mr. L. A. Morgan, writing to ' Nature ' (Jan. 22, 1880),
gives an account of a spider conveying a large insect from
the part of the web where it was caught to the * larder,'
by the following means. The spider first went two or
three times backwards and forwards between the head
of the insect and the main strand of the web. After
this he went about cutting all the threads around the
insect till the latter hung by the head strands alone.
The spider then fixed a thread to the tail end, and bv
this dragged the carcass as far on its way to the larder
as the head strands would permit. As soon as these were
taut, he made the tail rope fast, went back to the head
rope and cut it ; then he attached himself to the head
and pulled the body towards the larder, until the tail rope
was taut. In this way, by alternately cutting the head
and tail ropes and dragging the insect bit by bit, he con-
veyed it safely to the larder.

But the practical acquaintance with mechanical prin-
ciples which this observation displays is perhaps not so
remarkable as that which is sometimes shown by spiders
when they find that a widely spread web is not tightly
enough stretched, and as a consequence is to an incon- 1
venient extent swayed about by the wind. Under such \
circumstances these animals have been observed to sus- 1
pend to their webs small stones or other heavy objects,
the weight of which serves to steady the whole system. I
Grleditsch saw a spider so circumstanced let itself down to |
the ground by means of a thread, seize a small stone, re-
mount, and fasten the stone to the lower part of its web,
at a height sufficient to enable animals and men to walk I

Natv/ralist in Mcaragua, p. 19.

SPIDERS— GENEEAL INTELLIGENCE.

221

beneath it. After alluding to this case, Biichuer observes
[loc. cit., p. 318),—

But a similar observation was made by Professor E. H.
Weber, the famous anatomist and physiologist, and was pub-
lished many years ago in MUUer's Journal. A spider had
stretched its web between two posts standing opposite each
other, and had fastened it to a plant below for the third point.
But as the attachment below was often broken by the garden
vork, by passers-by, and in other ways, the little animal extri-
cated itself from the difficulty by spinning its web round a little
stone, and fastened this to the lower part of its web, swinging
freely, and so to draw the web down by its weight instead of
fastening it in this direction by a connecting thread. Carus
('Vergl. Psycho.,' 1866, p. 76) also made a similar observation.
But the most interesting observation on this head is related
by J. G. Wood (' Glimpses into Petland '), and repeated by
Watson {loc. cit., p. 455). One of my friends, says Wood, was
accustomed to gi-ant shelter to a number of garden spiders
under a large verandah, and to watch their habits. One day a
sharp storm broke out, and the wind raged so furiously through
the garden that the spiders suffered damage from it, although
sheltered by the verandah. The mainyards of one of these webs,
as the sailors would call them, were broken, so that the web
waa blown hither and thither, like a slack sail in a storm. The
spider made no fresh threads, but tried to help itself in another
way. It let itself down to the ground by a thread, and crawled
to a place where lay some splintered pieces of a wooden fence
thrown down by the storm. It fastened a thread to one of the
bits of wood, turned back with it, and hung it with a strong
thread to the lower part of its nest, about five feet from the
ground. The performance was a wonderful one, for the weight
of the wood sufficed to keep the nest tolerably firm, while it was
yet light enough to yield to the wind, and so prevent further
injury. The piece of wood was about two and a half inches
long, and as thick as a goose-quill. On the following day a
careless servant knocked her head against the wood, and it fell
down. But in the course of a few hours the spider had found
it and brought it back to its place. When the storm ceased,
the spider mended her web, broke the supporting thread in two,
and let the wood fall to the ground !

If so well-observed a fact requires any further confir-
Imation, I may adduce the following account, which is of
Ithe more value as corroborative evidence from the writer

222

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

not appearing to be aware that the fact had been obsened
before. This writer is Dr. John Topham, whom the late
Dr. Sharpey, F.R.S., assured me is a competent observer
and who publishes the account in * Nature ' (xi. 18):—

A spider constructed its web in an angle of my garden, the
sides of which were attached by long threads to shrubs at the
height of nearly three feet from the gravel path beneath. Being
much exposed to the wind, the equinoctial gales of this autumn
destroyed the web several times.

The ingenious spider now adopted the contrivance hwc
represented. It secured a conical fragment of gravel witli ik
larger end upwards by two cords, one attached to each of it^
opposite sides, to the apex of its wedge-shaped web, and left it
suspended as a moveable weight to be opposed to the effect of
such gusts of air as had destroyed the webs previously occupv-
ing the same situation.

The spider must have descended to the gravel path for this
special object, and having attached threads to a stone suited to
its purpose, must have afterwards raised this by fixing itself
upon the web, and pulling the weight up to a height of more
than two feet from the ground, where it hung suspended by
elastic cords. The excellence of the contrivance is too evident
to require further comment.

An almost precisely analogous case, with a sketch, is
published by another observer in * Land and Water,' Dec.
12, 1877.

Scorpions,

Before quitting the Arachnida I must allude to some
recent correspondence on the alleged tendency of the
scorpion to commit suicide when surrounded by fire.
This alleged tendency has long been recognised in
popular fables, and has been used by Byron as a poetical
metaphor in certain well-known lines. But until the
publication of the correspondence to which I allude, no one
supposed the tendency in question to have any existence
in fact. This correspondence took place in 'Nature'
(vol. xi.), and as the subject is an interesting one, I shall
reproduce the more important contributions to it in eM
tenso. It was opened by Mr. W. Gr. Biddie as follows :-

I shall feel obliged if you will record in * Nature ' a fact withl

SCORPIONS.

223

reference to the common black scorpion of Southern India,
which was obyorved by me some years ago in Madras.

One morning a servant brought to me a large specimen of
this scorpion, which, having stayed out too long in its nocturnal
r:\mbles, had apjmrently got bewildered at daybreak, and been
unable to find its way home. To keep it safe the creature was
at once put into a glazed entomological case. Having a few
leisure minutes in the course of the forenoon I thought I would
see how my prisoner was getting on, and to have a better view
of it the case was placed in a window in the rays of the hot
sun. The light and heat seemed to irritate it very much, and
this recalled to my mind a story which I had read somewhere
that a scorpion, on being surrounded with fire, had committed
suicide. I hesitated about subjecting my pet to such a terrible
ordeal, but taking a common botanical lens, I focussed the rays
of the sun on its back. The moment this was done it began to
run hurriedly about the case, hissing and spitting in a very
fierce way. This experiment was repeated some four or five
times with like results, but on trying it once again, the scorpion
turned up its tail and plunged the sting, quick as lightning, into
I its own back. The infliction of the wound was followed by a
I sudden escape of fluid, and a friend standing by me called out,
'See, it has stung itself: it is dead ;* and sure enough in less
[than half a minute life was quite extinct. I have written this
brief note to show (1) that animals may commit suicide; (2)
that the poison of certain animals may be destructive to them-
I selves.

The following corroborative evidence on the subject
kasthen supplied by Dr. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. (' Nature/
[vol. XX., p. 577) : —

Doubts having been expressed at various times, even by
{learned naturalists, as to the reality of the suicide or self-de-
truction of the scorpion by means of its own poison, and these
doubts having been again stated in * Nature,* vol. xx.,p. 553, by
jMr. B. F. Hutchinson, of Peshawur, as the result of his own
observations, I think it may be useful to give an articulate
account of the phenomenon as it has been related to me by an
^ye-witness, which removes all possible doubt as to its occurrence
under certain circumstances.

While residing many years ago, during the summer months,
it the baths of Sulla in Italy, in a somewhat damp locality, my
Informant together with the rest of the family was much
Woyed by the frequent intrusion of small black scorpions into

224

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the house, and their being secreted among the bedclothes, m
shoes, and other articles of dress. It thus became necessaiy to
be constantly on the watch for these troublesome creatures, and
to take means for their removal and destruction. Having been
informed by the natives of the place th;*t the scoq)ion would
destroy itself if exposed to a sudden light, my informant and
her friends soon became adepts in catching the scorpions and
disposing of them in the manner suggested. This consisted in
confining the animal under an inverted drinkiug-glass or tumbler,
below which a card was inserted when the capture was made, and
then, waiting till dark, suddenly bringing the light of a candle
near to the glass in which the animal was confined. No
sooner was this done than the scorpion invariably showed signs
of great excitement, running round and round the interior of
the tumbler with reckless velocity for a number of times. This
state having lasted for a minute or more, the animal snddenlv
became quiet, and turning its tail on the hinder part of its
body over its back, brought its recurved sting down upon the
middle of the head, and piercing it forcibly, in a few seconds
became quite motionless, and in fact quite dead. This observa-
tion was repeated very frequently ; in truth, it was adopted as
the best plan of getting rid of the animals. The young people
were in the habit of handling the scorpions with impuniiy im-
mediately after they were so killed, and of preserving many of
them as curiosities.

In this narrative the following circumstances are worthy of
attention : —

(1) The effect of light in producing the excitement amount-
ing to despair, which causes the animal to commit self-destruc-
tion ;

(2) The suddenness of the operation of the poison, which
is probably inserted by the puncture of the head into the upper
cerebral ganglion; and

(3) The completeness of the fatal symptoms at once in.
duced.

I am aware that the phenomena now described have been
observed by others, and they appear to have been familiailv
known to the inhabitants of the district in which the animals
are found. Suflicient confirmation of the facts is also to be
found in the narratives of * G. Biddie ' and * M. L.' containeii
in * Nature,' vol. ix., pp. 29-47, and it will be observed that tlie
circumstances leading the animal to self-destruction in these in-
stances were somewhat similar to those narrated by my inform-
ant. It is abundantly clear, therefore, that the view taken

SCORPIONS.

225

jdclotliea, m
necessaiy to
'catures, and
Having been
q)ion would
iformant and
jorpions and
} consisted in
5S or tumbler,
^as made, and
t of a candle
loniined. No

showed signs
he interior of
if times. This
imal suddenly
jr part of its
3wn upon the
a few seconds

This observa-
as adopted as
i young people
I impuniiyim-
srving many of

are worthy of

ement amount-
it self-destruc-

poison, whick ]
into the upper !

QS at once

ibed have beei
been familiai'ly
ich the animals!
s is also to bel
[. L.* contained I
)served that tlie
tion in these in-
1 by my inform- 1
the view taken

y)V Mr. Hutchinson, viz., that the * popular idea regarding
siorpionic suicide is a delusion b:used on an impossibility,' is
wholly untenable ; indeed, the recurved direction of the sting,
which ht' refers to as creating tho impossihility of tho animal
itetroyiug itself, actually facilitates th« operation of inflicting
tiie wound. I suppose Mr. ILutchiiison, arguing from the ana-
loi'V of ^^^ "^' '^^''••^P'^j in»agine<l that the sting wouhl bo bent
fiirwanls upon the body, whereas the wound of the scorpion is
invariably inflicted by a recurvation of the tail over the back of
the animal.

It will be perceived that these observations were not

made by Dr. Allen Thomson himself, and that there are

Iceitain inherent discrepancies in the account which he

I has published — such, for instance, as the reason given for

trying and repeating the experiment, the method being

clearly a cumbersome one to employ if the only object

were that of 'disposing of the animals. Nevertheless,

|iij Dr. Thomson is a high authority, and as I learn from

him that he is satisfied regarding the capability and vera-

leityof his informant, I have not felt justified in suppress-

ling his evidence. Still I think that so remarkable a fact

luuquestionably demands further corroboration before we

phould be justified in accepting it unreservedly. P'or if it

a fact, it stands as a unique case of an instinct
[letrimental alike to the individual and to the species.

226

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

CHAPTER VII.

REMAINING ARTICULATA.

The Hjmenoptera being so much the most intelligent
order, not merely of insects, but of Invertebrata, and the
Arachnida having been now considered, very little space
need be occupied with the remaining classes of the Articu-
lata.

Goleojptera,

Sir John Lubbock, in his first paper on Bees and
Wasps, quotes the following case from Kirby and Spence,
with the remarks which I append : —

The first of these anecdotes refers to a beetle (Ateuchus pik-
larius) which, having made for the reception of its eggs a pellet
of dung too heavy for it to move, repaired to an adjoining heap,
and soon returned with three of his companions. 'All four now I
applied their united strength to the pellet, and at length suc-
ceeded in pushing it out; which being done, the three assistant I
beetles left the spot and returned to their own quarters.' This
observation rests on the authority of an anonymous German
artist; and though we are assured that he was a 'man of strict
veracity,' I am not aware that any similar fact has been re-j
corded by any other observer.

Catesby, however, says : —

I have attentively admired their industry, and their mutuall

assisting of each

other in rolling these globular balls from tie I

place where they made them, to that of their interment, whiell
is usually a distance of some yards, more or less. Tliis thejl
perform back foremost, by raising their hind parts and pushinn
away the ball with their hind feet. Two or three of them are|
sometimes engaged in trundling one ball, which from meeting
with impediments, 'on account of the unevenness of the grounij
is sometimes deserted by them. It is, however, attempted bvj
others with success, unless it happen to roil into some de^pf
hollow or ditch, where they are accustomed to leave it; biitj

BEETLES.

227

they continue their work by rolling off the next ball that comes
in their way. None of them seem to know their own balls, but
an equal care for the whole appears to affect all the community.
They form these pellets while the dung remains moist, and
leave them to harden in the sun before they attempt to roll
them. In their rolling of them from place to place, both they
and the balls may frequently be seen tumbling about over the
little eminences that are in their way. They are not, however,
easily discouraged, and by ' repeating their attempts usually
surmount the difficulties.^

Biichner speaks of the fact that dung-beetles co-operate
I in their work as one that is well established, but gives no
j authorities or references.^ A friend of my own, however,
1 informs me that she has witnessed the fact ; and in view
of analogous observations, made on other species of Coleop-
tera, I see no reason to doubt this one. Some of these
lobservations I may here append.

Herr Gollitz writes to Biichner thus : —

Last Slimmer, in the month of July, I was one day in my
{field, and found there a mound of fresh earth like a molehill,
Ion which a striped black and red beetle, with long legs, and
about the size of a hornet, was busy taking away the earth
[from a hole that led like a pit into the mound, and levelling
pe place. After I had watched this beetle for some time, I
noticed a second beetle of the same kind, which brought a little
lump of earth from the interior to the opening of the hole, and
hen disappeared again in the mound ; every four or five minutes
I pellet came out of the hole, and was carried away by the first-
amed beetle. After I had watched these proceedings for about
|ialf an hour, the beetle which had been working underground
ame out and ran to its comrade. Both put their heads together,
iid clearly held a conversation, for immediately afterwards they
iianged work. The one which had been working outside went
nto the mound, the other took the outside labour, and all went
vigorously. I watched the affair still for a little longer, and
[rent away with the notion that these insects could understand
ftch other just like men. Klingelhoffer, of Darmstadt (in
prehm, loc. cit.j ix., p. 86), says : — A golden running beetle camo
I a cockchafer lying on its back in the garden, intending to eat
[, but was unable to master it ; it ran to the next bush, and

* Quoted by Bingley, Animal Biograjihy, vol. ill., p. 118.

* Loo. cit., p. 344.

Q 2

228

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

returned with a friend, whereupon the two overpowered the
cockchafer, and pulled it off to their hiding-place.

Similarly, there is no doubt that the burying beetles
(^Nicrophorus) co-operate.

Several of them unite together to bury under the ground as
food and shelter for their young, some dead animal, such as a
mouse, a toad, a mole, a bird, &c. The burial is performed
because the corpse, if left above ground, would either dry up, or
grow rotten, or be eaten by other animals. In all these cfises
the young would perish, whereas the dead body lying in the
earth and withdrawn from the outer air lasts very well. The
burying beetles go to work in a very well-considered fashion,
for they scrape away the earth lying under the body, so that it
sinks of itself deeper and deeper. When it is deep enough down
it is covered over from above. If the situation is stony, the I
beetles with united forces and great efforts drag the corpse to
some place more suitable for burying. They work so diligently I
that a mouse, for instance, is buried within three hours. But|
they often work on for days, so as to bury the body as deeply as
possible. From large carcasses, such as those of horses, sheep,
<fec., they only bury pieces as large as they can manage.^

Lastly, Clarville gives a case of a burying beetle which I
wanted to carry away a dead mouse, but, finding it too
heavy for its unaided strength, went off, like the beetlesl
previously mentioned, and brought four others to its as-l
sistance.'^

A friend of Grleditsch fastened a dead toad, which hel
desired to dry, upon the top of an upright stick. Tbel
burying beetles were attracted by the smell, and findinJ
that they could not reach the toad, they undermined tlie|
stick, so causing it to fall with the toad, which was then
buried safe out of harm's way.^

A converse exemplification of beetle-intelligence '\\

given by Gr. Berkeley.^ He saw a beetle carrying a deal

spider up a heath plant, and hanging it upon a twig of im

heath in so secure a position, that when the insect had lei

it Mr. Berkeley found that a sharp shake of the heathej

would not bring the dead spider down. As the burp

' Biichner, loo. cit., p. 344.
^ Quoted in Strauss, Insects, s. 389.
" Kirby and Spence, loo. cit., pp. 321-2.
* lAfe and Recollections, vol. ii., p. 366.

EARWIG.

229

beetle preserves its treasure by hiding it out of sight below
ground, so this beetle no doubt secured the same end but
by other means ; * seeing,' as Mr. Berkeley observes, * that
if it did not hang up its prey, it might fall into the hands
of other hunters, it took all possible pains to find out the
best store-room for it.'

The above instances of beetle-intelligence lead me to
credit the following, which has been communicated to me
by Dr. Garraway, of Faversham. On a bank of moss in
the Black Forest he saw a beetle alight with a caterpillar
vhich it was carrying, and proceed to excavate a cylindrical
bole in the peat, about an inch and a half deep, into which,
when completed, it dropped the caterpillar, and then flew
away through the pines. 'I was struck,' says my corre-
spondent, * with the creature's folly in leaving the whole
covered, as every curious wayfaring insect would doubt-
ess be tempted to enter therein. However, in about a
inute the beetle returned, this time carrying a small
bble, of which there were none in the immediate vicinity,
ind having carefully fitted this into the aperture, fled
iway into space.'

Earwig,

I must devote a short division of this chapter to the
rwig. M. Geer describes a regular process of incubation
,8 practised by the mother insect. He placed one with
er eggs in a box, and scattered the ^ggi^ on the floor of
£ latter. The earwig, however, carried them one by one
to a certain part of the box, and then remained con-
antly sitting upon the heap without ever quitting it for
moment. When the eggs were hatched, the young ear-
gs kept close to their mother, following her about every-
fhere, and often running under her abdomen, just as
ickens run under a hen.^

A young lady, who objects to her name being published,

iforms me that her two younger sisters (children) are in

e habit of feeding every morning with sugar an earwig,

1 they call *Tom,' and which crawls up a certain

tain regularly every day at the same hour, with the
parent expectation of getting its breakfast. This re-

' Quoted by Bingley, loc. cit., vol. iii,, pp. 150-51.

I )

230

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

sembles analogous instances which have been mentioned
in the case of spiders.

Dipterous Insects,

The gad-fly, whose eggs are hatched out in the intes-
tines of the horse, exhibits a singular refinement of instinct
in depositing them upon those parts of the horse whicli
the animal is most likely to lick. For, according to
Bingley and other writers, 'the inside of the knee is the
part on which these flies principally deposit their eggs;
and next to this they fix them upon the sides, and the
back part of the shoulder; but almost always in places i
liable to be licked by the tongue.' The female fly deposits
her eggs while on the wing, or at least scarcely appears to
settle when she extends her ovidepositor to touch the
horse. She lays only a single egg at a time — flying away
a short distance after having deposited one in order to|
prepare another, and so on.

The following anecdote, which I quote from Jesse,!
seems to indicate no small degree of intelligence on the!
part of the common house-fly — intelligence, for instances
the same both in kind and degree as that which was dis-|
played by Sir John Lubbock's pet wasp already mentioned:

Slingsby, the celebrated opera dancer, resided in the large
house in Cross-deep, Twickenham, next to Sir Wathen Waller's,
looking down the river. He was fond of the study of naturi
history, and particularly of insects, and he once tried to tami
some house-flies, and preserve them in a state of activity througl
the winter. For this purpose, quite at the latter end of autum
and when they were becoming almost helpless, he selected foi
from off his breakfast-table, put them upon a large handful
cotton, and placed it in one corner of the wiudow nearest tl
fireplace. Not long afterwards the weather became s
that all flies disappeared except these four, which constantl]
left their bed of cotton at his breakfast-time, came and fed
the table, and then returned to their home. This continui
for a short time, when three of them became lifeless in tb
shelter, and only one ciime down. This one Slingsby
trained to feed upon his thumb-nail, by placing on it some moi
sugar mixed with a little butter. Although there had been
intervals several days of sharp frost, the fly never missed tal
his daily meal in this way till after Christmas, when, his

FLIES— CRABS.

231

preserver having invited a friend to dine and sleep at his house,
the fly, the next morning, perched upon the thumb of the
visitor, who, being ignorant that it was a pet of his host's,
clapped his hand upon it, and thus put an end to Mr. SHngsl:)y's
experiment.'

Crustacea,

There is no doubt that these are an intelligent group
of animals, although I have been able to collect but
wonderfully little information upon the subject. Mr.
Moseley, F.R.S., in his very interesting work, * Notes by a
Naturalist on the Challenger^ says (p. 70) : —

In the tropics one becomes accustomed to watch the habits
of various species of crabs, which there live so commonly an
aerial life. The more I have seen of them, the more have I been
astonished at their sagacity.

And again (pp. 48-9) : —

A rock crab {Grapsus stringosus) was very abundant, run-

I ning about all over the rocks, and making off into clefts on one's

approach. I was astonished at the keen and long sight of this

i crab. I noticed some made off at full speed to their hiding-

1 places at the instant that my head showed above a rock fifty

yards distant. . . .

At iStill Bay, on the sandy beach of which a heavy surf was
[breaking, I encountered a sand crab {CEcypoda ippeus), which
[was walking about, and got between it and its hole in the dry
. above the beach. The crab was a large one, at least three
[inches in breadth of its carapace. . . . With its curious column-
|like eyes erect, the crab bolted down towards the surf as the
only escape, and as it saw a great wave rushing up the shelving
shore, dug itself tight into the sand, and held on to prevent the
ondertide from carrying it into the sea. As soon as the wave
Iliad retreated, it made off full speed for the shore. I gave
chase, and whenever a wave approached, the crab repeated the
Danoeuvre. I once touched it with my hand whilst it was
buried and blinded by the sandy water, but the surf compelled
neto retreat, and I could not snatch hold of it for fear of its
bowerful claws. At last I chased it, hard pressed, into the
prf in a hurry, and being unable to get proper hold in time, it
ras washed into the sea. The ci-ab evidently dreaded going
Qto the sea. . . . They soon die when kept a short time be-
|ieath the water.

• Gleanings, vol. ii., pp. 165-6.

I' . '\ !

' /

■J

232

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

The land crabs of the West Indies and North America
descend from their mountain home in May and June, to
deposit their spawn in the sea. They travel in such swarms
that the roads and woods are covered with them. They
migrate in a straight line, and rather than allow them-
selves to be deflected from it, ' they scale the houses, and
surmount every other obstacle that lies in their way'
(Kirby). They travel chiefly by night, and when they
arrive at the sea-shore they ' bathe three or four different
times,' and then * commit their eggs to the waves.' Thev
return to the mountains by the same route, but only the I
most vigorous survive the double journey.

Prof. Alex. Agassiz details some interesting observations
on the behaviour of young hermit crabs reared by himself]
* from very young stages,' when first presented with shells
of moUusks. * A number of shells, some of them empty,!
others with the animal living, were placed in a glass dish
with the young crabs. Scarcely had the shells reached
the bottom before the crabs made a rush for the shells.!
turned them round and round, invariably at the mouth,
and soon a couple of the crabs decided to ventm-e in,
which they did with remarkable alacrity.' The crabs I
which obtained for their share the shells still inhabitedl
by living mollusks, 'remained riding round upon the!
mouth of their future dwelling, and, on the death of thel
mollusk, which generally occurred soon after in captivity,!
commenced at once to tear out the animal, and havinn
eaten him, proceeded to take its place within the shell.''

There is a species of small crustacean {Podoceni.i\
capillatus) described by Mr. Bates, which builds a nest t<^
contain its eggs. The nest is in the form of a hollo\t
cone, built upon seaweed, and composed of fine thread]
like material closely interlaced. * These nests,' says m
Bates, ' are evidently used as a place of refuge and security!
in which the parent protects and keeps her brood of youn
until they are old enough to be independent of thf|
mother's care.'

Dr. Erasmus Darwin tells us, on the authority of
friend on whose competency as an observer he relied, thi
the common crab during the moulting season stations i
' American Jcmrn, Sc. and Art, vol. x., Oct. 1875.

CRABS AND LOBSTERS.

233

sentinel an unmoulted or hard-shelled individual, to
prevent marine enemies from injuring moulted individuals
in their unprotected state. While thus mounting guard
the hard-shelled crab is much more courageous than at
other times, when he has only his own safety to consider.
But these observations require to be corroborated.

In * Nature ' (xv., p. 415) there is a notice of a lobster
[Homarus jnarinus) in the Rothesay Aquarium which
attacked a flounder that was confined in the same tank
with him, and having devoured a portion of his victim,
buried the rest beneath a heap of shingle, on which he
'mounted guard.' * Five times within two hours was the
fish unearthed, and as often did the lobster shovel the
gravel over it with his huge claws, each time ascending
the pile and turning his bold defensive front to his com-
panions.'

The following is quoted from Mr. Darwin's ' Descent of
Jilan'(pp. 270-1):—

A trustworthy naturalist, Mr. Gardner, whilst watching a
shore-crab [Gelasimus) making its burrow, threw some shells
towards the hole. One rolled in, and three other shells re-
mained within a few inches of the mouth. In about five
minutes the crab brought out the shell which had fallen in, and

i carried it away to the distance of a foot ; it then saw the three
other shells lying near, and evidently thinking that they might

I likewise roll in, carried them to the spot where it had laid the
first. It would, I think, be diflScult to distinguish this act
from one performed by man by the aid of reason.

Mr. Darwin also alludes to the curious instinctive
I habits of the large shore-crab (Birgus ?a^ro), which feeds
on fallen cocoa-nuts ' by tearing off the husk fibre by fibre ;
and it always begins at that end where the three eye- like
depressions are situated. It then breaks through one of
these eyes by hammering with its heavy front pincers,
and turning round, extracts the albuminous core with its
I narrow posterior pincers.'

Remarkable cases occur of commensalism between
[certain crabs and sea-anemones, and they betoken much
lintelligence. Thus Professor Mobius says in his * Beitrage
Izur Meeresfauna der Insel Mauritius' (1880) that there
lare two crabs belonging to different genera which have

234

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the habit of firmly grasping a sea-anemone in each claw
and carrying them about, presumably to secure some
benefit to themselves. The more familiar case of the
species of anemone which lives on the shells tenanted by
hermit crabs is of special interest to us on account of a
remarkable observation published by Mr. Gosse, F.R.S.
(Zoologist, June, 1859). He found that on his detaching
the anemone (Adamsia) from the shell, the hermit crab
always took it up in its claws and held it against the shell
*for the space of ten minutes at a time, until fairly
attached by a good strong base.' It was said by the late
Dr. Kobert Ball that when the common Sagartia pam-
sitica is attached to a stone and a hermit crab is placed in
its vicinity, the anemone will leave the stone and attacli
itself to the hermit's shell (Critic, March 24, 1860).

Intelligence of Larvae of Certain Insects,

I shall now allude to some of the more interesting facts
touching the psychology of insects when in their immature
or larval state. This is an interesting topic from the
point of view which we occupy as evolutionists, because a
caterpillar is really a locomotive and self-feeding embryo,
whose entire mental constitution is destined to undergo a
metamorphosis no less complete and profound than that
which is also destined to take place in its corporeal struc-
ture. Yet although the caterpillar has an embryo psy-
chology, its instincts and even intelligence often seem to
be higher or more elaborated than is the case with the
imago form. Where such is the case the explanation of
course must be that it is of more importance to the species i
that the larval form should be in a certain measure in-
telligent than that the imago form should be so. Every
larva is a potential imago, or breeding individual ; there-
fore its life is of no less value to the species during its
larval than during its adult existence; and if certain
instincts or grades of intelligence are of more use to it
during the former than during the latter period, of course
natural selection would determine the unusual event whici
we seem here in some cases to see — namelv, that the

INTELLIGENCE OF LAKViE— ANT-LION.

235

embryo should stand on a higher level of psychological
development than the adult.

I may most fitly begin under this heading with the
remarkal3le instincts of the so-called * ant-lion,' which is
the larva of a neuropterous insect, the common Myrmeleon
{M. formicarium), I quote the following account of its
habits from Thompson's ' Passions of Animals ' (p. 258) : —

The devices of the ant-lion are still more extraordinary if
possible. He forms, with astonishing labour and perseverance,
a pit in the shape of a funnel, in a dry sandy soil, under some
old wall or other spot protected from the wind. His pit being
finished, he buries himself among the sand at the bottom, leaving
only his horns visible, and thus waits patiently for his prey.
Whenanant or any other small insect happens to walk on the edge
of the hollow, it forces down some of the particles of sand,
which gives the ant-lion notice of its presence. He immediately
throws up the sand which covers his head to overwhelm the
ant, and with its returning force brings it to the bottom. This
he continues to do till the insect is overcome and falls between
his horns. Every endeavour to escape, when once the incau-
tious ant has stepped within the verge of the pit, is vain, for in
all its attempts to climb the side the deceptive sand slips from
under its feet, and every struggle precipitates it still lower.
When within reach its enemy plunges the points of its jaws
into its body, and having sucked out all its juices, throws out
the empty skin to some distance.

According to Bingley, if the ant-lion, while excavating
its pitfall, —

Comes to a stone of some moderate size, it does not desert the
work on this account, but goes on, intending to remove that im-
pediment the last. When the pit is finished, it crawls back-
ward up the side of the place where the stone is ; and, getting
its tail under it, takes great pains and time to get it on a true
poise, and then begins to crawl backward with it up the edge
to the top of the pit, to get it out of the way. It is a common
thing to see an ant-lion labouring in this manner at a stone
four times as big as its own body ; and as it can only move
backwards, and the poise is difficult to keep, especially up a
slope of such crumbling matter as sand, which moulders away
from under its feet, and necessarily alters the position of its
body, the stone very frequently rolls down, when near the verge,
quite to the bottom. In this case the animal attacks it again

236

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

in the same way, and is often not discouraged by five or six
miscarriages, but continues its struggle so long that it at
length gets over the verge of the place. When it has done this,
it does not leave it there, lest it should roll in again ; but is
always at the pains of pushing it further on, till it has removed
it to a necessary distance from the edge of the pit.'

Passing on now to the intelligence of caterpillars
Mr. Gr. B. Buckton, F.R.S., writing from Haslemere.
says : —

Many caterpillars of Pieris rapce have, during this autumn
fed below my windows. On searching for suitable positions for
passing into chrysalides, some eight or ten individuals, in their
dii*ect march upwards, encountered the plate-glass panes of mv
windows ; on these they appeared to be unable to stand. Ac-
cordingly in every case they made silken ladders, some of them
five feet long, each ladder being formed of a single continuous
thread, woven in elegant loops from side to side. ... The
reasoning, however, seems to be but narrow, for one ladder was
constructed parallel to the window-frame for nearly three feet,
on which secure footing could be had by simply diverting the
track two inches.^

In this case it appears clear that we have to do with
instinct, and not with reason. No doubt it is the congenital
habit of these caterpillars to overcome impediments in
this way ; but the instinct is one of sufficient interest to
be here stated.

The following is quoted from Kirby and Spence :—

A caterpillar described by Bonnet, which, from being confined
in a box, was unable to obtain a supply of the bark with which
its ordinary instinct directs it to make its cocoon, substituted
pieces of paper that were given to it, tied them together with
silk, and constructed a very passable cocoon with them. In
another instance the same naturalist having opened several
cocoons of a moth {Noctura verbasci), which are composed of
a mixture of grains of earth and silk, just after being finished,
the larvae did not repair the injury in the same manner. Some
employed both earth and silk ; others contented thencLselves with
spinning a silken veil before the opening.^

The same authorities state, as result of their own
observation, that the —

* Animal Biography, vol. iii., pp. 244-5.
' Nature, vii., p. 49. ' Intr. to Ent., ii., p. 475.

INTELLIGENCE OF LARV.E— CATEEPILLARS.

237

five or six
that it at
\s done this,
fain ; hut is
las removed

laterpillars,
Haslemere,

:;liis autumn,
positions for
lals, in their
panes of my
stand. Ac-
ome of them
[e continuous
ie. . . . The
18 ladder was
rly thi'ee feet,
diverting the

'e to do with
le congenital
ediments in
it interest to

jpence :—

being confined
•k with which
»n, substituted
together witb
th them. In
pened several
•6 composed of
Dcing finished,
,anner. Some
lemselves witli

of their o^vll

,1., p.

475.

Common cabbage caterpillar, which, when building web under
stone or wooden suifaces, previously covei-s a space with a web
to tbrm a base for supporting its dependent pupa, when building
■v web beneath a muslin surface dispenses with this bjise
jiltc^ether : it perceives that the woven texture of the muslin
forms facilities for attaching the threads of the cocoon securely
enough to support the weight of the cocoon without the neces-
sity of making the usual square inch or so of basal support.'

The instincts of the larva of the Tinea moth are thus
described by Reaumur : —

It feeds upon the elm, using the leaves both as food and
clothing. To do this it only eats the parenchyma of the leaf,
preserving the upper and under epidermal membranes, between
which it then insinuates itself as it progressively devours the
pai-enchyma. It, however, carefully avoids separating these
membranes where they unite at the extreme edge of the leaf,
which is designed to form * one of the seams of its coat.* The
cavity when thus excavated between the two epidermal mem-
branes is then lined with silk, made cylindrical in shape, cut off
at the two ends and all along the side remote from the * seam,*
and then the two epidermal membranes sewn together along the
side where they have had to be cut in order to separate them
from the tree. The larva now has a coat exactly fitting its body,
and open at each end. By the one opening it feeds, and by the
other discharges its excrement, * having on one side a nicely
jointed seam — that which is commonly applied to its back —
composed of the natural marginal junction of the membranes
of the leaf.*

Reaumur cut off the edge of a newly finished coat, so
as to expose the body of the larva at that point. The
animal did not set about making a new coat ab initio, as
I we might expect that it would on the popular supposition
that a train of instinctive actions is always as mechanical-
as the running down of a set of cog-wheels, and that
wherever a novel element is introduced the machinery
must be thrown out of gear, so that it cannot meet a new
emergency of however simple a character, and must there-
fore re-start the whole process over again from the be-
ginning. In this case the larva sewed up the rent ; and
not only so, but ' the scissors having cut off one of the
|projections intended to enter into the construction of

' Jbid., p. 475.

1 :♦

238

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the triangular end of the case, it entirely changed the
original plan, and made that end the head which had bteii
first designed for the tail.'

Another remarkable case of the variation of instinct in
the Lepidoptera is stated by Bonnet. There are usu;illv,
he says, two generations of the Angoumois moth : the first
appear in early summer, and lay their eggs upon the ears
of wheat in the fields ; the second appear later in the
summer, or in the autumn, and these lay their eggs upon
wheat in the granaries ; from these eggs there comes thf
first generation of next year's moths. This is a highlv
remarkable case — supposing the facts to be as Bonnot
states ; for it seems that the early summer moths, altliough
bom in the granaries, immediately fly to the unreaped
fields to lay their eggs in the standing corn, while the
autumn moths never attempt to leave the granaries, but
lay their eggs upon the stored wheat.'

Westwood says that —

A species of Tasmanian caterpillar (Noctua Ewingii) swarms
over the land in enormous companies, which regularly begin to
march at four o'clock in the morning, and as regularly halt at
midday. Liparis chrysorrhaca^ a kind of caterpillar, spins foi'
the winter a common web, in which several hundred individuals
find a common shelter. *-'

According to Kirby and Spence, —

The larva of the ichneumon, while feeding upon its caterpillar
host, spares the walls of the intestines until it is time for it to
escape, when, the life of the caterpillar being no longer necessary
to its development, it perforates these walls.^

The larvae Theda iaocrates live in a group of seven or eight
in the fruit of pomegranate. In consequence of their excava-
tions within the fruit, the latter is apt to fall ; and to prevent
its doing so the larvae throw out a thread of attachment where-
with to secure the fruit to the branch, so that if the stalk withers,
this thread serves to suspend the fruit."*

The caterpillar of the Bombyx moth, which is a native of I
France, exhibits very wonderful instincts. The larva is gie-
garious in its habits, each society (family) consisting of perhaps j

' (Euvres, ix., p. 370. ^ Trans. Ent. Soc, vol. ii.

' Introd. Ent., Letter xi.

* Westwood, Tram. Ent. Soc, vol. ii., p. 1.

INTELLIOENCR OF LARVi-E— CATERPITJ.ARS. 239

mger necessary

seven or eiglit
r their excava-
and to prevent
,chment where-
e stalk withers,

is a native of |
^ larva is gree-
ting of perhaps

c.y vol. ii.

600 or 800 individuals. When young they huvo no fixod luibi-
tation, but encamp soinotini(\s in one place, and sometimeH in
another, under the shelter of their web ; but when they have
attained two-thirds of their growth, they woavo for thomst'lves
a common tent. About sunset the regiment leaves its quarters.
... At their head is a chief, by whoso movements their prO'
cession is regulated. When ho sto[)s all stop, and i)roceed when
he proceeds ; three or four of his immediate followers succeed
in the same line, the head of the second touching the tiiil of the
first; then comes an equal series of pairs, next of threes, and so
on, as far as fifteen or twenty. The whole procession moves
regularly on with an even pace, each file treading in the steps
of those that precede it. If the leailer, arriving at a particular
point, pursues a ditferent direction, all march to that point
before they turn. ^

The following additional facts concerning these remark-
able habits may be quoted. I take them from the ac-
count published by Mr. Davis in 'Loudoun's Magazine of
Natural History : ' —

The caterpillars, he observed, were Bombyces, and were
seen crossing a road in single file, each so close to its predecessor
that the line was quite continuous, * moving like a living cord.'
The number of caterpillars was 154, and the length of the line
27 feet. When Mr. Davis removed one from the line the
caterpillar immediately in front suddenly stood still, then the
next, and next, and so on to the leader. Similarly, those behind
the point of interruption successively halted. After a pause of
a few moments, the first caterpillar behind the break in the
hne endeavoured to fill up the vacant space, and so recover con-
1 tact or communication, which after a time it succeeded in doing,
pvhen the information that the line was again closed was
passed forward in some way from caterpillar to caterpillar till
it reached the leader, when the whole line was again put in
motion. The individual which had been abstracted remained
[rolled up and motionless ; but on being placed near the moving
Icolumn it immediately unrolled, and made every attempt to get
Ireadmitted into the procession. After many endeavours it
succeeded, the one below falling into the rear of the interloper.
)n repeating the experiment by removing a caterpillar fifty from
Ithehead of the procession, Mr. Davis found that it took just
thirty seconds by his watch for information of the fact to reach
fhe leader, All the same results followed as in the previous

' Kirby and Spence, Entomology^ Letter xvi.

240

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

case. It was observable that the animals were guided neither
by sight nor smell while endeavouring to clos6 up the inter-
rupted line ; for the caterpillar next behind the interruption on
whom the duty of closing up devolved, ' turned right and left
and often in a wrong direction, when within half an inch of the
one immediately before him ; when he at last touched the ob-
ject of his search, the fact was communicated again by sif'na^ •
and in thirty seconds the whole line was in rapid march.' This
gentleman adds that the object of the march was the search for
new pasture. The caterpillars feed on the Eucalyptus, and when
they have completely stiipped one tree of its leaves, they all con-
gregate on the trunk, and proceed as described to another tree.

De Villiers * gives an account of his observations on the
manner in which these caterpillars {CnethocaTnpii pitzo-
campa) are able to pass information, which does not quite
agree with the above observation of JMr. Davis. For he
says that, in a train of 600 caterpillars, interference by
him in any part of the train was communicated through
the whole series instantaneously — all the 600 caterpiUars
stopping immediately and with one consent like a single
organism.

According to Kirby and Spence there is a kind of
caterpillar (Pieris cratcegi) which lives in little colonies
of ten or twelve in common chambers lined with silk. In
one part they make of the same material a little bag or
pocket, which is used by the community or household as
a water-closet. When full of excrement the caterpillars |
empty it by turning out the pellets with their feet.'^

Only two other instances of noteworthy intelligence I
as exhibited by larvae have fallen within my reading.
One of these is mentioned by Keaumur, who says that
the larvae of Hernerobius chrysops chase aphides, and
having killed them, clothe themselves in their skins ; and
the other case is the very remarkable one mentioned in
his newly published work by W. MacLachlan, F.E.S., of I
caddis- worms adjusting the specific gravity of their tubes [
to suit that of the water in which they live, b.y attaching
heavy or light material to them according as they require!
sinking or flotation.

' Trans. Ent. Soc. France, vol. 1., p. 201.
* Introduction to Entomology, Letter xxvi.

241

CHAPTER VIII.

FISH.

Although we here pass into the sub-kingdom of animals
Ithe intelligence of which immeasurably surpasses that of the
lother sub-kingdoms, it is remarkable that these lowest
epresentatives of the higher group are psychologically in-
Ifeiior to some of the higher members of the lower groups.
yeither in its instincts nor in general intelligence can
Buy fish be compared with an ant or a bee — a fact which

m how slightly a psychological classification of animals
ilepends upon zoological aJBfinity, or even morphological or-
ganisation. For although a highly competent authority,
namely Van Baer, has said that a bee is as highly organised
In animal as a fish, though on a different type,* no one would
pe found to assert that an ant or a bee is so much more
lighly organised than a fish as its higher intelligence
pould require, supposing degrees of intelligence to stand

necessary relation to degree of organic development.
bd this consideration is not materially altered if, instead
if regarding the whole organism, we look to the nervous
ystem alone. There is no doubt that the cerebral hemi-
pheres of a fish, although small as compared with these
in the higher Vertebratay are, bulk for bulk,

rgans

Qormous as compared with the oesophageal ganglia or
brain' of an insect; while the disproportion becomes
[ill greater if the cerebral hemispheres of a fish are com-
pred with their supposed analogues in the brain of an
pt, viz., the pedunculated and convoluted lobes which
rmount the cephalic ganglion. But here the relative
Qallness of the ant as a whole must be taken into con-

Phil. Frags., translated by Huxley, Taylor^s Mag., 1853, p. 196.

242

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

sideration, and also the fact that its brain is relatively
much more massive as well as more highly organised than
that which occurs in any other order of invertebrated
animals, except, perhaps, the octopus and his allies. There-
fore, although the brain of a fish is formed upon a type i
Avhich by increase of size and complexity is destined in
function far to eclipse all other types of nerve-cei:tre we
have to observe that in its lowest stage of evolution as
presented to science in the fishes, this type is functionallv
inferior to the invertebrate type, where this reaches its!
highest stage of evolution in the Hymenoptera.

Emotions.

Fish display emotions of fear, pugnacity ; social, sexual I
and parental feelings ; anger, jealousy, play, and curiosityj
So far the class of emotions is the same as that with i\^M
we have met in ants, and corresponds with that which isj
distinctive of the psychology of a child about four monthsl
old. I have not, however, any evidence of sympatLyJ
which would be required to make the list of emotions!
identical ; but sympathy may nevertheless be present.

Fear and pugnacity are too apparent in fish to requirel
special proof. The social or gregarious feelings are strongly
shown by the numberless species which swim in shoals,
the sexual feelings are proved by courtships, and tlid
parental by those species which build nests and guardl
their young. Schneider saw several species of fish at m
Naples Aquarium protecting their eggs. In one case thq
male mounted guard over a rock where the eggs were de
posited, and swam with open mouth against intruders]
The following accounts of the nidification of certain specie
of fish show that the parental instincts are not unlikj
those which obtain in birds, and are comparable in point c
strength with the same instincts as they occur in antJ
bees, and spiders.

Agassiz remarks * that while examining the marine product
of the Sargasso Sea, Mr. Mansfield picked up and brought t
him a round mass of sargassum, about the size of the t«

> Silliman's American Jovrnalj Feb. 1872.

FISH — EMOTIONS.

243

fists placed together. The whole consisted, to all appearance,
of nothing but gulf-weed, the branches and leaves of which were,
however, evidently knit together, and not merely balled into a
roundish mass. The elastic threads which held the gulf-weed
together were beaded at intervals, sometimes two or three beads
being close together, or a branch of them hanging from the
cluster of threads. This nest was full of eggs scattered through-
out the mass, and not placed together in a cavity. It was
I evidently the work of the Chironectes. This rocking fish-cradle
is carried along as an undying arbour, aflfording at the same
time protection and afterwards food for its living freig'it. It is
suf'gested that the fish must have used their peculiar pectoral
j lins when constructing this elaborate nest.

The well-known tinker or ten-spined stickleback (Gaster-
>osieiis pungitius) is one of our indigenous fish which constructs
a nest. On May 1, 1864, a male* was placed in a well-estab-
jlislied aquarium of moderate size, to which, after three days,
[two ripe females were added. Their presence at once roused
Ihim into activity, and he soon began to build a nest of bits of
, and dead fibre, and of growing confervoid filaments, upon a
Jjiitting point of rock among some interlacing branches of
IMynophyllum spicatum — all the time, however, frequently in-
Iterruptinghis labours to pay his addresses to the females. This
[was done in most vigorous fashion, he swimming, by a series of
Bittle jerks, near and about the female, even pushing against her
rith open mouth, but usually not biting. After a little
petting she responds and follows him, swimming just above
as he leads the way to the nest. "Vhen there, the male
bommences to flirt — he seems unaware of its situation, will not
Bwim to the right spot, and the female, after a few inefiectual
kttempts to find the proper passage into it, turns tail to swim
pay, but is then viciously pursued by the male. When he
st courts the female, if she, not being ready, does not soon
espond, he seems quickly to lose his temper, and, attacking
[lerwith great apparent fury, drives her to seek shelter in some
evice or dark corner. The coquetting of the male near the
^est, which seems due to the fact that he really has not quite
shed it, at length terminates by his pushing his head well
Dto the entrance of the nest, while the female closely follows
im, placing herself above him, and apparently much excited.
^s he withdraws she passes into the nest, and pushes quite
rough it, after a very brief delay, during which she deposits
er ova. The male now fertilises the eggs, and drives the female

' Ransom, Aim. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1866, xvi., p. 449.

B 2

I ...

i;-., r

244

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

away to a safe distance ; then, after patting down the nest, he
proceeds in search of another female. The nest is built and the
ova deposited in about twenty-four hours. The male continued
to watch it day and night, and during the light hours he also
continually added to the nest.

The marine flfteen-spined siicklehsick(GasterGSteuF spinachk) \
affords another instance of nest-constructing fishes. The places
selected for their nests are usually harbours, or some sheltered
spots to where pure sea water reaches. The fish either find
growing, or even collect some of the softer kinds of green or red
seaweed, and join them with so much of the coralline tufts
(JanicB) growing on the rock as will serve the purpose of afford-
ing firmness to the structure, and constitute a pear-shaped mass
five or six inches long, and about as stout as a man's fist. A
thread, which is elastic and resembles silk, is employed for the
purpose of binding the materials together : under a magnifier
it appears to consist of several strands connected by a gluev
substance, which hardens by exposure to the water. ^

M. Carbonnier, who has studied the habits of the Chinese i
butterfly-fish (Macropodus) in his private aquarium in Paris,
where he had some in confinement, observed that the male!
constructs a nest of froth of considerable size, 15 to 18 centi-
metres horizontal diameter, and 10 to 12 high. He prepares
the bubbles in the air (which he sucks in and then expels),
strengthening them with mucous matter from his mouth, and!
brings them into the nest. Sometimes the buccal secretion I
will fail him, whereupon he goes to the bottom in search ofl
confervae, which he sucks and bites for a little in order to stimu-f
late the act of secretion. The nest prepared, the female is in-l
duced to enter. Not less curious is the way in which the malej
brings the eggs from the bottom into the nest. He appeai-sj
unable to carry them up in his mouth ; instead of this, he first!
swallows an abundant supply of air, then descending, he place/
himself beneath the eggs, and suddenly, by a violent contractioi/
of the muscles in the interior of his mouth and pharynx, he ex-j
hales the air which he had accumulated by the gills. This
air, finely divided by the lamellae and fringes of the gil
escapes in the form of two jets of veritable gaseous powderj
which envelopes the eggs and raises them to the surface, if
this manoeuvre the Macropodus entirely disappeared in a kiiil
of air-mist, and when this had dissipated he reappeared withi

' Quoted from Francis Day, F.L.S., ' Instincts and Emotions of Fisli,
Journ. Linn. Soc, vol. xv., pp. 36-7, where sfie for other cases of neslj
building among fish.

FISH — NEST-BUILDING.

245

multitude of air-bubbles like little pearls clinging all over his

body.'

Again, in detailing Mr. Baker's observations on the
three-spined stickleback, published in the Philosophical
Transactions, this author says : —

It has been remarked that after the deposition of the eggs
the nest was opened more to the action of the water, and the
vibratory motion of the body of the male fish, hovering over its
surface, caused a current of water to be propelled across the
surface of the ova, which action was repeated almost continu-
ously. After about ten days the nest was destroyed and the
materials removed ; and now were seen the minute fry flutter-
inff upwards here and there, by a movement half swimming,
half leaping, and then falling rapidly again upon or between
the cleai' pebbles of the shingle bottom. This arose from their
having the remainder of the yelk still attached to their body,
which, acting as a weight, caused them to sink the moment the
swimming effort had ceased. Around, across, and in every
direction the male fish, as the guardian, continually moved.
Xow his labours became more arduous, and his vigilance was
taxed to the utmost extreme, for the other fish (two tench and
a gold carp), some twenty times larger than himself, as scon
as they perceived the young fry in motion, continuously used
their utmost endeavours to snap them up. The courage of the
little stickleback was now put to its severest test ; but, nothing
daunted, he drove them all off, seizing their fins and striking
with all his strength at their heads and at their eyes. His
care of the young brood when encumbered with the yelk was
very extraordinary ; and as this was gradually absorbed and

ey gained strength, their attempts to swim carried them to a
j greater distance from the parent fish ; his vigilance, however,
seemed everywhere, and if they rose by the action of their fins
above a certain height from the shingle bottom, or flitted beyond
a given distance from the nest, they were immediately seized in
his mouth, brought back, and gently puffed or jetted into their
place again. The same care of the young, bringing them back
to their nest up till about the sixth day after hatching, has
been remarked by Dr. Ransom in the ten-spined stickleback
\{G. pungitius).^

The well-known habit of the lophobranchiate fish, of

' Ibid.

246

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

mcul

Lbatiiig their eggs in their pouches, also displays
highly elaborated parental feeling.^ M. Risso says that
when the young of the pipe-fish are hatched out, the
parents show them marked attachment, and that the
pouch then serves them as a place of shelter or retreat
from danger.'^

M. Car))onnier has recorded how the male of the curiously
grotesque telescope-fish, a variety of Carassius auratus (Linn.)
acts as accoucheur to the female. Three males pursued one
female which was heavy with spawn, and rolled her like a ball
upon the ground for a distance of several metres, and continued
this process without rest or relaxation for two days, until the
exhausted female, who had been unable to recover her equili-
brium for a moment, had at last evacuated all her ova.^

That adult fish are capable of feeUng affection for one
another would seem to be well established : thus Jesse relates
how he once captured a female pike {Esox lucius) during the
breeding season, and that nothing could drive away the male
from the spot at which he had perceived his partner slowly dis-
appear, and whom he had followed to the edge of the water.

Mr. Arderon * gave an account of how he tamed a dace,
which would lie close to the glass watching its master; and
subsequently how he kept two ruffs {Acerina cernua) in an
aquarium, where they became very much attached to one
another. He gave one away, when the other became so miser
able that it would not eat, and this continued for nearly three
weeks. Fearing his remaining fish might die, he sent for its
former companion, and on the two meeting they became quite
happy again. Jesse gives a similar account of two gold carp,'

Anger is strikingly shown by many fish, and notori-
ously by sticklebacks when their territory is invaded by a I
neighbour. These animals display a strange instinct of
appropriating to themselves a certain part of the tank in
which they may be confined, and furiously attacking anj|
other stickleback which may presume to cross the imagi-
nary frontier. Uunder such circumstances of provocation 1 1
have seen the whole animal change colour, and, darting at

' Kaup, Catal. Zoplio. Fish in Brit. Mus. 1856, p. i.
" Yarrell, Brit. Fishes, 2nd ed. ii. p. 436.
3 Compt. Mend., Nov. 4, 1872, p. 1127.

* Phil Trans. Royal Society, 1747.

* F. Day, loc. cit.

FISH— ANGER, JEALOUSY, CUEIOSITY, ETC. 247

the trespasser, show rage and fury in every movement.
Of course, here, as elsewhere, it is impossible to be sure
bow far apparent expression of an emotion is due to the
presence of that mental state which we recognise as the
emotion in ourselves ; but still the best guide we have to
follow is that of apparent expression.

Following this principle, we are also entitled to at-
tribute to fish the emotions conducive to play; for nothing
caQ well be more expressive of sportive glee than many of
their movements. As for jealousy, the fights of many
male fish for the possession of females constitutes evi-
dence of emotion which would be called by this name in
the higher animals. Schneider, in his recent work already
often quoted, says that he has observed a male fish {Labrus)
show jealousy only towards other individual males of his
own species — chasing these away from the neighbourhood
of his female, but not objecting to the approach of fish of
other species.

Curiosity is shown by the readiness, or even eagerness,
with which fish will approach to" examine any unfamiliar
object. So much is this the case that fishermen, like
hunters, sometimes trade upon this faculty: —

And the fisher, with his lamp
And spear, about the low rocks damp
Crept, and struck the fish which came
To worship the delusive flame. ^

Stephenson, the engineer, on sinking lighted lanterns
iu the water, also found that fish were attracted to them.'^

Special Habits,

As curious instances of special instincts in fish we may
notice the well-known habit of the angler (^Lophius pis-
mtor\ which conceals itself in mud and seaweed, while
waving in the water certain filaments with which it is
provided above its snout. Other fish, attracted by these
j moving objects, approach, and are thereupon &eized by the

' Shelley, Lines n^rittett in the Bay of Lerici.
2 See Smiles, Lives of Engineers, vol. iii., p. 69.

248

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

angler. We must also allude to the Ghelmon rostratus
which shoots its prey by means of a drop of water projected
from the mouth with considerable force and unerring aim.
The mark thus shot at is always some small object, such
as a fly, at rest above the surface of the water, so that
when suddenly hit it falls into the water.* This remark-
able instinct can only, I think, have originated as a
primordially intentional adjustment, and as such shows a
high degree of intelligence on the part of these fishes' an-
cestors. Moreover, the wonderful co-ordination of sight
and muscular movements required to judge the distance
to make due allowance for refraction, and to aim correctlv
shows that the existing representatives are not unworthy
of their ancestors.

Several species of fish in different parts of the world
have the habit of quitting pools which are about to dry
up, and taking excursions across countiy in search of more
abundant water. Eels have this habit, and perform their
migrations by night. Dr. Hancock, in the * Zoological
Journal,' gives an account of a species of Doras, the indi-
viduals of which are about a foot in length, and travel by
night in large shoals, or * droves,' when thus searching for I
water. A strong serrated arm constitutes the first ray of
the pectoral fin; and, using this as a kind of foot, the animal
pushes itself forward by means of its tail, thus moving
nearly as fast as a man can walk. Another migrating fish |
(Hydrargzra) was found by thousands in the fresh waters
of Carolina by Bosc. It travels by leaps, and, according!
to Bosc, always directs itself towards the nearest water,
although he purposely placed them so that they could not|
see it.

But perhaps the strangest among this class of habits
is that of the climbing perch {Perca scandena), first dis-
covered by Daldorff in Tranquebar; for this animal not I
only creeps over land, but even climbs the fan palm inl
search of certain Crustacea which form its food. In climbf
ing it uses its open gill-covers as hands wherewith toj
suspend itself, while it deflects its tail laterally upwards sol
as to bring to bear upon the bark certain little spines witli|

1 See * On the Jaculator-Fish,' by Schlosser, Phil. Trans. 1761.

FISH— MIGRATIONS.

249

I. Trans. 1761.

which its anal fin is provided ; it then pushes itself up-
wards by straightening the tail, while it closes the gill-
covers not to prevent progress, and so on. Sir E. Tennent,
however, without disputing the evidence that these fish
do climb trees, says, —

The probability is, as suggested by Buchanan, that the
ascent which was witnessed by Daldorff was accidental, and
ought not to be regarded as the habit of the animal.^

A great number of species of fish perform migrations.
In relation to intelligence, the most interesting of these
is the migration of salmon, which annually leave the sea
to spawn in rivers, though there is some doubt whether
the same individuals spawn every year. There is no doubt,
however, that the same individuals frequently, though not
invariably, revisit the same rivers for their successive
spawnings. This fact may be due either to the remem-
brance of locality, similar to that which is unquestionably
manifested by birds, or to the salmon not swimming far
along the coast during other seasons of the year, and there-
fore in the spawning season when seeking a river happen-
ing to hit upon the same one. The latter hypothesis is
one which Mr. Herbert Spencer tells me he is inclined to
adopt, and, being a salmon-fisher, he has paid attention to
the subject. He informs me of an observation by a friend
of his own, who saw a salmon, when about to spawn, swim-
ming along the coast-line, and all round a boathouse,
apparently seeking any stream that it might first en-
counter. ■•

The distances up rivers to which salmon will swim in
the spawning season is no less surprising than the energy
with which they perform the feat, and the determination
with which they overcome all obstacles. They reach
Bohemia by the Elbe, Switzerland by the Khine, and,
which is much more wonderful, the Cordilleras of America
by the Maragnon.

They employ only three months in ascending to the sources
of the Maragnon (a journey of 3,000 miles), the cun*ent of
which is remarkably rapid, which is at the rate of nearly forty

' Natural History of Ceylon^ p. 351.

250

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

I ,

miles a day ; in a smooth stream or lake their progress wouUl
increase in a fourfold ratio. Their tail is a very powerful organ,
and its muscles have wonderful energy ; by placing it in their
mouths they make of it a very elastic spring, for letting it go
with violence they raise themselves in the air to the height of
from twelve to fifteen feet, and so clear the cataract that impedes
their course : if they fail in their first attempt, they continue
their efibrts till they have accomplished it.'

General Intelligence.

With reference to the general intelligence of fish.
allusion may first be made to their marked increase of
wariness in waters which are much fished. This shows no
small degree of intelligence, for the caution is proved to
be the result of observation by the fact that young trout
under such circumstances are less wary than old ones.
Moreover, many fish will abandon old haunts when much
disturbed. Again, according to Kirby, the carp thrusts
itself into the mud in order that the net may pass over it,
or, if the bottom be stony, makes great leaps to clear it.

At the Andaman Islands fish are captured by the convicts
by means of weirs fixed across the openings of creeks. After
existing a week or so, it is observed that captures invariably
cease; and it is believed that such is due to barnacles, &c.,
clustering on to the wood of which they are composed. It does
not seem improbable that the fish have learned to avoid a loca-
lity out of terror at those which enter but do not again return.'

Lacep^de^ relates that some fish, which had been kept
for many years in a basin of the Tuileries, would come
when called by their names. Probably it was the sound
of the voice and not the articulate words to which they
responded ; for Lacep^de also relates that in many parts
of Germany trout, carp, and tench were summoned to
their food by the sound of a bell ; and the same thing has
been recorded of various fish in various localities, notably
by Sir Joseph Banks, who used to collect his fish by sound-
ing a bell."*

* Kirby, Hist. Habits and Instincts of Animals, vol. i. p. 119.

^ F. Day, loo. cit. • Hist, des Poiss., Introd., cxxx.

* For sundry other similar cases see Mr. Day's excellent paper
already quoted.

FISH- GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

251

In * Nature' (vol. xi., p. 48) Mr. Mitchell gives the
following instance of intelligence on the part of a small
nerch. Having one day disturbed its nest full of young
fry, Mr. Mitchell next day went to look for the nest;
' but we searched in vain for the fish and her young. At
length, a few yards further up stream, we discovered the
parent guarding her fry with jealous care in a cavity
scooped out of the coarse sand. . . . This is the first and
only instance that has come under my notice of a fish
watching over her young, and conveying them, when
threatened with danger, to some other place.'

In * Nature' (December 19, 1878) there is also pub-
lished a communication which was made by Mr. J. Faraday
to the Manchester Anglers' Association, concerning a skate
which he observed in the aquarium of that town : —

A morsel of food thrown into the tank fell directly in an
angle formed by the glass front and the bottom. The skate, a
large example, made several vain attempts to seize the food,
owing to its mouth being on the underside of its head and the
food being close to the glass. He lay quite still for a while as
though thinkings then suddenly raised himself into a slanting
posture, the head inclined upwards, and the under surface of
the body towards the food, when he waved his broad expanse of
1ms, thus creating an upward current or wave in the water,
which lifted the food from its position and carried it straight to
his mouth.

It will be observed, however, that this observation is
practically worthless, from the observer having neglected
to repeat the conditions in order to show that the move-
ments of the fish were not, in their adaptation to these
circumstances, purely accidental. Therefore I should not
have alluded to this observation, had I not found that it
has been quoted by several writers as a remarkable display
of intelUgence on the part of the fish.

I must not take leave of this class without making
some allusion to the alleged habits of the so-called ' pilot-
lish,' and also to those of ' thresher ' and ' sword-fish.' I
class these widely different habits together because they
are alike in being dubious ; different observers give differ-
ent accounts, and therefore, until more information is

252

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

forthcoming, we must suspend oiu* judgment with rtgard
to the habits in question. The following describes what
these habits are believed by many observers to be.

Captain Kichards, K.N., says that he saw a blue shark
following a bait which was thrown out to him from the
ship. The shark, which was attended by four pilot-tish,
repeatedly approached the bait ; but every time he did so
one of the latter rushed in and prevented him. After a
time the shark swam away ; but when he had gone a con-
siderable distance, he turned back again, swam quickly
after the vessel, and before the pilot-fish could overtak*^
him, seized the bait and was caught. While hoistina
him on board, one of the pilots was seen to cling to his
side until above water, when it dropped off. All the pilots
then swam about for a time, as if searching for their
friend, 'with every apparent mark of anxiety and distress.''
Colonel Smith fully corroborates this observation; but
Mr. Geoffrey, on the other hand, saw a pilot-fish take great
pains to bring a shark to the bait.'-^ Probably the truth is
that the pilot-fish attend the shark in order to obtain the
crumbs that fall from his feasts, and that the cases in which
they appear to prevent his taking the bait are without any
psychological significance.

With regard to the alleged co-operation of the thresh-
ing and sword-fish in the destruction of whales, all that
can be said is that the statements, although antecedently
improbable, are sufficient in number not to be ignored.
Mr. Day appears to accept the evidence as adequate, and
gives the following cases : —

Captain Am, in a voyage to Memel in the Baltic, gives the
following interesting narrative : — One morning during a calm,
when near the Hebrides, all hands were called up at 2 a.m. to
witness a battle between several of the fish called threshers or
fox-sharks {Alopecias vulpes), and some sword-fish on one side,
and an enormous whale on the other. It was in the m) Idle of
the summer ; and the weather being clear, and the fish close to
the vessel, we had a fine opportunity of witnessing the contest.
As soon as the whale's back appeared above the water, tbe

' Cuv., Anim. Kingd. x. p. 636.
2 F. Day, loc. cit.

FISH — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

253

threshers springing aeveml yards into the air descended with
(Treat violence upon the object of their rancour, and inflicted
,ipon him the most severe slaps with their long tails, the sounds
of which resembled the repr/fts of muskets fired at a distance.
Xlie sword-fish in their turn attacked the distressed whale, stab-
bing from below : and thus beset on all sides and wounded,
when the poor creature appeared, the water around him was
(Ived with blood. In this manner they continued tormenting
and wounding him for many hours, until we lost sight of him ;
and I have no doubt they in the end completed his destruction.
The master of a fishing-boat has recently observed that the
thresher-shark serves out the whales, the sea sometimes being
all blood. One whale, attacked by these fish, once took refuge
under his vessel, where it lay an hour and a half without moving
a fin. He also remarked having seen the threshers jump out of
the water as high as the mast-head and down upon the whale,
while the sword fish was wounding him from beneath the two
sorts of fish evidently acting in concert.

254

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

CHAPTER IX.

BATRACHIANS AND REPTILES.

On the intelligence of frogs and toads very little has to
be said. Frogs seem to have definite ideas of locality;
for several of my correspondents inform me that they have
known cases in which these animals, after having been
removed for a distance of 200 or 300 yards from their
habitual haunts, returned to them again and again. This,
however, may I think perhaps be due to these haunts
having a moistness which the animals are able to perceive
at a great distance. But be this as it may, certainly the
distance at which frogs are able to perceive moisture is
surprising. Thus, for instance, Warden gives a case in
which a pond containing a number of frogs dried up, and
the frogs thereupon made straight for the nearest water,
although this was at a distance of eight kilometres.^

A curious special instinct is met with in the toad Bufo
obstetricans, from which it derives its name ; for the male
here performs the function of an accoucheur to the female,
by severing from her body the gelatinous cord by which
the ova are attached.

Another special instinct or habit manifested by toads
is described by M. Duchemin in a paper before the
Academy of Sciences at Paris.'^ The habit consists in the
killing of carp by squatting on the head of the fish and
forcing the fore-feet into its eyes. ' Probably this habit
arises from se^^Uiti excitement on the part of the toads.

I have one case, communicated to me by a corre-
spondent, of a frog which learnt to know her voice, and to
come when called. As fish will sometimes do the same

' Account of the United States, toI. ii., p. 9.
2 April 11, 1870.

FROGS, TOADS, AND REPTILES.

255

thing, the account is sufficiently credible for me to

quote : —

I used to open the gate in the railings round the pond, and
call out * Tommy ' (the name I had given it), and the frog
would jump out from the bushes, dive into the water, and swim
across to me — get on my hand sometimes. When I called
'Tommy,' it would nearly always come, whatever the time of
day, though it was only fed after breakfast ; but it seemed quite
tame.

A very similar case is recorded by Mr. Pennent ' of
a toad which was domesticated for thirty-six years, and
knew all his friends.

There is no doubt that frogs are able to appreciate
coming changes of weather, and to adapt their movements
in anticipation of them; but these facts show delicate
sensibility rather than remarkable intelligence.

The following observation of Edward, the Scottish
naturalist, however, shows considerable powers of observa-
tion on the part of frogs. After describing the great
noise made by a number of frogs on a moonlight night,
he says : —

Presently, when the whole of the vocalists had reached their
highest notes, they became hushed in an instant. I was amazed
at this, and began to wonder at the sudden termination of the
concert. But, looking about, I observed a brown owl drop
down, with the silence of death, on to the top of a low dyke
close by the orchestra.''^

Reptiles.

Lik'3 the other cold-blooded Verttbrata, the reptiles are
characterised by a sluggishness and low development of
mental power which is to some extent proverbial. Never-
theless, that some members of the class present vivid
emotions is not to be questioned. Thus, to quote from
Thompson : — ■

The common guana (Lacerta iguana) is naturally extremely
gentle and harmless. Its appearance, however, is much against

' See Bingley, Animal Biography, vol. ii., p. 406.
* Smiles, Life of Edwards, p. 124.

256

ANIMAL INTELLiaENCE.

it, especially when agitated by fear or anger. Its eyes then
seem on fire ; it hisses like a serpent, swells out the pouch
under its throat, lashes about its long tail, erects the scales un
its back, and extending its wide jaws, holds its head, covered
over with tubercles, in a menacing attitude. The male, duiing
the spring of the year, exhibits great attachment towards the
female. Throwing aside his usual gentleness of character, he
defends her even with fury, attacking with undaunte- : coiira'^e
every animal that seems inclined to injure her; and at this time,
though his bite is by no means poisonous, he fastens so firmly,
that it is necessary either to kill him or to beat him with great
violence on the nose, in order to make him quit his hold.^

Several species of snake incubate their eggs and show
parental affection for their young when they are hatched
out; but neither in these nor in any other of their
emotions do the reptiles appear to rise much above the
level of fish. The case, however, which I shall after-
wards quote, of the tame snakes kept by Mr. and Mrs.
Mann, seems to show a somewhat higher degree of emo-
tional development than could be pointed to as occurring
in any lower Vertebrata. Moreover, according to Pliny,
so much affection subsists between the male and female
asp, that when the one is killed the other seeks to avenge
its death ; and this statement is so far confirmed — or
rather, its origin explained — by Sir Emerson Tennent
that he says when a cobra is killed, its mate is often found
on the same spot a day or two afterwards.

Passing on to the general intelligence of reptiles, we
shall find that this also, although low as compared with
the intelligence of birds and mammals, is conspicuously
higher than that of fish or batracliians.

Taking first the case of special instincts, Mr. W. F.
Barrett, in a letter to Mr. Darwin, bearing the date May 6,
1873, and contained among the MSS. already alluded to,
gives an account of cutting open with a penknife the
egg of an alligator just about to hatch. The young
animal, although blind, * instantly laid hold of the finger,
and attempted to bite.' Similarly, Dr. Davy, in his * Ac-
count of Ceylon,' gives an interesting observation of his
own on a young crocodile, which he cut out of the egg,
' Passions of Animals, p, 229.

ALLIGATOES AND TUETLES.

257

and which, as soon as it escaped, started off in a direct
line for a neighbouring stream. Dr. Davy placed his
stick before it to try to make the little animal deviate
from its course ; but it stoutly resisted the opposition,
and raised itself into a posture of offence, just as an older
animal would have done.

Humboldt made exactly the same observation with
regard to young turtles, and he remarks that as the young
normally quit the egg at night, they cannot see the water
which they seek, and must therefore be guided to it by
discerning the direction in which the air is most humid.
He adds that experiments were made which consisted in
putting the newly hatched animals into bags, carrying
them to some distance from the shore, and liberating them
with their tails turned towards the water. It was in-
variably found that the young animals immediately faced
round, and took without hesitation the shortest way to
the water.

Scarcely less remarkable thati the instincts of the
young turtles are those of the old ones. Their watchful
timidity at the time of laying their eggs is thus described
by Bates : —

Great precautions are obliged to be taken to avoid disturb-
ing the sensitive turtles, who, previous to crawling ashore to
lay, assemble in great shoals off the sand-bank. The men dui-ing
this time take care not to show themselves, and warn off any
fisherman who wishes to pass near the place. Their fires are
made in a deep hollow near the bordei's of the forest, so that the
smoke may not be visible. The passage of a boat through the
shallow waters whei-e the animals are congi-egated, or the sight
of a man or a fire on the sand-bank, would prevent the turtles
from leaving the water that night to lay their eggs ; and if the
causes of alarm were repeated once or twice they would forsake
the praia for some other quieter place. ... I rose from my
hammock by daylight, shivering with cold — a praia, on account
of the great radiation of heat in the night from the sand, being
towards the dawn the coldest place that can be found in this
climate. Cardozo and the men were ali-eady up watching the
turtles. The sentinels had erected for this purpose a stage about
fifty feet high, on a tall tree near their station, the ascent to which
was by a roughly made ladder of woody lianas. They are ena-

, by observing the turtles from this watch-tower, to ascertain

258

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the date of successive deposits of eggs, and thus guide the com-
mandante in fixing the time for the general invitation to the
Ega people. The turtles lay their eggs by night, leaving the
watf;r, when nothing disturbs them, in vast crowds, and crawl-
ing to the central and highest part of the praia. These phicts
are, of course, the last to go under water when, in unusually
wet seasons, the river rises before the eggs are hatched bv the
heat of the sand. One could almost believe, from this, that the
animals used forethought in choosing a place ; but it is simply
one of those many instances in animals where unconscious
habit has the same result as conscious prevision. The hours
between midnight and dawn ai-e the busiest. The turtles ex-
cavate with their broad webbed paws deep holes in the fine
sand : the first comer, in each case, making a pit about three
feet deep, laying its eggs (about 120 in number) and covering
them with sand; the next making its deposit at the top of that
of its predecessor, and so on until every pit is full. The whole
body of turtles frequenting a praia does not finish laying in less
than fourteen or fifteen days, even when there is no interrup-
tion. When all have done, the area (called by the Brazilians
taholeiro) over which they have excavated is distinguishable
from the rest of the praia only by signs of the sand having been
a little disturbed.'

The same naturalist says of the alligator, —

These little incidents show the timidity and cowardice
(1 prudence and caution) of the alligator. He never attacks
man when his intended victim is on his guard; but he is
cunning enough to know when this may be done with impunity,
Of this we had proof a few days afterwards, (fec.^

Of the alligator, Jesse writes : ^ —

But a most singular instance of attachment between t\yo
animals, whose natures and habits were most opposite, was re-
lated to me by a person on whose veracity I can place the great-
est reliance. He had resided for nine years in the American
States, where he superintended the execution of some extensive
works for the American Government. One of these works con-
sisted in the erection of a beacon in a swamp in one of the rivers,

' Naturalist on the Amazon, pp. 285-6.

2 Ihid. The astonishing facts rflnting to the migration of turtles |
in the laying season will be treated under the general heading ' Migra-
tion ' in my forthcoming work.

' Gleanings, vol. i., pp. 163-4.

TORTOISES.

259

ide tlie com-
bation to the
:, leaving the
s, and crawl-

These placw
in unusually
atched by the
this, tliat the
} it is simply
3 unconscious
1. The hours
^he turtles ex-
.es in the fine
t about three

and covering
the top of that
Ll. The whole
1 laying in lea
is no interrup-
the Brazilians
distinguishable
Lid having been

and cowardice

never attach

[•d; but he is

with impunity.

it between two
posite, was re-
place the great-
the American
some extensive
hese works con-
ne of the rivers,

Avbere he caught a young alligator. This animal he made so
perfectly tame that it followed him about the house like a dog,
scmmWing up the stairs after him, and showing much affection
1 and docility. Its gi-eat favourite, however, was a cat, and the
I friendship was mutual. When the eat was reposing herself
Ijefore the fire (this was at New York), the alligator would lay
I himself down, place his head upon the cat, and in this attitude
1 20 to sleep. If the cat was absent the alligator was restless ;
but he always appeared happy when the cat was near him. The
|onlv instance in which he showed any ferocity was in attacking
l\ fox, which was tied up in the yard. Probably, however, the
Ifox resented some playful advances which the other had made,
111 thus called forth the anger of the alligator. In attacking
Ithe fox he did not make use of his mouth, but beat him with so
Qiuch severity with his tail, that, had not the chain which con-
led the fox broken, he would probably have killed him. The
jUigator was fed on raw flesh, and sometimes with milk, for
rliich he showed a great fondness. In cold weather he w^as
Ihut up in a box, with wool in it ; but, having been forgotten
be frosty night, he was found dead in the morning. This is
kot, I believe, a solitary instance of amphibia becoming tame,
1(1 showing a fondness for those who have been kind to them.
Jlumenbach mentions that crocodiles have been tamed ; and
,0 instances have occurred under my own observation of toads
lowing their benefactors, and coming to meet them witli con-
[deiuble alacrity.

With regard to the higher intelligence of reptiles, I
[ay quote the following instances.

Three or four different correspondents tell me of cases
lich they have themselves observed, of snakes and
rtoises unmistakably distinguishing persons. lu one of
lese cases the tortoise would come to the call of the
I cured person, and when it came would manifest its
[ection by tapping the boot of this person with its mouth;

it it woul I not answer anyone else.' A separation of

le weeks did not affect the memory of this tortoise for

friend.'

^ration of turtles]
E heading ' Migra-

'f The tortoise which has gained such immortal celebrity by having
b under the observation of the author of the Natural Histori/ of
wne, likewise distinguished persons in this way. For ' whenever
[good old lady came in sight, who had wailed on it for more than
V years, it always hobbled with rtwkward alacrity towards its

inattentive.'

potress, whilst to strangers it wa.^

s 2

iltog ether

260

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

The following interesting observation on the intelli-i
gence of snakes shows, not only that these animals are well
able to distinguish persons, and that they remember their I
friends for a period of at least six weeks, but also that
they possess an intensity of amiable emotion scarcely to
be expected in this class. Clearly the snakes in questioi]
were not only perfectly tame, but entertained a remnrk-l
able affection for those who tended and petted theui. TI;
facts were communicated to me by Mr. Walter Severn, [hi
well-known artist, who was a friend of ]\Ir. and Mrs. ManiiJ
the gentleman and his wife to whom the snakes belonged]
Mr. and Mrs. Mann having got into trouble with theij
neighbours on account of the fear and dislike which tlieii
pets occasioned, legal proceedings were instituted, and >j
the matter came before the public. Mr. Seveni tk
wrote a letter to the Times, in order to show that t^
animals were harmless^ From this letter the followinff!
an extract : —

Jicad, cxpoi
TJje chilcire

I happen to know the gentleman and lady against whom i
complaint has been made because of the snakes they keep. A
I should like to give a shoi-t account of my first visit to tlunij

Mr. M., after we had talked for a Uttle time, asked if I
any fear of snakes; and after a timid *No, not very,' from mej
produced out of a cupboaixi a large boa-constr-ictor, a pythoJ
aiiJ several small snakes, which at once made themselves
home on the wiiting-table among pens, ink, and books. I d
at first a good deal startled, especially when the two large siian
coiled round and round my friend, and bega n to notice mo mj
their bright eyes and forked tongues ; but soon finding
tame they were, I ceased to feel frightened. After a shoit ti:
Mr. M. expressed a Avish to call Mi's. M., and left me wi
boa deposited on an ai'm-chair. I felt a little queer wheut
animal began gradually to come near, but the entrai:ice of i
host and hostess, followed by two charming little children,
me at my ease again. After the first interchange of ciMlitl
she and the children went at once to the boa, and, callin!:;i:(
the most endearing names, allowed it to twine itself most!.T|
fully round about them. I sat talking for a long time, kj
wonder at the picture before me. Two beautiful littlf
with their charming mother sat before me with a l)oa-oon>t!ij
(as thick round as a small tree) twining pla^'fully rounl
lady's waist and neck, and forming a kind of turban voun!

so. The a:

Jiead contin

it to nestle i

k prettier t

|3Irs. M. wli

Jto pour out

nicely, and €

Ibvthe black

could make i

ifterwitii a

taming aoqua

These (th

iLeir ciipboari

About a y

1(1 left the b

eptile moped,

laster and mii

liliag himseli

ensedeliffht^

The end
fir. Severn t{
le above leti
It. Eiswife
le time, ran|
?n minutes,,
mng her a)
?lowinto tl{
tretehed besi
^ft to speculJ
id the sual{
Iglitofits st
)ssibly not h]
\g to the ext
le fact of tl
leiifhs while
•Jiiiik the pi

SNAKES.

261

head expecting to be petted and made much of like a kitten.

The cbildien over and over again took its head in their hands

and kissed its mouth, pushing aside its forked tongue in doing

50 The animal seemed much pleased, but kept turning its

head continually towards me with a curious gazo, until I allowed

it to nestle its head for a moment up my sleeve. Nothing could

1)6 prettier than to see this splendid servient coiled all round

Alis. M. while she moved about the room, and when she stood

I to pour out our coffee. He seemed to adjust his weight so

J nicely, and every coil with its beautiful marking was relieved

,er Severn, tl.H|,y the black velvet dress of the lady. It was long before I

, the intelli-i
mills are \vell |
nember their i
but also that
>u scarcely to
es in question I
ed a rem;irk-|
ed them. Tk

nd jNIi's. ^laniiJ
akes belongeijl
ble with tkiiT
ike which theiJ
stituted, and i
[r. Severn theJ
» show thuttlij
the follo^YiIll;!|

could make up my mind to end the visit, and I returned soon

after with a friend (a distinguished M.P.'), to see my snake-

feiming acquaintance again. . . .

These (the snakes) seemed very obedient, and remained in

Itheir cupboard when told to do so.

About a year ago Mr. and Mrs. M. were away for six weeks,
lid left the boa in charge of a keeper at the Zoo. The poor
wtile moped, slept, and refused to be comforted, but when his
aaster and mistress appeared he sprang upon them with delight,
oiling himself round them, and showing every symptom of in-
ense delight. 2

The end of this python was remarkable and pathetic.
[h. Severn tells me that some years after he had published
lie above letter Mr. Mann was seized with an apoplectic
|t. His wife, being the only other person in the house at
iie time, ran out to fetch a doctor. She was absent about
pn minutes, and on returning found that the serpent
ring her absence had crawled upstairs from the room
elow into that where her husband was lying, and w^as
retched beside him dead. Such being the fact, we are
It to speculate whether the double seizure of the man
d the snake was a mere coincidence, or whether the
ight of its stricken master, acting on the emotions of a
ssibly not healthy animal, precipitated its death. Look-
gto the extreme suddenness of the latter, as well as to
e fact of the animal having pined so greatly for his
iends while it was confined at the Zoological Gardens,
a long time, lo«|h^^|, |.|-^g probability rather points to the death of the
.eautifullittV F

ith a V)oa-coTi.4Tk^ i rj,|^jg o-entleman was Lord Arthur Rnssell.

i)biyfully rounU 2 The Times, July 25, 1872.

t' turban vouiv

f against whom
:es they keep. aa|
st visit to thorn,
x\e, asked if 11.1
very,' from me,
trictor, a pytk
xde themselves
md books. 1 ^vi
two large siw'ii
to notice me \nl
soon finding'
After a short ti;
id left me witli
le queer when
le entrance of
little children,

jhange of eivi^"'

,and, calUni^i'

le itself most 'ir.

i'^i

262

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

animal having been accelerated by emotional shock, ]]^■^f
of coTirse the question is an open one. j

So much for the power of reptiles to establish siuh
definite and complete associations as are required for tlu'
recognition of persons associations, however, to which a>
we have seen, frogs, and even insects may attain. As for
other associations, a correspondent writes to me :~~

I believe toi-toises are able to establish a definite association
between particular colours on a flat surface and food. Only tin-
day before reading your article on animal intelligence I noticH
the endeavours of a small tortoise to eat the yellow flowers of
an inlaid writing-table, and I have often remarked the same
recogidtion with regard to red.

Lord Monboddo relates the following anecdote of a
serpent : —

1 am well informed of a tame serpent in the East Indies,
which belonged to the late Dr. Vigot, and was kept by liim jq
the suburbs of IVIadras. This serpent was taken by the Frencli
when they invested Madi'as in the late war, and was carried io|
Pondiclierry in a close carriage. But from thence he found hi;
way back again to his old quarters, which it seems he likei
better, though Madras is distant from Pondicherry about cm
hundred miles. This information, he adds, I have from a li^l
who then was in India, and had seen the serpent often befor
Lis journey and after his return.

Considering the enormous distances over which turtle
are able to find their way in the season of migration, thi
display of the homing faculty to so great a degree in a
serpent is not to be regarded as incredible.

Mr. E. L. Layard, in his ^Rambles in Ceylon' saji
of the cobra : ' —

I once watched one which had thrust its he id throuirh
narrow aperture and swallowed one (i.e. a toad). \Yith ti:
encumbrance he could not withdraw himself. Finding this, bi
reluctantly disgorged the pi-ecious morsel, which began to movj
off. This was too much for vSiiake philosophy to bear, andtlii
toad was again seized ; and again, after violent efforts to escai
was tlie snake compelled to part with it. This time, hoAvevej
a lesson had been learnt, and the toad was seized hv one h
withdrawn, and then swallowed in triumph.

* See Annas, and Mag. of Nat. Hut., 2nd series, vol. ix.. p. 333

FASCINATION.

