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Les cartea, planchea, tableaux, etc.. peuvent Atre filmte A das taux de reduction diff^rents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Atre reproduit en un aaul clich«, il est f llmA A partir da I'angia aupAriaur gauche, de gauche « droita, et de haut en baa, an prenant la nombre d'images nAcessaira. Les diagrammea suivanta llluatrant la mAthode. 32 X 1 2 3 4 5 6 BULLETIN 109. „„_ SEPTEMBER, 189a Ontario Agricullural College and Experimental Farm FARMYARD MAJEURE BY ^•- ••:■ HAV, Bs.A.. AcRut-.TiKis 1ST. PUBL.3HED BY THE OmRIO DLPAETLIENT OF AaRIOULTUEE. TOEONTO. .^ TORONTO : 1898. THE ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AMD . EXPERIMENTAL FARM. GUELPH, ONT. HON. JOHN DRYDBN, Toronto, Ont., Minister of Affrioulture for Ontario. jAiin Mills, M A., LL.D President. A. E. Shcttliwobth, B.A. Sc Profeaaor of Chemiitry . Wm. LooBUUi), B.A., M. So Profeuor of NataralHiatory and Geology. J. H. RuD, V.S. ProfeMor of Veterinary Science . H. H. Dkav, B.S. a Profeawr of Dairy Husbandry. Wm. Rbnnii Farm Superintendent. O. A. Zavitz, B,S.A Experimentalist. G.E.D/T, B.S.A Agriculturist. H. L. Hcrr, B.S.A Horticulturist. F. 0. Harbison, B.S. A Bacteriologist. J. B. RBT^0LD8, B.A Assistant Resident Master. R. Harooobt, B.S.A AssisUnt Chemist. W. M. DoHiBTT, B.S.A., M.A AssisUnt in Natural History. L. G. Jabvis Manager and Lecturer in Poultry Department . R. F. HoLTiBUANN Lecturer in Apiculture . Oaftain Waltib Glabkb Instructor in Drill and Gymnastics. W. O. Stbwart, M.D Physician. G. A. PoTNAH Stenographer. A. MoGallch Bursar. ADVISORY BOARD. To mi ohemioal a gen, phoB( hydrogen, named are produced. will make of the el( from the ai the soil wb soil, those greatest da and calcian stances, but in speaking instead of is oustomai of phospho usual to spi of *' calciur calcium fou which requj many soils, found in coi the soil aloi which are i Practically, with nitrogf John L HOBSON, CAatrman Guelph, County of Wellington. John McMillan, M.P Seaforth, County of Huron. Bdwabd Jbffs Bond Head, County of Simeoe. O. B. BoTCK Norham, County of Northumberland. D. A.D0WLIN0 Appleeon, County of Carleton. Wm. Donaldson South Zorra, County of Oxford. O. 0. Jambs, Secretary Deputy Minister of Agriculture, Toronto. Farmyi consequently called, there elements of manure sup[ and soils in in phosphori in phosphori will also be i to the exam] consequently \ BULLETIN 109. FARMYARD MANURE. Bv(;. E. Day, U.S.A.. .\«;Ki(imH 1ST. I. CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS. To make a auccewful growth, plants require a number of gubatances The gen, phoephorug. potaagmm, calcium, iron, magnesium, gulphur, carC oxvLen hydrogen, and a ew other gubgtances of less importance. All thr'efemSnS named are e«ential to the growth of plants, and without them no plant can^ produced If only one of them is absent, the plant either will not gSw at aU oJ oi Z :^ '"'. *\."r^'''*l*°''y 8^°''*»'' depending upon he iljirtanc of the element which is absent. Some of these elements are dS from the air and «,me from the soil ; but it is only those which ari derived from sofl "t°l! whiT "''*''' *f ' ^"r''' ^°"''-°^- ^^'^'^ '«'»«'»*- derived fromX soil, those which are used in largest quantity and which are consequently in greatest danger of becoming exhausted, are nitrogen. phosphorSsrpotwiium and calcium. These element,, however, do not exist in the sdl as «eprratT»r stances but are found combined with other elements to form comZnds S SXd KIT*."'?'™' ' >- r'°«"»'y to »»e the name of tKmioS instead of the single element. Thus, instead of speaking of " phosphors »k IS customary to say "phosphoric acid" or '' phosphates." which arnomZndg of phosphorus and other elements; also, instead of saying " potaLkm^it t usual to speak of "potash." a compound of potassium and oxygC; anTinsfead of "calcmm " he term me is used, since lime is the commonest Compound of calcium found in he soil. Therefore the constituents of plant fo^dTthe soU which require most attention are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash.^nd Hme In many soils, however, there is abundance of lime, and, besides, lim^TfrnTuently found m combmaticn with the other important substances and is thus a^Sed to the soil along with them. The same may be said of iron, magnesium, rnZlpti!^ which are the remaining elements derived directly from the ^oi* bVXn s' Practically, therefore the farmer may confine his attention to supplyinJ the soil with nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, unless in rather excepSaUases. II. FARMYARD MANURE. Farmyard manure is derived, either directly or indirectly, from plants and consequently contains all the elements necessary for plant growth, irmay S called, therefore, a general manure, that is to say. it suDolies allthp Lo^ element, of plant food. It does 'not follow, ho'weverXrb:^^^^^^ manure supplies all the elements of plant food, that it sipplieg-therro all crooB and soils in exactly the right proportion. For example, a Certain soil is de&Zl in phosphoric acid and potash, but is rich in nitrocen Now if th« ri«« • in phosphoric acid and potash is made up hy .^^^i^: f.. °I'.. --^/^'^^'f ^ wiU also be added to the'soil a considerable "Ltunt of ^SranrL'o'nSf^ to the exa-nple quoted, there is already sufficient nitrogln n XioU 1 1^^^^^^ consequently the additional nitrogen is added at a loss. Argumen?s7f hb ill •ii fi!Lu1 '"^que^^tly employed .gainst fart yard manure ai compared with food, It being Ola med that the use of special fertilizers admits of applying only Jf.^r T^ "*, ''^'?^- ''•^ 'f '■ ^'^°'«°* •»«* *»"»™'o~ constitute. % "«o»> more Concentrated, vi ' '* ^ olatnafd that farmyard manure is comparatively slow in its action because a great deal of the plant food which it contains is in such form, that plants cannot make use of it until the manure has fermented and decayed ; whereas the plant food m many special fertilizers is in forms which plants can readily make use of. and consequently such manures give quick returns. These obj wjtions to farmyard manu re are perfectly valid, and no doubt special fertilizer, have an important place to fill under some systems of farming Vbut there are several things m connection with farmyard manure which must not be overlooked, and, m order to emphasise them, they will be dealt with separately. 1. Farmyard manure is a by-product. In many, if not in most cases, the profit from the animals fed leaves very little to be charged against the manure. As a result the farmer can afford to spend some extra labor upon it and to out up with Its slower action. He may also afford to apply more of cerUin constitu- ents than the crop requires ; in fact, excessive application of plant food is liable to happen with any fertilizer, since no one>is able to estimate exactly to what extent a soil is defacient ma given element of plant food. Further, in no cam do plants take from the soil all the plant food applied in the ferlilizer, frequently not more than half, so that in the case of expensive fertilizers the loss is a seriooa one, 2. Farmyard manure, as already stated, is slow in its action, the plant food which It contains being gradually made available for plants. But, thouch only a small portion of its plant food becomes available each year, the greater part of the unused plant food is not lost under judicious management, but is held in the soil for the use of succeeding crops. In the case of quick acting fertilizer^ nearly all of their influence is confined to the year in which they are applied • and, though some have a more lasting influence than others, their effect uDon succeeding crops is not nearly so marked as that of farmyard manura The rea- wn for this difference in effects upon succeeding crops is comparatively simple. Before plants can take up their food from the soil, it must be in such forms as will diBsolre in the soil moisture or in the juices of the plant roots. When plant food IS in such a condition it is said to be soluble, and it must be soluble before It can be available to the plant, so that the term available plant food mean, soluble plant food. Now. only a small portion of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, etc., in farmyard manure is in a soluble condition, and before the remain- der of it can become soluble, the manure must undergo fermentation and decay In the process of decay the vegetable compounds of the manure are broken up. and the elements of plant food which they contain form simpler compoundi which are soluble, and hence