IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) W. Va nil 1.0 ^KS I.I 4S •I 1^ IIL25 lill 1.4 IM M 1.8 1.6 V M O^'- o 7 iV '^ ^ iV %' '%^ CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques 1980 Technical Notes / Notes techniques The Institute has attempted to obtain the bes\' original copy available for filming. Physical features of this copy which may alter any of th<9 Images in the reproduction are checked below. L'Inittltut a microfilm^ le mellleur exemplaire qu'il lui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Certains difauts susceptibies de nuire A la quality de la reproduction sont notis ci-dessous. 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Les images suivantes ont 6t6 reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la ne;^et6 de I'exemplaire filmd, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol —►(meaning CONTINUED "), or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever applies. The original copy was borrowed from, and filmed with, the kind consent of the following institution: Library Agriculture Canada Maps or plates too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Un des symboles suivants apparaTtra sur la der- nidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole — ► signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". L'exemplaire filmd fut reproduit grSce d la gdndrositd de I'dtablissement prdteur suivant : Bibliothdque Agriculture Canada Les cartes ou les planches trop grandes pour dtre reproduites en un seul clich6 sont film^es d partir de Tangle supirieure gauche, de gauche d droite et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Le diagramme suivant itiustre la mdthode : 1 2 3 4 5 6 THE CANADIAN FORESTER'S ILLUSTRATED GUIDE . THE CMSDIANFORESTER'S HlLLUSTRflTEDt GUIDES* BY J. C. CHAPAIS, B. C. L. MEMBER OF THE GENERAL COMMITTEE OK THE TORESTRY ASSOCIATION OK THE PROVINCE OF QrEHEC, CANADA. WITH 126 ENGRAVINGS (from the FRENCH.) MONTREAL EUSEBE SENEGAL & FJLS, PUBLISHEES 20, ST. VINCENT STRKET 1885 Enl>- ssession. And there is nothing wonderful in this. What does one see on all sides ? Extensive districts destroyed by fire, oflfering to the eye nothing but the half-burnt trunks of the great trees, which, like gigantic spectres, seem from their rigid look to protest against man's neglect ; whole regions of waste ground, entirely denuded of timber by the axe of the greedy lumberman, who carries off all the wood useful in his business, and most unnecessarily destroys all that he considersunserviceable; and, lastly, lands once cut over, (1) now covered with (1) Tailiis— copse, in our English wood-language— the underwoodia cut every 10, 12 or 14 years, lor liop-poles, broom-handles, hurdles, Ac, and sells for from $40 to $120 per acre, standing. Taillis, from tailler, lo cut, evidently conveys the idea of this mode of treatment (Query- does our cry, wh«^n we see the hunted fox, lallyho, pronounced, or rather yelled, Tarlyo, derive from <• au laUis, ho /")— Trs. 10 THE CANADIAN FORESTER'S brushwood, the remains of former clearances, and as dry as tinder, which offers but too ready a chance for the reception of a spark from the pipe or half extinguished match of the careless tramp. Who would not be moved at such a sight ? Could the force of human negligence go further ? "What, because we are surrounded on all sides by forests, because these forests hinder the cultivation of the land, because we possess thousands upon thousands of acres of woodlands, must we for such reasons as these burn and destroy the whole ? If a rich man were to fling his money out of the window, as has sometimes been heard of, what should we predict ? Would not every one say that, before long, he would be begging his bread ? The same sad. fate might well be prophesied of the nation, which, because it possesses the finest forests in the world, destroys them from a deliberate purpose. As e"^ery body is interested in this question, let us sec what duty each has to perform who would aid in the preservation of our woodlands. The government should be the first to put its hand to the plough ; then the limit-owners ; the wood-dealers, &c. ; next the settlers ; and, lastly, tourists, anglers, hunters, and all who frequent the forests during the course of the year. (1) (1) 7b hunt, in England, moans to pursue the stag, the fox, the otter, <»r t'.ie hare, with hounds. The idea of a guu is utlerly excluded. ILLUSTRATE!) GUIDE. 11 % 41 CHAP. 11. DUTIES OF THE PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENTS AS REGARDS THE PRESERVATION OF THE FORESTS. In the hands of the different proyincial governments lie the chief means of preserving our forests : I mean the power of legislation. A great part of the woorlknds of the Dominion still remains in the hands of the governments of the different provinces. Our statesmen thus possess the power of doing all that is necessary to protect our forests from decay and ruin. I shall content myself in this plaQe with pointing out the way in which our legislators should proceed with a view to the immediate preservation of our timbered districts. My own opinion is, that a law declaring that, as a genera" rule, no woodland, unfit for cultivation when cleared, shall for the future be granted to settlers, would be the first direction-post in the right road. What do we see now-a-days ? A vast extent of land, utterly valueletis from an agricultural point of view, has been conceded ; the first settlers have cleared off the wood, and have immediately vanished from the scene. Their successon^, dying of hunger on these ungrateful soils, have also vanished, and taken their departure for the stranger's land. There lies the land, stripped for ever of its natural wealth ; utterly useless, and lost to all the ends of rural economy. Had the government retained it in its own hands, it would now be returning a revenue ; wood lor fuel and for building could be sold from it ; and, certain rules for the preservation of the growing timber being observed, the restoration of the forest 12 THE CANADIAN FORESTERS would be insured. The woodmen, too, mis^ht be com- pelled to free the land from boughs, chips, and other wastage, which tend to increase the number of bush- fires. Instead of the sad spectacle of sterile, devastated districts, which now distresses us, we should look upon many a fine forest, ready to furnish all kinds of wood to our descendants. Next, the general fall of timber must be so regulated, that all trees that do not exceed a certain size shall be left standing. If, in addition, the law prohibits the repetition of the fall more than once in