263

anecdote of a

n Ceylon' sad

Mr. E. C. Buck, B.C.S., suys in < Nature ' (vol. viii.,
p.303):—

I have witnessed exactly a similar plan pin-sued by a largo
number of Gangeo crocodiles, which had been lying or swiunning
iiboiit all day in front of my tent, at the mouth of a small stream
which led from some large inland lakes to the Ganges. Towards
dusk, at the same moment every one of them left the bmk on
which they were lying, or the deep water in which they were
swimming, and formed a line across the stream, whicii was
about twenty yards wide. They ha.d to form a double line, as
there was not room for all in a single line. They then swam
slowly up the shallow stream, driving the fish befoie them, and
1 saw two or three fish caught before they disjippeared.

An account of reptile psychology would be incomplete
I without some reference to the alleged facts of snakes
charming other animals by * fascination,' and being them-
Isehes charmed by the arts of music, &c. The testimony
Ion both subjects is conflicting, and especially with regard
Ito the fascination of other animals by snakes. Thus : —

Mr. Pennant says that this snake (rattle-snake) will fre-
quently lie at the bottom of a tree on which a squirrel is seated.
|He fixes his eyes on the animal, and from that moment it can-
not escape ; it begins a doleful outcry, which is so well known
lat a passer-by, on hearing it, immediately knows that a snake

present. The squirrel runs up the tree a little way, comes
pown again, then goes up, and afterwards comes still lower.
lie snake continues at the bottom of the tree with its eyes
xed on the squirrel, and his attention is so entirely taken up,
a person accidentally approaching may make a considerable
oise without so much as the snake turning about. The squirrel
omes lower, and at last leaps down to the snake, whose mouth

Hiready distended for its reception. Le Vaillant confirms
bis fascinating ten-or by a scene he witnessed. He saw on the
[ranch of a tree a species of shrike, t7^embling as if in convul-
ps,an(l at the distance of nearly four feet, on another branch,
large snake that was lying with outstretched neck and fiery
te, gazing steadily at the poor animal. T}\e agony of the bird
[as so great that it was deprived of the power of moving away ;
bd when one of the party killed the snake, it (i.e. the bird) was
[und dead upon the spot— and that entirely from fear ; for,
1 examination, it appeared not to have received the slightest
loimd. The same traveller adds that a short time afterwards

264

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

;..,»

he observed a small moiwo in similar jigonisitig convulsions
about two yards from a snake, whose; eyes woro intently 11x^,1
upon it; and on frij,ditening away the reptile, and taking uptli,'
mouse, it expired in his hand.*

Many other observations, more or less similar, might
be quoted ; but, on the other hand, Sir Joseph Fayrcr
tells mo that ' fascination is only fright ; ' and this appears
to be the opinion of all persons who have had the oppor-
tunity of looking into the subject in a scientific maimer.
The truth probably is that small animals are occasionullv
much alarmed by the sight of a snake looking at theiii.
and as a consequence of this more easily fall a prey. In
some cases, it is likely enough, strong terror so unnenvs
the animal as to make it behave in the manner which
the witnesses describe ; in making half-palsied efiforts 1 1
escape, it may actually fall or draw nearer to the object of |
its dread. Perhaps, therefore. Dr. Barton, of Philadelphia, i
is a little too severe on previous observers when he siu.>
that —

The report of this fascinating property has had its rise in nothing
more than the fears and cries of birds and other animals in
the protection of their nests. . . . The result of not a little
attention hfs taught me that there is but one wonder in tliel
business — the wonder that the story should ever have been I
believed by any man of understanding and observation.

But, be this as it may, it is certainly remarkable, asl
Sir J. Fayrer in his letter to me observes, ' how little fearl
some animals show until the moment that they are seizedj
and struck.'

As for snake-charming, the facts seem to be that]
cobras and other serpents are attracted by the sound of
pipe to creep out of their hiding-places, when they ard
captured and tamed. It is certain that the fangs are noJ
always drawn, and also that from the first moment oj
capture, before there has been time for any process oj
training, a real snake-charmer is able to make the reptilJ
* dance.' Thus, for instance, Sir E. Tennent publishes m
following letter from Mr. Reyne. After describing all liil

• Thompson, Passions of Animals, p. 118; see also Bindley, Aims^
Biography f vol. ii., pp. 447-8.

SNAKE-CHARMING.

265

convulsions,
uteutly tixed

.aking

nilar, might
seph Fayrcr
this appeiUj
d the op[)or-
tific iiianuer.
occaaionallv
ing Jit them.
1 a prey. In
r so iinnents
aanner which
sied efforts t.i
) the ohject c^f I
■ Philadelphia,
when he s;iy> i

3 rise in nothing

,her animals in I

of not a little!

wonder in tliel

ver have beenj

ervation.

remarkable, as!

how little fearl
hey are seizeflj

ni to he that|
the sound of
when they aid
e fangs are no|
st moment oj
any process o|
lake the reptilj
t publishes tbj
escribing alUij

so Bingley, Anmi

precautions to ensure that the snake-charmer had no tamed
t;nakeH concealed about his person, jMr. Keyne proceeds
to tell how he made the man accompany him to the jungle,
where, attracted by the music of a pipe which the man
played, a large cobra came from an ant-hill which JVIr.
Keyne knew it to occupy: —

On seeing tlie man it tried to escape, hut he caught it by
the tail and kept swinging it rounci until we reacluxl the
l.ungalow. lie then made it dance, but In-foro long it bit him
above the knee. He immediately bandagixl the leg above the
liite and applied a snake-stone to the wound to extract the
poison. Ho was in great pain for a few minutes, but after that
it gradually went away, the stoiic falling otF just before he was
relieved.'

Thus the only remarkable thing about the charming of
a freshly caught snake seems to be that the charmer is
able to make the animal ' dance ' — for the fact of the
jnake approaching the unfamiliar sound of music is not in
itself any more remarkable than a fish approaching the
unfamiliar sight of a lantern. It does not, however, ap-
pear that this dancing is anything more than some series
of gestures or movements which may be merely the expres-
sions, more or less natural, of uneasiness or alarm. Any-
thing else that charmed snakes may do is probably the
result of training ; for there is no doubt that cobras admit
of being tamed, and even domesticated. Thus, for instance,
Major Skinner, writing to Sir E. Tennent, says : —

In one family near Negombo, cobras are kept as protectois,
in the place of dogs, by a wealthy man wlio has always large
sums of money in his house. But this is not a solitary case of
the kind. . . . The snakes glide about the house, a terror to
tlic thieves, but never attempting to harm the inmates.'^

Thus, on the whole, we may accept Dr. Davey's opinion

—who had good opportunities for observation — that the

I snake-charmers control the cobras by working upon the

I TCll-known timidity and reluctance of these animals to

use their fangs till they become virtually tame.

' Natural History of Ceylon, p. 314.
2 Tennent, he. cU., p. 29U

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266

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

CHAPTER X.

BIRDS.

Adequately to treat of the intelligence of birds a separate
volume would be required ; here it must be enough to
deal with this class as I shall afterwards deal with the
Mammalia — namely, by giving an outline sketch of the
more prominent f?atures of their psychology.

Memory,

The memory of birds is \s ell developed. Thus, although
we are much in the dark on the whole subject of migration
— so much so that I reserve its discussion with all the
problems that this presents for a separate chapter in mv
next work — we may at least conclude that the return of
the same pair of swallows every year to the same nest must
be due to the animals remembering the precise locality of
their nests. Again, Buckland gives an account of a pigeon
which remembered the voice of its mistress after an
absence of eighteen months ; ' but I have not been able to

* Curiosities, kc.f p. 126. Wilson also, in his J.wmca« Ornithology,
gives the following sufficiently credible account of the memory of a crow:—
• A gentleman who resided on the Delaware, a few miles below Easton, had
raised [reared] a crow, with whose tricks and society he used frequently
to amuse himself. This crow lived long in the family, but at length
disappeared, having, as was then supposed, been shot by some vagrant
gunner, or destroyed by accident. About eleven months after this, as
the gentleman one morning, in company with several others, was stand-
ing on the river shore, a number of crows happened to pass by ; one of
them left the flock, and flying directly towards the company, alighted
on the gentleman's shoulder, and began to gabble away with great
volubility, as one long-absent friend naturally enough does on meeting
another. On recovering from his surprise the gentleman instantly
recognised his old acquaintance, and endeavoured, by several civil but
sly manoeuvres, to lay hold of him ; but the crow, not altogether relish-
ing quite so much familiarity, having now had a taste of the sweets of

BIRDS— MEMORY.

2G7

rds a separate
3e enough to
ieal with the
sketch of the

rhus, although
3t of migration
n with all the
chapter in my
the return of
same nest must
jcise locality of
Lint of a pigeon
itress after an
ot been able to

meet with satisfactory evidence of the memory of a bird
enduring for a longer time than this.

As it is a matter of interest in comparative psychology
to trace as far as possible into detail the similarities of a
mental faculty as it occurs in different groups of animals, and
as the faculty of memory first admits of detailed study in
the class which we are now considering, I shall here devote
a paragraph to the facts concerning the exhibition of
memory by birds where its mechanism best admits of being
analysed ; I refer to the learning of articulate phrases and
tunes by talking and musical birds. The best observa-
tions in this connection with which I am acquainted are
those of Dr. Samuel Wilks, F.R.S., and therefore I shall
quote in extenso the portion of his paper which refers to
the memory of parrots: other portions of this paper I
shall have occasion to quote in my next work : —

When my parrot first came into my possession, seveml years
ago, it was quite unlettered, and I therefore had an opportunity
of observing the mode in which it acquired the accomplishment
of speech. I was very much struck with its manner of learn-
ing, and the causes for its speaking on special occasions. The
first seemed to resemble very much the method of children in
learning their lessons, and the second to he due to some associa-
tion or suggestion — the usual provocative for set speeches at all
periods of human life. A parrot is well known to imitate
sounds in a most perfect manner, even to the tone of the voice,
besides having a compass which no human being can approach,
ranging from the gravest to the most acute note. !My hird,
though possessing a good vocabulary of words and sentences,
can only retain them for a few months unless kept constantly in
practice by the suggestive recurrence of some cir-cumstance
which causes their continual utterance. If forgotten, however,
they are soon revived in the memory by again repeating them
a few times, and much more speedily than any new sentence can
be acquired. In beginning to teach the parrot a sentence, it has
to be repeated many times, the bird all the while listening most
attentively by turning the opening of the ear as close ns pos-
sible to the speaker. After a few hours it is heard attempting

cr his

liberty, cautiously eluded all his attempts : and suddenly glancing nis
eye on his distant companions, mounted in the air after them, soon
\ and mingled with them, and was never afterwards seen to

eye on

overtook

return.'

•268

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

to say the phrase, or, I shoukl" say, trying to learn it. It evi-
dently has the phrase somewhere in store, for eventually this
is uttered perfectly, but at fitst the attempts are very poor and
ludicrous. If the sentence be composed of a few words, tiie
first two or three are said over and over again, and then another
and another word added, until the sentence is complete, the
pronunciation at first being very imperfect, and then becoming
givadually more complete, until the task is accomplished. Thus
houi' after hour will the bird be indofatigably working at the
sentence, and not until some days have elapsed will it be perfect.
The mode of acquiring it seems to me exactly what I have ob-
served in a child leaining a French phrase; two or three
words are constantly repeated, and then others added, until the
whole is known, the pronunciation becoming more perfect as the
repetition goes on. I found also on whistling a popular air to
my parrot that she picked it up in the same way, taking note
by note until the whole twenty-five notes were complete. Then
the mode of forgetting, or the way in which phrases and aii-s
pass from its recollection, may be worth remarking. The last
words or notes are first forgotten, so that soon the sentence re-
mains unfinished or the air only half whistled through. The
first words are the best fixed in the memory ; these suggest
others which stand next to them, and so on till the last, which
have the least hold on the brain. These, however, as I have
before mentioned, can be easily revived on repetition. This is
also a very usual process in the human subject : for example,
an Englishman speaking French will, in his own country, if no
opportunity occur for conversation, apparently forget it ; he no
sooner, however, crosses the Channel and hears the language
than it very soon comes back to him again. In trying to recall
poems learned in childhood or in school days, although at that
period hundreds of lines may have been known, it is found that
in manhood we remember only the two or three first lines of
the ' Iliad,* the '^neid,' or the ' Paradise Lost.'^

The following is communicated to me by Mr. Venn, of
Cambridge, the well-known logician : —

I had a grey parrot, three or four years old, which had
been taken from its nest in West Africa by those through whom
I received it. It stood ordinarily by the window, where it could
equally hear the front and back door bells. In the yard, by the
back door, was a collie dog, who naturally barked violently at
nearly all the comers that way. The parrot took to imitating the

' Journal of Mental Science, July 1879.

BIRDS— MEMORY.

269

I it. It evi-
mtually this
sry poor and
yvr words, the
then another
complete, the
len becoming
lished. Thus
)rking at the
I it be perfect,
lat I have ob-
two or thret
[ded, until the
perfect as the
popular air to
^, taking note
nplete. Then
rases and aii-s
ing. The last
he sentence re-
through. The
these suggest
the last, which
5ver, as I have
tition. This is
for example,
country, if no
brget it ; he no
the language
trying to recall
tbougb at that
it is found that
■ee first lines of
»i

y Mr. Venn, of

old, which had

e through whom

, where it could

the yard, by the

ked violently at

to imitating the

i9.

(|o». After a time I was interested in ol)SGrving the (Hscrimi-
uative association between the biick-door bell and the dog's hark
in the parrot's mind. Even when the dog was not there, or for
any other cause did not bark, the parrot would constantly Ijark
when the back-door bell sounded, l)ut novtir (that I could hear)
when the front-door bell was heard.

This is but a trifle in the way of intolligoncc, but it struck
me as an interesting analogous case to a law of association often
noticed by writers on human psychology.

The celebrated parrot that belonged to the Buffon
family and of which the Comte de Buffon wrote, exhibited
in a strange manner the association of its ideas. For he
was frequently in the habit of asking himself for his own
claw, and then never failed to comply with his own request
by holding it out, in the same way as he did when asked
for his claw by anybody else. This, however, probably
arose, not, as Buffon or his sister Madame Nadault sup-
posed, from the bird not knowing its own voice, but
rather from the association between the words and the
gestured

According to Margrave, paiTots sometimes chatter their
phrases in their dreams, and this shows a striking simi-
larity of psychical processes in the operations of memory
with those which occur in ourselves.

Similarly, Mr. Walter Pollock, writes me of his own
parrot : —

In this parrot the sense of association is veiy strongly de-
veloped. If one word picked up at a former home comes into
its head, and is uttered by it, it immediately follows this word
up with all the other words and phrases picked up at the same
place and period.

Lastly, parrots not only remember, but recollect ; that
is to say, they know when there is a missing link in a
train of association, and purposely endeavour to pick it
up. Thus, for instance, the late Lady Napier told me
an interesting series of observations on this point which
she had made upon an intelligent parrot of her own. They
were of this kind. Taking such a phrase as ' Old Dan
Tucker,' the bird would remember the beginning and the
end, and try to recollect the middle. For it would say

270

ANIM.iL INTELLIGENCE.

very slowly, * Old — old — old — old '(and then very quickly)
* Lucy Tucker.' Feeling that this was not right, it would
try again as before, ' Old — old — old — old — old Bessy
Tucker,' substituting one word after another in the ],)l;ice
of the souglit-for word ' Dan.' And that the process was one
of truly seeking for the desired word was proved by the
fact that if, while the bird was saying, 'Old — old — old—
old,' any one threw in the word *Dan,' he iminediately
supplied the ' Tucker.'

Emotions,

As regards emotions, it is among birds that we first
meet with a conspicuous advance in the tenderer feelings
of affection and sympathy. Those relating to the sexes
and the care of progeny are in this class pro\'erbial for
their intensity, offering, in fact, a favourite type for the
poet and moralist. The pining of the * love-bird ' for its
absent mate, and the keen distress of a hen on losing her
chickens, furnish abundant evidence of vivid feelings of
the kind in question. Even the stupid-looking ostrich
has heart enough to die for love, as was the case with a
male in the Rotund of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris,
who, having lost his wife, pined rapidly away. It is remark-
able that in some species — notably pigeons — conjugal
fidelity should be so strongly marked ; for this shows, not
only what may be called a refinement of sexual feeling,
but also the presence of an abiding image in the mind's
eye of the lover. For instance, —

Referring to the habits of the mandarin duck (a Chinese
species) Mr. Bennett says that Mr. Beale's aviary afforded a
singular corroboration of the fidelity of the birds in question.
Of a pair in that gentleman's possession, the drake being one
night purloined by some thieves, the unfortunate duck displayed
the strongest marks of despnir at her bereavement, retiring into
a corner, and altogether neglecting food and drink, as well as
the care of her person. In this condition she was courted by a
drake who had lost his mate, but who met with no encourage-
ment from the widow. On the stolen drake being subsequently
recovered and restored to the aviary, the most extravagant
demonstrations of joy were displayed by the fond couple ; but
this was not all, for, as if informed by his spouse of the gallant

BIRDS— CONJUGAL IIDELITY.

271

ry quickly)
it, it would
-old Bessy
1 the \)liice
;ess was one
ived by the
-old— old-
inmediatelv

hat we first

ercr feehngs

to the sexes

)roverbial for

type for the

}-bird ' for its

on losing her

Ld feelings of

>oking ostrich

|e case with a

ttes in Paris,

It is remark-

ms— conjugal

lis shows, not

[exual feeUng,

U the mind's

luck (a Chinese
jary afforded a
Is in question.
uke being one
I duck displaye^l
fit, retiring into
pink, as well as
IS courted by a
no encoura^e-
Lg subsequently
st extravagant
id couple ; hut
of the gallant

proitosals made to her sliortly before his arrival, the drako at-
ticked the luckless bird who would have supplanted him, beat
out his eyes, and inllicted so many injuries as to cause his death.'

Similarly, to give an instance or two with rcgaixl to
(itlicr birds, Jesse states the following as his own obser-
vatiou :—

A pair o{ swans had becii inseparable comi)anions for three
vears, during which time they had reared three broods of
iv"n('t.s ; last auttimn the male was killed, and since that time
tiie female has separated herself from all society with her own
>pocics ; and. though at the time I am writing (the end of
MiU'ch) the breeding season for swans has far advanced, she re-
mains in the same state of seclusion, resisting the addresses of
a male swan, who luis been making advances towards forming
an acquaintance with her, either driving him away, or flying
from him whenever ho comes near her. How long she will
continue in this stjite of widowhood I know not, but at present
it is quite evident that she has not forgotten her former
partner.

This reminds me of a circumstance which lately happened
at Chalk Farm, near Hampton. A man, set to watch a field of
peas which had been much preyed upon by pigeons, shot an old
cock pigeon which had long been an inhabitant of the farm.
His mate, around whom he had for many a year cooed, whom
he had nourished from his own crop, and hacl assisted in rear-
ing numerous young ones, immediately settled on the ground by
his side, and showed her grief in the most expressive manner.
Tlie labourer took up the dead bird, and tied it to a short stjike,
[ thinking that it would frighten away the other depi-edators.

In this situation, however, the widow did not forsake her de-
I ceased husband, but continued, day after day, walking slowly round
I the stick. The kind-hearted wife of the bailiff of the farm
last heard of the circumstance, and immediately went to
[afford what relief she could to the poor bird. She told me that,
Ion arriving at the spot, she found the hen bird much exhausted,
land that she had made a circular beaten track round the dead

pigeon, making now and then a little spring towards him. On

|the removal of the dead bird the hen returned to the dove-

Me.2

As evidence of the intensity of the maternal instinct,

' Couch, Illustrations of Instinct, p. 166
' Gleanings, vol. i., pp. 112-13.

272

ANIMAI. INTELLIGENCE.

I' «i

even in the case of barren birds, I may quote the follow-
ing from the naturalist Couch. I do so because, although
the instance is a trivial one, and also one of frerjuent
occurrence, it is interesting as showin*^ that a deeply routed
instinct or emotion may assert itself powerfully ev( n in
the absence of what may be termed its natural stimulus oi
object : —

I was once witness to a curious instance of the yearning
for progeny in a diminutive bantam hon.

There was at this time a nest of the common hen in a so-
cluded part of the garden, and the parent had been sitting on its
eggs, till compelled by hunger she left them for a short time.
This absence was fatal ; for the bantam had in the meantime
found its situation in a covered recess in the hedge, and I saw
her ci*eep into it with all the triumph of the discoverer of u
treasure. The real mother now retui'ned, and great was hei-
agony at finding an intruder in her nest. The expression of lur
eye and the attitude of her head were emphatic of surjjrise at
the impudence of the proceeding. But affer many attempts to
recover possession she was compelled to resign her rights, for
the bantam was too i-esolute to be contended with ; and tliou^li
its body was not big enough to cover the whole of the eggs, aud
thus some of them were not hatched, yet in due season the pride
of this audacious step-mother was gratified by strutting at the
head of a company of robust chickens, which she passed off upon
the feathered public as a brood of her own.*

As evidence of sympathy I shall quote in extenso an I
interesting case which has been communicated to me by a
young lady, who desires her name withheld. There are
several more or less corroborative cases in the anecdote-
books,^ so that I have no doubt as to the substantial ac-|
curacy of the account : —

My grandfather had a Swan River gander, which had beeni
reared near the house, and had consequently attached himself to,
the members of the family ; so much so that, on seeing any ofj
them at a distance, he would run to meet them with all passibi
demonstrations of delight.

But * Swanny ' was quite an outcast from his own tribo
and as often as he made humble overtures to the other geese,

• Couch, lUnntrations of Instinct, p. 232.

* See especially Bingley, Animal BxorjraiJhy , vol. ii., pp.

327-29.

often was

occasions

,ind layin,

Ki last, ]

I An old gi

more fortii

J recognisinj

I under his j

it well for

in his bill,

I to the wat€

Iby her side,

jhis neck ov

lAfter cruisi

cnvenient

•t'fore, lead

be would p

pcdifany il

art-rat, Swj

dy, and ca

My granc

klftohim, a

fnes, pausinj

p as he prd

ded by his

> master, ar

I share this

sion, a g^i

lier's arm, \

I "'ings, anc

I let go.

The solic
fien one

^'titutes

ves, —

There is on
f}\ peeuJi

JJt; it is
lows has be
In feeding in

My the re
mmn to

fpathy for h

BIRDS — AFFECTION AND SYMPATHY.

273

tlie follow-
;e, altliDUgli
of frLM^iunit
ee\)ly vootnl
Lilly «V('n in
L stimuUis 01

the yearning

on ben in a so-
il sitting on its
f a short time.
the meantime
)dge, and I saw-
discoverer of ;v
\ great was liev
ixpression of lur
c of suri)visi> iit
lany attempts to
1 her rights, for
ith ; and though
i. of the eggs, and
season the pride
strutting at tlie
passed off upon

in extensor

atedtomebya

Id. There are

_ the anecdote-

} substantial ac-

ften was he driven away with great contempt, and on such
o(.casions he would frequently run to some of his human friends,
and layii^g his head on their laps, seem to seek for sympathy.
\t last, however, he found a friend among his own species.
\n old grey goose, becoming blind, was also discarded by her
iflore fortunate companions, and Swanny lost no opportunity of
recognising this comrade in distress. He ut once took her
under his protection and led her about. When he considered
it well for her to have a swim, he would gently take her neck
ill his bill, and thus lead her, sometimes a considerable distance,
to the water's edge. Having fairly launched her, he kept close
by her side, and guided her from dangerous places by arching
his neck over hers, and so turning her in the right direction.
After cruising about a sufficient time, he would guide her to a
nvenient landing-place, and taking her neck in his bill as
efore, lead her to terra Jirnia again. When she had goslings,
le would proudly convoy the whole party to the water-aide ;
md if any ill-fated gosling got into difficulties in a hole or deep
irt-rut, Swanny with ready skill would put his bill under its
ly, and carefully raise it to the level ground.
My grandfather had also another gander who attached him-
>lf to him, and would follow him for hours through fields and
ines, pausing when he stood still, and waddling gravely by his
ideas he proceeded. This gander was not, like the othet*, dis-
led by his kind, but would leave them any time to walk with
master, and was exceedingly jealous of any one else who tried
share this privilege, excepting only his mistress. On one
iion, a gentleman venturing to place his hand on my grand-
ler's arm, the gander flew at him, and beat him severely with
wings, and it was with great difficulty that he was induced
Hetgo.

The solicitude which most gregarious birds display
Hen one of their number is wounded or captured,
Qstitutes strong evidence of sympathy. As Jesse ob-

, which had beenl
btached himself to]

on seeing

anv otl

\ with all possiH^

liis own trilx'i
the other geese, ^

ll. ii., PP

327-29.

Tes, —

There is one trait in the character of the rook which is, I

lieve, peculiar to that bird, and which does him no little

lit; it is the distress which is exhibited when one of his

lows has been killed or wounded by a gun while they have

I feeding in a field or flying over it. Instead of being scared

|iy by the report of the gun, leaving their wounded or dead

[ipanion to his fate, they show the greatest anxiety and

li})athy for him, uttering cries of distress, and plainly proving

274

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

tliat tliey wish to render him assistftnco by hovering over hiri)
or Hometimes making a dart from the air close up to him, ai)^
parently to try and fintl out the reason why ho did not follow
tliem. ... I have seen one of my labourers pick up a rook
which he had shot at for the purpose of putting him upasn
scarecrow in a field of wheat, and while the poor wounded hinl
was still fluttering in his hand, I have observed one of bis com-
panions make a wheel round in the air, and suddenly dart past
iiim 80 as almost to touch hira, perhaps with the laat hope thut
he might still afford assistance to his unfortunate mate or coin-
])iuiion. Even when the dead bird has been hung, in terrorm
to a stake in the field, he has been visited by some of his former
fi'ionds, but as soon as they found that the case was hopeless,
they have generally abandoned that field altogether.

When one considers the instinctive care with which rooks
avoid any one carrying a gun, and which is so evident that 1
have often heard country people remark that a rook can smell
gunpowder, one can more justly estimate the force of their lovej
or friendship in thus continuing to hover round a person \rh
has just destroyed one of their companions with an instrumen
the dangerous natui'e of which they seem fully capable of app

ciating.*

The justice of these remarks may be better appreciate
in the light of the following very remarkable observation
as an introduction to which I have quoted them.

Edward, the naturalist, having shot a tern, which fell
winged into the sea, its companions hovered around tlij
floating bird, manifesting much apparent solicitude,
terns and gulls always do under such circumstances. HoJ
far this apparent solicitude is real I have often speculate
as in the analogous case of the crows — wondering whetli«|
the emotions concerned were really those of sympathy!
mere curiosity. The following observation, however, seen
to set this question at rest. Having begun to make pn
parations for securing the wounded bird, Edward says:
expected in a few moments to have it in my possessioj
being not very far from the water's edge, and driftiif
shorewards with the wind.' He continues: —

While matters were in this position I beheld, to my utij
astonishment and surprise, two of the unwounded terns

' GUtanings, pp. 58-9.

Accord]

'utilise the
lof fish. F
iThe bird is

iptivity, a
ittracted bj

)n7 case,
•ery literal
md pouchei
m withii
Ite men, wl
'le spot, dr
fsli, leaving
jptive.

The parr
inch sympj

itached whe
'ajed by its
^itseJfinpa
■"in became

Smiles, Life

\{ 5i

BIRDS— S^IVIPATHY.

275

ring over him,
up to him, a})-
i\\i\ not follow
lick up a rook
ng bim \ip as ;■,
Y woun(le<\ liinl
one of iiiti com-
Idenly Oart \tn
le last hope thai |
tte mate or com-

ing

in terrowiiA

me of bis former
ase -was hopeless,]

3ther.
with which vooksl
so evident that II
a rook can smelll
force of their love]
and a person vrk
ith an instrument!
f capable of appr

jetter appreciatei
able observatioi

tbem.
tern, which fel

rered around tW
;nt solicitude,

lumstances. Hoi

often speculati

ondering w^etb

36 of sympathy

)n, however, see

gun to make m

, Edward says: 'I
in my possessioi
dge, and drift'
es: —

I beheld, tomy^*
rounded terns

hold of their disabled comrade, one at each wing, lift him out of
the water, and bear him out s(x»wards. They were followed by
two other birds. After being carried about six or seven yards,
tie was let gently down again, when he was taken up in a
similar manner by the two who had been hitherto inactive. In
this way they continued to carry hini alternately, until they had
cuuveyed him to a rock at a considerable distance, upon wliich
they landed him in safety. Having recovered my self-possession,
1 made toward the rock, wishing to obtain the prize which had
been so unceremoniously snatched from my grasp. I was ob-
served, however, by the terns ; and instead of four, I had in a
short time a whole swarm about me. On my near approach to
the rock I once more beheld two of them take hold of the
wounded bird as they had done already, and bear him out to sea
111 triumph, far beyond my reach. This, had I been so inclined,
1 could no doubt have prevented. Under the circumstances,
however, my feelings would not permit me ; and I willingly
1 allowed them to perform without molestation an act of mercy,
to exhibit an instance of affection which man himself need
[not be ashamed to imitate.*

According to Clavigero,'* the inhabitants of Mexico

lutilise the sympathy of the wild pelican for the procuring

of fish. First a pelican is caught and its wing broken.

JThe bird is then tied to a tree, and being both in pain and

iptivity, it utters cries of distress. Other pelicans are

ittracted by the cries, and finding their friend in such a

)rry case, their bowels of compassion become moved in a

rery literal sense; for they disgorge from their stomachs

ind pouches the fish which they have caught, and deposit

[hem within reach of the captive. As soon as this is done

(he men, who have been lying in wait concealed, run to

le spot, drive ofiF the friendly pelicans, and secure their

[sh, leaving only a small quantity for the use of the

iptive.

The parrot which belonged to the Buffon family showed

mch sympathy with a female servant to whom it was

ttached when the girl had a sore finger, which it dis-

jayed by its never leaving her sick room, and groaning as

itself in pain. As soon as the girl got better the bird

lin became cheerful.

■' Smiles, Life of Bdward, p. 240.

T 2

History of Mexico, p. 220.

27(5

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

I shall conclude this brief demonstration of the ktt a
sympathy which may exist in birds, by quoting the follow,
ing very conclusive case in the words of its distinguish,.,)
observer, Dr. Franklin : * —

I have known two pan-ota, said he, which had lived togeth. i
four yeare, when the female became weak, and her legs swelK-L
These were symptoms of gout, a disease to which all birds „i
this family are very subject in England. It became impussibl,
for her to descend from the perch, or to take her food as formciK.
hut the male was most assiduous in carrying it to her in his Iw.ik.
He continued feeding her in this manner during four months.
but the infirmities of his companion increased from day to <lav,
so that at last she was unable to support herself on the peidi.
She remained cowering down in the bottom of the cage, makinjj,
from time to time, ineffectual efforts to regain the perch. The
male was always near her, and with all his strength aided the
feeble attempts of his dear better half. Seizing the poor mnU
by the beak, or the upper part of the wing, he tried to raise lier.
and renewed his efforts several times.

His constancy, his gestures, and his continued sol icitudo, all!
showed in this affectionate bird the most arc^ent desire to relieve I
the sufferings and assist the weakness of hir, companion.

But the scene became still more interesting when the fem;ilej
was dying. Her unhappy spouse moved around her incessantlvj
his attention and tender cares redoubled. He even tried toopmi
her beak to give some nourishment. He ran to her, theu ie[
turned with a troubled and agitated look. At intervals he
uttered the most plaintive cries ; then, with his eyes fixed on herj
kept a mournful silence. At length his companion breath*
her last ; from that moment he pined away, and died in tlii
course of a few weeks. *

The jealousy of bii'ds is proverbial ; and that they al>J
manifest the kindred passion of emulation, no one can
doubt who has heard them singing against one anothen
Mr. Bold relates that a mule canary would always singal
his own image in a mirror, becoming more and more excited
till he ended by flying, in rage against his supposed riva|

The late Lady Napier wrote me, among other ' antcj
dotes of a grey parrot left on a long visit to the family i
Greneral Sir William Napier, at the time residing in GeJ

ZoohgiM, vol. ii.

BIHDS— EMULATION AND VINDICTIVKNESS. 277

inanv,' the following graphic description of the exultation
ilispiiiyed by the bird whim it baffled the imitative powers
of its master. The bird was the same as that already
mentioned under the head of * Memory': -

Sometimes when only two or three wore in the room, at quiet
mcupations instead of tjilking, she would utter at short intor-
viils a series of strong squalls or cries in an interjectional style,
, ich more strange and grotesque than the previous one. My
father on these occasions sometimes amused himself by imitat-
in<^ these cries as she uttered them, which seemed to excite her
iiicenuity in the production of them to the uttermost. As a last
rtsoiirce she always had recourse to a very peculiar one, which
completely baffled him ; upon which, with a loud ha ! ha ! liu !
>hemadea somersault round her perch, swinging with her head
downwards, sprung from one part of the cage to another, and
tossed a bit of wood she used as a toy over her head in the
most exulting triumph, repeating at intervals the inimitable cry,
followed by peals of ha ! ha ! ha ! to the great amusement of all
present.

Allied to emulation is resentment, of which the follow-
ing, communicated to me by a correspondent, may be
taken as an example. If space permitted I could give ^

I confirmatory cases : —

One day the cat and the parrot had a quarrel. I think the
1 cat had upset Polly's food, or something of that kind ; however,
they seemed all right again. An hour or so after, Polly was
standing on the edge of the table ; she called out in a tone of
extreme affection, * Puss, puss, come then — come then, pussy.'
Pussy went and looked up innocently enough. Polly ^^'ith
iierbeak seized a basin of milk standing by, and tipped the
Ibasinand all its contents over the cat; then chuckled diabolically,-
|of course broke the basin, and half drowned the cat.

Several strange but mutually corroborative stories
seem to show cherished vindictiveness on the part of
ptorks. Thus, in Captain Brown's book there occurs an
account of a tame stork which lived in the college yard at

Tubingen, —

bd in a neighbouring house was a nest, in which other storks,
[hat annually resorted to the place, used to hatch tbeir eggs.
U this nest, one day in autumn, a young collegian fired a shot,

1' '

278

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

by which the stork that was sitting on it was probably woundcnl.
for it did not fly out of the nest for some weeks afterwards. It
was able, however, to take its departure at the usual time with
the rest of the storks. But in the ensuing spring a stranc-c
stork was observed on the roof of the college, which, byclappintr
his wings and other gestures, seemed to invite the tame stork to
come to him ; but, as the tame one's wings wei-e clipped, he was
unable to accept the invitation. After some days the strange
stork appeared again, and came down into the yard, when the
tame one went out to meet him, clapping his wings as if to bid
him welcome, but was suddenly attacked by the visitor with
great fury. Some of the neighbours protected the tame biid,
and drove off the assailant, but he returned several times after
wards, and incommoded the other through the whole summer.
The next spring, instead of one stork only, four storks came
together into the yard, and fell upon the tame one ; when all
the poultry present — cocks, hens, geese, and ducks — flocked at
once to his assistance, and rescued him from his enemies. In
consequence of this serious attack, the people of the house took
precaution for the tame stork's security, and he was no more
molested that year. But in the beginning of the third spring j
came upwards of twenty storks, which rushed at once into the
yard and killed the tame stork before either man or any other I
animal could afford him protection.

A similar occurrence took place on the premises of a farmer I
near Hamburg, who kept a tame stork, and, having caught!
another, thought to make it a companion for the one in his pos-
session. But the two were no sooner brought together than!
the tame one fell upon the other, and beat him so severely thatj
he made his escape from the place. About four months after-
wards, however, the defeated stork returned with three otheK,]
who all made a combined attack upon the tame one and
him.^

The curiosity of birds is highly developed, so muchl
so, indeed, that in this and other countries it is played uponl
by sportsmen and trappers. Unfamiliar objects beiugj

' Watson, Reassoning Fower of Anwutls, pp. 376-76, where see alsol
some curious cases of male storks slaying their females upontbel
latter hatching out eggs of other birds. He gives an exactly similarl
case as having occurred with the domestic cock ; and in Bingley (fej
cit.^ vol. ii., p. 241) there is quoted from Dr. Percival another case o|
the same kind, in which a cock killed his hen as soon as she
hatched out a brood of young partridges from eggs which had been i
to her.

BIRDS — CURIOSITY, PRIDE, TLAY.

279

)ably wounded.
ifterwards. It
isual time "with
iring a strange
ich, by clapping
leteme stork to
) clipped, he was
ays the strange
yard, when the
ings as if to bid
,he visitor with
i the tame bird,
'■eral times af tei
3 whole summer.
bur storks came
B one; when all
ucks — flocked at
kiis enemies. In
)f the house took
, he was no more
the third spring
i at once into the
Lan or any other I

[loped, so much
it is played upon
ir objects beiug

[5-76, where see also
Ir females upontte
les an exactly similar
[and in Bingley (k'
tval another case oi
fas soon as she hat
1 which had been set

placed within sight, say of ducks, the birds approach to
examine them, and fall into the snares which have been
prepared. Similarly, in oceanic islands unfrequented by
man, the birds fearlessly approach to examine the first
human beings that they have seen.

That birds exhibit pride might be considered doubtful
if we had to rely only on the evidence supplied by the
display of the peacock, and the strutting of the turkey-
gobbler ; for these actions, although so expressive of this
emotion, may not really be due to it. But I think that
the evident pleasure which is taken in achievement by
talking birds can only be ascribed to the emotion in ques-
tion. These birds regularly practise their art, and when
a new phrase is perfected they show an unmistakable de-
light in displaying the result.

Play is exhibited by many species in various ways, and
itseemstobe this class of feelings in their most organised
form which have led to the extraordinary instincts of the
bower-birds of New South Wales. The * playhouses'
of the animals have been described by Mr. Grould in his
History of the Birds of New South Wales.' Of course the
1 play-instincts are here united with those of courtship, which
are of such general occurrence among bu-ds ; but I think
no one can read Mr. Grould's description of the bowers and
the uses to which they are put without feeling that the
love of sportive play must have been joined with the
sexual instincts in producing the result. But, be this as
it may, there can be no question that these bowers are
[highly interesting structures, as furnishing the most un-
|exceptionable evidence of true assthetic, if not artistic
feeling on the part of the bird which constructs them ; and,
iccording to Mr. Herbert Spencer, the artistic feelings are
physiologically allied with those of play. It is a matter
[)f importance to obtain definite proof of an aesthetic sense
fn animals, because this constitutes the basis of IMr. Dar-
dn's theory of sexual selection ; but as he has treated the
fvidence on this subject in so exhaustive a manner, I shall
lot enter upon so wide a field further than to point out
[hat the case of the bower-bird, even if it stood alone,
fould be amply sufficient to carry the general conclusion

280

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

that some animals exhibit emotions of the beautiful.
The following is Mr. Gould's description, in extensoy of
the habits of the bird in question : —

The extraordinary bower-like structure, alluded to in my
remarks on tne genus, first came under my notice in the Sydney
Museum, to which an example had been presented by Charles
Cox, Esq. ... On visiting the cedar bushes of the Liverpool
i-ange, I discovered several of these bowers or playing-houses on
the ground, under the shelter of the branches of the overhang.
ing trees, in the most retired part of the forest ; they differed
considerably in size, some being a third larger than others. The
base consists of an extensive and rather convex platform of
sticks firmly interwoven, on the centre of which the bower itself
is built. This, like the platform on which it is placed, and with
which it is interwoven, is formed of sticks and twigs, but of a
more slender and flexible description, the tips of the twigs being
so arranged as to curve inwards and nearly meet at the top ; in
the interior the materials are so placed that the forks of the
twigs e always presented outwards, by which arrangement I
not the slightest obstruction is offered to the passage of the
birds. The interest of this curious bower is much enhanced bv
the manner in which it is decorated with the most gaily coloured
articles that can be collected, such as the blue tail-feathers of|
the Rose-hill and Pennantian parakeets, bleached bones anc
shells of snails, &c.; some of the feathers are inserted amonj
the twigs, while others with the bones and shells are strewe
near the entrances. The propensity of these birds to fly off witl
any attractive object is so well known to the natives that the\|
always search the runs for any small missing article that md
have been accidentally dropped in the bush. I myself found attlij
entrance of one of them a small neatly worked stone tomahawk (
an inch and a half in length, together with some slips of bkj
cotton rag, which the birds had doubtless picked up at a deserts
encampment of the natives.

It has now been clearly ascertained that these curioii
bowers are merely sporting-places in which the seiJ
meet, when the males display their finery, and exhiba
many remarkable actions ; and so inherent is this habiij
that the living examples, which have been from time t
time sent to this country, continue it even in captivity]
Those belonging to the Zoological Society have construct^
' See Darwin, Descent of Man, pp. 92, 381, 406, 413.

the large
part atti
feather i
stem be:
beyond i
rendered
ture of h
there cai
emotions
opposite
males of
females,
much str
any othei
cient cau
in the m(
'Dg to sei

BIRDS — ^ESTHETIC EMOTIONS.

281

their bowers, decorated and kept them iu repair, for
several years. In a letter from the late Mr. F. Strange,

it is said :-

Hy aviary is now tenanted by a pair of satin-bivds, which
for the last two months have been constantly engaged in con-
structing bowers. Both sexes assist in their erection, but the
male is the principal workman. At times the male will chase
the female all over the aviary, then go to the bower, pick up a
gay feather or a large leaf, utter a curious kind of note, set all
his feathers erect, run round the bower, and become so excited
that his eyes appear ready to start from his head, and he con-
tinues opening first one wing and then another, uttering a low
whistling note, and, like the domestic cock, seems to be picking
up something from the ground, until at last the female goes
(rently towards him, when after two turns round her, he sud-
denly makes a dash, and the scene ends.' '

I have said that if this case stood alone it would con-
stitute ample evidence that some animals possess emotions
of the beautiful. But the case does not stand alone.
Certain humming-birds, according to Mr. Grould, decorate
the outsides of their nests ' with the utmost taste ; they
instinctively fasten thereon beautiful pieces of flat lichen,
the larger pieces in the middle, and the smaller on the
part attached to the branch. Now and then a pretty
feather is intertwined or fastened to the outer sides, the
stem being always so placed that the feather stands out
beyond the surface.' Several other instances might be
rendered of the display of artistic feeling in the architec-
ture of birds ; and, as Mr. Darwin so elaborately shows,
there can scarcely be question that these animals take
emotional pleasure in surveying beautiful plumage in the
opposite sex, looking to the careful manner in which the
males of many species display their fine colours to the
females. Doubtless the evidence of aesthetic feeling is
much stronger in the case of birds than it is in that of
any other class ; but if this feeling is accepted as a suffi-
cient cause, through sexual selection, of natural decoration
in the members of this class, we are justified in attribut-
ing to sexual selection, and so to aesthetic feeling, natural

' Gould, Birds of Australia, vol. i., pp. 442-45.

282

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

decoration in other classes, at least as low down in the
scale as the Articulata. But, as I have said, Mr. Darwin
has dealt with this whole subject in so exhaustive a manner
that it is needless for me to enter upon it further than to
say in general terms, that whatever we may think of his
theory of sexual selection, his researches have unquestion-
ably proved the existence of an aesthetic sense in animals.
The same fact appears to be shown in another way by
the fondness of song-birds for the music of their mates.
There can be no doubt that male birds charm their females
with their strains, and that this, in fact, is the reason why
song in birds has become developed. Of course it may
be said that the vocal utterances of birds are not always,
or even generally, musical ; but this does not affect the
fact that birds find some aesthetic pleasure in the sounds
which they emit ; it only shows that the standard of
aesthetic taste differs in different species of birds as it
does in different races of men. Moreover, the pleasure
which birds manifest in musical sounds is not always re-
stricted to the sounds which they themselves produce.
Parrots seem certainly to take delight in hearing a piano
play or a girl sing ; and the following instance, published
by the musician John Lockman, reveals in a remarkable
manner the power of distinguishing a particular air, and
of preferring it above others. He was staying at the house
of a Mr. Lee in Cheshire, whose daughter used to play ;
and whenever she played the air of ' Speri si ' from
Handel's opera of * Admetus,' a pigeon would descend from
an adjacent dovecot to the window of the room where she
sat, * and listen to the air apparently with the most pleas-
ing emotions,' always returning to the dovecot immedi-
ately the air was finished. But it was only this one air
that would induce the bird to behave in this way.^

Special Habits,

Under this heading we shall have a number of facts
to consider, which are more or less of a disconnected cha-
racter.

• Bingley, Animal Biograjyhi/, vol. ii., p. 220.

Ta]

procur:

by bla(

siderab

their si

stone,'

gous in

with sh

fall upo

Both th

either c

their an

and im{

original!

to securi

An ii

animal k

developn

may be o

its meml

other spe

and so th

ment of i

find all s<

Thus the

have oft€

where the

, ' For f al
I p. 183.

' Of the

with a cral

purpose. Ii

fall, and re

accomplishi

I resort to it .

I been used bj-

I Also, as Hai

I of Ireland al

J their natura

lorforty yarc

Ishell, got po<

|fo the same

ie(
f

BIRDS — SPECIAL HABITS OF FEEDING.

283

lown in the
Mr. Darwin
ive a manner
'ther than to
think of his
I unquestion-
le in animalsj.
other way by
their mates.
their females
he reason why
30urse it may
re not always,
not affect the
in the sounds
B standard of
of birds as it
•, the pleasure
not always re-
lelves- produce.
tearing a piano
nee, published
L a remarkable
bicular air, and
ig at the house
used to play;
5peri si' from
d descend from
com where she
_,he most pleas-
►vecot immedi-
ilythis one ail-
is way.^

umber of facts
iconnected cha-

p. 220.

Taking first those special habits connected with the
procuring of food, we may notice the instinct manifested
by blackbirds and thrushes of conveying snails to con-
siderable distances in order to hammer and break
their shells against what may happen to be the nearest
stone,' and the still more clever though somewhat analo-
gous instinct exhibited by certain gulls and crows of flying
with shell-fish to a considerable height and letting them
fall upon stones for the purpose of smashing their shells.'*
Both these instincts manifest a high degree of intelligence,
either on the part of the birds themselves, or on that of
their ancestors ; for neither of these instincts can be re-
garded as due to originally accidental adjustments favoured
and improved by natural selection ; they must at least
originally have been intelligent actions purposely designed
to secure the ends attained.

An interesting instinct is that of piracy, which in the
animal kingdom reaches its highest or most systematic
development among the birds. It is easy to see how it
may be of more advantage to a species of strong bird that
its members should become parasitic on the labours of
other species than that they should forage for themselves,
and so there is no difficulty in understanding the develop-
ment of the plundering instinct by natural selection. We
find all stages of this development among the sea-birds.
Thus the gulls, although usually self-foragers, will, as I
have often observed, congregate in enormous numbers
where the guillemots have found a shoal of fish. Resting

' For fall information, see Buckland, Curiosities of Niatu/ral History^
p. 183.

^ Of the crow (carrion and hooded), Edward says : * He goes aloft

with a crab, and lets it fall upon a stone or a rock chosen for the

purpose. If it does not break, he seizes it again, goes up higher, lets it

fall, and repeats his operation again and again until his object is

I accomplished. When a convenient stone is once met with, the birds

resort to it for a long time. I myself know a pretty high rock, that has

been used by successive generations of crows for about twenty years 1'

Also, as Handcock says, ' a friend of Dr. Darwin saw on the north coast

of Ireland above a hundred crows preying upon mussels, which is not

I their natural food ; each crow took a mussel up into the air, twenty

I or forty yards high, and let it fall on the stones, and thus breaking the

I shell, got possession of the animal. Ravens, we are told, often resort

Ito the same contrivance.'

284

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCi:..

on or flying over the surface of the water, the gulls wait
till a guillemot comes to the surface with a fish, and then
wrest the latter from the beak of the former. In thb
robber-tern this instinct has proceeded further, so that the
animal gains its subsistence entirely by plunder of other
terns. I have often observed this process, and it is inte-
resting that the common tern well knows the appearance
of the robber ; for no sooner does a robber-tem come un
than the greatest consternation is excited among a flock
of common terns, these flying about and screaming in a
frantic manner. The white-headed eagle has also de-
veloped the plundering instinct in great perfection, as is
shown by the following graphic account of Audubon :—

During spring and summer, the white-headed eagle, to procure
sustenance, follows a different course, and one much less suited
to a bird apparently so well able to supply itself without inter-
fering with other plunderers. No sooner does the fii'st hawk
make its appearance along the Atlantic shore, or around the
numerous and large rivers, than the eagle follows it, and, like a
selfish oppressor, robs it of the hard-earned fruits of its labour.
Perched on some tall summit, in view of the ocean or of some
watercourse, he watches every motion of the. osprey while on
the wing. When the latter rises from the water, with a fish in
its grasp, forth rushes the eagle in pursuit. He mounts above
the fish-hawk, and threatens it by actions well understood; when
the latter, fearing perhaps that its life is in danger, drops its
prey. In an instant the eagle, accurately estimating the rapid
descent of the fish, closes its wings, follows it with the swiftness
of thought, and the next moment grasjis it. The prize is cairied
off in silence to the woods, and assists in feeding the ever- 1
hungry brood of the eagle.

The frigate pelican is likewise a professional thief,
and attacks the boobies not only to make them drop the I
fish which they have newly caught, but also to disgorge
those which are actually in their stomachs. The latter
process is efiected by strong punishment, which they con-
tinue until the unfortunate booby yields up its dinner.!
The punishment consists in stabbing the victim with itsl
powerful beak. Catesby and Dampier have both observed!
and described these habits, and it seems from their accountl
that the plunderer may either commit highway robbery m

the ail
rest.

In
I may (
to show
among
in birds

The

common
of laying
round he
of which
in, that i
trees, whi
ance of b(

Thei

It is t

of those b;
form all 1
wings; bt
terrified g
captured,
into a hea
and there
and if any
devourer,
a gull or h
pared wit!
parent for
manifestat
When in
without fl
the plund
ftirries it

Speak]

says : —

When
norm's cas
feet. Afte

BIRDS — SPECIAL HABITS OF FEEDING.

285

the air, or lie in wait for the boobies as they return tc

rest.

In antithesis to this habit of plundering other birds
I may quote the following from * Nature ' (July 20, 1871),
to show that the instinct of provident labour, so common
among insects and rodents, is not altogether unrepresented
in birds : —

The ant-eating woodpecker {Melanerpes formicivorus), a
common Californian species, has the curious and peculiar habit
of laying up provision against the inclement season. Small
round holes are dug in the bark of the pine and oak, into each
of which is inserted an acorn, and so tightly is it fitted or driven
in, that it is with difficulty extricated. The bark of the pine
trees, when thus filled, presents at a short distance the appear-
ance of being studded with nails.

The following may also be quoted : —

It is the nature of this bird (guillemot), as well as of most
of those birds which habitually dive to take their prey, to per-
form all their evolutions under water with the aid of their
wings; but instead of dashing at once into the midst of the
terrified group of small prey, by which only a few would be
captured, it passes round and round them, and so drives them
into a heap ; and thus has an opportunity of snatching here one
and there another as it finds it convenient to swallow them ;
and if any one pushes out to escape, it falls the first prey of the
(levourer. The manner in which this bird removes the egg of
a gull or hen to some secure place to be devoured, when com-
pared with that in which a like conveyance is made by the
parent for the safety of its future progeny, affords a striking
manifestation of the difference between appetite and affection.
When influenced by affection, the brittle treasure is removed
without flaw or fracture, and is replaced with tender care ; but
the plunderer at once plunges his bill into its substance, and
carries it off on its point. ^

Speaking of the feeding habits of the lapwing, Jesse

says : —

When the lapwing wants to procure food, it seeks for a
worm's cast, and stamps the ground by the side of it with its
feet. After doing this for a short time, the bird waits for the

* Couch, Illustrations of Instinct, pp. 192 93.

286

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

issue of the worm from its hole, which, alarmed at the shtikinw
of the ground, endeavours to make its escape, when it is imme-
diately seized, and becomes the prey of the ingenious bird. The
lapwing also frequents the haunts of moles, which, when in
pursuit of worms on which they feed, frighten them, and the
worm, in attempting to escape, comes to the surface of the
ground, when it is seized by the lapwing.*

Again, —

A lady of Dr. E. Darwin's acquaintance saw a little bird re-
peatedly hop on a poppy stem, and shake the head with his bill
till many seeds were scattered, when it settled on the groimd
and picked up the seeds.'

It is a matter of common remark that in countries
where vultures abound, these birds rapidly 'gather to-
gether where the carcass is,* although before the death of
their prey no bird was to be seen in the sky. The question
has always been asked whether the vultures are guided to
the carcass by their sense of smell or by that of sight ; but
this question is really no longer an open one. When Mr.
Darwin was at Valparaiso he tried the following experi-
ment. Having tied a number of condors in a long row,
and having folded up a piece of meat in paper, he walked
backwards and forwards in front of the row, carrying the
meat at a distance of three yards from them, 'but no
notice whatever was taken.' He then threw the meat
upon the ground, within one yard of an old male bird ;
' he looked at it for a moment with attention, but then
regarded it no more.' With a stick he next pushed the
meat right under the beak of the bird. Then for the first
time the bird smelled it, and tore open the paper 'with
fury, and at the same moment every bird in the long row
began struggling and flapping its wings.'' Thus there
can be no doubt that vultiires do not depend on their sense
of smell for finding carrion at a distance. Nor is it myste-
rious why they should find it by their sense of sight. If
over an area of many square miles there are a number of i
vultures flying as they do at a very high elevation, and if |

' Gleanings, &c., vol. 1., p. 71.

« lUd.

■ Voyage of a Naturalist, &c., p. 184.

BIRDS— SPECIAL HABITS OF INCUBATION.

287

b the shaking
in it is inirae-
•us bird. The
aich, when in
;hem, and the
jurface of the

1, little bird re-
d -with his bill,
on the ground

; in countries
yf * gather to-
3 the death of
The question
5 axe guided to
b of sight ; but
e. "When Mr.
lowing experi-
in a long row,
iper, he walked
BV, carrying the
hem, 'but no
•ew the meat
old male bird;
ition, but then
!xt pushed the
ten for the first
e paper 'witli
n the long ro\v
Thus there
on their sense
or is it myste-
,se of sight. H
„'e a number of
levation, and if

one of the number perceives a carcass and begins to de-
scend, the next adjacent vultures would see the descent of
the first one, and follow him as a guide, while the next in
the series would follow these in the same way, and so on.
Coming now to special instincts relating to incubation
and the care of offspring, a correspondent writes : —

Last spring I had a pair of canaries, in an ordinary breed-
ing cage (with two small boxes for nests in a compartment at
one end). In due course the first egg was laid, which I inspected
through the little door made for that purpose. The next day I
looked again ; still only one egg, and so for four or five days. It
being evident, from the appearance of the hen, that there were
more eggs coming, and as she seemed in good health, I supposed
she might have broken some ; and I took out the box, and exa-
mined it carefully for the shells (but without pulling the nest
to pieces), and found nothing, until towards the beginning of
another week I went to take the one egg away, as the hen
seemed preparing to sit upon it. There were two eggs ! The
next morning, to my surprise, she was sitting upon six eggs !
She must therefore have buried four of them in the four corners
of the box, and so deep that I had been unable to find them.
At first I thought that she had done so merely from dislike at
their being looked at, but on reflection it has occurred to me
that she did it that all might be hatched at the same time (ns
they subsequently were); for she was perfectly tame, and would
almost suffer herself to be handled when on her nest. Wild
birds never seem to conceal their eggs before sitting; but then
(having more amusements than cage birds) they do not revisit
their eggs after laying, until they have laid their number,
whereas a caged bird, having nothing to divert her attention
from her nest, often sits on it the greater part of the day.

I am not aware that this curious display of forethought
on the part of a caged bird has been hitherto recorded,
and seeing, as my correspondent pomts out, that it has
reference to the changed conditions of life brought about
by domestication, it may be said to constitute the first
step in the development of a new instinct, which, if the
conditions were of sufficiently long continuance, might
lead to an important and permanent change of the ances-
tral instinct.

I have several interesting facts, also communicated to

288

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

me by correspondents, similarly relating to individual vari-
ations of the ancestral instinct of incubation in order to
meet the requirements of a novel environment. Thug
Mr. J. F. Fisher tells me that while he was a commander
in the East India trade he always took a quantity of fowls
to sea for food. The laying-boxes being in a confined
space, the hens used to quarrel over their occupancy ; and
one of the hens adopted the habit of removing the ' uist-
eggs ' which Mr. Fisher placed in one of the boxes to
another box of the same kind not very far away. He
watched the process through a chink of a door, and ' saw
her curl her neck round the egg, thus forming a cup by
which she lifted the egg,^ and conveyed it to the other
box. He adds : —

I can give no information as to the more recondite question
why the egg was removed, or the fastidious preference of the
one box over the other, or the inventive faculty that suggested
the neck as a makeshift hand ; but from the despatch with
which she effected the removal of the egg in the caae I saw, I
have no doubt that this hen was the one which had performed
the feat so often before.

The explanation of the preference shown for the one
box over the other may, I think, be gathered from another
part of my correspondent's letter, for he there mentions
incidentally that the box in which he placed the nest-egg,
and from which the hen removed it, was standing near a
door which was usually open, and thus situated in a more
exposed position than the other box. But be this as it
may, considering that among domestic fowls the habit of
conveying eggs is not usual, such isolated cases are inte-
resting as showing how instincts may originate. Jes>e
gives an exactly similar case (* Gleanings,' vol. i., p. 149)
of the Cape goose, which removed eggs from a nest at-
tacked by rats, and another case of a wild duck doing the
same.

In the same connection, and with the same remarks, I
may quote the following case in which a fowl adopted the
habit of conveying, not her eggs, but her youn^ chicken*.
I quote it from Houzeau (' Journ.,' i., p. 332), who give>

BIRDS — SPECIAL HABITS.

289

ndite question
ference of the
bbat suggested
despatch with
e caae I saw, 1
had performed

. for the one
from another
^ere mentions
the nest-egg,
mding near a
[ted in a more
be this as it
[s the habit of
jases are iute-
rinate. Jes^e
[vol. i., p. 149 )
pm a nestat-
[uck doing the

[me remarks, I
7\ adopted the
ning chiekenN
|32), who give>

the observation on the authority of his brother as eye-
witness. The fowl had found good feeding-ground on
the further side of a stream four metres wide. She
adopted the habit of flying across with her chickens upon
her back, taking one chicken on each journey. She thus
transferred her whole brood every morning, and brought
them back in a similar way to their nest every evening.
The habit of carrying young in this way is not natural to
Grallinacese, and therefore this particular instance of its
display can only be set down as an intelligent adjustment
by a particular bird.

Similarly, a correspondent (Mr. J. Street) informs me
i a case in which a pair of blackbirds, after having been
disturbed by his gardener looking into their nest at their
young, removed the latter to a distance of twenty yards,
and deposited them in a more concealed place. Partridges
are well known to do this, and similarly, according to
Audubon, the goatsucker, when its nest is disturbed, re-
moves its eggs to another place, the male and female
both transporting eggs in their beaks.'

Still more curiously, a case is recorded in ' Comptes
[Rendu' (1836) of a pair of nightingales whose nest was
threatened by a flood, and who transported it to a safe place,
|the male and the female bearing the nest between them.
Now, it is easy to see that if any particular bird is in-
illigent enough, as in the cases quoted, to perform this
Ijustive action of conveying young — whether to feeding-
ounds, as in the case of the hen, or from sources of
inger, as in the case of partridges, blackbirds, and goat-
ickers — inheritance and natural selection might develop
e originally intelligent adjustment into an instinct
immon to the species. And it so happens that this has
!tually occurred in at least two species of birds — viz.,
e woodcock and wild duck, both of which have been re-
atedly observed to fly with their young upon th^r backs
and from their feeding-ground.

Couch gives Some facts of interest relating to the mode
escape practised by the water-rail, swan, and some other
[iiatic birds. This consists in sinking under water, with

• Orn. Bwff., i., p. 276.
U

290

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

'^f?.

ii iS!EBl

only the bill remaining above the surface for respiration.
When the swan has young, she may sink the head quitp
under water in order to allow the young to mount on it
and so be carried through even rapid currents.
The same author remarks that —

Many birds will carefully remove the meetings of the youn?
from the neighbourhood of their neats, in order not to attract
the attention of enemies ; for while we find that birds which
make no secret of their nesting-places are careless in such
matters, the woodpecker and the marsh-tit in particular are nt
pains to remove even the chips which are made in excavating |
the cavities where the nests are placed, and which might lead an|
observer to the sacred spot.

•

Similarly, Jesse observes : —

The excrement of the young of many birds who build theirl
nests without any pretensions to concealment, such aa the swallow I
crow, (fee, may at all times be observed about or under the nest I
while that of some of those birds whose nests are more indus^
triously concealed is conveyed away in the mouths of the pare J
birds, who generally drop it at a distance of twenty or thirtJ
yards from the nest. Were it not for this precaution, the exj
crement itself, from its accumulation, and commonly from iti
very colour, would point out the place where the young wen
concealed. When the young birds ai*e ready to fly, or nearly i
the old birds do not consider it any longer necessary to i-emovj
the excrement.

Sir H. Davy gives an account of a pair of eagles whicj
he saw on Ben Nevis teaching their young ones to fly ; m
every one must have observed the same thing amon
commoner species of birds. The experiments of Spaldiu
however, have shown that flying is an instinctive faculti^
so that when he reared swallows from the nest and liberate
them only after they were fully fledged, they flew well in
mediately on being liberated. Therefore, the * teachin
to fly ' by parent birds must be regarded as mere ea
couragement to develop instinctive powers, which in virtij
of this encouragement are probably developed sooner thij
would otherwise be the case.

A few observations may here be offered on soq

habits '
iug.

The

ciimivon

enemy, i

Jt Clay t

certed a^

evidence

mob a pi]

may be

murder.

cat which

Tould see:

of driving

I have

(rardens a

fists in ost

[rood, and

[tlie way thj

its. ■

[seieral indi

the earlj

lis some

luiJding.

BIRDS— NIDIFICATION.

291

B who build their

ichaa the swallow,

or under the nest ;|

i are more Indus-

)uth8 of tbe parent

twenty orthirtj

,recaution, the exj

jmmonly from it

•e the young wer

ho fly, or nearly »

ecessary to remov

habits which do not full under any particular head-
ing.

The habit which many small birds display of mobbing

ciirnivorous ones is probably due to a desire to drive otf the
(uemy, and perhaps also to warn friends by the hubbub.
It may therefore perhaps be regarded as a display of con-
certed action, of which, however, we shall have better
evidence further on. I have seen a flock of common terns
mob a pirate tern, which shows that this combined action
may be directed as much against robbery as against
murder. Couch says he has seen blackbirds mobbing a
cat which was concealed in a bush, and here the motive
1 would seem to be that of warning friends rather than that
i)f driving away the enemy.

1 have observed among the sea-gulls at the Zoological
[(jardens a curious habit, or mode of challenge. This con-
sists in ostentatiously picking up a small twig or piece of
[wood, and throwing it down before the bird cnallenged, in
[the way that a glove used to be thrown down by the old
Iknights. I observed this action performed repeatedly by
Iseveral individuals of the glaucous and black-back species
|in the early spring-time of the year, and so it probably
has some remote connection with the instinct of nest-
building.

lir of eagles whicl
[gonestofly;anj
Be thing amon'
lents of Spaldia
istinctive facultl
[nest and libeiatj
they flew well id
Ire, the Heachid
fded as mere ed
jrs, which in virtJ

-loped sooner thi

offered on

Nidification,

In connection with the habits and instincts peculiar to
ertain species of birds, I may give a short account of the
Bore remarkable kinds of nidification that are met with in
[is class of animals. As the account must necessarily be
|rief, I shall only mention the more interesting of the
Bual types.

Petrels and puffins make their nests in burrows which

|iey excavate in the earth. The great sulphur mountain

Giiadaloupe is described by Wasser as * all bored like a

[bbit warren with the holes that these imps {i,e, petrels)

pvate.* In the case of the puffin it is the male that

es the work of burrowing. He throws himself upon

i back in the tunnel which he has made, and digs it

nger and longer with his broad bill, while casting out

u 2

292

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

■m

the mould with his webbed feet. The burrow when
finished has several twists and turns in it, and is about
ten feet deep. If a rabbit burrow is available, the puflSn
saves himself the trouble of digging by taking possession
of the one already made. The kingfisher and land-martin
also make their nests in burrows.

Certain auks lay their single egg on the bare rock
while the stone curlew and goatsucker deposit theirs on
the bare soil, returning, however, year after year to the
same spot. Ostriches scrape holes in the sand to serve as
extemporised nests for their eggs promiscuously dropped
which are then buried by a light coating of sand, and in- \
cubated during the day by the sunbeams, and at night
by the male bird. Sometimes a number of female ostriches I
deposit their eggs in a common nest, and then take the 1
duty of incubation by turns. Similarly, gulls, sandpipers,
plovers, &c., place their eggs in shallow pits hollowed out
of the soil. The kingfisher makes a bed of undigested!
fish-bones ejected as pellets from her stomach, and 'somej
of the swifts secrete from their salivary glands a
which rapidly hardens as it dries on exposure to the air|
into a substance resembling isinglass, and thus furnish the
" edible birds' nests " that are the delight of the Chinese
epicures.' *

The house-martin builds its nest of clay, which it stiek^
upon the face of a wall, and renders more tenacious bJ
working into it little bits of straw, splinters of wood, &c|
According to Mr. Grilbert White : —

That this work may not, while it is soft and green, pu
itself down by its own weight, the provident architect liaj
prudence and forbearance enough not to advance her work to
fast ; but by building only in the morning, and by dedicatin
the rest of the day to food and amusement, gives it sufficied
time to dry and harden. About half an inch seems a sufficieq
layer for a day. Thus careful workmen, when they build mil
walls (informed at first perhaps by these little birds), raise bj
a moderate layer at a time, and then desist, lest the work shou
become top-heavy, and ruined by its own weight. By th
method, in about ten or twelve days is formed a hemispheij
nest, with a small aperture towards the top, strong, compa
' Newton, Encycl. Brit., art. ' Birds.'

BIRDS — NIDIFICATION.

293

burrow wlien
:, and is about
ible, tlie puffin
ang possession
ad land-martin

the bare rock
jposit theirs on
ter year to the
sand to serve as
iiously dropped,
of sand, and in-
,s, and at night
female ostriches |
i then take the!
ruUs, sandpipers,
its hollowed out
jd of undigested
mach, and'somel
y glands a fluidl
)0sure to theairj
1 thus furnish the
,t of the Chinese

ayjWhichitsticM
lore tenacious bj
iters of wood, &c|

oft and green, pi
ident architect 1
.vance her work t(
and by dedicatu
\ gives it sufficiei
i seems a sufficiei
aen theyhuildmi
fctle birds), raise b'J
[lest the workshop

', weight. By ti
•xned a hemisphe
,p, strong, compi
lirds.'

j^d -warm, and perfectly fitted for all the purposes for which it
\ras intended.

Other birds build in wood. The tomtit and the
woodpecker excavate a hole in a tree, and carefully carry
away the chips, so as not to give any indication of the
whereabouts of their nests. Wilson says that the American
woodpecker makes an excavation five feet in depth, of a
tortuous form, to keep out wind and rain.

The orchard starling suspends its nest from the
branches of a tree, and uses for its material tough kinds of
grass, the blades of which it weaves together. Wilson
found one of these blades to be thirteen inches long, and
to be woven in and out thirty-four times.

We may next notice the weaver (Ploceua textor) and
tailor {Prinia, Orthotomus, and Sylvia). The former
intertwines slender leaves of grass so as to produce a web
sufficiently substantial for the protection of its young.
The tailor-birds sew together leaves wherewith to make
their nests, using for the purpose cotton and thread where
they can find it, and natural vegetable fibres where they
cannot obtain artificial. Colonel Sykes says that he has
found the threads thus used for sewing knotted at the
ends.'

Forbes saw the tailor-bird of the East Indies construct-
ing its nest, and observed it to choose a plant with large
leaves, gather cotton which it regularly spun into a thread
by means of its bill and claws, and then sew the leaves
together, using its beak as a needle, or rather awl.

This instinct is rendered particularly interesting to

iCvolutionists from the fact that it is exhibited by three

jdistinct genera. For, as the instinct is so peculiar and

jinique, it is not likely to have originated independently in

he three genera, but must be regarded as almost certainly

erived from a common ancestral type — thus showing that

n instinct may be perpetuated unaltered after the differen-

ation of structure has proceeded beyond a specific distinc-

lon. The genus Sylvia inhabits Italy, the other two

habit India. Sylvia uses for thread spiders' web col-

* Catalogue of Birds, A:c., p. 16.

294

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

]

lectedfrom the egg-pouches, which is stitched through holes
made in the edges of leaves, presumably with the beak.

The baya bird of India ' hangs its pendulous dwelling
from a projecting bough, twisting it with grass into a form
somewhat resembling a bottle with a prolonged neck, the
entrance being inverted, so as to baffle the approaches of
its enemies, the tree snakes and other reptiles.'

Sir E. Tennent, from whom this account is taken
adds : —

The natives assert that the male bird carries fire-flies to the
nest, and fastens them to its sides by particles of soft mud. Mr.
Layard assures me that although he has never succeeded in
finding the fire-fly, the nest of the male bird (for the female i
occupies another during incubation) invariably contains a patch
of mud on each side of the perch.

Dr. Buchanan confirms the report of the natives here |
alluded to, and says : —

At night each of the habitations is lighted up by a fire-fly
stuck on the top with a bit of clay. The nest consists of two
rooms; sometimes there are three or four fire-flies, and their
blaze in the little cells dazzles the eyes of the bats, which often (
kill the young of these birds.

While this work is passing through the press I meet
with the following, which appears to refer to some inde-l
pendent, and therefore corroborative observation concern- 1
ing the above-stated fact, and in any case is worth adclingj
on account of the observation concerning the rats, which,!
if trustworthy, would furnish a sufficient reason for the]
instinct of the birds. The extract is taken from a letter to
' Nature ' (xxiv., p. 165), published by Mr. H. A. Severn:

I have been informed on safe authority that the India
bottle-bird protects his nest at night by sticking several of the
glow-beetles around the entrance by means of clay; and only;
few days back an intimate friend of my own was watching tl:
rats on a roof rafter of his bungalow when a glow-fly lodge
very close to them ; the rats immediately scampered ofi*.

TheTalegallus of Australia is, in the opinion of G-ouId,-

Among the most important of the ornithological noveltia
which the exploration of Western and Southern Australia ha

BIRDS — NIDIFICATION.

295

the natives here

unfolded to us, and this from the circumstance of its not hatch-
ing its own eggs, which, instead of heing incubated in the usual
;ray, are deposited in mornids of mixed sand and herbage, and
there left for the heating of the mass to develop the young,
which, when accomplished, force their way through the sides of
the mound, and commence an active life from the moment they
see the light of day. »

Sir George Grey measured one of these mounds, and
found it to be 'forty-five feet in circumference, and if
rounded in proportion on the top (it being at the time
unfinished) would have been full five feet high.' The heat
round the eggs was taken to be 89°.

A curious aberration of the nest-building instinct is
sometimes shown by certain birds — particularly the com-
mon wren — which -consists in building a supernumerary
nest. That is to say, after one nest is completed, another
is begun and finished before the eggs are laid, and the
first nest is not used, though sometimes it is used in pre-
ference to the second.

As showing at once the eccentricity which birds some-
times display in the choice of a site, and also the deter-
mination of certain birds to return to the same site in
successive years, I may allude to the case published by
Biugley, of a pair of swallows which built their nest upon
the wings and body of a dead owl, which was hanging
from the rafters of a bam, and so loosely as to sway about
with every gust of wind. The owl with the nest upon it
was placed as a curiosity in the museum of Sir Ashton
Lever, and he directed that a shell should be hung upon
the rafters in the place which had been previously oc-
cupied by the dead owl. Next year the swallows re-
turned and constructed their new nest in the cavity of the
shell.2

The following is quoted from Thompson's ' Passions of
[ Animals,' p. 205 : —

The sociable gi'osbeak of Africa is one of the few instances
I of bii-ds living in community and uniting in constructing one

' Gould, Birds of Australia, vol. ii., p. 155, where see for further de-
[Kription.

' Animal Biography^ vol. ii., p. 204.

296

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

huge nest for the whole society. L. Valiant's account has been
fully confirmed by other travellers. He says : * I observed on the
way a tree with an enormous nest of these birds, which I have
called republicans ; and as soon as I arrived at my camp I de-
spatched a few men with a waggon to bring it to me, that I miaht
open and examine the hive. When it arrived, I cut it in pieces
with a hatchet, and saw that the chief portion of the structure
consisted of a mass of Boshman's grass, without any mixtuie
but so compact and firmly basketed together as to be impene-
trable to the rain. This is the commencement of the structure,
and each bird builds its particular nest under this canopy. But
the nests are formed only beneath the eaves, the upper surface
remaining void, without, however, being useless ; for as it has a
projecting rim, and is a little inclined, it serves to let the water
run off, and preserves each little dwelling from the rain. Figure
to yourself a huge irregular sloping roof, all the eaves of which
are covered with nests, crowded one against another, and you
will have a tolerably accurate idea of these singular edifices.
Each individual nest is three or four inches in diameter, which
is sufficient for the bird; but, as they are all in contact with one
another around the eaves, they appear to the eye to form but
one building, and are distinguishable from each other only by a
little external aperture which serves as an entrance to the nest;
and even this is sometimes common to three different nests, one
of which is situated at the bottom and the other two at the
sides. This large nest, which was one of the most considerable
I had anywhere seen in the course of my journey, contained
320 inhabited cells, which, supposing a male and female to each,
would form a society of 640 individuals ; but as these birds are j
polygamous, such a calculation would not be exact.'

The following is quoted from Couch ('Illustrations of]
Instinct,' p. 227 et seq,) : —

Mr. Waterton says there is a peculiarity in the nidificationl
of the domestic swan too singular to be passed over without
notice. At the time it lays its first egg the nest which it has
prepared is of very moderate size ; but as incubation proceeusi
we see it increase vastly in height and breadth. Every soft[
material, such as pieces of grass and fragments of sedges, is la
hold of by the sitting swan as they float within her reach, and!
are added to the nest. This work of accumulation is performedl
by her during the entire period of incubation, be the weatherl
wet or dry, settled or unsettled ; and it is perfectly astonishing
to see with what assiduity she plies her work of aggrandisement!

the conten
This was
I had been 1

BIRDS— NIDIFICATION.

297

ount has been
jserved on the
which I have
oay camp I de-
e, that I might
cut it in pieces
' the structure
t any mixtuie,
i to be impene-
f the structure,
is canopy. But
e upper surface
J for as it has a
to let the water
he rain. Figure
3 eaves of which
,nother, and you
ingular edifices.
diameter, which
contact with one
) eye to form hut
1 other only by a
ance to the nest;
fferent nests, one

►ther two at the
^ost considerable
»urney, contained

d female to each,

,s these birds are

xact.'

to a nest already sufficient in strength and size to answer every
end. My swans generally form their nest on an island quite
above the reach of a flood ; and still the sitting bird never ap-
pears satisfied with the quantity of materials wliich are provided
for her nest. I once gave her two huge bundles of oaten straw,
and she performed her work of apparent supererogation by apply-
ing the whole of it to her nest, already very large, and not
exposed to destruction had the weather become ever so rainy.

This same author continues : —

It is probable that this disposition to accumulation, in its
general bearing, has reference to heat rather than the flood ; but
that the wild swan has a foresight regarding danger, and a quick
perception as to the means of securing safety, appears from an
instance mentioned by Captain Parry, in his Northern voyage.
When everything was deeply involved in ice, the voyagers were
obliged to pay much attention to discern whether they were
travelling over water or land ; but some birds, which formed
their nest at no great distance from the ships, were under no
mistake in so important a matter; and when the thaw took
place it was seen that the nest was situated on an islarid in the
lake.

The following cases are likewise taken from Couch (loc,

cif.,p. 225):—

This swan was eighteen or nineteen years old, had brought
up many broods, and was highly valued by the neighboui's.
She exhibited, some eight or nine years past, one of the most
remarkable powers of instinct ever recorded. She was sitting
on four or five eggs, and was observed to be veiy busy in collect-
ing weeds, grasses, &c., to raise her nest; a farming man was
ordered to take down half a load of haulm, with which she most
industriously raised her nest and the eggs two feet and a half ;
that very night there came down a tremendous fall of rain, which
flooded all the malt-shops and did great damage. Man made
no preparation, the bird did; instinct prevailed over reason.
Her eggs were above, and only just above, the water.

During the early part of the summer of 1835, a pair of
water-hens built their nest by the margin of the ornamental
pond at Bell's Hill, a piece of water of considerable extent, and
ordinarily fed by a spring from the height above, but into which
the contents of another large pond can occasionally be admitted.
This was done while the female was sitting ; and as the nest
had been built when the water level stood low, the sudden influx

298

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

W-!f

of this large body of water from the second pond caused a rise
of several inches, so as to threaten the speedy immersion and
consequent destruction of the eggs. This the birds seem to
have been aware of, and immediately took precautions against
so imminent a danger ; for when the gardener, upon whose
veracity I can safely rely, seeing the sudden rise of the water,
went to look after the nest, expecting to find it covered and the
eggs destroyed, or at least forsaken by the hen, he observed,
whilst at a distance, both birds busily engaged about the brink
whero the nest was placed ; and when near enough he clearly
perceived that they were adding, with all possible despatch, fresh
materials to raise the fabric beyond the level of the increased
contents of the pond ; and that the eggs had by some means
been removed from the nest by the birds, and were then de-
posited upon the grass about a foot or more from the margin of
the water. He watched them for some time, and saw the nest
rapidly increase in height ; but I regret to add that he did not
remain long enough, fearing he might create alarm, to witness
the interesting act of replacing the eggs which must have
been effected shortly after ; for, upon his return in less than an
hour, he found the hen quietly sitting upon them in the newly
raised nest. In a few days afterwards the young were hatched,
and, as usual, soon quitted the nest and took to the water with
theii" parents. The nest was shown to me in situ shortly after,
and I could then plainly discern the formation of the new with
the older part of the fabric.

"We must not conclude these remarks on nidification
without alluding to Mr, Wallace's chapters on the * Philo-
sophy of Birds' Nests,' in his work on * Natural Selection.'
This vrriter is inclined to suppose that birds do not build
their nests distinctive of their various species by the teach-
ings of hereditary instinct, but by the young birds intelli-
gently observing the construction of the nests in which
they are hatched, and purposely imitating this construc-
tion when in the following season they have occasion to
build Rests of their own. With reference to this theory
it is only needful to say that it is antecedently improbable,
and not well substantiated by facts. It is a^itecedently
improbable because, when any habit has b-en continued
for a number of generations — especially when the habit i
is of a peculiar and detailed character — the probability is
that it has become instinctive ; we should have almost a?

■*

I I

BIRDS— NIDIFICATION.

299

3aused a riae
imersion and
irds seem to
itions against

upon whose
of the water,
ivered and the
^ he observed,
K)ut the brink
,gh he clearly
despatch, fresh

the increased
ly some means
were then de-
i the margin of
id saw the nest
that he did not
arm, to witness
ich must have
in less than an
;m in the newly
ig were hatched,
, the water with
tu shortly after,
of the new with

on nidification
on the^Philo-
-iural Selection.'
Is do not build
ss by the teach-
ig birds intelh-
Inests in which
this construc-
Lve occasion to
., to this theory
ittly improbable,
fig ajtecedently
;..eB contiBued
rhen the babit
,e probability is
have almost as I

much reason to anticipate that the nest of the little crus-
tacean PodoceruSf or the cell of the hive-bee, is constructed
by a process of conscious imitation, as that this is the case
with the nests of birds. And this theory is not well sub-
stantiated by facts because, if the theory were true, we
should expect considerable differences to be usually pre-
sented by nests of the same species. Unless the con-
struction of the nest of any given species were regulated
by a common instinct, nmnberless idiosyncratic peculi-
arities would necessarily require to arise, and there would
only be a very general uniformity of type presented by the
nests of the same species.

A more valuable contribution to the ' Philosophy of
Birds' Nests ' is furnished by this able naturalist when he
directs attention to a certain general correlation between
the form of the nest and the colour of the female. For,
on reviewing the birds of the world, he certainly makes
good the proposition that, as a general rule, liable however
to frequent exceptions, dull-coloured females sit on open
nests, while those that are conspicuously coloured sit in
domed nests. But Mr. Darwin, in a careful review of all
the evidence, clearly shows that this interesting fact is to
be attributed, not, as Mr. Wallace supposed, to the colour of
the female having been determined through natural selection
by the form of the nest, but to the reverse process of the
form of the nest having been determined by the colour of
the female.^

Another general fact of interest connected with nidifica-
tion must not be omitted. This is that the instincts of
nidification, although not so variable as the theory of Mr,
Wallace would require, are nevertheless highly plastic.
The falcon, which usually builds on a cliff, has been
known to lay its eggs on the ground in a marsh ; the
golden eagle sometimes builds in trees or on the ground ;
while the heron varies its site between trees, cliffs, and
open fen.2 Again, Audubon, in his * Ornithological Bio-
graphy,' gives many cases of conspicuous local variations
in the nests of the same species in the northern and

' See Descent of Man, p. 452 et seq,

2 See Newton, Mioy. Brit., art. * Birds.'

300

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

: I

fiouthem United States ; and, as Mr. Wallace truly ob-
serves, —

Many facts have already been given which show that birds
do adapt their nests to the situations in which they place them •
and the adoption of eaves, chimneys, and boxes by swallows
wrens, and many other birds, shows that they are always ready
to take advantage of changed conditions. It is probable, there-
fore, that a permanent change of climate would cauise many
birds to modify the form or materials of their abode, so as better
to protect their young. ^

In America the change of habits in this respect under-
gone by the house-swallow has been accomplished within
the last three hundred years.

Closely connected, if not identical, with this fact is
another, namely, that in some species which have been
watched closely for a sufficient length of time, a steady im-
provement in the construction of nests has been observed.
Thus C. G. Leroy, who filled the post of Eanger of Ver-
sailles about a century ago, and therefore had abundant
opportunities of studying the habits of animals, wrote an
essay on * The Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals
from a Philosophical Point of View.' In this essay he
has anticipated the American observer Wilson in noticing
that the nests of young birds are distinctly inferior to
those of older ones, both as regards their situation and
construction. As we have here independent testimony
of two good observers to a fact which in itself is not im-
probable, I think we may conclude that the nest-making
instinct admits of being supplemented, at any rate in
some birds, by the experience and intelligence of the
individual. M. Pouchet has also recorded that he has
found a decided improvement to have taken place in the
nests of the swallows at Eouen during his own lifetime ;
and this accords trith the anticipation of Leroy that if our
observation extended over a sufficient length of time, and
in a manner sufficiently close, we should find that the ac-
cumulation of intelligent improvements by individuals of
successive generations would begin to tell upon the in-

* Natural Selection, pp. 232-3.

CUCKOO.

301

I truly ob-

w that birds
place them ;
oy swallows,
always ready
►bable, theve-
[ cause many
le, so as better

jspect under-
isbed within

L this fact is
h have been
5, a steady im-
leen observed.
;anger of Ver-
lad abundant
nals, wrote an
ty of Animals
this essay he
on in noticing
bly inferior to
situation and
ent testimony
lelf is notim-
e nest-making
t any rate in
Lgence of the
I that he has
n place in the
own lifetime ;
jroy that if our
h of time, and
d that the ac-
individuals of

upon the in-

herited instinct, so that all the nests in a given locality
would attain to a higher grade of excellence.

Leroy also says that when swallows are hatched out
too late to migrate with the older birds, the instinct of
migration is not sufficiently imperative to induce them to
undertake the journey by themselves. * They perish, the
victims of their ignorance, and of the tardy birth which
made them unable to follow their parents.'

Guckoo,

Perhaps the strangest of the special instincts mani-
fested by birds is that of the cuckoo laying its eggs in the
nests of other birds. As the subject is an important one
from several points of view, I shall consider it at some
length.