available to plants. It takes many years for the whole of the vegetable matter in an ordinary dressing of farmyani manure to decay, and since only soluble plant food can be washed out of the soU by rains. It follows that only a small portion of the plant food will be lost in this way. and that there will be a residue left over from year to year for a considerable length of time. On the other hand, special fertilizers which cjntain a large proportion o. soiuble plant loed and are therefore quick in their action upon plant erowkh aw in danger of having any residue that may be left by the first crop washed out of the soil during the succeeding winter and spring, owing to the aolable nature of g«nou. fe phoric ac nitrogen, after whi( The) Rothamst wa. growi manure., i poM to no years, and fourteen U sown with partm Or years more twenty yea two period yield of gn to 1871) w manured pi second twe unmanored no manure per acre ; i the averagi influence of years, prodi the plot wl influence en five years, 1 manured pl< received fan age yield di Therefore, a marked advi tell how mu( yard manure application o the example manure, whii 3. Farn This action ii as was previt makes clay s favorable for have been br with humus ; difficult to m when the lam of oultivacioi] mannre, there care and attei phorio .old doe. not Ie«,roat of 27^1 ZZ '^'''''^^''S crop.. Pho.. •fter which it i. bat .lowly ml a^i:^, *tr puHt. "°'"'^""'*' *" **"« «'"' Roth.'^J.^^/pelteri^^^^^^^^^^^ brought out in the WM grown for . gmit many yiL„ in .u1Jei.lT?K '^"'°'°.! "•""°°' *^*«7 manure., andalw without aVmM„^Twn?bL.fffl?°'»%'°''u '''*'• ^•"«'«»' po«J to notice two of theM plot. P?ot Iwll ♦• *"*? °' '°' *•»« P'«"«°' PU' year., and produced . crop of barley evelvZ. 55"?'!?'^ "r*°°'«d '«>' 'o>ty fourteen ton. of f.myard manuro Lr S iV^„ ^^°V ''**'"*^ *' **>« «••»« o' wwn with barley each year At S-'^n/onif-^ ^T f°' '''^^^^y ^e*" "nd wa. part.. One part received ^armylSi^tu*" T"^' P'°' ' ''•« d'^**"* '"*° '^^ year. more. wWle the other parf ^eTvXn In "T ~**. '^ ^"'^"^ '«>' '^^^^y twenty year., and barley was'^Bowr^virrlLr oSh i°^ ^t^ '*"""« *»»« ""^^ two period, of twenty year, each a^d the i!i„u. ^"* ^' ^'"* "". therefore, yield of ^„ on the^^ntiruo^r; ^nm.^^^ JtZti^ S"^; '^**« '"""«• to 1871) wa. twenty buahel. ner acr« Ti.« a„ • ,??* twenty years (1862 manured plot during the ^1'^',^";,, t> Z'Xr't 'f"" '^"^ continuou.ly fiecond twenty year. n87 ™to iJon !? " ^^^ ''°^«'« P«' *cre. For the unmanured plot^^ 13i b^uehel. Lr^l" ^''y ^'^^^^'o^^^^ continuous^ no manure Suring the Lond tweVlTai, !«' P»'* <>' P'o^ 2 which received per acre; while on the part of pTot 2 whinh wl ?"«' ^'^'"^ ''•■ 30} bushel, the average yield was'49 hn&'^rlcJ^'S'lZ^'Z^^^ influence of the first twenty vMr. Af «.„ •' ^ !' '"" ^ "een that the years, producing an avemge^crCf LTZI^ "'*°^'' °"f **>« ^«"°d twentj the plot which*received n*rZure di^na t^^^^^^^ influence end there, for the e^perentwsSSn^^^^^^^^ ^°^ '*'*' *»>« five years. 1892 to 1896 inclusivrtbervTr^vTJH?*'"^*"** **"""« '''^^^^^ manured plot wa. lU bushels d J anrMk^ 7«eld from the continuously un- received flrmyard maiure&Ss^to 1871^^^^^^^^ on the part of plot 1 which had age yield during the same five y^frl HSDo ;„ ,'^^^^^^^^ *»» ver- Therefore, af(er twenty-five rearwit^iouf,iJ„?^^ w 'o'*^ *'"^''«'" P«' -^^'^' marked advantage over the cSuosrLranu^^^^^^^^ '"5"°"'" '° '^'^ » tell how much longer the influence of hat ^enty 1«^V °° °°' ''^ '°'«- yard manure will be traceable. To be .ure if ?he I^Aa ""?""« ''i^^ '»rm. application of farmyard manure th« r«a„lf!' ,! '*°^,*>»<^ received but a single the example just given ^T"eVtt^^rllTaTe\?lir T ? ?'.'•"«' '"' manure, which is one of its remarkable "Xl^^^^^ ^«'^':^i'::Li's;7.^^^^ -tt.) of the .on. a. wa. previously explained%lw iipro3the^w^^^^^^ ""PP'^'"* P^***' '^ make, clay soil, more open in tex3 I!nl ^»*e'-hoiding power of soils, and favorable for the development of pknt rrtr^KT''^' '^"^ -''°8«^»»" "<>'« have been brought to a Lh state Sf nrrJwt *'l* ''^'^ ^^^'^ ^'•'^»» «»°°^ i ii i iJS ) J" 6 4. Aa the vegetable matter (humus) furniibed by farmyard maoure decayi in the ■oil, subitancei are formed which hav(> conaiJerable intlannce npon the inaolable compoundH of plant fond contuinod by the noil, tendinfi to make them Hotuble and tit fot plant food. HumuH makes clayey soils more open in textare, thus admitting air more freely ; and air also haf> an inHuence in making insoluble plant food available befiides being, in itself, abeolutely essential to the growth of plant roots. 5. It is believoJ by some very good authorities that farmyard manure also adds to the soil certain organisms (bacteria) which exert a very benetioial influ- ence in making plant food available. helpful i I^eal, an III. SOLID AND LIQUID EXCREMENTS. Farmyard manure is composed of the solid and liquid excrements of animals, •nd usually contains in addition some substance which has been used for bedd- ing, such as straw, sawdust, etc. When food enters an animal's stomach, a por- tion of it is digested and its constituents used to form bone, muscle, blood, fat, milk, bom, wool, hair, or other part or product of the animal body. In addition, a part of the digested portion of the food is used to renew those tissues of the animal body which are constantly wearing out, for the wearing oat process is very rapid and necessitates a regular supply of food to furnish building fnaterial for new structures in place of the old. Therefore, in the animal body there are two classes of waste material which mast be got rid of, namely, the undigested portion of the food, and the waste or refuse material from the worn oat struc- tures. The undigested food is excreted in the form of solid excrement, though the solid excrement also contains other waste products in addition. The waste matter from worn out structures is excreted in various ways, but most oi those substances which are of value to the farmer are removed in the liquid excrement or urine. Composition of liquid and aolid excrement$. Any figures relating to the composition of animal excrements can be only approximate, because so many influences affect the composition of excrements that it is impossible to give exact percentages. Since the solid excrement contains the undigested portion of the food, it follows that it will contain all the undigested nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and other constituents of the food. The liquid excrement, on the other hand, contains a large part of the worn uut material of the animal body ; and the main fertilizing constituents which it contains are nitrogen and potash with occasionally a little phosphoric acid. Now, the animal body is built up from the digested portion of the animal's food ; and, sinc^ the nitrogen and potash in the liquid excrement once formed a part of the animal body, it follows that the nitrogen and potash in the liquid excrement originally came from the digested portion of the food. Thus, the solid excrement contains (along with some other substances) the undigested portion of the food, while the liquid excrement con- tains part of the digested portion of the food. From these facts it will be seen that the more indigestible the food, the greater will be the proportion of its con- stituents which appear in the sc lid excrement ; and the more digestible the food the greater will be the proportion of its constituents which appear in the liquid excrement. There is, therefore, no definite or fixed relation between the com- position of the liquid and solid excrements of any class of animals ; but while that is the case, the study of the results of a large number of analyses wilt be ' f«i ({> Ho She 8hc Swi Swi Thou indicate tl is richer ii by far the Hqaid exci Tliet stitutents < respective! of the Rot regarding t tant fertilii Quant Fatte Fattei F»ttei Milkii It will 1 the table, bu prodaoing mi approximatic of the nitrog helpful in forminf^ lome irnnprftl conclnaJnna Ti.- #^ii • Heal. .„d repreH^nt av.rage.of InTeri^n InaJJi "°"'"« '^"'"" "" ^'^^'^ ''^ Pmcrntaor O0MPO8.TIOH or Bouu an,. Ligirm Excremkmt.. N»tn«. C«ttl».' excivment, Molid. Cattle eiorement, linuid HiJrte excrement, ■olid , Hone excrement, liquid. Sheep excrement, lolid. . Hheep excrement, licjnid. Swine excrement, lolid . . Swine excrement, liquid Nitrofren. Per cent. .39 .5M .44 ISA .r)B 1.1(6 .00 .43 I'xtMb. I'er cent. .10 .49 .86 1.00 .in 2.ae .13 .88 Pliimiihoric acid. Per cent. .17 .17 St .01 .41 .07 indic2te^°^attt^f^^^^^^^^^ approximate, still they in richer in nhrofteTlLlouS^th^nXl **»?.. *""»»»■ mentioned, except gwine. by f.r the mo.t fxpenl^ o" fe^U^^^^^^^ conitftTnT I' r'f^ •*°- ^**~««'^ *« hquid excrement i/worth .uch rl^rtLr:^^^::^^^'^:^:^^^' " *^^ °' -titateSJa^f thelrdTr^trdi^h"^"^ °' *»>« f«''"'"»g con- re-pectivJlJ Anib^rZh^Jl •mmal- m their aolid and liquid excrement. of the RotLmsted ExD^rilnf^J ; ^T°' '"^^'^g^tion, Uwe« and Gilbert, regardi^the nit^gen^^of Z^^^^^^^^^ 'T '' '^'. '^"°'^'°« concla.ion. tant ferUlidng conftitutent : ' '°*^ ^' ''»*"*«'* *" *^« •"°-' >'°P0''- QUANTITIEB 0, NlTROORN VoiD.D BV Ak.MALS IN SOLID AND L.(JU,D iLXCRBMBNTS. Out of 100 lbs., nitrogen in the food there kre : Voided in lolid excrement. Fattening oxen .... 1 on Fattening aheep .■.';.". ' itV^' Fattening pigs \°-* Milking cows Voided in liquid excrement. 22 18 7S.51ba. 79 •• 68.8 " 57.4 " pr«l.d„i milk Sn^r ."'^''f.j!'' *°'.""'. f '■"»««°« it. weight „ in .ppr..im.tion.; b.vthv uiuiir;;;' rerrfo^iw;'iZ'tT*.r' *" "^P'^ ii !l It hM therefore been demonitrated that the Hqaid excrement of animals contain* the greater part of the nitrogen and a large proportion of the potash coniaved by the auiraal in its food ; and that iiqaid excrement (except that of awine) is worth more, pound per pound, than loli.! excrement IV. INFLUENCES WHICH AFFECT THE COMPOSITION OF MANURE. Perhaps no aubitanoe with which the farmer has to deal it aabject to such wide variation in oompoaition as is famtyard manare. These variations in com- position add to the difticulty of discussing the valuation applioa .ion, and other points in connection with the substance in question ; and, to assist in an intellig ent study of farmyard manure, it wdl be well, before proceeding further, to devote some time to the consideration of those things which sflect its value. Different kinds of Animalt. The manure from cattle and swine contains a high percentage of water, frequently over 80 per cent. So far aa virater content is concern-^d they are very similar, but the manure from swine is somewhat richer in nitrogen than cattle manure. Horse manure contains less water than that of cattle and swine ; fresh sheep manure contains rather more water than horse manure, but a higher percentage of fertilizing const itutents ; while poultry manare is aimilar to sheep manure in water content, and usually contains a higher percentage of nitrogeL than any of the others. Vae and Individuality of Animalt. A full grown animal which is receiving barely a maintenance ration, which is neither gaining nor losing in weight, and which is producing neither young, nor milk, nor wool, nor any other product, must, of necesiiity, return in its manure practically all the fertilizing constituents of the food it consumes. Fattening animals return in their excrements from 85 to DO per cent., and cows in full milk only from 66 to 75 per cent, of the fertil- izing elements of their food, the amounts varying with the rate and character of the gain or the quantity and quality of the milk. Young animals which are growing rapidly and prodncirg a large amount of bone and muscl't make relatively poor manure, the fertilizing value of their food being frequently reduced nearly 50 per cent, before it reaches the manure pile. Age is therefore an important factor in inHuenoing the character of the manure from fattening animals. Animals which are producing and rearing young, return poorer manure than those of like species and under like conditions which are not producing young. To some it may seem strange that fattening animala can gain rapidly in weight and yet return in their manure such a large proportion of the fertiliz- ing constitutents of their food ; but the main part of the increase in fattening animals is composed of fat, and pure fat contains no fertilizing constitutents. Kind of Food. It is easy to understand the influence of food upon manure. The excrements of an animal are derived from the food which it consumes, and hence the composition of the food determines the composition of the excrements. Foods rich in nitrogen and mineral matter produce manure rich in the same constitutents, and foods poor in fertilizing e! -ments produce manure of corres- pondingly poor quality. Thus, animals Ted on straw and turnips make a very low grade of manure, while those whose ration contains grain, bran, oil meal, etc., make manure of very much highei value per ton. Qttantity and Quaiity of Bedding. The most common giibatanoes used for bedding are straw, sawdust, and shavings. These substances are poorer in ferti- lizing com tends »•> ( oonsiderat ased, it is therefore, vent its * course the and shavii large quan the land t< There is n( snd dhavinj oiously, the some distri holds a lar; and it impr Treatm afTuots its keeping in 1 value of m decr«i«« the valan of the mam,^ u /Ji ^ '" '•Ije 'laantftle. oondder.tion. Bidding l"lrb.theTnlT "' "'''^ « •nothor importwit »i«l. It i. more th.n prouZ thlt JS n • .V'"!""?!'' •"** *' °° ^^^^fi " therefore, the «.• of .u\HXt b^dd na ^ Vh. K*!!'"*^ •"rement will W, lS,t ; vent it. w.Mte, »dd!ZTm,^uS!^,l^'''^ '*"; rP*''**""''J"»'* •"^ P^ •nd Hh.vin«. are ^garS'^unLCblt L "' ''""^'" •l-orbent. 8awdu.t large c.uantity on li/ht I^d^K«. ^ ^ '/""" '•""•"■• ^^en applied in th/Jd too Vn ':^nd^ i:^:M7n:rj:wd;".tt^^ il^rrirarl'^dr^ cIou.lj. the^reUlitUe dang^J of in?urbi;l' 1 "^ "\f ''"P"'^ '° *''« '•"«« J-"'- and it impLe. ^J^r^l:^ :1^ ^^^'^ keeping in badly con.IraXd yards et Th' '":'"'!'*H^^r' ''•''•*"« ^^^ "'o. value of manare As thU nart of ^hl ..'.r ^•''« ^*>"' '""""nee in reducing the place, no more need l^^Kde^r' thU heSg" '"'' "'' "^^ '""^ '^ ^"^ »>- V. OARE OF FARMYARD MANURE. .ure foHurtT; JraVmlt'fllr ^^^'\' '' " '-« "«»' -- '<>« '- the mo.t serious loBsea n?ayTprLe„SS vvl '. '\""°« 'J'"'« forethought manure is suHlcient to iUuLatf s l^tanJe /or Tt hr,"*'*^ '*'^*'''j"« ''"^^''^ the greater part of the nitrogen and a larjJ n!«i *• !■ ^l*'" f'"'"'*** ""^ '•'at animal consume, in its f J^d* a,rar inT ^ ^r*'°° °^ ''^^ '^'*»*' "»>'«»> •«» >aving this important liS uTo h«v« Tif «*"'^'°«'»'- The tirst step in resi.ect. a cement li^r e«els a others Tht. ' T"' *'«''' "°°"- ^» '»»" to consider how to prevent loJioMf^uid ouLo of fctab^'T '' " ^ hqaid manure tanks have benn Imilf ar „ J ?, *'**''*'• ^^ ■<>'"« ca»e«. objectionable features. To W^ with the-"! J '^'»' '^' ^"^ ***' '*'^'' *"" ''• ing a portable tank for carrying thriauL to .i « u'^^'n?.' '^'''''^<^tion, includ- liquid manure ferments ver7rapidly aid in flS^ • ' u ^"* ''* ^*''" ^^'t^'^'. Ben which escapes into th7 a?r in th« f J^ fermenting it loses much of its nitro^ emptied frequently. much^VtLl ' aXvel^'bVt'Z^.f *^-. " 't"" '*°l^ •" out of sight and too freciuentlv out nt mi„ i T ' !l °® '"l""* ^^ ^^^ *ank is is also an' objection to a^S °?' ^J TanuTe tVth*"l T'' '" '''*''^'"«- ^he'e u'anure is rich in soluble nitroson and Z^lv ? J -"^ separately, for liquid acid, while the solid minu cSaJna mosT of "1^1"^^-^ '''^'; .P'^^"?^^^^^ paratively poor in soluble nitrogen As a resu^ .tt^°"'. ^'''^ *^°' " '^^^ one-sided and less satisfactory than whe^ thl-l^J ^''^ ,?»«^?°"°g i« somewhat porated and applied together Morpovrin . ^ *"k '"'l"'*^ '""^^^^ »fe i^cor- i« danger of apSying Se nitr'^^- *K * '" *PP'y»°« ''q««» manure alone, there nitrogfn is w^he^d ■« e««ly drawn to outride yards, and conXently relT^ 'Z "'''" '^J.l'^ ''"'' '''"^ sheds are built so as to allow animT/o Jtl • ?'^*T"'S- ^^'^^ °»a°"re pin«8 of the animals when out of tiV„Vjf •^'■'''^ "^ *''""' '°«« °f *»>« ^rop- of loss in the maTure shed TirLljl::^-^ ". prevented. The greatest danger manure, being kept driL tLTn thron. ' ^Z"''^"''''''' °^ '^^ '°»'>"r«- The ent J;^°prSe'o,^taL"'*„?X?uhr '.?'" •'"■*'"■«■« "in depend DiMnte sh«l take, the form of a basement below the ZwMVh-flTT 'S° being cemented. In some caeei hots m^i^lSt. IT ' *« *"»' «■'<' "•U' compact the mannni dn-k rT^ * • "" bMe™", to trample and but ?he CO,? rSrnCbn ^uTZm ™' " "^^ "'■'ve.ient and effecti™" ally .pe.ku>g, the Tor "n minSI^^hlj T m'u" «^°''"'' "^"l"'"'"- 0«°«- hollowed in the Mntr" A hTrf »U. S!., *"'°''' >« "'^'""H ««' '*" cemented on the hside thZh ^n. ^ll. •n'' '* "' °? " '"" "<"" t<«"'iM„n by setting pos°. taThe grZdZi^t.^ ""^f "" f"''""' ""y *» ""«»• taken to L've theVcS /,^"fy ™d^~l7„j;*..'l°«'' '?-"-.'• ''r '^'"'' practicable, «>mS\T»,"°'i. dtf'^' ^^ '"t"°P."°« ''J' ""^ " ■>»' withwater! Thi,, pltntnT.":i;ttmrndr"lht'e&r.b?J:l"^^^ water which escanPH frftm Tko I added than the manure can retain, and the Thna the obj'tTther.n'.'r: 1Z rdrfeaw" 'LTI' ™'°'!'if •"•■" '°~'- «> o,«n yard would have .aved/atlny rat 'tS" l.So"'o'r,;;U ^er^" " in uiZ'tL^:ZTZ^^r^rV^ '? box'lrrgrowing it •> certainly SaVe to r^l^l".'"'