It must first be observed that the parasitic habit in
question is not practised by all species of the genus —
the American cuckoo, for instance, being well known to
build its nest and rear its young in the ordinary manner.
The Australian species, however, manifests the same in-
stinct as the European. The first observer of the habit
practised by the European cuckoo was the illustrious
Jenner, who published his account in the ' Philosophical
Transactions.^ From this account the following is an
extract : —

The cuckoo makes choice of the nests of a great variety of
small birds. I have known its eggs entrusted to the care of the
hedge-sparrow, water-wagtail, titlark, yellowhammer, green lin-
net, and winchat. Among these it generally selects the three
former, but shows a much greater partiality to the hedge-sparrow
than to any of the rest ; therefore, for the purpose of avoiding
confusion, this bird only, in the following account, will be con-
sidered as the foster-parent of the cuckoo, except in instances
which are particularly specified.

When the hedge-sparrow has sat her usual time, and disen-
gaged the young cuckoo and some of her own offspring from the
shell,* her own young ones, and any of her eggs that remain
tmhatched, are soon turned out, the young cuckoo remaining

• P7iil. Trans., vol. Ixxviii., p. 221 et seq.

* The young cuckoo is generally hatched first.

302

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

possessor of the nest, and sole object of her future care. The
young birds are not previously killed, nor are the eggs de-
molished, but ajl are left to perish together, either entangled
about the bush which contains the nest, or lying on the ground
under it.

On June 18, 1787, I examined the nest of a hedge-sparrow
which then contained a cuckoo's and three hedge-sparrow's eggs.
On inspecting it the day following, I found the bird had hatched
but that the nest now contained a young cuckoo and only one
young hedge-sparrow. The nest was placed so near the extremity
of a hedge, that I could distinctly see what was going forward in
it; and, to my astonishment, saw the young cuckoo, though so
newly hatched, in the act of turning out the young hedwe-
sparrow.

The mode of accomplishing this was very curious. The
little animal, with the assistance of its rump and wings, contrived
to get the bird upon its back, and making a lodgment for the
burden by elevating its elbows, clambered backward with it up
the side of the nest till it reached the top, when, re -ting for a
moment, it threw off its load with a jerk, and quite disengaged
it from the nest. It remained in this situation a short time,
feeling about with the extremities of its wings, as if to be con-
vinced whether this business was properly executed, and then
dropped into the nest again. With these (the extremities of its
wings) 1 have often seen it examine, as it were, an egg and nest-
ling before it began its operations ; and the sensibility which
these parts appeared to possess seemed sul ' iently to compensate
the want of sight, which as yet it was destitute of. I afterwards
put in an egg, and this by a similar process was conveyed to the
edge of the nest and thrown out. These experiments I have
since repeated several times in different nests, and have always
found the young cuckoo disposed to act in the same manner.
In climbing up the nest it sometimes drops its burden, and thus
is foiled in its endeavours ; but after a little respite the work
is resumed, and goes on almost incessantly till it is effected. It
is wonderful to see the extraordinary exertions of the young
cuckoo, when it is two or three days old, if a bird be put into
the nest with it that is too weighty for it to lift out. In this
state it seems ever restless and uneasy. But this disposition
for turning out its companions begins to decline from the time
it is two or three till it is about twelve days old, when, as far
as I have hitherto seen, it ceases. Indeed, the disposition for
throwing out the egg appears to cease a few days sooner; for I
have frequently seen the young cuckoo, after it had been hatched

CUCKOO.

303

) care. The
he eggs de-
)r entangled
I the ground

dge-sparrow,
arrow's eggs.
had hatched,
and only one
the extremity
Qg forward in

00, though so
young hedge-
curious. The
ings, contrived
/ment for the
Etrd with it up

1, re-'tingfor a
lite disengaged
1 a short time,
as if to he con-
uted, and then
:tremities of its
a egg and neSt-
nsibility which

to compensate
If. I afterwards
ionveyed to the
iments I have
A have always
J same manner,
[urden, and thus
)spite the work
, is effected. It
ls of the young
•ird be put into
ft out. In this
[this disposition
L from the time
[id, when, as far
disposition for

^s sooner ; for I
Lad been hatched

nine or ten days, remove a nestling that had been placed in the
nest with it, when it suffered an egg^ put there at the same time,
to remain unmolested. The singularity of its shape is well
adapted to these purposes; for, different from other newly hatched
birds, its back from the scapulce downwards is very broad, with
;i considerable depression in the middle. This depression seems
formed by nature for the design of giving a more secure lodg-
ment to the egg of the hedge-sparrow, or its young one, when the
voung cuckoo is employed in removing either of them from the
nest. When it is about twelve days old this cavity is quite
tilled up, and then the back assumes the shape of nestling birds
in general. . . . The circumstance of the young cuckoo being
destined by nature to throw out the young hedge-sparrows
seems to account for the parent cuckoo dropping her egg in
the nests of birds so small as those I have particularised. It
she were to do this in the nest of a bird which produced a large
egg, and consequently a large nestling, the young cuckoo
would probably find an insurmountable difficulty in solely pos-
sessing the nest, as its exertions would be unequal to the labour
of turning out the young birds. (I have known a case in
which a hedge-sparrow sat upon a cuckoo's egg and one of her
own. Her own egg was hatched five days before the cuckoo's,
when the young hedge-sparrow had gained such a superiority
in size that the young cuckoo had not powers sufficient to lift it
out of the nest till it was two days old, by which time it had
grown very considerably. This egg was probably laid by the
cuckoo several days after the hedge-sparrow had begun to sit ;
and even in this case it appears that its presence had created
the disturbance before alluded to, as all the hedge-sparrow's eggs
had gone except one.) . . . June 27, 1787. — Two cuckoos
and a hedge-sparrow were hatched in the same nest this morn-
ing ; one hedge-sparrow's egg remained unhatched. In a few
hours after, a contest began between the cuckoos for the pos-
session of the nest, which continued imdetermined till the next
afternoon ; when one of them, which was somewhat superior in
size, turned out the other, together with the young hedge-
sparrow and the unhatched egg. This contest was very remark-
able. The combatants alternately appeared to have the advan-
tage, as each carried the other several times nearly to the top
of the nest, and then sunk down again oppressed with the
weight of its burden ; till at length, after various efforts, the
strongest prevailed, and was afterwards brought up by the
hedge-sparrows.

To what cause, then, may we attribute the singularities of

(

304

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the cuckoo ? May they not be owing to the following circum-
stances, — the short residence this bird is allowed to make in
the countiy where it is destined to propagate its species, and
the call that nature has upon it, during that short residence,
to produce a numerous progeny ? The cuckoo's first appearance
here is about the middle of April, commonly on the 17th. Its
egg is not ready for incubation till some weeks after its arrival
seldom before the middle of May. A fortnight is taken up by
the sitting bird in hatching the egg. The young bird generally
continues three weeks in the nest before it flies, and the foster-
parents feed it more than five weeks after this period ; so that,
if a cuckoo should be ready with an egg much sooner than the
time pointed out, not a single nestling, even one of the earliest,
would be fit to provide for itself before its parent would be in-
stinctively directed to seek a new residence, and be thus com-
pelled to abandon its young one ; for old cuckoos take their
final leave of this country the first week in July.

Had nature allowed the cuckoo to have stayed here as long
as some other migrating birds, which produce a single set of
young ones (as the swift or nightingale, for example), and had
allowed her to have reared as large a number as any bird is
capable of bringing up at one time, there might not have been
sufficient to have answered her purpose ; but by sending the
cuckoo from one nest to another, she is reduced to the same
state as the bird whose nest we daily rob of an egg, in which
case the stimulus for incubation is suspended.

A writer in ' Nature ' (vol. v., p. 383 ; and vol. ix., p.
123), to whom Mr. Darwin refers in the latest edition of
'The Origin of Species ' as an observer that Mr. Grould has
found trustworthy, precisely confirms, from observations
of his own, the above description of Jenner. So far,
therefore, as the observations are common I shall not
quote his statements ; but the following additional matter
is worth rendering : —

But what struck me most was this : the cuckoo was per-
fectly naked, without a vestige of a feather or even a hint of
future feathers ; its eyes were not yet opened, and its neck
seemed too weak to support the weight of its head. The pipits
(in whose nest the young cuckoo was parasitic) had well-
developed quills on the wings and back, and had bright eyes
partially open ; yet they seemed quite helpless under the mani-
pulations of the cuckoo, which looked a much less develo|)ed

CUCKOO.

305

ring circum-
to make in
species, and
rt residence,
b appearance
16 17th. Its
iv its arrival,
taken up by
lird generally
tid the foster-
nod ; so that,
oner than the
»f the earliest,
b would be in-
be thus com-
)0S take their

)d here as long
X single set of
nple), and had
as any bird is
not have been
by sending the
d

,nd vol. ix., p.
est edition of

Mr. Gould has
observations

bner. So far,
n I shall not
itional matter

juckoo was pel'"
' even a hint of
i, and its neck
jad. The pipits
aitic) had well-
had bright ey^
under the maiii-
less develoi)ed

creature. The cuckoo's legs, howovor, acoiued very muscular,
itncl it appeared to feel alK)ut witii its wings, whicli wort! abso-
lutt'ly feO'^berless, as with hands — the 'spurious wing* (unusually
large in proportion) looking like a spread-out thumb. The most
singular thing of all was the direct purpose with which the blind
little monster made for the open side of the nest, the only part
where it could throw its burden down the bank. [The latter
icuiark has reference to the position of the nest below a heather
bush, on the declivity of a low abrupt bank, where the only
chance of dislodging the young birds was to eject them over the
>ideof the nest remote from its support ui)on the bank.] As
the young cuckoo was blind, it must have known the part of
the nest to choose by feeling from the inside that that part was
unsupported.

Such being the facts, we have next to ask how they
to be explained on the principles of evolution. At

are

first sight it seems that although the habit saves the bird
which practises it much time and trouble, and so is clearly
of benefit to the individual, it is not so clear how the in-
stinct is of benefit to the species ; for as cuckoos are not
social birds, and therefore cannot in any way depend on
mutual co-operation, it is difficult to see that this saving
of time and trouble to the individual can be of any use to
the species. But Jenner seems to have hit the right
cause in the concluding part of the above quotation. If
it is an advantage that the cuckoo should migrate early,
it clearly becomes an advantage, in order to admit of this,
that the habit should be formed of leaving her eggs for
other birds to incubate. At any rate, we have here a suffi-
ciently probable explanation of the raison d'etre > )f this
curious instinct ; and whether it is the true reason or the
only reason, we are justified in setting down the instinct
to the creating influence of natural selection.

Mr. Darwin, in his ' Origin of Species,' has some in-
eresting remarks to ma^ ^ on this subject. First, he
s informed by Dr. Merreii that the American cuckoo,
Ithough as a rule following the ordinary custom of birds
incubating her own eggs, nevertheless occasionally de-
sits them in the nests of other birds.

Now let us suppose that the ancient progenitor of our Euro-
«a!i cuckoo had the habits of the American cuckoo, and that

306

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

she occasionally laid her egg in another bird's nest. If the old
bird profited by this occasional habit through being able to
migrate earlier, or through any other cause; or if the young
were made more vigorous by advantage being taken of the mis-
taken instinct of another species than when reared by their own
mother, encumbered as she could hardly fail to be by havinw
eggs and young at the same time ; ^ then the old birds or the
fostered young would gain an advantage.^

The instinct would seem to be a very old one, for there
are two great changes of structure in the European cuckoo
which axe manifestly correlated with the instinct. Thus
the shape of the young bird's back has already been noted •
and not less remarkable than this is the small size of the
egg from which the young bird is hatched. For the egg
of the cuckoo is not any larger than that of the skylark
although an adult cuckoo is four times the size of an adult
skylark. And ' that the small size of the egg is a real
case of adaptation (in order to deceive the small birds in
whose nests it is laid), we may infer from the fact of the
non-parasitic American cuckoo laying full-sized eggs.'
Yet, although the instinct in question is doubtless of high
antiquity, there have been occasional instances observed
in cuckoos of reversion to the ancestral instinct of nidifica-
tion ; for, according to Adolf Muller, * the cuckoo occasion-

' Allusion is here made to the fact that the cuckoo lays her eggs at
intervals of two or three days, and therefore that if all were incubated
by the mother, they would hatch out at different times — a state of thincs i
which actually obtains in the case of the American cuckoo, whose
nest contains eggs and young at the same time.

* It is worth while to observe, as bearing or. this theory of the origin
of this parasitic habit, that even non-parasitic birds occasionally deposit I
their eggs in nests of other birds. Thus, Professor A. Newton \vrites in I
his admirable essay on * Birds ' in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, ' Cer- 1
tain it is that some birds, whether by mistake or stupidity, do not un-
frequently lay their eggs in the nests of others. It is within the know-
ledge of many that pheasants' eggs and partridges' eggs are often laiJ
in the same nest ; and it is within the knowledge of the writer that}
gulls' eggs have been found in the nests of eider-ducks, and vice vena]
that a redstart and a pied flycatcher will lay their eggs in the same con I
venient hole — the forest being rather deficient in such accommodation;!
that an owl and a duck will resort to the same nest-hole, set up by the!
scheming woodman for his own advantage ; and that the starling, whic'l
constantly dispossesses the green woodpecker, sometimes discovers that]
the rightful heir of the domicile has to be brought up by the intrudingj
tenant.*

ally Lt

feeds I

Xewtoi

obscurt

He says

tionof £

of differ

is appn

bird in '

of decei^

however

Havii

be partly
he calls a
'approxin
cuckoo's ej
tion, &c.

CUCKOO.

807

;, If the old
leing able to
if the young
en of the mis-
. by their own
be by having
i birds or tlie

one, for there
:opean cuckoo
itinct. Thus,
y been noted ;
all size of the
For the egg
[ the skylark,
ize of an adult
J egg is a real
. small birds in
the fact of the
ill-sized eggs.'
kubtless of higli
nances observed
inct of nidifica-
uckoo occasion-

oo lays her eggs at
all were incubated
-;s— a state of things
3an cuckoo, whose]

theory of the origin
occasionally deposit
\.. Newton writes in
aBritannica, 'Cer-
upidity, do notm-'
is within the kno^f-
eggs are often law^l

of the writer that

dcks, and vice vem;\

ggsinthesamecoii

Lch accommodation;!

.hole,setupbytliel
, the starling, whic^J
[times discovers m

up by the intruding!

ally lays her eggs on the bare ground, sits on them, and
feeds her young.'

In 'Nature' for November 18, 1869, Professor A.
Xewton, F.R.S., has published an article on a somewhat
obscure point connected with the instincts of the cuckoo.
He says that Dr. Baldamus has satisfied him, by an exhibi-
tion of sixteen specimens of cuckoos' eggs found in the nests
of different species of birds, ' that the egg of the cuckoo
is approximately coloured and marked like those of the
bird in whose nest it is found,' for the purpose, no doubt,
of deceiving the foster-parents. Professor Newton adds,
however : —

Having said this much, and believing as I do the Doctor to
be partly justified in the carefully worded enunciation of what
he calls a ' law of nature,' I must now declare that it is only
'approximately,' and by no means universally true that tho
cuckoo's egg is coloured like those of the victims of her imposi-
tion, &c.

Still, when so great an authority as Professor Newton
expresses himself satisfied that there is a marked tendency
to such imitation, which in some cases leads to extra-
ordinary variations in the colouring of the cuckoo's egg,
the alleged fact becomes one which demands notice. The
i question, of course, immediately arises. How is it conceiv-
able that the fact, if it is a fact, can be explained ? We
cannot imagine the cuckoo to be able consciously to colour
her egg during its formation in order to imitate the eggs
among which she is about to lay it ; nor can we suppose
that having laid an egg and observed its colouring, she
then carries it to the nest of the bird whose eggs it moi>t
Iresembles. Professor Newton suggests another theory,
phich he seems to think sufficient, but which I confess
I seems to me little more satisfactory than the impossible
[theories just stated. He says : —

Only one explanation of the process can, to my min«l, be
fed. Every person who has studied the habits of birds with
Efficient attention will he conversant with the tendency which
fceitain of those habits have to become hereditary. It is, I am
pre, no violent hypothesis to suppose that there is a very
easonable probability of each cuckoo most commonly placing

X 2

308

ANIMAL INTELLIGEXCE.

her eggs in the nest of the same bird, and of this habit beino
transmitted to her posterity.

Now it will be seen that it requires but only an application
to this case of the principle of ' natural selection,' or * survival
of the fittest,' to show that if my argument be sound, nothing
can be more likely than that, in the course of time, that prirT-
ciple should operate so as to produce the facts asserted, the e^ws
which best imitated those of particular foster-parents having
the best chance of duping the latter, and so of being hatched
out.

Now, granting to this hypothesis the assumption that
individual cuckoos have special predilections as to the
species in whose nests they are to lay their eggs, and that
some of these species require to be deceived by imitative
colouring of the egg to prevent their tilting it out, there
is still an enormous difficulty to be met. Supposing that
one cuckoo out of a hundred happens to lay eggs suffi-
ciently like those of the North African magpies (a species
alluded to by Professor Newton) to deceive the latter into
supposing the egg to be one of their own. This I cannot
think is too small a proportion to assume, seeing that, ex
hypothesi, the resemblance must be tolerably close, and
that the egg of the magpie does not resemble the great
majority of eggs of the cuckoo. Now, in order to sustain
the theory, we must suppose that the particular cuckoo j
which happens to have the peculiarity of laying eggs so I
closely resembling those of the magpie, must also happen
to have the peculiarity of desiring to lay its eggs in the
nest of a magpie. The conjunction of these two pecu-
liarities would, I should think, at a moderate estimate!
reduce the chances of an approximately coloured egg being
laid in the appropriate nest to at least one thousand tol
one. But supposing the happy accident to have taken!
place, we have next to suppose that the peculiarity ofj
laying these exceptionably coloured eggs is not only con-l
stant for the same individual cuckoo, but is inherited bvT
innumerable generations of her progeny; and, what is
much more difficult to grant, that the fancy for laying
eggs in the nest of a magpie is similarly inherited,
think, therefore, notwithstanding Professor Newton's strong
opinion upon the subject, that the ingenious hypotheal

CUCKOO.

309

is habit being

an application
' or ' surviviil
;ound, nothing
ime, that prin-
ierted, the eggs
parents having

isumption that
01) s as to the
eggs, and that
id by imitative
g it out, there
Supposing that
lay eggs suffi-
gpies (a species
> the latter into
This I cannot
. seeing that, ex
rably close, and
emble the great
order to sustain
articular cuckoo
laying eggs so
^ust also happen
rits eggsintlie
these two pecn-l
(derate estimate'
loured egg beingl
one thousand to
to bave taken!
.e peculiarity of
is not only con-
is inherited bj
^ ; and, wbat \i
fancy for layina
jly inberited. '
fr Newton's strons
iuious hypotbe^i

j0ust be dismissed as too seriously encumbered by the
difficulties which I have mentioned. We may with philo-
sophical safety invoke the influence of natural selection to
explain all cases of protective colourinp- when the modtta
operandi need only be supposed simple and direct ; but
io a case such as this the number and complexity of the
conditions that would require to meet in order to give
natural selection the possibility of entrance, seem to me
much too considerable to admit of our entertaining the
possibility of its action — at all events in the way that
professor Newton suggests. Therefore, if the facts are
facts, I cannot see how they are to be explained.

Cuckoos are not the only birds which manifest the
parasitic habit of laying their eggs in other birds' nests.

Some species of Melothrus, a widely distinct genus of
American birds, allied to our starlings, have parasitic habits
like those of the cuckoo ; and the species present an interesting
ffiadation in the perfection of their inatincts. The sexes of
Melothrus cadius are stated by an excellent observer, Mr.
Hudson, sometimes to live promiscuously together in flocks and
sometimes to pair. They either build a nest of their own, or
seize on one belonging to some other bird, occasionally throwing
out the nestlings of the stranger. They either lay their eggs in
the nest thus appropriated, or oddly enough build one for them-
selves on the top of it. They usually sit on their own eggs and
rear their own young ; but Mr. Hudson says it is probable that
tliey are occasionally parasitic, for he has seen the young of
this species feeding old birds of a distinct kind and clamouring
to be fed by them. The parasitic habits of another species of
Melothrus, the M. Canariensis, are much more highly developed
than those of the last, but are still far from perfect. This bird,
as far as it is known, invariably lays its eggs in the nests of
strangers, but it is remarkable that several together sometimes
commence to build an irregular untidy nest of their own, placed
in singularly ill-adapted situations, as on the leaves of a large
thistle. They must, however, as far as Mr. Hudson has ascer-
tained, complete a nest for themselves. They often lay so many
eggs, from fifteen to twenty, in the same foster-nest, that few or
none can possibly be hatched. They have, moreover, the extra-
ordinary habit of pecking he les in the eggs, whether of their
own species or of their foster-parents, which they find in the
appropriated nests. They drop also many eggs on the bare

310

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

ground, which are thus wasted. A third species, the M. precivj
of North America, has acquired instincts as perfect as those of
the cuckoo, for it never lays more than an egg in a foster-nest,
so that the young bird is securely reared. Mr. Hudson is u
strong disbeliever in evolution, but he appears to have been so
much struck by the imperfect instincts of the Melothrua Canari-
ensis that he quotes my words, and asks, * Must we consider these
habits not as especially endowed or created instincts, but as
small consequences of one general law, namely transition ? ' ^

Such are all the facts and considerations which I have
to present with reference to the curious instinct in ques-
tion. It will be seen that — with one doubtful or not suffi-
ciently investigated exception, viz., that of cuckoos adapt-
ing the colour of their eggs to that of the eggs of the
foster-parents — there is nothing connected with these
instincts that presents any difficulty to the theory of evo-
lution. We may, perhaps, at first sight wonder why some
counteracting instinct should not have been developed by
the same agency in the birds which axe liable to be thus
duped ; but here we must remember that the deposition
of a parasitic egg is, comparatively speaking, an exceed-
ingly rare event, and therefore not one that is likely to
lead to the development of a special instinct to meet it.

General Intelligence.

Under this heading I shall here, as in the case of this
heading elsewhere, string together all the instances which
I have met with, and which I deem trustworthy, of the
display of unusually high intelligence in the dass, family,
order, or species of animals under consideration — the ob-
ject of this heading in all cases being that of supplying,
by the facts mentioned beneath it, a general idea of the
upper limit of intelligence which is distinctive of each
group of animals.

That birds recognise their own images in mirrors as
birds there can be no question. Houzeau, who records
observations of his own in this connection with parrots,^
adds that dogs are more difficult to deceive by mirrors in

'm\

CMgin of Species, p. 216.

2 Tom. i., p. 130.

BIKDS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

311

the M. preciua
feet as those of
n a foster-nest,
p. Hudson is a
io have heen so
lothrus Canari-
e consider these
Qstincts, but as
ransition 1 ' ^

I which I have
stinct in ques-
ful or not suffi-
juckoos adapt-
le eggs of the
sd with these
theory of evo-
ader why some
1 developed by
ible to be thus
the deposition
ng, an exceed-
lat is likely to
at to meet it.

he case of this
nstances which
tworthy, of the
le ciass, family,
ration — the ob-
t of supplying,
ral idea of the
nctive of each

s in mirrors as
lu, who records
with parrots,^
by mirrors in

, i., p. 130.

this way than birds, on account of their depending so
much upon smell for their information. No doubt indi-
vidual differences are to be met with in animals of both
classes, and much depends on previous experience. Young
dogs, or dogs which have never seen a mirror before, are
not, as a rule, difficult to deceive, even though they have
good noses. I myself had a setter with an excellent nose,
^ho on many repeated occasions tried to fight his own
image, till he found by experience that it was of no use.
As to birds, I have seen canaries suppose their own images
to be other canary birds, and also the reflection of a room
to be another room — the birds flying against a large
mirror and falling half stunned. I mention the latter
circumstance because it afforded evidence of the superior
intelligence of a linnet, which on the same occasion dashed
itself against the mirror once, but never a second time,
while the canaries did so repeatedly.

Mrs. Frankland, in * Nature '(xxi., p. 82), gives the fol-
lowing account of a bullfinch paying more attention to a
portrait of a bullfinch than to his own image in a mirror,
which is certainly remarkable ; and as the fact seems to have
been observed repeatedly, it can scarcely be discredited :

The following is a curious instance of discrimination which
I have observed in my bullfinch. He is in the habit of coming
out of his cage in my room in the morning. In this room there
is a mirror with a marble slab before it, and also a very cleverly
executed water-colour drawing of a hen bullfinch, life size. The
first thing that my bullfinch does on leaving his cage is to fly to
the picture (perching on a vase just below it) and pipe his tune
in the most insinuating manner, accompanied with much bow-
ing to the portrait of the hen bullfinch. After having duly
paid his addresses to it, he generally spends some time on the
marble slab in front of the looking-glass, but without showing
the slightest emotion at the sight of his own reflection, or
courting it with a song. Whether this perfect coolness is due
to the fact of the reflection being that of a cock bird, or whether
(since he shows no desire to fight the reflected image) he is per-
fectly well aware that he only sees himself, it is difficult to say.

That birds possess considerable powers of imagination,
forming mental pictures of absent objects, may be in-

312

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

'4
'•1

ferred from the fact of their pining for absent mates, parrots
calling for absent friends, &c. The same fact is further
proved by birds dreaming, a faculty which has been noticed
by Cuvier, Jerdon, Thompson, Bennet, Houzeau, Bechstein
Lindsay, and Darwin.'

The facility with which birds lend themselves to the
education of the show-man is certain evidence of consider-
able docility, or the power of forming novel associations
of ideas. Thus, according to Bingley, —

Some years ago the Sieur Roman exhibited in this country
the wonderful performances of his birds. These were gold-
finches, linnets, and canary birds. One appeared dead, and was
held up by the tail or claw without exhibiting any signs of Ufe.
A second stood on its head, with its claws in the air, &c., &,c.^

And many years ago there was exhibited a very puzzling
automaton, which, although of very small size and quite
isolated from any possibly mechanical connection with its
designer, performed certain movements in any order that
the fancy of the observers might dictate. The explana-
tion turned out to be that within the mechanism of the
figure there was a canary bird which had been taught to
run in different directions at different words or tones of
command, so by its weight starting the mechanism to
perform the particular movement required.

The rapidity with which birds learn not to fly against
newly erected telegraph wires, displays a large amount of
observation and intelligence. The fact has been repeatedly
observed. For instance, Mr. Holden says : —

About twelve years ago T was residing on the coast of I
county Antrim, at the time the telegraph wires were set up alon? I
that charming road which skirts the sea between Larne and
Cushendall. During the winter months large flocks of starlings j
always migrated over from Scotland, arriving in the early morn-
ing. The first winter after the wires were stretched along the I
coast I frequently found numbers of starlings lying dead or
wounded on the road-side, they having evidently in their flight
in the dusky morn struck against the telegraph wires, not!

* SeeJBirdsof India, i., p. 21; Passions of Animals,^. &0 \ Fao. Men\
des Ayii., torn, ii., p. 183 ; Mind in Lower Animals^ vol. ii., p. 96 ; andl
Degoent of Man, p. 74. [

* Animal JBiogra^phy, vol. ii., p. 173

Mature.

BIRDS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

313

■blown against them, as these accidents often occurred when there
^as but little wind. I found that the peasantry had come to
the conclusion that these unusual deaths were due to the flash
oft' I telegraph messages killing any starlings that happened to
\)Q ^erched on the wires when working. Strange to say that
throughout the following and succeeding winters hardly a death
K^urred among the starlings on their arrival. It would thus
[ii jjear that the birds were deeply impressed, and understood the
aiuse of the fatal accidents among their fellow-travellers the
previous year, and hence carefully avoided the telegraph wii-es ;
not only so, but the young birds must also have acquii-ed this
knowledge and perpetuated it, a knowledge which they could
not have acquired by experience or even instinct, unless the
instinct was really inherited memory derived from the parents
whose brains were first impressed by it.^

Similar facts are given in Buckland's ' Curiosities of
Natural History,' ^ and I have myself known of a case in
Scotland where a telegraph was erected across a piece of
moorland. During the first season some of the grouse
were injured by flying against the wires, but never in any
succeeding season. Why the young birds should avoid
them without having had individual experience may, I
think, be explained by the consideration that in birds
which fly in flocks or coveys, it is the older ones that lead
the way. This explanation would not, of course, apply to
birds which fly singly ; but I am not aware that any ob-
servations have gone to show that the young of such
birds avoid the wires.

I quote the following exhibition of intelligence in an
eagle from Menault : —

The following account of the patience with which a golden
eagle submitted to surgical treatment, and the care which it
showed in the gradual use of the healing limb, must suggest
the idea that something very near to prudence and reason
existed in the bird. This eagle was caught in a fox-trap set in
I the forest of Fontainebleau, and its claw had been terribly torn.
An operation was performed on the limb by the conservators of
the Zoological Gardens at Paris, which the noble bird bore with
a rational patience. Though his head was left loose, he made
no attempts to interfere with the agonising extraction of the

' Nature, xx.,p. 266. ^ Vol. 1., p. 216. See also Descent of. Man, p. 80.

314

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCl-:.

splinters, or to disturb the arrangements of the annoj^ug 1)and.
age"*. He seemed really to un<lerstand the nature of the services
rendered, and that they were for his good.'

Speaking of the Urubu vultures, Mr. Bates says : —

They assemble in great numbers in the villages about the
end of the wet season, and are then ravenous with hunger. My
cook could not leave the open kitchen at the back of the house
for a moment whilst the dinner was cooking, on account of
their thievish propensities. Some of them were always loiterini;
about, watching their opportunity, and the instant the kitchen
was left unguarded, the bold marauders marched in and lifted
the lids of the saucepans with their beaks to rob them of their
contents. The boys of the village lie in wait, and shoot them
with bow and arrow ; and vultures have consequently acqiiiied
such a dread of these weapons, that they may be often kept olF
by hanging a bow from the rafters of the kitchen. ^

Mrs. Lee, in her 'Anecdotes,' says that one day her gardener
was struck by the strange conduct of a robin, which the man
had often fed. The bird fluttered about him in so strange a
manner — now coming close, then hurrying away, always in the
same direction — that the gardener followed its retreating move-
ments. The robin stopped near a flower-pot, and fluttered over
it in great agitation. It was soon found that a nest had been
formed in the pot, and contained several young. Close by was
a snake, intent, doubtless, upon making a meal of the brood.

The following appeared in the * Gardener's Chronicle'
for Aug. 3, 1878, under the initials ' T. G.' I wrote to the
editor requesting him to supply me with the name of his
correspondent, and also to state whether he knew him to
be a trustworthy man. In reply the editor said that he
knew his correspondent to be trustworthy, and that his j
name is Thomas Guring : —

About thirty years ago the small market town in which I
reside was skirted by an open common, upon which a number
of geese were kept by cottagers. The number of the birds was j
very great. . . . Our corn market at that time was held in the
street in front of the principal inn, and on the market day a
good deal of com was scattered from sample bags by millers.
Somehow the geese found out about the spilling of corn, and
they appear to have held a consultation upon the subject. . . .j

• Menault, Wonders of Instinct, -p. 132.
.2 JVat. on Amazons, p. 177; Anecdotes, p. 135.

BIRDS -GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

315

;s says : —

iges about the
I hunger. My
k of the house
on account of
Iways loitering!;
mt the kitchen
sd in and lifted
) them of tlieh'
and shoot them
uently acquired
)e often kept otT

lay lier gardener
which the man
in so strange a
ly, always in the
retreating move-
nd fluttered over
a nest had been
Close by was
of the brood.

ers Clironicle'
I wrote to the

Itbe name of his
e knew him to

,or said that he

y, and that his

town in which I

which a numhei

of the birds was

^e was held in the

[the market day a

p bags by millers.

filing of corn, and

the subject. . . .

"u. 135.

from this time tliey never missed their opportunity, and the

entry of the geese was always looked for and invariably took

place. On the morning after the market, early, and always on

the proper morning, fortnightly, in they came cackling and

„ol)bling in merry mood, and they never came on the wrong

jj.iv. The corn, of course, was the attraction, but in what

iu;mner did they mark the time ? One might have supposed

tliat their perceptions were awakened on the market day by the

siiiell of com, or perhaps by the noise of the market traffic ; but

my story is not yet finished, and its sequel is against this view.

It happened one year that a day of national humiliation was

kept, and the day appointed was that on which our market

should have been held. The market was postponed, and the

<;eese for once were baffled. There was no corn to tickle their

olfactory organs from afar, no traffic to appeal to their sense of

hearing. I think our little town was as still as it usually is on

Sundays. . . . The geese should have stopped away ; but they

kuew their day, and came as usual. ... I do not pretend to

remember under what precise circumstances the habit of coming

into the street was acquired. It may have been formed by

decrees, and continued from year to year; but how the old

hirds, who must have led the way, marked the time so as to

come in regularly and fortnightly, on a particular day of the

week, I am at a loss to conceive.

Livingstone's 'Expedition to the Zambesi, 1865,' p.

209, gives a conclusive account of the bird called the

honey-guide, which leads persons to bees' nests. 'They

are quite as anxious to lure the stranger to the bees' hive

as other birds are to draw him away from their own nests.'

[The object of the bird is to obtain the pupae of the bees

which are laid bare by the ravaging of the nest. The

Ihabits of this bird have long been known and described

jin books on popular natural history ; but it is well that

he facts have been observed by so trustworthy a man as

livingstone. He adds, ' How is it that members of this

mily have learned that all men, white and black, are fond

if honey ? ' We can only answer, by intelligent observa-

ion in the first instance, passing into individual and

ereditary habit, and so eventuall}^ into a fixed instinct.

Brehm relates an instance of cautious sagacity in a
ewit. He had placed some horsehair snares over its
est, but the bird seeing them, pushed them aside with

316

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

her bill. Next day he set them thickly round the nest ;
but now the bird, instead of running as usual to the nest
along the ground, alighted directly upon it. This shows
a considerable appreciation of mechanical appliances, as
does also the following.

Mrs. Gr. M. E. Campbell writes to me : —

At Ardglass, co. Down, Ireland, is a long tract of turf
coming to the edge of the rocks overhanging the sea, where
cattle and geese feed ; *at a barn on this tract there was a low
enclosure, with a door fastening by a hook and staple to the side-
post : when the hook was out of the staple, the door fell open bv
its own weight. 1 one day saw a goose with a large troop of j
goslings coming off the turf to this door, which was secured by
the hook being in the staple. The goose waited for a minute j
or two, as if for the door to be opened, and then turned round
as if to go away, but what she did was to make a rush at the
door, and making a dart with her beak at the point of the hook
nearly threw it out of the staple ; she repeated this manoeuvre,
and succeeded at the third attempt, the door fell open, and the I
goose led her troop in with a sound of triumphant chuckling.]
How had the goose learned that the force of the rush was need-
ful to give the hook a sufficient toss ?

Mrs. K. Addison sends me the following instance oti
the use of signs on the part of an intelligent jackdaw]
The bird was eighteen months old, and lived in som^
bushes in Mrs. Addison's garden. She writes : —

I generally made a practice of filling a large basin whicU
stands under the trees every morning for Jack's bath. A fewda\i
ago I forgot this duty, and was reminded of the fact in a ver
singular manner. Another of my daily occupations is to open mjl
dressing-room shutters about eleven o'clock of a morning. Noj
these said shunters open almost on to the trees where Jack live
The day I forgot his bath, when I opened the shutters I founj
my little friend waiting just outside them, as though he knei
that he should see me there ; and when he did he placed himsej
immediately in front of me, and then shook himself and spreaj
out his wings just as he always does in his bath. The actiq
was so suggestive and so unmistakable, that I spoke just as
would have done to a child — * Oh yes, Jack, of course you sliaj
have some water.'

Mr. W. W. Nichols writes to ^ Nature : ' —

Tlie

number

bouring

evening,

In this i

in wait :

lit the e(

these tui

eaten ; a

near the

the birds

have hit

from its

down at

t\renty fe

which it

which it ]

such a s]

edge of th

and will i

imrried gi

at anothei

often wat(

their strai

I intendent

I the pigeon

As a
! intelligei
I following I
|publishe(

A nui

I that had
. horse st
la large *pj
[directly at I
in doil
[several tii
jhad been
(instinct ?

The

Iswallows

BIRDS— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

317

The Central Prison at Agra is the roosting-place of gi-eat
numbers of the common bhie pigeon ; they fly out to the neigh-
bouring country for food every morning, and return in tho
evening, when they drink at a tank just outside the prison walls.
Ill this tank are a large numl)er of fresh-water turtles, which lie
in wait for the pigeons just under the surface of the water and
iit the edge of it. Any bird alighting to drink near one of
these turtles has a good chance of having its head bitten ofl* and
eaten ; and the headless bodies of pigeons have been picked \ip
near the water, showing the fate which has sometimes befallen
the birds. The pigeons, however, are aware of the danger, and
have hit on the following plan to escape it. A pigeon comes in
from its long flight, and, as it nears the tank, instead of flying
down at once to the water's edge, will cross the tank at about
twenty feet above its surface, and then fly hack to the side from
which it came, apparently selecting for alighting a safe spot
which it had remarked as it flew over the bank ; but even when
such a spot has been selected the bird will not alight at the
ed^e of the water, but on the bank about a yard from the water,
and will then run down quickly to the water, take two or three
hurried gulps of it, and then fly off* to repeat the same process
at another part of the tank till its thirst is satisfied. I had
often watched the birds doing this, and could not account for
their strange mode of drinking till told by my friend the super-
intendent of the prison, of the turtles which lay in ambush for
the pigeons.

As a still more remarkable instance of the display of
intelligence by a bird of this species, I shall quote the
following observation of Commander E. H. Napier, also
published in * Nature ' (viii., p. 324) : —

A number of them (pouters) were feeding on a few oats
I that had been accidentally let fall while fixing the nose-bag on
a horse standing at bait. Having finished all the grain at hand,
la large ' pouter ' rose, and flapping its wings furiously, flew
I directly at the horse's eyes, causing the animal to toss his head,
land in doing so, of course shake out more corn. I saw this
Iseyeral times repeated — in fact, whenever the supply on hand
Ihad been exhausted. . . . Was not this something more than
linstinct ?

The following disjilay of intelligence on the part of
Iswallows is communicated to me by Mr. Charles Wilson.

318

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

It can scarcely be attributed to accident, and does nut
admit of mal-observation. My informant says : —

Two swallows wert) building a nest in the verandiih of a
house in Victoria, but as their nest was resting partly on a bell.
wire, it was by this means twice pulled down. They then
began afresh, making a tunnel through the lowet part of tin.
nest, through which the wire was able to act without doiii '
damage.

Another gentleman writes me of another use to which
he has observed swallows put the artifice of buildiuu
tunnels. Being molested by sparrows which desired to
take forcible possession of their nest, a pair of swallows
modified the entrance of the latter, so that instead ui
opening by a simple hole under the eaves of a house, it
was carried on in the form of a tunnel.

Linnaeus says that the martin, when it builds under the
eaves of houses, sometimes is molested by sparrows takimr
possession of the nest. The pair of martins to which thv^
nest belongs are not strong enough to dislodge the in-
vaders ; but they convoke their companions, some of whom
guard the captives, whilst others bring clay, close up the
entrance of the nest, and leave the sparrows to die miser-
ably. This account has been to a large extent indepen-
dently confirmed by Jesse, who seems not to have been
acquainted with the statement of Linnaeus. He writes :—

Swallows seem to entertain the recollection of injury, and
to resent it when an opportunity offers. A pair of swallows
built their nest under the ledge of a house at Hampton Couri.
It was no sooner completed than a couple of sparrows drove I
them from it, notwithstanding the swallows kept up a good re-
sistance, and even brought others to assist them. The intruders
were left in peaceable possession of the nest, till the two old I
birds were obliged to quit it to provide food for their young. They
had no sooner departed than several swallows came and broke
down the nest; and I saw the young sparrows lying deaden]
the ground. As soon as the nest was demolished, the swallows
began to rebuild it.^

The same author gives the following and somewktj
similar case : —

* Olmninfls, vol. ii., p. 96.

BIRDS— GENERAL INTEI.LIOENCE.

:U9

and does iint
ys:—

verandali of u
)ai'tly on a bcll-
II. They then
vet part of tlic
without doiii'

r use to vrliieli
36 of building
lich desired to
ir of swallows
hat instead ul
of a house, it

uilds under the
sparrows taking
IS to which th^'
lislodge the iii-
s, some of whom
Eiy, close up the
fs to die miser-
extent indepeu-
Dt to have been
He writes:—

on of injury, and
pair of swallows

Hampton Coun.
sparrows drove

ept up a good re- 1
im. The intruders

,till the two old

heir young. They
came and broke
iws lying dead on I

ihed, the swallows

and somewliat

A pair of swallows built their nest against one of the Hrst-
tiiMir windows of an uninhabited house in Merrion H(iuari%
l)ul»lin. A sparrow, liowever, took possession of it, and the
sWiillows were repeatedly seen clinging to the neat, and en-
(leiivouring to gain an entrance to the «lx>de they had erected
with so much labour. All their efforts, however, were defeated
by the sparrow, who never once (juitted the neat. The perse-
venince of the swallows was at length exhausted : they took
tlit'ht, but shortly afterwards returned, accompanied by a
luimber of their congeners, each of them having a piece of dirt
in its bill. By this means they succeeded in stopping up the
liole, and the intruder was immured in total darkness. Soon
afterwards the nest was taken down and exliibited to several
persons, with the dead sparrow in it. In this case there ap-
peal's to have been not only a reasoning faculty, but the birds
must have been possessed of the power of communicating their
resentment and their wishes to their fiiends, without whose aid
they could not thus have avenged the injuiy they had sus-
tained.'

That birds sometimes act in concert may also be
gathered from the following observations recorded by Mr.

Buck : —

I have constantly seen a flock of pelicans, when on the feed,
form a line across a lake, and drive the fish before them up its
whole length, just as fishermen would with a net.^

The following is extracted from Sir E. Tennent's
'Natural History of Ceylon,' and displays remarkable in-
telligence on the part of the crows in that island : —

One of these ingenious marauders, after vainly attitudi-
nising in front of a chained watch-dog, that was lazily gnawing
a bone, and after fruitlessly endeavouring to divert his attention
by dancing before him, with head awry and eye askance, at
j length flew away for a moment, and returned bringing a com-
panion which perched itself on a branch a few yards in the
I'ear. The crow's grimaces were now actively renewed, but
nvith no better success, till its confederate, poising itself
jon its wings, descended with the utmost velocity, striking the
g upon the spine with all the force of its strong beak. The
\me was successful; the dog started with surprise and pain,
Ibut not quickly enough to seize his assailant, whilst the bone he
Ihad been gnawing was snatched away by the first crow the

» Ibid., p. 99.

* JVatvre, vol. xiii., p. 303,

W'?

'I ii

I SI

320

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

instant his head was turned. Two well-authenticated instances
of the recurrence of this device came within my knowledge at
Colombo, and attest the sagacity and powers of communication
and combination possessed by these astute and courageous
birds.

This account, which would be difficult of credence if
narrated by a less competent author, is strikingly confirmed
by an independent observation on the crows of Japan,
which has recently been published by Miss Bird, in whose
words I shall render it. She writes : —

In the inn garden I saw a dog eating a piece of carrion in
the presence of several of these covetous bii'ds. They evidently
said a great deal to each other on the subject, and now and then
one or two of them tried to pull the meat away from him,
which he resented. At last a big strong crow succeeded in
tearing off a piece, with which he returned to the pine whei-e
the others were congregated, and after much earnest speech
they all surrounded the dog, and the leading bird dexterously
dropped the small piece of meat within reach of his mouth,
when he immediately snapped at it, letting go the big piece
unwisely for a second, on which two of the crows flew away
with it to the pine, and with much fluttering and hilarity
they all ate, or rather gorged it, the deceived dog looking vacant
and bewildered for a moment, after which he sat under the tree
and barked at them inanely. A gentleman told me that be
saw a dog holding a piece of meat in like manner in the
presence of three crows, which also vainly tried to tear it from
him, and after a consultation they separated, two going as near
as they dared to the meat, while the third gave the tail a
bite sharp enough to make the dog turn round with a
squeak, on which the other villains seized the meat, and the
three fed triumphantly upon it on the top of a wall.^

These two independent statements by competent ob-
servers of such similar exhibitions of intelligence by crows,
justifies us in accepting the fact, remarkaole though it be.
As further corroboration, however, I shall quote still
another independent and closely similar observation,
which I find in a letter to me from Sir J. Clarke Jervoise,
who says, while writing of rooks which he has observed in
England : —

• Unbeaten Tracks in Japan, vol. ii., pp. 149-60,

BIRDS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

321

cated instances
J knowledge at
communication
md courageous

Df credence if
agly confirmed
ows of Japan,
Bird, in whose

ce of catrionin

They evidently

id now and then

away from Lim,

ow succeeded in

. the pine where

1 earnest speech

bird dexterously

3h of his moutb,

go the big piece

crows flew away

•ing and hilarity

)g looking vacant

at under the tree

told me that lie

) manner in the

ed to tear it from

;wo going as near

I gave the tail a

1 round with a

le meat, and the

J, wall.^

J competent ob-
igence by crows,
Die though it be.
lall quote still
ar observation,
Clarke Jervoise,
has observed in

149-50.

A pheasant used to come very boldly and run off with large
pieces of food, which he could only divide by shaking, and he
was closely watched by the i-ooks for the pieces that flew out of
his reach. He learned to run off into the shrubs, followed by
the rooks, who pulled his tail to make him drop his food.

I shall next quote a highly interesting observation
\vhich seems to have been well made, and which displays
remarkable intelligence on the part of the birds described.
These are Turnstones, which, as their name implies, turn
over stones, &c., in order to obtain as food the sundry
small creatures concealed beneath. In this case the ob-
server was Edward. Being concealed in a hollow, and
unnoticed by the birds, he saw a pair trying to turn over
the body of a stranded cod-fish, three and a half feet long,
and buried in the sand to a depth of several inches. He
thus describes what he saw : —

Having got fairly settled down in my pebbly observatory, I
turned my undivided attention to the birds before me. They
were boldly pushing at the fish with their bills, and then with
their breasts. Their endeavours, however, were in vain : the
object remained immovable. On this they both went round to
the opposite side, and began to scrape away the sand from
beneath the fish. After removing a considerable quantity,
they again came back to the spot which they had left, and went
once more to work with their bills and bi'easts, but with as
little apparent success as formerly. Nothing daunted, however,
they ran round a second time to the other side, and recommenced
their trenching operations with a seeming determination not to
be baffled in their object, which evidently was to undermine the
[dead animal before them, in order that it might be the more
jeiisily overturned.

While they were thus employed, and after they had laboured

I in this manner at both sides alternately for nearly half an hour,

they were joined by another of their own species, which came

ti\ing with rapidity from the neighbouiing rocks. Its timely

lamval was hailed with evident signs of joy. I was led to this

Iconclusion from the gestures which they exhibited, and from a

llow but pleasant murmuring noise to which they gave utterance

Iso soon as the new-comer made his appearance. Of their

feelings he seemed to be perfectly aware, and he made his reply

fo them in a similar strain. Their mutual congratulations

eing over, they all three set to work; and after labouring

322

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

IK., ,

vigorously for a few minutes in removing the sand, they came
round to the other side, and putting their breasts simultaneously
to the fish, they succeeded in raising it some inches from the
sand, but were unable to turn it over. It went down awain
into its sandy bed, to the manifest disappointment of the three,
Kesting, however, for a space, and without leaving their
respective positions, which were a little apart the one from the
other, they resolved, it appears, to give the work another trial.
Lowering themselves, with their breasts pressed close to the
sand, they managed to push their bills underneath the fish
which they made to rise about the same height as before.
Afterwards, withdrawing their bills, but without losing the
advantage which they had gained, they applied their breasts to
the object. This they did with such force, and to such purpose
that at length it went over, and rolled several yards down a
slight declivity. It was followed to some distance by the birds
themselves before they could recover their bearing.^

I shall now bring this chapter to a close by presenting
all the evidence that I have been able to collect with
regard to the punishment of malefactors among rooks.

Groldsmith, who used constantly to observe a rookery |
from his window, says that the selection of a site for the
building of a nest is a matter of much anxious delibera-
tion on the part of a young crow couple ; the male and I
female " examining all the trees of a grove very atten-
tively, and when they have fixed upon a branch that seems I
fit for their purpose, they continue to sit upon it, and!
observe it very sedulously for two or three days longer:'-!

It often happens that the young couple have made choice ofl
a place too near the mansion of an older pair, who do not|
choose to be incommoded by such troublesome neighbours;
quarrel, therefore, instantly ensues, in which the old ones are!
always victorious. The young couple, thus expelled, are obligedl
again to go through their fatigues — deliberating, examimngj
and choosing ; and, having taken care to keep their due distance!
the nest begins again, and their industry deserves commenj
dation. But their activity is often too great in the beginning |
they soon grow weary of bringing the materials of their nests
from distant places, and they very early perceive that stick
may be provided nearer home, with less honesty indeed, bu
some degree of address. Away they go, therefore, to pilfer i
fast as they can, and, whenever they see a nest unguarded, thej

' Smiles, Life of Edward^ pp. 244-6.

BIRDS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

323

id, they came
multaneously
dies from the
t down again
t of the three,
leaving theiv
3 one from tbe
: another trial.
d close to the
aeath the fish,
[ght as before.
aout losing the
their hreasts to
bo such purpose,
il yards down a
,nce by the birds

ing-^

le by presenting

to collect with

mong rooks.

bserve a rookery

3f a site for the

nxious delibera-

} ; the male and

rove very atten-

ratich that seems

sit upon it, and

days longer :'-

,ve made choice of
pair, who do not'

take care to rob it of the very choicest sticks of which it is
composed. But these thefts never go unpunished, and probably,
upon complaint being made, there is a general punishment
inflicted. I have seen eight or ten rooks come upon such
occasions, and, setting upon the new nest of the young couple,
all at once tear it to pieces in a moment.

At length, however, the young pair find the necessity of
going more regularly to work. While one flies to fetch the
materials, the other sits upon the tree to guard it ; and thus in
the space of three or four days, with a skirmish now and then
between, the pair have filled up a commodious nest, composed
of sticks without, and of fibrous roots and long grass within.
From the instant the female begins to lay, all hostilities are at
an end ; not one of the whole gi'ove, that a little before treated
her so rudely, will now venture to molest her, so that she
brings forth her brood with perfect tranquillity. Such is the
severity with which even native rooks are treated by each other ;
but if a foreign rook should attempt to make himself a denizen of
their society, he would meet with no favour, the whole grove
would at once be up in arms against him, and expel him with-
out mercy.
Couch says (' Illustrations of Instinct,' p. 334 et seq.) : —

The wrong-doers being discovered, the punishment is ap-
propriate to the offence ; by the destruction of their dishonest
work they are taught that they who build must find their own
bricks or sticks, and not their neighbours', and that if they wish
to live in the enjoyment of the advantages of the social con-
dition, they must endeavour to conform their actions to the
piinciples of the rookery of which they have been made
members.

It is not known what enormities led to the institution of
i another tribunal of the same kind, called the Crow Court, but ac-

ime neighbours; aBdoj^ing to Dr. Edmonson, in his ' View of the Shetland Islands,'

the old ones awl
tpelled, are obliged

Irating, exaininmg,|
, their due distance,
deserves commen-
in the beginning
trials of their nest
jrceive that sticl
lonesty indeed, hi

lerefore, to pi fer

[its proceedings are as authoritative and regular, audit is remark-
able as occurring in a species (Corvus Cornice) so near akin
|to the rook. The Crow Court is a sort of general assembling of
birds who, in their usual habits, are accustomed to live in pairs,
Scattered at great distances from each other ; when they visit
the south or west of England, as they do in severe winters,
Ihey are commonly solitary. In their summer haunts in the
phetland Islands, numbers meet together from difierent points
m a particular hill or field ; and on these occasions the assem-
bly is not complete, and does not begin its business for a day

ist unguarded, theMj. ^^^^ ^yj^ ^jj Jj^g deputies having arrived, a general clamour

324

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

A '

or croaking ensues, and the whole of the court, judges, barristers
ushers, audience, and all, fall upon the two or three prisoners
at the bar, and beat them till they kill them. When this is
accomplished the court breaks up and quietly disperses.

In the northern parts of Scotland (says Dr. Edmonson)
and in the Faroe Islands, extraordinary meetings of crows arc
occasionally known to occur. They collect in great number,«
as if they had all been summoned for the occasion ; a few of thf'
flock sit with drooping heads, and others seem as grave ns
judges, while others again are exceedingly active and noisy • in
the course of about one hour they disperse, and it is not un-
common, after they have flown away, to find one or two left
dead on the spot. These meetings will sometimes continue for
a day or two before the object, whatever it may be, is completed.
Crows continue to arrive from all quarters during the sessiou.
As soon as they have all arrived, a very general noise ensues •
and, shortly after, the whole fall upon one or two individuals
and put them to death. When the execution has been per-
formed, they quietly disperse.

Similarly, the Bishop of Carlisle writes in the ' Nine-
teenth Century ' for July 1881 : ~

I have seen also a jackdaw in the midst of a congregation of I
rooks, apparently being tried for some misdemeanour. Fiist
Jack made a speech, which was answered by a general ca\vin:j
of the rooks ; this subsiding. Jack again took up his purnljle,
and the rooks in their turn replied in chorus. After a tiinej
the business, whatever it was, appeared to be settled satisfac-
torily : if Jack was on his trial, as he seemed to be, he waJ
honourably acquitted by acclamation ; for he went to his horaej
in the towers of Ely Cathedral, and the rooks also went their way,

Lastly, Major-General Sir George Le Grand JacobJ
K.C.S.I., C.B., writes to me that while sitting in a veJ
randah in India, he saw three or four crows come and percli|
on a neighbouring house. They then cawed continuouslvT
with such peculiar sound and vigour as to attract his atj
tention. His account proceeds : —

Soon a gathering of crows from all quarters took place, until
the roof of the guard-house was blackened by them. Therenpoij
a prodigious clatter ensued ; it was plain that a * palaver 'vai
going forward. Some of its members, more eager than otliPiNJ
skipping about, I became much interested, and narrowly watclief
the proceedings, all within a dozen yards of me. After mmi
cawing and clamour, the whole frroup suddenly rose into the ain

BIRDS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

325

^es, barristers,

hree prisoners

When this is

r. Edmonson),
Ts of crows ave
yveat niimher?,
a ; a few of thf^
m as grave as
) and noisy ; in
d it is not un-
one or two left
nes continue for
be, is completed
iring the session.
•al noise ensues ;
two individual?,
m has been per-

es in the 'Nine-
fa congregation of
lemeanour. ¥ml
r a general cawind
3k up his p.miWo,
rus. After a time
be settled satisfac-l
ned to be, he m^\
J went to his home]
iso went their way,

Le Grand JacobJ

sitting ill a veJ
FS come and perclj
,wed continuous^

to attract his at

prs took place, imtl
Tthem. Thereupon
liat a ' palaver ^vll^
le eager than othml
Vd narrowly watcliel
If me. After mm^
aly rose into the ail

and kept circling round half a dozen of their fellows, one of whom
liad been clearly told off for punishment, for the five repeat-
edly attacked it in quick succession, allowing no opportunity for
their victim to escape, which he was trying to do, until they
liad cast him fluttering on the ground about thirty yards from
my chair. Unfortunately I rushed forward to pick up the bird,
prostrate but fluttering on the grass which was like a lawn
before the building. I succeeded only in touching it, for it
xvri<^gled away from my grasp, and flew greatly criy)pled and
close to the ground into the neighbouring bush.es, where I lost
si^ht of it. All the others, after circling round me and
chattering, angrily as I thought, flew away, on my resuming
my seat, in the direction taken by their victim.

[Since going to press I have seen, through the kindness of Mr.
Seebohm, some specimens of cuckoo's eggs coloured in imitation of
those belonging to the birds in the nests of which they are laid.
There can be no question about the imitation, and I add this note to
mitigate the criticism which I liave passed upon Professor Newton's
theory of the cause. For Mr. Seebohm has pointed out to me that the
theory becomes more probable if we consider that a cuckoo reared in the
nest of any particular bird is likely afterwards to choose a similar
nest for the deposition of its own eggs. Whether or not the memory
of a bird would thus act could only, of course, be certainly proved by
experiment ; but in view of the possibility that it may, Professor
j;ewton's theory becomes more probable than it is if the selection
of the appropriate nest is supposed to depend only on inheritance.

I must also add that Dr. Sclater has been kind enough to draw my
attention to a remarkable description of a species of Bower-bird,
published by Dr. Beccari in the Ga/rdener's Chroniele for March 16,
1819. This species is called the Gardener Bower-bird {Amllyornif
mrnata), and inhabits New Guinea. The animal is about the size of a
turtle-dove, and its bower — or rather hut — is built round the stem of a
tree in the shape of a cone, with a space between the stem of the tree
and the walls of the hut. The latter are composed of stems of an orchid
with their leaves on — this particular plant being chosen by the birds
apparently because its leaves remain long fresh. But the most extra-
ordinary structure is the garden, which is thus described by Dr.
Beccari : — * Before the cottage there is a meadow of moss. This Is
brought to the spot and left free from grass, stones, or anything which
would offend the eye. On this green turf liowers and fruits of pretty
I colour are placed, so as to form an elegant little garden. The greater
part of the decoration is collected round the entrance to the nest, and
it w Add appear that the husband offers these his daily gifts to his wife.
The objects are very various, but always of a vivid colour. There were
some fruits of a Garcinia like a small-sized apple. Others were the
fruits of Gardencias of a deep yellow colour in the interior. I saw also
Ismail rosy fruits, probably of a Scitamineous plant, and beautiful rosy
[flowers of a new Vaccinium. There were also fungi and mottled insects
[placed on the turf. As soon as the objects are faded they are moved to
Ithebackof the hut.' There is a tine-coloured plate of this bird in
|its garden, published in the Birds of J\'etv Guinea, by Mr. Gould,
Part ix., 1879.1

IP '

326

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

CHAPTER XL

MAMMALS.

I SHALL devote this chapter to the psychology of all the
Mammalia which present any features of psychological
interest, with the exception of the rodents, the elephant,
the dog and cat tribe among Carnivora, and the Primates
— all of which I shall reserve for separate treatment.

Marsupials,

In the ' Transactions of the Linnean Society,' Major
Mitchell gives an interesting account of the structure
reared by a small Australian marsupial {Gonilurus con-
structor) for the purposes of defence against the dingo dog.
It consists of a large pile of dry sticks and brushwood,
' big enough to make two or three good cart-loads.' Each
stick and fragment is closely interttvined or woven with
the rest, so that the whole forms a solid, compact mass.
In the middle of this large structure is the nest of the
animal.

The marsupials are as low in the scale of mammalian
intelligence as they are in that of mammalian structure ;
so that, except the above, I have met with no fact con-
nected with the psychology of this group that is worth
quoting, except, perhaps, the following, which appears to
show deliberation and decision on the part of the kangaroo.
Jesse writes : —

A gentleman who had resided for several years in New
South Wales related the following circumstance, which he
assured me he had fre .{uently witnessed while hunting the kan-
garoo : it furnishes a strong proof of the affection of that animal ,
for her young, even when her own life has been placed in the

MARSUPIALS AND CETACEANS.

327

most imminent danger. He informed me that, when a female
kangaroo has been hard pressed by dogs, he has seen her,
while she has been making her bounds, put her fore-paws into
her pouch, take a young one from it, and then throw it as far
on one side as she possibly could out of the way of the dogs.
But for this manoeuvre her own life and that of her young one
would have been sacrificed. By getting rid of the latter she
has frequently ^ected her escape, and probably returned after-
wards to seek for her offspring.

logy of all the
psychological
, the elephant,
i the Primates
jeatment.

Society,' Major
■ the structure
IConilK^rus con-
t the dingo dog.
md brushwood,
irt-loads.' Each
or woven witli
compact mass.
.he nest of the

of mammalian
alian structure ;
th no fact con-
that is worth
hich appears to
of the kangaroo.

ral years in New
stance, which he]
, hunting the kan-
ion of that animal
been placed in the

Cetaceans.

The following is quoted from Thompson : —

In 1811, says Mr. Scoresby, one of my harpooners struck a
sucker, with the hope of leading to the capture of the mother.
Presently she arose close to the *fast boat,' and seizing the
young one, dragged about 600 feet of line out of the boat with
remarkable force and velocity. Again she rose to the surface,
darted furiously to and fro, frequently stopped short or suddenly
changed her direction, and gave every possible intimation of
«treme agony. For a length of time she continued thus to act,
though pursued closely by the boats ; and, inspired with courage
and resolution by her concern for her young, seemed regardless
of the dangers which surrounded her. At length one of the
boats approached so near that a harpoon was hove at her ; it
hit, but did not attach itself. A second harpoon was struck,
but this also failed to penetrate ; but a third was more successful,
and held. Still she did not attempt to escape, but allowed
other boats to approach ; so that in a few minutes three more
harpoons were fastened, and in the course of an hour afterwards
she was killed.^

Mr. Saville Kent communicates an article to * Nature '
I (vol. viii., p. 229) on ' Intellect of Porpoises.' He says : —

The keeper in charge of these interesting animals is now in
I the habit of summoning them to their meals by the call of a
whistle; his approaching footsteps, even, cause great excitement
in their movements. . . . The curiosity attributed to these
creatures, as illustrated by the experiences of Mr. Matthew
I Williams, receives ample confirmation from their habits and
Iconfinement. A new arrival is at once subjected to the most
|importunate attention, and, advancing from familiarity to con-

' Passiwis of Animals, i>. 15i.

328

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

tempt if disapproved of, soon becomes the object of attack and
peisecution. A few dog-fish {Acanthias and Mastelus), three or
four feet long, now fell victims to their tyranny, the porpoises
seizing them by their tails, and swimming off with and
shaking them in a manner scarcely conducive to their comfort
or dignified appearance, reminding the spectator of a large dof
worrying a rat. . . . On one occasion I witnessed the two
Cetacea acting evidently in concert against one of these unwieldy
fish (skates), the latter swimming close to the top of the water
and seeking momentary respite from its relentless enemies by
lifting its unfortunate caudal appendage high above its surface
— the peculiar tail of the skate being the object of sport to the
porpoises, which seized it in their mouths as a convenient handle
whereby to pull the animal about, and worry it incessantly.

In a subsequent number of * Nature ' (vol. ix., p. 42)
Mr. C. Fox writes : —

Several years ago a herd of porpoises was scattered by a net
which I had got made to enclose some of them. . . . The
whole * senile ' was much alarmed, and two were secured. I
conclude that their companions retained a vivid remembrance
of the sea-fight, as these Cetacea, although frequent visitants in
this harbour (Falmouth) previously, and often watched for,
were not seen in it again for two years or more.

Horse and Ass,

The horse is not so intelligent an animal as any of the
larger Carnivora, while among herbivorous quadrupeds his
sagacity is greatly exceeded by that of the elephant, and in
a lesser degree by that of his congener the ass. On the
other hand, his intelligence is a grade or two above that
of perhaps any ruminant or other herbivorous quadruped.

The emotional life of this animal is remarkable, in
that it appears to admit of undergoing a sudden trans-
formation in the hands of the * horse-tamer.' The cele-
brated results obtained by Rarey in this connection have I
since been repeated with more or less success by manv|
persons in various parts of the world, and the * method'
appears to be in all cases essentially the same. The un-
tamed and apparently untamable animal has its fore- 1
leg or legs strapped up, is cast on its side and allowed tol

avenues

dement

against

in a SO]

dog; th

behind

' cumstanl

I except tf

be compi

As fl

I affection I

' See ll

IPP. 151-2.

HORSE.

329

of attack and
\elus), three or
, tlie pori>oises
off with and
) their comfort
of a large dog
essed the two
these unwieldy
p of the water,
ess enemies by
bove its surface
■j of sport to the
nvenient handle
incessantly.

^vol. ix., p. 42)

jattered by a net
them. ... The
were secured. I
vid remembrance
luent visitants in
len watched for,
•e.

lal as any of the
1 quadrupeds his
elephant, and in
ihe ass. On the
[r two above that
[rous quadruped.
s remarkable, in
fa sudden trans-
mer.' The cele-
connection have
iuccess by many
id the ' method'
same. Theun-
aal has its fore-
\e and allowed tol

struggle for a while. It is then subjected to various
manipulations, which, without necessarily causing pain,
make the animal feel its helplessness and the mastery of
the operator. The extraordinary fact is that, after having
once felt this, the spirit or emotional life of the animal
undergoes a complete and sudden change, so that from
having been * wild ' it becomes ' tame.' In some cases
there are subsequent relapses, but these are easily
checked. Even the truly ' wild ' horse from the prairie
admits of being completely subdued in a marvellously
short time by the Gauchos, who employ an essentially
similar method, although the struggle is here much
more fierce and prolonged.^ The same may be said of
the taming of wild elephants, although in this case
the facts are not nearly so remarkable from a psycho-
logical point of view, seeing that the process of taming is
so much more slow.

Another curious emotional feature in the horse is the
Hability of all the other mental faculties of the animal
to become abandoned to that of terror. For I think I am
right in saying that the horse is the only animal which,
under the influence of fear, loses the possession of every
other sense in one mad and mastering desire to run.
With its entire mental life thus overwhelmed by the flood
of a single emotion, the horse not only loses, as other
animals lose, ' presence of mind,' or a due balance among
the distinctively intellectual faculties, but even the
avenues of special sense become stopped, so that the wholly
demented animal may run headlong and at terrific speed
against a stone wall. I have known a hare come to grief
in a somewhat similar fashion when hotly pursued by a
dog; this, however, was clearly owing to the hare looking
behind instead of before, in a manner not, under the cir-
cumstances, unwise ; but, as I have said, there is no animal
except the horse whose whole psychology is thus liable to
be completely dominated by a single emotion.

As for its other emotions, the horse is certainly an
I affectionate animal, pleased at being petted, jealous of

' See Mr. Dan\ in's account in Mtturalisfs Voyage round tlie World,
Ipp. 151-2.

■J-

330

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

m '!

companions receiving favour, greatly enjoying play with
others of its kind, and also the sport of the hunting-field.
Lastly, horses exhibit pride in a marked degree, as do also
mules. Such animals, when well kept, are unmistakably
pleased with gay trappings, so that ' in Spain, as a punish-
ment for disobedience, it is usual to strip the animal of its
gaudy coronal and bells, and to transfer them to another '
. (Thompson).

The memory of the horse is remarkably good, as
almost every one must have had occasion to observe who
has driven one over roads which the animal may have
only once traversed a long time before. As showing the
duration of memory I may quote the following letter to
Mr. Darwin from the Rev. Rowland H. Wedgwood, which
I find among the MSS. of the former : —

I want to tell you of an instance of long memory in a
horse. I have just driven my pony down from London here,
and though she has not been here for eight years, she re-
membered her way quite well, and made a bolt for the stables
where I used to keep her.

A few instances of the display of intelligence by
members of the horse tribe may bring this section to a
close.

Mr. W. J. Fleming writes me concerning a vicious horse
he had which, while being groomed, frequently used to
throw a ball of wood attached to his halter at the groom.
He did so by flexing his fetlock and jamming the ball
between the pastern and the leg, then throwing the bail
backwards * with great force.'

I myself had a horse which was very clever at slipping
his halter after he knew that the coachman was in bed.
He would then draw out the two sticks in the pipe of the
oat-bin, so as to let all the oats run down from the bin
above upon the stable floor. Of course he must have
observed that this was the manner in which the coachman i
obtained the oats, and desiring to obtain them, did what|
he had observed to be required. Similarly, on other oc-
casions he used to turn the water-tap to obtain a drink, |
and pull the window cord to open the window on hot nights.

HORSE.

331

ing play with
hunting-field,
xee, as do also
unmistakably
a, as a punish-
B animal of its
im to another '

:ably good, as
to observe who
nal may have
As showing the
►wing letter to
edgwood, which

ng memory in a
)m London here,
ht years, she re-
olt for the stables

intelligence by
this section to a

g a vicious horse
quently used to
er at the groom.
imming the ball
irowing the ball

3lever at slipping
man was in bed.
a the pipe of the
)wn from the bin
16 he must have
ich the coachman
Q them, did what
arly, onotheroc-j
io obtain a drinV,
dow on hot nights.

The anecdote books contain several stories very much
alike concerning horses spontaneously visiting blacksmiths'
shops when they require shoeing, or feel their shoes un-
comfortable. The appended account, vouched for as it is
by a good authority, maybe taken as corroborative of these
siories. I quote the account from * Nature '(May 19,
1881):—

The following instance of animal intelligence is sent to us
by Dr. John Rae, F.R.S., who states that the Mr. William
Sinclair mentioned is respectable and trustworthy. The anec-
dote is taken from the * Orkney Herald ' of May 11 :—*' A well-
authenticated and extraordinary case of the sagacity of the
Shetland pony has just come under our notice. A year or two
ago Mr. William Sinclair, pupil-teacher, Holm, imported one
of these little animals from Shetland on which to ride to and
from school, his residence being at a considerable distance from
the school buildings. Up to that time the animal had been
unshod, but some time afterwards Mr. Sinclair had it shod by
Mr. Pratt, the parish blacksmith. The other day Mr. Pratt,
whose smithy is a long distance from Mr. Sinclair's house, saw
the pony, without halter or anything upon it, walking up to
where he was working. Thinking the animal had strayed from
home, he drove it off, throwing stones after the beast to make
it run homewards. This had the desired effect for a short
time ; but Mr. Pratt had only got fairly at work once more
in the smithy when the pony's head again made its appearance
at the door. On proceeding a second time outside to drive the
pony away, Mr. Pratt, with a blacksmith's instinct, took a look
at the pony's feet, when he observed that one of its shoes had
been lost. Having made a shoe he put it on, and then waited
to see what the animal would do. For a moment it looked at
the blacksmith as if asking whether he was done, then pawed
once or twice to see if the newly-.shod foot was comfortable, and
finally gave a pleased neigh, erected its head, and started home-
wards at a brisk trot. The owner was also exceedingly sur-
prised to find the animal at home completely shod the same
evening, and it was only on calling at the smithy some days
afterwards that he learned the full extent of his pony's sagacity.

In * Nature,' also (vol. xx., p. 21), Mr. Olaypole, of An-
Itioch Cottage, Ohio, writes as follows : —

A friend of mine is employed on a farm near Toronto,
lOntario, where a horse, belonging to the wife of the farmer ia

332

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

never required to work, but is allowed to live the life of a
^'ontleman, for the followin*; reason. Some years ago the lady
above mentioned fell oft* a plank brid;,'o into a stream when tlie
water was deo[). The horse, which was feeding in a field close
by, ran to the spot, and held her up with his teetli till assist-
unco arrived, thus probably saving her life. Was this reason
or instinct 1 j\^

JNIr. Strickland, also writing to ' Nature ' (vol. xix.,
p. 410), says: —

A mai'e hero had her first foal when she was ten or twelve
years old. She was blind of one eye. The result was, she
frequently trod upon the foal or knocked it over when it haj)-
j>enod to be on the blind side of her, in consequence of which
the foal died when it was three or four months old. The next
year she had another foal, and we fully expected the result
would be the same. But no ; from the day it was born she
never moved in the stall without looking round to see where
the foal was, and she never trod upon it or injured it in any
way. You see that reason did not teach her that she was killin|»
her first foal ; her care for the second was the result of memory,
imagination, and thought after the foal was dead, and before the
next one was born. The only difierence that I can see between
the reasoning power of men and animals is that the latter is
applied only to the very limited space of providing for their
bodily wants, whei-eas that of men embraces a vast amount of
other objects besides this.

- Houzeau (vol. ii., p. 207) says that the mules used in
the tramways at New Orleans prove that they are able to
count five ; for they have to make five journeys from one
end of the tramway to the other before they are released,
and they make four of these journeys without showing
that they expect to be released, but bray at the end of |
the fifth. This observation, however, requires to be con-
firmed, for unless carefully made we must suppose that {
the fact may be due to the mules seeing the ostler wait-
ing to take them out.

Mr. Samuel Groodbehere, solicitor, writes me from I
Birmingham the following instance as having fallen under]
his own observation : —

We had a Welsh cob pony or Galloway about 14 hands
high, who was occasionally kept in a shed (in a farmyard),!

HORSE AND ASS.

33:1

the life of a
ago tho lady
cam when the
11 a field close
jetli till asHist-
as this reason

J\
•e ' (vol. xix.,

s ten or twelve
■esult was, she
sr when it liap-
uenco of which
old. The next
cted the result
i was born she
d to see where
njured it in any
t she was killing
5sult of memory,
,d, and before the
can see between
lat the latter is
ividing for their
\ vast amount of

mules used in
hey are able to
irneys from one
ey are released,
ithout showing
y at the end of I
aires to be con-
.„ suppose that
the ostler wait-

j^rites me from I
ring fallen under

■ about 14 hands
(in a farmyard),

partly closed at tho front by a gate which was sccurt'd by a \\o\t
inside and a drop latcli outside. The pony (who was able to put
liishead and neck over tho gato, but could not roach tho outside
latch) was constantly found loose in the yard, winch was con-
sidered quite a mystery \intil it was solved one day by my
observing the pony first pusliing back tho insido bolt, and then
neighing until a donkey, who had tho run of the yard and an
adjoining paddock, came aTul pushed up tho outsitlc latch with
his nose, thus letting tho pony at liberty, when the two
marched off together.

The following is the only instance that I have met
with in any of the horse tribe of that degree of sagacity
which leads to the intentional concealment of wrong-
doing. In the case of elephants, dogs, and monkeys we
tind abundant evidence on this head, which therefore
renders the following instance more antecedently credible,
and, as it is also narrated on good authority, I do not
hesitate to quote it.

Professor Niphon, of Washington University, St. Louis,
U.S., says : —

A friend of mine living at Iowa City had a mule, whose
ingenuity in getting into mischief was more than ordinarily
remarkable. This animal had a great liking for tho company
of an oat-bin, and lost no opportunity, when the yard gate and
barn door were open, to secure a mouthful of oats. Finally the
mule was found in the barn in the morning, and for a long time
it was found impossible to discover how he had come there.
This went on for some time, until the animal was * caught in the
act.' It was found that he had learned how to open the gate,
reaching over the fence to lift the latch, and that he then
effectually mystified his masters by turning i-ound and backing
against it until it was latched. He then proceeded to the barn
door, and pulling out the pin which held the door, it swung
open of its own accord. From the intelligence which this
animal displayed on many occasions, I am of the opinion tliat
had not discovery of his trick prevented, it would soon have
occurred to him to retrace his steps before daylight, in order to
avoid the clubbing which the stable boys gave him .in the
morning. It may be added that this animal had enjoyed no
uuusiial educational advantages, and his owners found it to their
interest to discoiu'age his intellectual efforts as much as possible.'

^aturef\o\. xx., p. 21.

S34

ANIMAX INTELLIGENCE.

1/ I

l^'^.

I IS

Ruminants,

Concerning sympathy, Major-General Sir George Le
Grand Jacob, C.B., &c., writes me of instances which he
observed of doe ibexes raising with their heads the bucks
which he shot, and supporting them during flight.

A vivid and intelligent class of emotions, in which
sympathy and rational fear are blended, seem to be ex-
hibited by cattle in slaughterhouses. Many years ago a
pamphlet was written upon the subject, and more recently
Mr. Robert Hamilton, F.C.S., without apparently knowing
of this previous publication, wrote another pamphlet, con-
veying precisely similar statements. These are too long
to quote in extenso ; but from a letter which the latter
gentleman writes to me I may make the following ex-
tract : —

The animal witnessing the process of killing, flaying, &c.,
repeated on one after another of its fellows, gets to comprehend
to the full extent the dreadful ordeal, and as it mentally grasps
the meaning of it all, the increasing horror depicted in its con-
dition can be clearly seen. Of course some portray it much
more vividly than others ; the varying intelligence manifested in
this respect is only another link which knits them in oneness
with the human family.

Pride is well marked in sheep and cattle, as shown by
the depressing effects produced on a 'bell-wether' or
leading cow by transferring the bell to another member of
the herd ; and it is said that in Switzerland the beasts
which on show days are provided with garlands, are
evidently aware of the distinction thus placed upon them.
With some amount of poetic exaggerate* on this fact is
noted by Schiller, who says in ' Wilhelm Tell,' —

See with what pride your steer his garland wears ;
He knows himself the leader of the herd ;
. But strip him of it, and he'd die of grjef.

J With regard to the general intelligence of ruminants |

I maj first quote the following : —

The sagacity with which the bisons defend themselves I

BISON AND BUFFALO.

335

r George Le
Lces which he
,ds the hueks
flight.

»ns, in which
Jem to be ex-
j years ago a
more recently
ently knowing
)amphlet, con-
36 are too long
bich the latter
following ex-

ing, flaying, &c.,
a to comprehend
, mentally grasps
picted in its con-
portray it much
ce manifested in
them in oneness

^le, as shown by
jell-wether' or
Ither member of
[land the beasts
garlands, are
Lced upon them.
ion this fact is
'eli;—

lland wears ;
3rd;
Kef.

Ice of ruminants I
lefend themselves!

against the attack of wolves is admirable. When they scent
the approach of a drove of these ravenous creatures, the herd
throws itself into the form of a circle, having the weakest and
the calves in the middle, and the strongest ranged on the outside ;
thus presenting an impenetrable front of horns. ^

The buffalo of the Old World manifests sagacity very
similar. As Sir J. E. Tennent informs us, —

The temper of the wild buffalo is morose and uncertain ; and
such is its strength and courage, that in the Hindu epic of the
' Ramayana ' its onslaught is compared with that of the tiger.
It is never quite safe to approach them if disturbed in their
pasture, or alarmed from their repose in the shallow lakes. On
such occasions they hurry into line, draw up in defensive array,
with a few of the oldest bulls in advance \ and, wheeling in
circles, their horns clashing with a loud sound as they clank
them together in their rapid evolutions, they prepare for attack :
but generally, after a menacing display, the herd betake them-
selves to flight ] then forming again at a safer distance, they
halt as before, elevating their nostrils, and throwing back their
heads to take a defiant survey of the intruders.^

When tamed this animal is used for sporting purposes
in a manner which displays the spirit of curiosity of deer,
hogs, and other animals. Thus, Sir J. E. Tennent con-
tinues : —

A bell is attached to its neck, and a box or basket with
one side open is securely strapped on its back. This at night is
Hghted with flambeaux of wax, and the buffalo bearing it is
slowly driven into the jungle. The huntsmen with their
fowling-pieces keep close under the darkened side, and as it
moves slowly onwards, the wild animals, startled by the sound
and bewildered by the light, steal cautiously towards it in
stupefied fascination. Even the snake, I am assured, will be
attracted by this extraordinary object ; and the leopard, too, falls
a victim to curiosity.^

Livingstone says of the African buffalo, that he has
known the animal, when pursued by hunters, to ' turn
back to a point a few yards from its own trail, and then
I lie down in a hollow for the hunter to come up,' — a fact

• Thompson, Passions of Animals, p. 308

* Natural History of Ceylon, p. 54.
» lUd., p. 56.

336

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

, I

which displays a level of intelligence in this animal sur-
passing that which is met with in ijiost Carnivora.^
Livingstone also says : —

It is curious to observe the intelligence of game ; in districts
where they are much annoyed by fire-arms they keep out on
the most open spots of country they can find, in order to have
a widely extended range of vision, and a man armed is carefully
shunned. . . . But here, where they are killed by the arrows
of the Balonda, they select for safety the densest forest, where
the arrow cannot be easily shot.^

Jesse, who had many opportunities of observing the
fact, says : —

I have been much delighted with watching the manner in
which some of the old bucks in Bushey Park continue to get tlie
berries from the fine thorn trees there. They will raise them-
selves on their hind legs, give a spring, entangle their horns in
the lower branches of the tree, give them one or two shakes
and they will then quietly pick them up.^

The same author elsewhere says : —

Few things, indeed, can show more forcibly the powerful
instinct which is implanted in animals for their self-preservation
than the means which they take to avoid danger. I saw an
instance of this lately in a stag. It had been turned out before
a pack of hounds, and, when somewhat pressed by them, I ol)-
served it twice to go amongst a flock of sheep, and in both cases
to double back, evidently, I should imagine, with the intention
of baffling the pursuit of the dogs. It would thus seem that
the animal was aware of its being followed by the scent, and
not by sight. If this be the case, it .affords another proof that
animals are possessed of something more than common instinct,'

This author also says that he has ' frequently observed
the buffalo at the Zoological Farm on Kingston Hill 'I
display the following proof of intelligence. Being of a
ferocious disposition, a strong iron ring was fixed through
the septum of his nose, to which a chain about two feet
long was attached. At the free end of the chain there
was another ring about four inches in diameter. 'In I
grazing the buffalo must have put his feet on this ring,.

and i]

consid

the se:

avoid

do this

one sid

shaking

horn.' '

Th€

(p. 366

own ol

we shalj

display

Agoj

and were
would ha
at the ha
tte food I
bj the tw
and, to on

' the trades
the railim
was there]

I towards tl
rung

I TOs seen

I This is toe

P. Wg

• Missionary Travels, p. 328.
' Gleanings, &c., vol. i., p. 20.

" 7J«W, p. 280.

* Ibid., vol. ii., p. 20.

GOATS.

337

animal siir-
vora.^

e ; in districts
^ keep out on
L order to liave
ned is carefully
by tlie arrows
3t forest, where

observing the

y the manner in
^inue to get tlie
will raise them-
le their horns in
e or two shakes,

bly the powerful
. self-preservation
anger. I saw an
turned out before
,d by them, I ob-
and in both cases
dth the intention
i thus seem that
by the scent, and
nother proof that
common instinct.'

^uently observed
Kingston Hill'
ice. Being of a
as feed through
n about two feet
the chain there
, diameter. 'I^i
feet on this ring,

and in raising his head the jerk would have produced
considerable pain. In order to avoid this the animal has
the sense to put his horn through the lower ring, and thus
avoid the inconvenience he is put to. I have seen him
do this in a very deliberate manner, putting his head on
one side while he got his horn through the ring, and .then
shaking his head till the ring rested at the bottom of the

horn.' '

The following is quoted from Mrs. Lee's * Anecdotes '
(p. 366), and is rendered credible not only because her
own observations are generally good, but also because
we shall subsequently find unquestional3le evidence of the
display of similar intelligence by cats : —

A goat and her kids frequented a square in which I once lived,
and were often fed by myself and servants — a circumstance which
would have made no impression, had I not heard a thumping
at the hall door, which arose from the buttings of the goat when
the food was not forthcoming, and whose example was followed
by the two little things. After a time this remained unheeded,
and, to our great astonishment, one day the area bell used by
the tradespeople, the wire of which passed by the side of one of
the railings, was sounded. The cook answered it, but no one
was there save the goat and kids, with their heads bent down
towards the kitchen window. It was thought that some boy
had rung for them ; but they were watched, and the old goat
ffas seen to hook one of her horns into the wire and pull it.
This is too much like reason to be ascribed to mere instinct.

P. Wakefield, in his ' Instinct Displayed,' ^ gives two

[separate cases of an intelKgent manoeuvre performed by

Igoats. On both occasions two goats met on a ridge of

[rock with a precipice on each side, and too narrow to

lit of their passing one another. One of these cases

ccurred on the ramparts of Plymouth Citadel, and was

ritnessed by * many persons ; ' the other took place at

rdenglass, in Ireland. * In both these instances the

|inimals looked at each other for some time, as if they

pere considering their situation, and deliberating what

m best to be done in the emergency.' In each case one

|fthe goats then 'knelt down with great caution, and

id., vol. 11., p. 20.

IMd., pp. 226-7.

2 Pp. 66 and 97.

338

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

li'l !

crouched as close as it could lie, when the other walked
over its back.' This manoeuvre on the part of goats has
also been recorded by other writers, and is not so incre-
dible as it may at first sight appear, if we remember that
in their wild state these animals must not unfrequently
find .themselves in this predicament.