/"/*' '? *« ™"1» «« ooScerned, the stalls are'^SrcoMtrncLd^d t^K JJ f °'^l' T""' »">""*'' "»' or pen should 'bo wiKSitcsme't Jng Stble sSS ■".. '5° ""V"^} they need-notTe oLT:uroftelr4\rceT?:'o";rks'^ ;;/■' 12 . ^*o^^9 Manure. When manure is stored in yards or sheds it is very im- portant that, as far as practicable, the manure from different kinds of stock should be mixed. Horse and sheep manure is comparatively dry and, conse- quently, ferments very rapidly. The manure from cattle and swine i^ much more moist and ferments more slowly. Mixing different kinds of manure, therefore, tends to prevent excessive fermentation of the dry manure, while the dry manure absorbs some of the excessive moisture of the wet manure, and thus helps to prevent loss by leaching. Moreover, the mixing of manures gives a pro- duct of more uniform quality, and more satisfactory to apply. Fermsntation. The widest difference of opinion exists among both prac- tical and scientific men as to whether farmyard manure should be applied td the soil m Its fresh state, or whether it should first undergo fermentation, or docom- d?;;r tt^T ^^^ T^l''''\ " * "''^ *''®''°^* °°«' »°d it i^ also verv important. The changes which take place in a pile cf fermenting manure are extremely varied and are not. as yet, fully understood. Anything like a full discussion of these changes would be out of place here, but the advisability of allowing 'armyard manure to ferment gives rise to so much discussion that it seems as though some attempt should be made to explain a few cf the mor» Sred"* °*^" ""^^ '"'*""■ ^^°'® ^^^ '"^J^' *'*" ^ intelligently con- Before taking up the question of changes in manure, it may be well to make a few preliminary explanations, the importance of which will appear later. To begin with, an attempt will be made to explain the terms free oxygen and com- bmed oxygen, free nitrogen and combined nitrogen. Oxygen and hydrogen are both colorless gases. If they are mixed in a suitable vessel and allowed tS stand for an indefinite time, no change will be observed. There is in the vessel simply a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, the same as there might be a mixture of sand Lnf 1*^* ?•* 1* "^^tch could be applied to the mixture, or an electric spark sent through it, there would be an explosion, and after the explosion (if the eases W °3"f .i!"" P'^P^' proportions) not a trace of either gas would be found. Instead of the gases there would be merely a few small drops of water. Before !«llf P '?•? /r''®J ^o?*»i"«^ *^o 9<»se8; after the explosion it contained a '^^l'i''^''l'^y.^fM*dcM water. Now, water is made up of oxygen and hydrogen, but it is very different frem either of them, or from the mixture of the two before the heat was applied. Heat brought about a union of the two gases resulting in what is called a chemical compound. Before the explosion the gases were /r«e, that is, each har. a separate existence; but after the explosion the gases were no longer /re., each gas lost its identity and the two combined to form water. In other wordP, before the explosion the vessel contained /ree oxygen and hydrogen, but after the explosion it contained combined oxygen and hydro- Take another example. The atmosphere is largely made up of the uases ?hJf-H-r •?*''T°'i?''* *^^y "^ "°* combined, and though they are mixed, they still exist as two distinct gases. The atmosphere, therefore, is largely made ILJ','" oVge'^and nitrogen. Now, hydrogen might be mix^d with oxygen and nitrogen, and under ordinary conditions, no change would occur, but there would Bimolv be a mixtnrA of th»-oe '»{-*.•"-* — „ u A • "rr * "** ,?" ».^.x».u>- * 'n i. ^ — " ^•^'^- ".r-v^.w 5«oCT, cavix puascssing ics own peculiar propertiea. But, under certain conditions, these thiee gases do combine and form the from an} yet it is acid, thei and oxyg character nitrogen Whe marked c potassiuna and the c( pound of the name qualities e in contact the hydroi sodium, ni ^oda. In form calei nitrate, soi most impo: Specif account of matter (ve^ cannot be i into much form in wh the nitroge: into nitrate into nitrate contains ms of bacteria which occui And it is no Vegeta from the air food when a changed into combination bacteria, and which cause mentation ca bon liberated the form of i simpler comp bring about 1 attempt to fo mon i^rodnnt^ the air in the serious loss oi i^^^MSm&k, 13 form tbe powerful acid known as nitric acid Vtu^ -j • from any one of the gases or the m?Se o Les ilZ^^^^^^ " «1^»''«^J' different yet It w composed of hydrogen nitroZi IST^ ® combination took pJace. acid, therefore, is a cheLcTcSmprnrmade urTof !^' "^^ T^^T^ '^'^' ^itrio and oxygen, and it is the combim^n7ot these Z^L^^^^ ^'~gen. character and made them entire"/ diSt from.K ' *"*' ^'^ ''''*°g«d thei; nitrogen and oxygen. ^ amerent from the mixture of /ree hydrogen, n^arkrc^an^il:,::^^^^ ^^ certain other substances, another potesaium, sooie of the potassium wUl tak« /h« .i ' f ?°\'*'' ^^''^ 'he element and the compound of hvdrZn nfTJnL ? ^^^^ °* *'*« hydrogen of the acid ponnd of potLium^Xg^rand o™'^^^^^^^ '^ ^^"^"g-^ -^^ soo- the names potassium nitrate nitra/e^\, 7 ^^^J compound is known by qualities entirely different ^romnttacfd'^Smil*'!^ uft'' "^^ P°«««^«eB m contact with the element 8odium^he sodfum wn ^^^K*^ '^^°^''^ the hydrogen of the acid, and the relltLgcomZnT u?k*"H^" '^« PJ*°« oi «orfa. In the same way calcium may take the nlftP« «?k ^ "^f °' ***'^««« of form ca^ctW nitrate, and ammonia wHl form .»? .^yd'^g^'^ ''^ the acid and nitrate, sodium nitrate, calcium n°Jrate Id a^r^""'"-.* "'''"''• ^o<=«««i"«n »ost important nitrateL from an a^CllTn^^^ ^'^ P-^^^'^ the accou^oTlCg^tt ^g;^^^^^^^ what nitrates are, on matter (vegetable or animal mZe^^JiT^^ 1^^ ""'^^^^^ cannot be used again by nlants a« fni ?f !-i fu ^"^^ complicated compounds and into much simple^r ones^ The m^s °comT,'! '^«« compounds have bL changed form in which 'plants can make usfor^^^^^^^^^ ^^^'/l-^^^t the oSj the ni rogen of farmyard manure ia of no ufe to nlan - ^?-.°f '^^*''**««- HencJ into nitrates. But the change of the ve2etaw/.n ' "°5^ '* ^'^'^ b^^** changed into nitrates is not accomplished in a singTstinorfv "''**' T'^^^S ""^'^l^^ contains many different kinds of minute orLn^L? ^^^ «"^g'« agency. Manure of bacteria has its own pecuHar iXenTunr tb "'^ *""''"*■«' ''''^^'^ ^^^^ which occur in manure, whether in the heaDoH^ f h '^f'"''""- ^" **»« ^^angeg and It IS now in order to consider a few of tZe cha^^^^^^^^ '"' '"''''^ ""^ ^^^'^'^^ fro^iM; ^,:r tru1S\h\i!fravrrnd\°^ ^^'-JT- ^-^- - ^^^^en food when applied to the soil Before Zni.^ ? ** ''*' "° ^^'^^ as plant changed into nitrates, it is LeasaTj to „e?^^^^^^^^^ be combination with the nitrogen. This firat Sen i« K *'*tf'' u ""^ '''''*''» «^"t9 in bacteria, and the process is called /erZntatiol^ "f brought about by one kind of which cause fermentation requtfthrpr lence o?T^^^^ the bacteria mentation can be checked or Lstened bv reZatinf .1 °^yg«° (aiO i and fer- bon liberated by the bacteria, combTnes Sh« n/ **•" Tl^^ «* *^''- Theca-- the form of a gas known as caTb^n d Is S" °^ ^ T ^'^^ ««°*P^ simpler compounds containing nitrogen ire Lft l^A ^'^^ .^''"^^ ^^^^^ ««. bring about farther changes in these oomnl ^' t^** °^^^^ Wnds of bacteria attempt to follow these changes n detaH Sramrn ''• '^^"j^ "?' °"' »' Pl^oe S mon nrndnote Anr-i- ' »™.'" uetwi, out ammonia and nitric -wiii --^ 45 11 Hi 1(1 m III * r 14 m ■ ':' m II, the neighborhood of a rapidly fermenting manure heap. If fermentation goes on slowly, much of the ammonia is changed into nitric acid, or combines with nitric acid already formed, and if sach substances as calcium, potassium, or sodium are present, they also combine with nitric acid to form the important nitrates, as previously explained. The process by which nitric acid is formed is called nitri/ication, and the bacteria which are instrumental in bringing about nitrification are called nitrifying bacteria. Nitrification requires the presence of free oxygen, and therefore cannot go on in the absence of air. Warmth and moisture are also necessary. There is one more possible change which must not be overlooked. It has been stated that or marily the bacteria which cause fermentation require air. There are, however, eome kinds of bacteria which can cause organic matter to ferment in the absence of free oxygen. Oxygen is necesaary to fermentation, and in the absence of free oxygen, these bacteria obtain their supply by breaking up any nitrates that may be present, using the oxygen of the nitrate, and allowing the nitrogen of the nitrate to escape as a gas. These bacteria, therefore, are very injurious to manure, since they destroy the valuable nitrates and allow their nitrogen to escape. Their efiect is directly opposite to nitrification, and hence it is ctdled denitrification. The conditions favoring denitrification, according to Prof. Warington, are : 1. The presence of denitrifying bacteria. 