Mr. W. Forster, writing from Australia, gives me the
following account of the intelligence of a bull : —

A rather tame bull, bred of a milch cow, used to puzzle me
by being found inside a paddock used for cultivation, and en-
closed by a two-railed fence, of which the lower rail was unu-
sually high. At last I saw the animal lie down close to the
fence, and roll over on his back, with four legs in the air, by
which proceeding he was inside the paddock. I never knew
another beast perform this feat; and although it must have been
often done in the presence of a number of cows, not one of them
ever imitated it, though they would all have unquestionably |
followed the bull through an opening in the fence, or by the I
slip- rails.

Mr. Gr. S. Erb, writing from Salt Lake City, gives me I
an interesting accoimt of the sagacity displayed by the wild
deer of the United States in avoiding gun-traps, which,
except for the cutting of the string, to which the teeth ofl
the animal are not so well adapted, is strikingly similar!
to the sagacity which we shall see to be displayed in thisj
respect by sundry species of Carnivora. He says : —

My method was this : I would fell or cut down a maple tree,]
the top of which they are very partial to ; and as the ground
was invariably covered with snow to )he depth of 12 inches j
food was scarce, and tlie deer would come and browse, probably
from hearing the tree fall. I would place a loaded gun 20 feej
from the top of the tree at which it was pointing ; I would
attach a line the size of an ordinary fish-line to a lever tbaj
pressed against the trigger ; the other end of the line I woulij
fasten to the tree-top. By this means the deer could not pas
between the tree and the gun without getting shot, or at leas]
shot at ; but I never succeeded in k'lling one when my line m
as large as a fish-line, i.e. about one-sixteenth of an inch in thick
ness. Commencing at the body of the tree on one side, the deej
would eat all the tops to within 12 inches of the line, and the/
go around the gun and eat all on the other side, never touchinj

the line
result,
culty in
could n

The

iiitellig(

intellige

'learned

marvellc

and fast

the cat.

state sho

t'O-operat

! just seen

although

more orgs

Wild s

Dion. Gree

! with a lara

formec

[ones placed

_ one, a

|wolf was d

almost

[i wlf, wh]

le says thi

ito a wed^

3ting thi

pn to the

ieysurrou

leously,

down

In Bini
152) there
'ir Ifenry
"le Toom«
'orest, and)
'JQt game!

PIGS.

339

other walked

of goats has

not so incre-

jmember that

unfrequently

gives me the
11 :—

;ed to puzzle me
ivation, and en-
er rail was iinu-
jfxi close to tlie
pg in the air, by
' I never knew
b must have been '

not one of them
3 unquestionably!

fence, or by the |

the line. I tried this at least sixty times, always with the same
result. Then I took a black linen thread, and had no diffi-
culty in killing them, as it was so small and black that they
could not distinguish it.

Pigs.

There can be no doubt that pigs exhibit a degree of
intelligence which falls short only of that of the most
intelligent Camivora. The tricks taught the so-called
'learned pigs ' would alone suffice to show this ; while the
marvellous skill with which swine sometimes open latches
and fastenings of gates, &c., is only equalled by that of
the cat. The following account of pigs in their wild
state shows that they manifest the same kind of sagacious
co-operation in facing an enemy as that which we have
1 just seen to be manifested by the bison and the buffalo,
1 although here it seems to be displayed in a manner still
I more organised : —

Wild swine associate in herds and defend themselves in com-

I mon. Green relates that in the wilds of Vermont a person fell in

with a large herd in a state of extraordinary restlessness ; they

liad formed a circle with their heads outwards, and the young

3S placed in the middle. A wolf was using every artifice to

L^^ix^ — , Hsnap one, and on his return he found the herd scattered, but the

,rikingly similaiM^Qjf ^^^g ^q^^ a^^^j completely ripped up. Schmarda recounts

,e City, gives me I
ayedbythewild
un-traps, which,
Lich the teeth of

[displayed in tbisl

'e says :
[own a maple tree,
Ind aa the groum
Ipth of 12 inches,
1 browse, probabb
Loaded gun 20 feel
pointing ; I wotI'
.e to a lever thai
[f the line I wouli
[eer could not pas
shot, or at leasl
when my line yi

an almost similar encounter between a herd of tame swine and

|a¥olf, which he witnessed on the military positions of Croatia.

le says that the swine, seeing two wolves, formed themselves

iito a wedge, and approached the wolves slowly, grunting and

cting their bristles. One wolf fled, but the other leaped

b to the trunk of a tree. As soon as the swine reached it

key surrounded it with one accord, when, suddenly and instan-

aeously, as the wolf attempted to leap over them, they got

down and destroyed him in a moment.*

In Bingley's ' Memoirs of British Quadrupeds ' (page
52) there is an account drawn up at his request by
lir Henry Mildmay, concerning the docility of the pig.

• h ' thiclrf® Toomer brothers were King's keepers in the New

of aninc ^^^^ ^^Morest, and they conceived the idea of training a sow to
th^^line 'and theBomt game. This they succeeded in doing within a fort-
ide, never touchinj , Thompson, Passions of Animals, p 308.

z 2

340

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

-^''l [

•I

night, and in a few more weeks it also learnt to retrieve.
Her scent was exceedingly good, and she stood well at par-
tridges, black game, pheasants, snipes, and rabbits, but
never pointed hares. She was more useful than a do?
and afterwards became the property of Sir Henry MM.
may. According to Youatt,^ Colonel Thornton also had a
sow similarly trained. The same author says 'that a sow
belonging to Mr. Craven had a litter of pigs, one of which
when old enough, was taken and roasted, then a second
and a third. These were necessarily taken when the
mother returned in the evening from the woods for supper.
But the next time she came she was alone, and, * as her I
owners were anxious to know what was become of her I
brood, she was watched on the following evening, andl
observed driving back her pigs at the extremity of the|
wood, with much earnest grunting, while she went off tc
the house, leaving them to wait for her return. It wagi
evident that she had noticed the diminution of her familyj
and had adopted this method to save those that re|
mained.' ^

Mr. Stephen Harding sends me the following as ad
observation of his own : —

On the 15th ult. (Nov. 1879) I saw an intelligent sow m
about twelve months old, running in an orchard, going to a yoi]
apple tree and shaking it, pricking up her ears at the saii
time, as if to listen to hear the apples fall. She then picks
the apples up and ate them. After they were all down s\
shook the tree again and listened, but as there were no moij
to fall she went away.

The proverbial indiflference to dirt attributed to tli
pig seems scarcely to be justified ; the worst that can
said is that the animal prefers cool mud to dry heat, an
the filth which swine often exhibit in their sty istlj
fault of the farmers rather than of the animals,
to quote from Thompson's * Passions,' —

A washed sow in the hot season of our temperate climalj
and in almost every season of such a climate as that of Palj
tine, * returns to her wallowing in the mire ' simply becaij
she feels scorched, and blistered, and sickened under the ardej

' On the Pig, p. 17. « Ibid.

BATS.— SEALS.

341

Qt to retrieve.
3d well at par-
d rabbits, but
.1 than a dog,
r Henry !Mild-
iton also bad a
,ays tbat a sow
8, one of which,
, then a second
aken when tk!
oods for supper. I
16, and, * as her I
become of herl
Lg evening, aiidl
jxtremity of the]
she "went off tor
return. It waal
Lon of ber family]
) tbose that rej

J following as aij

intelligent sow pi|

rdjgoingtoayor

ears at the sa

She then pickej

•were all down sb

:here werenomoij

attributed to tb
I worst tbat can 1
to dry beat, an
^ their sty ist^
[tbe animals.

.- temperate climaj
[te as that of Palj
aire' simply hecai^
[led under the ard<j

2 Ibid,

sunshine ; and hence, when she receives from man the aid which
is due to her as a domesticated animal, she demands not dirt
all the year through, nor any day at all, but shade in summer,
shelter in winter, and a clean, dry bed in every sejison.

Cheiroptera.

Mr. Bates says of bats : * The fact of their sucking the
blood of persons sleeping is now -^ell established ; but it
is only a few persons who are subject to this bloodletting.
... I am inclined to think many different kinds of
bats have this propensity' ('Nat. on Amaz.,' p. 91).
The particular species of bat, however, which has been
most universally accredited with this habit, viz., the vam-
pire, is perfectly harmless.

Mr. Gr. Clark (* A Brief Notice of the Fauna of
Mauritius') gives an account of the intelligence dis-
played by a tame bat {Pteropus vulgaris). As soon as its
1 master came into the room, it welcomed him with cries ;
if not at once taken up to be petted, it climbed up
I his dress, rubbed its head against him, and licked his hands.
If Mr. Clark took anything in his hand, the bat would care-
folly examine it by sight and smell, and when he sat down
the bat would hang upon the back of his chair, following
[all his movements with its eyes.

Gamivora.

I shall here run together a few facts relating to the
lintelligence of carnivorous animals other than those to be
Considered in subsequent chapters.

Seals, — In their wild state these animals have not
ttuch opportunity for the display of intelligence; but
ifhen tamed it is seen that the latter is considerable.
by are then affectionate animals, liking to be petted,
bd showing attachment to their homes. The most
jpmarkable species of the order from a psychological point
\i view are the so-called Pinnipeds, whose habits during
he breeding season are so peculiar that I think it is
^orth while to quote the best account that has hitherto

342

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

been published on the subject. This is the elaborate
work of Mr. Joel Asaph Allen : * —

From the time of the first arrivals in May up to the Ist of
June, as late as the middle of this month if the weather be
clear, is an interval in which everything seems quiet ; very few
seals are added to the pioneers. By the 1st of June, however or
thereabouts, the foggy, humid weather of summer sets in, and
with it the bull-seals come up by hundreds and thousands, and
locate themselves in advantageous positions for the reception
of the females, which are from three weeks to a month later
as a rule. The labour of locating and maintaiuing a position
in the rookery is really a serious business for those bulls which
come in last, and for those that occupy the water-line, frequently
resulting in death from severe wounds in combat sustained. It I
appears to be a well- understood principle among the able-bodied |
bulls that each one shall remain undisturbed on his ground
which is usually about ten feet square, provided he is strong]
enough to hold it against all comers j for the crowding in of fresh (
bulls often causes the removal of those who, though equally able-
bodied at first, have exhausted themselves by fighting earlier,!
and are driven by the fresher animals back further and higher!
up on the rookery. Some of these bulls show wonderful I
strength and courage. I have marked one veteran, who was!
among the first to take up his position, and that One on the!
water-line, when at least fifty or sixty desperate battles were!
fought victoriously by him with nearly as many different seals!
who coveted his position ; and when the fighting season was!
over (after the cows have mostly all hauled up) I saw himl
covered with scars and gashes, raw and bloody, an eye gougcdl
out, but holding it bravely over his harem of fifteen or twentyf
cows, all huddled together on the same spot he had first chosenj
The fighting is mostly or entirely done with the mouth, the
opponents seizing each other with the teeth and clenching
the jaws; nothing but sheer, strength can shake them loose, and
that effort almost always leaves an ugly wound, the sharp canine
tearing out deep gutters in the skin and blubber, or shredding
the flippers into ribbon-strips. They usually approach eacb
other with averted heads and a great many false passes beford
either one or the other takes the initiative by gripping ; m
heads are darted out and back as quick as flash, their hoarsi
roaring and shrill piping whistle never ceases, while their faj

> History of the North America/n Pimnpeds. The quotations
taken from pp. 348 to 361.

SEALS.

343

the elaborate

The quotations ari

bodies writho and swell with exertion and rage, fur flying in air
and blood streaming down — all combined make a picture fierce
and savage enough, and, from its great novelty, exceedingly
strange at first sight. In these battles the parties are always
distinct, the offensive and the defensive; if the latter proves the
weaker he withdraws from the position occupied, and is never
followed by his conqueror, who complacently throws up one of
his hind flippers, fans himself, as it were, to cool himself from
the heat of the conflict, uttering a peculiar chuckle of satisfac-
tion and contempt, with a sharp eye open for the next covetous
bull or * sea-catch ' (native name for the bulls on the rookeries,
especially those which are able to maintain their position).

« 4K * iK 4» ♦ 4|f

All the bulls, from the very first, that have been able to hold
their positions have not left them for an instant, night or day ;
nor do they do so until the end of the rutting season, which
subsides entirely between the 1st and 10th of August, beginning
shortly after the coming of the cows in June. Of necessity,
therefore, this causes them to fast, to abstain entirely from food
of any kind, or water for at least three months ; and a few of
them stay four months before going into the water for the first
time after hauling up in May. This alone is remarkable
enough, but it is simply wonderful when we come to associate
the condition with unceasing activity, restlessness, and duty de-
volved upon the bulls as heads and fathers of large families.
They do not stagnate like bears in caves; it is evidently
accomplished or due to the absorption of their own fat, with
which they are so liberally supplied when they take their posi-
tions on the breeding-ground, and which gradually diminishes
1 while they remain on it.

^r ^F '^ ^^ ^w ^w ^w

They are noticed and received by the bulls on the water-line
[station with much attention; they are alternately coaxed and

urged up on the rocks, and are immediately under the most
ous supervision ; but owing to the covetous and ambitious
[nature of the bulls which occupy the stations reaching some way

back from the water-line, the little cows have a rough-and-
I tumble time of it when they begin to arrive in small numbers
I at first; for no sooner is the pretty animal fairly established on
Ithe station of bull No. 1 who has installed her there, than he
jperhaps sees another one of her style down in the water from
Khich she has just come, and in obedience to his polygamous
Ifteling, he devotes himself anew to coaxing the later amval in
[the same winning manner so successful in her case, when bull

344

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

No. 2, seeing bull No. 1 off his guard, reaches out his
long strong neck, and picks the unhappy but passive creature
up by the scruff of hers, just as a cat does a kitten, and deposits
her on his seraglio-ground; then bulls Nos. 3, 4, 5, and
so on in the vicinity, seeing this high-handed operation, all assail
one another, and especially bull No. 2, and have a tremen-
dous fight perhaps for half a minute or so ; and during this
commotion the cow is generally moved or moves farther back
from the water two or three stations more, where, when all gets
quiet, she usually remains in peace. Her late lord and master, not
having the exposure to such diverting temptation as had her
first, gives her such care that she not only is unable to leave
did she wish, but no other bull can seize upon her. This is only
one instance of the many different trials and tribulations which
both parties on the rookery subject themselves to before the
harems are fiiUed. Far back, fifteen or twenty stations deep
from the water-line sometimes, but generally not more than, on
an average, ten or fifteen, the cows ci'owd in at the close of the
season for arriving, July 10 to 14, and then they are able
to go about pretty much as they please, for the bulls have
become greatly enfeebled by this constant fighting and excite-
ment during the past two months, and are quite content with
even only one or two partners.

I have found it diflScult to ascertain the average number of
cows to one bull on the rookery, but I think it will be nearly
correct to assign to each male from twelve to fifteen females
occupying the stations nearest the water, those back in the rear
from five to nine. I have counted forty-five cows all under the
charge of one bull, which had them penned up on a flat table- 1
rock near Kestaire Point ; the bull was enabled to do this quite
easily, as there was but one way to go to or come from this
seraglio, and on this path the old Turk took his stand and
guarded it well. At the rear of all these rookeries there is
always a large number of able-bodied bulls, who wait patiently,
but in vain, for families, most of them having had to fight as
desperately for the privilege of being there as any of their more
fortunately located neighbours, who are nearer the water than
themselves; but the cows do not like to be in any outside
position, when they are not in close company lying most quiet
and content in the largest harems; and these large families pack I
the surface of the ground so thickly that there is hardly moving!
or turning room until the females cease to come up from the sea; I
but the inaction on the part of the bulls in the rear during the I

SEALS.

345

fiches out his
isaive creature
n, and deposits
3, 4, 5, and
ration, all assail
ave a tremen-
nd during this
rea farther back
e, when all gets
i and master, not
ition as had her
unable to leave
ler. This is only
ibulations which
es to before the
by stations deep
ot more than, on
b the close of the
m they are able
r the bulls have
iting and excite-
uite content with

verage number of
it will be nearly
to fifteen females
B back in the rear
!OWS all under the
ip on a flat table-
id to do this quite
r come from this
ok his stand and
rookeries there is
10 wait patiently,
nghad to fight as |

any of their more
•er the water than
in any outside I
lying most quiet
arge families pack

e is hardly moving
e up from the sea ;l
he rear during the

rutting season only serves to qualify them to move into the places
vacated by those males who are obliged to lejive fi*om exhaus-
tion, or to take the position of fearless and jealous protectors for
the young pups in the fall. The courage with which the fur-
seal holds his position as the head and guardian of a family ia
of the very highest order compared with that of other animals. I
have repeatedly tried to drive them when they have fairly estab-
lished themselves, and have almost always failed, using every
stone at my command, making all the noise I could, and finally,
to put their courage to the full test, I walked up to within twenty
feet of a bull at the rear and extreme end of Tolstoi Rookery,
who had four cows in charge, and commenced with my double-
ban-elled breech-loading shot-gun to pepi)er him all over with
mustard-seed or dust-shot. His bearing in spite of the noise,
smell of powder, and pain, did not change in the least from the
usual attitude of determined defence which nearly all the bulls
assume when attacked with showers of stones and noise; he
would dart out right and left and catch the cows which timidly
attempted to run after each report, fling and drag them back
to their places ; then, stretching up to his full height, look me
directly and defiantly in the face, roaring and spitting most
vehemently. The cows, however, soon got away from him, but
he still stood his ground, making little charges on me of ten or
fifteen feet in a succession of gallops or lunges, spitting furiously
and then retreating to the old position, back of which he would
not go, fully resolved to hold his own or die in the attempt.

This courage is all the more noteworthy from the fact that,
in regard to man, it is invariably of a defensive character. The
seal, if it makes you turn when you attack it, never follows
you much farther than the boundary of its station, and no aggra-
vation will compel it to become offensive, as far as I have been
able to observe.

The apathy with which the young are treated by the old on

the breeding-grounds is somewhat strange. I have never seen

a cow caress or fondle her offspring, and should it stray but a

short distance from the harem, it can be picked up and killed

before the mother's eyes, without ca.using her to show the

slightest concern. The same indifference is exhibited by the

lyi to all that takes place outside of the boundary of his

Iseraglio. While the pups are, however, within the limits of his

Iharem-grourid he is a jealous and fearless protector ; but if the

llittle animals pass beyond this boundary, then they may be

346

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

oarried off without the slightost attention in their behalf from
their guardian.

« ' • • • « *

Early in August (8th) the pupa that are nearest the water on
the rookeries essay swimming, but make slow and clumsy pro.
gress, floundering about, when over head in depth, in the most
awkward manner, thrashing the water with their fore-flippers
not using the hinder ones. In a few seconds, or a minute at the
most, the youngost is so wary that he crawls out upon the rocks
or beach, and immediately takes a recuperative nap, repeating
the lesson as quick as he awakes and is rested. They soon get
familiar with the water and delight in it, swimming in endless
evolutions, twisting, turning, diving ; and when exhausted, they
draw up on the beach again, shake themselves as young do^s
do, either going to sleep on the spot, or having a lazy frolic
among themselves.

In this matter of learning to swim, I have not seen any
* driving ' of the young pups into the water by the old in order
to teach them this process, as has been affirmed by writers on
the subject of seal life.

Otter, — The fact that otters admit of being taught to
catch fish and bring them to their masters, shows no
small degree of docility on the part of these animals. < I
have seen,' says Dr. Groldsmith, * an otter go to a gentle-
man's pond at word of command, drive the fish into a
corner, and, seizing upon the largest of the whole, bring
it off in his mouth to his master.* And several other cases
of the same kind are given by Bingley.*

Weasel. — * Mdlle. de Faister described her tame weasel
to Buffon as playing with her fingers like a kitten, jump-
ing on her head and neck ; and if she presented her hands
at the distance of three feet, it jumped into them without
ever missing. It distinguished her voice amidst twenty
people, and sprang over everybody to get at her. She found
it impossible to open a drawer or a box, or even to look
at a paper, without his examining it also. If she took up
a paper or book, and looked attentively at it, the weasel
immediately ran upon her hand, and surveyed with an in-
quisitive air whatever she happened to hold.' ^ |

' Animal Biography, vol. iii., pp. 301-2.
' Thompson, Passions in Animals, p. 337.

CARNIVORA.

347

r behalf from

; the water on
I clumsy pro-
i, in the most
ir fore-flippers,
L minute at the
upon the rocks
nap, repeating
They soon get
ning in endless
axhausted, they
as young dojjs
i<r a lazy frolic

e not seen any
the old in order
)d by writers on

)eing taught to
Lers, shows no
36 animals. ' I
go to a gentle-
he fish into a
e whole, bring
eral other cases

ler tame weasel
i kitten, jump-
ented her hands
[o them without
amidst twenty
,her. She found
or even to look
If she took up
it it, the weasel I
[eyed with an in-

1-2.
1337.

Polecat. — Professor Alison, in his article on * Instinct,'
in Todd's * Cyclopasdia of Anatomy,' quotes the following ac-
count from the * Magazine of Natural History ' (vol. iv., p.
206) touching a remarka ble instinct manifested by polecats.
' I dug out five young polecats, comfortably embedded in
dry, withered grass ; and in a side hole, of proper dimen-
sions for such a larder, I picked out forty large frogs and
two toads, all alive, but merely capable of sprawling a little.
On examination, I found that the whole number, toads and
all, had been purposely and dexterously bitten through the
brain.' The analogy of this instinct to that which has
already been mentioned as having been much more re-
cently observed by M. Fabre in the sphex insect is
noteworthy.

Ferret. — I once kept a ferret as a domestic pet. He
was a very large specimen, and my sister taught him a
number of tricks, such as begging for food (which he did
quite as well and patiently as any terrier), leaping over
sticks, &c. He became a very affectionate animal, delight-
ing much in being petted, and following like a dog when
taken out for walk. He would, however, only follow those
persons whom he well knew. That his memory was ex-
ceedingly good was shown by the fact that after an ab-
sence of many months, during which he was never required
to beg, or to perform any of his tricks, he went through all
his paces perfectly the first time that we again tried him.
I strongly suspect that ferrets dream, as I have fre-
quently seen them when fast asleep moving their noses and
twitching their claws as if in pursuit of rabbits. Another
fact I may mention as bearing on the intelligence of these
animals. On one occasion, while ferreting rabbits, I lost
the ferret about a mile away from home. Some days
afterwards the animal returned to his home. Similar cases
have been communicated to me by several sporting friends,
but certainly the return of a ferret under such circum-
stances is the exception, and not the rule".

Wolverine. — Amazing tales are told concerning the
intelligence of this animal, which for the most part are
certainly exaggerations. Still there is no doubt that the
creature does display a degree of sagacious cunning unsur-

^ I

■' ■' ■ '^.*a''

348

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

passed, if not unequalled, in the animal kingdom. This
may be shown by the two following quotations from the
statements of trustworthy writers. The first is a letter
kindly sent me by Dr. J. Eae, F.R.S., in reply to my
request for information concerning the intelligence of this
animal : —

The narratives of most travellers in America tell wonderful
stories of the glutton or wolverine, but I do not know that any
of my experiences of this extremely acute animal indicate what
I call reasoning powers. They are very suspicious, and can
seldom or liever be taken with poisoned bait, trap, or gun. The
poisoned baits are usually found broken up, but not eaten by
them ; traps are destroyed or entered, but not where the trapper
desired; and guns, except when concealed after the Eskimo
fashion by a covering of snow, are avoided.

In 1853, on the Arctic coast, when about to change our
domicile from a tent to the warmer snow hut, my man had
carried over about 100 lbs. or more of fine venison steaks to
the snow houses about a quarter of a mile from our tents ; and
as there were at the time no traces either of foxes, wolves, or
wolverines about, the meat was placed overnight in one of the
huts, and the door left open. During the night two wolverines
came, but, evidently dreading some trap or danger in the open
door, would not enter that way, but cut a hole for themselves
through the wall of the snow hut, and carried off all our fine
steaks, a considerable quantity of which was picked up close
to our house when the thaw took place in the spring, it having
been hid in the snow, but completely spoilt for use, by a well-
known filthy habit.

Dr. Rae has also drawn my attention to the following
account contained in the JNIiscellaneous Publications of the
Geological Survey of the United States.^ The writer of
this account is Captain Elliot Cones:—

To the trapper the wolverines are equally annoying. When
they have discovered a line of marten traps they will never
abandon the road, and must be killed before the trapping can
be successfully oi.rned on. Beginning at one end, they proceed
from trap to trap along the whole line, pulling them succes-
sively to pieces, and taking out the baits from behind. When
they can eat no more, they continue to steal the baits and cache

> Vol. viii., Washington, 1877 : 'A Monograph of the North Ameri-
can Mvtstelidce.''

WOLVERINE.

349

iom. This
s from the
is a letter
Bply to my
ence of this

ell wonderful
now that any
indicate what
ious, and can
,, or gun. The
not eaten by
re tlie trapper
ir the Eskimo

bo change our
:, my man had
nison steaks to
our tents ; and
)xes, wolves, or
b in one of the
[two wolverines
ger in the open
°for themselves

off all our fine
picked up close
pring, it having

use, by a well-

the following
Lications of the
The writer of

nnoying. When
they will never
the trapping can
md, they proceed
nff them succes-
hehind. When
e baits and cache
the North Ameri-

them. If hungry they may devour two or three of the martens
they find captured, the remainder being carried off and hidden
in the snow at a considerable distance. The work of demoli-
tion goes on as fast as the traps can be renewed.

The propensity to steal and hide things is one of the strong-
est traits of the wolverine. To such an extent is it developed
that the animal will often secrete articles of no possible use to
itself. Besides the wanton destruction of marten traps, it will
carry off the sticks and hide them at a distance, apparently
in sheer malice. Mr. Ross, in the article above quoted, has
given an amusing instance of the extreme of this propensity.
The desire for accumulating property seems so deeply implanted
in this animal, that, like tame ravens, it does not appear to care
much what it steals so that it can exercise its favourite propen-
sity to commit mischief. An instance occurred within my own
knowledge, in which a hunter and his family having left their
lodge unguarded during their absence, on their return found
it completely gutted — the walls were there, but nothing else.
Blankets, guns, kettles, axes, cans, knives, and all the other
paraphernalia of a trapper's tent had vanished, and the tracks
left by the beast showed who had been the thief. The family
set to work, and by carefully following up all his paths re-
covered, with some trifling exceptions, the whole of the lost
property.

* m mt * * * ■

At Peel's River, on one occasion, a very old carcajou dis-
covered my marten road, on which I had nearly a hundred and
fifty traps. I was in the habit of visiting the line about once a
fortnight, but the beast fell into the way of coming oftener
than I did, to my great annoyance and vexation. I deter-
mined to put a stop to his thieving and his life together, cost
what it might. So I made six strong traps at as many different
points, and also set three steel traps. For three weeks I tried
my best to catch the beast without success ; and my worst
enemy would allow that 1 am no green hand in these matters.
The animal carefully avoided the traps set for his own benefit,
and seemed to be taking more delight than ever in demolishing
my marten traps and eating the martens, scattering the poles
in every direction, and caching what baits or mai-tens he did
not devour on the spot. As we had no poison in those days, I
next set a gun on the bank of a little lake. The gun was con-
cealed in some low bushes, but the bait was so placed that the
carcajou must see it on his way up the bank. I blockaded my
path to the gun with a small pine tree, which completely hid

350

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

it. On my first visit afterwards I found that the beast had
gone up to the bait and smelled it, but had left it untouched.
He had next pulled up the pine tree that blocked the path, and
gone around the gun and cut the line which connected the bait
with the trigger, just behind the muzzle. Then he had gone back
and pulled the bait away, and carried it out on the lake, where he
lay down and devoured it at his leisure. There I found my string.
I could scarcely believe that all this had been done design 3dly, for
it seemed that faculties fully on a par with human reason would
be required for such an exploit if done intentionally. I there-
fore rearranged things, tying the string where it had been
bitten. But the result was exactly the same for three succes-
sive occasions, as I could plainly see by the footprints ; and
what is most singular of aU, each time the brute was careful to
cut the line a little back of where it had been tied before, as if
actually reasoning with himself that even the knots might be
some new device of mine, and therefore a source of hidden
danger he would prudently avoid. I came to the conclusion
that that carcajou ought to live, as he must be something at
least human, if not worse. I gave it up, and abandoned the
road for a period.

Tft n* ^P ^ ^ "P

With so much for the tricks and the manners of the beast
behind our backs, roaming at will in his vast solitudes, what of
his actions in the presence of man ? It is said that if one only
stands still, even in full view of an approaching carcajou, he
will come within fifty or sixty yards, provided he be to wind-
ward, before he takes the alarm. Even then, if he be not
warned by sense of smell, he seems in doubt, and will gaze
earnestly several times before he finally concludes to take him-
self off. On these and similar occasions he has a singular
habit — one not shared, so far as I am aware, by any other beast
whatever. He sits on his haunches and shades his eyes with one of
his fore-paws, just as a human being would do in scrutinising a
dim or distant object. The carcajou, then, in addition to his
other and varied accomplishments, is a perfect sceptic — to use
this word in its original signification. A sceptic, with the
Greeks, was simply one who would shade his eyes to see more
clearly.

Bears. — There is no doubt that the intelligence of
these animals stands very high in the psychological scale,
although the actual instances which I have met of the
display of their intelligence are few. The tricks which

are i

proof

in te

or di

indee

scarce

worth

bably

the er

specie

allowa

grizzly

foreigi

to tha

display

materr

usually

followii

the pan

Sco]

the inst

The

sailors o\
of speed |
ing. by
gress; bl
siie carri
until sh(
tlie littlel
the impul
ran onw/
adjusted

As tJ
man, thi)
tive, bu(
particuh

Mr.
I to this Bi

Ones)
[but it fell!

BEARS.

351

te beast had
it untouched.
;he path, and
jcted the bait
lad gone back
lake, where he
indmy string.
desigr'3dly,for
L reauon would
,lly. I there-
I it had been
• three succes-
)otprints; and
was careful to
>d before, as if
:nots might be
irce of hidden
the conclusion
»e something at
abandoned tho

.ers of the beast
)litudes, what of
that if one only
ng carcajou, he

he be to wind-
a, if he be not
;, and will gaze
ies to take him-

has a singular
■ any other beast
3 eyes with one of
in scrutinising a

addition to his
. sceptic— to use
iceptic, with the

eyes to see more

intelligence of
3liological scale,
ave met of the
he tricks which

are taught performing bears do not count for much as
proof of high sagacity, as they for the most part consist
in teaching the animals to assume unnatural positions,
or display grotesque antics — performances which speak
indeed for the general docility of the creatures, but
scarcely for their high intelligence. Still even here it is
worth while to remark that all ?5pecies of bears would pro-
bably not lend themselves to this kind of education, for
the emotional temperament manifested by the different
species is unquestionably diverse. Thus, making all
allowances for exaggeration, it seems certain that the
grizzly bear displays a courage and ferocity which are
foreign to the disposition of the brown bear, and indeed
to that of most other animals. The polar bear likewise
displays much bravery under the influence of hunger or
maternal feeling, although under other circumstances it
usually deems discretion the better part of valour. The
following incident displays considerable intelligence on
the part of this animal.

Scoresby, in his ' Account of the Arctic Regions,' gives
the instance to which I allude : —

The animal with two cubs was being pursued by a party of
sailors over an ice-field. She urged her young to an increase
of speed by running before them, turning round, and manifest-
ing, by a i)eculiar action and voice, her anxiety for their pro-
gress ; but finding that her pursuers were gaining upon them,
she carried, or pushed, or pitched them alternately forward,
until she effected their escape. In throwing them before her,
tlie little creatures placed themselves across her path to receive
the impulse ; and when projected some yards in advance, they
ran onwards until she overtook them, when they alternately
adjusted themselves for a second throw.

As the polar bear is not exposed to any enemies except
man, this method of escaping is not likely to be instinc-
tive, but was probably an intelligent adaptation to the
particular circumstances of the case.

Mr. S. J. Hutchinson writes me as follows with regard
I to this same species : —

One Sunday, at the * Zoo,' some one threw a bun to the bears,
I but it fell in the water in that quadrant-shaped pond you will

352

ANIMAL INTELLiaENCE.

remember. The bun fell just at the angle, and the boar seenKjd
disinclined to enter the water, but stood on the edge of the
pond, and commenced stirring the water with its paw, so that
it established a sort of rotatory current, which eventually
brought the bun within reach. When one leg got tired it used
the other, but in the same direction. I watched the whole per-
formance with the greatest interest myself.

In corroboration of this most remarkable observfition
I quote the following from Mr. Darwin's ' Descent of Man '
(p. 76), which is so precisely similar, that the fact of bears
reaching the high level of intelligence which the fact
implies can scarcely be doubted. ' A well-known ento-
mologist, Mr. Westropp, informs me that he observed in
Vienna a bear deliberately making with his paw a current
in some water which was close to the bars of his cage, so
as to draw a piece of floating bread within his reach.'

353

I bear seemijd
edge of the
paw, so that
jh eventually
t tired it used
:he whole per-

i observa,tion
scent of Man '
^ fact of bears
bich. the fact
-known ento-
e observed in
paw a current
Df bis cage, so
is reach.'

CHAPTER XII.

RODENTS.

The rodents, psychologically considered, are, of all orders
in the animal kingdom, most remarkable for the differ-
ences presented by constituent species. For while the
group contains many animals, such as the guinea-pig,
whose instincts and intelligence cannot be said to rise
above the lowest level that obtains among mammalian
forms, it also contains other animals with instincts as
remarkable as those of the squirrel, intelligence as con-
siderable as that of the rat, and a psychological develop-
ment as unique as that of the beaver. In no other group
of animals do we meet with nearly so striking an exempli-
fication of the truth that zoological or structural affinity
I is only related in a most loose and general way to psycho-
logical or mental similarity. Up to a certain point,
however, even here we meet with an exemplification of
what I may call a complementary truth, namely, that
similarity of organisation and environment is in a general
way related to similarity of instincts (though not neces-
sarily of intelligence). This is obviously the case with
Itlie habit from which the order takes its name ; for
Iwhether the instinct of gnawing is here the cause or the
Iresult of peculiar organisation, the instinct is unquestion-
lably correlated with the peculiarity. And similarly, though
less obviously, is this the case with the instinct of storing
pood f'^r ■winter consumption, which is more prevalent
poug the rodents than in any other order of mammals —
ats, mice^ squirrels, harvesters, beavers, &c., all mani-
festing it with remarkable vigour and persistency. Here
|e probably have a case of similar organisation and en-
[ironment determining the same iustinct ; for the latter

A 4

354

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

■.■vi

is not of sufficiently general occurrence among all species
of rodents to allow us to suppose that the species in which
it does occur have derived it from a common ancestry.

Rabbit

Babbits are somewhat stupid animals, exhibiting but
small resources under novel circumstances, although in-
heriting several clever instincts, such as that of rapidly
deciding upon the alternative of flight or crouching
which is usually done with the best judgment. I have
however, often observed that the animal does not seem to
have sense enough to regard the colour of the surface on
which it crouches, so that if this happens to be inappro-
priate, the rabbit may become conspicuous, and so its
crouching a source of danger. I have been particularly
struck with the fact that black rabbits inherit the crouch-
ing instinct as strongly as do normally coloured ones, with
the effect of rendering themselves highly conspicuous. This
shows that the instinct is not necessarily correlated with
the colour which alone renders the instinct useful, but
that both have developed simultaneously and indepen
dently, and byja atural^ selection. The fact also shows that
the crouching of rabbits iFjpurely instinctive, and not due
to any conscious process of comparing their own colour
with +hat of the surfaces on which they crouch. Noi
doubt the instinct began and was developed by natura
selection placing a premium upon the better judgment o:
those individuals which know when best to seek safety i
flight and when by crouching — protective colouring beiiij
added at the same time by the same agency.

Another fact, which every one who shoots must hav
observed, goes to show the stupidity of rabbits, or the:
inability to learn by experience. When alarmed they rui
for their burrows, and when they reach them, instead
entering they very frequently squat down to watch th
enemy. Now, although they well know the distance
which it is safe to allow a man with a gun to approae
excess of curiosity, or a mistaken feeling of security
being so near their homes, induces the animals to allow

mant
other
beevi
From
mil bo
the cas

' It is paJ
'^^t bolts J

'"eif to be sj
cond time.
'^iog imag

BABBIT.

355

ig all species
cies in which
ancestry.

exhibiting but
, although in-
Dhat of rapidly

or crouching,
ment. I have,
)es not seem to
' the surface on

to be inappro-
)us, and so its
,een particularly
lerit the croucli-
ouredones, withl
onspicuous. This
^ correlated with
inct useful, but
ly and indepen-
t also shows that!

ive, and not due]
Itheir own colomi

ey crouch. ^o|

oped by natural

ter judgment oi
to seek safety

e colouring beiii|

(ncy.

shoots musthav'
If rabbits, or thei
alarmed they rut
them, instead
l^wn to watch tli|
the distance
gun to approaci
ing of security i
animals to allo^'

man to approach within easy shooting distance. Yet that in
other respects rabbits can learn much by experience must
be evident to all who are accustomed to shoot with ferrets,
from burrows which have not been much ferreted, rabbits
will bolt soon after the ferret is put in ; but this is not
the case where rabbits have had previous experience of the
association between ferrets and sportsmen. Kather than
bolt under such circumstances, and so face the knovni
danger of the waiting gun, rabbits will often allow them-
selves to be torn with the ferrets' claws and mutilated by
their teeth. This is the case, no matter how silently the
sportsmen may conduct their operations ; the mere fact
of a ferret entering their burrows seems to be enough to
assure the rabbits that sportsmen are waiting outside.^

In its emotions the rabbit is for the most part a very
timid animal, although the males fight severely with one
another — having more strongly developed than any other
aiiimal the strange but effectual instinct of castrating
their rivals. Moreover, even against other animals, rabbits
1, when compelled to do so, stand upon the defensive.
To show this I may quote a letter which several years ago
I published in ' Nature : '

I have occasion just now to keep over thirty Himalayan

j rabbits in an outhouse. A short time ago it wasobservod that

some of these rabbits had been attacked and slightly bitten by

lats. Next day the person who feeds the rabbits observed,

upon entering the outhouse, that nearly all the inmates were

congregated in one corner ; and upon going to ascertain the
Icause, found one rat dead, and another so much injured that it
[could scarcely run. Both rats were of an unusually large size,
jand their bodies were much mangled by the rabbits' teeth.

I never before knew that domeptic rabbits would fight with
ny carnivorous antagonist. That wild rabbits never do so 1

times seen ferrets turn out from the
Eost crowded burrow in a warren young stoats and weasels
kot more than four inches long.

It is particularly remarkable that if under these circumstances a

lit bolts and, seeing the sportsman, doubles back into its burrow,

jeing then certain that the sportsman is waiting, it will usually allow

fself to be slowly and painfully killed by the ferret rather than bolt a

xond time. This is remarkable because it proves the strength of an

lulling image or idea in the mind of the animal.

A A 2

856

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

It is evident that the show-fight instinct cannot have been
developed in Himalayan rabbits by means of natural selection
but it is no less evident that if it ever arose in wild rabbits it
would be preserved and intensified by such means.

The following observation of my own on a previously
unnoticed instinct displayed by wild rabbits is, I think, of
sufficient interest to render. Most people are aware that
if a rabbit is shot near the mouth of its burrow, the
animal will employ the last remnant of its life in struggling
into it. Having several times observed that wounded
rabbits which had thus escaped appeared again several
days afterwards above ground, lying dead a few feet from
the mouth of the burrow, I wished to ascertain whether
the wounded animals had themselves come out before
dying, possibly for air, or had been taken out by their
companions. I therefore shot numerous rabbits while
they were sitting near their burrows, taking care that tliej
distance between the gun and the animal should be suclii
as to insure a speedy, though not an immediate deatb.j
Having marked the burrows at which I shot rabbits iii|
this manner I returned to them at intervals for a fort
night or more, and found that about one-half of tlii
bodies appeared again on the surface in the way described,
That this reappearance above ground is not due to tin
victim's own exertions, I am now quite satisfied ; for noi
only did two or three days generally elapse before ih
body thus showed itself — a period much too long for
severely wounded rabbit to survive — but in a number o|
cases decomposition had set in. Indeed, on one occasiui
scarcely anything of the animal was left save the
and bones. This was in a large warren.

It is a curious thing that I have hitherto been unabl
to get any bodies returned to the surface, of rabbil
which I inserted into their burrows after death. I accouii
for this by supposing that the stench of the decomposiii
carcass is not so intolerable to the other occupants of t
burrow when it is near the orifice as it is when furtlii
in. Similarly, I find that there is not so good a chain
of bodies being returned from an extensive warren
intercommunicating holes, as there is from smaller wa

rens (
the 01
offensi
Anyho
stinct
the lie
pure si

The
Possibl'

TOuIcI get

ftem in ai

Ifoquit thf

HARE.

357

inot have been
bural selection,
wild rabbits it
ns.

m a previously
} is, I think, of
are aware that
bs burrow, the
[e in struggling
tliat wounded
L again several!
a few feet from
certain whether
ome out before!
511 out by their

15 rabbits while!
ng care that the!
1 sbould be suclil
amediate deatD.I
; shot rabbits i J
ervals for afort{

one-balf of tlie

16 way described]
3 not due to tha
satisfied ; for noj
lapse before thj
b too long for
it in a number oi

on one occasiui
jft save the skij

herto been unabj
urface, of rabbia
r death. laccomj
' the decomposrjj
r occupants of to
it is when furtlij
so good a chanj
tensive warren'
from smaller w

rens or blind holes ; the reason probably being tliat in
the one case the living inhabitants are free to vacate the
offensive locality, while in the other case they are not so.
Anyhow, there can be no reasonable doubt that the in-
stinct of removing their dead has arisen in rabbits from
the necessity of keeping their confined domiciles in a
pure state.

Hare.

The hare is a more intelligent animal than the rabbit,
possibly its much greater powers of locomotion may be
one cause of its mental superiority to its nearest congener.
I have never myself observed a hare commit the mistake
already mentioned in the case of the rabbit, viz., that of
crouching for concealment upon an inappropriately coloured
siuface. But the best idea of the comparatively high
intelligence of the hare will be gained by the following
quotations. The first of these is taken from Loudoun's
'Magazine of Natural History ' (vol. iv., p. 143) : —

It is especially conscious of the scent left by its feet, and of
tlie clanger which threatens it in consequence; a reflection
which implies as much knowledge of the habits of its enemies
as of its own. When about to enter its seat for the purpose
of rest, it leaps in various directions, and crosses and recrosses
its path with repeated springs ; and at last, by a leap of gi-eater
energy than it has yet used, it efiects a lodgment in the selected
spot, which is chosen rather to disarm suspicion than to protect
it from injury. In the * Manuel du Chasseiu' * some instances
are quoted from an ancient volume on hunting by Jaques du
Fouillouse. A hare intending to mislead its pursuers has been
seen spontaneously to quit its seat and to proceed to a pond at the
distance of nearly a mile, and having washed itself, push oft
again through a quantity of rushes. It has, too, been known,
when pursued to fatigue by dogs, to thrust another bare from
its vseat and squat itself down in its place. This author has
seen hares swim successively through two or three ponds, ot
which the smallest was eighty paces round. He has known it,
i after a long chase, to creep under the door of a sheep-house and
rest among the cattle, and Avhen the hounds were in pursuit, it
would get into the middle of a flock of sheep and accompany
them in all their motions round the field, refusing by any means
to quit the shelter they afforded. The stratagem of its passing

zrys

ANIMAL I ;f TELLIGENCE.

•I

forward on one side of a hedge and returning by the other, with
only the breadth of the hedge between itself and its enemies, is of
frequent occurrence, and it has even been known to select its swiit
close to the walls of a dog-kennel. This latter circumatanco
however, is illustrative of the principles of reflection and reason-
ing ; for the fox, weasel, and polecat are to the hare more dtm-
gerous enemies than the hound ; and the situations chosen weit
such as those ferocious creatures were not likely to approacli.
A gentleman was engaged in the amusement of coursing, when
.'1 hare, closely pressed, passed under a gate, while the dogs fol-
lowed by leaping over it. The delay caused to her pursuers bv
this mancEuvre seems to have taught a sudden and useful lesson
to the persecuted creature ; for as soon as the dogs had cleared
the gate and overtaken her, she doubled and returned under the
Cfate as before, the dogs again lollowing and passing over it.
And this flirtation continued backwards and forwards until the
dogs were fairly tired of the amusement ; when the hare, takin^
advantage of their fatigue^ quietly stole away.

The following note, by Mr. Yarrell, is significant of a
process of reasoning derived from observations of the
course of nature, such as would do no discredit to a higher
race of creatures : —

A harbour of great extent on our northern coast has an
island near the middle of considerable size, the nearest point of
which is a mile distant from the mainland at high water, and
with which point there is frequent communication by a feriy.
Early one morning in spring two hares were observed to come
down from the hills of the mainland awards the sea-side ; one of
which from time to time left its companion, and proceeding;
to the very edge of the water, stopped there a minute or two.
and then returned to its mate. The tide was rising, and after
waiting some time, one of them, exactly at high water, took to
the sea, and swam rapidly over, in a straight line, to the oppo-
site projecting point of land. The observer on this occasion.
who was near the spot, but remained unperceived by the hares, j
had no doubt they were of different sexes, and that it was the
male (like another Leander) which swam across the water, as
he had probably done many times before. It was remarkable I
that the hares had remained on the shore nearly half an hour :
one of them occasionally examining, as it would seem, the state I
of the current, and ultimately taking to the sea at that precise
period of the tide called slackwater, when the passage across
could be effected without being carried by thefoi'ce of the stream

HAKE.

359

:ho other, with
s enemies, is of
select its swat
• circumatuncc,
ion and reason-
bare more dan-
ms chosen wci-e
ly to approacli.
coursing, when
lie the dogs fol-
her pursuers by
nd useful lesson
logs had cleared
iurned under the
passing over it.
rwards until the
the hare, taking

significant of a
:vations of the
redit to a higher

srn coast has an
3 nearest point of
high water, and
cation by a ferrj'.
observed to come
e sea-side; one of I
, and proceeding
a minute or two.
rising, and after
ghi water, took to
line, to the oppo-
on this occasion.
ved by the hares,
id that it was the
ross the water, as I
was remarkable]
rly half an hour
Id seem, the state I
5ea at that precise
:he passage across
brce of the stream

either above or below the desired point of landing. The other
bare then cantered back to the hills. (Loudoun's ' Magazine of
Natural History/ vol. v., p. 99.)

According to Couch ('Illustrations of Instinct,' p. 177) —

When followed by dogs, it will not run through a gate,
though this is obviously the most ready passage ; nor in crossing
a hedge will it prefer a smooth and even part, but the roughest,
where thorns and briars abound ; and when it mounts an emi-
nence it proceeds obliquely, and not straightforward. And
whether we suppose these actions to proceed from a desii-e to
avoid those places where traps may probably have been laid, or
from knowing that his pursuers will exactly follow his footsteps,
and he has resolved to lead them through as many obstacles as
possible, in either case an estimation of causes and consequences
is to be discovered.

It is a remarkable thing that both hares and rabbits
should allow themselves to be overtaken in the open field
by weasels. I have myself witnessed the process, and am
at a loss to account for it. The hare or rabbit seems per-
fectly aware of the dangerous character of the weasel,
and yet does not put forth its powers of escape. It
merely toddles along with the weasel toddling behind,
until tamely allowing itself to be overtaken. This ano-
malous case may perhaps be akin to the alleged phenomena
of the fascination of birds and small rodents by snakes ;
but in any case there seems to have been here a remark-
able failure of natural selection in doing duty to the
instincts of these swift-footed animals.

We must not close this account of the intelligence of
the hare genus without alluding to the classical case of
Cowper's hares. The following abstract is taken from
Tegg's edition of ' The Life and Works of William
|Cowper,'p. 633:—

Puss was ill three days, during which time I nursed him,
[kept him apart from his fellows, . . . and by constant care,
ic, restored him to perfect health. No creature could be more
grateful than my patient after his recovery, a sentiment which
he most significantly expressed by licking my hand, first the
back of it, then the palm, then every finger separately, then
I between all the fingers, as if anxious to leave no part of it un-

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360

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

saluted ; a ceremony which he never performed hut once again
upon a similar occasion. Finding him extremely tractable, I
made it my custom to carry him always after breakfast into the
garden. ... I had not long habituated him to this taste of
liberty before he began to be impatient for the return of the
time when he might enjoy it. He would invite me to the garden
by drumming upon my knee, and by a look of such expression
as it was not possible to misinterpret. If this rhetoiic did not
immediately succeed, he would take the skirt of rtiy coat bcticeen
his teeth and pull it with all his force. He seemed to be
happier in human society than when shut up with his natural
companions.

— Rats and Mice,

Eats are well known to be highly intelligent animals.
Unlike the hare or rabbit, their shyness seems to proceed
from a wise caution rather than from timidity ; for, when
circumstances require, their boldness and courage in
combat is surprising. Moreover, they never seem to lose
their presence of mind ; for, however great their danger,
they seem always ready to take advantage of any favour-
ing circumstances that may arise. Thus, when matched
with so formidable an oj^ponent as a ferret in a closed
room, they have been known to display wonderful cunning
in taking advantage of the light— keeping close under the
window so as to throw the glare into the eyes of the enemy,
darting forwards time after time to deliver a bite, and then
as often retiring to their vantage-ground.^ But the emo-
tions of rats do not appear to be of an entirely selfish cha-
racter. There are so many accounts in the anecdote book>
of blind rats being led about by their seeing companions,
that it is difficult to discredit an observation so frequently
confirmed.'^ Moreover, rats have been frequently known
to assist one another in defending themselves from dan-
gerous enemies. Several observations of this kind an
recorded by the trustworthy writer Mr. Rodwell, in hi?
somewhat elaborate work upon this animal.

• See Watson's Reasoning Power in Animals, and Quarterly Eeinetr.
c. 1., p. 135.

2 Hee especially Jesse, Gleanings, &c., iii., p. 206 ; and Quarterhj\
Jteviejv, c. 1., p. 135.

EATS AND MICE.

361

Again, as? showing affection for human beings, T may
quote the following : — * The mouse which had been tamed
by Baron Trench in his prison having been taken from
him, watched at the door and crept in when it was
opened ; being removed again, it refused all food, and
(lied in three days.' '

With regard to general intelligence, every one knows
the extraordinary wariness of rats in relation to traps,
which is only equalled in the animal kingdom by that of
the fox and the wolverine. It has frequently been regarded
;is a wonderful display of intelligence on the part of rats
that while gnawing through the woodwork of a ship, they
ilways stop before they completely perforate the side ;
but, as Mr. Jesse suggests, this is probably due to their
ilistaste of the salt water. No such disparaging explanation,
however, is possible in some other instances of the display
of rat-intelligence. Thus, the manner in which they
transport eggs to their burrows has been too frequently
observed to admit of doubt. Kodwell gives a case in
which a number of eggn were carried from the top of a
Louse to the bottom by two rats devoting themselves to
lacli egg, and alternately passing it down to each other at
every step of the staircase.'^ Dr. Carpenter also received
from an eye-witness a similar account of another instance.**
According to the article in the Quarterly Revieiv, already
mentioned, rats will not only convey eggs from the top of
the house to the bottom, but from bottom to top. * The
male rat places himself on his fore-paws, with his head
downwards, and raising up his hind legs and catching
the egg between them, pushes it up to the female, who
stands on the step above, and secures it with her fore-paws
till he jumps up to her; and this process is repeated from
step to step till the top is reached.'

'The captain of a merchantman,' says Mr. Jesse,
'trading to the port of Boston, in Lincolnshire, had con-
stantly missed eggs from his sea stock. He suspected
^hat he was robbed by his crew, but not being able to dis-

' Thompson, Pasaions of Animals, p. 368.
- The Hat, its Xdturol Ilistonj, p. 102.
' Mrs. Lee, Anecdotes of Animals, p. 264.

362

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

cover the thief, he was determined to watch his store-
room. Accordingly, having laid in a fresh stock of eggs,
he seated himself at night in a situation that commanded
a view of his eggs. To his great astonishment he saw a
number of rats approach ; they formed a line from his egg
baskets to their hole, and handed the eggs from one to
another in their fore-paws.' •

Another device to which rats resort for the procuring
of food is mentioned in all the anecdote books, and it
seemed so interesting that I tried some direct experiments
upon the subject. I shall first state the alleged facts in
the words of Watson : —

As to oil, rats have been known to get oil out of a narrow-
necked bottle in the following way : — One of them would place
himself, on some convenient support, by the side of the bottle,
and then, dipping his tail into the oil, would give it to another
to lick. In this act there is something more than what we call
instinct ; there is reason and understanding.^

Jesse also gives the following account : —

A box containing some bottles of Florence oil was placed
in a store-room which was seldom opened ; the box had no lid
to it. On going to the room one day for one of the bottles, the
owner found that the pieces of bladder and cotton at the mouth
of each bottle had disappeared, and that mucJi of the contents
of the bottles had been consumed. The circumstance havins;
excited suspicion, a few bottles were refilled with oil, and the
mouths of them secured as before. Next morning the coverings
of the bottles had been removed, and some of the oil was gone.
However, upon watching the room, which was done through
a little window, some rats were seen to get into the box, and
insert their tails into the nocks of the bottles, and then with-
drawing them, they licked off the oil which adhered to them.^

Lastly, Rodwell gives another case similar in all essen-
tial respects, save that the rat licked its own tail instead
of presenting it to a companion.

The experiment whereby I tested the truth of tbeso

• Jesse, Gleaningst, &c., ii., p. 28L

* llcasoniitg Power in Animals, p. 293.
' Loc. cit.

iliieing

WitI

jA-^hdowi
r^Mch a I
Jhiilders.l
pap ag£

RATS AND MICE.

363

h his store-
ock of eggs,
commanded
Rnt be saw a
from his egg
3 from one to

the procuring
books, and it
t experiments
lleged facts in

ut of a narrow-
ein would place
le of the bottle,
ve it to anotlier
an what we c<all

;e oil was placed
16 box had no lid
f the bottles, tbe
,on at the moutli
, of the contents
lumstance having
jvrith oil, and the
ling the coverings
the oil was gone.
^ras done tbrougli
into the box, and
3, and then witli-
ibered to tbem.s

lilar in all essen-
own tail instead

truth of these

293.

statements was a very
• Nature ' as follows : —

simple one. I recorded it ia

It is, I believe, pretty generally supposed that rats and mice
\\<e their tails for feeding purposes when the food to he eaten
is contained in vessels too narrow to admit the entire l)0(ly of
the jinimal. I am not aware, however, that the trutli of this
supposition has ever been actually tested by any trustworthy
pc'i'son, and so think the following simple exptn-iments are worth
jiublishing. Having obtained a cou})le of tall-shaped preserve
liottles with rather short and narrow necks, I tilled them to
within three inches of the top with red currant jelly which had
only half stiffened. I covered the bottles with bladder in the
ordinary way, and then stood them in a place infestcxl by rats.
Next morning the bladder covering each of the bottles had a
small hole gnawed through it, and the level of the jelly was
reduced in both bottles to the same extent. Now, as this
extent coiTCsponded to about the length of a rat's tail if inserted
:it the hole in the bladder, and as this hole was not much more
than just large enough to admit the root of this organ, I do not
>ee that any further evidence is required to prove the manner
iu which the rats obtained the jelly, viz., by repeatedly intro-
iliu'ing their tails into the viscid matter, and as repeatedly
licking them clean. However, to put the question beyond
doubt, I refilled the bottles to the extent of half an inch above
the jelly level left by the rats, and having placed a circle of
inoist paper upon each of the jelly surfaces, covered the bottles
with bladder as before. I now left the bottles in a place where
there were no rats or mice, until a good ciop of mould had
,Town upon one of the moistened pieces of paper. Tlie bottle
containing this crop of mould I then transferred to the place
where the rats were numerous. Next morning the bladder had
again been eaten through at one edge, nnd upon the mould there
were numerous and distinct tracings of the rats' tails, resem-
bling marks made with the top of a pen-holder. These tracings
were evidently caused by the animals sweeping their tails about
:u a fruitless endeavour to find a hole in the circle of paper
'hich covered the jelly.

With regard to mice, the Eev. W. North, rector of
jAslidown, in Essex, placed a pot of honey in a closet, in
phich a quantity of plaster rubbish had been left by
jhiilders. The mice piled up the plaster in the form of a
pap against the sides of the pot, in order to constitute an

364

ANIMAL INTELLIOKNCE.

inclined piano whereby to reach iho rim. A quantity of
the rubbish had also lieen thrown into the pot, with tlu'
effect of raising the hivel of the honey that remained lo
near the rim of the pot ; but, of course, the latter fact inay
have been due to accident, and not to design.' This is a
case in which mal-observation does not seem to have been
likely.

Powelsen, a writer on Iceland, has related an account
of the intelligence displayed by the mice of that country,
which has given rise to a difference of competent opinion,
and which perhaps can hardly yet be said to have been
definitely settled. What Powelsen said is that the mice
collect in parties of from six to ten, select a flat piece of
dried cow-dung, pile berries or other food upon it, tlicn
with united strength drag it to the edge of any stream
they wish to cross, launch it, embark, and range tlicm-
selves round the central heap of provisions with their heads
joined over it, and their tails hanging in the water,
perhaps serving as rudders. Pennant afterwards gave
credit to this account, observing that in a country wliere
berries were scarce, the mice were compelled to cross
streams for distant forages.'^ Dr. Hooker, however, in liis
* Tour in Iceland,' concludes that the account is a pure
fabrication. Dr. Henderson, therefore, determined ou
trying to arrive at the truth of the matter, with the fol-
lowing result : - ' I made a point of inquiring of different
individuals as to the reality of the account, and am hnp|)y
in being able to say that it is now established as an impor-
tant fact in natural history by the testimony of two eye-
witnesses of unquestionable veracity, the clergyman of
Briamslaek, and Madame Benedictson of Stickesholm, botli
of whom assured me that they had seen the expedition
performed repeatedly. ^Madame Benedictson, in pjuti-
cular, recollected having spent a whole afternoon, in her
younger days, at the margin of a small lake on whieli
these skilful navigators had embarked, and amusing lierself |
and her companions by driving them away from the side?
of the lake as they approached them. I was also informed

' Jesse, Glenuings, iii., p. 176.

2 Introduction to Arctic Zoology, p. 70.

' Dr.
1^1 '<, volJ

RAT.S AM) MICE.

305

V quantity of
pot, with tli«'

reinaiiu«l lo
itter fact iniiy
i.» This i-; ii

to have bcm

d an acconrit

that country,

etent opinion,

to have been

that the mm)

a flat piece of

upon it, tlien

of any st renin

\ range tlicm-

nth their heads

in the water,

afterwards gavt'

L country where

celled to cross

however, in his

}count is a pure

determined ou

er, with the fel-

ring of different

t, and am happy

led as an impov-

Lony of two eye-

e clergyman of

',tickesholm,hoth

I the expedition

4ctson, in pii^'^i-

aftemoon, in bei

I lake on whicli

a amusing herself

ay from the slde^

was also informed I

70.

tlial they make use of dried mushrooms t*;} sacks, in whieh
tliey convey their provisions tu the river, and thenee to
tlieir homes.' '

Before leaving the mice and rats I may say a few words
upon certain mouse- and rat-Hk(^ animals which scare<'ly
require a separate section for their consideration. (Jf the
harvesting mouse Gilbert White says : —

(Jne of their nosts I procured this iiutunin, most artificially
jilaited and composed of blades of wheat, poifectly round, and
iihout the size of a cricket-ball, with the aperture so in<^eniously
cIummI that there was no (liscovi^in^' to what part it beloii<,'<Ml.
It was so compact and well filled that it would roll across the
tiihli' without being discomposed, though it contjvitied ei^'ht
little mice tiiat were nsiked and blind. As the nest was per-
fectly full, how could the dam come at her litter resj)ectively, so
as to administer a teat to each ? Perhaps she opens diflerent
places for that purpose, .adjusting them a,<,'aiu when the business
is over ; but she could not possibly be contained herself in the
ball with the young ones, which, moreover, would be daily iu-
cieasiug in size. This wonderful procreant ciadle, an ele<i;ant
iiist;inee of the efforts of instinct, was found in a wheat-field,
M!speiided on the head of a thistle.

Pallas has described the provident habits of the so-
called ' rat-hare ' {Lagomys), which lays up a store of grass,
or rather hay, for winter consumption. These animals,
which occur in the Altai Mountains, live in holes or cre-
vices of rock. About the middle of the month of August
they collect grass, and spread it out to dry into hay. In
September they form heaps or stacks of the hay, which
may be as much as six feet high, and eight feet in diame-
ter. It is stored in their chosen hole or crevice, protected
from the rain.

The following is quoted from Thompson's * Passions of
Animals,' pp. 235-6 : —

The life of the harvester rat is divided between eating and
fighting. It seems to have no other passion than that of rage,
which induces it to attack every animal that comes in its way,
Avithout in the least attending to the superior strength of its
enemy. Ignorant of the art of saving itself by flight, rather

' Dr. Henderson, Journal of a Residence in Icelandin \SH and
ISln, vol. ii., p. 187.

366

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

thau yield, it will allow itself to be boateii to pieces with a stick.
If it seizes a man's hand, i^ must V>e killed before it will quit its
hold. The mML^nitiide of tlie horse terrifies it sis little as tin;
address of the dog, which lust is fond of hunting it. Wlioii .1
harvester perceives a dog at a distance, it begins by emjjtyiii"
its cheek-pouches, if they happen to })e filled with grain ; if, th,.,^
blows them up so prodigiously, that the size of the head and
neck greatly exceeds that of the rest of the body. It rears itself
upon its bind legs, and thus darts upon the enemy. If itciitclus
hold, it never quits it but with the loss of its life ; but the do"
generally seizes it behind, and strangles it. This ferocious di.s
j)osition prevents it from l)eing at peace with any animal what-
ever. It even makes war against its own species. When two
harvesters meet, they never fail to attack each other, ami the
stronger always devours the weaker. A combat between a
male and a female commonly lasts longer than between two
males. They begin by pursuing and biting each other, then
each of them retires aside, as if to take breath. After a short
interval they renew the combat, and continue to fight till one of
them falls. The vanquished uniformly serves as a repast to the
conqueror.

If we contrast the fearless disposition of the harvester
with the timidity of the hare or rabbit, we observe that in
respect of emotions, no less than in that of intelligence,
the order Rodentia comprises the utmost extremes.

The so-called * prairie-dog ' is a kind of small rodent,
which makes burrows in the ground, and a slight eleva-
tion above it. The animals being social in their habits,
their warrens are called * dog-towns.' Prof. Jillson, Ph.D.,
kept a pair in confinement (see 'American Naturalist,'
vol. v., pp. 24-29), and found them to be intelligent and
highly affectionate animals. These burrows he found to
contain a ' granary,' or chambers set apart for the reception
of stored food. With regard to the association said to
exist between this animal and the owl and rattle-snake,
Prof. Jillson says, 'I have seen many dog-towns, with
owls and dogs standing on contiguous, and in some cases
on the same mound, but never saw a snake in the vicinity.'
The popular notion that the owl acts the part of sentry to
the dog requires, to say the least, confirmation.

i; HAVER.

367

BS with a stick,
it will quit it>
is littlo us tli«!
; it. When n
Ls by cmj)tyin<^'
grain ; it thin
the head and

It real's itself
ly. Ifitcatoht'S
fe ; but the do;'
LS ferocious dis-
y animal what-
tes. Wlu-n two
I other, and tlio
abat between a
m between tAvo
ach other, then

After a short
3 fight till one of
LS a repast to the

if the harvester
observe that in

of inteUigence,

xtremes.

)f small rodent,
a slight eleva-

in their habits,

'. Jillson, Ph.D.,
can Naturalist,'
intelligent anil
>ws he found to

^or the reception
ociation said to
nd rattle-snake,
dog-towns, with
d in some cases
3 in the vicinity.'
part of sentry to
ation.

Ijeacer,

Most remarkabh; among rodents for instinct and in-
tt'lligence unquestionably stands the beaver. Indeed,
there is no animal — not even excepting the ants and bees
—where instinct has risen to a higher level of far-reaching
adaptation to certain constant conditions of environment,
or where faculties, undoubtedly instinctive, are more
puzzlingly wrought up with faculties no less undoubtedly
intelligent. So much is this the case that, as we shall
presently see, it is really impossible by the closest study
of the pyschology of this animal to distinguish the web of
instinct from the woof of intelligence ; the two principles
seem here to have been so intimately woven together, that
in the result, as expressed by certain particular actions, it
cannot be determined how much we are to attribute to
mechanical impulse, and how much to reasoned purpose.

Fortunately, the doubt that for many years shrouded
the facts has been dispelled by the conscientious and
laborious observations of the late Mr. Lewis H. Morgan,'
whose work throughout displays the judicious accuracy of a
(icientific mind. As this is much the most trustworthy, as
well as the most exhaustive essay upon the subject, I
shall mainly rely upon it for my statement of facts, and
while presenting these I shall endeavoiu: to point out the
psychological explanation, or difficulty of explanation, to
which they are severally open.

The beaver is a social animal, the male living with his
single female and progeny in a separate burrow or ' lodge.'
Several of these lodges, however, are usually built close
together, so as to form a beaver colony. The young quit
the lodge of their parents when they enter upon the
summer of their third year, seek mates, and establish new
lodges for themselves. As each litter numbers three or
foiu", and breeding is annual, it follows that a beaver lodge
never or rarely contains more than twelve individuals,
while the number usually ranges from four to eight.
Every season, and particularly when a district becomes

' The American Beaver and 7iis Works (Lippincott & Co., 1868).

3«8

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

overstocked, some of the beavers inigijite. The In(h*ans
say that in their local migrations the ohl beavers ^o nu
stream, and the young down ; assigning as a reason that
in the struggle for existence greater advantages are
atforded near the source than lower down a stream, and
therefore that the old beavers appropriate the former.
But although lodges may thus be vacated by the old
beavers, they are not left tenantless ; their lease is, as it
were, transferred to another beaver couple. This process
of transference of ownership goes on from generation t
generation, so that the same lodges are continuously
occupied for centuries.

These lodges, which are always constructed in or near
water, are of three kinds — the island, bank, and lake
lodge. The first are formed on small islands which niiiv
happen to occur in the ponds made by the beaver-dams.
The flojr of the lodge is a few inches above the level of
the water, and into it there open two, or sometimes moiv
entrances: —

These are made with great skill, .ind in the most artistic
manner. One is straight, or as nearly so as possible, with its
floor, which is of course imder water, an inclined plane, rising
gradually from the bottom of the pond into the chamber; Avhile
the other is abrupt in its descent, and often sinuous in its
course. The first we shall call the * wood entrance,' from its
evident design to facilitate the admission into the chamber of
their wood cuttings, upon which they subsist during the season
of winter. These cuttings, as will elsewhere be shown, are of
such size and length that such an entrance is absolutely neces-
sary for their free admission into the lodge. The other, whicli
we shall call the 'beaver entmnce,' is the ordinary run-way
for their exit and return. It is usually abrupt, and often wind-
ing. In the lodge under consideration, the wood entrance de-
scended from the outer run of the chamber entrance about ten
feet to the bottom of the pond in a straight line, and upon an
inclined plane ; while the other, emerging from the line of the
chamber at the side, descended quite abruptly to the bottom oi
the moat or trench, through which the beavers must pass, in
open water, out into the pond. Both entrances were ludely
arched, with a roof of interlaced sticks filled in with mud in-
termixed with vegetable fibre, and were extended to the bottom

r.EAVKH - LODGES.

300

of the i)On(l or trccli, with the exception of the o|uMnn<,' iit
their ends. At the plact'.s where they were roiistriicted throii^di
the lloor they were finished witii neatness and i)r(vision ; th«»
iij»j>or parts and sides I'oruiini; an arch more or less rej^ular,
while tlie bottom and fh)or ed;,'»'s were formed with firm and
compacted earth, in wliich small sticks were emhedded. It is
iHliicidt to realise the artistic appearance of isouio of these
entrances without actual inspection.

Upon the floor of the Iodide there is constructed .'i
house of sticks, brushwood, and mud, in the form of ji
circular or oval cliamber, the size of which varies with the
iige of the lodge; for by a continuous }>rocess of re[>air
wliich consists in removing the decayed sticks, Sic, from
the interior and working them up with new material upon
the exterior) the whole k)dge progressively increases in
size: eventually in this way the interior chamber may
attain .a diameter of seven or eight feet.

The * bank lodges ' are of two kinds : —

One is situated upon the bank of the stream or pond, a few
ft?et back from its edge, and entered by an underground passage
flora the bed of the stream, excavated through the natural earth
up into the chamber. The other is situated upon the edge of
the bank, a portion of it projecting over and resting upon the
Ijed of the channel, so as to have the iloor of the chamber rest
upon the bank as upon solid ground, while the external wall
on the pond side projects beyond it, and is built up from the
bottom of the pond.

Lastly, the 'lake lodges' are constructed on the shores
of lakes, which, being usually shelving and hard, require
jome further variation in the structure of the lodges.
These, therefore, are of interest ' as illustrations of the
capacity of the beavers to vary the mode of construction
of their lodges in accordance with the changes of situa-
tion.' One-half or two-thirds of the lodge is in this case
built out upon the lake for the obvious purpose of
covering the entrance, as well as for its extension into
I deep water.'

All these forms of lodge are, historically regarded,
I modified buiTows.

B B

370

ANIMAL INTKLLIOENCK.

Tho iMifivcr isa lMJiT()\viiii(;\iiiiiml. IiMluli»in«,' this uroju'iisity
ho excjiviitos chiimlnTs uiulrr^M-oJiiid, aiul constructs uitiliciiil
loilgtis upon its surfitcc, liotli of wlucli iiro iii<lis)>(MisuMc to liis
socurity ami liiippincss. Tho lodf^o is hut a huirow iiljovt-
ground, roverod with an ;u'titiciul roof, jiiid posscssos soinc
advantages over tho latter as a placo for ic'ai'iug youn«^.

Tlioroaro raisons for Ujliovinj^ that tho hurrow is tho iiniiii;,|
residonco of tho boavorH, and that tho lodgo f»row out of it, in
tho progress of thoir oxporionco, hy a process of natural s)I!;;,'('h-
tion. ... In addition to tho lotlgo, tho snino l>cavor« who
inhabit it havo burrowH in tho banks stuTounding tlic pond
They iiovcr risk their p<'rsonal safety upon tiu'ir lodgo nlnw.
which, being conspicuous to thoir ononii(»s, is liable to attiick.
. . . As tho ontrancoH aro always below tho surfnco level of tin
pond, thoi-o are no external indications to mark tho site of tlu
burrow,

except occasionally a small pile of beaver-ciittings a f(K)t
or more high. These, the trap[)ers affirm, are purpnscK
left there by the beavers to keep the snow loose over th."
ends of their burrows during winter for the admission
of air.

Mr. Morgan adds the very probable suggestion th.it
this habit of piling up cuttings for purposes of ventilation 1
may have constituted the origin of lodge-building.

It is but a step from such a surface-pile of sticks to a lodge, I
with its chamber above ground, and the previous burrow as its
entrance from the pond. A burrow accidentally broken tlnoui,'lij
at its upper end, and repaired with a covering of sticks and
earth, would lead to a lodge above ground, and thus inauguifitej
a beaver lodge out of a broken biu*row.

It is evidence of an important local variation of in-
stinct, that in the Cascade Mountains the beavers livij
chiefly in burrows in the banks of streams, and rarelyl
construct either lodges or dams. Dr. Newbury, in liis
report on the zoology of Oregon and California, says : ' Wcl
found the beavers in numbers, of which, when applied U
beavers, I had no conception,' and yet * we never saw their
houses and seldom a dam.' Whether this local variation|
be due to a relapse from dam- and lodge-building instiiK fs
to the primitive burrowing instinct, or to a failure in the

full (
I'rohji
huildi
ft'sfcd
i,Mnl('(
In

Illlicll I

Tho
kv.s iip(

llSMU't'd

protcctf

otherwi.'

Ik)iiikI I

also, niu

the wnU

adjusted

them, at

me iieed(

in tho bn

iijwij art]

to prever

lives.

Cnt

I are for i
eight fet

trees, an(

' To obA
Fliere a sprj

IJEAVKH-LOhCJKS.

371

nu'ts :irtil\(i;vl
i1mm»sjO»1»» to Ills

poHsi'Hscs sonic

\v is the Monniil
3W out of it. ill

Uiitm-iil su<;;^'t's-
10 bcsivorH ^vh()
lulinj; U»K pond.
Iicir lo(lg») nlnnc.

liaMo to att;\ck.
vfnco level of tl\f
i-k tiio site of th(

r-cuttings afoot
m, are imrposdy
,\v loose over tlv
>r the admission

sii<'gestion tlmi
^os of ventilation
building.

full d(?V('lo|)?neiit of the newer instinct, is innn.-iteriMl.
I'robidily, I think, looking to the high :«nti(inity of th(?
building instinct, and alsi» to its being occasinnidly niani-
Icsted by the Californian beavers, thi-ir case is to be re-
garded as one of relapsing instinct.

In selcM'ting the site of their hxlgeri beavers (li>i>lay
imu'h sagacity and forethniiglit.

Tho Hevcrity of the cHiuate in tlieso lii^^h nortiieni Iiititudos

lays upon theni tho neccHsity of ho loctitiii^' their lo(l;,'os as to I)0

iis'^urt'd of water deep enoii^'h in their entrances, and also so

prott'cted in other respects, as not to free/o to tho bottom ; '

otherwise they would ju'rish with liun«;er, locked up in ico-

Itovuul hahitations. To guard against this danger, the dan>,

also, must he sufUciontly Htahlo through tho winter to maintain

the water at a constnnt level ; and this level, again, imist bo so

adjusted with reference to tluj floor of the lodge as to enable

them, at all times, to take in their cuttings from without as they

are needed for food. When they leave tiioir normal mode of life

ill tho banks of tho rivers, and undertakt! to live in dependence

ii[)on artificial ponds of their own formation, they are comiMdled

to prevent the consequences of their acts at the peril of their

lives.

On the upper Missouri, where the banks of the river
are for miles together vertical, and rising from three to
eight feet above its surface*, the beavers resort to the de-
vice of making what are called * beaver slides.' These are
narrow inclined planes cut into the banks at intervals, the
angle of inclination being 45° to 60°, so as to form a gradual
descent from a point a few feet back from the edge of the
hank to the level of the river. As INlr. Morgan observes,
'they furnish another conspicuous illustration of the fact
that beavers possess a free intelligence, by means of which
they are enabled to adapt themselves to the circumstances
[in which they are placed.'

Coming now to the habits of these animals in connec-
ion with the procuring and storing of food, it is first to

observed that * the thick bark upon the trunks of large

is local variationBrees, and even upon those of medium size, is unsuitable

hnildinff instill" tsB

^ x- '1 . in tbtH ' '^^ obviate this possibility, they often select as their site a place

|to a tailuie i ^Jliere a spring happens to rise in the bottom of the lake or pond.

u B 2

i sticks to a lodgo.
ious burrow as its
[Uy broken ihrou'^ii
[ring of sticks and
lid thus inaugurate

variation of in-

the beavers live
learns, and rarelv

Newbury, in h>
Ifornia, says:'^^'■
], when applied t

re never saw thei

372

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

elevate*
the une
After o

a beavei
him to

for food ; but the smaller limbs, the bark oi which is
tender and nutritious, afford the aliment which they jJie-
fer.' To obtain this food, the animals, as is well known
fell the trees by gnawing a ring round their base. Two
or three nights' successive work by a pair of beavers is
enough to bring down a half-grown tree, * each fainilv
being left to the undisturbed enjoyment of the fruits of
their own toil and industry.' ' When the tree begins to
crackle they desist from cutting, which they afterwai(i.s
continue with caution until it begins to fall, when they
plunge into the pond usually, and wait concealed for u
time, as if fearful that the cracking noise of the tree-fall
might attract some enemy to the place.' It is of much
interest that the beavers when thus felling trees know how
to regulate the direction of the fall ; by gnawing chiefly
on the side of the trunk remote from the water, they make
the tree fall towards the water, with the obvious purpose
of saving as much as possible the labour of subsequent
transport. For as soon as a tree is down, the next workj
is to cut off the branches, or such as are from two to sixj
inches in diameter ; and then, when they have been cleare
of their twigs, to divide them into lengths sufficient to ad
mit of the beavers transporting them to their lodges. Tb
cutting into lengths is effected by making a number o
semi-sections through the branch at more or less equai
distances as it lies upon the ground, and then turning th
branch half round and continuing the sections from th
opposite side. ' To cut it (the branch) entirely throug]
from the upper side would require an incision of sue
width as to involve a loss of labour.' The thicker th
branch, the closer together are the sections made, and con
sequently the shorter are the resulting portions — th
reason, of course, being that the strength of the animi
would not be sufficient to transport a thick piece of ^i'^^^tjie ]p" ]
of the same length as a thin piece which it is only juw^f xl
able to manage.

In moving cuttings of this description they are quite i
genious. They shove and roll them with their hips, using al
their legs and tails as levers, moving sideways in the act. Il
this way they move the larger pieces from the more or H

Imaintaii

AjsthI
'te maint
Datural pd

BEAVER — DAMS.

373

elevated ground on which the deciduous trees are found, over
the uneven but generally descending surface to the pond. . . .
After one of these cuttings has been transported to the water,
a beaver, placing one end of it under his throat, pushes it before
him to the place where it is to be sunk. V -/

The sinking is no doubt partly effected by mere soaking ;
but there is also some evidence to show that the beavers
have a method of anchoring down their supplies. Thus
they have been observed towing pieces of brush to their
lodges, and then, while holding the large end in their
mouths, * going down with it to the bottom, apparently to
fix it in the mud bottom of the pond.' A brush-heap
being thus formed, the cuttings from the felled trees are
stuck through the brushwork, without which ' protection
they would be liable to be floated oif by the strong currents,
and thus be lost to the beavers at the time when their
I lives might depend upon their safe custody.'

Lastly, as a method whereby the beavers can save
themselves the trouble of cutting, transporting, and
anchoring all at the same time, they are prone, when cir-
cumstances permit, to fell a tree growing near enough to
their pond to admit of its branches being submerged in
the water. The animals then well know that the branches
and young shoots will remain preserved throughout the
winter without any further trouble from them. But of
course the supply of trees thus growing conveniently near
I a beaver-pond is too limited to last long.

We have next to consider the most wonderful, and I
I think the most psychologically puzzling structures that are
presented as the works of any animal ; I mean, of course,
I the dams and canals.

The object of the dam is that of forming an artificial

I pond, the use of which is to afford refuge to the animals

as well as water connection with their lodges. Therefore

the level of the pond must in all cases be higher than that

lof the lodge- and burrow-entrances, and it is usually

I maintained two or three feet above them.

As the dam is not an absolute necessity to the beaver for
[the maintenance of his life — his normal habitation being rather
natural ponds and rivers, and the burrows in their banks — it is,

374

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

in itself considered, a remarkable fact that he should have
voluntarily transfeiTed himself, by means of dams and pond«
of his own construction, from a natural to an artificial mode
of life.

In external appearance there are two distinct kinds of
dams, although all are constructed on the same principle.
One, the more common, is the ' stick dam,' which is com-
posed of interlaced stick and pole work upon the lower
face, with an embankment of earth mixed with the same
materials on the upper face. The other is the ' solid-bank
dam,' which differs from the former in having much more
brush and mud worked into its construction, especially
upon its surftices ; the result being that the whole formation
looks like a solid bank of earth. In the first kind of dam
the surplus water percolates through the structure alon^
its entire length ; but in the second kind the discharge
takes place through a single furrow in the crest, which,
remarkable though the fact unquestionably is, the beavers
intentionally form for this purpose.

In the construction of the dam, stones are used here
and there to give down-weight and solidity. These stones
weigh from one to six pounds, and are carried by the|
beavers in the same way as they carry their mud — namely, j
by walking on their hind legs while holding their burden
against the chest with their fore-paws. The solid dam;;
are much firmer in their consistence than the stick dams;
for while a horse might walk across the former, the weight I
of a man would be too great to be sustained by the lattei.
Each kind of dam is adapted to the locality in which it i>
built, the difference between the two kinds being due to
the following cause. As a stream gains water and force in
its descent, it develops banks, and also a broader and
deeper channel. These banks assume a vertical form in
the level areas where the soil is alluvial. Thus, an open!
stick-work dam could not in such places be led off!
from either bank ; and even if it could, the force and depth
of the stream would carry it away. Therefore in such
places the beavers build their solid-bank dams, while inl
shallow and comparatively sluggish waters they contentl

LEAVER— DAMS.

375

themselves with the smaller amount of labour involved in
the building of a stick dam.

To give some idea of the proportions of a dam, I shall
epitomise a number of measurements given by Mr.
Morgan : —

Feot
Height of structure from base line . . . . 2 to 6
Difterence in depth of water above and below dam . 4 to 5

Width of base or section to 18

Length of slope, lower face G to 1 3

Length of alope, upper face 4 to 8

The only other measurement is that of length, and this,
of course, varies with the width of water to be spanned.
^^lere this width is considerable the length of a dam
may be prodigious, as the following quotation will show : —

Some of the dams in this region are not leas remarkable
for then* prodigious length, a statement of which, in fact, would
scaicely be credited unless verlued by actual measurement.
The largest one yet mentioned measui-es 2G0 feet, but there are
dams 400 and even 500 feet long.

There is a dam in two sections, situated upon a tributary of
the main branch of the Esconauba River, about a mile and
a half north-west of the Washington Main. One section
measures 110 and the other 400 feet, with an interval of
natural bank, worked here and there, of 1,000 feet. A solid-
bank diim, 20 feet in length, was first constructed across the
channel of the stream, from bank to bank, with the usual
opening for the surplus water, five feet wide. As the water
rose and overtiowed the bank on the left side, the dam was
extended for 90 feet, until it reached ground high enough to
confine the pond. This natural bank extended up the stream,
and nearly parallel with it, for 1 ,000 feet, where the ground
again subsided, and allowed the water in the upper part of the
pond to flow out and around into the channel of the stream below
the dam. To meet this emergency a second dam, 420 feet long,
was constructed. For the greater part of its length it is low, but
in some places it is two and a half and three feet high, and
constructed of stick-w^ork on the land, and with an earth
embankment on its outer face. In effect, therefore, it is one
structure 1,530 feet in length, of which 530 feet in two sections
is artificial, and the remainder natural bank, but worked here
and there where depressions in the ground required raising
by artificial means.

376

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

It is truly an astonishing fjict that animals should
engage in such vast architectural labours with what
appears to be the deliberate purpose of securing, by
such very artificial means, the special benefits that arise
from their high engineering skill. 80 astonishing, indeed,
does this fact appear, that as sober-minded interpreters of
fact we would fain look for some explanation which would
not necessitate the inference that these actions are due to
any intelligent appreciation, either of the benefits that
arise from the labour, or of the hydrostatic principles
to which this labour so clearly refers. Yet the more
closely we look into the subject, the more impossible
do we find it to account for the facts by any such easy
method. Thus it seems perfectly certain that the bea-
vers, properly and strictly speaking, understand the use
of their dams in maintaining a certain level of water.
For it is unquestionable that in the solid-bank dams, as
already observed, a regular opening or trough is cut at one
part of its crest to provide for the overflow ; and now it
has to be added that this opening is purposely widened or
narrowed with reference to the amount of water in the
stream at different times, so as to ensure the maintenance
of a constant level in the pond. Similarly, though by
different means, the same end is secured in the case of the
stick dams. For * in most of these dams the rapidity or
slowness with which the surplus water is discharged is
undoubtedly regulated by the beavers ; otherwise the level
of the pond would continually vary. There must be a con-
stant tendency to enlarge the orifices through which the
water passes,' when the stream is small, and vice versa ;
otherwise the lodges would be either inundated or have
their sub-aquatic entrances exposed.^ Moreover, a very
little consideration is enough to show that in stick dams
the tendency to increased leakage from the effects of per-
colation, and to a settling down of the dam as its materials
decay from underneath, must demand unceasing vigi-

' In times of considerable ' freshet ' the former case sometimes
occurs ; the beavers not being able to provide for a very considerable
overflow through their dams, the latter become then wholly submergerl.
Wlien again exposed, the animals take great pains in repairing the in-
juries sustained.