2. The presence of a nitrate and suitable organic matter. 3. Such a condition as to aeration that the supply of free oxygen shall be limited, 4. The usual essential conditions of bacterial growth, as plant food, moisture, and a suitable temperature. Of these condi- tions, Warington considers an abundant supply of organic matter as most import- ant. On the other hand, nitrifying bacteria require organic matter containing nitrogen, an abundant supply of free oxygen, the presence of some element such as calcium, potassium, or sodium to combine with the nitric acid, together with a suitable temperature, degree of moisture, etc. It will be seen therefore that fermentation may produce injurious as well as beneficial results. It must also be borne in mind that fermentation and nitrifi- cation must take place before the nitrogen of farmyard manure can be of any use to plants, and therefore the point to be considered is how to bring about fer- mentation with the least danger of loss. A very common European practice which also has some advocates in this country, is to cause considerable fermentation of the manure while in the heap. In defence of this method, it is claimed that the fermented product contains more available plant food than unfermented manure. No doubt this claim is true, but it may be questioned whether the available plant food was not obtained at too great a erst. If air is freely admitted to the heap, fermentation is extremely rapid and a large quantity of ammonia is evolved, carrying away with it much of the valuable nitrogen. Manure that has fermented very rapidly, frequently presents a scorched appearance, and is said ? : be " fire-fanged." Such manure is practically worthless. If air is largely excluded by packing the manure so as to check fermentation, then conditions prevail which favor denitri- fication of some of the nitrates which may be formed. A careful study of the question leads to the conclusion that the conditions existing in the manure heap »fO father more favoTable to denitrification than to nitrification, and that attempts to bring about nitrification in the manure heap are almost certain to be accompanied by a great loss ot nitrogen, principally in the form of ammonia. It is plant food, ments of t sent requii soil and be entirely di the soil, fe: of the soil where air ii of manure be overcom soils there loss will oc investigatic the follow] greater mai farmer carr the loss of ] of the mani The subject under inves of applying cemed. Ce sometimes t practice, but Rotted light, sandy strawy no d application, manure of g commonly I light soils, t has never b< may bejasti Fermen' by a loss of form of amn high temper! mentation th the temperat used to retail sary for any manure applii of rotted and apply equal therefrom reg a great deal □ may have lost plant food pei VV' 16 sent requirements of the cToo wWl^ fh« " /'**'^'''^ plant food fir the pre- soil and become ava lab eT?^uJ L^^^^^ ^'^jl^.^^^ f«"°«»t in^the entirely different from thoae in the mfn«re'^E« J rr**'*'"''" *" '^^ «°" "^« the Boil, fermentation is eraduTi ^l TT y T-. ^^^ "*°"''« " ""^ed with of the s;>il combines wUh'thrnit?^ "cid'^^m^ T' ''^ "'"^"^ ^'^'^'^ where air is excluded by excessivTw^fJ; «,^ '.. ^° * '"^^ »°"' however, of manure has been apJl^ZSion ^^ ^^T^ f--« be overcome by thorouch drainace or h^LVK? ' ?• !•' "'.'*'® diibculty may soils there is always m??e orZs^ J oftit«tes fn^'^h'^^'^ • °' '"'°"'^- '^ »" OSS will occur whether the manure has b^n ferme^JL *'°"f \*''''' '^°' *^« investigations up to date the eSent auSr^.^P . p' T' • ^ " '•®«°^t o^ the following conclusion •« ThT oriL.Vl"^^' '■**r ^t! ^arington, deduce, greater manurial va^ than the finTir^^ittTf th^ **"' '^''^*' ^*"« » ^'^ farmer carries to his fields In th*- whnlf T^ 5^® '°*?°'* **«»P "^^'^^ the the loss of nitrogen is going on! this low tllKn'Jh'^'" *»»« "^^e to the field of the manure, and resultiL finllll IT. -^^ V^^ ™°*' valuable constituent The subject of The pTpSion InTp^^^^^^^^^^^ under investigation, but up to L nresertrm«Th« 1 !t'"7"i '°'^'»" " "«" of applying manure in its fresh state -! f ^ ^"'^ °^ r''*'^^® " i»» ''vor cemS; Cercain crops or cand?tiof8o1 soTl mlv'^oTf^^Ty °' P^"* '°«* " «°°- sometimes the destruction of weed seed 2/ inl^ '"""''5"^ '°*°'*'«' ''^d practice, but these are questions :std:iol'?i! ^:^ZZT" '*"""" '" '^«'' H«ht.rd^^ o°rpSr?oirrn IL^h TtZ^^ ^ ^ If^T ^"^"^^^ '^ strawy no doubt some injurv to the tfi*fnr7v>p V u .," the manure is very application, especially if'aS.liedtdXed un^^^^^^ ^XT' •'"'^'V'~" "^ manure of good quality applied judiciously ther«;!l. **•«,»?"«»« i bat with commonly believld. il Z, soL eTeSit I m"^^^^^^ *^'^'\" light soils. Just to what extent fermentation is eSe?rd«ff- """T^ ^°' has never been clearly demonstrated. No doubt th«- ''''*'°y!''« ^««d seeds may be justifiable under some conditions ' '""^ influence, and by a^ZT nXt eXrasirr4L':rS"a '' '""'^'H^ ^^P-^^^ form of ammonia.' Fermentat^rit Z^a^ e"bTa"°rrin"t ''"^^'^ '^« high temperature indicating rapid fermentation an^ iU t««>perature, a mentation the greater the llss of ammoT I? it l^ *^« P'f''^ rapid the fer- the temperature must be carefully washed anS 1^ '** to ferment manure nsed to retain the ammonia. TfL dSL ^hafT^ preservative should be sary for any particular soil or o op carefu°^LtH /h'TA"^ °'^^"" '' "^«^««- manure applied in the most approved methods Rn.^""^ ^ ""^" ^***» ^^^ of rotted and fresh farmyard m^uTe^Z^ci; i« n. ' "" *'°'"P?""8 '»»e effects apply equal weights of%ach trequaTteLTund "^J* /' '^^ »^<>t ^o to therefrom regarding their relative ?alues^ ton of ;nfteH "^^ ^O'^oluaiona r h^tt^^tl-^4 ^^t ^^^ r4^-" tTr^^eS^^r ::^ Plaiit food per ton tU tiTf^^f^"— -^^^^^^^^^ r^^^iirerE^^^^ m I 16 ment Station 10,000 ponnds of fresh cow manure, composed of 9,278 pounds of excrements mixed with 422 pounds of straw, were placed in a compact heap and exposed from April 25th to September 22nd. At the beginning of the experiment the manure contained forty-seven pounds of nitrogen, r.nd at the end of the experiment it contained twenty-eight pounds of nitrogen, showing a loss of forty-one per cent, of the original nitrogen. But at the end of the experiment the manure weighed only 5,125 pounds. Therefore the 10,000 pounds of fresh manure contained forty-seven pounds of nitrogen, or 9.4 pounds per ton, while the resulting 5,125 pounds of rotted manure contained twenty-eight pounds of nitrogen, or 10,9 pounds per ton. Now, if the 5,125 pounds of rottpd manure and 5,125 pounds of fresh manure were applied to equal areas of land, the results would naturally he in favor of the rotted manure. The unfairness of such a comparison may readily be seen. In order to get a fair comparison in this particular case 10,000 pounds of fresh manure should be used for every 5,125 pounds of rotted manure, when very different results may be expected. Since there are great variations in the sJirinkage of manure during rotting, it is extremely difficult to obtain anything approaching fair comparisons of fresh and rotted manure when applied to the soil. Preservatives. When it is necessary to store manure for a considerable length of time, especially if it is not well compacted, or when it is deemed advisable to ferment the manure, the questibn of preservatives becomes one of considerable importance. As already intimated, the greatest loss of nitrogen from the covered manure heap occurs in the form of ammonia, and considerable attention has been devoted to the prevention of this loss. Various substances have been tested, but the results so far have not been thoroughly satisfactory. Gypsum, or land plaster as it is commonly called, is highly commended by some for use in the stables and on the manure heap, but, while it tends to pre- serve ammonia, its influence is comparatively slight. Lime hastens ammonia fermentatioc. and therefore should never be applied to the manure heap. Thomas slag, according to