BEAVER— DAMS.

377

iim;ils should
s with whiit
securing, hy
its that arise
shing, indeed,
nterpreters of
L which would
ons are due to
benefits that
itic principles
Yet the more
)re impossible
any such easy
that the bea-
stand the use
[evel of water.
-bank dams, as
rh is cut at one
,v; and now it
lely widened or
)f water in the
le maintenance
Tly, though by
the case of the
the rapidity or
discharged is
erwise the level
must be a con-
ugh which the
and vice versa ;
adated or have
oreover, a very
± in stick dams
effects of per-
as its materials
mceasing vigi-

er case sometimes
a very considerable
wholly submerged,
in repairing the in-

lance and care to avert the consequences. And accordingly
it is found that * in the fall of the year a new supply of
materials is placed upon the lower face of these dams to
compensate this waste from decay.'

Now, it is obvious that we have here presented a con-
tinual variation of conditions, imposed by continual varia-
tions in the amount of water coming down ; and it is a
matter of observation that these variations are met by the
beavers in the only way that they can be met — namely, by
regulating the amount of flow taking place through the
dams. It will therefore be seen that we have here to con-
sider a totally different case from that of the operation of
pure instinct, however wonderful such operation may be.
For the adaptations of pure instinct only have reference
to conditions that are unchanging ; so that if in this case
we suppose pure instinct to account for all the facts, we
must greatly modify our ideas of what pure instinct is
taken to mean. Thus we must suppose that when the
beavers find the level of their ponds rising or falling,.
the discomfort which they experience acts as a stimulus to
cause them, without intelligent purpose, either to widen
or to narrow the orifices in their dams as the case may be.
And not only so, but the conditions of stimulation and
response must be so nicely balanced that the animals
widen or narrow these orifices with a more or less precise
([iiantitative reference to the degree of discomfort, actual
orprospective, which they experience. Now it seems tome
that even thus far it is an extremely difficult thing to be-
lieve that the mechanism of pure or wholly unintelligent
instinct could admit of sufficient refinement to meet so com-
plex a case of compensating adaptation ; and, as we shall
immediately see, this difficulty increases still more as we
contemplate additional facts relating to these structures.

Thus it sometimes happens that in large dams the
pressure of the water which they keep back is so consider-
able that their stability is endangered. In such cases it
lias been observed by Mr. Morgan that, at a short distance
j beneath the main dam, another and lower dam is thrown
across the stream, with the result of forming a shallow
pond between the two. This pond is —

378

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

Of no apparent use for beaver occupation, but yet subserving
the important purpose of setting back water to the depth

of twelve or fifteen inches ; and the small dam, by

mainbxining the water a foot deep below the great dam,
diminishes to this extent the difference in level above and
below, and neutralises to the same extent the pressure of tlie
water in the pond above against the main structure.

' Whether,' adds Mr. Morgan, with commendable caution,
' the lower dam was constructed with this motive and
for this object, or is explainable on some other hypothesis,
I shall not venture an opinion.' But as, he further adds,
* I have also found the same precise work repeated below
other large dams,' we are led to conclude that their corre-
lation cannot at least be accidental ; and as it is of so
definite a character, there really seems no * other hypothesis'
open to us than that of its having reference to the sta-
bility of the main dam. Yet, if this is the case, it be-
comes in my opinion simply impossible to attribute the
fact to the operation of pure instinct.

Again, Mr. Morgan observed one case in which, higher
up stream than the main dam, there was constructed
another dam, ninety-three feet long, and two and a half
feet high at the centre : —

A dam at this point is apparently of no conceivable
use to improve the lake for beaver occupation. It has one
feature, also, in which it differs from other dams except those
upon lake outlets, and that consists in its elevation, at all
points, of about two feet above the level of the lake at ordinary
stages of the water. In all other dams, except those upon lake
outlets, and in most of the latter, the water stands quite near
their crests, while in the one under consideration it stood
about two feet below it. This fact suggests at least the inference,
although it may have but little of probability to sustain it,
that it was constructed with special reference to sudden rises
of the lake in times of freshet, and that it Was designed to hold
this surplus water until it could be gradually dischai-ged through
the dam into the great space below. It would at least subserve
this purpose very efficiently, and thus protect the dam below it
from the effects of freshets. To ascribe the origin of this dam
to such motives of intelligence is to invest this animal with a
higher degree of sagacity than we have probable reason to

BEAVER — CANALS.

379

jret subserving
to the depth
small dam, hy
e great dtun,
el above and
ressure of the
ire.

dable caution,
s motive and
.er hypothesis,
i further adds,
•epeated below
at their corre-
as it is of so
tier hypothesis'
ce to the sta-
,he case, it be-
I attribute the

I which, higlier

ras constructed

two and a half

no conceivable
on. It has one
ms except those
elevation, at all
lake at ordinary

those upon lake
bands quite near
eration it stood
sast the inference,

ty to sustain it,
to sudden rises
designed to hold
.scharged through
at least subserve
the dam below it
L'igin of this dam
is animal with a
obable reason to

concede to him, and yet it is proper to mention the relation in
which these dams stand to each other — whether that i-elation
is regaided as accidental or intentional.

As before, we have here to commend the caution dis-
played by the closing sentence ; but, as useless dams are
not found in other places, the inference clearly is that the
dam in question, both as regards its exceptional position
and exceptional height, can only be explained by suppos-
ing the structure to have been designed for the use which
it unquestionably served. That is to say, if we do not
entertain this explanation, there is no other to be sug-
gested ; and although in any ordinary or occasional in-
stance of the display of animal intelligence in such a degree
as this I should not hesitate to attribute the facts to acci-
dent, in the case of the beaver there are such a multitude
of constantly recurring facts, all and only referable to
a practical though not less extraordinary appreciation of
hydrostatic principles, that the hypothesis of accident
must here, I think, be laid aside. To substantiate this
statement I shall detail the facts concerning the beaver-
canals.

As Mr. Morgan, who first discovered and described
these astonishing structures, observes, —

Remarkable as the dam may still be considered, from its
structure and objects, it scarcely surpasses, if it may be said to
equal, these water-ways, here called canals, which are excavated
through the low lands bordering their ponds for the purpose of
reaching the hard wood, and for affording a channel for its
transportation to their lodges. To conceive and execute such
a design presupposes a more complicated and extended process
of reasoning than that required for the construction of a dam,
and, although a much simpler work to perform when the
thought was fully developed, it was far less to have been
expected from a mute animal.

These canals are developed in this way. One of the
principal objects served by a dam thrown across a small
stream, is that of flooding the low ground so as to obtain
water connection with the first high ground upon which
hard wood is to be found, such connection being conve-
nient, or even necessary, for the purposes of transport.

380

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

Where the pond fails to accomplish this fully, and also
where the banks are defined and mark tlie limits of tlio
ix)nd, the deficiency is supplied by the canals in question. On
descending surfaces, as has elsewhere been stated, beavers rf)ll
and drag their short cuttings down into the ponds. But
where the ground is low it is generally so uneven and rough
as to render it extremely difficult, if not impossible, for the
beavers to move them for any considerable distance by physical
force. Hence the canal for floating them across the inter-
vening level ground to the pond. The necessity for it is so
apparent as to diminish our astonishment at its construction ;
and yet that the beaver should devise a canal to surmount this
difficulty is not the less remarkable.

The canals, which are made by excavation, are usually
from three to five feet wide, three feet deep, and perhaps
hundreds of feet long — the length of course depending on
the distance between the lodge and the wood supply. They
are cut in the form of trenches, having perpendicular sides
and abrupt ends. All roots of trees, under-brush, &c.,
are cleared away in their course, so as to afibrd an un-
obstructed passage. These canals are of such frequent
occurrence that it is impossible to attribute them to acci-
dent ; they are evidently made, at the cost of much labour,
with the deliberate purpose of putting them to the use for
which they are designed. In executing this purpose there
is sometimes displayed a depth of engineering forethought
over details of structure required by the circumstances of
special localities, which is even more astonishing than
the execution of the general idea. Thus it not unfre-
quently happens that when a canal has been run for a
certain distance, a rise in the level of the ground renders
it impossible to continue the structure further from the
water supply or lodge-pond, without either incurring a
great amount of labour in digging the canal with pro-
gressively deepening sides, or leaving the trench empty of
water, and so useless. In such cases the beavers resort to
various expedients, according to the nature of the ground.

Mr. Morgan gives an interesting sketch of one such
case, where the canal is excavated through low ground for
a distance of 450 feet, when it reaches the first rise of

Jii:AVJ«:R— CANALS.

381

ground, and tluoughout this distance, being level with
the pond, it is supplied with water from ^his source.
Where the rise begins ji dani is made, and the canal is
then continued for 2') feet at a level of one foot
higher than before. This higher level reach is supplied
with water collected from still higher levels by another
diini, extending for 75 feet upon one side of the
canal and 25 feet on the other, in the form of a
crescent with its concavity directed towards the high-
lands, so as to collect all the drainage water, and concen-

trate it into the second reach of the canal. Beyond this
larger dam there is another abrupt rise of a foot, and the
ca;ial is there continued for 47 feet more, where a third
dam is built resembling the second in construction, only
having a still wider span on either side of the canal (142
feet), so as to catch a still larger quantity of drainage
water to supply the third or uppermost reach of the canal.
We have, therefore, here presented, not only a perfect
application of the principle of * locks,' which are used in
canals of human construction, but also the principle of
collecting water to supply the reaches situated on the
slope by means of elaborately constructed dams of wide

382

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

extent, and of the best form for the purpose. There h
thus shown much too great a concurrence of engineorint(
principles to the attainment of one object to admit of our
attributing the facts to accident. On this structure iNIr.
Morgan observes : —

The crests of tliese dams where they cross the canals mv
depressed, or worn down, in the centre, by the constant pas-
sago of boavers over them while going to and fro and draggin(»
their cuttings. This canal with its adjuncts of dams mikI
its manifest objects is a remarkable work, transcending very
much the ordinaiy estimates of the intelligence of the beaver.
It served to bring the occupants of the pond into easy con-
nection by water with the trees that supi)lied them with food.
aa well as to relieve them from the tedious and perliaps im-
possible task of transporting their cuttings 500 feet over uneven
ground unassisted by any descent.

Again, in another case, also sketched by Mr. IMorgan,
another device is resorted to, and one which, having re-
ference to the particular circumstances of the case, is the
best that could have been adopted. Here the canal,
proceeding from the pond to the woodland 1 50 feet dis-
tant, encounters at the woodland a rising slope covered
with hard wood. Thereupon the canal bifurcates, and the
two diverging branches or prongs are carried in opposite
directions along the base of the woodland rise, one for a
distance of 100 and the other for 115 feet. The level
being throughout the same, the water from the pond sup-
plies the two branch-canals as well as the trunk. Both
branches end with abrupt vertical faces. Now the object
of these branches is sufficiently apparent : —

After the rising ground, and with it the hard wood trees,
were reached at the point where it branches, there was no
very urgent necessity for the branches. But their construc-
tion along the base of the high ground gave them a frontage
upon the canal of 215 feet of hard- wood lands, thus affording to
them, along this extended line, the great advantages of water
transportation for their cuttings.

One more proof of engineering purpose in the con-
struction of canals will be sufficient to place beyond all

BEAVER— CANALS.

383

question the fact that heavers form these canals, as they
form their dams, with a far-seeing jicrception of the suit-
ability of highly artificial means to the attainment of
particular ends, under a variety of special circumstances.
xMr. Morgan observed one or two instances where the land
included in a wind or loop of a river was cut through by
a beaver canal across the narrowest part, * ai)parently to
shorten the distance in going n]> and down by water.'
Judging from thj figures which he gives, drawn to
measurement, there can be no question that such was the
object ; and as these structures may be one or two hun-
dred feet in length, and represent the laborious excavation
of some 1,500 cubic feet of soil, the animals must be
actuated by the most vivid conception of the subsequent
[Saving in labour that is to be effected by making an arti-
ficial communication across the chord of an arc, instead
of always going round the natural curve of a stream.

Regarding now together all these facts relating to the
psychology of the beaver, it must be confessed, as I said
at the outset, that we have presented to us a problem per-
haps the most difficult of any that we have to encounter
in the whole range of animal intelligence. On the one
hand, it seems incredible that the beaver should attain to
such a level of abstract thought as would be implied by
liis forming his various structures with the calculated i)ur-
pose of achieving the ends which they undoubtedly sub-
serve. On the other hand, as we have seen, it seems
little less than impossible that the formation of these
structures can be due to instinct. Yet one or other hypo-
thesis, either singly or in combination, must be resorted
to. The case, it will be observed, thus differs from that
of the more wonderful performances of instinct elsewhere,
such as that of ants and bees, inasmuch as the perform-
ances here are so complex and varied, as well as having
reference to physical principles of a much more recondite
or less observable nature. The case from its theoretical
side being thus one of much difficulty, I think it will be
better to postpone its discussion till in ' JMental Evolu-
tion ' I come to treat of the whole subject of instinct in
[relation to intelligence

■ 1 1

•384

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

I must not, however, ronclurle this epitome of the
facts without alhuliiigto tlu; only other piibliciition on tlie
habits of the beaver whieh is of distinctly scientitic value.
This is a short but interesting pnper by Prof. Alexander
Agassiz.* He says that the largest dam he; has himself seen
measured 650 feet in length, and 3 J feet in height, witli
a small number of lodges in the vicinity of the pond. The
number of lodges is always thus very small in proportion
to the size of the dam, the greatest number of lodges
that he has observed upon one pond being five. It is
evident from this that beavers are not really gregarious in
their habits, and that their dams and canals * are the work
of a comparatively small number of animals ; but to make
up for the numbers the work of succeeding inhabitants r)f
any one pond must have been carried on for centuries to
accomplish the gigantic results we find in some localities.'
In once case Prof. Agassiz obtained what may be termed
geological evidence of the truth of an opinion advanced
by Mr. Morgan, that beaver-works may be hundreds if
not thousands of years in course of continuous forma-
tion. For the purpose of obtaining a secure foundation
for a mill dam erected above a beaver dam, it was neces-
sary to clear away the soil from the bottom of the beaver
pond. This soil was found to be a peat bog. A trencL
was dug into the peat 12 feet wide by 1,200 feet long,!
and 9 feet deep ; all the way along this trench old stumps
of trees were found at various depths, some still bearing I
marks of having been gnawed by beavers' teeth. Agassiz
calculated the growth of the bog as about a foot per cen-
tury, so that here we have tolerably accurate evidence ofl
an existing beaver dam being somewhere about a thousand]
years old.

The gradual growth of these enormous dams has ths
effect of greatly altering the configmration of the country!
where they occur. By taking levels from dams towards!
the sources of streams on which they occur, Agassiz wasl
able ideally to reconstruct the original landscape beforel
the growth of the dams, and he found that, * from thel

' Note on Beaver Dams {^Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., 1869, p. 101,j
et seq.).

BRAVER— MEADOWS.

SSI

itome of the
ic'iition on tbe
neiitittc viilut'.
rof. AVixaudtT
\s liimself seen
n height, witii
the pond. The
I in proportion
nber of lodges
ng five. It is
[y gregarious in
8 * are the work
s ; but to make
g inhabitants of
for centuries to
some loeaUties.'
t may be termed
[)inion advanced
be hundreds if
ntinuous forma-
icure foundation
m, it was neces-
m of the beaver
bog. A trencli
1,200 feet long,
rench old stumps
me still bearing

teeth. Agassiz
t a foot per cen-
irate evidence of

about a thousand!

»us dams has the
m of the countryl
,m dams towards!
)ccur, Agassiz was!
landscape beforel
that, « from the!

H. Hist, 1869, p. lOiJ

nature of the surrounding country, the open spaces now
joining the beaver ponds — the beaver meadows where ilw,
trees are scanty or small — must at on<^ time have boon all
covered with forests.* At first the beavers * began to clear
the forest just in the immediate vicinity of the dams,
extending in every direction, first up the stream as far as
the nature of the creek would allow, and then laterally by
means of their canals, as far as the level of the ground
would allow, thus little by little clearing a larger area
according to the time they have occupied any particular
place.' In this way beavers may change the whole aspect
of large tracts of country, covering with water a great
extent of ground which was once thickly wooded.

c c

386

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

CHAPTER XIII.

ELEPHANT.

The intelligence of the elephant is no doubt considerable,
although there is equally little doubt that it is generally
exaggerated. Some of the most notorious instances of I
the display of remarkable sagacity by this animal are
probably fabulous, or at least are not sufficiently corrobo- j
rated to justify belief. Such, for instance, is the cele-
brated story told by Pliny with all the assurance of ai
' certuTYi est^ ^ and repeated by Plutarchy^of the elephant,
who having been beaten for not dancing properly, was I
afterwards found practising his steps alone in the light ofl
the moon. Although this story cannot, in the absence ofl
corroboration, be accepted as fact, we ought to remember,]
in connection with it, that many talking and piping birdsf
imquestionably practise in solitude the accompli shmentsj
which they desire to learn.

Quitting, however, the enormous multitude of anecJ
dotes, more or less doubtful, and which may or may noti
be true, I shall select a few well-authenticated instance^
of the display of elephant intelligence.

Memory,

As regards memory, several cases are on record oj
tamed elephants having become wild, and, on again bein/
captured after many years, returning to all their old
habits under domestication. Mr. Corse publishes ii
the * Philosophical Transactions ' ^ an instance which cam]
under his own notice. He saw an elephant, whic|

' Plin., Hist. Kat.y viii. 1-13. » De Solo-t. Anim., c. 12.

' PhilosopMcal Transactions, 1799, p. 40.

1., pp.
Mevu

ELEPHANT — MEMOEY AND EMOTIONS.

387

US carrying baggage, take fright at the smell of a tiger
and run off. Eighteen months afterwards this elephant
was recognised by its keepers among a herd of wild com-
panions, which had been captured and were confined in an
enclosure. But when anyone approached the animal he
struck out with his trunk, and seemed as fierce as any of
the wild herd. An old hunter then mounted a tame
elephant, went up to the feral one, seized his ear and
ordered him to lie down. Immediately the force of old
associations broke through all opposition, the word of
command was obeyed, and the elephant while lying down
I gave a certain peculiar squeak which he had been known
to utter in former days. The same author gives another
and more interesting account of an elephant which, after
having been for only two years tamed, ran wild for fifteen
years, and on being then recaptured, remembered in all
kails the words of command. This, with several other
well-authenticated facts of the same kind,^ shows that the
elephant certainly has an exceedingly tenacious memory,
rendering credible the statement of Pliny, that in their
Imore advanced age these animals recognise men who were
their drivers when young.^

ETTiotions,

Concerning emotions, the elephant seems to be usually
[actuated by the most magnanimous of feelings. Even his
Iproverbial vindictiveness appears only to be excited under
i sense of remembered injustice. The universally known
Itory of the tailor and the elephant doubtless had a
foundation in fact, for there are several authentic cases on
Fecord of elephants resenting injuries in precisely the
ame way ; ^ and Captain Shipp ^ personally tested the
alter by giving to an elephant a sandwich of bread,
futter, and cayenne pepper. He then waited for six

' See Bingley, loc. cit., vol. i., pp. 148-51.
" Hist. Nat., viii., 5.

' For these and other cases of vindictiveness, see Bingley, loc. cit.,
|oU.,pp. 156-8.
* Memoirs, vol. i., p. 418.

c 2

388

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

I--

weeks before again visiting the animal, when he went
into the stable and began to fondle the elephant as he had
previously been accustomed to do. For a time no re-
sentment was shown, so that the Captain began to think
that the experiment had failed ; but at last, watching for)
an opportunity, the elephant filled his trunk with dirtvf
water, and drenched the Captain from head to foot.

Griffiths says that at the siege of Bhurtpore, in 180oj
the British army had been a long time before the citv]
and, owing to the hot dry winds, the ponds and tanks hao
dried up. There used therefore to be no little struggle
for priority in procuring water at one of the large wellJ
which still contained water : —

On one occasion two elephant-drivers, each with his elephant
the one remarkably large and strong, and the other comparativeljj
small and weak, were at the well together ; the small elephanl
had been provided by his master with a bucket for the occiisioiif
which he carried on the end of his proboscis, but the large!
animal, being destitute of this necessary vessel, either spor
taneously, or by the desire of his keeper, seized the bucket, am
easily wrested it from his less powerful fellow-servant; the lattp
was too sensible of his inferiority openly to resent the insulB^''^ ^eco
though it is obvious that he felt it ; but great squabbling anj
abuse ensued between the keepers. At length the weake|
animal, watching the opportunity when the other was standiii
with his side to the well, retired backwards a few paces in
very quiet and unsuspicious manner, and then, rushing forwaii
with all his might, drove his head against the side of the othej
and fairly pushed him into the well.

by wo

writes

Son

native,
followe(
bazaar
making

Mai

authent

Binglej

of emot

in the e

the moi

Ano

sjmpatl:

adduced

an old

elephanl

Huber s

expressic

Grreat trouble was experienced in extricating thj
elephant from the well — a task which would, indeed, hai
been impossible but for the intelligence of the animj
itself. For when a number of fascines, which had bee
employed by the army in conducting the siege, wej
thrown down the well, the elephant showed sagacij
enough to arrange them with his trunk so as to construj
a continuously rising platform, by which he gradual]
raised himself to a level with the ground.

Allied to vindictiveness for small injuries is revenge t1
large ones, and this is often shown in a terrible mannf

fct.

the sickl

For a mi

but on tJ

it stoppJ

iMr, an(

Ichain frc

Agaij

The

leader arc
|«ise of a

'^lly the

lecasions
irlien dri^

ELEPHANT — EMOTIONS.

389

i)y wounded elephants. For instance, Sir E. Tennent

writes : —

Some years ago an elephant which had been wounded by a
native, near Hambangtotte, pursued the man into the town,
followed him along the street, trampled him to death in the
bazaar before a crowd of terrified spectators, and succeeded in
making good its retreat to the jungle.

Many other cases of 'andictiveness, more or less well

I authenticated, may be found mentioned by Broderip,^

Bingley,'^ Mrs. Lee,^ Swainson,'' and Watson.^ This trait

of emotional character seems to be more generally present

I in the elephant than in any other animal, except perhaps

♦he monkey.

Another emotion strongly developed in the elephant is

I sympathy. Numberless examples on this head might be

adduced, but one or two may suffice. Bishop Huber saw

an old elephant fall down from weakness, and another

elephant was brought to assist the fallen one to rise.

Ruber says he was much struck with the almost human

expression of surprise, alarm, and sympathy manifested by

Itlie second elephant on witnessing the condition of the

first. A chain was fastened round the neck and body of

the sick animal, which the other was directed to pull.

[For a minute or two the healthy elephant pulled strongly ;

[but on the first groan given by its distressed companion

lit stopped abruptly, ' turned fiercely round with a loud

Iroar, and with trunk and fore-feet began to loosen the

mm. from the neck.'

Again, Sir E. Tennent says : —

The devotion and loyalty which the herd evince to their
leader are very remarkable. This is more readily seen in the
ase of a tusker than any other, because in a herd he is gene-
ally the object of the keenest pursuit by the hunters. On such
«casions the others do their utmost to protect him from danger :
iflien driven to extremity they place their leader in the centre

' Zoological Recreations, p. 315.
2 Animal Biography, i., pp. 156-8.
" Anecdotes of Animals, p. 276.

* Hahitsand Instincts of Animals, p. 37.

* Reasoning Power of Animals, chap. iv.

390

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

and crowd so eagerly in front of him that the sportsmen have l
to shoot a number which they might otherwise have spared. In
one instance a tusker, which was badly wounded by Major |
Rogers, was promptly surrounded by his companions, who sup.
ported him between their shoulders, and actually succeeded in |
covering his retreat to the forest.

Lastly, allusion may be made to the celebrated obser-
vation of M. le Baron de Lauriston, who was at Laknaor
during an epidemic which stretched a number of natives
sick and dying upon the road. The Nabob riding his
elephant over the road was careless whether or not the
animal crushed the men and women to death, but not sol
the elephant, which took great pains to pick his steps
among the people so as not to injure them.

The following account of emotion and sagacity is quoted I
from the Rev. Julius Young's Memoirs of his father, j\Ir.
Charles Young, the actor. The animal mentioned is the
one that subsequently attained such widespread notoriety
at Exeter Change, not only on account of his immense
size, but still more because of his cruel death : —

In July 1810, the largest elephant ever seen in England!
was advertised as 'just arrived.' As soon as Henry Harris, tbel
manager of Covent Garden Theatre, heard of it, he determined,!
if possible, to obtain it ; for it struck him that if it were to be!
introduced into the new pantomime of * Harlequin Padmenaba,'
which he was about to produce at great cost, it would add I
greatly to its attraction. Undei' this impression, and before tbel
proprietor of Exeter Change had seen it, he purchased it for tbef
sum of 900 guineas. Mrs. Henry Johnston was to ride it, im\\
Miss Parker, the columbine, was to play up to it. Younj? hap-
pened to be one morning at the box-office adjoining Coventi
Garden Theatre, when his ears were assailed by a strange andj
unusual uproar within the walls. On asking one of the car-
penters the cause of it, he was told ' it was something goingl
wrong with the elephant ; he could not exactly tell what.' ij
am not aware what the usage may be nowadays, but then,!
whenever a new piece had been announced for presentation ouj
a given night, and there was but scant time for its preparationj
a rehearsal would take place after the night's regular performance!
was over, and the audience had been dismissed. One such therej
had been the night before my father's curiosity had been roused,!
As it had been arranged that Mrs. Henry Johnston, seated ir

ELEPHANT — EMOTIONS.

391

was to ride it, ncd

ft howdali on the elephant's back, should pabs over a bridge in
the centre of a numerous s;roup of followers, it was thoui^ht
expedient that the unwieldy monster's tractability should be

tested. On stepping up to the bridge, which was slight and
temporary, the sagacious brute drew back his fore-feet and
refused to budge. It is well known as a fact in natural history
that the elephant, aware of his unusual bulk, will never trust
its weight on any object which is unequal to its support. The
stage-manager, seeing how resolutely the animal resisted every
attempt made to compel or induce it to go over the bridge in
question, proposed that they should stay proceedings till next
day, when he might be in a better mood. It was during the
repetition of the experiment that my father, having heard the
extraordinary sounds, determined to go upon the stage, and see
if he could ascertain the cause of them. The first sight that met
his eyes kindled his indignation. There stood the high animal,
with downcast eyes and flapping ears, meekly submitting to
blow after blow from a sharp iron goad, which his keeper was
driving ferociously into the fleshy part of his neck, at the root
of the ear. The floor on which he stood was converted into a
pool of blood. One of the proprietors, impatient at what he
regarded as senseless obstinacy, kept urging the driver to pro-
ceed to still severer extremities, when Charles Young, who was
a great lover of animals, expostulated with him, went up to the
poor patient sufferer, and patted and caressed him ; and when
the driver was about to wield his instrument again, with even
still more vigour, he caught him by the wrist as in a vice, and
stayed his hand from further violence. While an angry alterca-
tion was going on between Young and the man of colour, who
was the driver. Captain Hay, of the Ashel, who had brought
over * Chuny ' in his ship, and had petted him greatly on the
voyage, came in and begged to know what was the matter.
Before a word of explanation could be given, the much-wronged
creature spoke for himself; for, as soon as he perceived the
entrance of his patron, he waddled up to him, and, with a
look of gentle appeal, caught hold of his hand with his pro-
boscis, plunged it into his bleeding wound, and then thrust it
before his eyes. The gesture S(^emed to say, as plainly as if it
had been enforced by speech, ' See how these cruel men treat
Chuny. Can you approve of it ? ' The hearts of the hardest
present were sensibly touched by what they saw, and among
them that of the gentleman who had been so energetic in
promoting its harsh treatment. It was under a far better im-
pulse that he ran out into the street, purchased a few apples at

392

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

a stall, and offered them to him. Chuny eyed him askance, took
them, threw them beneath his feet, and when he had crushefl
them to pulp, spurned them from him. Young, who had gone
into Covent Garden on the same errand as the gentleman who
had preceded him, shortly after re-entered, and also held out to
him some fruit, when, to the astonishment of the bystanders,
the elephant ate every morsel, and after he had done so, twined
his trunk with studied gentleness around Young's waist, mark-
ing by his action that, though he had resented a wrong, he did
not forget a kindness.

It was in the year 1814 that Harris pai-ted with Chuny to
Cross, the proprietor of the menagerie at Exeter Change. Oiitj
of the purchaser's first acts was to send Charles Young a life
ticket of admission to his exhibition; and it was one of his little
innocent vanities, when passing through the Strand with any
friend, to drop in on Chuny, pay him a visit in his den, and
show the intimate relations which existed between them. Some
years after, when the elephant's theatrical career was run, and
he was reduced to play the part of captive in one of the cages of
Exeter Change, a thoughtless dandy one day amused himself by
teasing him with the repeated offer of lettuces — a vegetable fo'i
which he was known to have an antipathy. At last he pre-
sented him with an apple, but, at the moment of his taking it,
drove a large pin into his trunk, and then sprang out of his
reach. The keeper seeing that the poor creature was getting angry,
warned the silly fellow off, lest he should become dangerous.
With a contemptuous shrug of the shoulder, he trudged off to tbe
other end of the gallery, and there displayed his cruel ingenuity
on other humbler beasts, till, after the absence of half-an-hour,
he once more approached one of the cages opposite the elephant's,
By this time he had forgotten his pranks with Chuny, but Chuny
had not forgotten him ; and as he was standing with his back j
towards him, he thrust his proboscis through the bars of his
prison, twitched off the offender's hat, dragged it in to him, tore I
it to shreds, then threw it into the face of the offending gaby,
consummating his revenge with a loud guffiw of exultation. All
present proclaimed their approbation of this act of retributive
justice, and the discomfited coxcomb had to retreat from the]
scene in confusion, jump into a hackney ooach, and betake him-
self to the hatter's in quest of a new tile tor his unroofed skull. I
The tragic end of poor Chuny must be witlun the recollection of
many of my readers. From some cause unknown he went mad,
and after poison had been tried in vain it took 152 shots, dis-J
charged by a detachment of the Guards, to despatch him.^

' Quoted in Animal World, March 1882.

ELEPHANT — EMOTIONS.

393

n askance, took
he had crushed
f, who had gone
gentleman who
also held out to
the bystanders,
done so, twint'd
ig's waist, luark-
a wrong, he did

i with Chuny to
jr Change. Oiui
,rles Young a life
ts one of his little
Strand with any
; in his den, and
v^een them. Some
rear was run, and
►ne of the cages of
imused himself by
s — a vegetable foi
At last he pre-
.t of his taking it,
sprang out of his
was getting angry,
become dangerous,
e trudged off to the
lis cruel ingenuity
3.6 of half-an-hour,
)site the elephant's,
Ohuny, but Chuny
in<y with his back
rh^'the bars of bis
d it in to him, tore
the offending gaby,
• of exultation. All
3 act of retributive
o retreat from the
;h, and betake him-
his unroofed skull!
a the recoliection of
Lown he went mad, I
took 152 shots, dl^-]
lespatch him.*
1882.

The elephant in many respects displays strange pe-
culiarities of emotional temperament. Thus Mr. Corse
says : — ' If a wild elephant happens to be separated from
its young for only two or three days, though giving suck,
she never after recognises or acknowledges it ; ' * yet the
young one knows its dnm, and cries plnintively for her
assistance.

Again, in the wild state, the spirit of exelusiveness
shown by members of a herd {i.e. ftiinily) towards elephants
of other herds is remarkable. Sir K. Tennent writes : —

If by any accident an elephant becomes hopelessly separated
from his own herd, he is not permitted to attach himself to any
other. He may browse in the vicinity, or frequent the same
place to di'ink and to bathe ; but the intercourse is only on a
distant and conventional footing, and no familiarity or intimate
association is under any circumstances permitted. To such a
height is this exelusiveness carried, that even amidst the terror
of an elephant corral, when an individual, detached from his
own party in the melee and confusion, has been driven into the
enclosure with an unbroken herd, I have seen him if^pulsed in
every attempt to take refuge among them, and diiven off by
heavy blows with their trunks as often as he attempted to in-
sinuate himself within the circle which they had formed for
common security. There can be no reasonable doubt that this
jealous and exclusive policy not only contributes to produce, but
mainly serves to perpetuate, the class of solitary elephants which
are known by the tei-m goondahs in India, and which from their
vicious propensities and predatory habits are called llora^ or
Rogues, in Ceylon.^

The emotional temper, or rather transformation of
emotional psychology, which is exhibited by the Rogues
here mentioned, is as extraordinary as it is notorious.
From being a peaceable, sympathetic, and magnanimous
animal, the elephant, when excluded from the society of
its kind, becomes savage, cruel, and morose to a degree un-
equalled in any other animal. The repulsive accounts of
the bloodthirsty rage and wanton destructiveness of Rogues
show that their actions are not due to sudden bursts of
fury at the sight of man or his works, but rather to a

' PhilosojfMcal Transactions, 1873.
- JVutural History of Ceylon, p. 114.

394

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

deliberate and brooding resolve to wage war on everything,
so that the animal patiently lies in wait for travellers,
rushing from his ambush only when he finds that the
latter are within his power. As showing the cold-bloodod
determination of this murderous desire, I may quote
the following case, as it was communicated to Sir E.
Tennent : —

We had, says the wiiter, calculated to come up witli thf
brute where it had been seen half an hour before; but no sooner
had one of our men, wlio was walking foremost, seen the animal
at the distance of some fifteen or twenty fathoms, than he ex-
claimed, ' There ! there ! ' and immediately took to his heels,
and we all followed his example. The elephant did not see ns
until we had run some fifteen or twenty paces from the spot
where we turned, when he gave us chase, screaming frightfully
as he came on. The Englishman managed to climb a tree, .and
the rest of my companions did the same ; as for myself, I could
not, although I made one or two superhuman efforts. But there
was no time to be lost. The elephant was running at me Avitli
his trunk bent down in a curve towards the ground. At this
critical moment Mr. Lindsay held out his foot to me, with the
help of which and then of the branches of the tree, which were
three or four feet above my head, I managed to scramble up to
a branch. The elephant came directly to the tree and attempted
to force it down, which he could not. He first coiled his trunk
round the stem, and pulled it with all his might, but with no
effect. He then applied his head to the tree, and pushed for
several minutes, but with no better success. He then trampled
with his feet all the projecting roots, moving, as he did so, several
times round and round the tree. Lastly, failing in all this, and
seeing a pile of timber, which I had lately cut, at a short dis-
tance from us, he removed it all (thirty-six pieces) one at a time
to the root of the tree,, and piled them up in a regular business-
like manner ; then placing his hind feet on this pile, he raised
the fore part of his body, and reached out his trunk, but still he
could not touch us, as we were too far above him. The English-
man then fired, and the ball took effect somewhere on the
elephant's head, but did not kill him. It made him only the
more furious. The next shot, however, levelled him to the
ground. I afterwards brought the skull of the animal to Colombo,
and it is still to be seen at the house of Mr. Armitage.^

' Natural History of Ceylon, p. 140.

ELEPHANT — EMOTIONS.

395

►ms, than lie ex-

Another highly curious trait in tlie emotional psycho-
\o^y of the elephant is the readiness with which the huge
animal expires under the mere influence of what the
natives call a * broken heart.' The facts on this head are
without a parallel in any other animal, and are the more
remarkable from the fact that, so far as njitural length of
life is any token, the elephant may be said to have more
vitality, or innate power of living, than any other terres-
trial mammal. Again, to quote from Sir E. Tennent : —

Amongst the last of the elephants noosed was the rogue.
Though far more savage than the others, he joined in none of
their charges and assaults on the fences, as they uniformly drove
him off, and would not permit him to enter their circle. When
dragged past another of his companions in misfortune, who was
lying exhausted on the ground, he flew upon him and attempted
to fasten his teeth in his head ; this was the only instance of
viciousness which occurred during the progress of the corral.
"When tied up and overpowered, ho was at first noisy and violent,
but soon lay down peacefully, a sign, according to the hunters,
that his death was at hand. Their prognostication was correct ;
he continued for about twelve hours to cover himself with dust
like the others, and to moisten it ^^'ith water from his trunk ;
but at length he lay exhausted, and died so calmly, that having
been moving but a few moments before, his death was only per-
ceived by the myriads of black flies by which liis body was
almost instantly covered, although not one was visible a moment
before.^

But this peculiarity is not confined to rogue elephants.
Thus Captain Yule, in his * Narrative of an Embassy to
Ava in 1855,' records an illustration of this tendency of
the elephant to sudden death. One newly captured, the
process of taming which was exhibited to the British
Envoy, * made vigorous resistance to the placing of a collar
on its neck, and the people were proceeding to tighten it,
when the elephant, which had lain down as if quite ex-
hausted, reared suddenly on the hind quarters, and fell on
its side — dead ! '

Mr. Strachan noticed the same liability of the ele-
phants to sudden death from very slight causes. ' Of the

' Natural History of Ceylo)), p. 196.

396

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

fall,' he says, * at any time, though on plain ground, they
either die immediately, or languish till they die ; their
great weight occasioning them so much hurt by the fall.' '
And Sir E. Tennent observes that, —

In the process of taming, the presence of the tamo ones can
generally be dispensed with after two months, and the captive
may then be I'idden by the driver alone ; and after three or four
months he maybe entrusted with labour, so far as regards docility;
but it is undesirable, and even involves the risk of life, to wcjrk
an elephant too soon ; it has frequently happened that a valu-
able animal has lain down and died the first time it was tried in
harness, from what the natives believed to be * broken heart,'
certainly without any cause inferable from injury or previous
disease.'*

Nor is this tendency to die under the influence of
mere emotion restricted to the effect of a * broken heart ; '
it seems also to occur under the power of strong emo-
tional disturbances of other kinds. ^'or instance, an
elephant caught and trained by Mr. Cripps is thus alluded
to by Sir E. Tennent : —

This was the largest elephant that had been te-med in Ceylon ;
he measured upwards of nine feet at the shoulders, and belonged
to the caste so highly jjiized for the temples. He was gentle
after his first capture, but his . emoval from the corral to the
stables, though only a distance oi six miles, was a matter of the
extremest difficulty ; his extraordinary strength I'endering him
more than a match for the attendant decoys. He on one occasion
escaped, but was recaptured in the forest ; and he afterwards
became so docile as to perform a variety of tricks. He was
at length ordered to be removed to Colombo ; but such was his
terror on approaching the fort, that on coaxing him to enter the
gate he became paralysed in the extraordinary way elsewhere
alluded to, and died on the spot.

General Intelligence.

The higher mental faculties of the elephant are more
advanced in their development than in any other animal,
except the dog and monkey. I shall, therefore, devote

' Fhil. Trans., a.d. 1701, vol. xxiii., p. 1052.
- Loc. eit., p. 216.

ELEPHANT— GEN EllXL INT ELLIGEXC K.

397'

some considerable space to the ii.-irration of instniiccs of
its display. The general fact f luit ch'phants arc habitually
employed in certain parts of India for the purposes of
building, storing timber, Sec, in itself shows a level of
docile intelligence which only that of the dog can rival;
but I shall here confine myself to stating special instances
of the display of sagacity unusually h'igh, even for the
elephant.

Capt. Shipp, in his < Memoirs,' gives the following
incident, of which he was an eye-witness. During a march
with guns in the mountainous districts of India, the force
of which he was a member came to a steep ascent. A
staircase of logs was prepared to enable the elephants to
ascend the slope. When all was ready the first elephant
was led to the bottom of the staircase : —

He looked up, shook his head, and when forced by his
driver, roared piteously. There can be no question, in my
opinion, but that this sagacious animal was competent instinc-
tively to judge of the practicability of the artificial flight of steps
thus constmcted ; for the moment some little alteration had
been made, he seemed willing to approach. He then com-
menced his examination and scrutiny by pressing with his
trunk the trees that had been thrown across ; and after this he
put his fore-leg on with great caution. . . . The next step for
him to ascend by was a projecting rock, which he could not
i-emove. Here the same sagacious examination took place, the
elephant keeping his flat side close to the side of the trunk, and
leaning against it. The next step was against a tree, but this,
on the first pressure of his trunk, he did not like. Here the
driver made use of the most endearing epithets, such as
'Wonderful,' * My life,' * Well done, my dear,' ' My dove,' ' My
son,' ' My wife ; ' but all these endearing appellations, of which
elephants are so fond, would not induce him to try again.
Force was at length resorted to, and the elephant roared terri-
fically, but would not move.

Something was then altered, the elephant was satisfied,
and at last succeeded in mounting to the top of the stair-
case : —

On reaching the top his delight was visible in a most eminent
degree ; he caressed his keepers, and threw dirt about in a most
playful manner. Another elephant, a much younger animal,

398

ANIMAL 1 NTKLLKJENOP:.

had now to follow. ITo luul watcluHl the uHcont of the otLcr
with the utmoHt interest, making motions all the whilci us
thou^'h he was assisting him by Hhoiililering him up theucolivlty,
in such gestures as I have seen some men make when spectators of
gynuiastic exercises. When he saw his comrade up, ho evinced
his pleuauro hy giving a salute something like the sound of a
trumpet. When called upon to take his turn, however, he
seemed uuich alarmed, and would not act at all without force.

After a performance similar to that of the previous
elephant, however, he too neared the top, when *the
other, who had already performed his task, extended his
trunk to the assistance of his brother in distress, round
which the younger animal entwined his, and thus reached
the summit.' There was then a cordial greeting between
the two animals, * as if they had been long separated
from each other, and had just escaped from some perilous
achievement. Tht^y mutually embraced each other, jind
stood face to face for a considerable time, as if whispering
congratulations.' *

Mr. Jesse says : * I was one day feeding the poor
elephant (who was so barbarously put to death at Exeter
Change) with potatoes, which he took out of my hand.
One of them, a round one, fell on the floor, just out of
reach of his proboscis.' After several ineffectual attempts
to reach it, *he at length blew the potato against the
opposite wall with sufficient force to make it rebound,
and he then without difficulty secured it.' ^

This remarkable observation has fortunately been cor-
roborated by Mr. Darwin. He writes : —

I have seen, as I dare say have others, that when a small
object is thrown on the ground beyond the reach of one of the
elephants at the Zoological Gardens, he blows through his
trunk on the ground beyond the object, so that the current
reflected on all sides may drive the object within his reach.^

The observation has also been corroborated by other
observers.*

' Memoirs, vol. ii., p. 64 et seq.

2 Jesse, Gleanings in Natural History, vol. i., p. 19.

" Descent of JIan, p. 96.

* See Animal Kingdom, vol. iii., p. 374.

KLKPHANT— GEN HRAL INTKMJO KNCK.

399

of the otbur

tho while iis

p the acclivity,

jn spectators of

ho cvinceil

the sounil of a
, ho wo vol", be
vithout foice.

the previous
3, when 'the
] extended his
Ustress, round
I thus reached
3ting between
mg separated

some perilous
ich other, and
s if whispering

ling the poor
eath at Exeter
t of my hand.
)or, just out of
actual attempts
to against the
,ke it rebound,

lately been cor-

at when a small
ich of one of the
3WS through his
that the current
lin his reach.^

)orated by other

1. 1., p. 19.

The following is (luoled from Mr. Watson's book : ' —

Of tho elephant's scuso and judgment tho following iiiHt4itico
is given as a well-known fact in a letter of Dr. Daniel Wilson,
lUshop of Calcutta, to his son in Kn^land, printed in a Life of
the bishop, published a few years a^o. An elephant belonging
to an Engineer ofliccr in his diocese had a disease in his eyes,
iiud had for thi*eo days been completely >)lind. 7 lis owner
iiskcd Dr. Webb, a physician intimate with tla^ bishop, if ho
could do anything for the relief of tho animal. Dr. Webb
replied that ho was willing to tiy, on one of the eyes, tho effect
of nitrate of silver, which was a remedy commonly used for
similar diseases in tho human eye. The animal was accordingly
made to lie down, and when tho nitrate of silver was a})plied,
uttered a torritic roar at tho acute pain which it occasioned.
Hut tho effoct of the application was wonderful, for the eyo was
in a groat degree restored, and the elephant could partially see.
The doctor was in consequence ready to operate similarly on
the other eye on the following day; and tho animal, when he
was brought out and heard the doctor's voice, lay down of him-
self, placed his head quietly on one side, curled up his trunk,
drew in his breath like a human l)eing about to endure a pain-
ful operation, gave a sigh of relief when it was over, and then,
by motions of liis trunk and other gestures, gave evident signs
of wishing to express his gratitude. Here we plainly see in
the elephant memory, understanding, and reasoning from one
thing to another. The animal remembeied the benefit that he
had felt from the apphcation to one eye, and when ho was
brought to the same place on the following day and hejird the
operator's voice, he concluded that a like service was to be done
to his other eye.

The fact that elephants exhibit this sai]jacious fortitude
under surgical operations — thus resembling, as we shall
afterwards observe, both dogs and monkeys — is corro-
borated by another instance given in Bingley's ' Animal
Biography,'- and serves to render credible the following
story given in th ■ same work : —

In the last war ia India a young elephant received a violent
wound in its head, the pain of which rendered it so frantic and
ungovernable that it was found impossible to persuade the
animal to have the part dressed. Whenever any one approached

* Reasoning Pon'er of Animals, pp. 54-5.

' Binglcy, Animal Biography^ vol. i., p. 153.

400

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

it ran off with fury, and would suffer no person to come within
seveial yards of it. The man who had caro of it at length hit
upon a contrivance for securing it. By a few words and signs
he gave the mother of the animal sufficient intelligence of what
was wanted ; the sensible creature immediately seized her
young one with her trunk, and held it firmly down, though
groaning with agony, while the surgeon completely dressed the
wound ; and she continued to perform this service every day till
the animal was perfectly recovered.*

Again, as still further corroboration of this point, I
may quote the following from Sir E. Tennent's * Natural
History of Ceylon : ' —

Nothing can more strongly exhibit the impulse to obedience
in the elephant than the patience with which, at the order of
his keeper, he swallows the nauseous medicines of the native
elephant-doctors ; and it is impossible to witness the fortitude
with which (without shrinking) he submits to excruciating
surgical operations for the removal of tumours and ulcers te
which he is subject, without conceiving a vivid impression of
his gentleness and intelligence. Dr. Davy when in Ceylon was
consulted about an elephant in the Government stud, which
was suffering from a deep, burrowing sore in the back, just over
the back-bone, which had long resisted the treatment ordinarily
employed. He recommended the use of the knife, that issue
might be given to the accumulated matter, but no one of the
attendants was competent to undertake the operation. * Being
assured,' he continues, * that the creature would behave well, I
undertook it myself. The elephant was not bound, but was |
made to kneel down at his keeper's command ; and with an
amputating knife, using all my force, I made the incision!
required through the tough integuments. The elephant did
not flinch, but rather inclined towards me when using the
knife; and merely uttered a low, and as it were suppressed
groan. In short, he behaved as like a human being as possible,
as if conscious (as I believe he was) that the operation was for I
his good, and the pain unavoidable.

Major Skinner witnessed the following display ofl
intelligent action by a large herd of wild elephant?.!
During the hot season at Nenera Kalama the elephaIlt^
have a difficulty in finding water, and are therefore

• Bingley, Animal Biograjthy^ vol. i., p. 165.

oblige
to be (
kuowi]
bourh(
ceedin

climbe(
waited
o( the (
the wo(
within
motionl
that no
ally, at
ep.ch, he
not thir
minutes
tiously i
the woo(
ffith wh
within i
patrols,
herd, w
hundred
extraord
I sentinels
reconnai
rently sa
?ave th(
I Skinnerj
I unreser^
I which hd
I ever peq
co-operal
|responsi^

Mr. J

Whal

reasons
[iDstanceJ

through
land the

' See

1118-20.

ELEPHANT— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

401

obliged to congregate in large numbers where water is
to be obtained. Being stationed near a water supply, and
knowing that a large herd of elephants were in the neigh-
bourhood, Major Skinner resolved to watch their pro-
ceedings. On a moonlight night, therefore, he

climbed a ti*ee about four hundred yards from the water, and
waited patiently for two hours before he heard or saw anything
of the elephants. At length he saw a huge beast issue from
the wood, and advance cautiously across the open gi-ound to
within a hundred yards of the tank, where he stood perfectly
motionless ; and the rest of the herd, meanwhile, were so quiet
tliat not the least sound was to be heard from them. Gradu-
ally, at three successive advances, halting some minutes after
ep^ch, he moved up to the water's edge, in which, however, he did
not think proper to quench his thirst, but remained for several
minutes listening in perfect stillness. He then returned cau-
tiously and slowly to the point at which he had issued from
the wood, from whence he came back with five other elephants,
with which he proceeded, somewhat less slowly than before, to
within a few yards of the tank, where he posted them as
patrols. He then re-entered the wood and collected the whole
herd, which must have amounted to between eighty and a
hundred, and led them across the open ground with the most
extraordinary composure and quiet till they came up to the five
sentinels, when he left them for a moment, and again made a
I reconnaissance at the edge of the tank. At last, being appa-
rently satisfied that all was safe, he turned back, and obviously
ffave the order to advance ; ' for in a moment,' says Major
Skinner, * the whole herd rushed to the water with a degree of
unreserved confidence so opposite to the caution and timidity
which had marked their previous movements, that nothing will
ever persuade me that there was not rational and preconcerted
co-operation throughout the whole party, and a degree of
[responsible authority exercised by the patriarch-leader.' ^

Mr. H. L. Jenkins writes to me : —

What I particularly wish to observe is that there are good
[reasons for supposing that elephants possess abstract ideas; for
Ustance, I think it is impossible to doubt that they acquire
Ithrough their own experience notions of hardness and weight,
l&nd the grounds on which I am led to think this are as follows.

' See his letter to Sir E. Tennent in Nat. Jlist. of Ceylon, pp.

1118-20.

D D

402

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

A captured elephant after he has been taught his ordinary duty
say about three months after he is taken, is taught to pick up
things from the ground and give them to his mahout sitting on
his shoulders. Now for the first few months it is dangerous to
require him to pick up anything but soft articles, such as
clothes, because the things are oflen handed up with consider-
able force. After a time, longer with some elephants than
others, they appear to take in a knowledge of the nature of the
things they are required to lift, and the bundle of clothes will
be thrown up sharply as before, but heavy things, such as a
crowbar or piece of iron chain, will be handed up in a gentle
manner ; a sharp knife will be picked up by its handle and |
placed on the elephant's head, so that the mahout can also take I
it by the handle. I have purposely given elephants things to
lift which they could never have seen before, and they were all |
handled in such a manner as to convince me that they recog-
nised such qualities as hardness, sharpness, and weight. You I
are quite at liberty to make any use of these remarks you please
if they are of service.

Again, as Dr. Lindley Kemp observes,* * the manner
in which tame elephants assist in capturing wild onesi
affords us an instance of reasoning in an animal,' &c. ; and]
similarly, Mr. Darwin observes : * It is, I think, im-
possible to read the account given by Sir E. Tennentl
of the behaviour of the female elephants used as de-l
coys, without admitting that they intentionally practisel
deceit.' 2

The following is an extract from the more interesting!
of the observations to which Mr. Darwin here alludes, and!
I think it is impossible to read them without assenting to|
his judgment. Several herds of wild elephants having
been driven into a corral, two tame decoys were ridder
into it : —

One was of prodigious age, having been in the service of the
Dutch and English Governments in succession for upwards o^
a century. The other, called by her keeper * Siribeddi,' wa
about fifty years old, and distinguished for gentleness and docij
lity. She was a most accomplished decoy, and evinced the
utmost relish for the sport. Having entered the corral noise
lessly, carrying a mahout on her shoulders with the headman ol

Indications of Instinct, p. 1 29.

2 Descent of Man, p. 69.

ELEPHANT— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

403

is ordinary duty,
light to pick up
about sitting on
b is dangerous to
irticles, such as
ip with consider-
5 elephants tlian
the nature of the
le of clothes will
bhings, such as a
led up in a gentle
oy its handle and
lout can also take
ephants things to
and they were all
e that they recog-
md weight. You
remarks you please

VLYing

tte noosers seated behind him, she moved slowly along with a
Ijlv composure and an assumed air of easy indifference ; saunter-
ing leisurely in the dii-ection of the captivos, and baiting now and
|then to pluck a bunch of grass or a few leaves as she passed. As
le approached the herd they put themselves in motion to meet
iPr, and the leader, having advanced in front and passed bis
unk gently over her head, turned and paced slowly back to
s dejected companions. Siribeddi followed with the same
listless step, and drew herself up close behind him, thus affbrd-
g the nooser an opportunity to stoop under her and slip the
lOOse over the hind foot of the wild one. The latter instantly
rceived his danger, shook off the rope, and tm'ned to attack
eman. He would have suffered for his temerity had not
liribeddi protected him by raising her trunk and driving the
gsailant into the midst of the herd, when the old mai, being
ightly wounded, was helped out of the corral, and his son,
nghanie, took his place.

The herd again collected in a circle, with their heads

iwards the centre. The largest male was singled out, and

tame ones pushed boldly in, one on either side of him, till

le three stood nearly abreast. He made no resistance, but

toyed his uneasiness by shifting restlessly from foot to foot.

ghanie now crept up, and holding the rope open with both

mds (its other extremity being made fast to Siribeddi's collar),

id watching the instant when the wild elephant hfted its

d foot, succeeded in passing the noose over its leg, drew it

e, and fled to the rear. The two tame elephants instantly

back, Siribeddi stretched the rope to its full length, and

lilst she dragged out the captive, her companion placed

self between her and the herd to prevent any inter-

■ence.

In order to tie him to a tree he had to be drawn back-

ds some twenty or thirty yards, making furious resistance,

lowing in terror, plunging on all sides, and crushing the

lUer timber, which bent like reeds beneath his clumsy

ggles. Siribeddi drew him steadily after her, and wound

rope round the proper tree, holding it all the time at its

tension, and stepping cautiously across it when, in order to

gentleness and doc«e it a second turn, it was necessary to pass between the tree

and evinced tli^ the elephant. With a coil round the stem, however, it

beyond her strength to haul the prisoner close up, which
, nevertheless, necessary in order to make him perfectly
but the second tame one, perceiving the difficulty, re-
ed from the herd, confronted the struggling prisoner,

DD 2

' the manner
wild ones
mimal,' &c. ; and
is, I think, im
Sir E. Tennent
Lnts used as de-
ationally practise

more interesting!
here alludes, and|
hout assenting to|
elephants havin
jcoys were ridde

Ln the service of th
3sion for upwards d
er 'Siribeddi,' w

Bd the corral noisM
^ith the headman o

X7it of Man, p.

69.

404

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

rope V
thusg!
pushed

-&> and

pushed him shoulder to shoulder, and head to head, forcin
him backwards, whilst at every step Siribeddi hauled in th
slackened rope till she brought him fairly up to the foot of th
tree, where he was made fast by the cooroowe people
second noose was then passed over the other hind-leg
secured like the first, both legs being afterwards hobbled t(
gether by ropes made from the fibre of the kitool or jagger
palm, which, being more flexible than that of the cocoa-nu
occasions less formidable ulcerations. The two decoys the
ranged themselves, as before, abreast of the prisoner on eithel
side, thus enabling Ranghanie to stoop under them and nooi
the two fore-feet as he had already done the hind; and the:
ropes being made fast to the tree in front, the capture wi
complete, and the tame elephants and keepers withdrew
repeat the operation on another of the herd.

The second victim singled out from the herd was secured
the same manner as the first. It was a female. The ta
ones forced themselves in on either side as before, cutting h
ofi" from her companions, whilst Ranghanie stooped under thei
and attached the fatal noose, and Siribeddi dragged her o
amidst unavailing struggles, when she was made fast by ea
leg to the nearest group of strong trees. When the noose w|
placed upon her fore-foot, she seized it with her trunk, and s
ceeded in carrying it to her mouth, where she would speedily haj
severed it had not a tame elephant interfered, and placing his f(
on the rope pressed it downwards out of her jaws,
conduct of the tame ones duiing all these proceedings wastn
wonderful. They displayed the most perfect conception
every movement, both of the object to be attained and of
means to accomplish it. They manifested the utmost enj
ment in what was going on. There was no ill-humour
malignity in the spirit displayed, in what was otherwisi
heartless proceeding, but they net about it in a way that showeBf their d|
thorough relish for it, as an agreeable pastime. Their cautMheir nee
was as remarkable as their sagacity ; there was no hurrying Jeir side,

were never in
amidst the
violent struggles, when the tame ones had frequently to
across the captives, they in no instance trampled on thei
occa&ioned the slightest accident or annoyance. So far ii
this, they saw intuitively a difficulty or a danger, and addn
themselves unbidden to remove it. In tying up one of
larger elephants, he contrived, before he could be hauled
up to the tree, to walk once or twice round it, carryin

:n?ing n

confusion, they never ran foul of the ropes,
way of the animals already noosed ; and

leads

anc

Sir
pes to
kth qi
iber,

EliEPHANT— GENER.VL INTELLIGENCE.

405

Lpe with him; the decoy, perceiving the advantage he had
I thus gained over the nooser, walked up of her own accord, and
pushed him backwards with her head, till she made him un-
1 ^nd himself again ; upon which the rope was hauled tight and
made fast. More than once, when a wild one was extending
l)is trunk, and would have intercepted the rope about to be
placed over his leg, Siribeddi, by a sudden motion of her own
trunk, pushed his aside, and prevented him ; and on one occasion,
when successive efforts had failed to put the noose over the
fore-leg of an elephant which was ah-eady secured by one foot,
but which wisely put the other to the ground as often as it was
attempted to pass the noose under it, I saw the decoy watch
her opportunity, and when his foot was again raised, suddenly
push in her own leg beneath it, and hold it up till the noose
Uas attached and drawn tight.

One could almost fancy there was a display of dry humour
I in the manner in which the decoys thus played with the fears
ofthe wild herd, and made light of their efforts at resistance.
I When reluctant they shoved them forward, when violent they
lilrove them back ; when the wild ones threw themselves down,
I the tame ones butted them with head and shoulders, and forced
Ithem up again. And when it was necessary to keep them
Idown, they knelt upon them, and prevented them from rising,
|till the ropes were secured.

At every moment of leisure they fanned themselves with a
Ibunch of leaves, and the graceful ease with which an elephant
loses his trunk on such occasions is very striking. It is doubtless
lowing to the combination of a circular with a horizontal move-
Iment in that flexible limb; but it is impossible to see an
[elephant fanning himself without being struck by the singular
flegance of motion which he displays. The tame ones, too, in-
yged in the luxury of dusting themselves with sand, by
linging it from their trunks ; but it was a curious illustration
bf their delicate sagacity, that so long as the mahout was on
heir necks, they confined themselves to flinging the dust along
heir sides and stomach, as if aware that to throw it over their
pads and back would cause annoyance to their riders.^

Sir E. Tennent has also some observations on other
bes to which tame elephants are put, which are well
pth quoting. Thus, speaking of the labour of piling

iber, he says that the elephant

' Natural History of Ceylon, pp. 181-94.

406

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

manifests an intelligence and dexterity which are surprising to ai
stranger, because the sameness of the operation enables the
animal to go on for hours disposing of log after log, almost!
without a hint or direction from his attendant. For oxamp'
two elephants employed in piling ebony and satin wood in t ..j
yards attached to the commissariat stores at Colombo, were soi
accustomed to their work, that they were able to acco unlislj
it with equal precision and with greater rapidity than if i had
been done by dock-labourers. When the pile attained a certain I
height, and they were no longer able by their conjoint effortsl
to raise one of the heavy logs of ebony to the summit, they hadj
been taught to lean two pieces against the heap, up the incline
plane of which they gently rolled the remaining logs, andl
placed them trimly on the top.

It has been asserted that in their occupations * elephants are
to a surprising extent the creatures of habit,* that their move-l
ments are altogether mechanical, and that * they are annovet^
by any deviation from their accustomed practice, and resentj
any constrained departure from the regularity of their course.1
So far as my own observation goes, this is incorrect ; and I auif
assured by officers of experience, that in regard to changing hia
treatment, his hours or his occupation, an elephant evinces no
more consideration than a horse, but exhibits the same pliancy
and facility.

At cne point, however, the utility of the elephant stop^
short. Such is the intelligence and earnestness he displays id
work, which he seems to conduct almost without supervisionj
that it has been assumed that he would continue his labourJ
and accomplish his given task, as well in the absence of hia
keeper as during his presence. But here his innate love oi
ease displays itself, and if the eye of his attendant be withdrawn]
the moment he has finished the thing immediately in hand, m
will stroll away lazily, to browse or enjoy the luxury of fanning
himself and blowing dust over his back.

The means of punishing so powerful an animal is a question
of difficulty to his attendants. Force being almost inapplicable
they try to work on his passions and feelings, by such exJ
pedients as altering the nature of his food or withholding if
altogether for a time. On such occasions the demeanour of tlid
creature will sometimes evince a sense of humiliation as well
as of discontent. In some parts of India it is customary, ill
dealing with offenders, to stop their allowance of sugar canej
or of jaggery ; or to restrain them from eating their own shard
of fodder and leaves till their companions shall have finished!

ELEPHANT— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

407

are surprising to a
ation enables tbel

after log, almost |
nt. For cxamp'
[ satin wood in to I

Colombo, were so
He to acco ur>lisli|
dity than i£ i had
! attained a certain I
jir conjoint efforts!
3 summit, they hatll
5ap, up the inelinedl
3maining logs, aii(l|

tions ' elephants are
,,' that their move-'
* they are annoyeilj
)ractice, and resent
ity of their course.'l
ncorrect ; and I auif
rard to changmg hig
elephant evinces no
its the same pliancy

the elephant stops
bness he displays id
fcrithout supervision]
ontinue his labour]
the absence of hi^
his innate love ol
adant be withdrawn]
ediately in hand, hj
le luxury of fanuing

animal is a questioi
almost inapplicabL
5elings, by such ex
d or withholding it
le demeanour of tlif
humiliation as well

it is customary, ii
ance of sugar canei
ting theii' own shari

shall have finished

and in such cases the consciousness of degradation betrayed by
the looks and attitudes of the culprit is quite sufficient to
identify him, and to excite a feeling of sympathy and pity.

The elephant's obedience to his keeper is the result of affec-
tion, as well as of fear; and although his attachment becomes
so strong that an elephant in Ceylon has been known to remain
out all night, without food, rather than abandon his mahout,
lying intoxicated in the jungle, yet he manifests little difficulty
iii yielding the same submission to a new driver in the event
of a change of attendants.^

Lastly, Sir E. Tennent writes : —

One evening, whilst riding in the vicinity of Candy, towards
the scene of the massacre of Major Dabies' party in 1803, my
torse evinced some excitement at a noise which approached us
in the thick jungle, and which consisted of a repetition of the
ejaculation urmph ! urmph / in a hoarse and dissatisfied tone.
A turn in the forest explained the mystery, by bringing us face
to face with a tame elephant, unaccompanied by any attendant.
He was labouring painfully to carry a heavy beam of timber,
which he balanced across his tusks, but, the pathway being
Diirrow, he was forced to bend his head to one side to permit it
to pass endways; and the exertion and this inconvenience
combined led him to utter the dissatisfied sounds which dis-
turbed the composure of my horse. On seeing us halt, the
elephant raised his head, reconnoitred us for a moment, then
liung down the timber, and voluntarily forced himself back-
wards among the brushwood so as to leave a passage, of which
he expected us to avail ourselves. My horse hesitated : the
elephant observed it, and impatiently thrust himself deeper
into the jungle, repeating his cry of urmph I but in a voice
evidently meant to encourage us to advance. Still the horse
trembled ; and, anxious to observe the instinct of the two
sagacious animals, I forebore any interference : again the
elephant of his ow^n accord wedged himself further in amongst
the trees, and manifested some impatience that we did not pass
him. At length the horse moved forward ; and when we were
fairly past, I saw the wise creature stoop and take up its heavy
|biirden, trim and balance it on its tusks, and resume its route

before, hoarsely snorting its discontented remonstrance.

Dr. Erasmus Darwin records an observation which
ifas communicated to him by a ' gentleman of undoubted

* Natural History of Ceylon, pp. 181-94.

408

ANIMAL INTEIXIGENCE.

:tJ:

ij'

veracity,' of an elephant in India which the keeper was in
the habit of leaving to play the part of nurse to his child
when he and his wife had occasion to go away from home.
The elephant was chained up, and whenever the child in
its creeping about came to the end of the elephant's
tether, he used gently to draw it back again with his
trunk.

In * Nature,' vol. xix., p. 385, Mr. J. J. Furniss
writes : —

In Central Park one very hot day my attention was drawn
to the conduct of an elephant which had been placed in an
enclosure in the open air. On the ground was a large heap of I
newly-mown grass, which the sagacious animal was taking up by
the trunkful, and laying carefully upon his sun-heated back. He
continued the operation until his back was completely thatched,
when he remained quiet, apparently enjoying the result of his
ingenuity.

Mr. Furniss in a later communication (vol. xx., p. 21)
continues : —

Since the publication of my former letter (as above), I
have received additional data bearing on the subject from Mr.
W. A. Conklin, the superintendent of the Central Parkj
Menagerie. I am informed by him that he has frequently
observed elephants, when out of doors in the hot sunshine,
thatch their backs with hay or grass; that they do so to a]
certain extent when under cover in the summer time, and when
the flies which then attack the animals, often so fiercely as to |
draw blood, are particularly numerous ; but that they never
attempt to thatch their backs in winter. This seems to prove I
that they act intelligently for the attainment of a definite end.
It would be interesting to learn whether elephants in their |
wild state are in the habit of so thatching their backs. It
seems more probable to suppose that in their native wilds they I
would avail themselves of the natural shade afibrded by the
jungle, and that the habit is one which has been developed]
in consequence of their changed surroundings in captivity.

Mr. G-. E. Peal writes to * Nature ' (vol. xxi., p. 34):-

One evening, soon after my arrival in Eastern Assam, and
while the five elephants were as usual being fed opposite the
bungalow, I observed a young and lately caught one step up to
a bamboo-stake fence, and quietly pull one of the stakes up.

ELEPHANT— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

409

J. J. Furniss

(vol. XX., p. 21)

Placing it under foot, it broke a piece off with the trunk, and
after lifting it to its mouth threw it away. It repeated this
twice or thrice, and then drew another stake and began again.
Seeing that the bamboo was old and dry I asked the reason ot
this, and was told to wait and see what it would do. At last it
seemed to get a piece that suited, and holding it in the trunk
firmly, and stepping the left fore-leg well forward, passed the
piece of bamboo under the armpit, so to speak, and began to
scratch with some force. My surprise reached its climax when
I saw a large elephant leech fall on the ground, quite six inches
long and thick as one's finger, and which, from its position,
could not easUy be detached without this scraper or scratcher
which was deliberately made by the elephant. I subsequently
found that it was a common occuiTence. Such scrapers are
used by every elephant daily.

On another occasion, when travelling at a time of the year
when the large flies are so tormenting to an elephant, I noticed
that the one I rode had no fan or wisp to beat them off with.
The mahout, at my order, slackened pace and allowed her to
go to the side of the road, when for some moments she moved
along rummaging the smaller jungle on the bank ; at last she
ame to a cluster of young shoots well branched, and after
feeling among them and selecting one, raised her trunk and
neatly stripped down the stem, taking off all the lower branches
and leaving a fine bunch on top. She deliberately cleaned it
down several times, and then laying hold at the lower end
broke off a beautiful fan or switch about five feet long, handle
included. With this she kept the flies at bay as we went along,
flapping them off on each side.

Say what we may, these are both really londfide implements,
each intelligently made for a definite purpose.

My friend Mrs. A. S. H. Eichardson sends me the
following. The Eev. Mr. Townsend, who narrated the epi-
sode, is personally known to her : —

An elephant was chained to a tree in the compound opposite
Mr. Townsend's house. Its driver made an oven at a short
distance, in which he put his rice-cakes to bake, and then
covered them with stones and grass and went away. When he
was gone, the elephant with his trunk unfastened the chain
round his foot, went to the oven and uncovered it, took out
and ate the cakes, re-covered the oven with the stones and
grass as before, and went back to his place. He could not

410

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

fasten the chain again round his own foot, so he twisted it
I'oiind and round it, in order to look the same, and when the
driver returned the elephant was standing with his back to the
oven. The driver went to his cakes, discovered the theft, and,
looking round, caught the elephant's eye as he looked back over
his shoulder out of the corner of it. Instantly he detected the
culprit, and condign punishment followed. The whole occur-
rence was witnessed from the windows by the family

o he twisted it
3, and when the
. his back to the
i the theft, and,
ooked back over
he detected the
'he whole occur,
[amily

CHAPTER XIV.

THE CAT.

The cat is unquestionably a highly intelligent animal,
though when contrasted with its great domestic rival, the
dog, its intelligence, from being cast in quite a different
mould, is very frequently imderrated. Comparatively un-
social in temperament, wanderingly predaceous in habits,
and lacking in the affectionate docility of the canine
nature, this animal has never in any considerable degree
been subject to those psychologically transforming influ-
ences whereby a prolonged and intimate association
with man has, as we shall subsequently see, so profoundly
modified the psychology of the dog. Nevertheless, as we
shall immediately find, the cat is not only by nature an
animal remarkable for intelligence, but in spite of its
naturally imposed disadvantages of temperament, has not
altogether escaped those privileges of nurture which un-
numbered centuries of domestication could scarcely fail
to supply. Thus, as contrasted with most of the wild
species of the genus when tamed from their youngest
days, the domestic cat is conspicuously of less uncertain
temper towards its masters — the uncertainty of temper
displayed by nearly all the wild members of the feline tribe
when tamed being, of course, an expression of the inter-
ference of individual with hereditary experience. And, as
contrasted with all the wild species of the genus when
tamed, the domestic cat is conspicuous in alone manifest-
ing any exalted development of affection towards the
human kind ; for in many individual cases such affection,
under favouring circumstances, reaches a level fully com-
parable to that which it attains in the dog. We do not
know the wild stock from which the domestic cat originally

412

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

sprang, and therefore cannot estimate the extent of the
psychological results which human agency has here pro-
duced; but it is worth while in this connection to
remember that the nearest ally of the domestic cat is the
wild cat, and that this animal, while so closely resembling
its congener in size and anatomical structure, differs so
enormously from it in the branch of psychological structure
which we are considering, that there is no animal on the
face of the earth so obstinately untamable.

As regards the wild species of the tribe in general, it
may be said that they all exhibit the same unsocial, fierce,
and rapacious character. Bold when brought to bay, they
do not court battle with dangerous antagonists, but prefer
to seek safety in flight. Even the proverbial courage of the
lion is now known, as a rule, to consist in ' the better part
of valour;' and those exceptional individuals among
tigers which adopt a * man- eating' propensity, snatch
their human victims by stealth. That the larger feline
animals possess high intelligence would be shown, even in
the absence of information concerning their ordinary
habits, by the numerous tricks which they prove them-
selves capable of learning at the hands of menagerie-
keepers ; though in such cases the conflict of nature with
nurture renders even the best-trained specimens highly
uncertain in their behaviour, and therefore always more or
less dangerous to the * lion-kings.' The only wild species
that is employed for any practical purpose — the cheetah
— is so employed by utilising directly its natural instincts ;
it is shown the antelope, and runs it down after the
manner of all its ancestors.

Keturning now to the domestic cat, it is commonly
remarked as a peculiar and distinctive trait in its emo-
tional character that it shows a strongly rooted attach-
ment to places as distinguished from persons. There can
be no question that this peculiarity is a marked feature in
the psychology of domestic cats considered as a class,
although of course individual exceptions occur in abun-
dance. Probably this feature is a survival of an instinctive
attachment to dens or lairs bequeathed to our cats by their
wild progenitors.

CAT-EMOTIONS AND OKNEKAL INTELLIGKNcK. 413

The only other feature in the emotional lifr of eats
which calls for special notice is that which leads to their
universal and proverbial treatment of helpless prey. The
feelings that prompt a cat to torture a captured mouse
can only, I think, be assigned to the category to which by
common consent they are ascribed—delight in torturing
for torture's sake. Speaking of man, John S. :Mill some-
where observes that there is in some human beings a
special faculty or instinct of cruelty, which is not merely
a passive indifference to the sight of physical sufferings,
but an active pleasure in witnessing or causing it. Now,
so far as I have been able to discover, the only animals in
which there is any evidence of a class of feelings in any
way similar to these—if, indeed, in the case even of such
animals the feelings which prompt actions of gratuitous
cruelty really are similar to those which prompt it in man —
are cats and monkeys. With regard to monkeys I shall
adduce evidence on this point in the chapter which treats
of these animals. With regard to cats it is needless to
dwell further upon facts so universally known.

General Intelligence,

Coming now to the higher faculties, it is to be
noted as a general feature of interest that all cats, how-
ever domesticated they may be, when circumstances
require it, and often even quite spontaneously, throw
off with the utmost ease the whole mental clothing
of their artificial experience, and return in naked sim-
plicity to the natural habits of their ancestors. This
readiness of cats to become feral is a strong expression
of the shallow psychological influence which prolonged
domestication has here exerted, in comparison with that
which it has produced in the case of the dog. A pet
terrier lost in the haunts of his ancestors is almost as
pitiable an object as a babe in the wood ; a pet cat under
similar circumstances soon finds itself quite at home. The
reason of this difference is, of course, that the psychology
of the cat, never having lent itself to the practical uses of,
and intelligent dependency on, man, has never, as in the

414

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

case of the dog, been under the cumulative influence of
human agency in becoming further and further bent away
from its original and naturally imposed position of self-
reliance ; so that when now a severance takes place between
a cat and its human protectors, the animal, inheriting
unimpaired the transmitted experience of wild progenitors,
knows very well how to take care of itself.

Having made these general remarks, I shall now pass
on to quote a few instances showing the highest level of
intelligence to which cats attain.

As to observation, Mrs. Hubbard tells me of a cat
which she possessed, and which was in the habit of
poaching young rabbits to * eat privately in the seclusion
of a disused pigsty.' One day this cat caught a small black
rabbit, and instead of eating it, as she always did the
brown ones, brought it into the house unhurt, and laid it
at the feet of her mistress. ' She clearly recognised the
black rabbit as an unusual specimen, and apparently
thought it right to show it to her mistress.' Such was
' not the only instance this cat showed of zoological dis-
crimination,' for on another occasion, * having caught
another unusual animal — viz., a stoat — she also brought
this alive into the house for the purpose of exhibiting it.'

Mr. A. Percy Smith informs me of a cat which he
possesses, and which, to test her intelligence, he used to
punish whenever her kittens misbehaved. Very soon this
had the effect of causing the cat herself to train the
kittens, for whenever they misbehaved ' she swore at them
and boxed their ears, until she taught the kittens to be
clean.'

Mr. Blackman, writing from the London Institution,
tells me of a cat which he has, and which without
tuition began to ' beg ' for food, in imitation of a terrier
in the same house whose begging gesture it must have
observed to be successful in the obtaining of tit-bits.
The cat, however, would never beg unless it was
hungry ;—

And no coaxing could persuade it to do so unless it felt so
inclined. The same cat also, whenever it wanted to go out, would
come into the sitting-room, and make a peculiar noise to attract

CAT— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

415

ss.' Such was

attention . failing that mode being successful, it would pull one's
dress with its claw; and then having succeeded in attracting the
desired attention, it would walk to the street door and stop
there, making the same cry until let out.

Coming now to cases indicative of reason in cats, Mr.
John Martin, writing from St. Clement's, Oxford, informs
me : 'I have a cat which a short time ago had kittens,
and from some cause or other her milk failed. My house-
keeper saw her carrying a piece of bread to them.' The
process of reasoning here is obvious.

Mr. Bidie, writing from the Government Museum of
Madras to * Nature ' (vol. xx., p. 96), relates this instance
of reasoning in a cat : —

In 1877 I was absent from Madras for two months, and left
in my quarters three cats, one of which, an English tabby, was
a very gentle and affectionate creature. During my absence the
quarters were occupied by two young gentlemen, who delighted
in teasing and frightening the cats. About a week before my
return the English cat had kittens, which she carefully con-
cealed behind bookshelves in the library. On the morning of
my return I saw the cat, and patted her as usual, and then left
the house for about an hour. On returning to dress I found
that the kittens were located in a corner of my dressing-room,
where previous broods had been deposited and nursed. On
questioning the servant as to how they came there, he at once
replied, * Sir, the old cat taking one by one in her mouth, brought
them here.' In other words, the mother had carried them one
by one in her mouth from the libi^ry to the dressing-room, where
they lay quite exposed. I do not think I have heard of a more
remarkable instance of reasoning and affectionate confidence in
an animal, and I need hardly say that the latter manifestation
gave me great pleasure. The train of reasoning seems to have
been as follows : * Now that my master has returned there is no
risk of the kittens being injured by the two young savages in
the house, so I will take them out for my protector to see and
admire, and keep them in the corner in which all my former
pets have been nursed in safety.'

Dr. Bannister writes me from Chicago, of a cat belong-
ing to his friend the late Mr. Meek, the palaeontologist,
who drew my correspondent's attention to the fact: —

He had fixed upright on his table a small looking-glass, from

416

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

which he used to draw objects from nature, reversed on wood.
The cat seeing her image in this glass made several attempts to
investigate it, striking at it, &c. Then coming apparently to the
conclusion that there was something between her and the other
animal, she very slily and cautiously approached it, keeping her
eye on it all the while, and struck her paw around behind the
mirror, becoming seemingly much surprised at finding nothing
there. This was done repeatedly, until she was at last convinced
that it was beyond her comprehension, or she lost interest in
the matter.

Mr. T. B. Groves commuQicates an almost precisely
similar observation to ' Nature ' (vol. xx., p. 291), of a cat
which, on first seeing his own reflection in a mirror, tried
to fight it. Meeting with resistance from the glass, the
cat next ran behind the mirror. Not finding the object
of his search, he again came to the front, and while keep-
ing his eyes deliberately fixed on the image, felt round
the edge of the glass with one paw, whilst with his head
twisted round to the front he assured himself of the per-
sistence of the reflection. He never afterwards conde-
scended to notice a mirror.

The following is communicated to me by a corre-
spondent whose name I cannot obtain permission to pub-
lish. I am sure, however, that it is communicated in
good faith, and the incident can scarcely be supposed to
have been due to accident. After describing the cat and
the parrot in their amiable relationship, my correspondent
proceeds : —

One evening there was no one in the kitchen. Cook had
gone upstairs, and left a bowl full of dough to rise by the fire.
Shortly after, the cat rushed up after her, mewing, and making
what signs she coidd for her to go down ; then she jumped up j
and seized her apron, and tried to drag her down. A.s she was j
in such a state of excitement cook went, and found * Polly 'j
shrieking, calling out, flapping her wings and struggling j
violently, * up to her knees ' in dough, and stuck quite fast.

No doubt if she had not been rescued she would have sunk j
in the morass and been smothered.

I shall here introduce two or three cases to show the
ingenious devices to which clever cats will resort for the |
purpose of capturing prey.

CAT— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

41^

Mr. James Hutcliings writes in ' Nature ' (vol. xii., p.
330) an account of an old torn cat using a young bird, which
had fallen out of its nest, as a decoy for the old birds.
The cat touched the young bird with his paw when it
ceased to flutter and cry, in order that, by thus making it
display its terror, the old cock bird, which was all the
while flying about in great consternation, might be induced
to approach near enough to be caught. jNIany times the
cock bird did so, and the cat made numerous attempts to
catch it, but without success. All the while a kitten had
to be kept from killing the young bird. As this scene
continued for a long time — in fact, till terminated by Mr.
Hatchings — and as there does not appear to have been
any opportunity for errors of observation, I think the case
worth recording.

The following case is communicated to me by Mr.
James Gr. Stevens, of St. Stephen, New Brunswick: —

Looking out on the garden in front of my residence, I
observed a robin alight on a small tree : it was midwinter, the
ground covered with about a foot of light snow. A cat came
stealthily along, with difficulty making her way through the snow
until within about three feet of the tree where the bird was ; the
robin was sluggishly resting on a twig distant three feet from
the ground or surface of snow ; the cat could not well, owing to
the softness of the snow, venture to make a spring. She
crouched down and at first gently stmed herself, evidently with
the purpose of causing the bird to move. The first attempt
failed. She again more actively stii-red herself by a shaking
motion. She again failed, when she stiri'ed herself vigorously
;^ain and started the bird, which flew about fifty feet ^way, and
alighted on a small low bush on the northern side of a close-
hoarded fence. The cat keenly watched the flight and the alight-
ing of the bird ; as quickly as she could cross through the snow,

e then took a circuit of about 07ie hundred feet, watching
the place where the bird was all the while, and covering her
march by making available every bush to hide her. When out of
range of vision of the bird she more actively made for the fence,
leaped over it, came up on the southern side of it, and jumped
on it, calculating her distance so accurately that she came within
a foot of the bush where the bird was, and at once sprung. She
missed her prey, but I thought she proved herself a cunning
1 hunter. If this cuse is worth relating you may use the name

E E

418

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

of Judge Stevens, of St. Stephen, New Brunswick, as a witness I
to the same.

Again, I quote the following case communicated to
^Nature ' by Dr. Frost, because, although it shows an almost
incredible amount of far-sighted stratagem, I cannot on
the one hand see much room for mal-observation, and onl
the other hand it is, as I shall show, to some extent cor-
roborated by an independent observation of my friend |
Dr. Klein, and another correspondent : —

Our servants have been accustomed during the late frost tol
throw the crumbs remaining from the breakfast-table to the!
birds, and I have several times noticed that our cat used to wait I
there in ambush in the expectation of obtaining a hearty meal I
from one or two of the assembled birds. Now, so far, this cir-
cumstance in itself is not an * example of abstract reasoning.'!
But to continue. For the last few days this practice of feedin'J
the birds has been left off. The cat, however, with an almost
incredible amount of forethought, was observed by myselfj
together with two other members of the household, to scatter
crumbs on the grass with the obvious intention of enticing the
birds. ^

Although this account, as I have said, borders on the in-
credible, I have allowed it to pass, because up to a certain
point it is, as I have also said, corroborated by an obser-
vation communicated to me by my friend Dr. Klein, F.E.8J

Dr. Klein satisfied himself that the cat he observed hac
established a definite association between crumbs alreacl}^
sprinkled on the garden walk, and sparrows coming to e[it
them ; for as soon as the crumbs were sprinkled on th
walk, the cat used to conceal himself from the walk in
neighbouring shrubbery, there to await in ambush the
coming of the birds. The latter, however, showed them-l
selves more wide awake than the cat, for there was a wal|
running behind the shrubbery, from the top of which ;h^
birds could see the cat in his supposed concealment, anc
then a long line of sparrows used to wait watching the call
and the crumbs at the same time, but never venturing U
fly down to the latter until the former, wearied withwaitj
ing, went away. In this case the reasoning observatioij

* Nature, vol. xix., p. 519.

CAT— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

419

wick, as a witness

of the cat — ' crumbs attract birds, therefore I will wait
for birds when crumbs are scattered ' — was as complete as
in the case of Dr. P'rost's cat, but the reasoning in the
latter case seems to have proceeded a stage further —
' therefore I will scatter crumbs to attract birds.'

Now, in the face of the definite statement made by
Dr. Frost, that his cat did advance to this further stage of
reasoning, I have not felt justified in suppressing his
remarkable observation. And, as lending still further
credence to the account, I may quote the corroborative
observation of another correspondent in ' Nature,' which is
of value because forming an intermediate step between
jthe intelligence displayed by Dr. Klein's cat and that
displayed by Dr. Frost's. This correspondent says : —

A. case somewhat similar to that mentioned by Dr. Frost, of

I a cat scattering crumbs, occurred here within my own know-

dge. During the recent severe winter a friend was in the

I habit of throwing crumbs outside his bedroom window. The

family have a fine black cat, which, seeing that the crumbs

brought birds, would occasionally hide herself behind some

shrubs, and when the birds came for their breakfast, would

pounce out upon them with varying success. The crumbs had

Iheen laid out as usual one afternoon, but left untouched, and

I during the night a slight fall of snow occurred. On looking out

next morning my friend observed puss busily engaged scratching

away the snow. Curious to learn what she sought, he waited,

and saw her take the crumbs up from the cleared space and lay

I them one by one after another on the snow. After doing this

she retired behind the shrubs to wait further developments.