Holdefleiss, has the same effect as lime. Sulphate of iron has some eflfect in preventing the escape of ammonia, but to be effective, would have to be applied in such large quantities as to injure the manure in other ways, not to mention the cost of the substance. Kainit appears to have a little influence in preserving ammonia, but is of doubtful value. It has a tendency to prevent fermentation and is therefore jrecommendcd for use in stables. Superphosphate is regarded by some German investigators as one of the mohi effective of the chemical nitrogen preservers. The phosphoric acid which it contains also adds to the value of the manure. Even with suporphoephate it requires such large quantities of the substance to preserve all the ammonia that it can scarcely be called a success. Dry earth containing a considerable amount of humus has given very fai' results. Considering that it is to be had on practically every farm for the trouble of drawing, it is pretty safe to say that it is one of thb best and safest preserva- tives that the farmer can use. The more humus it contains the better. Its free use both in the stables and on the manure heap will add to the value of the manure in no small degree. Rata is to give without a followed. heavy app manuring receives n greater ni than they that if the be all the residue lei waste of p sources of place, ther of the soil all fertile i drainage « of soluble ] Some loss : as possible Theo stand, and Wagner an in which fs of soda, th( ing may be 1. "T as a manur 2. "V nitrates nai sodium, an( dung had b There second cone trification a applied aloe able nitrate liberated as to the soil. and very en ments farm; experiments probably no amount of n representing In the field were used al 2—109 17 VI. APPLICATION OF FARMYARD MANURE. is to Te i^siisi'Ziz tht K :°r° K "'^'''^ '° '*pp'y'°« ^-^y-^ — « without any There are HeverTao„r ^ ^^"''^ u'°**'°« "^"^ ^«*^« '»»« remainder followed. Tf the manure h««b-fn^^^^^^^ ''^l '""'^ " P™°**^ ^"''"•d noc be heavy applicatronro suppt .orieroTanl fond f 'Tk *'*''* '« '^^ °«^^ "^^'^^^ manuring is practised a 1^^^^ of tJ« / ^^ ^^? "T ' *°^ ^^'^^ *»«»^y receives much more than i'reju re ° The ZoJr'^''^-'^, "^"« * ^"*" P»^ greater number of a herd of cIXaTdnJintS,/ " """'*'" *° «*"'^'°« *h« than they can eat. Very heavy man„?n.? -"T T^r'^.'^R ^'^'"^alB f*r more that if the first crop doe/not reaSr« ^^ 1 T.'''^'' •* ? ^'^^l^^ritiy claimed be all the better off It is truTw H ^ ""■ ^""l^ ^PP"''^' *^« °«^* "oP ^"1 residue left over ?or succ edVnTcronV h ^r'T '^' »PPi'<=ation. the greater the " ^r:r°- ----P^ -^^^^^^^^ .tand^.„dXrCt i tared' b'T'^, "'°°'!°« " ■"" »° ^'^ 'o »■«'- « a i.r„rsr pw""' °' *° '"'"' ""• °°'' " P"""'"'"^ "i'hout viae applied along »ith the farm" ° manaM ■ Ih.^ ■ . '"' '^ "'*"» "' "«"""■ able Ditratea to be broken L a^d Th^^i?" " '"Ji"?' 'J °'"'«' »!>«» vain- liberated a, free nitro«nwh"d.'Sfa»Stato^T^ ""'^ T'^'* *» >« to the soil. Now, na« eiperimente menu ^r™S na^u^ CllXe "''C'" '^ w™!"' *'"'' '" "■«"«P«-i eiperimente were conZt^ in ri^^i„j ^ " Warin£t»n pointa out, the ^^^A^TS^::s^X ^".rrrevs^r^iesss? 18 beopfioial. In the disouMion of fermentation of tarmyard manure, the conditions favoring denitrifioation were described, and it will be leen that the German oon- ditioni were particularly suitable for denitrifioation. From the German results a useful practical lesson is to be derived. They show that it is possible to apply farmyard manure in such a manner that its effect is positively injurious ; and though it is extremely improbable that tuch conditions would exist in farm practice, it is more than probable that large losses of nitrogen through denitrifi- oation frequently occur when very heavy applications of farmyard manure are made. When the soil is not well drained, the danger of denitrifioation is increased. It is a difficult matter to say what constitutes a light, moderate, or heavy application of farmyard manure. It has been shown that farmyard manure is subject to extreme variations in composition ; consequently a given number of tons per acre might be a heavy dressing of manure in one case and a light dress- ing in another, depending on the quality of the manure. The rate of applica- tion will also be influenced by the natural fertility of the soil and the kind of crop to be grown, so that reoommei dations as to quantity can be made only in the most general terms, and a good deal mast be left to the judgment of the person applying it. Generally speaking, about fifteen tons per acre of good manure from an outside yard may be countcfl a fairly heavy dressing for average soila Well managed manure irom a covered yard or shed contains less water than that from outside yards, and consequently a smaller quantity would be equivalent to fifteen tons of outside manure. Now, mixed farmyard manure of fairly good quality may contain .6 per cent, of nitrogen, .3 per cent, of phosphoric acid, and .45 per cent, of potash, though of course thee'e percentages are merely approximations. The following table shows the amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash supplied by fifteen tons of farmyard manure according to the percentages given above, together with the amount of these constituents removed per acre by a crop of wheat and turnips, as estimated by Van Slyke : 16 tons farmyard manure contain Wheat crop (15 to 80 bashels) contains . . Turnip crop (350 to 700 bushels) contains Nitrogen. 180 lbs. 31 to 62 lbs. 40 to 80 lbs. Phosphoric Acid. 90 lbs. 10 to 20 lbs. 26 to 62 lbs. Potash. 135 lbs. 13 to 26 lbs. 90 to 180 lbs. According to the estimates just quoted, fifteen tons of farmyard manure supplies an excess of all the fertilizing constituents, except phosphoric acid for the largest crop of turnips. All of the plant food contained in the manure is not available, but it is not known what percentage of the plant food can b^ made use of by the crop under ordinary field conditions, and probably never will be known owing to the complexity of the problem. In a fertile, well culti -ited soil, however, some allowance must be made for available plant food already in the soil, either as a residue from previous manuring or as natural fertility, so that it is not necessary to supply in an available form the full amount of plant food required by the crop. It is quite probable, too, that average farmyard manure w( further all( results seei may be rej heaviest fe considerab] compared y ded as a h( quantity oi largely by ( underlying tions of mi applicationt the necessit when it wai acre. Depth . the soil as p dency to cai consequenil; plant food again, nitrif kept near tb made availal tion of man lumps of ma had never be that this dee tion. Econ( area of the fi incorporated the humus oi dry weather up into a fin( Time of sown crops if This is the ce or a grain cr( in the fall gi\ tains. The q for keeping n grave objectio show that vei Sheldon, of tl hauled to the to nearly fort; Experiment S manure was ^ When manure summer, the Ii ing the summt 19 manare would not contain lo much plant food ai ii annmiwl in tK- ♦.ki j further allowancee mu.t be made if the maWe b of .X?oT^.ialifv 1»riM^1 compared with turn pg. Probably ten tons per acre, or even le^. may be reaVr ded as a heavy application for wheat. No fixed rui; can be rit^n "etrardinThe ?ari« tL°'-"*°"r "^ 'PP'/> ^'^'''^' *»-°P«- Each farS^er must beZdL inTrL.5LT"""'*'r"' ""r** ^^ *** understanding of some general prifdplS tStS^ operation. It is a pretty safe conclusion that moderate apS aoDl cationrt^'.'.^ u ^"«' *'^* r" «'^« ^«"«' "l^'"**^ returns tha^Kvy rfr„^ °f • ""."" ?'^* ' """^ **»« ^'"•"e'" the supply of manure, the greater the n^eesity of restnctJng the amount applied per acre. The Ze hL1,wtd when It was thought necessary to apply from twenty to forty tons of m^^^r the b5/ ^^Is^Sr'Tb^ ^"'"^f ** '""""^ »'^°°^'^ ^ J^^Pt '" near the surface of a1., possible. The rainwater as it percolates through the soil has a ten dency to carry the soluble plant food downward and out of the reach of ^llnL D^^n'^ 7 '^''f^' •'*'?"'^ ""' '^'^^^ *° delay the downw^S progrts of plant food instead of assisting it by plowing the manure in d^plv Then KntV.f.f*''°? " P'"-*/^"^^ "«»«• the surface of the so" TheSmlurJ kept near the surface is under more favorable conditions for having Us pLntTod tin nnJ* '' "f T^^T'^y «'"«« ^"•°'^«^ '«*"">»• When a^eavy appUca fir^n. 1# "'^ ^u' ^T P'°r«d ""'^^^ 'deeply, it « »o uncommon thinj to ^ tiS^ ° i!''"'^ '"■°"8M *° ***« »"'f*«« by subJequent plowing showShatlJ th^t tSL H^T^ P-°r 'y incorporated with the soil. It is qS teTobable to ttt Econlia?'