[This was repeated on two other occasions.'

Taking, then, these three cases together, we have an
lascending series in the grades of intelligence from that
[displayed by Dr. Klein's cat, which merely observed that
Idrumbs attracted birds, through that of the cat which
lexposed the concealed crumbs for the purpose of attracting
[birds, to that of Dr. Frost's cat, which actually sprinkled
Ithe crumbs. Therefore, although, if the last-mentioned or
Imost remarkable case had stood alone, I should not have
Belt justified in quoting it, as we find it thus led up to by
|other and independent observations, I do not feel that 1

* NaUirc, vol. xx., p, 197.
E E 2

420

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

should be justified in suppressing it. And, after all,
regarded as an act of reason, the sprinkling of crumbs to
attract birds does not involve ideas or inferences very
much more abstruse or remote than those which are con-
cerned in some of the other and better corroborated
instances of the display of feline intelligence, which I shall
now proceed to state.

In the understanding of mechanical appliances, cats
attain to a higher level of intelligence than any other
animals, except monkeys, and perhaps elephants. Doubt-
less it is not accidental that these three kinds of animals
fall to be associated in this particular. The monkey in
its hands, the elephant in its trunk, and the cat in its
agile limbs provided with mobile claws, all possess instru-
ments adapted to manipulation, with which no other organs |
in the brute creation can properly be compared, except the I
beak and toes of the parrot, where, as we have already
seen, a similar correlation with intelligence may be traced.
Probably, therefore, the higher aptitude which these
animals display in their understanding of mechanical |
appliances is due to the reaction exerted upon their intel-
gence by these organs of manipulation. But, be this as I
it may, I am quite sure that, excepting only the monkey
and elephant, the cat shows a higher intelligence of thej
special kind in question than any other animal, not for-
getting even the dog. Thus, for instance, while I havel
only heard of one solitary case (communicated to me by al
correspondent) of a dog which, without tuition, divined the!
use of a thumb-latch, so as to open a closed door bj
jumping upon the handle and depressing the thumb-pieceJ
T have received some half-dozen instances of this displav|
of intelligence on the part of cats. These instances are
all such precise repetitions of one another, that I conclude
the fact to be one of tolerably ordinary occurrence amon^
cats, while it is certainly very rare among dogs. I maj
add that my own coachman once had a cat which, cerj
tainly without tuition, learnt thus to open a door that lee
into the stables from a yard into which looked some of th^
windows of the house. Standing at these windows when
the cat did not see me, I have many times witnessed hei

CAT— GENEKAL INTELLIGENCE.

421

modus operandi. Walking up to the door with a most
matter-of-course kind of air, she used to spring at the
half-hoop handle just below the thumb-latch. Holding
on to the bottom of this half-hoop with one fore-paw, she
then raised the other to the thumb-piece, and while
depressing the latter, finally with her hind legs scratched
and pushed the doorposts so as to open the door. Pre-
cisely similar movements are described by my correspon-
dents as having been witnessed by them.

Of course in all such cases the cats must have pre-
viously observed that the doors are opened by persons
placing their hands upon the handles, and, having ob-
served this, the animals foithwith act by what may be
strictly termed rational imitation. But it should be
observed that the process as a whole is something more
than imitative. For not only would observation alone be
scarcely enough (within any limits of thoughtful reflection
that it would be reasonable to ascribe to an animal) to
enable a cat upon the ground to distinguish that the es-
sential part of the process as performed by the human
hand consists, not in grasping the handle, but in depress-
ing the latch ; but the cat certainly never saw any one,
after having depressed the latch, pushing the doorposts
I with his legs ; and that this pushing action is due to an
originally deliberate intention of opening the door, and
I not to having accidentally found this action to assist the
process, is shown by one of the cases communicated
to me (by Mr. Henry A. Gaphaus) ; for in this case, my
correspondent says, ' the door was not a loose-fitting one
by any means, and I was surprised that by the force of one
hind leg she should have been able to push it open after
unlatching it.' Hence we can only conclude that the cats
in such cases have a very definite idea as to the mechan-
ical properties of a door ; they know that to make it o^ien,
even when unlatched, it requires to be pushed — a very
different thing from trying to imitate any particular action
which they may see to be performed for the same purpose
by man. The whole psychological process, therefore,
implied by the fact of a cat opening a door in this way is
really most complex. First the animal must have ob-

422

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

served that the door is opened by the hand grasping the
handle and moving the latch. Next she must reason, by
* the logic of feelings ' — If a hand can do it, why not a
paw ? Then, strongly moved by this idea, she makes the
first trial. The steps which follow have not been ob-
served, so we cannot certainly say whether she learns by a
succession of trials that depression of the thumb-piece con-
stitutes the essential part of the process, or, perhaps more
probably, that her initial observations supplied her with
the idea of clicking the thumb-piece. But, however this
may be, it is certain that the pushing with the hind feet
after depressing the latch must be due to adaptive reasoning
unassisted by observation ; and only by the concerted
action of all her limbs in the performance of a highly com-
plex and most unnatm'al movement is her final purpo.se
attained.

Again, several very similar cases are communicated to
me of cats spontaneously, or without tuition, learning
to knock knockers and ring bells. Of course in both
cases the animals must have observed the use to which
knockers and bells are put, and when desiring a door to be
opened, employ these signals for the purpose. It betokens
no small amount of observation and reasoning in a cat to
jump at a knocker with the expectation of thereby sum-
moning a servant to open the door — especially as in some
of the cases the jump is not a random jump at the
knocker, but a deliberate and complex action, having for
its purposes the raising and letting fall of the knocker.
For instance, Mr. Belshaw, writing to ' Nature ' (vol. xix.,
p. 659), says : —

I was sitting in one of the rooms, the first evening there, and I
hearing a loud knock at the front door was told not to heed it, |
as it was only this kitten asking admittance. Not believing it,
I watched for myself, and very soon saw the kitten jump onto!
the door, hang on by one leg, and put the other fore-paw right j
through the knocker and rap twice.

In such cases the action closely resembles that of|
opening thumb-latches, but clearly is performed with
the purpose of summoning some one else to open the I
door. Wonderful, however, as these cases of summoning

CAT— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

423

1 grasping the
lUst reason, by

it, why not a
she makes the

not been ob-
she learns byu
umb-piece coii-
, perhaps more
)lied her with
t, however this

the hind feet

ptive reasoning

the concerted

•f a highly com-

ir final purpo.se

)mmunicated to
lition, learning

course in both
he use to which
ing a door to be
ose. It betokens
ning in a cat to
of thereby sum-
eially as in some
m jump at the
;tion, having for

of the knocker,
ature ' (vol. xix., |

evening there, and

)ld not to heed it,

Not believing it,

kitten jump onto

ler fore-paw right

isembles that of|
performed with
Lse to open the I
3S of summoning

by knockers undoubtedly are, I think they are surpassed
by other cases in which the instrument used is the bell.
For here it is not merely that cats perfectly well under-
stand the use of bells as calls,' but I have one or two cases
of cats jumping at bell-it; w'es passing from outside into

» Some of my correspondents toll me of pet or drawing-room cats
jumping on chairs and looking at bells when they want milk — this being
their sign that they want the bell pulled to call the servant who brings
the milk ; and Mr. Lawson Tait tells me that one of his aits— of course
without tuition — has gone a step further, in that she places her paws
upon the bell as a still more emphatic sign that she desires it pulled.
But Dr. Creighton Browne tells me of a cat which he has that goes a
step further than this, and herself rings the bell. This is corroborative
of Archbishop Whately's anecdote. ' This cat lived many years in my
I mother's family, and its feats of sagacity were witnessed by her, my
sisters, and myself. It was known, not merely once or twice, but
habitually, to ring the parlour bell whenever it wished the door to be
opened. Some alarm was excited on the iirst occasion that it turned
I bell-ringer. The family had retired to rest, and in the middle of the
night the parlour bell was rung violently; the sleepers were startled
from their repose, and proceeded downstairs with poker and tongs, to
intercept, as they thought, the predatory movements of some burglar ;
but they were equally surprised to find that the bell had been rung by
pussy, who frequently repeated the act whenever she wished to get out
of the parlour.' The cases, however, mentioned in the text are more re-
markable than any of these, which, nevertheless, all tend to lead up to
them as by a series of steps. Dogs attain to the level of asking by
gesture their masters to ring bells. One instance will be sufficient to
quote. Mr. Rae says in * Nature ' (vol. xix., p. 459) : 'A small English
tenrier belonging to a friend has been taught to ring for the servant.
To test if the dog knew 7chy it rang the bell he was told to do so while
the girl was in the room. The little fellow looked up in the most in-
telligent manner at the person giving the order (his master or mistress,
I forget which), then at the servant, and refused to obey, although the
order was repeated more than once. The servant left the room, and a
few minutes afterwards the dog rang the bell immediately on being
hold to do so.'

It must also be added that dogs sometimes attain to the level of

I knocking knockers — though I should think this must be very rare with

I these animals, as I have only met with one case of it. This, however,

I is a remarkably good case, not only because it rests upon the authority

lof a famous observer, but also because it is so very delinite as proving

Ian act of reason. Dureau de la Malle had a terrier born in his house.

jit had never seen a knocker in its native home, and when grown up it

was taken by its master to Paris. Getting fatigued by a walk in the

streets, the animal returned to tlie house, but found the door shut, and

it endeavoured vainly to attract the attention of those within by

barking. At length a visitor called, knocked at the knocker, and

L'ained admittance. The dog observed what had been done, and went

lia together with the visitor. The same afternoon he went in and out

424

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

houses the doors of which the cats devsired to be opened.'
My informants tell me that they do not know how these
eats, from any process of observation, can have surmised
that pulling the wire in an exposed part of its length
would have the effect of ringing the bell ; for they can
never have observed anyone pulling the wires. I can only
suggest that in these cases the animals must have ob-
served that when the bells were rung the wires moved, anri
that the doors were afterwards opened ; then a process of |
inference must have led them to try whether jump-
ing at the wires would produce the same effects. But
even this, which is the simplest explanation possible,
implies powers of observation scarcely less remarkable
than the process of reasoning to which they gave rise.

As further instances corroborating the fact that both
these faculties are developed in cats to a wonderful degree, I
I may add the following. Couch (* Illustrations of
Instinct,* p. 196) gives a case within his own knowledge
of a cat which, in order to get at milk kept in a locked
cupboard, used to unlock the door by seating herself)
on an adjoining table, and * repeatedly patting on the bowf
of the key with her j)aw, when with a slight pull on the!
door ' she was able to open it ; the lock was old, and the]
key turned in it ' on a very slight impulse.'

As a still further instance of the high appreciation of I
mechanical appliances to which cats attain, I shall quote
an extract from a paper by Mr. Otto, which will have been|
read at the linnean Society before this work is pub-
half a dozen times, gaining admittance on each occasion by springinc:
at the knocker.

Lastlj', Dr. W. H. Kesteven writes to • Nature ' (xx., p. 428) of a cat I
which used to knock at a knocker to gain admittance, in tlie wayl
already described of so many other cats ; but as showing how much I
more readily cats acquire this practice than dogs, it is interesting to I
note that Dr. Kesteven adds that a dog which lived in the same house I
ascertained that me cat was able to gain admittance by knocking, andl
yet did not imitate the action, but ' was in the habit of searching fori
her when he wanted to come in, and either waiting till she was readyj
to knock at the door, or inducing her to do it to please him.'

' Consul E. L. Layard gives in Nature (xx., p. 339) a precisely similaij
case of a cat habitually and without tuition ringing a bell by pulling j
at an exposed wire.

I '

CAT— GENERAL INTl-XLIGENCE.

425

casion by springing:

lished. After describing the case of a cat opening a
thumb-latch in the same way as those already mentioned,
this writer proceeds : —

At Parara, the residence of Parker Bowman, Esq., a full-
grown cat was one day accidentally locked up in a room with-
out any other outlet than a small window, moving on hinges,
and kept shut by means of a swivel. Not long afterwards the
window was found open and the cat gone. This having
happened several times, it was at last found that the cat jumped
upon the window-sill, placed her fore-paws as high as she could
reach against the side, deliberately reached with one over to
the swivel, moved it from its horizontal to a pei-pendicular posi-
tion, and then, leaning with her whole weight against the
window, swung it open and escaped.

To give only one other instance of high reasoning power
in this animal, Mr. W. Brown, writing from Greenock to
'Nature * (vol. xxi., p. 397), gives a remarkable story of a
cat, the facts in which do not seem to have admitted of
mal-observation. While a paraffine lamp was being
trimmed, some of the oil fell upon the back of the cat,
and was afterwards ignited by a cinder falling upon it
from the fire. The cat with her back * in a blaze, in an
instant made for the door (which happened to be open)
and sped up the street about 100 yards,' where she plunged
into the village watering-trough, and extinguished the
flame. * The trough had eight or nine inches of water,
and puss was in the habit of seeing the fire put out with
water every night.' The latter point is important, as it
shows the data of observation on which the animal rea-
soned.

420

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

CHAPTER XV.

FOXES, WOLVES, JACKALS, ETC.

The general psychology of these animals is, of course,
very much the same as that of the dog ; but, from never
having been submitted to the influences of domestication,
their mental qualities present a sufficient number of
differences from those of the dog to require another
chapter for their consideration.

If we could subtract from the domestic dog all the
emotions arising from his prolonged companionship with
man, and at the same time intensify the emotions of self-
reliance, rapacity, &c., we should get the emotional
character now presented by the wolves and jackals.
It is interesting to note that this genetic similarity of
emotional character extends to what may be termed
idiosyncratic details in cases where it has not been
interfered with by human agency. Thus the peculiar,
weird, and unaccountable class of emotions which cause
wolves to bay at the moon has been propagated unchanged
to our domestic dogs.

The intelligence of the fox is proverbial ; but as I
have not received many original observations on this
head, I shall merely refer to some of the best authen-
ticated observations already published, and shall begin
with the instance narrated by Mr. St. John in his ' Wild
Sports of the Highlands ' : —

When living in Ross-shire I went out one morning in July,
before daybreak, to endeavour to shoot a stag, which had been
complained of very much by an adjoining farmer, as having
done great damage to his crops. Just after it was daylight I
eaw a large fox coming quietly along the edge of the plantation

in whi
tin*!' w
hares 1
no cha
;i slior
exiunii
might
seemed
;in ntti
he was
within
every r
fellow I
him if I
time I ■
cai-e SO]
sand as
mews ;
sometin
hiid don
spiingin
the exce
Wlien i
Held to
without
twenty ;
ling still
(lii'ectly
Siivv by
organs 1
iiares ca
with th^
jimmedia
off like
I passing
Ibira.

Nui

able cm
lallowin^
jnumeroi

intellige
leoncurr^
becific

FOX.

427

is, of course,
it, from never
domestication,
at number of
jquire another

bic dog all the
(anionship with
[notions of self-
the emotional
s and jackals.
Lc similarity of
lay be termed
has not been
s the peculiar,
ns which cause
ated unchanged

fbial ; but as I
vations on this
le best authen-
and shall begin
hn in his ' Wild

morning in July,
, which had heen
[armer, as having
it was daylight I
of the plantation

in which I was concealed ; ho looked with great care over the
tui-i* wall into the lield, and seemed to long to get hohl of some
hares tbat wore feeding in it, but iipparontly knew that he had
no chance of catching one by dint of nuining ; after considering
;i sliort time he seemed to have formed his plans, and having
oxtimined the different gaps in the wall by which the hares
might be supposed to go in and out, lie fixed upon the one that
seemed the most fi-Cfpiented, and laid himself down close to it in
;m attitude like a cat watching a mouse. Cunning as he was,
he was too intent on his own hunting to be aware that I was
within twenty yards of him with a loaded rille, and able to watch
every movement that he made. I was much amazed to see the
fellow so completely outwitted, and kept my rille ready to shoot
him if he found me out and attempted to escape. In the mean-
time I watched all his plans. He first with great silence and
care scraped a small hollow in the ground, throwing up the
sand as a kind of screen between his hiding-place and the hares*
mews ; every now and then, however, he stopped to listen, and
sometimes to take a most cautious look into the field ; when he
had done this ho laid himself down in a convenient position for
spruiging upon his prey, and remained perfectly motionless with
the exception of an occasional reconnoitre of the feeding hares.
When the sun began to rise, they Ciime one by one from the
I tield to the cover of the plantation ; thi'ce had already come in
without passing by his ambush ; one of them came within
twenty yards of him, but ho made no movement beyond crouch-
ling still more closely to the ground. Presently two came
(lii'ectly towards him ; though he did not venture to look up, I
Uiw by an involuntary motion of his ears that those quick
organs had alrejidy warned him of their approach : the two
hares came through the gap together, and the fox, springing
with the quickness of lightning, caught one and killed her
immediately; he then lifted up his booty and was carrying it
off like a retriever, when my rifle-ball stopped his course by
I passing through his back-bone, and I went up and despatched
Ibim.

Numberless instances are on record showing the remark-
able cunning of foxes in procuring bait from traps without
[allowing themselves to be caught. These cases are so
[numerous, and all display so much the same quality of
lintelligence, that it is impossible to doubt so great a
[concurrence of testimony. I shall only give two or three
lepecific cases, to show the kind of intelligence that is in

i I

428

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

question. It will be observed that it is much the same
as that which is displayed under similar circumstances
by rats and wolverines, in which animals we have already
considered it. In all these cases the intelligence dis-
played must justly be deemed to be of a very remarkable
order. For, inasmuch as traps are not things to be met
with in nature, hereditary experience cannot be supposed
to have played any part in the formation of special
instincts to avoid the dangers arising from traps, and
therefore the astonishing devices by which these dangers
are avoided can only be attributed to observation, coupled
with intelligent investigation of a remarkably high cha-
racter.

I extract the following from Couch's * Illustrations of |
Instinct ' (p. 175): —

Whenever a cat is tempted by the bait, and caught in a fox- 1
trap, Reynard is at hand to devour the bait and the cat too, and
fearlessly approaches an instrument which the fox must know ]
cannot then do it any harm. Let us compare with this bold-
ness the incredible caution with which the animal proceeds j
when tempted by the bait in a set trap. Dietrich aua dem
Winkell had once the good fortune of observing, on a winter
evening, a fox which for many preceding days had been allured ]
with loop baits, and as often as it ate one it sat comfortably
down, wagging its brush. The nearer it approached the trap.
the longer did it hesitate to take the baits, and the oftener did it I
make the tour round the catching-place. When arrived near
the trap it squatted down, ;ind eyed the bait for ten minutes at
least ; whereupon it ran three or four times round the trap,
then it stretched out one of its fore-paws after the bait, but did!
not touch it ; again a pause, during which the fox stared im-l
movably at the bait. At last, as if in despair, the animal madel
a rush and was caught by the neck. (Mag. Nat. Hist., N. S.,|
vol. i., p. 512.)

In ' Nature,' vol. xxi., p. 132, Mr. Crehore, writing from|
Boston, says : —

Some years since, while hunting in Northern Michigan, II
tried with the aid of a professional trapper to entrap a fox who!
made nightly visits to a spot where the entrails of a deei' had!
been thrown. Although we tried every expedient that sug-l
gested itself to us we were unsuccessful, and, what seemed very!

FOX.

429

Illustrations of

Tving, on a winter

.ore, writing froml

singular, we always found the trap sprung. My companion
insisted that the animal dug beneath it, and putting his paw
beneath the jaw, pushed down the pan with safety to himself;
but though the appearance seemed to confirm it, I could hardly
credit his explanation. This year, in another locality of the
same region, an old and experienced trapper assured me of its
con-ectness, and said in confirmation that he had several times
caught them, after they liad made two or three successful
attempts to spring the trap, by the simple expedient of setting it
upside down, when of course the act of undermining and touch-
ing the pan would bring the paw within the grasp of the jaws.

In connection with traps, my friend Dr. Kae has
communicated to me a highly remarkable instance of the
display of reason on the part of the Arctic foxes. I have
previously published the facts in my lecture before the
British Association in 1879, and therefore shall here quote
them from it : —

Desiring to obtain some Arctic foxes, Dr. Rae set various
kinds of traps ; but as the foxes knew these traps from previous
experience, he was unsuccessful. Accordingly he set a kind of
trap with which the foxes in that part of the country were not
acquainted. This consisted of a loaded gun set upon a stand
pointing at the bait. A string connected the trigger of the gun
with the bait, so that when the fox seized the bait he discharged
the gun, and thus committed suicide. In this arrangement the
gun was separated from the bait by a distance of about 30 yards,
and the string which connected the trigger with the bait was
concealed throughout nearly its whole distance in the snow.
The gun- trap thus set was successful in kilHng one fox, but
never in killing a second ; for the foxes afterwards adopted
either of two devices whereby to secure the bait without injur-
ing themselves. One of these devices was to bite through the
string at its exposed part near the trigger, and the other device
was to burrow up to the bait through the snow at right angles
to the line of fire, so that, although in this way they discharged
the gun, they escaped with perhaps only a pellet or two in the
nose. Now both of these devices exhibited a wonderful degree
of what I think must fairly be called power of reasoning. I
have carefuUy interrogated Dr. Bae on all the circumstances of
the case, and he tells me that in that part of the woi-ld traps
are never set with strings ; so that there can have been no
special association in the foxes' minds between strings and
traps. Moreover, after the death of fox No. 1, the track on

430

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

the snow showed that fox No. 2, notwithstanding the temp-
tation offered by the bait, had expended a great deal of scientific
observation on the gun before he undertook to sever the cord.
Lastly, with regard to burrowing at right angles to the line of
fii'e, Dr. Rae justly deemed this so extraordinary a circumstance
that he repeated the experiment a number of times, in order to
satisfy himself that the direction of the burrowing was really to
be attributed to thought, and not to chance.'

' I have requested Dr. Eae to write out all the particulars of these
remarkable observations, and the following is the response which he
has kindly made : — 'When trapping foxes in Hudson's Bay it sometimes
happens that certain of these acute animals, probably from having seen
their companions caught, studiously avoid the ordinary steel and wooden
traps, however carefully set. The trapper then sets one or more guns
in a peculiar manner, having a line 15 or 20 yards long uniting the
trigger with a bait, on taking hold of which the fox sets the gun off,
and commits suicide. The double object of the bait being placed so
near the gun is that the fox may be certainly killed — not wounded
only — and that the head alone should be hit, and the body not riddled
all over with shot, which would spoil the skin. It is also necessary to
mention that four or five inches of slack line must be allowed for
contraction of the line by change from a dry to a moist atmosphere,
which otherwise would cause so great a strain on the trigger that the
gun would be discharged without the bait being touched. So as to
conceal as far as possible all connection between bait and gun, that
part of the line next the bait is carefully hid under the snow.

♦ When the fox takes the bait, he will have lifted it five inches (the
length of the slack line) from its normal position before the gun goes
off ; consequently, instead of pointing the gun at the bait, it is aimed
fully eight or nine inches higher, at the probable position of the brain
of the animal when the gun is discharged.

' For reasons which scarcely require explanation, foxes very gene-
rally go about in pairs (long before the snow disappears), not necessarily
always close together, because they have a better chance of finding
food if separated some distance from each other.

• After one or more foxes have been shot, the trapper on visiting his
guns perhaps finds that a fox has first cut the line connecting the bait
with the gun, and then gone up and eaten the bait ; or, if the gun has
been set on a drift bank of snow, he or she has scraped a trench ten or
twelve inches deep up to the bait, taken hold of it whilst lying in the
trench, set the gun off, and then trotted coolly away with the food
(taken, one may say, from the gun's mouth) safe and uninjured, as is
clearly evinced by there being no mark of blood on the tracks.

* In pulling the bait whilst in the trench, the fox would drag it five
inches, or the length of the slack line, downwards, and therefore his
head and nose would be completely out of harm's way, both because of
the snow protection, and also these parts of his body being twelve or
thirteen inches below the line of aim.

• In the cases seen by myself, and by a friend of greater experience,
the trench was always scraped at right angles, or nearly so, to the line
of fire of the gun. This at first sight may appear erroneous, but on

WOLF AND FOX.

431

s sets the gun off,

Dr. Kae also informs me with regard to wolves, that
Hhey have been frequently known to take the bait from
a gun without injury to themselves, by first cutting the
line of communication between the two.' ^ He adds : —

I may also mention what I have been told, although I have
never had an opportunity of seeing it, that wolves watch the
fishermen who set lines in deep water for trout, through holes
in the ice on Lake Superior, and very soon after the man has
left, the wolf goes up to the place, takes hold of the stick which
is placed across the hole and attached to the line, trots oft' with
it along the ice until the bait is brought to the surface, then
returns and eats the bait and the fish, if any happens to be on
the hook. The trout of Lake Superior are very large, and the
baits are of a size in proportion.

Mr. Murray Browne, Inspector of the Local Govern-
ment Board, writes to me from Whitehall as follows : —

I once, at the Devil's Glen, Wicklow, found a fox fast in a
trap by the foot. "We did not like to touch him, but got sticks
and poked at the trap till we got it open. The process took
ten minutes or a quarter-hour. When first we came up
the fox strained to get free, and looked frightfully savage ; but
we had not poked at the trap more than a very short time
before the whole expression of his face changed, he lay perfectly
quiet (though we must at times have hurt him) ; and when at
last we had got the trap completely oft" his foot, he still lay quiet,

reflection it really is not so, for if the trt, ' ch is to be a shelter one —
thinking, as the fox must have done, that the gun or something coming
from it was the danger to be protected from or guarded against — it
must be made across the line of fire, for if scratched in the direction of
fire it would afford little or no protection or concealment, and the
reasoning power or intelligence of the fox would be at fault.

' My belief is that one of these knowing foxes had seen his or her
companion shot, or found it dead shortly after it had been killed, and
not unnaturally attributed the cause of the mishap to the only strange
thing it saw near, namely, the gun.

' It was evident that in all cases they had studied the situation care-
fully, as was sufficiently shown by their tracks in the snow, which
indicated their extremely cautious approach when either the string-
cutting or trench-making dodge was resorted to, in attempting to obtain
the coveted bait without injury to themselves,'

• It will be remembered that, from evidence previously detailed,
both the wolverine or glutton and certain deer have been shown capable
of similarly obviating the danger of gun-traps.

432

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

and looked calmly at us, as if he knew we were friends. In
fact, we had some little difficulty in getting him to move away,
which he did readily enough when he chose. Was not this a
case of reason and good sense overj^owering natural instinct ?

Couch says (* Illustrations of Instinct,' p. 178):
'Derham quotes Olaus in his "account of Norway us
having himself witnessed the fact of a fox dropping his
tail among the rocks on the sea-shore to catch the crabs
below, and hauling up and devouring such as laid hold
of it.'

Under the present heading I must not omit to refer
to an interesting class of instincts which are manifested
by those species of the genus Cants, whose custom it is to
hunt in packs. The instincts to which I refer are those
which lead to a combination among different members of
the same pack for the capture of prey by stratagem. These
instincts, which no doubt arose and are now maintained by
intelligent adaptation to the requirements of the chase, I
shall call 'collective instincts.' Thus Sir E. Tennent
writes : —

At dusk, and after nightfall, a pack of jackals, having
Avatched a hare or a small deer take refuge in one of these
retreats, immediately surrounded it on all sides ; and having
stationed a few to watch the path by which *^he game entered,
the leader commences the attack by raising the cry peculiar to
their race, and which resembles the sound * okkay * loudly and
rapidly repeated. The whole party then rush into the jungle
and drive out the victim, which generally falls into the amtush
previously laid to entrap it.

A native gentleman, who had favourable opportunities of
observing the movements of these animals, informed me that
when a jackal has brought down his game and killed it, his
first impulse is to hide it in the nearest jungle, whence he issues
with an air of easy indifference to observe whether anything
more powerful than himself may be at hand, from which he
might encounter the risk of being despoiled of his capture. If
the coasii be clear he returns to the con^^ealed carcass and carries
it away, followed by his companions. But if a man be in sight,
or any other animal to be avoided, my informant has seen the
jackal seize .a cocoa-nut husk in his mouth, or any similar sub-
stance, and fly at full speed, as if eager to carry off his pretended

JACKAL, FOX, AND WOLF.

433

prize, returning for the real booty at some more convenient
I season.^

Again, Jesse records the following display of the same
I instinct by the fox, as having been communicated to him
by a friend on whose veracity he could rely : —

Part of this rocky ground was on the side of a very high
kill, which was not accessible for a sportsman, and from wliich
both hares and foxes took their way in the evening to the plain
below. Thei-e were two channels or gullies made by the rains,
leading from these rocks to the lower ground. Near one of
these channels, the sportsman in question, and his attendant,
stationed themselves one evening in hopes of being able to
shoot some hares. They had not been there long, when they
observed a fox coming down the gully, and followed by another.
After playing together for a little time, one of the foxos con-
cealed himself under a large stone or rock, which was at the
bottom of the channel, and the other returned to the rocks.
He soon, however, came back, chasing a hare before him. As
the hare was passing the stone where the first fox had concealed
himself, he tried to seize her by a sudden spring, but missed his
aim. The chasing fox then came up, and finding that his ex-
pected prey had escaped, through the want of skill in his
associate, he fell upon him, and they both fought with so much
animosity, that the parties who had been watching their pro-
|ceedings came up and destroyed them both.

Similarly, Mr. E. C. Buck records (' Nature,' viii., 303)
[the following interesting observation made by his friend
|Mr. Elliot, B.C.S., Secretary to Grovernment, N.W.P. : —

He saw two wolves standing together, and shortly after
[noticing them was surprised to see one of them lie down in a
ditch, and the other walk away over the open plain. He
I watched the latter, which deliberately went to the far side of a
Iherd of antelopes standing in the plain, and drove them, as a
Islieep-dog would a flock of sheep, to the very spot where his
Icompanion lay in ambush. As the antelopes crossed the ditch,
Ithe concealed wolf jumped up as in the former case, seized a
[doe, and was joined by his colleague.

Mr. Buck draws attention to another closely similar
[display of collective instinct of wolves in the same
[district observed by a ' writer of one of the books on

[Indian sport.'

' Nat. Hint, of Ceylon, p. 35,
I'' F

434

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

With reference to this case I wrote to * Nature aa
follows. The friend to whom I allude was the late I)r.)
Brydon, C.B. (the * last man ' of the Afghan expeditioiif
of 1841), whom I knew intimately for several years, anc
always found his observations on animals to be trusty
worthy : —

In response to the appeal which closes Mr. Buck's interestJ
ing letter (* Nature,' vol. viii., p. 302), the following instance oj
* collective instinct ' exhibited by an animal closely allied to thg
wolf, viz., the Indian jackal, deserves to be recorded. It waj
communicated to me by a gentleman (since deceased) on whosd
veracity I can depend. This gentleman was waiting in a trea
to shoot tigers as they came to drink at a large lake (I forge*
the district), skirted by a dense jungle, when about midnighi
a large axis deer emerged from the latter and went to thq
water's edge. Then it stopped and sniffed the air in the direc]
tion of the jungle, as if suspecting the presence of an enemy i
apparently satisfied, however, it began to drink, and continued
to do so for a most inordinate length of time. When literal^
swollen with water it turned to go into the jungle, but wa^
met on its extreme margin by a jackal, which, with a shan
yelp, turned it again into the open. The deer seemed mucfi
startled, and ran along the shore for some distance, whenij
again attempted to enter the jungle, but was again met anq
driven back in the same manner. The night being calm, mj
friend could hear this process being repeated time after time-
the yelps becoming successively fainter and fainter in the
tance, until they became wholly inaudible. The stratagem thuj
employed was sufficiently evident. The lake having a W
narrow shore intervening between it and the jungle, the jackalj
formed themselves in line along it while concealed within th|
extreme edge of the cover, and waited until the deer was water
logged. Their prey, being thus rendered heavy and shori
winded, would fall an easy victim if induced to run sufficient^
far, i.e.y if prevented from entering the jungle. It was, oj
course, impossible to estimate the number of jackals engaged iif
this hunt, for it is not impossible that as soon as one had douj
duty at one place, it outran the deer to await it in another.

A native servant who accompanied my friend told him thai
this was a stratagem habitually employed by the jackals in thai
place, and that they hunted in sufficient numbers * to leavl
nothing but the bones.' As it is a stratagem which could onlj
be effectual under the peculiar local conditions described, i|

JACKAL AND DOG.

436

I must appear that this example of collective instinct is due to

separate expression,' and not to * inherited habit.'

Cases of collective instinct are not of iinfreqiient occurrence

I among dogs. For the accuracy of the two following I can

vouch. A small Skye and a large mongrel were in the habit of

hunting hares and rabbits upon their own account, the small

dog having a good nose, and the larger one great fleetness.

iliese qualities they combined in the most advantageous

manner, the terrier driving the cover towards his fleet-footed

I companion which was waiting for it outside.

The second case is remarkable for a display of sly sagacity.
h friend of mine in Ross-shire had a small terrier and a large
I Newfoundland. One day a shepherd called upon him to say
I that his dogs had been worrying sheep the night before. The
jentleman said there must be some mistake, as the Newfound-
lland had not been unchained. A few days afterwards the
Lhepherd again called with the same complaint, vehemently
lisserting that he was positive as to the identity of the dogs.
IConsequently the owner set one watch upon the kennel and
lanother outside the sheep enclosure, directing them (in con-
Isequence of what the shepherd had told him) not to interfere
Ifith the action of the dogs. After this had been done several
Lghts in succession, the small dog was observed to come at
aydawn to the place where the large one was chained ; the
[latter immediately slipped his collar, and the two animals made
jstraight for the sheep. Upon arriving at the enclosure the
JN'ewfoundland concealed himself behind a hedge, while the
jterrier drove the sheep towards his ambush, and the fate of one
lof them was quickly sealed. When their breakfast was finished
Ithe dogs returned home, and the larger one, thrusting his head
linto his collar, lay down again as though nothing had happened.
IWhy this animal should have chosen to hunt by stratagem
Iprey which it could easily run down, I cannot suggest ; but
Ithere can be little doubt that so wise a dog must have had
|oine good reason.

A similar instance of the display of collective instinct
\ii thus narrated by M. Bureau de la Malle : —

I had at one time two sporting dogs, the one an excellent
Ipointer with a very smooth skin, and of remarkable beauty and
lintelligence ; the other was a spaniel with long and thick hair,
Ikt which had not been taught to point, but only coursed in
Ithe woods like a harrier. My chateau is situated on a level
jspot of ground, opposite to copse wood filled with hares and

FF 2

136

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

h ■!

rabbits. When sitting at my window, I have observed thesg
two dogs, which were at large in the yard, approach and make
signs to each other, and first glancing at me, as if to see if
offered any obstacle to their wishes, step away very gently, then
quicken their pace when they were at a little distance from mv
sight, and finally dart off at full speed when they thought
could neither see them nor order them back. Surprised at thi
mysterious manoeuvre, I followed them, and witnessed a sin^
gular sight. The pointer, who seemed to be the leader of the
enterprise, had sent the spaniel out to beat the bushes, and givq
tongue at the opposite extremity of the bushwood. As to
himself, he made with slow steps the circuit of the wood b^
following it along the border, and I observed him stop befoie '
passage much frequented by rabbits, and there point. I coiH
tinued at a distance to observe how the intrigue was going to
end. At length I heard the spaniel, which had started a hare]
drive it with much tongue towards the place where its com]
panion was lying in ambush, and the moment that the hara
came out of the passage to gain the fields, the latter darted
upon it and brought it to me with an air of triumph. I hav^
seen these two dogs repeat this same mancBuvre more than ;
hundred times ; and this conformity has convinced me that ii
was not accidental, but the result of a concerted agreement anq
combined plan of operations understood beforehand.

Again, among Mr. Darwin's MSS., I find a letter fror
Mr. H. Reeks (1871), which says that the wolves of New]
foundland adopt exactly the same stratagem for the capj
ture of deer in winter as that which is adopted by th|
hunters. That is to say, some of the pack secrete them]
selves in one or more of the leeward deer-paths in thj
forest or ' belting,' while one or two wolves make
circuit round the herd of deer to windward. The herd
invariably retreats by one of its accustomed runs, and ' i|
rarely happens .... that the wolves do not manage bi
this stratagem to secure a doe or young stag.' And
Leroy, in his book on Animal Intelligence, narrates closelj
similar facts of the wolves of Europe as having fallej
within his own observation.

437

'e observed these

proach and make

le, as if to see if

very gently, ther

distance from m\

n they thought ']]

Surprised at thi

witnessed a sin-J

the leader of the

e bushes, and give

>ushwood. As tc

of the wood by

him stop before J

lere point. I con-1

rigue was going ta

had started a hare]

ice where its comj

ent that the hare

the latter darteij

triumph. I havj

Buvre more than

mvinced me that i)

rted agreement anq

)rehand.

find a letter fror
ae wolves of NewJ
agem for the cap)
^s adopted by th(
ack secrete them)
deer-paths in t\\\
> wolves make
dward. The herd
med runs, and ' ij
do not manage bj
3ung stag.' And
!e, narrates closelj
as having fallej

CHAPTER XVI.

THE DOG.

The intelligence of the dog is of special, and indeed of
unique interest from an evolutionary point of view, in
that fi'om time out of record this animal has been domes-
ticated on account of the high level of its natural intelli-
gence ; and by persistent contact with man, coupled with
training and breeding, its natural intelligence has been
greatly changed. In the result we see, not only a general
modification in the way of dependent companionship and
docility, so unlike the fierce and self-reliant disposition
of all wild species of the genus; but also a number of
special modifications, peculiar to certain breeds, which all
have obvious reference to the requirements of man. The
hvhole psychological character of the dog may therefore be
said to have been moulded by human agency with refer-
ence to human requirements, so that now it is not more
true that man has in a sense created the structure of the
bull-dog and greyhound, than that he has implanted the
instincts of the watch-dog and pointer. The definite
proof which we thus have afforded of the transforming
and creating influence exerted upon the mental character
and instincts of species by long and persistent training,
coupled with artificial selection, furnishes the strongest
possible corroboration of the theory which assigns psycho-
logical development in general to the joint operation of
individual experience coupled with natural selection. For
thousands of years man has here been virtually, though
unconsciously, performing what evolutionists may re-
gard as a gigantic experiment upon the potency of in-
dividual experience accumulated by heredity;' and now
there stands before us this most wonderful monument of

438

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

his labours — the culmination of his experiment in the|
transformed psychology of the dog.

In my next work I shall treat of this subject with the I
fulness that it deserves — especially in its relation to the |
origin of instincts and the development of the moral
sense ; but to enter upon this topic at present would |
demand more space than can be allowed.

To do full justice to the psychology of the dog a]
separate treatise would be required. Here I can only
trace a sketch.

Memory,

As regards memory, one or two instances will suffice.
Mr. Darwin writes: 'I had a dog who was savage and
averse to all strangers, and I purposely tried his memory
after an absence of five years and two days. I went near
the stable where he lived, and shouted to him in my old
manner ; he showed no joy, but instantly followed me out
walking, and obeyed me, as if I had parted with him only |
an hour before.' ^

It is not only persons or places that dogs remember
for long periods. I had a setter in the country, which one
year I took up with me to town for a few months. While
in town he was never allowed to go out without a collar
on which was engraved my address. A ring upon this
collar made a clinking sound, and the setter soon learnt to
associate the approach of this sound with the prospect of j
a walk. Three years afterwards I again took this setter
up to town. He remembered every nook and corner of |
my house in town, and also his way about the streets, and
the first time that I brought his collar, slightly clinking
as before, he showed by his demonstrations of joy that he
well remembered the sound with all its old associations,
although he had not heard this sound for three years.

Emotions,

The emotional life of the dog is highly developed—
more highly, indeed, than that of any other animal. His

Descent of Man, p. 74.

DOO —EMOTIONS.

439

eriment in the

gregarious instincts, united with his high intelligence and
constant companionship with man, give to this animal a
psychological basis for the construction of emotional cha-
racter, having a more massive as well as more complex
consistency than that which is presented even in the case
1 of the monkey, which, as we shall afterwards see, attains
1 to a remarkably high level in this respect.

Pride, sense of dignity, and self-respect are very con-
spicuously exhibited by well-treated dogs. As with man, so
I with the friend of man, it is only those whose lines of
fortune have fallen in pleasant places, and whose feelings
may therefore be said to have profited by the refining
influences of culture, that display in any conspicuous mea-
sure the emotions in question. ' Ours of hw degree,' and
even many dogs of better social position, have never enjoyed
those conditions essential to moral refinement, which alone
can engender a true sense of self-respect and dignity. A
'low-life ' dog may not like to have his tail pulled, any
I Qiore than a gutter child may like to have his ears boxed ;
but here it is physical pain rather than wounded pride
that causes the smart. Among ' high-life ' dogs, however,
the case is different. Here wounded sensibilities and loss
of esteem are capable of producing much keener suffering
than is mere physical pain; so that among such dogs a
whipping produces quite a different and a much more
lasting effect than in the case of their rougher brethren,
who, as soon as it is over, give themselves a shake and think
no more about it. As evidence of the delicacy of feeling
to which dogs of aristocratic estate may attain, I shall
give one or two among many instances that I could render.
A reproachful word or look from any of his friends
I would make a Skye terrier that I owned miserable for

whole day. If we had ever ventured to strike him I
do not know what would have happened, for his sentiments
were quite abreast of the age with respect to moral repug-
nance to the use of the lash. Thus, for instance, at one
time when all his own friends were out of town, he was
takeij for a walk every day in the park by my brother, to
whose care he had been entrusted. He enjoyed his walks
very much, and was wholly dependent upon my brother

H\\

440

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

for obtaining them. Nevertheless, one day while he was
amusing himself with another dog in the park, my brother,]
in order to persuade him to follow, struck him with a
glove. The terrier looked up at his face with an astonished
and indignant gaze, deliberately turned round, and trotted
home. Next day he went out with my brother as before,
but after he had gone a short distance he looked up at his
face significantly, and again trotted home with a dignified
air. After thus making bis protest in the strongest way
he could, the dog ever afterwards refused to accompany
him.

This terrier habitually exhibited a strong repugnance
to corporal punishment, even when inflicted upon others.
Thus, whenever or wherever he saw a man striking a dog,
whether in the house or outside, near at hand or at a dis-
tance, he used to rush in to interfere, snarling and snaj)-
ping in a most threatening way. Again, when driving
with me in a dog-cart, he always used to hold the sleeve of
my coat every time I touched the horse with the whip.
As bearing upon this sensitiveness of feeling produced in
dogs by habitually kind treatment, I shall here give an
extract from the letter of one of my correspondents (Mrs.
E. Picton). It relates to a Skye terrier which had a strong
aversion to being washed : —

In process of time this aversion increased so much that all
the servants I had refused to perform the ablutions, being in
terror of doing so from the ferocity the animal evinced on
such occasions. I myself did not choose to undertake the office,
for though the animal was passionatel)^ attached to me, such was
his horror of the operation, that even I was not safe. Threats,
beating, and starving were all of no avail ; he still persisted in
his obstinacy. At length I hit upon a new device. Leaving
him perfectly free, and not curtailing his liberty in any way, I
let him know, by taking no notice of him, that he had offended
me. He was usually the companion of my walks, but now I
refused to let him accompany me. When I returned home I
took no notice of his demonstrative welcome, and when he came
looking up at me for caresses when I was engaged either in
reading or needlework, I deliberately turned my head aside.
This state of things continued for about a week or ten days,
and the poor animal looked wretched and forlorn. There was

DOG— EMOTIONS.

441

— ^ — --^^,,.

•other as before

evidently a conflict going on within him, which toUl visibly on
his outward appearance. At lengtli one morning lu^ crept
quietly up to me, and gave me a look which said as plainly as
liny spoken words could have done, * I can stand it no longer ; I
submit.' And submit he did quite quietly and patiently to
one of the roughest ablutions it had ever been his lot to expe-
rienco ; for by this time he sorely needed it. After it was over
he bounded to me with a joyous bark and wag of his tail, saying
unmistakably, * I know all is right now.* He took his place by
my side as his right when I went for my walk, and retained
from that time his usually glad and joyous expression of coun-
tenance. When the period for the next ablution came round
the old spirit of obstinacy resumed its sway for a while, but a
single look at my averted countenance was suflBcient for him,
and he again submitted without a murmur. Must there not
have been something akin to the reasoning faculty in the breast
of an animal who could thus for ten days cairy on such a
struggle 1

This strong effect of silent coldness shows that the loss
of affectionate regard caused the terrier more suffering
than beating, starving, or even the hated bath ; and as
many analogous cases might be quoted, I have no hesitation
in adducing this one as typical of the craving for affec-
tionate regard which is manifested by sensitive dogs.

In this connection I may point out the remarkable
change which has been produced in the domestic dog as
compared with wild dogs, with reference to the enduring
of pain. A wolf or a fox will sustain the severest kinds of
physical suffering without giving utterance to a sound,
while a dog will scream when any one accidentally treads
upon its toes. This contrast is strikingly analogous to
that which obtains between savage and civilised man :
the North American Indian, and even the Hindoo, will
endure without a moan an amount of physical pain — or at
least bodily injury — which would produce vehement ex-
pressions of suffering from a European. And doubtless
the explanation is in both cases the same — namely, that
refinement of life engenders refinement of nervous organi-
sation, which renders nervous lesions more intolerable.

As evidence of the idea of caste in a dog, I shall
quote only one instance, although many others might be

442

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

given : this also may be taken as typical. I extract it
from St. John's ' Wild Sports of the Highlands,' where,
speaking of his retriever, this very good observer states :
' He struck up an acquaintance with a ratcatcher and his
cur, thoroughly entering into their way of business ; but
the moment he saw me he instantly cut his humble
friends, and denied all acquaintance with them in the
most comical manner.' ^

Dogs likewise display in a high degree the feelings of
emulation and jealousy. I once had a terrier which took
great pains, and manifested paternal delight, in teaching
his puppy to hunt rabbits. But in time the puppy out-
grew his father in strength and fleetness, so that in the
chase, in spite of straining every nerve, the father used
to be gradually distanced. His whole demeanour then
changed, and every time that he found his son drawing
away from him he used in desperation to seize the reced-
ing tail of the youngster. Although the son was now
much stronger than the father, he never used to resent
this exercise of paternal authority, even though the
rabbit were close under his nose.

Of jealousy in dogs innumerable instances might be
given, but I shall merely quote one from my bulky cor-
respondence on this head. It is sent me by Mr. A.
Oldham : —

He had grown old, and having some affection in his legs
which made walking difficult to him, he had sunk into a very
stagnant sort of life, when a Scotch terrier was brought to live
with us, and treated with much favour. All Charlie's old vigour
revived upon the advent of this rival. He exhibited agonies of
jealousy, and has since ppent his life in following, watching, and
imitating him. He insists on doing everything that Jack does.
Although he had previously given up walking, he now makes a
point of going out whenever Jack does so. Several times he
has started with us, but finding that Jack was not of the party,
has turned back and quietly gone home. In the same way,

' So many cases are on record of large dogs (especially of the New-
foundland breed) throwing troublesome curs into the water, and again
rescuing them if they show danger of drowning, that we can scarcely
fail to accept them as true. Such cases exhibit a wonderful play of
human-like emotions.

DOG- -EMOTIONS.

443

although before he ate nothing but meat, he now eats any food
that is also given to Jack ; and if Jack is caressed he watches
for some time, and tiiea bursts out whining and barking. I have
seen the same rage manifested by a fine cockatoo at the sight of
his mistress carrying on her wrist and stroking afiectionately a
little green parrot. Such jealousy seems to me a very advanced
emotion, as it has passed beyond the stage when it may be sup-
posed to be caused by a fear of other animals monopolising
material benefits which they desire for themselves; it is ex-
cited solely by seeing affection or attention bestowed by those
they love upon other animals. The actions in which Charlie
tries to participate — such as walking far, plunging into cold
water after sticks, &c. — are in themselves extremely disagree-
able to him, and he performs them only that he may obtain a
share in the companionship and notice bestowed upon Jack.

Akin to jealousy is the sense of justice. If a master
is not equal in his ways towards his dogs, the dogs are
very apt to discover the injustice and to reSent it accord-
ingly. The well-known observation of the great Arago
may be taken as a typical one in this connection. Having
been detained by a storm at a country inn, and having
ordered a chicken for his dinner, Arago was warming himself
by the kitchen fire, when he saw the innkeeper put the fowl
on the spit and attempt to seize a turnspit dog lying in
the kitchen. The brute, however, refused to enter the
wheel, got under a table, and showed fight. On Arago
asking what could be the meaning of such conduct, the
host replied that the dog had some excuse, that it was
not his turn but his comrade's, who did not happen to be
in the kitchen. Accordingly, the other turnspit was sent
for, and he entered the spit very willingly, and turned
away. When the fowl was half roasted Arago took him
out, and the other dog, no longer smarting under the
sense of injustice, now took his turn without any opposi-
tion, and completed the roasting of the fowl.

Deceitfulness is another trait in canine character of
which numberless instances might be given ; but here,
again, it seems unnecessary to quote more than one or
two cases as illustrative of the general fact. Another of
my correspondents, after giving several examples of the
display of hypocrisy of a King Charles spaniel, proceeds : —

'f "

•>'r^\\

\: t.

444

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

He showed the same deliberate design of deceiving on other
occasions. Having hurt his foot he became lame for a time,
during which he received more pity and attention than usual.
For months after he had recovered, whenever he was harshly
spoken to, he commenced hobbling about the room as if lame
and suffering pain from his foot. He only gave up the practice
when he gradually perceived that it was unsuccessful.

The following instance, which I observed myself, I
regard as more remarkable. It has already been pub-
lished in * Nature ' (vol. xii., p. 66), from which I quote it:

The terrier used to be very fond of catching flies upon the
window-panes, and if ridiculed when unsuccessful was evidently
much annoyed. On one occasion, in order to see what he
would do, I purposely laughed immoderately every time he
failed. It so happened that he did so several times in succes-
sion — partly, I believe, in consequence of my laughing— and
eventually he became so distressed that he positively pretended
to catch the fly, going through all the appropriate actions with
his lips and tongue, and afterwards rubbing the ground with
his neck as if to kill the victim : he then looked up at me with
a triumphant air of success. So well was the whole process
simulated that I should have been quite deceived, had I not
seen that the fly was still upon the window. Accordingly I
drew his attention to this fact, as well as to the absence of any-
thing upon the floor ; and when he saw that his hypocrisy had
been detected he slunk away under some furniture, evidently
very much ashamed of himself.

This allusion to the marked effects of ridicule upon a
dog leads to a consideration of the next emotion with
which I feel certain that some dogs are to be accredited.
I mean the emotion of the ludicrous. This same terrier
used, when in good humour, to perform several tricks,
which I know to have been self-taught, and which clearly
had the object of exciting laughter. For instance,
while lying on his side and violently grinning, he would
hold one leg in his mouth. Under such circumstances,
nothing pleased him so much as having his joke duly
appreciated, while if no notice was taken of him he
would become sulky. On the other hand, nothing dis-
pleased him so much as being laughed at when he did
not intend to be ridiculous, as could not be more con-

eiving on other
me for a time,
on than usual,
e was harshly
oom as if lame
up the practice
jssful.

ved myself, I
dy been pub-
ich I quote it :

flies upon the
ul was evidently
X) see what he

every time he
times in succes-

laughing— and
lively pretended
ite actions with

e ground with

up at me with

e whole process
ived, had I not

Accordingly I
3 absence of any-
LS hypocrisy had
aiture, evidently

•idicule upon a

emotion with

be accredited.

is same terrier

several tricks,

i which clearly

For instance,

ning, he would

circumstances,

his joke duly

:en of him he

i, nothing dis-

t when he did

. be more con-

DOG — EMOTIONS AND COMMUNICATION OF IDi-JAS. 445

clusively proved than by the fact of his behaviour in
pretending to catch the Hy. Mr. Darwin observes : ' Dogs
show what may be fairly called a sense of humour, as dis-
tinct from mere play ; if a bit of stick or other such ob-
ject be thrown to one, he will often carry it away for a
short distance ; and then squatting down with it on the
ground close before him, will wait until his master comes
close to take it away. The dog will seize it and rush
away in triumph, repeating the same manoeuvre, and
evidently enjoying the practical joke.' ^

General Intelligence,

I have very definite evidence of the fact that dogs are
able to communicate to one another simple ideas. The
communication is always effected by gesture or tones of
barking, and the ideas are always of such a simple nature
as that of a mere 'follow me.' According to my own
observations, the dogs must be above the average of
canine intelligence, and the gesture they invariably em-
ploy is a contact of heads, with a motion between a rub
and a butt. It is quite different from anything that
occurs in play, and is always followed by a definite course
of action. I must add, however, that^ although the in-
formation thus conveyed is always definite, I have never
known a case in which it was complex — anything like
asking or telling the way, which several writers have said
that dogs can do, being, I believe, quite out of the question.
One example will suffice. A Skye terrier (not quite
pure) was asleep in the room where I was, while his son
lay upon a wall which separates the lawn from the high
road. The young dog, when alone, would never attack a
strange one, but was a keen fighter when in company
with his father. Upon the present occasion a hirge
mongrel passed along the road, and shortly afterwards
the old dog awoke and went sleepily downstairs. When
he arrived upon the door-step his son ran up to him and

' Descent of Man, p. 71.

446

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

made the sign just described. His whole manner im-
mediately altered to that of high animation. Clearing
the wall together, the two animals ran down the road as
terriers only can when pursuing an enemy. I watched
them for a mile and a half, within which distance their
speed never abated, although the object of their purisuit
had not from the first been in sight.

It is almost superfluous to give cases illustrating the
well-known fact that dogs communicate their desires and
ideas to man ; but as the subject of the communication
by signs will afterwards be found of importance in con-
nection with the philosophy of communication by words,
I shall here give a few examples of dogs communicating
by signs with man, which for my purpose will be the
more valuable the less they are recognised as unusual.

Lieutenant-Gen. Sir John H. Lefroy, C.B., K.C.M.G.,
F.R.S., writes me that he has a terrier which it is the
duty of his wife's maid to wash and feed. ' It was her
habit after calling her mistress in the morning to go
out and milk a goat which was tethered near the house,
and give "Button" the milk. One morning, being
rather earlier than usual, instead of going out at once she
took up some needlework and began to occupy herself.
The dog endeavoured in every possible way to attract her
attention and draw her forth, and at last pushed aside the
curtain of a closet, and never having been taught to fetch
or carry, took between his teeth the cup she habitually
used, and brought it to her feet. I inquired into every
circumstance strictly on the spot, and was shown where he
found the cup.'

Similarly I select the following case from a great
number of others that I might quote, because it is so
closely analogous to the above. It is communicated to
me by Mr. A. H. Baines : —

There is a drinking-trough for him in my sitting-room : if
at any time it happens to be without water when he goes to
drink, he scratches the dish with his fore-paws In order to call
attention to his Avants, and this is done in an authoritative way,
which generally has the desii-ed effect. Another Pomeranian —
a men^ber of the same family — when tjiiite young used to soak

DOG — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

447

manner im-
lon. Clearing
n the road as
y. I watched
distance their
their purssuit

lustrating the
iir desires and
ommunication
rtance in con-
ition by words,
iommunicating
je will be the
as unusual.
I.B., K.C.M.G.,
phich it is the
i. * It was her
morning to go
ear the house,
lorning, being
out at once she
occupy herself.
Y to attract her
ished aside the
taught to fetch
she habitually
red into every
shown where he

I from a great
lecause it is so
oamunicated to

sitting-room : if
srhen he goes to

in order to call
uthoritative way,
er Pomeranian —
mg used to soak

hard biscuits in water till soft enough to eat. She would carry
the biscuit in her mouth to the drinking-trough, drop it in and
leave it there for a few minutes, and then fish it out with her
paw.

One more instance of the communication of ideas by
gestures will no doubt be deemed sufficient. It is one of
a kind which has many analogies in the literature of
canine intelligence.

Dr. Beattie relates this case of canine sagacity, of which
the scene was a place near Aberdeen. The Dee being
frozen, a gentleman named Irvine was crossing the ice,
which gave way with him about the middle of the river.
Having a gun, he was able to keep himself from sinking
by placing it across the opening. ' The dog made many
fruitless efforts to save his master, and then ran to a
neighbouring village, where he saw a man, and with the
most significant gestures pulled him by the coat, and
prevailed on him to follow. The man arrived on the spot
in time to save the gentleman's life.'

Numberless other instances of the same kind might
be given, and they display a high degree of intelligence.
Even the idea of saving life implies in itself no small
amount of intelligence ; but in such cases as these we
have added the idea of going for help, communicating
news of a disaster, and leading the way to its occurrence.

Having thus as briefly as possible considered the
emotional and the more ordinary intellectual faculties of
the dog, I shall pass on to the statement of cases showing
the higher and more exceptional developments of canine
sagacity.

Were the purpose of this work that of accumulating
anecdotes of animal intelligence, this would be the place
to let loose a flood of facts, which might all be well
attested, xclating to the high intelligence of dogs. But
as my aim is rather that of suppressing anecdotes, except
in so far as facts are required to prove the presence in
animals of the sundry psychological faculties which I
believe the different classes to present, I shall here, as
elsewhere, follow the method of not multiplying anecdotes
further than seems necessnry fully to demonstrate the

448

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

highest level of intelligence to which the animal under
consideration can certainly be said to attain. But in
order that any who read these pages for the sake of the
anecdotes which they necessarily present may not be
disappointed by meeting with cases already known to
them, I shall draw my material mainly from the facts
communicated to me by private correspondents, alluding
to previously published facts only as supplementary to
those now published for the first time. It may be well
to explain to my numerous correspondents that I select
the following cases for quoting, not because they are the
most sensational that I have received, but rather because
they either contain nothing sufficiently exceptional to
excite the criticism of incredulity, or because they happen
to have been corroborated by the more or less similar
cases which I quote from other correspondents.

As showing the high general intelligence of the dog,
I shall first begin with the collie. It is certain that many
of these dogs can be trusted to gather and drive sheep
without supervision. It is enough on this head to refer
to the well-known anecdotes of the poet Hogg in his
* Shepherd's Calendar,' concerning his dog ' Sirrah.'

Williams, in his book on * Dogs and their Ways,' says
(p. 124) that a friend of his had a collie which, wheriever
his master said the words * Cast, cast,' would run off to
seek any sueep that might be cast, and on finding it would
at once assist it to rise. He also knew of another dog
(p. 102), which would perform the same office even in the
absence of his master, going the round of the fields and
pastures by himself to right all the sheep that he found
to be cast.^

One of my correspondents (Mr. Laurie Gentles) sends
me an account of a sheep-dog belonging to a friend of his
(Mr. Mitchell, of Inverness-shire) which strayed to a neigh-
bouring farm, and took up his residence with the farmer.
On the second night after the dog arrived at the farm
the farmer * took the dog down to the meadow to see if
the cattle were all right. To his dismay he found that

' For many other instances of sheep-do§: sagacity, see Wat.son,
lieaaomug Pnwer of Atiimals, under ' Shepl erd's Dog.'

DOG" GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

449

^acity, see Watson,

the fence between his meadow and his neighbour's had got
broken down, and that the whole of his neighbour's cattle had
got mixed up with his. By the help of the dog the strange
cattle were driven back into their proper meadow, and the
fence put into temporary repair. The next night, at the
same hour, the gentleman started off to look after the
cattle. The dog, however, was not to be seen. On arriv-
ing at the meadow, what was the gentleman's astonish-
ment to find that the dog had preceded him ! His
astonishment soon changed into delighted approbation
when he found the dog sitting on the broken fence
between the two meadows, and daring the cattle from
either side to cross. The cattle had during the interval
between the first and second visits broken down the fence,
and had got mixed up with each other. The dog had
quietly gone off on his own account to see if all was right,
and finding a similar accident to the one the previous
evening, had alone and unaided driven back the strange
cattle to their proper meadow, and had mounted guard
over the broken fence as I have already indicated.'

Colonel Hamilton Smith says that the cattle-dogs of
Cuba and Terra Firma are very wise in managing cattle,
but require to display different tiictics from the cattle-dogs
of Europe : —

When vessels with live stock arrive at any of the West
India harbours, these animals, some of which are nearly as
large as mastiffs, are wonderfully efficient in assisting to land
the cargo. The oxen are hoisted out with a sling passing
lound the base of their horns ; and when an ox, thus suspended
by the head, is lowered, and allowed to fall into the water, so
that it may swim to land, men sometimes swim by the side of
it and guide it, but they have often dogs of this breed which
will perform the service equally well; for, catching the per-
plexed animal by the ears, one on each side, they will force it
to swim in the direction of the landing-place, and instantly let
£[0 their hold when they feel it touch the ground, as the ox will
then naturally walk out of the water by itself.^

That this sagacity need not be due to special tuition,
liiiy be inferred from a closely similar display sponta-

' Natnrahst''s Ulmiry, vol. x., p. 154 (quoted by Watson).

G G

450

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

It'iinel.

A clc
wok on

instead o
In cc

other stc
this case

neously shown in the following case. It is communicatfJ'i-iit and
to me by a correspondent, Mr. A. H. Browning. ThiiM of the
gentleman was looking at a litter of young pigs in thcirl j .,
sty, and when he went away the door of the sty was in.l
advertently left unfastened. The pigs all escaped iiituB''Tp^'/'^
his garden. My correspondent then proceeds : — fctisiy li:

My atteution was csilled to my dog appearing lu a greutBi, i* ,.l f
stato of excitement, not harking (he seldom barks), but whinincP'' ^ °
and peiformiug all sorts of antics (in a human subject I should
have said ' gesticulating '). The herdmen and myself returned to
the sty ; we caught but one pig, and put him back ; no soonei-l
liad we done so than the dog ran after each pig in successionM'iyloi^ o
brought him back to the sty by the ear, and then went afteAiient dt
another, until the whole number were again housed.

In Lord Brougham's 'Dialogues on Instinct' (iii.j
there is narrated the story told to the author by Ijonl!
Truro of a dog that used to worry sheep at night. Th
animal quietly submitted to be tied up in the eveningW^^ ^^ 1'^^
but when everybody was asleep he used to slip his collarj"^ occup]
worry the sheep, and, returning before dawn, again geW'^'o (^ ^'®
into his collar to avoid suspicion. I allude to this re-B The d(
markable display of sagacity because I am myself ableBilie cook
fully to corroborate it by precisely similar cases. A frienc kitchen fo
of mine (the late Mr. Sutherland Murray) had a dog '"'^^ *^^®
which was always kept tied up at night, but neverthelesi "^^'"^f'' . }^
the neighbouring farmers complained of having detect e**^ ^'^^^^*^
him as the culprit when watching to find what dog it wai
that committed nightly slaughter among their sheep. M]
friend, therefore, set a watch upon his dog, and foum
that when all was still he slipped his collar, and aftei
being absent for some hours, returned and slipped hii lis old pi
head in again. 'l^^ng diet

A precisely similar case is given further back, an( '"^^^ ^ ^
others are communicated to me by two correspondent: '^ P^^^^e a
(Mr. Goodbehere, of Birmingham, and Mr. Richard Wil
liams, of Buffalo). The latter says : —

And here let me ask if you are aware of the cunning ami
sagacity of these sheep-killing dogs, that they never kill shee}]
on the farm to which they belong, or in the immediate vicinity
but often go miles away ; that they always return before day'

lefore the
[he fire, Ic
or him, h
shoot,
Tess. Q]

Mr. A

longed

Before

ie was k
(lastised
liey used

DOG— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

451

is communiciitt'dl
Browning. Thi;
ing pigs in thfirl
the sty was iuJ
ill escaped intol
eeds : —

Baring iu a greutj
arks), but whiniiid
n subject 1 aliouldl
myself returned toj
1 back ; no sooiieij
pig in succession,
id then went aftei
housed.

I Instinct' (iii.)
author by l^oidj

I at night. Tin
in the evening^

to slip his collar,
dawn, again get

lude to this re-
am myself abl(

r cases. A frieiK

rray) had a do[
but neverthelesi
having detecte(

I what dog it was

their sheep. M]
dog, and fouiii
collar, and aftei
and slipped his

'urther back, anij
o correspondent^
VIr. Richard Wiln

f the cunning anJ
3y never kill sbeej
immediate vicinityl
return before d:iy|

Ij/ht, and before doing so wasli tlioniselvesin some stream to get
|fi,l of the blood.

In (xermany I knew a large dog that was very fond of
Ijjrapes, and at night used to slip his collar in order to
latisfy his propensity; and it was not for some time that
Iho thief was suspected, owing to his returning before
(liiylight and appearing innocently chained up in his
Ikt'iinel.

A closely similar case is recorded in Mr. Duncan's
iiook on 'Instinct' of a dog belonging to the Rev. Mr.
iTiiylor, of Colton. The only difference is that the delin-
Itjuent (log slip])ed and afterwards r<'adjusted a muzzle
liiistead of a collar.

In connection with sly sagacity I may also give an-
other story contained in my correspondence, although in
[this case I am sp(!cially requested by my correspondent
Inet to publish his name. I can, therefore, only say that
Ike occupies a high position in the Church, and that the
Ijog (a retriever) was his own property : —

The dog was lying one evening before the kitchen fire where
jtlie cook had prepared a turkey for I'oasting. She left the
iitchen for a few moments, when the dog immediately carried
Iway the turkey and placed it in the cleft of a tree close to the
louse, but which was well concealed by the surrounding laurels.
k rapid were his movements that he returned to his post
pfore the cook had come back, and stretching himself before
Ike fire, looked * as innocent as a child unborn.' Unfortunately
lorliim, however, a man who was in the habit of taking him
|o shoot, saw him carrying away his prize and watched his pro-
tress. On coming into the kitchen the man found the dog in
p old place pretending to be asleep. Diver's conduct was all
ilon*^ dictated bj'' a desire to conceal his theft, and if he were
I man I should have said that he mtended, in case of inquiry,
|io prove an alibi.

Mr. W. H. Bodley writes me of a retriever dog that
belonged to him : —

Before he came to me he lived where another dog of similar

? was kept, and on one occasion they fought. Having been

[liastised for this, on future occasions when they quarrelled

|U'\- used to swim over a river of some breadth, where they

G G 2

4.52

ANIMAL INTELLIGKXCE.

ii.ing HI t

'(('lined I

Itiic floor, ;

pived its

Mr. J

Myd
keliigen
llijects of
llValter J^
I'wellory,
iniliiiiteeri
tiiiid of
lis if he
Ifuiind tha
liie flowei
less to a
lusiness t

I add

'roductio

ave the

iiculty, ]

lersons, (

Mr. (

flvs : —

A Dai
as playi
roiight a
een. It
u the wo:
1 am indebted for the following to Mr. Groodbehore, oje sudden

ill over, h
loor till 1

My friend (Mr. James Canning, of Birmingham) was ac q^^ |3j„|„,
quainted with a small mongrel dog who on being presente ^^^.^^ .
with a penny or a halfpenny would run with it in his mouth t ' ' "^

a baker's, jump on to the top of the half-door leading into tli
shop, and ring the bell behind the door until the baker came foi
ward and gave him a bun or a biscuit in exchange for tlie coii
The dog would accept any small biscuit for a halfpenny, but m
thing less than a bun would satisfy him for a penny. On on
occasion the baker (being annoyed at the dog's too frequei
visits), after receiving the coin, refused to give the dog am

could not bo interfered with, ami figlit out tlieir quarrel on tli
otliur side. What seems to me notowortliy in this con<lu(t i
the 8df-re8traiut manifested under the iniluence of puKahm, fU;i
the mutual understanding to < left n- the fight till tliey could \)\>
secute it unmolested; like two duellists crossing the ChanuL'l i
light in France.

It is, of course, a well-known thinj^ that dogs ni;i\
easily be taught the use of coin for buying buns, A:c
In the 'Scottish Naturalist' for April, 1881, Mr. JajJ
vouches for the fact that a collie which he knew was ii|
the habit of purchasing cakes with coi)pers without ew
having been taught the use of coin for 3ucb purposes]
This fact, however, of a dog spontaneously divining
the use of money requires corroboration, although ij
is Certain that many dogs have an instinctive idea uj
giving peace-offerings, and the step from this to th(
idea of barter may not be large. Thus, to give only {\\\
illustrations, Mr. Badcock writes to me that a friend of liij
had a dog whicli one day bad a quarrel witli a companii
dog, so that they parted at vfiriance. ' On the next di
the friend appeared with a biscuit, vvhicli he presented a
a peace-offering.' Again, Mi-. Thomas D. Smeaton wiitt
to me of bis dog that he ' has an amusing practice wliei
he is restored to favour after some slight offence, of im
mediately picking up and carrying anything that i
handiest, stone, stick, paper : it is a deliberate effort t
please, a sort of good-will offering, a shaking hands ove
the past.'

Birmingham ; it may be taken as typical of many simila
cases

Mr. C

vol. XX.,

When

IS presei

him, no

lis gaze w

DOG— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

453

lioir qnaiTol on tli
• in this coiKliict h
ICO of ])iixsh)ii, niii
till tlioy coiiUI \)x>'
,ing tlio Chuuut'l (

r that dogs in;n
buying buns, i.\:(

1881, iMr. J;ii.||
[i he knew was \\\
3ers without evr
V oUch purposcsj
neously divininJ
ion, although ij
istinetive idea
from this to th^
, to give only twj
hat a friend of lii
,vith a companidi]
On the next di
h he presented aj
). Smeaton writti
ing practice wliei
it otfence, of imj
anything that

liberate effort t[
aking hands ovej

X, Groodbehore,
1 of many similal

L'lningham) was acj
311 being presents

it in his mouth ti
)!• leading into tl
the baker came foi
jhange for the coii

halfpenny, but no
' a penny. On on

dog's too frequei

give the dog an}

ti.ing in e.vchange, and on every future occnsion the latt<>r (who
JiocHiied being tftken in a second time) would i)ut the coin ou
Ijic floor, and not permit the baker to pick it up until lie had ro-

eived its ccpiivalent.

]\[r. li. 0. JJackhonse writes to me : —

My dog is a broken-haired riibbit-cour.sing dog, and is very
Intelligent. I took hitn one day to an exhibition of pictures and
lulijects of interest, among which were statues and a bust of Sii'
hViilter Scott. It was a local exhibition, and as there was
liwellery, some one had to sit up all night with it as guard. 1
olimteered, and as we were looking about and sitting on a
itind of flowers, my dog suddenly began to bark, and made

if he had found some one

hiding.

On lookiuir round I

lound that it was the bust of Sir Walter Scott standing among
llie flowers, and in which he evidently recognised sufficient like-
less to a human being to think the supposed man had no
jiiisiness thei e at so late an hour.

I adduce this instance because it serves as a sort of in-
[roduction to the more remarkable faculty which I cannot
lave the least doubt is manifested by some dogs — the
ticulty, namely, of recognising portraits as representing
persons, or possibly of mistaking portraits for persons.

Mr. Crehore, writing to 'Nature' (vol. xxi., p. 132),
avs : —

A Dandie-Dinmont terrier, after the death of his mistress,
ras playing with some children in a room into which was
bought a photograph (large) of her that he had never pieviously
[een. It was placed upon the floor leaning against the wall.
lu the words of my informant, who witnessed it, the dog, when
he suddenly caught sight of the picture, crouched and trembled
[11 over, his whole body quivei'ing. Then he crept along the
poor till he reached it, and, seating himself before it, began to
prk loudly, as if he would say, ' Why don't you speak to me 1 '
The picture was moved to other paits of the room, and he fol-
lowed, seating himself before it and repeating his barking.

Mr. Charles W. Peach also gives an account in * Nature '
vol. XX., p. 196) of a large dog recognising his portrait : —

When it (the portrait) was brought to my house, my old dog
ms present with the family at the unveiling ; nothing was said
him, nor invitation given to him to notice it. We saw that
lis gaze was steadily fixed on it, and he soon became excited and

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154

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

whined, and tiied to lick and scratch it, and was so much takf-nl
up with it tliat wp— althon^li so W(fli knowing in'sintelligPiico ^1
A'oi'O all quite surprised — in fact, could scarcely believe that h'\
should know it was my likeness. We, however, had sufficittit
proof after it was hung up in our parlour. The room was ratlirij
low, and under the picture stood a chair : the door was left opfiij
without any thought about the dog; he, however, soon found i
out, when a low whining and scratching was heard by tli
family, and on search being made, ho was in the chair tryinii t
get at the picture. After this I put it up higher, so .is t
prevent its being injured by him. This did not prevent hin
from paying attention to it, for whenever I was away from homo
whether for a short or a long time — sometimes for several (lay>
— he spent most of his time gazing on it, and as it appeared t'
give him comfort the door was always left open for him. Whn
I was long away he made a low whining, as if to draw attentioi
to it. This lasted for years — in fact, as long as he lived.

P^'rom this account it appears that when in the fir?
instance the dog's attention was drawn to the picture i
was on the floor in the line of the dock's sight ; the behaviou
of the animal then and subsequently was too marked am
peculinr to admit of mistake.

Another correspondent in ' Nature ' (vol. xx., p. 220),
alluding to the previous letter, writes : —

Having read Mr. Peacli's letter on * Intellect in Brutes
as shown by the sagacity he witnessed in his dog, I have beciBpictures
asked to send a similar anecdote, which I have often told t<Banother.
friends. Many years ago my husband had his portrait taken
J. Pliillips, R.A., and subsequently went to India, leaving tb
portrait in London to be finished and framed. When it w
sent home, about two years after it was taken, it was placed oi
the floor against the sofa, preparatory to being hung on tli
wall. We had then a very handsome black-and-tan settt
which was a great pet in the house. As soon as the dog caiu|
into the room he recognised his master, though he had not si ei
him for two years, and went up to the picture and licked tliljog soon
t'iice. When this anecdote was told to Phillips, he said it ^^■intentlv ,

prtist's
I the flo(

I friend

recogn

ling in

the doj

day or

portrai

picture

(luartei

bottom

Las

rate ot

of port]

small b

?he coi

occurre

I ha

without
life-sizec
Two we]
the floor
entered

lave way
teringag
distance
soinetim<
his fear,
be merel
excited
and turn

the highest compliment that had ever been paid him.

Similarly, in the same periodical (vol. xx., p. 220]
Mr. Henry Clark writes : —

Some years ago a fine arts exhibition was held at Derby,
portrait of a Derby artist (Wright) was thus signalised : — 'Tllthen tun

itently
Iframe on
jthen unc
|at it, bar
Ire-covere
Ithe covei

DOG — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

455

was so mucli takfii
g Ills intelligpiioo -
ely believe that h-\
Bver, had siiffici(tit|
le room was ratlin

artist's pet dog distinguished this from a lot of jiictures upon
the floor of the studio by licking the face of the portrait.'

Again, I leurn from Dr. Samuel Wilks, F.R.S , that a
friend of his, whom I shall call Mrs. E., has a terrier which
door was loft oponB recognised her portrait. * The portrait is now (1881) hang-
ever, soon found itjing in the Royal Academy. When it first arrived home

the dog barked at it, as it did at strangers ; but after a
day or two, when Mrs. E. opened the door to show the
portrait to some friends, the dog went straight to the
picture and licked the hand. The picture is a three-
quarter length portrait of a lady with the hand at the
bottom of the picture.'

Lastly, my sister, who is a very conscientious and accu-
rate observer, witnessed a most unmistakable recognition
of portraits as representative of persons on the part of a
small but intelligent terrier of her own. At my request
?he committed the facts to writing shortly after they
occurred. The following is her statement of them : —

I have a small terrier who attained the age of eight months
without ever having seen a large picture. One day tliree nearly
life-sized portraits were placed in my room during his absence.
Two were hung up, and one left standing against the wall on
the floor awaiting the arrival of a picture-rod. When the dog
entered the room he appeared much alarmed by the sight of the
pictures, barking in a terrified manner first at one and then at
another. That is to say, instead of attacking them in an aggres-
sive way with tail erect, as he would have done on thus encoun-
tering a strange person, he barked violently and incessantly at some
distance from the paintings, with tail down and body elongated,
sometimes bolting under the chairs and sofas in the extremity of
; fear, and continuing barking from there. Thinking it might
be merely the presence of strange objects in the room which
excited him, I covered the faces of the portraits with cloths
and turned the face of the one on the floor to the wall. The
dog soon after emerged from his hiding-place, and having looked
intently at the covered pictures and examined the back of the
frame on the ground, liecame quite quiet and contented. I
then uncovered one of the pictures, when ho immediately flew
at it, barking in the same frightened manner as before. I then
re-covered that one and took the cover off another. The dog left
LS held at Derby, the covered one and rushed at the one which was exposed. I
us signalised : — ' Tb then turned the face of the one on the floor to the room, and he

was heard by th
the chair trying t
ip higher, so as t
i not prevent liin
as away from homo
los for several day
d as it appeared t
)enforhim. Whov
if to draw attentioi
g as he lived.

when in the iirs

to the picture i

o-ht : the behaviou

.s too marked ani

(vol. XX., p. 220)

Intellect in Brute?,
is dog, I have beei
have often told t(
is portrait taken b;
India, leaving th
ned. When it wa
en, it was placed o
being hung on tli
lack-and-tan sette
on as the dog cam
ugh he had not see
jture and licked th
illips, he said it ^v
paid him.

vol. XX., p. 220

If ■

456

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

flew at that with increased fierceness. This I did many tiuies I
covering and uncovering each picture alternately, always with!
the same i-esult. It was only when all three paintings wciel
uncovered at the same time, and he saw one looking at him inf
whatever direction he turned, that he became utterly terrified.
He continued in this state for nearly an hour, at the end of whiciil
time, although evidently very nervous and aj^t to start, hej
ceased to bark. After that day he never took any more notice!
of the pictures during the three months he remained in thel
house. He was then absent from the house for seven months.
On his return he went with me into the room where the por-
tmits were hung, immediately on his amval. He wjis evidently!
sjgain much startled on first seeing them, for he rushed at one,!
barking as he had done on the first occasion, but he only gavel
thi-ee or four barks when he ran back to me with the samel
apologetic manner as he has when he has barked at a well-
known friend by mistake.

It will have been observed that in all these cases the
portraits, when first recognised as bearing resemblance tc
human beings, were placed on the floor, or in the ordinaryl
line of the dog's sight. This is probably an important
condition to the success of the recognition. That it cer-
tainly was so in the case of my sister's terrier was gtrikinglyl
proved on a subsequent occasion, when she took the!
animal into a pictiure-shop where there were a number of
portraits hanging round the walls, and also one of Car-
lyle standing on the floor. The terrier did not heed thosel
upon the walls, but barked excitedly at the one upon the
floor. This case was further interesting from the fact
that there were a number of purchasers in the shop who I
were, of course, strangers to the terrier ; yet he took nol
notice of them, although so much excited by the pictuie.j
This shows that the pictorial illusion was not so complete
as to make the animal suppose the portrait to be a real
person ; it was only sufficiently so to make it feel a sense
of bewildered uncertainty at the kind of life-in-death|
appearance of the motionless representation.

If, notwithstanding all this body of mutually corrobo-
rative cases, it is still thought incredible that dogs should |
be able to recognise pictorial representations,^ we shoul

' Since my MS. went to press I have myself met with a striking!

DOG — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

457

[ lUtl many times,
,tely, always with!
e paiiijings wciej
ooking at him in
3 utterly terrified. I
b the end of which I

apt to start, liel
k. any more noticel
I remained in tliel
for seven months.
)m where the por-
He wjis evidently!

he rushed at one,!
, but he only gavel
ne with the samel
barked at a well-

[1 these cases th(
ig resemblance t<
r in the ordinary|
)ly an important
on. That it cer-l
ier was strikingly
n she took the!
ere a number o\
also one of Car
d not heed thosel
|he one upon the
from the fact!
in the shop whol
yet he took no]
by the pictme,
not so complete I
-ait to be a real
:e it feel a sense!
of life-in-death
[on.

Mutually corrobo-
that dogs should
ions,^ we shoul

et with a striking]

do well to remember that this grade of mental evolution
I is reached very early in the psychical development of the
I human child. In my next work I shall adduce evidence
to show that children of one year, or even less, are .able to
distinguish pictures as representations of particular objects,
land will point at the proper pictures when asked to show
I these objects.

Coming now to cases more distinctly indicative of
I reason in the strict sense of the word, numberless ordi-
nary acts performed by dogs indisputably show that they
possess this faculty. Thus, for instance, Livingstone
gives the following observation.' A dog tracking his
master along a road came to a place where three roads
diverged. Scenting along two of the roads and not finding
the trail, he ran off on the third without waiting to smell.
Here, therefore, is a true act of inference. If the track is
not on A or B, it must be on C, there being no other
I alternative.

Again, it is not an unusual thing for intelligent dogs,
I who know that their masters do not wish to take them
out, to leave the house and run a long distance in the
direction in which they suppose their masters are about to
go, in order that when they are there found the distance
may be too great for their masters to return home for the
purpose of shutting them up. I have myself known
several terriers that would do this, and one of the in-
stances I shall give in extenso (quoted from an account
which I published at the time in * Nature ' ) ; for I think
it displays remarkably complex processes of far-seeing
Icalculation : —

The terrier in question followed a conveyance from the
[house in which I resided in the country, to a town ten miles
distant. He only did this on one occasion^ and about five
months afterwards was taken bi/ traiyi to the same town as a
present to some friends there. Shortly afterwards I called
I upon these friends in a diflferent conveyance from the one
I which the dog had previously followed ; but the latter may
[have known that the two conveyances belonged to the same

idisplay of the recognition of a portrait by a dog. The portrait was
lone of myself, and the dog a lialf-bred setter and retreiver of my own.
' Missionary Travels, chap. i.

458

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

lionso. Anyhow, after I had put up tlie horses at an inn, 1
spent the morning with the terrier and his new masters, and
in the afternoon was accompanied 1)y them to the inn. i
shoidd have mentioned that the inn was the same as that at
which tlio' conveyance had been put up on the previous occ.i-
sion, five months before. Now, tlie dog evidently remembtMoil
this, and, reasoning from analogj', inferred that I was about to
return. This is shown by the fact that he stole away from oiu-
party — although at what precise moment he did so I cannot
say, but it was certainly after we had arrived at the inn, for
subsequently we all remembered his having entered the coH'ct-
room with us. Now, not only did he infer from a single pre-
cedent that T was going home, and make up his mind to go witli
me, but he also further reasoned thus : — 'As my previous master
lately sent me to town, it is probable that he does not want
me to return to the country ; therefore, if I am to seize tliis
opportunity of resuming my poaching life, I must now steal
a march upon the conveyance. But not only so, my fonnei
master may possibly pick me up and return with me to i^y
proper owners ; therefore I must take care only to intercept tlie
conveyance at a point sufficiently far without the town toi
make sure that he will not think it worth his while to go back
with me.*

Complicated as this train of reasoning is, it is the
simplest one I can devise to account for the fact that
slightly beyond the third milestone the terrier was await-
ing me, lying right in the middle of the road with his I
face towards the town. I should add that the second two ]
miles of the road were quite straight, so that I could j
easily have seen the dog if he had been merely running a |
comparatively short distance in front of the horses. Why
this animal should never have returned to his former home
on his own account I cannot suggest, but I think it was
merely due to an excessive caution which he also mam- 1
fested in other things. However, be the explanation of this |
what it may, as a fact he never did venture to come back
upon his own account, although there never was a sub-
sequent occasion upon which any of his former friends I
went to the town but the terrier was seen to return with|
them, having always found some way of escape from his
intended imprisonment.

The Rev. J. C. Atkinson gives an account (* Zoolo-

DOG — GENERAL INTELLIGEXCK.