^"** "•''"''' '^'^ ^°^* considerable nitrogen throu|hdenitrifil: area of trrm t n °"m « 'T'i? '"? °^**'°^°8 ^"'^'^ '«*n'n« o^«' " l^ge an drv w«7if °^ v^ f'^r '°"' ^« •» '««">*' *fa« «°" ^0*8 not bake and c^T'n u^mrlt; JLtmS: ^^' ^**- ""-^ — satisfactorily.'Ltd-^o'rS sown^iS^«ff »nnS^";. .^*'"y»''« nianure pile during the summer haukSYthe fi'eM ?n ?; Experiment Station, concludes Tthat manure sSrWbe tn nl,il # ! *?® fPr°«' Otherwise the loss in six months may amount to nearly forty per cent, of the nitrogen it contains. Experime-ts at thn fW^n Experiment Station tend to confirm this conclus^^ ; buf in on; case wh^re th « manure was very firmly packed, the loss in va 'w« L th^^ tTcent sTmmer°";S;T " ."^''^T'^ '"''''''^ °^«' ^adly constructed y^ds duSg the in?ZI'. "^J^ '* °^.^ extremely great. When kept in manure shSfdur ing the summer there is danger of excessive fermentatioS. To wy ^e 2^^^ 5*^ I, Mi I 1 I' , ■ If i^.Ji 90 ii «n extromely difficult matter to keep manare over from ■pring until fall with- out locurring considerable lois. To avoid this losa and to relieve the pressure of work in the sprinR the practice of drawing manure as it is made and spreading it on the land during the winter la becoming popular in many districts. No doubt some loss occurs when this method la followed, but just how great the loss is it is impossible to Mcertain. Steep hilUides or those parts of a field that are subject to the wash of surface water in the spring are entirely unsuitable for the winter application of manure ; but on comparatively level land, where little washing ocsurs, it is probable that the loss of plant food is no greater than in the average yard or shed. At any rate the practice seems to be giving good results on many farms, and, so far as present knowledge goes, it seems to have many commendable features when judiciously followed, though no doubt it is frequently abused. iMdd which IS inclined to be wet in the spring, or which is intended for early sown crops, should not be manured djring the winter, because the manure tends to retard the thawing and drying of the soil, The method practised on the College farm has given excellent results. In the regular course of rotation, roots, corn, and peas are sown on land that has been two years under clover and grass, either as meadow or pasture. The sod u plowed as eirly as possible the preceding fall and thoroughly cultivated, so as to have the sod fairly well rotted before the weather turns cold. In the fall all the manure that can be obtained about the place is drawn on the land intended for roots and corn and spread upon the surface. Then the land is ribbed or ridged up with the double mouldboard plow, as is commonly practised for roots, making the ribs or r/dges about twentyone inches apart. By this means the manure is incorporated with the soil in the ridges. In the spring these ridges are cultivated down and the land is in excellent condition for a root crop, or any other crop. This method not only ensures a thorough mixing of soil and manure, buc it also tends to prevent loss of plant food in the drainage water, especially on rolling land. All the manure which accumulates during the summer, together with that which is mada during the fall until the plow is stopped by frost, is treated m this way, the hilly or rolling ground receiving the first attention, so as to lessen the danger of waste. There is never enough manure to cover all the corn and root ground in the fall, so manure is applied to the remaining ground during the winter and early spring, and incorporated with the surface soil by means of the gang plow and cultivator after the early sown crops are in. It will be seen that by this method no manure is available for the fall wheat ground in the fall, but in the rotation fall wheat follows the peas, and before the peas are sown the land 18 given a coating of manure which is incorporated with the surface soil Jlie object is not to manure the pea crop, but to prepare a store of available plant food for the wheat which follows the peas. On fairly rich soil a very light application of manure is sufficient for this purpose. On soils which tend to pro- duce too great a yield of straw, applying manure before sowing peas would be open to objection, since it would probably aggravate the evil. Where the plan II. practicable it possesses several important advantages. It admits of the appli- cation of manure for roots in perhaps the moat effective manner. It allows of applying fresh or coarse manure in the spring with a crop that has little need of It, coMcquently during the summer its plant food is being rendered available for the fall whnat wbif oR/rititos tiHB uaujjtjr ui uaviug lo apply manure for fall wheat at the time when the ground is very dry, the evil effects of which manure v increases mellow, n Whe soil as so< the manu manure is not take { cleveIopro( massds of mixed wit during dr} is not suffi the soil is lies in the VII. VAI Few s lizing const sition that plant food analysis. I come, for tl elements of first. A CO which woul fertilizer. be forced to ever it saves From this p way of look fertilizers ar in a good cc States, and j yard manure value nitroge lent to about Now, becausi ten cents pe the America! what a thing are two wayt lizer. It is jj certain foddei just how muc tivity of the different scale to show, accoi $100 per acre 21 inorewe. the humu« of the soil «nd 3/^1 *'*•"'■* ferment!, readily an.I mellow moiat. and in good "nditfonTor" hLt""^ "°'' '^ """"^^^ '»»« S-'^^d « joi. a^iTn rp^ai W^;^;!rnf^^^^^^ J^e mixed with the the manure would result in any very gert..- l . ^^'^ '*'*' "'"P'y drying manure is mixed with a comparaUvel7d.Tso I th/' P'*"* 'r*' but when duy not take place, 8:...e. a. waJ pJevSv JxnllL °'T"*'^ fermentation can- development of nitrifying bacteria 1 a^'S T"*"" " '^^^^"^'y for the maasaa of dry, inert material in the noil w J; » ' ^^ '"*'*'"'® " •?' *<> form mixed with the noil afterwards For he It °Zo "*'°, '*'. ^^'^^^ P'^P^''^ during dry weather may injure the water hddL""' ^ "'^''^ '"'*'^'- »anurJ .8 not sufficient moisture to ferment the maLte\rH °' *^".'°''- ""'^^ *»>«'« the 80,1 ,s rendered too open in texture Z f*^u ?*•*°^^'' '?*<> humus, and lies in the time and method of applybg it. "^^^ "* '''^ ™*°°"' bat VII VALUATION OF FERTILIZING OONSTITUENIS IN MANURE lizingcTnstrntKrmy^^J:;^^ ''^ ^^^aluation of the ferti-' 8.t,on that it is impossible^to esUmar wit^ rnri*^ '"*°"'','' "*"«« »° '^ «>«P0- plant food a given sample contains without ffr-'^T- t "''""^^^ *>°^ '»°ch analy«s. Even if the compositioil k "own tLlr^!r'-°'[ ^' *° * °»»«'«>i«»l come, for the next point to decide is what Zn^^ * ^ '' ^^ °° '"«*'^« o^«f • elements of plant food in the man, r« . l m ^ ""^^"^ *° ^^^^'b to the different first A common meth^Ts to vaTul ea'ch cnl?r' f ^°"^J ^ «°'^« than the which would have to be paid fJtti^ « u '^T*""®'"' ** the price per pound fertilizer. It is argued th"t were tL?"'* -*''' '^'^ °^ * 0^0,3 be forced to use coLercitffer L era °'c itTt^'th"'^^ ''^^ '^^'"^ ^°"d ever It saves him in expenditure for'ita eS ' /?' '°"""'" " ''°''** ''^**' From this point of view the argument is nlXn "^/^^n^wcial fertilizers, way of looking at the question, and it mrwell'°"l^' ^l' '^^'^ '« *^«ther fertilizers are always ^oorth wh^t Jhey c^^ /o' «' "''^f ^'•^**»«'- commercial m a good commercial fertilizer usually co is Th^n? fi?.^''' * P°°°^ °' "»*™««'» States, and this value is frequently e^loved fn vl^ ''l\''°^"^^ **>« United yard manure and in fodders In valuTnJ S -1?'°? *^^ "^trogen in farm- value nitrogen in the formof ammonui?to„. " '"* ^^^gl^nd, Lawes and Gilbert ^nt to about 9.8 cents per ITn^tornZfeTl ^"" P"!"^''' *^'*"^ « ^^"iva- Now, because nitrogen costs fifteen centR n«T ' Z ^^ ^"^ ^^'^ts per pound, ten cents per pound in England doe^UfX ^T.^ '? ***" ^""^^ StatL and the An^eriean farmer than'^ the'En^ish W Th:i*'^°*'°J^ "°'*^ '"^^ *« what a thing is worth and what it coats as Z/I^ if ™ " ^ difference between are two ways of valuing the constUuenJs of 7ant fl°^^ therefore there hzer It ,8 possible to ^certain, approWtelv fh« ? 'V"^ °"*°"''« °' '«rti- certam fodders in terms of commS TerHH 11"^.°^ * ""•^"'^ P"e or of tmty of the aoil or increased value of the laid ?;**' ^'i"'''^*'^* P«'duo- different scale of valnes mav h. ncc° -i- J • ' «0'»oerned, probably a v«r„ to show, according to the fi'i^st" me'SSXt pIant%Z'?'