459

raes at an inn, I
new niMstors, and
1 to tbo inn. 1
same as that at
lio previous occn-
;ritly renionil)oi(Ml
it I was about to
)le away from our

did so I cannot
id at the inn, for
ntered the cotiVt'-
•om a single pi"-
s mind to go witli
y previous master
le does not want

am to seize this
[ must now steal
ily so, my former
1 with me to my
ly to intercept the '
tout the town to
s while to go buck

ig is, it is the
or the fact that
errier was await-
road with hi?
b the second two
so that I could
aerely runnini^ a
16 horses. Why
his former home
I think it was
h he also mani-
planation of this
ire to come back
3ver was a sub-
former friends
n to return with
escape from his

iccount (* Zoolo-

gist,' vol. vii., p. 2338) of his terrier, which, on starting a
water-rat out of reeds into the running stream, would not
j)lunge directly after it, knowing that the rat would beat
him at swimming. But the moment the rat plunged, the
dog ran four or five yards down the bank, and there waited
till the water-rat, being carried down stream, appeared
upon the surface, when he pounced upon it successfully.

Cases of this kind might be multiplied indefinitely, and
they appear to show a true faculty of reason or inferring.

Professor W. W. Bailey, writing from 15roun Univ(?r-
sity to * Nature ' (xxii., p. 607), says : —

A friend of mine, a naturalist, and a very conscientious
man, whose word can be implicitly trusted, gives the following,
to which he was an eye-witness. His grandfather, then a very
old but hale and hearty man, had a splendid Newfoundland.
There was a narrow and precipitous road leading from the
fields to the house. It was regarded as a very dangerous place.
One day when the old gentleman was doing some work about
the farm his horse became alarmed, and started off with the
waggon along this causeway* The chances were that he woidd
dash himself and the empty waggon to pieces. At once the dog
seemed to take in the situation, although until that time he had
been impassive. He started after the horse at full speed, over-
took him, caught the bridle, and by his strength arrested the
frightened creature until help could reach him. My friend
gives many other stories of this fine dog, and thinks he had
a decided sense of humour. I will repeat that both of these
tales come to me well authenticated, and I could, by seeking
permission, give names and places.

Couch gives the following, which is worth quoting, as
showing the intelligence of dogs in attacking unusual
prey :—

On the first discovery of the prey (crabs) a teriier runs in to
seize it, and is immediately and severely bitten in the nose. But
a sedate Newfoundland dog of my acquaintance proceeds more
soberly in his work. He lays his paw on it to arrest it in its
escape ; then tumbling it over he bares his teeth, and, seizing
it with the mouth, throws the crab aloft. It falls upon the
stones ; the shell is cracked beyond redemption, and then the
dainty dish is devoured at his leisure.^

• I llust rations of Instinct, p. 179.

4G0

ANIMAL INTELLIGKNCE.

^■m

I myself know a large dog in (iciinany wliifh used to
kill snjikc's by dexterously tossing tlieni in the air a great
nunil)er of times, too qtiiekly to admit of the snake bitinj^.
When the snake was thus (juite confused, the dog would
tear it in pieces. This dog can never have been jjoisoiied
by the bite of a snake; but he seems to hav(^ had an
instinctive idea that the snake nn'ght be more harmful in
its bitt^ than other animals; for while he was bold in
fighting with dogs, and did not then object to receivinghis
fair share of laceration, he was extremely careful never to
Ix'gin to tear a snake till he had thoroughly bewildered it
by tossing it as described.

The reasoning displayed by dogs may not always ])e of
a high order, but little incidents, from being of constant
occurrence among all dogs, are the more important as
showing the reasoning faculty to be general to these
finimals. I shall therefore give a few cases to show the
kind of reasoning that is of constant occurrence.

Mr. Stone writes to me from Norbury Park concerning
two of his dogs, one large and the other small. Koth
l)eing in a room at the same time,

one of them, the larger, had a bone, and when he had left
it the smaller dog went to take it, the larger one growled, and
the other retired to a corner. Shortly afterwards the larger
dog went out, but the other did not appear to notice this, and at
any i-ate did not move. A few minutes later the large dog was
heard to hark out of doors j the little dog then, without a
moment's hesitation, went straight to the bone and took it. It
thus appears quite evident that she reasoned — * That dog is
barking out of dooi'S, therefore he is not in this room, therefore
it is safe for me to take the bone.' The action was so rapid as
to be clearly a consequence of the other dog's barking.

Again, Mr. John Le Conte, writing from the Uni-
versity of California, tells me of a dog which used to
hunt rabbits in an extensive pasture-ground where there
was a hollow tree, which frequently served as a place of
refuge for the rabbits when they were pressed : —

On one occasion a nibbit was * started,' and all of the
dogs, with the exception of ' Bonus,' dashed off in full pursuit.
We were astonished to observe that the sedate * Bonus,* fore-

DOG— GKNERAL INriCrJJGKNCK.

4()l

jjoirig tlio int(M»so oxcitomont of tlio <'1iaso, (lolilxM-jitcly (loitod
by a Hliort cut to ji hollow oak trunk, niid croucliing at its
liase calmly awaited tlio advent of ilio flcciii;^' rahhit. And he
wius not disa|)[)ointod (they fi'cijucjntly «'s<';i|)('d without bcin^
iih1uc(mI to this extroniity), fur tho pursuinof do;rrs pressed tho
rahhit so hard that, after making' a lon<^ detour, it made for the
jilaco of refui^e. As it was ahout ent«Min^' tho hollow trunk,
tlio crouchini,' * JJonus ' captured tiie astouisln^d roiU^nt.

Similarly, Dr. Andrew Wilson, F.K.S.K., writes iric as
follows : —

There is a shrubhory near tho house, about 200 or 300 yards
lonj^, and running in tho shapt^ of a horseslioi'. A small t(Mrier
used to start a rabbit nearly every morning, at tho end of tho
shrubbery next tho house, and hunt him through the whole
length of it to the other end, where the rabbit escaped into an
old drain. The dog then appears to have come to the conclusion
that the cliord of a circle is shorter than its arc, for he niised
tho rsibbit again, and inste^id of following him through the
shrubbery as usual, he took the short cut to the drain, ami was
ready and in waiting on the rabbit when he arrived, and caught
him.

A somewhat similar instance is comrnimieated to me
by Mr. William Cairns, of Argyll House, N.15. : —

I was watching the operations of a little Skye terrier on a
whejitstack which was in the course of being thrashed, when
suddenly a very large rat bounced off, just from under Fan's
nase. It darted into a pit of water about a dozen yards from
the stack, and tried to escape. Fan, however, plunged afte?*,
and swam for some distance, but found she was being left be-
hind. So she turned to the shore again and ran round to
flie other side of the pit, and was ready and caught it just on
landing.

I never saw anything more remarkable. If it was not rea-
son, I do not know how it is possible that it could come much
more closely to the exercise of that faculty.

Dr. Bannister, editor of the * Journal of Nervous and
Mental Diseases,' writes me from Chicago, that having
spent a winter in Alaska, he * had a good opportunity to
study animal intelligence in the P^skimo dogs,' and he
reports it as * a fact of common occurrence,' when the
dogs are drawing sledges on the ice near the coast, that

4()2

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

on troming to siniioHitics in the; t'oiist-liiu', tlicy ypon-
tjiiu'ously lt'Jiv(; the hoatcu track and strik(; ont so as
to *cnt across tlic windings l)y going straight from point
to point' of land. This is frcqncntly done even wlicn
the leading dog 'conld not see the whole winding of tlic
beaten track; h(^ seemed to re»ason that the ronte must
lead aronnd the headlands, and tliat he could economise
travel by cutting across.'

It will be remembered in ctnmection with these dogs,
that Mr. Darwin in the * Descent of ]Man ' (p. 75) quotes
Dr. Hayes, who, in his work on * The Open Polar .Scii,'
' repeatedly remarks thjit hia dogs, instcjid of continuinj,'
to draw the sledges in a compact body, diverged and
separated when they came to thin ice, so that their weight
might be more evenly [and widely] distributed. This was
often the first warning which the travellers received that
the ice was becoming thin and dangerous.' Mr. Darwin
remarks, 'This instinct may possibly have arisen since the
time, long ago, when dogs were first employed by the
natives in drawing their sledges ; or the Arctic wolves,
the parent stock of the Esquimaux dog, may have ac-
quired an instinct, impelling them not to attack their
prey in a close pack when on thin ice.'

Mrs. Horn writes me : —

One morning, soon after his usual time for starting, I saw
the dog looking anxiously about, evidently afiuid that my
brother had gone without him. He looked into the room
where we had breakfasted, but my brother was not there. He
went up two or three stairs, and listened attentively. Then,
to my astonishment, he came down, and going to the hat-stand
in the hall, stood on his hind legs and sniffed at the great-coats
hanging there, imdoubtedly trying to ascertain whether my
brother's coat was there or not.

Another correspondent (Mr. Westlecombe) writes : —

My cat had kittens, of which two were preserved, the rest
being drowned. The dog tolerated the two kittens, but did not
care about them with any friendship. When the kittens were
a few weeks old, I — finding that I could get but one of them
off my hands — determined to kill the other, and, as the quickest
mode of death, to shoot it by a pistol close behind its head. The

DOG- -(^ENKUAL INTELLIGENCi:.

40;$

lit', tln'3^ i^pon-
rik(? out Ko ;i>
ight from point
one cvon wlicn
winding of tin*
the route must
ould econonuse

,vith those dogs,
' (p. 75) quotes
pen Polar Sen,'
id of continuini,'
', diverged and
hat their weight
(uted. This was
irs received that
IS.' Mr. Darwin

arisen since the

tiiployed by the

e Arctic wolves,

may have ac-

to attack their

)r starting, I saw
afi-aid that my
into the room

IS not there. He

tentively. Then,
to the hat-stiind

at the great-coats !
ain whether my

nbe) writes : —

reserved, the rest

ttens, but did not

the kittens were|

but one of them

d, as the quickest I

id its head. The |

lo^ Huw uie do tills in my j^indcn, and in a few minule.s al'ter-

Iwiirds she sipjK'ared witli the otiu-r kitttu dead iu her mouth;

•he iuid killt'il it. if that was not reaHonin;^ I do not know

I what is.

Mr. \V. V. Hooper writes me of a Xewfoundhmd dog

•hat was in the habit of jurnrnpiiuying the nursemaid and

|iiaby behmging to its mistress. On one occasion a keen

;vind began to blow, and the nursemaid drew her shawl

iiver the child : —

The nursemaid liud not taken many stops towards liome

I ifore her progiT'ss was barred by tht! dog, who phieed himself
111 the centre of the path and «,n'owl('«l whenever slu; advanced.
She was much alarmed, and tried to coax the dof^ to move, but

I Leo would not, and abated nothing of the hostile display. Half
au hour passed, and the girl became nearly distracted. What

\con\d be the matter with the dog? Was she to bo a prisoner
all day 1 Would the animal lly at her thi'oat ] Was Leo suffer-
ing from hydrophobia 1 These and similar questions crossed the
ijirl's mind. At length a suggestion of despau* — it was nothing
more — occurred to her. She thought it might win the dog
round to good humour if she showed it the baby ; so she removed

I the folds of her shawl and presented it at arm's length to the
ilog. The result was magical, and far in excess of all expecta-
•ion, for not only did the dog cease to growl, but he began to

L'amboland caress, and removed himself from the path altogether,
>o that there was now a free course, and home was soon reached.
The explanation of the whole affair is, when the nursemaid

I turned on her path thinking she had gone sufficiently far, the
(log missed sight of the baby, and believed it was gone. Under

[this impression the dog converted himself into a sentinel, with
the resolve that not one step should be taken towards home
without the baby ; and faithfully did the animal keep watch and
ward until the demonstration was given that the child had not
been left behind, but was still in the nurse's arms alive and well.
I think this is an exhibition of intelligence worthy of being
known to you.

I extract the following instance from Col. Hutchinson's
h Dog-breaking.' It is briefly alluded to in the 'Descent
I of Man.' The observer and narrator is Mr. Colquhoun : —

I may mention a proof of his sagacity. Having a couple of
[long shots across a pretty broad stream, I stopped a mallard
with each barrel, but both were only wounded. I sent him

-i(;4

ANIMAL INTKLLrOK\C!E.

ncroHs for thn binlH. Ifo first attcMiiptod to Iu-Imlj tlicm liotli,
but oiiG nlways Htni^^Iod out of liis nioutli : lio thou laid down
ono intondin;* to l»rin^ tliootluM*; l>ut wlirnovor Ik* attcniptcil
to oioss to luo, tlio l)ird loft lluttoied into tlio water ; lio im
inodiatcly roturncd again, laid down tlio Hrst on tiio shoro an,!
recovon^d tho otlior. The fii-st now tluttored uway, Imt hv
instantly sccurod it, and, standing ovor tlioni both, soomod to i
cogitjito for a moment ; then, althougii on any otiier occasion
he never nifties a feather, deliU'rattdy killed one, brought over
the other, and then returnetl for tho ilead bird.

The following, coinnuiniejited to mc by Mr. Blood, is a]
closely Jinnlogous, jind therefore confirmatory case. ][e
was out shooting witli a companion, and three wild ducks
were simultaneously dropped into a lake — one falling dead I
and the other two winged. Mr. Blood sent in his si)anit'l|
to retrieve,

and of course when the wounded birds saw her cominc: thov
swam out, so that she first reached the dead duck. She swami
up to it, paused for a moment, and passing it wont after tin
nep.rest wounded bird. Having caught this, sheagainh(\sitate(l,|
and apparently after consideration she gave it a (diop and let it
go, quieted for the present. She then caught and biought toj
land the other wounded duck, and going back she again reached
the dead bird ; but looking at the other and seeing that it w;i>|
again moving, she went out antl brought it in, and last of al
brought the dead bird. The dog was a fii-at-rato retriever andl
never injured game, so that it was an entirely new thing for lioij
to kill a bird.

Again, Mr. Arthur Nicols, in * Nature,' vol. xix., page
496, says : —

Can we conceive any human being reasoning more correctlyl
than a dog did in the following instance 1 Towards the evening!
of a long day's snipe-shooting on Dartmoor, the party wad
walking down the bank of the Dart, when my retriever fiushoill
a widgeon which fell to my gun in the river, and of coursel
instantly dived. I said no word to the dog. He did not!
plunge into the river then, but galloped doion stream some fifty!
or sixty yards, and then entered and dashed from side to side— [
it was about twenty or thirty feet wide — working up stream.!
and making a great commotion in the water until he came toj
the place where we stood. Then he landed and shook himself.!
and carefully hunted the near bank a considerable distancej

DOO — (J KNKIIA r, INTKI.LKSKNCK.

465

lu'in!4 tluMu Until,

tluMi lni<l tlowii
'vor 1h» attcmptnl
,lio WiittM- ; lu' iiii-

on the slioro jinil
ed iiway, l>ut li-

1 both, sroiuod to
my «)thor occnsion
one, brought over
I.

»y Mr. lilood, is:i
liitory cas(». lie
three wild ducks I
-one fulling (h'jid
mt in his siKinicl

\v her coming tlicy
duck. She swiim|
; it wont nfter thf
she as^ain hesitated,
t a (diop and let it
ht and brought tol
c she again reacheil
seeing that it Wi^
in, and last of all
rato retriever auil
Y new thing (ov hor

ilown, croHHCil to the opposite side, and dili<,'ently exj)lored that
Jiiink. Two or three ininutt'S elupsed, and the party waH for
jnjoving on, wh(»n 1 called titeir attrnlion to a Htidden change in

lie dog'H demeanour. His ' Hag' vvan n«)w up niid going from
Lie to Hide in that energetic maniirr wliich, as every s[)ortsman
hiiows, iM'tokens a hot sci-nt. I then knew that tlu^bird was as
Lie as if it was already in my bag. Awiiy through the henther
Ircat the waving tail, until twenty or tliii'ty yards fron> the
Iwnk oi)posito to that on wliich wo wei'e stiinding thero ^^■ll^i a
Momentary Kcnflle ; the bird just rose from the ground nbovo
I'Jie hoatluu', the dog sprang into th«' air, caught it, canu^ awny
\il full gallop, dashed across the str(>am, and delivered it into my

iiands. Need I interpret all this for the experienced s[)ortsman?
iThe dog had learned from long expta-ieiice in Australia and the
|iu\rrow cafiadas in the La Plata that a wounded duck goes down
Ltream ; if winged, his maimed wing sticks out and rentiers it
liiupossiblc for him to go up, so ho will invariably land and try
|;o iiido away from tho bank. J»ut if the dog enters at the pljice
Irliero tho bird ftdl, tho latter will go on with the stream for iin
lindefinito distance, rising nf)W and then for breath, and give iufi-
Inite trouble. My dog had found out all this long since, and had
Ipi'oved tho coiTCctness of his knowledge times out of number,
liiul by his actions had tawjht me tho whole sirt and mystery of
Iretrieving duck. His object, I say without a doubt, because I
Ikd numberless opportunities of observing it, was to fling tho
Ibird and force it to land by cutting it off lower down the stream.
iThen assuming, as his experience justified him, that tho bird
Ikad landed, he hunted each bank in succession for the trail,
hhich he knew must betray tho fugitive.

e,' vol. xix., png* I As showing in a higher, and therefore rarer degree,

ihe ratiocinative faculty in dogs, I may (jiiote a brief ex-
tract from my British Association lecture : —

ling more correctly
)\vardsthe evening
:>r, the party wa>
ly retriever flush oil
ver, and of course
3g. He did not
, stream some fifty
from side to side—
rorking up stream.
r until he came to
and shook himself,
isiderable distance

My friend Dr. Rac, the well-known traveller and natu-
Iralist, knew a dog in Orkney which used to accompany his
paster to church on alternate Sundays. To do so he had to
Iswim a channel about a mile wide ; and before taking to the
Ivater he used to run about a mile to the north when the tide
Iwas flowing, and a nearly equal distance to the south when tho
Itide was ebbing, * almost invariably calculating his distance so
pell that he landed at the nearest point to the church.' In his
[letter to me Dr. Rae continues : * How the dog managed to
|calculate the strength of the spring and neap tides at their

II H

*;i

466

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

fl" * '

I'" i

. a.

various rates of speed, and always to swim at the proper angl(
is most surprising.'

As a confirmatory case, I may also quote an extracj
from a letter sent me by Mr. Percival Fothergill. Writing
of a retriever which he has, he says : —

I have seen her spring overboard from our gangway 16 feel
from the water-line. The tides ran more than 5 knots, and sh(
invariably came down to a little wharf abreast the ship, and
gazed intently for small pieces of sack or straw, and havini
thus ascertained the drift of the tide (did as you mention
another dog), ran up tide and swam off. The sentry on thJ
forecastle always kept a look-out for the dog, and threw ovej
a line with a bowling knot, and she was hauled on board.

But one day she was observed to wait an unusual time o^
the wharf ; no wood or straw gave her the required informatior
After waiting some time, she lay down on the planks, anj
dropped one paw into the water, and found by the feel whicj
way the tide ran, got up, and ran up stream as usual.

Mr. George Cook writes me that he recently had
pointer, which one morning, when the grass was coverej
with frost, dragged a mat out of his kennel, from whicj
he had got loose, to the lawn beneath the house window^
where he was found lying upon the mat, which thus servej
to protect him from the frost. The distance over which hi
had dragged the mat for this purpose was about 100 yarda
Mr. Cook adds : * I have since frequently seen him bring thi
mat out of his kennel and lay it in the sunshine, shiftinj
it if a shadow came upon the place where he had laid it.]

The following is sent me by the Rev. F. J. Penkj
He gives me the name of his friend the canon, but dc
not give me express permission to publish it. In quotinj
his account, therefore, I leave this name blank. Hj
says : —

The following is ai^ instance of sagacity — indeed, aniounj
ing to reason — in a dog, a French poodle that belonged
Colonel Pearson (not the lately beleaguered colonel at Ekowd
but a Colonel Pearson living some years ago at Lichfield]
The circumstance happened to a friend of mine, Canon —

rector of . I have the story from his own hps, but I hav

no permission for his name to be used in any pubUcationj shoull

f I

DOG— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

467

at the proper angle

the story be thought worthy of it. My friend tlie canon, I may
ijiiy, has no leanings. Bteing a guest at lunclieon with the

lilog's master, my friend fdd the dog with pieces of beef. After
Jliincheon the beef was taken into the larcler. The dog did not
Ithink he liad his fair share. What did he do ? Now he had
|l)een taught to stand on his hind legs, put his paw on a lady's
Ifiist, and hand her into the dining-room. He adopted the
Isime tactics with my friend the canon, stood on his hind legs,
Iput his paw on his arm, and made for the door. To see what

Iwould follow, Canon suffered himself to be led ; but the

Isigacious dog, instead of steering for the dining-room, led him
liu the direction of the larder, along a passage, down steps, tfec,
land did not halt till he brought him to the larder, and close to
Ithe shelf where the beef had been put. The dog had a small

Ibit given him for his sagacity, and Canon returned to the

Idrawing-room. But the dog was still not satisfied. He tried
Ithe same tridk again, but this time fruitlessly. The paiion was
Inot going again with him to the larder. What was Mori to do ?
lAnd here comes the instance of reason in the poodle. Finding
liie could not prevail on the visitor to make a second excursion
|to the larder, he went out into the hall, took in his teeth Canon
— 's hat from off the hall table, and carried it under the
Ishelf in the larder, where the coveted beef lay out of his reach,
jrhere he was found with the hat, waiting for the owner of the
Ikt, and expecting another savoury bit when he should come for
liiis hat.

Many anecdotes might be adduced of the cleverness
Iwhich some dogs show in finding their way by train ; but
ll shall give only three, and I select these, not only be-
cause they all mutually corroborate one another, but like-
Iffise because they all display such high intelligence on the
[part of the dogs.

Mr. Horsfall, in ' Nature,' vol. xx., p. 505, says : —

Last year we spent our holidays at Llan Bedr, Merioneth-
Ishire. Our host has a house in the above village, and another
lat Harlech, a town three miles distant. His favourite dog,
iXero, is of Norwegian birth, and a highly intelligent animal.
jHe is at liberty to pass his time at either of the houses owned
Iby his master, and he occasionally walks from one to the other.
iJIore frequently, however, he goes to the railway station at
jUan Bedr, gets into the train, and jumps out at Harlech.
iBeing most probably unable to get out of the carriage, he was
|on one occasion taken to Salsernau, the station beyond Harlech,

H u 2

it ■ !■

468

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

-i*-..

when he left the carriage and waited on the platform for th«
return train to Harlech. If Nero did not make use of 'abstracjj
reasoning * we may as well give up the use of the term.

Miss M. C. Young writes to me : —

You may perhaps think the following worthy of notice, ad
illustrating the comparative failure of instirict in an animal
which has begun to reason. A friend of mine has a mongiel
fox-terrier of remarkable intelligence, though undeveloped bv
any training. This dog has always shown a great fondness foJ
accompanying any of the family on a railway journey, oftei
having to be taken out of the train by force. One morning ii
the summer of 1877 the groom came, in great distress, to sa\
that Spot had followed him to the station, and jumped into th^
train after a visitor's maid who was going to see her friemld
and he (the groom) felt sure the dog would be stolen. Thi
railway is a short single line, with three trains down and ui
each day, and my friend is well known to all the officials, so shl
sent to meet the next train, when the guard said the doJ
(apparently finding no friend in the train) had jumped out a|
a little roadside station about five miles distant. Most dog
would have found their way home easily, though the plac^
itself was strange, but Spot did not appear till late in thJ
evening, after ten hours' absence, and dead tired. On inquirj
we found that the guard had seen nothing of her at 9 a.m., a]
12 A.M., at 1 P.M., nor at 4 p.m. ; but when he reached the littl(
station on his return at 5.30, * she was walking up and dowi
the platform like a Christian,' jumped into his box, and jumpeij
out again of her own accord at the right station for her home
She had evidently spent the interval in trying to find her wai
home on foot, and not succeeding, had resolved on returnin|
the way she came.

Lastly, for the following very remarkable case I ar
indebted to my friend Mrs. A. S. H. Richardson : —

The Rev. Mr. Townsend, incumbent of Lucan, was formerlj
an engineer on the Dundalk line of railway. He had a veij
intelligent Scotch retriever dog, which used to have a habit
jumping into any carriage in which Mr. Townsend travelled!
but this had been discontinued for a year when the foUowinJ
incident happened. Mr. Townsend and the dog were on th|
platform at Dundalk statior ; Mr. Townsend went to get
ticket for a lady, and duiing his absence the dog jumped intj
a carriage, and when the train started, was carried down

DOG— GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

469

IClonea. Tliere he found himself alone when he jumped out ;
[lie went into the station-master's office and looked about, then
linto the ticket-collector's and searched there, and then ran oflf
Ito the town of Clones, a mile distant. There he searched the
Iresident engineer's office, and not finding his master, returned
Ito the station and went to the u}^ platform. When the up
Itiain arrived, he jumped in, but was driven out by the guard.
JA. ballast train then drew up, going on to a branch line which
In as Ixiing constructed to Caran, but which was not finished yet.
Ilhe dog travelled on the engine as far as the line went, and
Ithen ran the remaining five miles to Caran, where Mr. Town-
|«end*s sister lived. He visited her house, and not finding his
iDiaster, ran back to the station, and took a return train to
IClones, where he slept, and was fed by the sta,tion-master. At
Ifuur in the morning he took a goods train down to Dundalk,
where he found Mr. Townsend.

^/lmt»

undalU

It would be easy to continue multiplying anecdotes of
lanine intelligence ; but I think a sufficient number of in-
pnces have now been given for the only purpose that I have
lin view — namely, that of exhibiting in a connected manner
Ihe various psychological faculties which are presented by
jdogs, and the level of development to which they severally
lattain. I may again remark that I have selected these
Instances for publication from among many others that I
Kould have given, only because they conform to one or other
lof the general principles to which I everywhere adhere in
Ihe quoting of facts. That is to say, these facts are either
linatters of ordinary observation, and so intrinsically credi-
Ible ; or they stand upon the authority of observers well
[known to me as competent ; or they are of a kind which
|(io not admit of mal-observation ; or, lastly, they are well
Icorroborated by similar accounts received from indepen-
Iflent observers. I think, therefore, that this sketch of the
Ipsychology of the dog is as accurate as the nature of the
[materials admits of my drawing it. If it is fairly open to
Icriticism on any one side, I believe it is from the side of

470

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

m :

L.f

the dog-lovers, who may perhaps with justice complain
that I have ignored a number of published facts, stand-
ing on more or less good authority, and appearing more
wonderful than any of the facts that I have rendered. To
this criticism I have only to answer that it is better to err
on the safe side, and that if the facts which I have ren-
dered are sufficient to prove the existence of all the
psychological faculties which the dog can fairly be said to
possess, it is of less moment that partly doubtful cases
should be suppressed, where the only object of introducing
them would be to show that some particular faculties were
in some particular instances more highly developed than
was the case in the instances here recorded.

^i*-''

471

CHAPTER XVII.

MONKEYS, APES, AND BABOONS.

If E now come to the last group of animals which we shall
pve occasion to consider, and these, from an evolutionary
Ipoint of view, are the most interesting. Unfortunately,
Ihowever, the intelligence of apes, monkeys, and baboons
[has not presented material for nearly so many observations
las that of other intelligent mammals. Useless for all
[purposes of labour or art, mischievous as domestic pets,
land in all cases troublesome to keep, these animals have
[never enjoyed the improving influences of hereditary
[domestication, while for the same reasons observation of
[the intelligence of captured individuals has been com-
[paratively scant. Still more unfortunately, these remarks
[apply most of all to the most man-like of the group,
and the nearest existing prototypes of the human
race : our knowledge of the psychology of the anthropoid
apes is less than our knowledge of the psychology of any
other animal. But notwithstanding the scarcity of the
material which I have to present, I think there is enough
to show that the mental life of the Simiadce is of a dis-
tinctly different type from any that we have hitherto con-
sidered, and that in their psychology, as in their anatomy,
I these animals approach most nearly to Homo sapiens.

Emotions.

Affection and sympathy are strongly marked — the
latter indeed more so than in any other 'animal, not even
excepting the dog. A few instances from many that
might be quoted will be sufficient to show this.

472

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

¥^l

"i '

Mr. Darwin writes: —

Eengger observed an American monkey (a Cebus) carefully
driving away the flies which plagued her infant; and Duvancel
saw a Hylobates washing the faces of her young ones in a I
stream. So intense is the grief of female monkeys for the loss I
of their young, that it invariably caused the death of certiiinj
kinds kept under confinement by Brehm in North Africa.
Orphan monkeys were always adopted and carefully guarded]
by the other monkeys, both male and female.^

Again, Jobson says that whenever his party shot an I
orang-outang from their boat, the body was carried off]
by others before the men could reach the shore.

So, again, James Forbes, F.R.S., in his ' Oriental |
Memoirs,' narrates the following remarkable instance
of the display of solicitude and care for a dead companion
exhibited by a monkey : —

One of a shooting-party under a banian tree killed a female
monkey, and carried it to his tent, which was soon surrounded
by forty or fifty of the tribe, who made a great noise and seemed
disposed to attack their aggressor. They retreated when he
presented his fowling-piece, the dreadful effect of which they
had witnessed and appeared perfectly to understand. The head
of the troop, however, stood his ground, chattering furiously ;
the sportsman, who perhaps felt some little degree of compunc-
tion for having killed one of the family, did not like to fire at
the creature, and nothing short of firing would sufifice to drive
him off. At length he came to the door of the tent, and, find-
ing threats of no avail, began a lamentable moaning, and by the
most expressive gesture seemed to beg for the dead body. It
was given him ; he took it sorrowfully in his arms and bore it
away to his expecting companions. They who were witnesses
of this extraordinary scene resolved never again to fire at one
of the monkey race.

Of course it is not to be supposed from this instance
that all, or even most monkeys display any care for their
dead. A writer in ' Nature ' (vol. ix. p. 243), for instance,
says expressly that such is not the case with Gribbons
{Hylobates agilis), which he has observed to be highly
sympathetic to injiu-ed companions, but ' take no notice
whatever ' of dead ones.

' Descent of Man, p. 70.

MONKEYS— EMOTIONS.

473

Regarding their sympathy for injured companions this
\mter says : —

I keep in my garden a number of Gibbon apes {Ilylohates
(ujilis) ; they live quite tree from all restmint in the trees, mei-ely
coming when called to be fed. One of them, a young male, on
one occasion fell from a tree and dislocated his wrist ; it received
the greatest attention from the others, especially from an old
female, who, however, was no relation : she used before eating
lier own plantains to take up the first that were offered to her
every day, and give them to the cripple, who was living in the
eaves of a wooden house ; and I have frequently noticed that a
cry of fright, pain, or distress from one would bring all the
others at once to the complainer, and they would then condole
with him and fold him in their arms.

Captain Hugh Crow, in his * Narrative of my Life,'
relates an interesting tale of the conduct of some mon-
keys on board his ship. He says : —

We had several monkeys on board ; they were of different
species and sizes, and amongst them was a beautiful little
creature, the body of which was about ten inches or a foot in
length, and about the circumference of a common drinking glass.
This interesting little animal, which, when I received it from
the Governor of the Island of St. Thomas, diverted me by its
innocent gambols, became afflicted by the malady which un-
fortunately prevailed in the ship. It had always been a
favourite with the other monkeys, who seemed to regard it as
the last born and the pet of the family ; and they granted it
many indulgences which they seldom conceded to one another.
It was veiy tractable and gentle in its temper, and never took
advantage of the partiality shown to it. From the moment it
was taken ill their attention and care of it redoubled ; and it
was truly affecting and interesting to see with what anxiety
and tenderness they tended and nursed the little creature. A
struggle often ensued among them for priority in those offices
of affection ; and some would steal one thing and some another,
which they would carry to it untasted, however tempting it
might be to their own palates. Then they would take it up
gently in their fore-paws, hug it to their breasts, and cry over
it as a fond mother would over her suffering child. The little
creature seemed sensible of their assiduities, but it was wofuUy
overpowered by sickness. It would sometimes come to me
and look me pitifully in the face, and moan and cry like an

474

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

■f^m

infant, as if it besought me to give it relief ; and we did every-
thing we could think of to restore it to health : but, in spite of
the united attention of its kindred tribes and oui-selves, the
interesting little creature did not survive long.

Here is a case which I myself witnessed at the Zoo-
logical Gardens, and published in the ' Quarterly Jouraal
of Science,' from which I now quote : —

A year or two ago thei-e was an Arabian baboon and an
Anubis baboon confined in one cage, adjoining that which con-
tained a dog-headed baboon. The Anubis baboon passed its
hand through the wires of the partition, in order to purloin a
nut which the large dog-headed baboon had left within reach —
expressly, I believe, that it might act as a bait. The Anubis
baboon very well knew the danger he ran, for he waited nntil
his bulky neighbour had turned his back upon the nut with the
appearance of having forgotten all about it. The dog-headed
iMiboon, however, was all the time slyly looking round with the
corner of his eye, and no sooner was the arm of his victim well
within his cage than he sprang with astonishing rapidity and
caught the retreating hand in his mouth. The cries of the
Anubis baboon quickly brought the keeper to the rescue, when,
by dint of a good deal of physical persuasion, the dog-headed
baboon was induced to leave go his hold. The Anubis baboon
then retired to the middle of his cage, moaning piteously, and
holding the injured hand against his chest while he rubbed it
with the other one. The Arabian baboon now approached him
from the top part of the cage, and, while making a soothing
sound very expressive of sympathy, folded the sufferer in its
arms — exactly as a mother would her child under similar
circamstances. It must be stated, also, that this expression of
sympathy had a decidedly quieting effect upon the sufferer, his
moans becoming less piteous so soon as he was enfolded in the
arms of his comforter ; and the manner in which he laid his
cheek upon the bosom of his friend was as expressive as any-
thing could be of sympathy appreciated. This really affecting
spectacle lasted a considerable time, and while watching it I
felt that, even had it stood alone, it would in itself have been
sufficient to prove the essential identity of some of the noblest
among human emotions with those of the lower animals.

As a beautiful instance of the display of sympathy, I
may narrate an occurrence which was witnessed by my
friend Sir James Malcolm — a gentleman on the accuracy

MONKEYS— EMOTIONS.

475

of whose observation I can rely. He was on board a
steamer where there were two common East India
monkeys, one of which was older and larger than the
other, though they were not mother and child. The
smaller monkey one day fell overboard amidships. The
larger one became frantically excited, and running over
the bulwarks down to a part of the ship which is called
'the bend,* it held on to the side of the vessel with one
hand, while with the other it extended to her drowning
companion a cord with which she had been tied up, and
one end of which was fastened round her waist. The
incident astonished everyone on board, but unfortunately
for the romance of the story the little monkey was not
near enough to grasp the floating end of the cord. The
animal, however, was eventually saved by a sailor throwing
out a longer rope to the little swimmer, who had sense
enough to grasp it, and so to be hauled on board.

The following account of the behaviour of a wounded
monkey seems to suggest the presence of a class of
emotions similar to those which we know as feelings of
reproach. The observer was Capt. Johnson : —

I was one of a party of Jeekary in the Bahar district ; our
tents were pitched in a large mango garden, and our horses
were picquetted in the same garden a little distance off.
When we were at dinner a Syer came to us, complaining that
some of the horses had broken loose in consequence of being
frightened by monkeys (i.e. Macacus Orhesus) on the trees. As
soon as dinner was over I went out with my gun to drive them
oflf, and I fired with small shot at one of them, which instantly
ran down to the lowest branch of the tree, as if he were going
to fly at me, stopped suddenly, anJ coolly put his paw to the
paii; wounded, covered with blood, and held it out for me to
see. I was so much hurt at the time that it has left an im-
pression never to be effaced, and I have never since fired a gun
at any of the tribe. Almost immediately on my return to the
party, before I had fully described what had passed, a Syer came
to inform us that the monkey was dead. We ordered the
Syer to bring it to us, but by the time he returned the other
monkeys had carried the dead one off, and none of them could
anywhere be seen.

This case is strikingly corroborated by the following

476

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

.mi

f< ',

allusion to Sir W. Hoste's Memoirs, given by Jesse as
follows : —

One of his officers, coming home after a long day's shoot-
ing, saw a female monkey running along the rocks, with
her young one in her arms. He immediately fired, and the
animal fell. On his coming up, she grasped her little one close
to her breast, and with her other hand pointed to the wound
which the ball had made, and which had entered above her
breast. Dipping her finger in the blood, and then holding it
up, she seemed to reproach him with being the cause of her
death, and consequently that of the young one, to which she
frequently pointed. * I never,* says Sir William, * felt so much
as when I heard the storj', and I determined never to shoot one
of these animals as long as I lived.' •

Mr. Darwin says that most persons who have observed
monkeys have seen them show a sense of the ludicrous.
Here is an instance which I have myself observed, and
now quote from my article in the * Quarterly Journal of
Science : ' —

Several years ago I used to watch cai'efully the young orang-
outang in the Zoological Gardens, and I am quite sure that
she manifested a sense of the ludicrous. One example will suffice.
Her feeding tin was of a somewhat peculiar shape, and when it
was empty she used sometimes to invert it upon her head.
The tin then presented a comical resemblance to a bonnet, and
as its wearer would generally favour the spectators with a broad
grin at the time of putting it on, she never failed to raise a
laugh from them. Her success in this respect was evidently
attended with no small gratification on her part.

But perhaps the strongest evidence of monkeys
having an appreciation of the ludicrous is the same as
that which we have seen to be presented in the case of
certain dogs — namely, in the animals disliking ridicule.
Abundant evidence on this head in the case of monkeys
will be given further on.

That monkeys enjoy play no one can question who
spends on hour or two in the monkey-house at the
Zoological Grardens. According to Savage, chimpanzees
congregate together for the sole purpose of play, when

' Gleanings, voL iii. pp. 86-7.

MONKKYS— EMOTIONS.

477

en by Jesse as

am, * felt so much
lever to shoot one

thdy beat or drum with pieces of stick on sonorous pieces
of wood.'

Curiosity is more strongly pronounced in monkeys
than in any other animals. We all know the interesting
illustration on this head furnished by the experiment of
Mr. Dar^vin, who, in order to test the statement of Krehm
that monkeys have an instinctive dread of snakes, and yet
cannot * desist from occasionally satiating their curiosity in
a most human fashion, by lifting up the lid of the box in
which the snakes were kept,' took a stuffed snake to the
monkey-house at the Zoologicid Gardens. Mr. Darwin
says : —

The excitement thus caused was one of the most curious
spectacles I ever beheld. ... I then placed a live snake in
a paper bag, with the mouth loosely closed, in one of the larger
compartments. One of the monkeys immediately appronched,
cautiously opened the bag, peeped in, and instantly dashed
away. Then I witnessed what Brehm has described, for
monkey after monkey, with head raised high and turned on
one side, could not resist taking a momentary peep Into the
upright bag, at the di-eadful object lying quietly at the
bottom.'^

Allied, perhaps, to curiosity, and so connected with
the emotions, is what Mr. Darwin calls ' the principle of
imitation.' It is proverbial that monkeys carry this
principle to ludicrous lengths, and they are the only
animals which imitate for the mere sake of imitating, as
has been observed by Desor, though an exception ought
to be made in favour of talking birds. The psychology
of imitation is difficult of analysis, but it is remarkable
as well as suggestive that it should be confined in its
manifestations to monkeys and certain birds among ani-
mals, and to the lower mental levels among men. As
Mr. Darwin says : — -

The principle of imitation is strong in man, and especially,
as I have myself observed, with savages. In certain morbid
states of the brain, this tendency is exaggei-ated to an extra-
ordinary degree ; some hemiplegic patients and others, at the

' Boston Journal of Nat. Hixt., iv. p. 324.
' Descent of Man p. 72.

478

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

commoiicoiuont of inflammatory softeninj.; of th^ brain, nncon-
Bciously imitiito every word that is uttered, whether in tlieir
own or in a foreign language, and every gesture or action which
is performed near thorn.

The same sort of tendency is often observable in
young children, so that it seems to be frequently dis-
tinctive of a certain stage or grade of mental evolution,
and particularly in the branch Primatea, Other animals,
however, certainly imitate each other's actions to a certain
extent, as I shall have occasion fully to notice in my next
work.

As for the sterner emotions, rage may be so pronounced
as to make a monkey exhaust itself with beating about its
cage, or a baboon bite its own limbs till the blood flows.'
Jealousy occurs in a correspondingly high degree, while
retaliation and revenge are shown by all the higher
monkeys when injury has been done to them, as any
one may find by offering an insult to a baboon. The
following is a good case of this, as it shows what may be
called brooding resentment deliberately preparing a satis-
factory revenge. Mr. Darwin writes : —

Sir Andrew Smith, a zoologist whose scrupulous accuracy
was known to many persons, told me the following story of
•which he was himself an eye-witness. At the Cape of Good
Hope, an officer had often plagued a certain baboon, and the
animal, seeing him approaching one Sunday for parade, poured
water into a hole and hastily made some thick mud, which he
skilfully dashed over the o£&cer as he passed by, to the amuse-
ment of many bystanders. For long afterwards the baboon
rejoiced and triumphed whenever he saw his victim.*

^ General Intelligence,

Coming now to the higher powers, I shall give a few
cases to show that monkeys certainly surpass all other
animals in the scope of their rational faculty. Professor
Oroora Robertson writes me : —

I witnessed the following incident in the Jardin des Plantcs,
now many years ago ; but it struck me greatly at the time, and 1
I have narrated it repeatedly in the interval. A large ape — I

* Descent of Man, 71. ' Ibid.t p. 69.

MONKEYS— GENKIiAL INTtXLIGENCE.

479

believe ui»tlnoj>oi(l, Imt cannot tell the spe<'ies — wii« in the ^reivt
iron cji^'o uitli a nunilxu' of sniallcr monkeys, and wus lonling
it over them with many wiKl };iinil)ols, to the amusement of a
crowd of sjK'ctatoi's. Many things — frnits and the like — had
been thrown hetween the burs into the cage, which the aiK) was
ahvjiys forward to seize. At last some one threw in a small
liand looking-glass, witli a strongly made frame of wood. This
the ape at once laid hold of, and Ixigan to biimdish like a ham-
mer. Suddenly ho was ai-icstod by the reflection of himself in
the glass, and looke<l puzzled for a moment ; then he darted his
liead })ehin<l the glass to And the other of his kind that he
evidently supposed to be there. Astonished to find nothing, he
apparently bethought himself that he had not been quick
enough with his movement, lie now proceeded to raise and
draw the glass nearer to him with great caution, and then with
a swifter dart looked behind. Again finding nothing, he re-
peated the attempt once more. He now passed from astonish-
ment to anger, and began to beat with the fi-ame violently on
the floor of the cage. Soon the glass was shattered, and pieces
fell out. Continuing to beat, he was in the course of one blow
again arrested by his image in the piece of glass still remaining
in the frame. Then, as it seemed, he determined to make one
trial more. More circumspectly than ever the whole firsts part
of the process was gone through with ; more violently than ever
the final dart made. His fury over this last failure knew no
bounds. He crunched the frame and glass together with bis
teeth, he beat on the floor, he crunched again, till nothing but
splinters was left.

Mr. Darwin writes: 'Rengger, a most careful ob-
server, states that when first he gave eggs to his monkeys
in Paraguay, they smashed them, and thus lost much of
their contents ; afterwards they generally hit one end
against some hard body, and picked off the bits with
their fingers. After cutting themselves only once with
any sharp tool, they would not touch it again, or would
handle it with the greatest caution. Lumps of sugar
were often given them wrapped up in paper ; and Reng-
ger sometimes put a live wasp in the paper, so that in
hastily unfolding it they got stung ; after this had once
happened, they always first held the packet to their ears
to detect any movement within.' ^

* Descent of Man, pp. 77-8.

480

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

m u

The powers of observation and readiness to establish
new associations thus rendered apparent, display a high
level of general intelligence. Mr. Darwin further ob-
serves that Mr. Belt ' likewise describes various actions
of a tamed cebus, which, I think, clearly show that this
animal possessed some reasoning power.' The following
is the account to which Mr. Darwin here refers, and I
quote it in extenso, because, as I shall presently show, I
have myself been able to confirm most of the observa-
tions on another monkey of the same genus : —

It would sometimes entangle itself round a pole to which it
was fastened, and then unwind the coils again with the greate.>t
discernment. Its chain allowed it to swing down below the
verandah, but it could not reach to the ground. Sometimes,
when there were broods of young ducks about, it would holil
out a piece of bread in one hand, and when it had tem])ted fv
duckling within reach, seize it by the other, and kill it with a
bite in the breast. There was such an uproar amongst the
fowls on these occasions, that we soon knew what was the
matter, and would rush out and punish Mickey (as we called
him) with a switch ; so that he was ultimately cured of his
poultry-killing propensities. One day, when whipping him, I
held up the dead duckling in front of him, and at each blow of
the light switch told him to take hold of it, and at last, much
to my surprise, he did so, taking it and holding it tremblingly
in one hand. He would draw things towards him with a stick,
and even used a swing for the same purpose. It had been put
up for the children, and could be reached by Mickey, who now
and then indulged himself in a swing on it. One day I had
put down some bird-skins on a chair to dry, far beyond, as I
thought, Mickey's reach ; but, fertile in expedients, he took the
swing and launched it towards the chair, and actually managed
to knock the skins off in the return of the swing, so as to bring
them within his reach. He also procured some jelly that was
set out to cool in the same way. Mickey's actions were very
human-like. When any one came near to fondle him, he never
neglected the opportunity of pocket-picking. He would pull
out letters, and quickly take them from their envelopes.^

I shall now proceed to state some further facts, show-
ing the high level of intelligence to which monkeys of
various kinds attain.

Naturalist in JSicaragna, p. 119.

MONKEYS —GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

481

less to establish
display a high

?^in further ob-
various actions

1 show that this
The following

re refers, and I

resently show, I
of the observa-

lus : —

a pole to which it
1 with the greatest
nr down below the
►und. Sometimes,
out, it would hold
it had tempted &
, and kill it Avith a
proar amongst the
lew what was the
ickey (as we called
aately cured of his
n whipping him, I
,nd at each blow of
,, and at last, much
ing it tremblingly
s him with a stick,
It had been put
Mickey, who now
It. One day I had
y, far beyond, as I
idients, he took the
actually managed
ing, so as to bring
ime jelly that was
actions were very
mdle him, he never
He would pull
envelopes.^

[•ther facts, show-
bich monkeys of!

Il9.

The orang which Cuvier had used to draw a chair from
one end to the other of a room, in order to stand upon
it so as to reach a latch which it desired to open ; and in
this we have a display of rationally adaptive action
which no dog has equalled, although, as in the case bef<^re
[given of the dog dragging the mat, it has been closely
approached. Again, Rengejer describes a monkey em-
ploying a stick wherewith to prise up the lid of a chest,
which was too heavy for the animal to raise otherwise.
This use of a lever as a mechanical instrument is an
action to which no animal other than a monkey has ever
been known to attain ; and, as we shall subsequently see,
my own observation has fully corroborated that of Rpng-
ger in this respect. More remarkable still, as we shall
also subsequently see, the monkey to which I allude as
having myself observed, succeeded also by methodical
investigation, and without any assistance, in discovering
for himself the mechanical principle of the screw ; and
that monkeys well understand how to use stones as ham-
mers is a matter of common obser\^ation since Dampier
and Wafer first described this action as practised by
these animals in the breaking open of oyster-shells. The
additional observation of G-ernelli Carreri of monkeys
thrusting stones into the open valves of oysters so as
to save themselves the trouble of smashing the shells,
though not incredible, requires confirmation. But Mr.
Haden, of Dundee, has communicated to me the follow-
ing very remarkable appreciation of mechanical principles
[which he himself observed in a monkey (species not noted),
land which would certainly be beyond the mental powers
|of any other animal : —

* A large monkey, confined alone in a large cage, had

lits sleeping-place in the form of a kind of hut in the

[centre of the cage. Springing near the hut was a tree,

I or imitation tree, the main branch of which ascended

over the top of the hut, and then came forwards

away from it. Whether the roof of the hut enabled

this animal to gain any part of this branch, I did not

[observe, but only remarked its method at the time of

[gaining the part of the branch which led frontwards, and

1 1

482

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

away from the hut. This could be done by means of the!
hut door, which, when opened, swung beneath this parti
of the branch. The door, either by accident or by the!
design of its construction, sivung to each time thel
animal opened it to mount upon its top edge. After one!
or two efforts to mount by it in spite of its immediate!
swinging to, the creature procured a thick blanket whichl
lay in the cage, and threw it over the door, having!
opened the same, so that its complete swinging to was|
prevented sufficiently for the creature to mount upon its
free edge, and so gain that part of the branch which ran|
above it.'

The following, which I quote from * Nature ' (vol.!
xxiii., p. 533), also displays high intelligence : —

One of the largo monkeys at the Alexandra Palace had|
been for some time suffering from the decay of the right lower
canine, and an abscess, forming a large protuberance on the
jaw, had resulted. The pain seemed so great, it was decided to
consult a dentist as to what should be done ; and, as the poor
creature was at times very savage, it was thought that if the
tooth had to be extracted, gas should be used for the safetj
of the operation. Preparations were made accordingly, but
the behaviour of the monkey was quite a surprise to all whc
were concerned. He showed great fight on being taken out of
the cage, and not only struggled against being put into a sacl
prepared with a hole cut for his head, but forced one of his
hands out, and snapped and screamed, and gave promise of being
very troublesome. Directly, however, Mr. Lewin Moseley, who|
had undertaken the operation, managed to get his hand on the
abscess and gave relief, the monkey's demeanour changed en-j
tirely. He laid his head down quietly for examination, andJ
without the use of the gas, submitted to the removal of a|
stump of a tooth as quietly as possible.

According to D'Osbonville, certain monkeys that he|
observed in the wild state were in the habit of adminis-
tering corporal chastisement to their young. After suck-l
ling and cleansing them, the mothers used to sit down!
and watch the youngsters play. These would wrestle,!
throw and chase each other, &c. ; but if any of thein|
grew malicious, the dams would spring up, and, seizing!

MONKEYS — GENERAL INTELLIGENCE.

483

by means of the I
leneath this parti
ident or by the!
each time the!
edge. After onel
of its immediate!
ck blanket whichl
he door, having!
swinging to was!
) mount upon its
)ranch which raul

Q ' Nature ' (vol.|
3nce : —

candra Palace had|
of the right lowe)
otuberance on th(
t, it was decided t(
e ; and, as the pooi
thought that if th(
Lised for the safet;
accordingly, bul
;urprise to all wh(
being taken out oi
ng put into a sad
forced one of liis
,ve promise of bein[
iewin Moseley, wlioj
et his hand on the
sanour changed en-
examination, and,
the removal of a

monkeys that he
labit of adminis-
hng. After suck-
used to sit downl
le would wrestle,
if any of them
up, and, seizing

their offspring by the tail with one hand, correct them
I severely with the other.

We have already seen that dogs and cats display the
I idea of maintaining discipline among their progeny.

According to Houzeau the sacred monkey of India
USemnopithecus entellus) is very clever in catching snakes,
and in the case of poisonous species destroy the fangs by
I breaking them against stones.^

Of the fact that monkeys act in co-operation, many

I proofs might be given, but one will suffice.
Lieutenant Schipp, in his Memoirs, says : —

A Cape baboon having taken off some clothes from the
[barracks, I formed a party to recover them. With twenty men

I I made a circuit to cut them off from the caverns, to which
Ithey always fled for shelter. They observed my movements,
land detaching about fifty to guard the entrance, the others kept
Itheir post. We could see them collecting ■ large stones and
[other missiles. One old grey-headed one, who had often paid
jus a visit at the barracks, was seen distributing his orders, as
lif a general. We rushed on to the attack, when, at a scream
Ifrom him, they rolled down enormous stones on us, so that we
|were forced to give up the contest.

I shall here bring to a close my selections from the
jliterature of monkey psychology, because I wish to devote
good deal of space to detailing a number of observations
[which have not yet been published. Thinking it desirable
[for the purposes of this work that an intelligent monkey
jsliould be subjected to close observation for some length
jof time, I applied to Mr. Sclater for the loan of one from
[the collection of the Zoological Society. He kindly con-
[sented to my pioposal, and I selected a specimen of Oebus
ktuelhis, which appeared to me to be the most intelligent
[monkey in the collection. Not having facilities for keep-
ing the animal in my own house, I consigned him to the
[charge of my sister (who lives close by), with the request
[that she should carefully note all points of interest con-
[nected with his intelligence. Therefore, from the day
jof his arrival till that of his departure she kept a diary,

' Zoo. cit., vol. i., p. 305.
I I 2

484

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

'-W^''

or note-book, in which all the observations that shel
made when I was absent were entered. It was originallj^l
my intention to make an abstract of this note-book ; but
on afterwards reading it through for this purpose, it
seemed to me that I should rather spoil matters bj
attempting a condensation. There is a certain graphic
effect incidental to the diary form and spontaneous styk
of diction — the notes, of course, not having been writtei
with a view to verbatim publication ; and besides, as the
psychology of monkeys has been so little studied, I thinl
it is well to give all the details of a continuous series o(
observations. It is desirable to add that on occasions sub-
sequent to the taking of this or that particular note,
generally had the opportunity of verifying the observatior
myself; but I may state that I attach no more importance
to this circumstance than I should to verifying an obser-|
vation of my own ; for as a careful observer of animals
have quite as much confidence in my sister as in myselfj
It only remains to explain that my mother, being ai
invalid, is confined most of the time to her bedroom;
and that the monkey was kept there for the first six weeks|
of his stay at her house, partly in order that he might be
under constant observation, and partly also to furnish hej
with an entertaining pet. The following are my sister'j
notes in extenso and without alteration : —

room

Brown Capuchin {Gebus fatuellus — Linn.), Brazil

Diary, 1880.

December 18th. Arrived in box with keeper. Seemed rathej
fidghtened and screamed a good deal on being transferred froi
small box to a larger one.

19th. Took him out of the box he had been in all night anJ
fastened chain on to collar. "Was meek and subdued, hiding hij
face in my lap.

20th. Has become much more lively and somewhat aggresi
sive, especially towards the servants. He has taken a fancy ti
my mother, and (she holding his chain) he plays with her in i
gentle and affectionate manner in her bed, but flies angrily aj
any of the servants who come near the bed. I observed to-daj
that he breaks walnuts (which are too hard for him to cracj
with his teeth) by striking them wdth the flat bottom of a disj

INTELLIGENCE OF CEBUS.

485

he has for drinking out of. He is ceaselessly active all day, and
at night covers himself very neatly with warm sha*vls, and
sleeps soundly till about eight o'clock.

21st. I notice that the love of mischief is very strong in
him. To-day he got hold of a wine-glass and an egg-cup. The
glass he dashed on the floor with all his might, and of course
broke it. Finding, however, that the egg-cup would not break
for being thrown down, he looked round for some hard sub-
stance against which to dash it. The post of the brass bedstead
appearing to be suitable for the purpose, he raised the egg-cup
high over his head and gave it several hard blows. When it
was completely smashed he was quite satisfied. He breaks a
stick by passing it down between a heavy object and the wall,
and then hanging on to the end, thus breaking it across the
heavy object. He frequently destroys an article of dress by
carefully pulling out the threads (thus unripping it) before he
begins to tear it with his teeth in a more violent manner. If
he gets hold of anything that he sees we do not care about, he
soon leaves it again ; but if it is an article of value (even if it
be only a scrap of paper) which he sees we are anxious about,
nothing will induce him to give it up. No food, however in-
viting, will distract his attention : scolding only makes him
more angry, and he keeps the article until it is quite destroyed. •
To-day I gave him a hammer to break his walnuts with, and he
'ises it in a proper manner for that purpose.

22nd. To-day a strange person (a dressmaker) came into the
room where he is tied up, and I gave him a walnut that she
might see him break it with his hammer. The nut was a bad
one, and the woman laughed at his disappointed face. He then
liecame very angry, and threw at her everything he could lay
hands on ; first the nut, then the hammer, then a coffee-pot
which he seized out of the grate, and, lastly, all his own shawls.
He throws things with great force and i)recision by holding
ihem in both hands, and extending his long arms well back over
his head before projecting the missile, standing erect the while.

23rd. There is continual war between him and Sharp [a small
terrier], but they both seem to have a certain mutual respect for
each other. The dog makes snatches at nuts, &c., and runs
away with them beyond the reach of his chain, and the monkey
catches at the dog, but seems afraid to hold him or hurt him.
He however pelts him with nuts or bits of carrot, and chatters
at him. At other times he holds out his hand as if to make
friends, but the dog is too suspicious to go near him. His hos-
tility towards the servants (one especially) increases, so that he

486

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

will not even take a nut from her without catchin;^ fieicely atl
her hand ; he also frequently throws things at her. On the otlieij
hnnd, he allows my mother to do anything with him.

24th. He bit me in several places to-day when I was takiii'i
him away from my mother's bed after his morning's game then-
T took no notice, but he seemed ashamed of himself after v; aids, |
hiding his face in his arms and sitting quiet for a time.i In ae
cordance with his desire for mischief, he is of course very fond I
of upsetting things, but he always takes great care they do not
fill on himself. Thus he will pull a chair towards him till it is
almost over-balanced, then he intently fixes his eyes on the top
bar of the back, and when he sees it coming over his wav,
darts from underneath and watches the fall with great delight
and similarly with heavier things. There is a washhand-stand, furl
example, with a heavy marble top, which he has with great
labour upset several times, and always without hurting himself.^

25th. I observed to-day that if a nut or any object he wishes
to get hold of is beyond the reach of his chain, he puts out a
stick to draw it towards him, or, if that does not succeed, he
stands upright and throws a shawl back over his head, holding
it by the two corners so that it falls down his back ; he then
throws it forward with all his strength, still holding on by the
•corners ; thus it goes out far in front of him and covers the nut, |
which he then draws towards him by pulling in the shawl.
When his chain becomes twisted round the bars of a * clothes-
horse ' (which is given him to run about upon), and thus too
shoi't for his comfort, he looks at it intently and pulls it with
ais fingers this way and that, and when he sees how the turns
are taken, he deliberately goes round and round the bars, first
this way, then that, until the chain is quite disentangled. He
often can-ies his chain grasped in his tail and held high over his
back to keep it from getting into the way of his feet. He is
always rather excited in the morning when I loosen his chain
preparatory to taking him to my mother's bed ; jumps about
and tugs at the chain. Sometimes, however, if the chain is en-
tangled, and I am rather long in getting it unfastened, he sits
quietly down beside me, and begins picking at the chain with

' On subsequent observation (Januaiy 14, 1881y, 7 tiud this quiet-
ness was not due to shame at having bitten me, for whei u^r he succeeds
in biting any person or not he always sits quiet and dull-looking after a
fit of passion, being, I think, fatigued. He has bitten me often since
December 24, and seems to enjoy the fun on the whole.

2 These heavy objects he overturns with exceeding caution.
balancing them several times carefully, and studying them before finally
throwing or pulling them over.

INTELLIGENCE OF CEBUS.

487

atcliin;^ fieicely at
her. On the other!
th him.

vhen I was takiii'^i
ning's game there,
limself afterwards. I
)r a time.i In ac
f course very fouill
i care they do not
wards him till it is
lis eyes on the top
ing over his way,]
vith great delight
rashhand-stand, furl
le has with great]
t hurting himself.^!
ay object he wishes
lin, he puts out a I
es not succeed, he
his head, holding'
his back ; he then |
holding on by the
md covers the nut,
ing in the shawl,
ars of a ' clothes-
n), and thus too
and pulls it with
es how the turns
ind the bars, first
isentangled. He
eld high over his
If his feet. He is
loosen his chain
ed ; jumps about
lif the chain is en-
infastened, he sits
t the chain with

[j, J tiud this quiet-

Ihciiior he succeeds

IduU-looking after a

]en me often since

lole.

Ixceeding caution.

Ithem before finally

lliis fingers as if to help me to untie it. I cannot say, however,
|that he succeeds in helping me at all.

26th. He seems very fond of spinning things round. If Le
I gets a whole apple or orange he generally sits spinning it on om;
lend, before beginning to eat it. He eats an orange by biting off
la tiny piece of the i)eel, and putting his long, thin finger deep
liiito the fruit ; he then lays the whole orange under a piece of
Iwire netting he has near him, and, putting his mouth to the hole
jiie has made, presses the wire netting down upon the fruit, thus
Squeezing the juice up into his mouth. When a good deal of
Ijuice begins to run out, he holds the orange up over his head and
]iet8 the juice run into his mouth.

27th. To-day he obtained possession of a rather valuable

[iocument, and, as usual, nothing I could do would persuade him

Ito give it up. He neglected any kind of food I offered him,

land only chattered when I coaxed him. When at last I tried

Itiireatening him with a cane, he only became savage and flew at

Ime, chattering. My mother now came and sat down in a chair

]i)eside him. He immediately jumped into her lap, and remained

Kiiite still while she took the paper out of his hands. When,

jbwever, she handed it to me and I laughed at her success, he

bwed his teeth and screamed and chattered at me angrily. I

id laughing generally irritates him. Thus, when he is playing

dth my mother in the bed in the best of humour, as long as I

kit quietly on the bed all is well, but if I laugh, for example at

py of his affectionate glances, he makes a dart at mo to send me

M, and then returns with renewed demonstrations of affection

|o my mother, tumbling head over heels and lying on his back,

Kiinning in a most comical manner, and making a sound very

|ike slight laughter.

28th. His chain is fastened to the marble slab of a washhand-
kand, placed on the floor against the wall. It is too heavy for
lim to pull along by his chain without hurting himself, so when
ie desires to do any mischief which is beyond the reach of his
Ichain, he deliberately goes to the marble and pushes an arm
iown between an upright part of it and the wall, until he has
jBioved the whole slab sufficiently far from the wall to admit of
lis slipping down behind the upright part himself. He then
places his back against the wall and his four hands against the
upright part of the marble, and pushes the slab as far as he can
rtretch his long legs. He only does this, however, when he is
ent on mischief, as the fact of food being beyond the reach of
juis chain does not furnish a strong enough inducement to
(ead him to take so much exertion. Thus to-day he began to

488

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE

pull the glazed leather cover off a trunk which was near him.
I pulled the trunk away, and when he found it was out of his
reach he ran and pushed the marble towards the trunk in tlie
manner I have described, and when he knew hia chain was
then sufficiently long to reach the trunk, he ran to the latter
and hastily resumed his destructive process.

29th. I notice that nothing the person does who has hold
of his chain offends him. I mean, although he is furiously
angry at having anything taken away from him, he is not
at all angry if he is pulled away by his chain. If he is
trying to bite a person, and another person takes hold of his
chain behind him and so prevents his spring forward, he does
not turn to bite the person who has taken hold of his chain, as
a dog would do under similar circumstances, but quietly submits j
to be thus held. He seems to look upon his confinement and
management by a chain as a natural law against which it is j
useless to struggle. On the other hand, he seems to be quite
aware of the place where his chain is f{\stened, and to know
that if he were clever enough to undo it he would be free.
After we found he could move about the marble slab of the I
washhand-stand in the way described, we had a ring sunk in
the floor to tie him to. The moment the chain was fastened to
that ^ he began to investigate its new connection, and continued |
to do so for hours, passing the chain rapidly backward and for-
wards through the ring. When he found this did not loosen it, I
he began to hammer it and the ring also with all his strength,
and this he continued to do for the rest of the day

30th. He still continues to work at the chain where it is]
fastened to the ring. He passed the whole of the chain through
the ring so many times with his fingers that it became quite
blocked up in the ring, which made it very short, and it took
me a quarter of an hour to disentangle it. He was very much
interested in this process, sitting quietly beside me and watching
my fingers intently, sometimes gently pulling my fingers on one [
side in order to see better, and sometimes casting a quick in-
telligent glance into my face as if asking how I did it. After I j
had disentangled and lengthened the chain he worked at it
again for hours, but took care not to twist it into the ring ;i|
second time.

31st. To-day he hurt himself by getting one of his toesj
caught in a hinge of the clothes-horse. He did not make any

' January 14, 1881. The marble slab was left with him after the!
chain had been fastened to the ring ; but since that time he has never]
attempted to move the marble.

INTELLIGENCE OF CEBUS.

489

fuss, although the accident must have been somewhat a painful
one, nor did he try to pull the too out, which would have been
useless and only hurt him more ; but he sat almost motionless,
making slight complaining noises until I discovered that there
was something wrong with him. When I began to extricate
his foot, he remained perfectly passive — although 1 dare say I
hurt him a good deal — and only looked at me gratefully.

January 1,1881. He has now quite given up trying to loosen
his chain himself; having tried every way and failed, he has
evidently become hopeless about it. He now resents being
tied up. When I loosen him he is quite pleased, and when I
tie him he waits until he is quite sure he is being tied, and not
loosened, and then he flies at me and bites me.

10th. As he is always tied up in the same place he has
no new opportunities given him of showing his intelligence.
His attachment to my mother has increased. When she goes
out he immediately gives up all play and mischief, and does
nothing but run round and round in a restless manner, making
a peculiar sweet calling noise, such as he never makes when
she is in the room, listening intently between times. As long
as she remains away he takes no rest or amusement, nor does
he ever, or hardly ever, become angry ; but the moment she
returns he begins all his old ways again, usually becoming
more savage at other people than before.

My mother frequently takes things away from him, and he
never resents it to her as he would do to any other person.
He generally, however, chatters angrily at some one else when
my mother removes anything he wishes to keep. At first I
thought he was deceived in the matter — that he could not
believe it possible that his best friend could deprive him of
what he valued, and so thought someone else must have
done it. But the same thing has now happened so fre-
quently that I can hardly think he is not really aware of
who takes the things away. He seems rather to think it
politic to keep on good terms with one person, and that although
he does see her remove the things, and feels angry in con-
sequence, he thinks it more prudent to vent his anger upon
someone with whom he has already quarrelled. He always
shows more irritation when my mother gives anything to me after
having taken it away from him, than when she keeps it herself
[as mentioned on December 26), and this may be the reason
partly why he resents these matters to me ; he thinks when I
obtain possession of anything he wants that it is a sort of
triumph to me. In the same way my mother may laugh as

490

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE,

much as sho likes whether ho is with her or not, but if I lau;:rlj
at all at anything it generally results in something being
thrown at me. If my mother calls out to the servants — if, for
instance, a servant has left the room and my mother calls her
back — he becomes very angry at the servant, and salutes her on
her return with a shower of missiles. Sometimes my mother
pretends to scold or beat the servants, and then he joins with
great energy, by way of supporting his friend. If I scold or
beat the servants he does not mind so much. When my
mother comes back after being out he does not show any great
demonstrations of Joy. He screams out with pleasure when he
hears her voice approaching on the stairs, but does not make
much ado when she enters the room. While my mother is out
I can do anything I like with him, just as she can when she is
at home. Perhaps being in low sjjirits he does not feel angry,
or perhaps he thinks it prudent to be amiable when his best
friend is away. When my mother comes back, a'^ his ill-temper
returns at once and even in an increased degree towards other
people, and he immediately resumes playing with all his toys.

11th. When he throws things at people now he first runs up
the bars of the clothes-horse ', he seems to have found out that
people do not much care for having things thrown at their feet,
and he is not strong enough to throw such heavy objects as a
poker or a hammer at people's heads : he therefore mounts to a
level with his enemy's head, and thu succeeds in sending his
missile to a greater height and also to a greater distance.

14th. To-day he obtained possession of a hearth-brush, one
of the kind which has the handle screwed into the brush. He
soon found the way to unscrew the handle, and having done
that he immediately began to try to find out the way to screw
it in again. This he in time accomplished. At first he put the
wrong end of the handle into the hole, but turned it round and
round the right way for screwing. Finding it did not hold, he
turned the other end of the handle and carefully stuck it into
the hole, and began again to turn it the right way. It was of
course a very difficult feat for him to perform, for he required
both his hands to hold the handle in the proper position and to
turn it between his hands in order to screw it in, and the long
bristles of the brush prevented it from remaining steady or
with the right side up. He held the brush with his hind hand,
but even so it was very difficult for him to get the first turn of
the screw to fit into the thread ; he worked at it, however, with
the most unwearying perseverance until he got the first turn of
the screw to catch, and he then quickly turned it round and
round until it was screwed up to the end. The most remark-

INTELLIGENCE OF CEBUS.

491

t, but if I laugh
lomething being
servants — if, for
mother calls lier
ad salutes her on
mes my mother
n he joins with
. If I scold or
ich. When my
I show any great
pleasure when he
, does not make
my mother is out
can when she is
1 not feel angry,
e when his best
a-^ his ill-temper
•ifo towards other
vith all his toys,
w he first runs up
vc found out that
)wn at their feet,
3a vy objects as a
fore mounts to a
3 in sending his
r distance,
earth-brush, one
the brush. He
land having done
:he way to screw
|.t first he put the
led it round and
did not hold, he
Illy stuck it into
jway. It was of
I, for he required
position and to
in, and the long
lining steady or
Ih his hind hand,
the first turn of
it, however, witii
the first turn of
id it round and
Ihe most remark-

aide thing was that, however often he was disappointed in the
beginning, he never was induced to try turning the handle the
wrong way ; he always screwed it from right to loft. As soon
as he had accomplished his wish, he unscrewed it again, and
then screwed it in again the second time rather more easily than
the first, and so on many times. When he had become by
practice tolerably perfect in screwing and unscrewing, he gave
it up and took to some other amusement. One remarkable
thing is that he should take so much trouble to do that which
is no material benefit to him. The desire to accomplish a
chosen tusk seems a sufficient inducement to lead him to take
any amount of trouble. This seems a very human feeling,
such as is not shown, I believe, by any other animal. It is not
the desire of praise, as he never notices people looking on ; it is
simply the desire to achieve an object for the sake of achieving
an object, and he never rests nor allows his attention to be dis-
tracted until it is done.

1 6th. When he is angry, and has at hand only those things
which he wishes to keep, he makes a great show of throwing them
at people, but always retains a hold. Thus if he has had a play-
thing a long time and is tired of it, he throws it right at a
person without the least hesitation ; but if he has a new thing
which he values, he goes through all the appropriate motions for
throwing, but only brings the object down with a noise upon
the ground, taking care not to let go his hold. He beats people
with a long cane he has, and when he cannot reach people he
strikes it with all his strength upon the gi'ound to show what he
would do if he had the chance. There is no more comical sight
than to see him hurriedly climbing his screen in fierce anger,
taking (not without great difficulty) his long and awkward
stick up with him in order to be high enough to give a good
blow to a person. The dog is quite afraid of the stick in the
monkey's hands, although he is too petted to be afraid of it in a
person's. The monkey is jealous of the dog lying in the arm-
chair in which he sometimes seats himself with my mother, so he
pokes the stick at the dog (as the chair is beyond the reach of
liis chain) and makes him get off.

18th. He was very angry to-day at a servant girl sweeping
out his place with a long brush, and he seized the brush every
tiniG the servant attempted to sweep. My mother then took
it, and he at once became not only quite good-tempered, but
assisted her in sweeping, by gathering the rubbish in the cor-
ners of his place into little heaps with his hands, and putting
the heaps into the way of the brush.

20th. To-day he broke his chain, and flew at a servant

492

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

savagely, but seeing ray mother he immediately jumped into
her lap. While another chain was being prepared he got to the
trunk where his nuts are kept. I have long noticed that he
looks upon that trunk as in some special sense his own pro-
perty. There are other things kept in the trunk as well as the
nuts, and if any person goes to the trunk for anything he be-
comes furiously angry. Indeed nothing makes him so angry as
people opening the trunk, and this is not because he wants nuts
out of it, for he always has more than he can eat beside him,
and generally I'efuses to take any that are offered to him.
Well, to-day, as Foon as the breaking of his chain enabled him
to get to the trunk, he began picking at the lock with his
fingers. I then gave him the key, and he tried for two full
hours without ceasing to unlock the trunk with this key. It
was a very difficult lock to open, being slightly out of order,
and requires the lid of the trunk to be pressed down before it
would work, so I believe it was absolutely impossible for him
to open it, but he found in time the right way to put the key
in, and to turn it backwards and forwards, and after every at-
tempt he pulled the lid upwards to see if 'it were unlocked. That
this was the result of observing people is obvious, from the fact
that after every time he put the key into the lock and failed to
open the trunk, he passed the key round and round the outside
of the lock several times. The explanation of this is that, my
mother's sight being bad, she often misses the lock when put-
ting in the key, and then feels round and round the lock
with the key ; the monkey therefore evidently seems to think
that this feeling round and round the lock with the key is in
fiome way necessary to the success of unlocking the lock, so
that, although he could see perfectly well how to put the key in
straight himself, he went through this useless operation first.

21st. To-day I gave him a wooden box with the lid nailed
on, and an iron spoon, to see if he would use the latter as a
lever wherewith to raise the lid. The experiment was some-
what spoiled by my mother putting the handle of the spoon
into the crack between the lid and the box to show him how to do
it. Therefore I cannot tell whether or not he would have taken
this first step himself, if he had had time to do so. However,
when the handle of the spoon was in he certainly used it in the
proper manner, pulling it down with all his strength at the
extreme end, thus drawing the nails out of the box and raisin^
the lid.

22nd. He was sitting on my mother's knee, and she wash-
ing his hands with a little sponge, a process of which he is

INTELLIGENCE OF CEBUS.

493

tely jumped into
urod he got to the
g noticed that he
3nse his own pro-
ink ns well as the
• anything he be-
)S him so angry as
use he wants nuts
in eat beside him,
e offered to him.
;hain enabled him
he lock with his
tried for two full
rith this key. It
itly out of order,
5ed down before it
npossible for him
my to put the key
md after every at-
ire unlocked. That
ious, from the fact
I lock and failed to
round the outside
jf this is that, my
^e lock when put-
round the lock
y seems to think
with the key is in
fing the lock, so
to put the key in
operation first,
ith the lid nailed
se the latter as a
eriment was some-
idle of the spoon
low him how to do
would have taken
o so. However,
dnly used it in the
s strength at the
le box and raising

lee, and she wash-
s of which he is

very fond ; she tried to wash his face, and that ho disliked very
much. Every time she bt^gan, the expression of liis face In^came
more angry ; at last he suddenly jumped off her knee, and made
a violent attack on one of the servants who is usually his
favourite, although she was doing nothing at all to anger him.
This is a good instance of his liabit of venting his anger at my
mother on other people. He always oats vigorously when ho is
angry, or after a tit of passion. After a prolonged fit of passion
ho always lies down on his side as if dead, probably from ex-
haustion.

30th. He quite understands the meaning of shaking hands.
He always holds out his own hand when he wishes to be
friendly, especially when a friend is entering or leaving the
room. To-day he had been a long time playing with his toys,
taking no notice of any one. Suddenly my mother remembered
that to-day was my birthihiy, and (for the first time since ho
came to the house) shook hands with me in congratulation. He
immediately became very angry with me, screamed and chat-
tered and threw things at me, being evidently jealous of the
attention my mother was paying me.

Februari/ 1st. He has now been moved down to the dining-
room, where he is chained between the fireplace and the
window. He seems quite miserable on account of the change,
as he does not see so much of my mother.

4th. His low spirits continue, and threaten to make him ill.
He will not play with anything, but sits moping and shivering
in a corner. To-day I found him very cold and unhappy, and
warmed his hands for him. He is very meek and gentle, and
seems to be getting fond of me.

8th. He has quite recovered his spirits since he took a fancy
to me. He likes me now apparently as well as he used to do
my mother ; that is to say, he allows me to nurso him, and
walk about in his place, and even take things away from him.
When, however, my mother comes to see him, he does not care
for me, although he shows none of his old hostility. To the
servants, however, he itinues to do so when my mother is
present.

10th. We gave him a bundle of sticks this morning, and he
amused himself all day by poking them into the fire and pulling
them out again to smell the smoking end. He likewise pulls
out hot cinders from the grate and passes them over his head
and chest, evidently enjoying the warmth, but never burning
himself. He also puts hot ashes on his head. I gave him
some paper, and, as he cannot, from the length of his chain,

494

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

quite reach the fire, he rolled the paper np into the form of a
stick, and then put it into the fire, pulling it out as soon as it
caught light, and watching the blaze in the fender with great
satisfaction. I gave him a whole newspaper, and he tore it in
pieces, rolled up each piece as I have desciibed, to make it long
enough to reach the fire, and so burnt it all piece by piece. He
never once burnt his own fingers during the operation.

13th. He can open and shut the folding shutters with ease,
and this seems to be an amusement to him. He also unscrewed
all the knobs that belong to the fender. The bell-handle beside
the mantelpiece he likewise took to bits, which involves the un-
screwing of three screws.

15th. He is so amiable to me now that he constantly gives
me bits of things that he himself is eating, evidently expecting
me to share his repast with him. Sometimes this attention on
his part is not altogether agreeable. For instance, to-day he
thrust into my hand, when I was not looking, a quantity of
sopped bread and milk out of his pan, no doubt thinking him-
self very kind-hearted thus to supply me with food.

17th. He offered the dog a bit of toast which he himself
was eating, and the dog took a part of it. I think, however,
that he had at the same time a sly design of catching the dog
with the other hand, but he did not do so — ^perhaps because I
was looking on, and he knows the dog is a friend of mine ; but
he had a wicked look in his eye while feeding the dog, which he
has not when he extends his bounty to me.

19th. When I was brushing him to-day he took the brush
away from me. Playthings are especially valuable to him now,
as he is not allowed to have any lest he should break the win-
dows with them. For this reason I was afiaid to leave the
brush with him, but found he was not at all disposed to give it
up. I threw other things within his reach, but he carried the
brush in his hind hand while going after the other things. At
last I sat down and called him gently, when he mildly came up
to my lap and put the brush into my two hands, evidently
resolving that he would not now quarrel with his only friend.

22nd. His manner of showing his humours is interesting,
as illustrating the principle of antithesis. Thus when he is
an^ry he springs forward on all four hands with tail very erect
and hair raised, so making himself look much bigger. When
affectionate he advances slowly backwards with his body in the
form of a hoop, so that the crown of his head rests on the
ground, face inwards. He walks on three hands (hair very
smooth)^ and puts the fourth fore-hand out at his back in advance

INTELLIGENCE OF CEBUS.

495

of his body. He expects this hanrl to be taken kindly, and he
then assumes his natural attitude. In that manner of advanc-
ing it is obviously impossible that he could bite, as his mouth
is towards his own chest, so it is the best way of showing how
far he is from thinking of hostility.
February 28, 1881.

The above account may be taken as fully trustworthy.
Most of the observations recorded I have myself subse-
quently verified numberless times. From the account,
however, several observations which T happened to make
myself in the first instance are designedly omitted, and
these I shall therefore now supply.

I bought at a toy- shop a very good imitation of a
monkey, and brought it into the room with the real
monkey, stroking and speaking to it as if it were alive.
The monkey evidently mistook the figure for a real
animal, manifesting intense curiosity, mixed with much
alarm if I made the figure approach him. Even when I
placed the figure upon a table, and left it standing motion-
less, the monkey was afraid to approach it. From this it
would appear that the animal trusted much more to his
sense of sight than to that of smell in recognising one of
his own kind.

I placed a mirror upon the floor, and the monkey at
once mistook his reflection in it for a real animal. At
first he was a little afraid of it ; but in a short time he
gained courage enough to approach and try to touch it.
Finding he could not do so, he went round behind the
mirror and then again before it a great number of times ;
but he did not become angry, as the monkey of which
Prof. Brown Robertson wrote me. Strange to say, he
appeared to mistake the sex of the image, and began in
the most indescribably ludicrous manner to pay to it the
addresses of courtship. First placing his lips against the
glass he rose to his full height on his hind legs, retired
slowly, and while doing so turned his back to the mirror,
looking over his shoulder at the image, and, with a pre-
posterous amount of * pinch ' in his back, strutted u^) and
down before the glass with all the appearance of the most
laughable foppery. This display was always gone through

496

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

when j-it any subsequent time the mirror was placed upon
the floor.

From the first time that he saw me, this monkey took
as violently passionate an attachment to me as that which
he took to my mother. His mode of greeting, however,
was different. When she entered the room after an
absence, his welcome was of a quiet and contented cha-
racter ; but when I came in, his demonstrations were posi-
tively painful to witness. Standing erect on his hind legs
at the full length of his tether, and extending both hands
as for as he could reach, he screamed with all his strength,
in a tone and with an intensity which he never adopted
on any other occasion. So loud, indeed, were his rapidly
and continuously reiterated screams, that it was impossible
for any one to hold even a shouting conversation till I
took the animal in my arms, when he became placid, with
many signs of intense affection. Even the sound of my
voice down two flights of stairs used to set him screaming
in this manner, so that whenever I called at my mother's
house I had to keep silent while on the staircase, unless
I intended first of all to pay a visit to the monkey.

It has frequently been noticed that monkeys are very
capricious in forming their attachments and aversions;
but I never knew before that this peculiarity could be so
strongly marked as it was in this case. His demonstra-
tions of affection to my mother and myself were piteous ;
while towards every one else, male or female, he was either
passively indifferent or actively hostile. Yet no shadow of
a reason could be assigned for the difference. My sister,
to whom animals are usually much more attached than
they are to me, used always to be forbearingly kind to this
one — taking all his bites, &c., with the utmost good
humour. Moreover, she supplied him with all his food,
and most of his playthings, so that she was really in every
way his best friend. Yet his antipathy to her was only
less remarkable than his passionate fondness of my mother
and myself.

Another trait in the psychology of this animal which
is worth observing was his quietness of manner towards
my mother. With me, and indeed with every one else, his

INTELLIGENCE OF CEBUS.

497

vas placed upon

lis monkey took
le as that which
eting, however,
room after an
contented cha-
itions were posi-
on his hind legs
ding both hands
. all his strength,
3 never adopted
were his rapidly
it was impossible
)nversation till I
jame placid, with
the sound of my
it him screaming
L at my mother's
staircase, unless
} monkey.
Lonkeys are very
and aversions;
jity could be so
His demonstra-
slf were piteous ;
lale, he was either
et no shadow of
mce. My sister,
■e attached than
ngly kind to this
he utmost good
ith all his food,
,s really in every
to her was only
ss of my mother

lis animal whicli
1 manner towards
i/^ery one else, his

movements were unrestrained, and generally monkey-like ;
but with her he was always as geiitle as a kitten : he
appeared to know that her age and infirmities rendered
boisterousness on his part unacceptable.

I returned the monkey to the Zoological Gardens at
the end of February, and up to the time of his death in
October 1881, he remembered me as well as the first day
that he was sent back. I visited the monkey-house about
once a month, and whenever I approached his cage he saw
me with astonishing quickness — indeed, generally before
I saw him — and ran to the bars, through which he thrust
both hands with every expression of joy. He did not,
however, scream aloud ; his mind seemed too much occu-
pied by the cares of monkey-society to admit of a vacancy
large enough for such very intense emotion as he used to
experience in the calmer life that he lived before. Being
much struck with the extreme rapidity of his discernment
whenever I approached the cage, however many other
persons might be standing round, I purposely visited the
monkey-house on Easter Monday, in order to see whether
he would pick me out of the solid mass of people who fill
the place on that day. Although I could only obtain a
place three or four rows back from the cage, and although
I made no sound wherewith to attract his attention, he
saw me almost immediately, and with a sudden intelligent
look of recognition ran across the cage to greet me.
When I went away he followed me, as he always did, to
the extreme end of his cage, and stood there watching my
departure as long as I remained in sight.