^?J'^y """P^^ ""*««' ^100 per acre has been added to a cer'tlLl^tn^r^neLt^^^^^^^^ the farm(>r'« Gti^tal ba« been inoreMed . y that amoant ; but when it is attemptod to iliow thai ^Att* farmer a proiits have been inoreit«>"xl in like proportion, or that the selling prii^ u( }m« fvcxn ha* been increased to -***^ extent of $50 or $100 per acre, the real dithoultiei>< of the problem are fully appreciated. Soils, feasoni, cultivation, and markets, all combine to oomplioato matters, so that it i* itupoa- ■ible to say jaat what cash retarns may be expected from the application of a given quantity of plant food. But plant food mast be added to the soil ; there is no option in the matter ; and therefore all that is left for the farmer to do is to study how he can obtain autlicient plant food at the lowest poaiiible coat. The importance of making the best possible use of animal excrements has already been pointed out. If animals can be so managed that their prodaots pay for parohaaod fodders, certainly no chea{)er fertilizer is available than the manure resulting from the use of these fodders. It will not do, however, to spend money recklessly in animals and feeding stud's, believing that the loss sustained on the animals will be more than made up by increased fertility of the soil. It may be possible to Justify this course of action by attaching money values to the plant food contained in the purchased fodders, but the bank account may tell a very different story. It is not intended to discredit the practice of valuing thr manual constituents of feeding utuffs— far from it. The practice is a very coiiL. nndable one, and manurial value should always be considered in purchasing food for animals. It is intended, however, to sound a note of warning against the Abuse of the practice, and to show thnt it is posHihle to attach values to fer- tilizing constituents which can never be realized whuu put to a practical test. The composition of farmyard manure is so greatly inthienced by the foods which animals consume, that it becomes of importance to know something of the relative values of feeding stuffs for furnishing plant food. Since the fertilizing constituents of fodders exist in insoluble forms and must undergo many changes before they become available for plants, it is customary to attach somewhat lower values to them than the market values of the same constituents in soluble commercial fertilizers. A common plan is to value the nitrogen of feeding staffs at twelve cents per pound, phosphoric acid at four and a half cents per pound, and potk-ii at four and a half cente per pound. Below is given a table, the first column of which shows the result of applying the values mentioned to the fertilizing constituents of some representative feeding stufis, the com'-r^itioa of the fodders being obtained from American analyses. The second .. 'aam shows the result of applying the same values to thu fertilizing constitu^vit .<( ■ '^ tained in the fodders according to English analyses. The third coluoiu shows the same values applied to the remaining fertilizing constituents of the fodders after being fed to cows producing ten quarts of milk per head per day, data regarding the fertilizing constituents in the manure being obtained from the estimates of Lawes A Gilbert American analyses are more satisfactory for this country than « -Ay^ analyses, as the difference in climate likely influ- ences the composition <.vmpari8on for the third column. The second and third columns art rx:a>. tet' from En.^; -L analyses ; consequently, to obtain an idea of the probabie e.liri&/.age in manurial value of fodders as the result of being fed to cows, it will be necessary to compare the third column with the second. TaiilrI. ;: accord stituei ten qui phospj] pound Cotton Uil okk Wheat Pm* .. Wheat OaU .. Wheat Barley Corn (ii Clover Meadow Wheat Potatoe Mangel The metl in estimating the animals columns show flow of milk, I ance must aisc manure reach< uider some c( < " ". if it be I stituents are u be made from of the fodders constituents of value, howevei It gives an int< consideration i: It has bee than those com ders. In their phosphoric acid shows the effecl foddera under c( 18 ^^"" '• J,**°**°8 ''•'n.e 0' fortiluing ■^cording to American ^ndSZ^klnllZ^ ^°" '!"' °'. "•«•'**"- ''^^der. •tituent. returned In manure Mr ton o#/!!i ' "^ '"''"'' °' '«''«>»»«!« ooo- tenqu.rt.ofmilkperhe!d3''°"°?:i*^ ""T"''^ '^^ °°''- P«>d"oi4 phcphoric acid, fo*^ andVhalJ' ent. and l^f Tf'^''' '"*''*' *^«»'« <=«°^ pound • • "*" *'®"^' •"<* POti-h four and a half cent. p»^' Koddar. Cotton seed meal Oil oalcH . . . Wheat bran Paa« _ Wheat middliaffs Oata . . " Wheat Barley Corn (maze) Clover hay Meadow hay (mixed), wheat atraw Potatoes ■Vtangela '^"'f' ^'•"e "f fertiliiioff ooDstitu- •nu per ton of different fotlden Computerl from American analyaet. Computed from Kiigliah nnalynei. i« of fertili/iog oonntituentM re- turned in manure r»ertonof fcKxJoon- Bumed by cow* producing ten .(rt*. "' milk imt head per day. The method of valuation shown in the fir«f „«i.. m estimating the manurial value of Mders but ""!!•!' '"'' °°"'""'''^ ^^"^'"^ the animals remove from the food A ^nmn- ? •"°''\nce la made for what columns shows that the reductioXvaltwTenTr °' ^h«. »^«>nd and third flow of milk amounts to a considerable Lrcenta/el * '"'■ •^^"'Ke ance must also be made for losses whichCe a Z-f * •"*'"'*' ''*'"^- ^"o^" mannre reaches the tield. Then too fh«« , "' "*''**•'» ^ "ccur before the under some conditions there LVb^ lo es'dLrV^*^.^'*''^'^«-»'«'-%°d (■;•'. If It be granted that the values attached tIfh'Tj^*^"'**°°- therefore. stituents are not too high, it is anitelrZr fl^ ^^^ different fertilirinir con be made from the figur^ given iXe tZ:ZV^V°'^'^''''''^'^''^^'t^^^^^ of the fodders as fertilize!;. It J Jso aDoain^.t 7 '^P'"^*"* *^« ""t"*! worth constituents of fodders are sometrmes ve^S^i • *' ''"'-SI!''""' °' '»>« fertilizing value, however, for if it does not sTlthTa^ ,IT ^^^ •^*'* **^'« '" °o* ^ithou? »t gives an intelligent idea of tCZ^ZZL^:ST\^''^''^ °' '""^ '^^der. consideration in buying fodders. ^^ °'''"*'« "^«^**»^e values, a very important It has been already intimated that Lawes anH rijik^ * than those commonly used in Americrin ernmif h '"^ 7 ^°^«' ^•^°«> ders. In the r most recent publications Jhefv^Kittnl,'"*''""'^ "*'°« *^' ^^d" phosphoric acid at 2d., and potash at uV> ^ "'^rogen as ammonia at 4 d. Bhows the effect of applying tC v.i'V!AuP^^- P^^^- -^''^ following table foaaei'^ uauer consideration, estimating JlI^|4"J6^'^ ""astituents of the : v! ki: 24 Table II. Showing manarial value per ton of food conaumed, after deducting the fertiliziof; constituents in fattening increase and in milk. Adapted from estimates of Lawes and Gilbert. Nitrogen (aa ammonia), 4 d. ; phosphoric acid, 2 d. ; and potash 1 1 d. per lb. Fodder. Manurial value per •;on of food consumed, deducting the constituents in fattening increase and in milk. For the production of fattening increase. For the production of milk, supposing tlie yield per head per day to be 10 quarts. Cotton seed meal Oil cake 818 16 12 62 936 8 86 8 64 4 79 460 4 17 4 03 ■6 56 4 51 « 1 68 99 77 $W 3(> 10 66 8 04 7 17 6 97 3 24 2 93 2 55 2 41 5 73 3 75 1 01 79 67 Wheat bran Peas Wheat middlings Oata Wheat Barley Corn (maize) Clover hav Meadow hay (mixed) Wheat straw Potatops Mangels Table II. is of interest as a means of comparing the relative influence of fattening and milk production upon the manurial value of feeding stuffs. As in the preceding table, no allowance is made for other losses which may occur. The third column of Table I. is obtained from exactly the same data as the second column of Table II., except that different values are applied to the manurial con- stituents. It is interesting, therefore, to compare these two columns, because they show the difference between American and English valuations of fertilizing constituents, and afford another illustration of the need of care in applying money values to manure. The whole subject of valuing fertilizing constituents in any form, is full of difficulty. An attempt has been made to show the importance of distinguishing between market value and actual value as shown by increased productivity, and to show that it is impossible to affix money values to fertilizing constituents, which would represent their true worth in increasing the profits of the farmer. The whole question is largely a matter of judgment. But understanding is necessary to sound judgment, and therefore an attempt has been made to assist in understanding this complex subject.