In conclusion, I should say that much the most
striking feature in the psychology of this animal, and the
one which is least like anything met with in other animals,
was the tireless spirit of investigation. The hours and
hours of patient industry which this poor monkey has
spent in ascertaining all that his monkey-intelligence
could of the sundry unfamiliar objects that fell into his
hands, might well read a lesson in carefulness to many a
hasty observer. And the keen satisfaction which he dis-
played when he had succeeded in making any little dis-
covery, such as that of the mechanical principle of the

E E

498

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE.

screw, repeating the results of his newly earned knowledge
over and over again, till one could not but marvel at the
intent abstraction of the * dumb brute ' — this was so dif-
ferent from anything to be met with in any other animal,
that I confess I should not have believed what I saw
unless I had repeatedly seen it with my own eyes. As my
sister once observed, while we were watching him conduct-
ing some of his researches, in oblivion to his food and all his
other surroundings — ' when a monkey behaves like this, it
is no wonder that man is a scientific animal ! ' And in my
next work I shall hope to show how, from so high a
starting-point, the psychology of the monkey has passed
into that of the man.

med knowledge
b marvel at the
this was so dif-
y other animal,
ed what I saw
n eyes. As my
ig him conduct-
s food and all his
aves like this, it
il ! * And in my
irom so high a
ikey has passed

INDEX.

-•*•-

ACC

ACCOUCHEUR, fish, 246; toad,
254

Acerina cernua, .246

Adnia prehensa, 233

Actinia, 233, 234

Aetinophrys, apparent intelligence
of, 20

Adamsia, 234

Captive movement, as evidence of
mind, 2, 3

A.ddison, his definition of instinct,
11

I Addison, Mrs. K., on gesticulating
signs made by a jackdaw, 316

iBlian, on division of labour in har-
vesting ants, 98

liEsthetic emotions of birds, 279-
82

I ASection,sexual, parental, and social,
of snails, 27 ; of ants, 45-9 and
68, 69 ; of bees, 165, 156, and 162;
of earwig, 229 ; of fish, 242-6 ; of
reptiles, 256, 268, 259; of birds,
270-6 ; of kangaroo, 326, 327 ; of
whale, 327 ; of horse, 329 ; of
deer, 334 ; of bat, 341 ; of seal,
341-6; of hare, 338-40; of rats,
340 ; of mice, 341 ; of beaver, 367 ;
of elephant, 387-92 ; of cat, 411,
412; of dog, 437, 440, 441; of
monkeys, 471-5 and 484-98

I Agassiz, Professor A., on instinct of
hermit-crab, 232 ; oest of fish, 242-
3 ; on beaver-dams, 384, 386

I Agassiz, Professor L., on intelligence
of snails, 26

I Alison, Professor, on curious instinct
of polecat, 347

ANT

Allen, J. A., on breeding habits o£
pinniped seals, 341-6

Alligators, 256-8 and 263

Alopecias vulpea, 252

Amoeba, apparent intelligence of, 21

Anemones, sea, 233, 234

Anger, of ants and bees, see under ;
of fish, 246, 247 ; of monkeys,
478, 479 and 484-96

Angler-fish, 247, 248

Annelida, apparent intelligence of,
24

Antennae, effects of removal in ants,
142 ; in bees, 197

Antithesis, principle of, in expression
of emotions by monkeys, 494, 495

Ant-lion, 234, 235

Ants, powers of special sense, 31-37 ,
of sight, 31-33 ; of hearing, 33 ;
of smell, 33-37 ; sense of direction,
37, 38 ; memory, 39-45 ; recogni-
tion of companions and nest-
mates, 41-45; emotions, 45-49;
affection, 45-48; sympathy, 48,
49 ; communication, 49- 57 ; habits
general in sundry species, 57-93 ;
swarming, 57, 58 ; nursing, 58,
59 ; education, 69, 60 ; keeping
aphides, 60-64 ; making slaves,
64-68; wars, 68-83; keeping
domestic pets, 83, 84 ; sleep and
cleanliness, 84-7; play and leisure,
87-89 ; funeral habits, 89-93 ;
habits peculiar to certain species,
93-122 ; leaf -cutting, 93-96 ; har-
vesting, 96-110; African, 110,
111 ; tree, 110, 111 ; honey making,
111-114 and 142 ; ecitons, or miU-

X X 3

500

INDEX.

APE

tary, 114-122; general intelli-
gence, 122-142; Sir John Lub-
bock's experiments on intelligence,
123-128; intelligence displayed
in architecture, 128-130 ; in using
burrows made by elater larvae,
130; in artificial hives, 130; in
removing nest from shadow of
tree, 131 ; in cutting leaves ofiE
overshadowing tree, 131, 132 ; in
bending blades of grass while
cutting them, 132, 133 ; in co-
operating to glue leaves together,
133, 134 ; in getting at food in
difficult places, 134, 135 ; in making
bridges, &c., 135-139; in tunnel-
ling under rails, 140 ; anatomy
and physiology of nerve-centres
and sense organs, 140-2

Apes, see Monkeys

Araohnidce, 204-225, see Spiders and
Scorpions

Arago, his observation regarding
sense of justice in dog, 443

Arderon, on taming a dace, 246

Argyroneta aquaticu, 212

Arn, Capt., on sword- and thresher-
fish, 252, 253

Articulata, see under divisions of

Ass, general intelligence of, 328 and
333

Association of ideas, see under vari-
ous animals

Atenchus pilulariiis, 226

Athealiiim, apparent intelligence of,
19-20

Atkinson, the Kev. J. C, on reason-
ing power of a dog, 458, 459

Audubon, on ants making beasts of
burden of bugs, 68 ; plundering
instincts of white-headed eagle,
284 ; variations in instinct of in-
cubation, 299, 300

Auk, nidification of, 292

Automatism, hypothesis of animal, 6

BABOON, sympathy shown by
Arabian, 474 ; rage of, 478 ;
revenge of, 478
Badcock, on dog making peace-
ofEerings, 452

EEC

Baer, Van, on organisation of bee,
241

Bailey, Professor W. W., on dog stop-
ping a runaway horse, 459

Baines, A. H., on dog communicating
wants by signs, 446, 447

Baker, on sticklebacks, 245

Baldamns, Dr., on cuckoo laying
eggs coloured in imitation of those
of the birds in whose nests they
lay them, 307

Ball, Dr. Robert, on commensalism
of crab and anemone, 234

Banks, Sir Joseph, on intelligence
of tree-ants, 133 ; fish coming to
sound of bell, 250

Bannister, Dr., on cat trying to
catch image behind mirror, 415,
416 ; on intelligence of the Eskimo
dogs, 461, 462

Barrett, W. F., on instincts of young
alligator, 256

Barton, Dr., on alleged fascinc,tioa
by snakes, 264

Bastian, on termites, 198

Bates, on ants' habit of keeping
pets, 84 ; cleaning one another,
87 ; play and leisure, 88, 89 ; leaf-
cutting, 93-95; tunnelling, 99;
ecitons, 114-21; on sand- wasp
taking bearings to remember pre-
cise locality, 150 ; mygale eating
humming-birds, 208 ; on nidifica-
tion of small crustacean, 232, 233;
habits of turtles, and alligators,
257, 258 ; intelligence of vultures,
314 ; bats sucking blood, 341

Batrachians, 254, 255

Bats, 341

Baya-bird, nidification of, 294

Bears, 350-352

Beattie, Dr., on dog communicating
desires by signs, 447

Beaver, 367-85; breeding habits,
367, 368 ; lodges, 368-73 ; dams,
373-79 ; canals, 379-83 ; gene-
ral remarks upon, 368, 377, 379,
383 ; age of their buildings, 384 ;
effects of their buildings on the j
configuration of landscapes, 384,
385

Bechstein, on birds dreaming, 312

INDEX.

501

lEC

ganisatiou of bee,

W.W.,ondogstop.
y horse, 459
iog communicating
}, 446, 447
shacks, 245
on cuckoo laying
n imitation of those
n whose nests they

, on commensalism

lemone, 234

iph, on intelligence

.33 ; fish coming to
250

on cat trying to
behind mirror, 415,

igence of the Eskimo

m instincts of young

alleged fascination
i4

mites, 198

3' habit of keeping
eaning one another,

leisure, 88, 89 ; leaf-
35; tunnelling, 99;
-21 ; on sand- wasp

gs to remember pre-
50; mygale eating

ds, 208 ; on nidifica-

crustacean, 232, 233;

•ties, and alligators,

elligence of vultures,
iing blood, 341
1,255

fication of, 294

dog communicating

jns, 447

) ; breeding habits,
dges, 368-73; dams,
lals, 379-83; gene-
upon, 368, 377, 379,
their buildings, 384;
leir buildings on the
of landscapes, 384,

nrds dreaming, 312

BEE

iee, mason, 178, 179 ; tapestry, 179 ;
carpenter, 179 ; rose, 179 ; card-
ing, 179, 180

Bees, sense of sight, 143, 144 ; of
smell and hearing, 144 ; of direc-
tion, 144-61; remembering exact
locality of absent hive, 148-49 ;
following floating hives, 149 ;
memory, 161-55; sympathy, 155,
156 ; distances over which they
forage, 150 ; powers of communi-
cation, 156-60 ; economy of hive,
160-8 ; food and rearing, 160-
163 ; swarming and battles of
queens, 163, 164; drone-killing,
164-68 ; plunder and wars, 168-
1 70 ; architecture, 170-8 ; way-
finding, 181, 182 ; instinct of
neuters, 181 ; recognising com-
panions, 183, 184 ; barricading
doors against moths, 184, 185;
strengthening combs in danger of
falling, 185, 186 ; mode of dealing
with surfaces of glass, 186; with
strange hives, 186, 187 ; evacua-
ting fallen hive, 187 ; ceasing to
store honey in Barbadoes and
California, 187, 188 ; recognising
persons, 188, 189 ; biting holes in
corollas, 189; ventilating hives,
191, 192 ; covering slugs, «fec., with
propolis, 190, 191 ; effects of re-
moving antennae, 197

Beetles, see Coleoptera

Belshaw, on cat knocking knockers,
422

Belt, on ants, duration of me-
mory in, 39, 40 ; sympathy, 48 ;
division of labour, 99 ; ecitons,
114-19 and 138 ; tunnelling
under rails, 140 ; on sand- wasp
taking precise bearings to remem-
ber locality, 150, 151 ; struggle
between wasps and ants for secre-
tion of frog-hoppers, 194, 195 ;
intelligence of spiders in protect-
ing themselves from ecitons, 219,
220; beetles undermining stick
supporting a dead toad, 228 ; in-
telligence of monkeys, 480
enedictson, on navigating habits of
Iceland mice, 364, 365

BLA

Bennet, on birds dreaming, 312

Bennett, on conjugal fidelity of
duck, 270, 271

Berkeley, G., on beetle storing its
food, 228, 229

Bettziech-Beta, on termites, 199

Bidie, on suicide of scorpion, 222,
223; on reasoning power of cat,
415

Bingley, on intelligence of ants,
133 ; carpenter-bees, 179 ; account
of alleged training of bees, 189 ;
co-operation of beetles, 226, 227 ;
ant-lion, 230, 235; domestication
of toad, 255 ; fascination by snakes,
264 ; sympathy in birds, 272 ;
eccentricity of nest building in-
stinct, 295 ; education of birds,
312; pigs pointing game, 339.
340 ; intelligence of otter, 346 ;
memory of elephant, 387 ; vindic-
tiveness of elephant, 387, 389;
elephants enduring surgical opera-
tions, 399, 400

Bird, Miss, on combined action of
crows in obtaining food from dogs,
320

Birds, 266-325 ; memory of, 266-70;
emotions, 270-82; special habits
of procuring food, 283-6 ; of in-
cubation and taking care of off-
spring, 287-310; general intelli-
gence, 310-25 ; dreaming and ima-
gination, 311-12 ; learning to avoid
telegraph wires, 313; recognising
paintingof birds, 311 ; submitting
to surgical operation, 313-14;
honey-guide, 315-16; appreciation
of mechanical appliances, 315-16 ;
concerted action, 318-322

Birgus latro, 233

Bison, 334-5

Blackbirds, breaking shells against
stones, 283 ; removing eggs, 289 ;
mobbing cat, 291

Blackburn, Professor H., on dis-
tances over which bees forage,
150

Blackhouse, R. 0., on dog being
alarmed at a statue, 453

Blackman, on cats learning to beg
for food, 414-15

502

INDEX.

BLA

Blackwall, on early display of in-
stincts by spiders, 216

Blanchard, on mason-bee, 178

Blood, on reasoning power of a dog,
464

Boa-constrictor, really a Python,
which see

Bodley, W. H., on dogs crossing a
river to fight undisturbed, 451-2

Bold, on canary singing against own
image in mirror, 276

Bombyx moth, larva of, 238-40

Bonnet, on spider following her
eggs into pit of ant-lion, 205 ; his
experiments on instincts of cater-
pillars, 236 ; observations on ditto,
238

Boobies, plundered by frigate peli-
cans, 284

Bosc, on migrating fish, 248

Bower-bird, instincts of, 279-81, 325

Bowman, Parker, his cat opening
swivel of window, 425

Boys, C. v., his experiments with a
tuning-fork on spiders, 206, 207

Brehm, on wasps recognising per-
sons, 188 ; intelligence of lapwing,
315, 316; curiosity of monkeys,
477

Broderip, on vindictiveness of ele-
phant, 389

Brodie, Sir B., his definition of
instinct, 16 ; on bees strengthen-
ing their combs, 185, 186

Brofft, Herr L., on powers of com-
munication in bees, 160
Brougham, Lord, on hexagonal form
of bees' cells, 172 j on intelligence
of a dog, 450
Brown, Capt., on vindictiveness of a

stork, 277-8
Brown, W., on a cat extinguishing

fire by water, 425
Browne, Dr. Crichton, on cat ring-
ing bell, 423
Browne, Murray, on fox allowing
itself to be extricated from trap,
431
Browning, A. H., on intelligence of a

dog, 450
Brydon, Dr., on collective instinct
of jackals, 434

BUL

Buchanan, Dr., on climbing perch,
249 ; on nidification of baya-bird,
294

Biichner, Professor, on ants : nursing
habits, 59 ; stocking trees with
aphides, 63 ; warfare, 71-9 ; play,
87-88; leaf-cutting, 95-96; in-
telligence in making a bridge of
aphides over tar, 136; of them-
selves over a space, 136-37 ; and
of a straw over water, 137 ;
ecitons, 139 ; anatomy and phy-
siology of brain, 141-42. On bees
and wasps : powers of communica-
tion, 158-60 ; swarming habits, |
168 ; wars and plunder, 169 ; cell-
building, 177-78 ; evacuating i
dangerous hive, 187 ; keeping
hives clean, 190; carrying dead
from hive and burying them, 191 ;
ventilating hives, 191-92; hornet
and wasp dismembering heavy!
prey, and carrying it to an I
eminence in order to fly away]
with it, 196 ; on termites, 198-
202. On spiders: web-building, |
211-12; wolf-spider, 213; trap-
door spiders, 217-18 ; intelligence!
of a spider habitually fed by Dr.]
Moschkau,218-19; spiders weight-
ing their webs, 221. On beetles:
co-operation of, 227- 28

Buck, E. C, on intelligence of|
crocodiles, 263 ; on collective in-
stinct of wolves, 433 ; on combined
action of pelicans, 319

Buckland, F., on pigeon remember- j
ing voice of mistress, 266 ; crow^
breaking shells by dropping ther
on stones, 283; birds avoiding
telegraph wires, 313

Buckley, on harvesting ants, 103

Buckton, G. B., on caterpillars,
236

Buffalo, 335-37

Buffon, on hexagonal form of beesl
cells, 171-72 ; association of idea/
in parrot, 269 ; sympathy in dittoj
275 ; goat-sucker removing eggsj
289

Bnfo ohstetricans, 254

Bull, intelligence of, 338

INDEX.

503

jn climbing perch,
nation of baya-bird,

lor, on ants : nursing

tocking trees with

yarfare, 71-9 ; play,

lutting, 95-96; in-

making a bridge of

tar, 136; of them-

space, 136-37; and

over water, 137 ;

anatomy and phy-

lin, Ul-42. On bees

owers of commnnica-

• swarming habits,

id plunder, 169; cell-

77-78 ; evacuating

hive, 187; keeping

190; carrying dead

id burying them, 191 ;

aives, 191-92; hornet

dismembering heavy

carrying it to an

order to fly away

BUR

iBurmelster, on powers of communi-
cation in ants, 49

|Byron, Lord, lines on alleged
tendency to scorpion to commit
suicide, 222

ADDIS-WORMS, 240
Cairns, Mr. W., on reasoning

power of a dog, 461

ampbell, Mrs. G. M. F., on in-
telligence of goose, 316

anary, jealousy of, 276; modifica-
tion of incubating instinct in
cage, 287 ; flying against mirror,
311; trained, 312

anning, J., his dog knowing value
of different coins, 452-8

'arassius auratu8, 246
xbonnier, M., on telescope-fish,
246

!arlisle. Bishop of, on congregation
or court held by jackdaws, 324

arpenter, Dr., on intelligence of
rats, 361

larreri, Geruelli, on monkeys thrust-
— s , „ - . i.^n:„oTiPA« iiig stones between oyster-shells
' S^-\V Tr, hf I)r|t<> keep them from closing, 481
aabitually fed by i^r.B ^ ^ ^ ^^ apparent intelli-

^HIn'P'o Seslgence of athealium, 19; of acti-
^ '™ nophrys and amoeba, 20-1

!arus, Professor, on spiders weight-
ing their webs, 221
t, the, 411-25 ; general remarks
upon, 411-14; emotions of, 412-
13 ; generalintelligenceof, 413-42 ;
showing zoological discrimination,
414 ; punishing kittens for mis-
behaviour, 414 ; begging for food,
414-15 ; feeding kittens on bread
when milk fails, 415; carrying
kittens to be protected by master,
415; trying to catch image behind
mirror, 416 ; communicating by
signs, 419 ; devices for catching
prey, 417-20; appreciation of

' iv- ,*«/iiHoaDiechanical appliances, 420-25;

9 ; sympathy in dittoj^^^. gr^ ^^^^^^ ^^5

cker removing eggs|jjg^p.ii^^g^ instinct of assisted by

intelligence, 236-8 ; migrating,

""^'Tq^r 1238-40

ce 01, 000

6 ; on termites, 198-
biders: web-building,
►If-spider, 213 ; trap

jbs, 221.
of, 227-28
on intelligence ofl
J63 ; on collective in-]
Ives, 433; on combined

flicans, 319

on pigeon remember-l

mistress, 266 ; crows

jlls by dropping them

283; birds avoiding

[ires, 313

irvesting ants, lOrf

B., on caterpillarsJ

^agonal form of beesi
; association of ideal

CON

Catesby, on co-operation of beetles,
226,227; on frigate-pelican plun-
dering boobies, 284

Cattle, fear exhibited by in
slaughterhouses, 334 ; pride of
334

Cebus fatttellus, observations on in-
telligence of, 484-98

Cecil, H., on tactics displayed by
hunting wasps, 194

Ceplialopoda, intelligence of, 29-30

Cetacea, 327-28

Challenge, mode of, in gulls, 291

Charming of snakes, 264

Cheiroptera, 341

Chelnum rostratus, 248

Chimpanzee, play of, 476-77

Chinese swallow, nidification of,
292

Chironectes, 243

Choice, as evidence of mind, 2

Clark, G., on intelligence of a bat,
341

Clark, Rev. H., on harvesting ants,
99 ; on dog recognising portrait,
454-5

Clarville, on co-operation of beetles,
228

Clavigero, on sympathy of pelicans
for wounded companions, 275

Claypole, on intelligence of horse^
331-2

Cnethocavipii pitzocampa, 244

Cobra, sexual affection of, 256;
charming, 265; intelligence of,
262

Cock, domestic, killing hen upon
hatching out eggs of other birds,
278

Ccelenterata, movements of, and
question concerning their intel-
ligence, 22

Coleoptera, 226-9 ; co-operation of,
226-8 ; other instances of intel-
ligence, 228-9

Colquhoun, on reasoning power of
a dog, 463-4

Commensalism, between crab and
anemone, and between mollusk
and ^.nemone, 233

Communication, see Co-operation

Concerted action, see Co-operation

504

INDEX.

CON

Cones, Captain Elliot, on intelli-
gence of wolverine, 348-60

Conilurua constructor, 326

Conklin, W. A., on elephants thatch-
ing their backs, 409

Consciousness, as evidence of mind,
2 ; gradual dawn of, 13

Conte, John Le, on reasoning power
of a dog, 460-1

Cook, Capt., on tree ants, 111; in-
telligence of tree-ants, 133

Cook, George, on dog dragging mat
about to lie upon, 466

Co-operation, of ants, 48-49, 51- 69,
64 et seq. (in making slaves and
waging war), 85-96 ; (in sundry
occupations), 96-100 ; (in harvest-
ing), 108-10, 111-14; (of ap-
parently different species), 114-
122; (of military ants) 127-30,
132-4, 136-40 ; of bees, 159-74 ;
(in general work, wars, and archi-
tecture), 177, 178, 184-6, 190-2 ;
of termites, 198-203 ; of beetles,
226-8 ; of birds, 318-22 ; of horses
and asses, 333 ; of bison and buf-
falo, 335 ; of pigs, 339 ; of rats,
361, 362 ; of mice, 364 ; of beavers,
367-83 ; of elephants, 401 ; of
foxes, 433 ; of wolves, 433 and 436 ;
of jackals, 432-5; of baboons,
483

Corse, on memory, of elephant, 386,
387 ; emotions of elephant, 393

Corvus cornice, punishing offenders,
323, 324

Couch, on maternal instinct of hen,
272 ; mode in which guillemots
catch fish, 285; mode of escape
practised by swan, 290 ; birds
removing dung from neighbour-
hood of their nests, 290 ; black-
birds mobbing cat, 291 ; nidifica-
tion of swan, 296-8 ; crows punish-
ing offenders, 323-4 ; intelligence
of hare, 359 ; cat unlocking door,
424; fox avoiding trap, 428;
catching crabs with tail, 432;
mode by which a dog killed crabs,
469

Cowper, on intelligence of hare,
369, 360

DAR

Cox, C, play-houses of bower- birds]
presented by him to Sydney Mu-
seum, 280

Crabs, 231-4

Craven, on intelligence of a sow,!
340

Crehore, on foxes avoiding traps
428, 429 ; on dog recognising por
trait, 463

Cripps, his elephant dying unde;
emotional disturbance, 396

Criterion of mind, 4-8

Crocodiles, 263

Crow, Capt. Hugh, on sympathy
shown by monkeys for sick com
panion, 473, 474

Crows, memory of, 266; breakin
shells by dropping them on th
stones, 283 ; punishing offenderi
323-6

Cruelty, of cat, 413

Crustacea, 231-34

Cuckoo, parasitic instincts of, 301-1
eggs of coloured like those of tin
bird in whose nest they are laii
307-9 ; American, 305, 306

Curiosity, of fish, 247; of bird
278, 279 ; of ruminants am
swine, 335 ; of monkeys, 477

Curlew, nidification of, 292

Cuvier, his orang drawing chair t
stand upon to reach a latch, 481
on birds dreaming, 312

DACE, tamed, 246
Dampier, on frigate-pelican
plundering boobies, 284 ; on mon
keys hammering oyster shells wit|
stones, 481

Daphnia pulex, seeking light, e^^
peciallv yellow ray, 23

Darwin, Charles, on apparent Intel
ligence of worms, 24 ; of oystej
25 ; of snail, 27 ; Mr. Hague's lett^
to, on powers of communication i
ants, 54-7 ; observations on ani
keeping aphides, 60, 61 ; on anj
making slaves, 64, 66, 67 ; con
munications of Lincecum to,
harvesting ants, 103, 107 ; on prj
portional size of ants' brain, 14([
communication of Miiller

spid

233

tion

vult

of c

sitti

nesti

304-

Gau(

I mem

of bi

402;

436;

438;

462;:

mate:

key,

monk

tativ(

ligen:

monk

Darwin,

ingtc

187

facilit

moult

233

dropp

bird

286;

young

Darwin,

throug

Davis, 01

byx mi

Davy, Di

256, 25

formin

400

Davy, Sil

young
Day, F., (

52
Deceitful

INDEX.

605

DAR

ouses of bower- birrlsj
him to Sydney Mu-j

telligence of a sow,!

3xes avoiding trapsJ
dog recognising por4

ephant dying undei
sturbance, 396
ind, 4-8

Hugh, on sympathy
onkeys for sick comj

,474

ry of, 266; breaking
Topping them on thd
; punishing offenders'

S, 413

L-34 ,

itic instincts of, SOI-";!
)ured like those of th^
ose nest they are laid
erican,305, 306

fish, 247; of birds
of ruminants an^
; of monkeys, 477
Lcation of, 292
•ang drawing chair t|

to reach a latch, 481 j
[eaming, 312

;d, 246

r, on frigate-pehcan
, boobies, 284 ; on mor
lering oyster shells witi

50?, ^eking light, d
■How ray, 23
fles, on apparent Intel
[worms, 24; of oystej
J 27; Mr. Hague's letW
Irs of communication i
\ observations on an|
bhides, 60, 61 ; on an]
tves, 64, 66, 67 ; cor'
ts of Lincecum to, (
[ants, 103, 107 ; on prj
Ize of ants' brain, iw
[tion of Muller

DAR

powers of communication in bees,
157 ; origin and development of
cell making instinct, 173-7; in-
stincts of neuters, 181 ; quotation
in MS. from Sir B. Brodie on bees
supporting their combs, 185-6 ;
his ' law of battle ' in relation to
spiders, 205 ; intelligence of crab,
233 ; his theory of sexual selec-
tion, 279-82; sense of smell in
vultures, 286; on Wallace's theory
of correlation between colour of
sitting birds and form of their
nests, 299; instincts of cuckoo,
304-6; birds dreaming, 312;
Gauchos taming wild horses, 329 ;
memory of horse, 330 ; intelligence
of bear, 352; of elephant, 398,
402 ; collective instinct of wolves,
436 ; duration of memory in dogs,
438 ; intelligence of Eskimo dogs,
462 ; reasoning of retriever, 463-4 ;
maternal care and grief of mon-
key, 472; sense of ludicrous in
monkeys, 476 ; curiosity and imi-
tativeness of monkeys, 477 ; imi-
tativeness of man, 477-8 ; intel-
ligent observation displayed by
monkeys, 479, 480

Darwin, Erasmus, on bees ceas-
ing to store honey in Barbadoes,
187 ; wasp dismembering fly to
facilitate carriage, 195; un-
moulted crab guarding moulted,
233 ; crows breaking shells by
dropping them on stones, 283 ;
bird shaking seed out of poppy,
286; elephant acting nurse to
young child, 408

[Darwin, F., on bees biting holes
through corollas, 189

[Davis, on instincts of larvae of bom-
byx moth, 239

[Davy, Dr., on instincts of alligators,
256, 257 ; taming cobra, 265 ; per-
forming operation on elephants,
400

[Davy, Sir H., on eagles teaching
young to fly, 290

[Day, F., on intelligence of fish, 244-
52

iDeceitfulness, of elephant, 410; of

DZI

dog, 443, 444, 450-52, 457, 468 ;
of monkey, 494

Deer, intelligence of, 336, 338,
339

De Fravi5re, on powers of communi-
cation in bees, 158; their scouts,
168

Descartes, his hypothesis of animal
automatism, 6

Dicquemase, on intelligence of
oyster, 25

Dipterous insects, intelligence in
finding way out of a bell-jar, 153,
154; gad-fly, 230; house-fly, 230,
231

Division of labour, see Co-opera-
tion

Dog, ringing bell, 423 ; knocking
knocker, 423 ; collective instinct
of, 435, 436 ; general remarks on
psychology of, as influenced by
domestication, 437, 438 ; memory
of, 438 ; emotions of, 438-45 ;
pride and sensitiveness, 439-42 ;
intolerance of pain, 441 ; emula-
tion and jealousy, 442, 443 ; sense
of justice, 443 ; deceitfulness, 443,
444 ; sense of ludicrous and dis-
like of ridicule, 444, 445 ; general
intelligence of, 445-70; communi-
cating ideas, 445-7 ; instances of
reason, 447-69

Doldorff, on climbing perch, 248,
249

JDolomedes fimbriata, 213

Doras, 248

D'Osbonville, on monkeys adminis-
tering corporal chastisement to
their young, 482, 483

Dreaming, of birds, 269, 312 ; of
ferrets, 347

Duchemin, M., on toads killing carp,
254

Duck, conjugal fidelity of, 270,
271 ; conveying yoxmg on back,
289

Dugardin, on communication among
ants, 49; in bees, 156

Duncan, on cunning of a dog, 451

Dzierzon, on cause determining sex
of bees' eggs, 162 ; bees repairing
injuries to their cells, 186

506

INDEX.

EAO

EAGLE, plundering instinct of
white-lieiided, 284 ; teaching
young to fly, 290 ; variations in
nest-building, 299; submitting to
surgical operations, 313, 314

Earwig, 229, 230

Ebrard, on co-operation of ants, 132

Echinodermata, movements of, 23

Edmonson, Dr., on crows punishing
offenders, 323, 324

Edward, on intelligence of frogs,
255 ; sympathy of terns for
wounded companion, 274, 275 ;
crows breaking shells by dropping
them on stones, 281' ; co-operation
of turnstones, 321

Edward, H., on honey-making ants,
111-14

Eimer, Dr., on voluntary and in-
voluntary movements of Mediua,
22,23

Elephant, general remarks upon, 386;
memory of, 386, 387; emotions of,
387-96; vindictiveness, 387-9;
sympathy, 389-90; rogue, 393,
394 ; dying under effects of emo-
tion, 396, 396 ; general intelligence
of, 396-410; enduring surgical
operations, 399-400; vigilance,
401 ; formation of abstract ideas,
401, 402; intelligence of tame de-
coys, 402-6; of tame workers,
306-8; thatching their backs,
308, 309; removing leeches, and
fanning away flies, 309, 310 ; con-
cealing theft, 410

Ellendorf, Dr. F., on leaf-cutting
ants, 95, 96; on ants making a
bridge, 137

Elliot, on collective instinct of
wolves, 433

Emery, J,, on powers of communi-
cation in bees, 157

Emulation, of birds, 277 ; of dogs,442

Encyclopaedia Britannica, on bees
following floating hives, 149;
battles of queen-bees, 163, 164;
parasitic instincts in birds, 306

Endurance, of pain by wild dogs,
441 ; of surgical operations by
eagle, 313, 314 ; by elephants,
399, 400 ; by monkey, 482

FLE

Engolmann, on DujjhHiajmlcxsQck'

ing yellow liglit, 23
Epeira aurelia, Mr. F. Pollock on

perfection of web built by young,

217
Erb, G. S., on intelligence of doer,

338, 339
Egox iMoiui, 246
Espinas, on co-operation of ants,

130

FARRE, on instincts of sphez-
wasp, 180, 181

Faister, Mdlle. de, her tame weasel,
346

Falcon, variations in nest-building,
299

Faraday, J., on intelligence of skate,
261

Fascination, alleged, by snakes, 263,
264

Fayrer, Sir J., on fascination by
and charming of snakes, 264

Fear, in horses, 329 ; in ruminants,
334 ; in rabbits, 365 ; in rats, 360
excited in dogs by portraits,
465-7; in monkey by snakes,
477, and by imitation monkey,
495

Ferret, 347

Fire-flies, stuck on nests by baya-
birds, 294

Fish, 241-53 ; comparison of brain
with that of invertebrata, 241;
emotions, 242-7 ; nidification,
courtship, and care of young,
242-6 ; pugnacity, and social
feelings, 242; anger, 246, 247;
play, jealousy, curiosity, 247 ;
angler, 247, 248 ; jaculator, 248 ;
travelling over land, 248 ; climbing
trees, 248, 249 ; migrations, 249,
260 ; general intelligence, 250-53

Fisher, J. F., on hen removing eggs
with her neck, 288

Fleeson, Captain B., on honey-mak-
ing ants, 111-14

Fleming, W. J., on intelligence of
horse, 330

Fleury, Cardinal, on intelligence of j
ants in making bridges, 135

INDEX.

507

Ir. F. Pollock on
jb built by young,

oUigcncc of doer,

peration of ants,

stincts of sphex-

e, her tame weasel,

LS in nest-building,

itelligence of skate,

iged, by snakes, 263,

on fascination by

of snakes, 264
329 ; in ruminants,
IS, 355 ; in rats, 360
logs by portraits,
lonkey by snakes,

imitation monkey,

on nests by baya-

omparison of brain
invertebrata, 241 ;
[2-7 ; nidification,
[d care of young,
lacity, and social
1; anger, 246, 247;
Ly, curiosity, 247 ;
|48 ; jaculator, 248 ;
Hand, 248; climbing
[9 ; migrations, 249,
lintelligence, 250-53
hen removing eggs

f. 288
B., on honey-mak-

on intelhgence ot

I, on intelligence of |
ig bridges, 135

FOR

Forbes, on niditication of tailor-
bird, 293

Forbes, James, on monkey begging
for dead body of comjmnion, 472

Forcl, on ants ; recognising slaves,
43 ; and fellow-citizens, 44 ;
swarming habits, 68 ; experiment
in rearing together hostile species,
69, 60; tunnelling to obtain
aphides, 61 ; warfare, 68-77 ; play,
88 ; intelligence shown in archi-
tecture, 129

Forsteal, on termites, 198

Forster, W., on intelligence of a bull,
338

Fothergill, Percival, on reasoning
power of a dog, 466

Fouillouse, J. de, on intelligence of
bares, 357, 858

Fox, 426-33 ; lying in wait for
hares, 426, 427 ; avoiding traps,
427-30 ; allowing itself to be ex-
tricated from trap, 431 ; catching
crabs with tail, 432 ; collective
instinct in hunting, 433

iFox, C, on intelligence of porpoises,
328

|Frankland, Mrs., on cock bullfinch
recognising portrait of hen, 311

[Franklin, on powers of communi-
cation in ants, 49

jFranklin, Dr., on sympathy in
parrots, 276
'rogs, 254, 255

^rost, Dr., on cat sprinkling crumbs
to attract birds, 418, 419
'urniss, J. J., on elephants thatch-
ing their backs, 408, 409

J.AD-FLY, instinct of, 230

Gander, see Goose
fcaphaus, H. A., on cat opening
1 thumb-latch, 421
pdener, on intelligence of crab, 233
arraway, Dr., on beetle concealing
I its store of food, 229
mteropoda, intelligence of, 26-29
mterostem pungitius, 243 ; G.
\^inachia, 243

peer, M., on earwig incubating
1 young, 229
hloiinnus, 233

GRO

Gentles, W. Laurie, on intelligence

of a sheep-dog, 448, 449
Geoffrey, on pilot tish, 262
Gibbons, their sympathy for Buffer*

ing companions, 472, 473
Gleditsch, on beetles undermining

stick supporting a dead toad,

228; on spiders weighting their

webs, 221
Glutton, 347-60
Goat, intelligence of, 337, 338
Goat-sucker, removing eggs, 289;

nidification of, 292
Goldfinch, trained, 312
Goldsmith on habits of rooks, 322,

323
Goldsmith, Dr., on intelligence of

otter, 346
Gollitz, Herr, on co-operation of

beetles, 227
Goodbehere, S., on intelligence of a

pony and ass, 332, 333 ; on cun-
ning of sheep-killing dogs, 450;

on dog knowing value of different

coins, 452, 453
Goose, affection and sympathy of,

272, 273 ; removing eggs from

rats, 288 ; noting time, 814 ;

opening latch of gate, 316
Gosso, on commensalism of crab

and anemone, 234
Gould, on bower-bird, 279-81 ; on

humming-birds, 281 ; on tale-

gallus. 294, 295
Graber, Titus, on proportional size

of ant's brain, 141
Grapms stringosus, 231
Gray, Sir George, on nidification of

talegallus, 295
Gredler, Vincent, on division of

labour among leaf-cutting ants,

99, 100
Green, on intelligence of pigs, 339
Green, Seth, on tactics displayed by

hunting wasps, 193
Griffiths, on intelligence of ele-
phant, 388, 389
Grosbeak, nidification of, 295, 296
Grouse, learning to avoid telegraph

vnres, 312, 313
Groves, J. B., on cat trying to catcH

image behind mirror, 416

508

INDEX.

(^i

GUA

Guana, see Reptiles

Guerinzius, on wasps recognising

persons, 188
Guillemots, plundering of by gulls,

283, 284 ; mode of catching fish,

286
Gulls, plundering guillemots, 283,

284; mode of challenge, 291;

nidification, 292
Guring, Thomas, on intelligence of

geese, 314, 316

HAGBN, on termites, 202
Hague, on powers of commu-
nication in ants, 64-7

Hamilton, R., on fear exhibited by
cattle in slaughterhouses, 334

Hancock, Dr., on fish quitting water,
248; crows breaking shells by
dropping them on stones, 283

Harding, S., on intelligence of a
pig, 340

Hare, 367-60

Hartmann, Von, his definition of in-
stinct, 15; on fondness of spiders
for music, 206

Harvesting-ants, 96-110 ; mice, 365,
366

Hawkshaw, J. Clarke, on limpet
remembering locality, 28-9

Hayden, on monkey keeping door
open with blanket, 481

Hayes, Dr., on intelligence of Eskimo
dogs, 462

Heber, Bishop, on sympathy of ele-
phant, 289

Helix pomatia, intelligence of, 26, 27

Hemerobius chrysops, 240

Hen, maternal instinct of, 272 ; re-
moving eggs with neck, 288 ; and
young chicken on back, 288, 289

Henderson, on navigating habits of
Iceland mice, 364, 365

Heron, variations in nest-building,
299

Hogg, on intelligence of his sheep-
dog, 448

Holden, on starlings learning to
avoid telegraph wires, 312, 313

Hollmann, on intelligence of octopus,

HUG

Homams marinus, 233

Hooker, Sir J :eph, on navigating
habits of Iceland mice, 364

Hooper, W. F., on intelligence of a
dog, 463

Horn, Mrs., on reasoning powers of
a dog, 462

Hornet, carrying heavy prey up an
elevation in order to fly away
with it, 196

Horse, emotions of, 328-30 ; memory,
330; general intelligence, 328,
330-3

Horse-fly, tamed, 230, 231

Horsfall, on dog finding his way
about by train, 467, 468

Hoste, Sir W., on wounded monkey
showing its blood to the sports-
man, 476

Houzeau, on hen transporting young I
chicken on her back, 288, 289 ;[
parrots not being deceived by
mirrors, 310, 311; birds dream-
ing, 312 ; mules counting their |
journeys, 332 ; monkeys destroy-
ing poison-fangs of snakes, 483

Hubbard, Mrs., on intelligence of a|
cat, 414

Huber, P. and P., on instinct, 16. On|
ants : sense of smell in, 33 ; recog-
nising companions, 41 ; powers of |
communication, 49, 50; observa-
tions on slave-making instinct,
65 ; on warfare, 76 ; play, 87, 88 ;|
harvesting, 97 ; carrying onel
another, 109 ; intelligence showii|
in architecture, 128, 129. Or
bees : sense of hearing in, 144 ;
duration of memory, 155 ; powers
of communication, 156, 159;
manipulation and uses of pro-l
polis, 161 ; battles of queen-beesJ
164, 165; form of cells, 173
building cells, 1 77, 178 ; barri]
cading doors against moths, 184 i
strengthening combs, 186 ; biting
holes in corollas, 189; ventilatind
hives, 191, 192 ; effects of remov]
ing antennse of bees, 197

Hudson, on habits of Melothnis, 309
310

Hngen, on termites, 198

INDEX.

509

M, 233

jph, on navigating

nd mice, 864

on intelligence of a

■easoning powers of

r heavy prey up an
order to fly away

of,328-30; memory,
I intelligence, 328,

i, 230, 231

)g finding his way
n, 467, 468
)n wounded monkey
blood to the sports-

a transporting young
tier back, 288, 289;
being deceived by
,311; birds dream-
mles counting their
2; monkeys destroy- 1
mgs of snakes, 483
, on intelligence of a

?., on instinct, 16. Onj
f smell in, 33 ; recog-

HUM

I Humboldt, on instincts of young

turtles, 257
|Humming-birds, aesthetic instincts

cf, 281
I Hatchings, J., on intelligence of a

cat, 417
|HutchinsoD, on alleged tendency

of scorpion to commit suicide,

225
I Hutchinson, Col., on reasoning power

of a dog, 463, 464
[Hutchinson, Dr. H. F., on wolf-
spider stalking own image in

mirror, 213
(Hutchinson, S. J., on intelligence of

polar bear, 351, 352
[Hutton, Mrs., on ants burying their

dead, 91, 92
Iffi/drargyra, 248
IHynienojftera, see Ants and Bees

IBEX, does assisting wounded
buck to escape, 334

jldealism, cannot be refuted by ar-
gument, 6

lldeas, see Association

limitation, shown by talking birds,
monkeys, and idiots, 477, 478

|Instinct, defined and distinguished
from reason and reflex action,
10-17 ; of medusae, 23 ; of worms,
24 ; of moUusca, 25 ; of ants with
reference to colour, 32, 33 ; to
smell, 33-7 ; to sense of direction,
37-9 ; to recognising friends, 41-
5 ; to swarming, 57, 58 ; to nur-
sing, 58 ; to education, 59, 60 ; to
keeping aphides, 60-4 ; to making
slaves, 64-8 ; to wars, 68-83 ; to
keeping pets, 83, 84 ; to sleep and
cleanliness, 84-7 ; to play and
leisure. 87-9 ; to treatment of
dead, 89-93 ; of leaf -cutting spe-
cies, 93-6 ; of harvesting species,
97-110; of tree-inhabiting spe-
cies, 110, 111 ; of honey-making
species, 111-14; of ecitons, 114-
22; of driver and marching
species, 121-2 ; of bees and wasps,
with reference to colour, 143-4 ;
to sense of direction, 144-51 ; to

JEN

food-collecting and wax-making,
160-2 ; to propagation, 162-8 ; of
queens, 162-5 ; of killing drones,
165-8 ; with reference to wars,
169, 170; to architecture, 170-
80; of sphex-wasp, 180, 181 : of
termites, 198-203 ; of spiders,
204-18 ; of scorpion, 222-5 ; of
beetles, 226-9; of earwig, 229,
230 ; of flies, 230, 231 ; of Crus-
tacea, 231, 232 ; of larvae, 234-
40 ; of fish, 242-53 ; of batra-
chians, 254 ; of reptiles, 256-9 ;
of birds, with reference to pro-
curing food, 283-7 ; to incuba-
tion, 287-91; to nidification,
291-301; of cuckoo, 301-10; of
marsupials, 320; of whale, 327;
of ruminants, 335 ; of swine, 839 ;
of bats, 341 ; of seals, 341-8 ; of
wolverine, 348-50 ; of rodents,
353, 354 ; of rabbit, 354-7 ; of
hare, 354-9; of rats, 360; of
mice, 364-5 ; of rat-hare, 365,
366 ; of beaver, mixed with intel-
ligence, 367; with reference to
propagation and lodges, 367-71 ;
to procuring food, 371-3; to
dams, 373-80 ; to canals, 380-4 ;
of cat, 411-12 ; of dog, 437, 438 ;
of monkey, 471

JACKAL, 426; collective instinct
in hunting, 432-35

Jackdaw, gesticulating signs made
by, 316 ; congregation for court
held by, 324

Jacob, Sir G. Le Grand, on crows
punishing offender, 324-5 ; ibexes
assisting wounded mate to es-
cape, 334

Japp, on dog spontaneously learn-
ing use of coin, 452

Jealousy, of fish, 242; of birds,
276-7; of horse, 329, 330; of
dogs, 442, 443 ; of monkey, 493

Jenkins, H. L., on formation of
abstract ideas by elephants, 401,
402

Jenner, on instinct of young cuckoo,
301-4

1. :

510

INDEX.

JEB

Jerdon, Dr., on harvesting-ants, 97 ;
on birds dreaming, 312

Jervoise, Sir J. C, on bee biting
hole in a corolla, 189 ; on com-
bined action of rooks in obtaining
food from pheasants, 321

Jesse, on intelligence of bees in
adapting their combs to smooth

. surface, 186; spider protecting
eggs from cold, 219 ; tame house-
fly, 230, 231 ; affection of male
for female pike, 246 ; attachment
between alligator and cat, 258,
259 ; conjugal fidelity of Swan,
and pigeon, 271 ; sympathy of
rooks, 273, 274 ; lapwing stamp-
ing on ground to make worms
rise, 285 ; goose removing eggs
from rats, 288; birds removing
dung from neighbourhood of their
nests, 290; swallows killing and
imprisoning hostile sparrows, 318,
319; kangaroo throwing young
from pouch when pursued, 326,
327; stag shaking berries from
trees, and manifesting intelligence
in escaping from dogs, 336; in-
telligence of buffalo, 336, 337;
intelligence of rats, 360-2; of
elephants, 398 ; collective instinct
of foxes, 433 ; wounded monkey
showing its blood to the sports-
man, 476

Jilson, Professor, on habits of the
'prairie-dog,' 366

John, St., on intelligence of fox, 426,
427 ; idea of caste in dog, 442

Johnson, on termites, 198 ; on orang-
outangs removing their dead com-
panions, 472

Johnson, Capt., on wounded monkey
showing its blood to the sports-
man, 475

Johnson, Dr., his definition of
reason, 14

KANGAROO, throwing young
from pouch when pursued,
326, 327
Kaup, on fish, 246

LAY

Eemp, Dr. L., on battles of queen-
bees, 164; robber bees, 170; on
intelligence of decoy elephants,
402

Kent, Saville, on intelligence of
porpoises, 327, 328

Kesteven, Dr. W. H., on cat knocking j
knocker, 424

Kingfisher, nidification of, 292

Kirby, on water-spider, 212; shore j
crabs, 232 ; migration of salmon,
249, 250 ; intelligence of carp, 250

Kirby and Spence, on powers of|
communication in ants, 49 ; sense j
of direction in bees, 148; hex-
agonal form of bees' cells, 172; I
ceasing to store honey in tropics, |
188 ; co-operation of beetles, 226 ;
caterpillars, 236, and 238, 239 |

Klein, Dr., on intelligence of a cat,
418, 419

Kleine, Herr, on behaviour of bees j
when finding empty combs sub-|
stituted for full ones, 186, 187

Klingelhoffer, Herr, on co-operation ]
of beetles, 227-8

Konig, on termites, 198

Kreplin, Herr H., on ecitons, 139

JABRUS, 247

■" LacepMe, on fish coming to

sound of bell, &c., 250
Lacerta iguana, 256
Za^foniys, provident habits of, 365
Landois, on powers of communica

tion in bees, 158
Langshaf t, on bees recognising hive

companions, 183 ; on robber bees,

183-4
Lapwing, stamping on ground to

make worms rise, 285 ; intelligence

of, 316, 316
Larvae, of insects, intelligence of,

234-40
Latreille, on ants, sympathy of, 47
Lauriston, Baron, on sympathy of

elephant, 390
Layard, Consul, on intelligence of

cobra, 262 ; on nidification of

baya-bird, 294; on cat pulling

bell-wire, 424

INDEX.

511

LAY

a battles of queen-
3ber bees, 170; on
f decoy elephants,

on intelligence of

,328

H., on cat knocking

acation of, 292
r-spider, 212; shore!
igration of salmon,
Uigence of carp, 250 '
snce, on powers ofj
m in ants, 49 ; sense
in bees, 148; hex-
of bees' cells, 172 ;|
3re honey in tropics,
ition of beetles, 226;
236, and 238, 239
Intelligence of a cat,

n behaviour of beesj
9 empty combs sub-
full ones, 186, 187
Berr, on co-operation I
57-8

lites, 198
H., on ecitons, 139

on fish coming toj
i, &c., 250
k255
Ident habits of, 365

>wers of communica-

,158 ,

|bees recognising hive
183 ; on robber bees,

aping on ground toj
[rise, 285; intelligence

Bcts, intelligence of,|

ats, sympathy of, 47
ron, on sympathy of

il, on intelligence of

on nidification of

294; on cat pulling|

LEE

M*CO

Lee, Mrs., on intelligence of robin,

314 ; of goats, 337 ; of rats, 361 ;

on vindictiveness of elephant, 389
Leeches, apparent intelligence of,

24
Lefroy, Lieut- Gen, Sir John, on

terrier communicating wants by

signs, 446
Lehr, Herr H., on bees draining

their hive, 190
Leroy, C. G., on nidification of birds,

300 ; on migration, 301 ; on col-
lective instinct of wolves, 436
Lespes, on ants: slave-making in-
stinct, 65, 66; warfare, 68, 69;

division of labour, 98, 99 : on

termites, 198
Leuckart, Prof., on intelligence of

ants in surmounting obstacles,

135
Lever, Sir Ashton, his experiment

on eccentricity of nest-building

instinct, 295
Limpet, remembering locality, 28,

29
Lincecum, Dr., on harvesting ants,

97 and 103-7 ; carrying one an-
other, 109
Lindsay, Dr. L., on birds dreaming,

312
Linnaeus, on swallows imprisoning

sparrows, 318
Linnet, intelligence of in not flying

against mirror, 311 ; trained, 312
Liparis ohrysorrhaca, 238
Livingstone, Dr., on certain ants of

Africa, 110; honey-guide, 315;

intelligence of buffalo, 335, 336 ;

reasoning power of dog, 457
Lobster, 233
Lockman, J., on fondness of pigeon

for a particular air of music, 282
Lonsdale, on intelligence of snails,

27
Lophius piscator, 247-8
Lophobranchiate fish, incubating

eggs in mouth, 245-6
Loudoun's ' Magazine of Natural

History,' quotations from, 357
I Love-bird, conjugal affection of,

270
I Lowenf els, Herr H., on a wasp dis-

membering a fly to facilitate car-
riage, 196.

Lubbock, Sir John, on ants: sense
of sight in, 32 ; of hearing, 33 ;
of smell, 33-7 ; of liirection, 37-
8; recognising companions and
nest-mates, 41-3 and 44-5 ; defi-
ciency of affection and sympathy,
45-7 ; powers of communication,
50-3; collecting hatching eggs
of aphides, 61-2; keeping pets,
84; general intelligence, 123-8.
On bees and wasps : sense of sight
in, 143 ; of smell and hearing,
144; of direction, 144-8; me-
mory, 151-4 ; taming wasps, 153 ;
experiment on comparative in-
telligence of wasp and fly in find-
ing way out of a bell- jar, 163-4;
experiments to test sympathy,
155-6 way-finding, 181-3; re-
cognising one another, 183-4.
On co-operation of beetles, 226.

Ludicrous, sense of, in dogs, 444-5 ;
in monkeys, 476, 485, 487, and
490

Lukis, F. C, on limpet remember-
ing locality, 29

MACLACHLAN, on caddis- worms,
244

MacLaurin, on mathematical prin-
ciples observed by bees in con-
structing their cells, 171

MaoropodoSy 244

Malcolm, Sir James, on sympathy
shown by monkey, 474-5

Malle, Dureau de la, on dog knock-
ing knocker, 423-4 ; collective
instinct of dogs, 435-6

Mammals, 326-498

Mann, Mr. and Mrs., their tame
snakes, 256, 260-2

Mansfield, nest of fish, 242-43

Marsupials, 326-7

Martin, nidification of house, 292 ;
of land, 292

Martin, John, on re£.soning power
of cat, 416

M'Cook, the Rev. Dr., on ants : re-
cognising fellow-citizens, 44; feed-

512

INDEX.

M*CR

ing comrades with aphides-secre-
tion, 63-4 ; keeping cocci and
caterpillars, 64 ; warfare, 78,
81-3 ; sleep and cleanliness, 84-
87 ; play, 88 ; funeral habits, 89-
91 ; agricultural, 97, 103-10 ;
modes of mining, 108 ; swarming
habits of agriculturals, 108-9 ;
carrying one another, 109-10 ;
removing nest from shade of tree,
131 ; cutting leaves from shading
tree, 131-2 ; co-operation in cut-
ting grass, 132

M'Cready, on larva of Medus(S suck-
ing nutriment from parent, 34

Meek, his cat trying to catch image
behind mirror, 415-16

Meenan, on a wasp carrying heavy
prey up an elevation in order to
fly away with it, 197

Melanerpes formidvoruSf 285

Melia tessellata, 233-4

Melipona domestioa, form of its
cells, 173-6

Melothms, 309-10

Memory, of mollusca, 25-9 ; of
ants, 39-45 ; of bees, 151-5 ; of
beetles and earwig, 226-30; of
batrachians, 255 ; of reptiles,
259 et seq. ; of birds, 266-70 ; of
horse, 330 ; of elephant, 386-7 ;
of dog, 438 ; of monkey, 497

Menault, on eagle submitting to
surgical operation, 313-14; on
mason bee, 178-9

Merian, Madame, on ants of visita-
tion, 130; mygale spider eating
humming-birds, 208

Merrell, Dr., on instinct of American
cuckoo, 305-6

Mice, 360-4

Migration, of caterpillars, 238 ; of
crabs, 232 ; of fish, 248-50 ; of
reptiles, 257-8; of birds, 266;
of mammals, 341-60, and 368

Mildmay, Sir Henry, on pigs learn-
ing to point game, 339-40

Mill, John S., on instinct of cruelty
in man, 413

Miller, Ptof., calculations regard-
ing form of bee's cell, 173

Mind, subjective and objective

MON

analysis of, 1; evidence of, 2;
criterion of, 4-8

Mischievousness, fondness of, shown
by monkeys, 485 et seq.

Mitchell, on fish removing eggs
from disturbed nest, 251

Mitchell, Major, on habits of Cmi'
lurus constructor^ 326

Mivart, on instincts of sphex-
wasps, 181

Mobbing instinct in birds, 291

Mobius, Prof., on commensalism
between crab and anemone, 233

Moggridge, on ants: sympathy of,
48 ; suggestion to Mr. Hague, 56;
warfare of, 79-81 ; keeping pets,
83; harvesting, 97-8 and 100-
2 ; division of labour, 98 ; har-
vesters using burrows made by
elater, 130; intelligent adapta-
tion to artificial conditions, 130 ;
co-operation in cutting grass, &c.,
133. On trap-door spiders cover-
ing trap-doors with moss, &c.,
214-15 ; making trap-door at ex-
posed end of accidentally inverted
tube, 215-216; perfection of
dwellings built by young spiders,
216-17 ; manner in which instinct
of making trap-doors probably
arose, 217-18

Mollusca, intelligence of, 25-30

Monboddo, Lord, on snake finding
way home, 262

Monkeys, 471-98 ; general remarks
on psychology of, 471 and 497-
98; emotions of, 471-8; affec-
tion and sympathy, 471-5
reproach, 475-6; ludicrous, 476
485, 48T, 490; play, 476-77
curiosity, 477; imitation, 477
rage, jealousy, and revenge, 478
memory of, 497 ; general intelli-
gence of, 478; behaviour with
mirror, 478-9 and 495-6 ; pick-
ing shells off eggs, and taking
care not to be stung by wasps in
paper, 479 ; intelligence of Mr.
Belt's, 480 ; disentangling chains,
480 and 486-8 ; raking in objects
with sticks or cloths, 480 and
486 ; drawing chair to stand upon,

ii '1 '/

INDEX.

513

evidence of, 2;

mdness of, shown

1 et seq.
removing eggs

lest, 251

n habits of Coyii-

•» 326

incts of sphex-

in birds, 291
m commensalism
nd anemone, 233
nts: sympathy of,

to Mr. Hague, 56;
.81 ; keeping pets,
r, 97-8 and 100-
l labour, 98 ; har-

burrows made by
intelligent adapta-
lal conditions, 130 ;
n cutting grass, &c.,
.-door spiders cover-
's with moss, &c.,
ing trap-door at ex-
Lccidentally inverted
16 ; perfection ot
It by young spiders,
ler in vyhich instmct

rap-doors probably

iffence of, 25-30
' on snake findmg

Is- general remarks
y 'of, 471 and 497-

^ of, 471-8; afEec

.sympathy, 471-5;

I5-6; ludicrous, 47b,
t90; play, 476-77;
n- imitation, 477,
y.and revenge, 478;
197 ; general intelli-
L78; behaviour with
[9 and 495-6 ; pick-
eggs, and taking
fe stung by wasps in
I intelligence of Mr.
Idisentangling chains,
Lg; raking in objects
or cloths, 480 and
chair to stand upon,

MOR

481 ; using l-evers, 481 and 492 ;
using hammers, 481 and 485 ;
divining principle of screw, 490-
91 ; keeping door open with
blanket, 481-2 ; allowing tooth
to be drawn, 482 ; punishing
young, 482 -3 ; destroying snake's
fangs, 483 ; concerted action, 483;
lore of mischief, 485 et seq.;
throwing things in rage, 485 et
seq. ; pushing slab to which tied,
484-7 ; capricious attachments and
dislikes, 484 et seq. ; trying to
unlock a box, 492 ; playing with
fire, 493-4 ; expression of emo-
tions, 494-5 ; dread of imitation
monkey, 495

Morgan, L. A., on spider convey-
ing insect to larder, 220

Morgan, L. H., on the beaver, 367-
83

Moschkau, Dr., on intelligence
shown by a spider which he
habitually fed, 218-19

Moseley, Lewin, performing opera-
tion on a monkey, 482

Moseley. Prof., ou intelligence of
crabs, 231-2

jMossman, Uev. J. W., on wasps
coming out of small aperture
backwards, 192-3

|]lale, alleged counting by, 332 ;
intelligence of, 333-4

iMiiller, Adolph, on instinct of
cuckoo, 306-7

|lluller, F., on powers of communi-
cation in bees, 157 ; on termites,
198 and 201

array, S., intelligence of his dog,
450

usic, fondness of spiders for, 205-
7 ; of parrots and pigeon, 282
vgale spider eating humming-
birds, 208

\\jnonphyllum spioatum, 243
'ijrmeleon formicarium, 234-5

fADAULT, Madame, the associa-
tion of ideas shown by her
, parrot, 269
fapier, Commander, on pigeon

ORT

making a horse shake oats from
nose-bag, 317

Napier, Lady, recollection in parrot,
269, 270; emulation in parrot,
276, 277

Nest, see Nidification

Newall, R. S., on wasp dividing
caterpillai to facilitate carriage,
195, 196

Newbury, on absence of beaver
dams in California, 370, 371

Newton, Professor A., on instincts
of cuckoo, 306-9

Nichols, W. W., on intelligence of
pigeons, 317

Nicols, A., on reasoning power of a
retriever, 464, 465

Mcropltorus, 228

Nidification, of crustacean, 232,
233 ; of fish, 242-5 ; of birds, 291
-301 ; petrels and puffins, 291, 292 ;
auks, curlew, goatsucker, ostrich,
gulls, sandpipers, plovers, king-
fisher, Chinese swallow, house-
martin, 292 ; tomtit, woodpecker,
starling, weaver, 293 ; baya, tale-
gallus, 294; grosbeak, 295, 296;
swan, 296-8 ; Wallace's theories
concerning, 298, 299 ; variability
of 299-301 ; of harvesting mice,
365

Nightingales, removing nest, 289

Niphon, Professor, on intelligence
of a mule, 333, 334

JVoctua JSwingii, 238

Noctura verbasci, 236

North, the Rev. W., on intelligence of
mice, 361, 362

Nottebohm, Herr, on ants stocking
trees with aphides, 63

OBSTETRIC-FISH, 246 ; toad. 254
Octqpm, intelligence of, 29, 30

CEcypoda ippeus, 231

Oldham, A., on jealousy in dog,
442, 443

Orang-outang, removing dead com-
panions, 472 ; sense of humour in.
476 ; drawing chair to stand upon
to reach high places, 481

OrtJwtomus, 293

514

INDEX.

OST

Ostrich, conjugal afEection of, 270 ;

nidification, 292
Otter, 346
Oyster, intelligence of, 25

PALLAS, on provident habits of
Lagomys, 365

Parrot, memory of, 267-9 ; recollec-
tion, 269, 270 ; talking, &c., 267-
70; sympathy, 275, 276; exulta-
tion on baffling imitative powers
of master, 277 ; vindictiveness,
277 ; fondness of music, 282 ;
difficult to deceive by mirrors,
310, 311

Parry, Captain, on instincts of wild
swan, 297

Partridge, removing eggs, 289

Peach, C. W., on dog recognising
portrait, 453, 454

Peal, G. E., on elephants remov-
ing leeches and fanning away
tiies, 409, 410

Pearson, Colonel, the reasoning
power of his dog, 466, 467 '

Peeweet, see Lapwing.

Pelicans, sympathy of for wounded
companions, 275 ; frigate, 284 ;
combined action of in fishing,
319

Penky, the Kev. Mr., on reasoning
power of a dog, 466, 467

Pennant, on navigating habits of
Iceland mice, 364

Pennent, on domestication of toad,
255 ; on fascination by rattle-
snake, 263

Perca scandens, 248, 249

Perception, 9

Perch, climbing, 248, 249

Percival, Dr., on cock killing hen
when she hatched out eggs of
partridge, 278

Petrels, nidification of, 291, 292

Phillips, J., his portrait-painting
recognised by a dog, 454

Picton, Mrs. E., on sensit'veness of
a terrier, 440, 441

Fieris rapee, 236

Pigeon, memory of, 266 ; con-
jugal afifection and fidelity, 270,

FBI

271 ; fondness for a particular

air of music, 282 ; intelligence in

avoiding turtles, 317 ; in making

horse shake oats from nose-bag

317
Pigs, 339-41
Pike, affection of male for female,

246
Pilot-fish, 251, 252
Pinnipeds, breeding habits of, 342,

346
Pipe-fish, 246
Piracy, instinct of, in birds, 283,

284, 301-7
Pisces, see Fish
Play, of ants, 87, 89; offish, 242 ; of

birds, 279 ; of porpoise, 327, 328 ;

of dogs, 445 ; of monkeys, 476, 477
Pliny, on ants burying their dead,

91 ; sexual aifection of snakes,

256 ; on intelligence of elephant,

386 ; on memory of elephant, 387
Ploceus textoTt 293
Plover, see Lapwing ; nidification of,

292
Plutarch, on intelligence of elephant

386
Podocenis capiVata, 332
Polar bear, 352, 353
Polecat, curious instinct of, 347
PoUstes carnifex, taking precis

bearings to remember localitj

150, 151
PoUstes Gallica, tamed by Sir Joh

Lubbock, 153 ; robber, 169
Pollock, F., on perfection of weH

built by young spiders, 217
Pollock, W., on association of ideai

in parrot, 269
Polydectes cujmlifer, 233
Pope, on instinct and reason, 15
Porpoise, intelligence of, 327, 328
Portraits, recognised by birds, 311

by dogs, 453-7
Pouchet, on improvement in nidifi

tion of swallows, 300, 301
Powelsen, on navigating habits

Iceland mice, 364
Prairie dog, 366
Pride, of birds, 279 ; of horse, .3.-

of ruminants, 334 ; of dog, 43!

form

Rae, D

horse,

wolve

<log,

Rae, on

Ransom

Rarey, h

328, 3

[Rats, 36

iRattlesn

263
[Ravens,
them
iRazor-fis
[Reason,
g"ishe(
hibitio]
see und
intellig
' lumur.
128;
carpent
with
carrion
ments c
237; on
240

INDEX.

515

•BI

for a particular
82 ; intelligence in
iS, 317 ; in making
ats from nose-bag

PR!

)f male for female,

Prinia, 293

Protozoa, movements of, 18 ; appa-
rent intelligence of, 19-21

Trovident instincts, of ants, 97-110;
of bees, lf50-162 ; of a bird, 285 ;
of rodents, 353, 354, and 365, 366 ;
of beaver, 368-70

Puffins, nidification of, 291, 292

Pugnacity, of ants, 45 ; of bees, 165-
70; of spiders, 204-5; of fish,
242 ; of seal, 341-6 ; of rabbits,
355; of rat-hare, 365, 366; of
canine animals, 426

Python, tame, affection of, &c., 256
and 260-2
J7, 89; of fish, 242; of r

)f porpoise, 327, 3'28 ;|

ofmonkeys, 476,477B/\UARTERLY REVIEW, on in-
burying their dead.B ^ telligence of rats, 360, 361
affection of snakes, J Qoatrefages, on termites, 198

Blligence of elepbiujt

ling habits of, 342,
of, in birds, 283, |

mory of elephant, 387

293
Wing ; nidification of.|

itelligenceof elephant^

nllata, 332

ms instinct of, 347
nfex, taking precisfl
remember localityj

pea, tamed by Sir Job

53 ; robber, 169

,n perfection of web

ung spiders, 217
dissociation of ideaj

J69

ml'ifer,2d3
Knct and reason 15
felligence of, 327, if^
fognised by birds, 311

>3-7

aprovement in nidifi'

iUows, 300,301
navigating habits

ice, 364

Ids, 279 ; of horse, 3.^
tts, 334 ; of dog, 4.^

RABBIT, 354-7
Rabigot, on fondness of spiders
for music, 206
Rae, Dr. John, on intelligence of
horse, 331 ; of wolverine, 348 ; of
wolves and foxes, 429, 430; of
dog, 466, 466
Rae, on dog ringing bell, 423
Ransom, Dr., on sticklebacks, 245
Rarey, his method of taming horses,

328, 329
Rats, 360-3
Rattlesnake, alleged fascination by,

263
Ravens, breaking shells by dropping

them on stones, 283
Razor-fish, intelligence of, 25
[Reason, definition of, and distin-
guished from instinct, 13-17 ; ex-
hibitions of, by various animals,
see under sections headed ' general
intelligence '
umur, on intelligence of ants,
128 ; sympathy of bees, 156 ;
carpenter-bee, 179 ; encasing snail
with propolis, 190; conveying
carrion out of hive, 191 ; experi-
ments on instincts of caterpillars,
237; on larrae chasing aphides,
240

ROO

Reclain, Professor C, on spider de-
scending to violin-player, 205,
206
Recognition of persons, by bees,
188 ; by snakes and tortoises,
269-61 : of places, by mollu^ca,
27-9 ; by ants, 33 et seq, ; by bees,
144 ct seq. : of offspring, by ear-
wig, 229: of portraits, see Birds
and Dogs : of other members of a
hive by ants and bees, see Ants
and Bees
Reeks, H., om collective instinct of

wolves, 436
Reflex action, 2-4

Reid, Dr., on mathematical princi-
ples observed by bees in con-
structing their cells, 171
Rengger, on maternal care and grief
of a cebus, 472 ; monkeys dis-
playing intelligent observation,
479 ; using levers, 4&1
Reproach, shown by gestures of

monkeys 475-478
Reptiles, 255-265; emotions of, 255,
256, and 26{X-2; incubating eggs,
sexual and parental affection of,
256 ; general intelligence of, 256-
263 ; fascination by, 263, 264 ;
charming of, 264, 265
Reyne, his observations on snake-
charming, 264, 265
RMzopoda, apparent intelligence of,

19-21
Richards, Captain, on pilot-fish,

252
Richardson, Mrs. A.S.H.,on elephant
concealing theft, 410; on dog
finding its way home by train,
468, 469
Ridicule, dislike of, by dogs and

monkeys, see Ludicrous
Risso, M., on habits of jnpe-fish,

246
Robertson, Professor G. Croom, on
behaviour of an ape with a mirror,
478, 479
Robin, intelligence of, 314
Rodents, 353
Rodwell, on intelligence of rats»

360-2
Rogue-elephants, see Elephant

I. L 2

510

INDEX.

ROM

Bomanes, Miss C, on flog recognis-
ing portrait, 465, 156 ; on intelli-
gence of cebus, 484-96

Romanes, G. J., on movements of
rotifer, 18, 19; of medusae, 22;
of eohinodermata, 23 ; emotions of
stickleback, 246, 247 ; piracy of
terns and gulls, 283-4; mode
of challenge practised by gulls,
291 ; birds deceived by mirrors,
311; grouse learning to avoid
telegraph wires, 313 ; intelligence
of horse, 330; intelligence of
ferrets, 347 ; instincts of rabbits,
354 ; intelligence of rabbits, 354,
355 ; rabbits fighting rats, 366 ;
drawing dead companions oat of
holes, 366, 357 ; intelligence of
hare, 357 ; hares and rabbits allow-
ing themselves to be caught by
weasels, 359 ; rats using their tails
for feeding purposes, 363 ; cat
opening thumb-latch, 420, 421 ;
collective instinct of jackals,
434, 436 ; of dogs, 435 ; duration
of memory in dog, 438 ; pride and
sensitiveness in dog, 439, 440;
intolerance of dog towards pain,
441 ; emulation and jealousy in
dog, 442 ; deceitf ulness and dis-
like of ridicule in dog, 444 ; sense
of ludicrous in dog, 444, 445;
dogs commuiucating ideas, 445,
446 ; dogs slipping into their
collars to conceal their sheep-
killing, &c., 435 and 450, 451 ;
dog recognising portrait, 456, 457 ;
reasoning of dog, 467, 458 : caution
of a dog in killing snakes, 460 ;
sympathy of an Arabian baboon,
474 ; sense of ludicrous and dislike
of ridicule in monkey, 476 ; in-
telligence of Cebits fatuellus, iBi-
98

Rooks, sympathy of, for wounded
companions, 273, 274 ; concerted
action of, in obtaining food from
dogs, 319, 320; from pheasants,
321 ; nesting habits and punish-
ment of culprits, 322-6

Rotifer a, movements of, 18

Buminants, 334

Russell, Lord Arthur, witnessinir
tameness of snakes, 261

CA OARTTA paratitioa, 234

*^ Salmon, migration of, 249, 250

Saltiov* soeniciiit, 213

Sandpipers, niditication of, 292

Sarsia, seeking light, 23

Saunders, S. S., on trap-door spi-
ders, 216

Savage, on play of chimpanzees,
476, 477

Schiller, on pride of bell-wether
steers, 334

Schipp, Lieut., on combined action
of baboons, 483

Schlosser, on jaculator-fish, 248

Schluter, Herr A., on a hornet carry-
ing heavy prey up an elevation in
order to fly away with it, 196

Schneider, on intelligence of octopvs, \
29, 30; on fish guarding eggs,
242 ; jealousy of fish, 247

Sclater, Dr., on instincts of cuckoo, j
326 ; lending a cebus for observa-
tion, 483

Scoresby, on maternal affection I
of whale, 327 ; on intelligence of |
polar bear, 351

Scorpion, alleged suicide of, when I
surrounded by fire or heat, 222- j
26

Sea-anemones, 233, 234

Seals, intelligence of, and breeding-
habits of pinnipeds, 341-6

Seebohm, on instincts of cuckooj
326

Sejnnopithecm entellvs, destroying!
poison fangs of snakes, 483

Sensation, 8

Severn, H. A., on nidification ot
baya-bird, 294

Severn, W., on snakes, 260, 261

Sheep, pride of leaders,. 334

Shelley, lines on curiosity of fishJ
247

Shipp, Capt., on vindictiveness o^
elephant, 387, 388 ; on intelligence
of elephant, 397, 398

Siebold, on robber- wasps, 169

Sieur, Roman, his trained birds, 315

INDEX.

517

irthiir, witnessinjf
akcs, 261

traritiea, 234
rration of, 249, 250

213
tication of, 292
ight,23
, on trap-door spi-

ij of chimpanzees,

ide of bell-wether

on combined action

culator-fish, 248
^., on a hornet carry-
sy up an elevation in
way with it, 196
itelligence of octopus,
fish guarding eggs,
y of fish, 24-7
I instincts of cuckoo,
; a cebus for observa-

maternal affection
r; on intelligence of

;ed suicide of, when|
' »y fire or heat, 222-

,233,234

Ince of, and breedmg-
Vnipeds, 341-6
[instincts of cuckoo,

enteUvs, destroying
, of snakes, 483

L on nidification o'

, snakes, 260, 261

c leaders,.334

on curiosity of fish,

Ion vindictiveness ol
y, 388; on intelligent

397, 398
kber- wasps, 169
[his trained birds, 3i:

BIG

Signs, made by ants, 49 et s^q. ; by
bees, 167 <?* srq. ; by termites, 200 ;
by birds, 316, 316 ; by elephants,
391 and 401; by cat, 416; by
dog, 446-7 ; by monkey, 472, 475,
476

SiitiiadfP, tee Monkeys

Simonins, on fondness of spiders for
music, 206

Sinclair, W., on intelligence of horse,
33

Skate, supposed intelligence of, 251

Skinner, Major, on intelligent vigi-
lance of elephants, 400, 401 ; on
training of cobra, 266

Slingsby, his experiment in train-
ing a house-fly, 230, 231

Smeathman, on termites, 198-203

Smeaton, Th. D., on dog making
peace-offerings, 462

Smiles, Dr. S., on observation of
Stephenson, 247; on observations
of Edward, 266, 276, 283, 321

Smith, A. P., on intelligence of a
cat. 414

, Smith, Colonel, on pilot-fish, 262

I Smith, Colonel Hamilton, on intelli-
gence of cattle-dogs, 449

I Smith, Sir Andrew, on revenge of a
baboon, 478

I Snails, intelligence of, 26-28

I Snakes, incubating eggs, sexual and
parental affection of, 256 ; tamed,
266, 260-3, 286; finding way
home, 262; intelligence of, 262-
3; fascination by, 263-4 ; charm-
ing of, 264-6

I Social feelings, see Sympathy and
Affection ; habits common to Hy-
menoptera and termites, 202

[Sow, pointing game, 339, 340

ISparman, on termites, 1 98

ISpencer, Herbert, on migration of
salmon, 249 ; on play as allied to
artistic feeling, 279

iSphex, see under Wasp

jSpiders, emotions of, 204-7 ; court-
ship, 204, 205; strength of
maternal instinct, 206; fondness
of music, 205-7 ; web-building,
207-12; geometric, 209; water,
212; wolf or vagrant, 313; trap-

SYK

door, 213-18; admit of being
tamed and distinguish persons,
218-19; protecting eggs from
cold, 219; protecting themselves
from ecitons, 219; conveying prey
to larder, 220; suspending weights
to steady web, 220-2; wide
geographical range of trap-door
spiders, 216

Stag, intelligence of, 336

Starlings, nidification of, 293 ; learn-
ing to avoid telegraph-wires, 312-
13

Stephenson, on curiosity of fish, 247

Stevens, J. G., on intelligence of a
cat, 417-18

Sticklebacks, 243-6, 246-7

Stickney, on bees remembering in
successive years the position of a
disused hive, 164

Stodmann, on wasps recognising
persons, 188

Stone, on reasoning power of a dog,
460

Stork, vindictiveness of, 277-8

Strachan, on elephants dying under
emotional disturbance, 396-6

Strange, F., on habits of bower-
bird, 281

Strauss, en co-operation of beetles

Street, J., on blackbirds removing
their young, 289

Strickland, on intelligence of a
mare, 332

Swainson, on vindictiveness of ele-
phant, 389

Swallows, memory of, 266 ; improve-
ment in their nidification and
adopting new modes of, 300 ;
migration, 301 ; making tunnels,
318 ; killing imprisoned hostile
sparrows, 318-19

Swan, conjugal fidelity of, 271 ;
mode of escaping with young,
290; nidification, 496-8

Swine, 339-41

Sword-fish, 262-3

Sykes, Colonel, on harvesting ants, 97;
on tree ants, 110-11 ; intelligence
of ants in getting at food in diffi-
cult situations, 134, 136; on nidi-
fication of tailor-bird* 293

518

INDEX.

8YL

Sfflria, 293

83rmpath3% of atits, 46-9; of bees,
155-6; of fish, 242; of birds,
270-6; of horae, 831-2; of ru-
minants, 384 ; of elephants, 887-
82, and 397, 398 ; of cat, 416 ; of
monkeys, 471-5

TAIT, LAWS ON, on cat signing to
have bell pnlled, 423

Talegallnf, nidification of, 294

Taylor, the Rev. Mr., cunning of his
dog, 451

Tegetmeier, on amount of sugar re-
quired by bees to make honey,
176

Telescope-fish, 246

Tennent, 8ir E., on apparent intel-
ligence of land-leeches, 24 ; in-
telligence of tree-ants, 134; my-
gale eating humming birds, 208 ;
climbing-perch, 249 ; sexual affec-
tion of cobra, 246 : snake-charm-
ing, 264, 265; taming of cobra,
266 ; nidification of baya-bird,
294 ; combined action of crows,
319, 320 ; of buffaloes, 335 ; use
of tame buffalo, 335 ; on emotions
and intelligence of elephant, 389,
390, 393-6, 400-8; collective in-
stinct Qf jackals, 432, 433

Tepper, Mr. Otto, on intelligence of
a cat, 424

Termites, 198-203 ; architecture,
198, 199, and 201, 202 ; workers
and soldiers, 200, 201 ; swarming,
breeding, &c., 202 ; remarkable
similarity of instincts to those of
Hymenoptera, 202 ; instincts de-
trimental to individual but bene-
ficial to species, 202, 203

Terns, sympathy of, for wounded
companions, 274, 275 ; robber,
284 ; mobbing robber-terns, 291

TJteda isocrates, 238

Theuerkauf , Herr G., on intelligence
of arts in making a bridge of
aphides over tar, 136

Thompson, E. P., on bees remem-
bering exact position of absent
hive, 149; on garden-spider's

Vlt

mode of web-building, 210, 211 ;
ant-lion, 234, 236; emotions of
guana, 255, 256; fascination by
snakes, 264 ; nidification of soci-
able grosbeak, 295, 296; birds
dreaming, 312; maternal affec-
tion of whale, 327; bisons de-
fending themselves from wolves,
334, 335; pigs defending them-
selves from wolves, 339 ; cleanli-
ness of pig, 340, 341 ; intelligence
of weasel, 346 ; of mouse, 361 ;
harvesting-mice, 365, 366

Thomson, Dr. Allen, on scorpions
committing suicide, 223-5

Thornton, Colonel, his sow trained
to point game, 340

Thresher-fish, 252, 253

Thrushes, breaking shells against
stones, 283

Timea, 237

Toads, 254, 255

Tomtit, nidification of, 293

Topham, Dr. J., on spiders weight-
ing their webs, 222

Topham, Mr. J., on bees remember-
ing exact position of absent hive,
149

Tortoises, knowing persons, 259

Townsend, the Rev. W., on elephant
concealing theft, 410 ; on dog
finding its way about by train, I
468-9

Truro, Lord, on intelligence of a dog, j
450

Turner, George, on bees remembering j
exact position of absent hive, 149

Turnstones, intelligence of, 321

Turtles, 257, 258, and 262

VAILLANT, Le, on fascination by |
tree-snake, 263, 264

Valiant, L., on nidification of soci-
able grosbeak, 296

Venn, on association of ideas in]
parrot, 267, 268

Vigot, Dr., on snake finding wayj
home, 262

Villicrs, De, on instincts of larvae of j
bombyx moth, 240

INDEX.

519

aiding, 210, 211;
135; emotions or
5; fascination by
iification of soci-

295, 296; birds
• maternal aifec-
' 327; bisons de-
jlves from wolves,

defending thom-
Ives, 339 ; cleanli-
), 341 ; intelligence
J; of monse, 361;
56, 365, 366 ,
.Hen, on scorpions
icide, 223-5
el, his sow tramert
,340

12,253 . ^

king shells agamst

VIN

Vindictlveness, of birds, 277, 278,
and 318-26; of horse, 380, 331;
of elephant, 387-9 ; of monkeys,
478, and 484-96

Virchow, on difficulty of distinguish-
ing between instinct and reason,
12

Vogt, Karl, on duration of memory
in ants, 41 ; bridge-making, 136

Vultures, finding carrion by si^ht
and not by smell, 286, 287 ; intel-
ligence, 314

WAFER, on monkeys hammering
oyster-shells witli stones, 481

Wakefield, P., on intelligence of
goats, 337, 338

Wallace, A. R., on philosophy of
birds*. nests, 298-300

Warden, on frogs going straight to
nearest water, 254

Wasp-mason, 180 ; butcher, 180, 181 ;
sphex, 181; hunting, 193, 194;
common, tamed by Sir John Lub-
bock, 153

Wasps, sense of direction in, 147 ;
teaching themselves, 154 ; killing
larvae, 167, 168 ; making cells,
180; instincts of neuters, 181 ;
recognising persons, 188 ; coming
out of small apertuie backwards,
192, 193 ; struggles with ants for
secretion of frog-hoppers, 194,
195 ; dismembering heavy prey
for convenience of carriage, and
mounting eminences for same pur-
pose, 195, 197
Wasser, on nidification of puffins,

291
|\\raterhouse, on hexagonal form of

bee's cell, 173
|rater-rail, its mode of escape, 289
aterton, on nidification of swan,

'-""'. .• -,295,296

nidification of soci- fcj^tgQ^^ on spiders weighting their

, 296 . . I webs, 221 ; cock killing hen on

iation of ideas ma jjgj. i^atching out eggs of other
68 I birds, 278 ; mtelliiiouuu ui mUi,

snake finding way ■ 3gQ.g2; vindictlveness of elephant,
,■389; elephant enduring surgical

instincts of larvjeot I ope^j^^iyjj^ ggg. intelligence of

X, 240

tionof,293 ,
, on spiders weight-

)3, 222

, on bees remember-

ition of absent hive,

ing persons, 259
;ev. W., on elephant
Iheft, 410; on dog
T&Y about by train,

lintelligenceof adog,|

on bees remembering
|n of absent hive, 149
[elligence of, 321
18, and 262

^e, on fascination by I
;, 263, 264

WIN

sheep-dogs, 448 ; of cattlc-dogs,
449

Weasel, 346, 347

Weaver, nidification of, 293

Web, see Spider

Web-building, see Spiders

Webb, Dr., performing operation on
elephant, 399

Weber, Professor E. H., on spiders
weighting their webs, 221

Wedgewood, the Rev. R. H., on
memory of horse, 330

Westlecombe, on reasoninjj power
of a dog, 462, 463

Westropp, on intelligence of bear,
352

Westwood, on instinct of cater-
pillars, 288

Weygandt, on robber- bees, 170

Whale, maternal affection of, 327 ;
attacks on, by sword- and thresher-
fish, 252, 253

Whately, Archbishop, on cat ringing
bell, 423

White ants, see Termites

White, the Rev. Gilbert, on nests of
harvesting-mice, 365 ; on nidili-
cation of house -martin, 292, 29:J

White, W., on intelligence of snails,
26

White, the Rev. W W. F., on sym-
pathy of ants, 49 ; keeping pets,
84 ; burying dead, 92, 93

White-headed eagle, see Eagle

Wildman, his alleged training of
bees, 189

Wilks, Dr. S., observations on talking
of parrot, 267, 268 ; on dog recog-
nising a portrait, 455

Williams, on intelligence of sheep-
dogs, 448

Williams, B., on cunning of sheep-
killing dogs, 450, 451

Wilson, on memory of crow, 206

Wilson, Dr. Andrew, en reasoning
power of a dog, 400

Wilson, Charles, on intelligence of
swallowa, Jiitt

Wilson. Dr. D.. on elephant enduring
surgical operation, 399

Winkell, Dietrich aus dem, on in-
telligence of fox, 428

^20

INDKX.

fit

WOL

Wolf, 426-36 ; avoiding gun-traps,
431 ; drawing up Hsh'lines to
take fiBh, 431 ; oollective iniitinot
in hunting, 433, 436

Wolverine, 347-60

Wood, Rev. G. J., on spiders weight-
ing their weba, 221

Woodcock, conveying young on
back, 289

Woodpecker, ant-eating, its instinct
of storing food, 285 ; nidification,
293

Words, understanding of, by bees,
189 ; by talking birds, 267-9

Worms, apparent intelligence of, 24

YUL

Wright, his portrait-painting recog-
nised by a dog, 464-5

YARRELL, on fish, 246; on in-
telligence of hare, 368-9
Youatt, on pigs learning to point

game, 340
Young, the Rev. Charles, on emotion8

and intelligence of elephant, 390-

92
Young, Miss E., on dog finding his

way about by train, 468
Yule, Captain, on elephants dying

under emotional disturbance, 395

TUE END. J- V '

>*-. '

5: ':i-.

LONDON « piinrniD bt

aPOITlSWOOUM AMD CO., HKW-STRBET 8QUABB
AUlt VAULlAHltST STUKKT

: ''\

rait-palnting recog-
;, 464-5

I fish, 246; on in-

)f hare, 868-9

I learning to point

Charles, on emotions
ce of elephant, 390-

, on dog finding hia
train, 468

on elephants dying
nal disturbance, 396

JABM