ten years, these limits, instead of being worn out, as they are at present, by continued cutting, would be always fit for ex- ploitation. The sa^e precautions as to the removal of the wastage will be necessary here as elsewhere. I will speak more in detail hereafter of the part this wastage plays in causing bush-fires. The settler himself must be the special object of our legislators' attention — as regarded from the forester's standpoint, I mean. When engaged in clearing his farm, the settler is the sworn enemy of the forest. In his blind hatred, he wages direct war with it ; and, as he is the stronger, his axe never pauses till the last tree is laid low. A few years later, if his laud does not turn out to be of the best quality, he is forced to leave it, and to seek a foreign soil ; unless he sets to work to clear, and therefore to ruin, another part of his own country. To put a stop to this evil, nothing would be easier than for the government to oblige each settler to keep a certain number of acres of his farm uncleared. At the end of fifteen or twenty years, he would bless those who had thus forced him to observe the injunctions of prudence. The settled townships would then have all the wood required by their inhabitants, and we should ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 13 no longer see, what is now no uncommon sight, whole regions absolutely stripped of their wood. The settler must also be forced to observe the strictest rules of prudence in the management of the fires neces- sarily employed in the process of clearing his farm. I will treat more fully on this point further on. Tourists, sportmen, anglers, must be watched at least as closely as the settler. I heir abode and their behaviour in the forest must be under the control of strict rules and regulations. Lastly, that the laws in question may be carried out entirely in all the points I have drawn attention to, the forests must be under the superintendence of a well or- ganised body of police. By police, I moan to include the foresters and other agents, whose duty it will be to see that the laws in question be properly applied, and put into execution against all offenders. To Cxown the whole, there should be a penal clause in the act, punishing all contraventions of the law not only with a severe fine, but with imprisonment also. A system based on the ideas which I have just offered to my readers, consideration—some of which have already been incorporated into the law, — ^may, perhaps, not be a perfect system, but it would be an approach to an im- proved state of things. I fancy that legislation has already been initiated in each of the provinces on this matter ; but, unfortunately, the law is not always put into execution. It is therefore important that, on one side, the laws connected with our forests be made as complete as possible, on the other, that the application of the laws be strict and invariable. W THE CANADIAN FORESTER'S ciiAPi r:H III THE DUTIKS OF LIMIT-OWNHHS, LUMBEH-MRnCHANTS, AND OTHERS, AS REGARDS THK PRESERVATION OF THE FORESTS. The government, in passing such a law as 1 have sketched in the preceding chapter, would impose no obligations on limit-owners except, those which it would be their duty to assume, even if they had hot the force of law. To state more clearly what I mean by these obligations, I will quote the exampl*; of a firm which has been engaged in the lumber-trade for thirty years, and which turns its limits to profit in a very intelligent manner, as the following account will show. "When the firm began business, it determined never to fell any tree below a certain girth. Another principle was, not to cut over the same place several years in succession, but to allow ten years, at least, to elapse betweeii the falls. Its servants, too, acted as a sort of police, and watched the hunters, &c., as closely as possible. The result is, that, to-day, these limits are almost as valuable as on the day the firm began operations. Instead of having to buy new limits, as the short-sighted are often obliged to do, the mills have abundant provision of wood from the property of the firm. In fact, the firm is free and independent in its own possessions, employing to great profit their territory, which, treated in this way, has become an almost inex- har 'e source of revenue. "V. cii, what this firm has done, let all do. What is possible to one is possible to all. Let all lumbermen unite in the determination never to fell any tree of a less diameter than a foot, let them allow time for the trees to grow on their limits, let them assist the forest- ILUJSTnATKD GUIDE. 15 ^lardiaiis in prcvontiug lobberies and fires, and their action, united to that of the government, will produce immediate i^ood effects. One of the chief objections, made by certain lumber- men, is, that they have not sufficient control over their servants to insure the follow^ing' out of the plan. This objection does not seem even plausible. Let the lumbermen instil strongljtinto the minds of their head-men the ideas we have put forward, and hold them responsible for their execution. All will then go well ; for the truth is, that up to the present time an incredible amount of carelessness has ruled in this branch of commerce, whence chiefly spring the principal evils which we are combating. CUA[>TEU IV. THE DUTIKS OF SETTf-KM8 AS HKOARDS THE PIJESEnVATION OF THE F0HEST8. It is vain to deny it : our settlers have been more guilty of the destruction of our forests than any other class of men. Dispersed here and there in the bush, obliged to clear and fcow at the most rapid possible rate, the settlers do not go gingerly to work. Axe in hand, the woodman chops away freely, until the piece of land he intends to sow is cleared. Then, he piles up the trees and sets them on fire, it may be in the height of sum- mer, when the last year's leaves and the moss-covered branches are as dry as tinder, only waiting for a spark to set them blazing. Burning-time is come, burn we must, and, in truth, the whole burns together. Soon, the flame passes beyond the clearing ; it runs along the dry leaves which cover the ground, reaching out its fiery tongues in all di rections — the lb rest is on fire ! The first 16 THE CANADIAN FORESTER's victim is the careless settler himself; then comes the turn of the ancient trees which, one after the other, lose their leaves and branches, and remain naked, blackened, hideous, in the desert prepared by the improvidence of man. The passing traveller is horrified at the sight of a waste, where once stood a luxuriant forest. ' My readers know well that what I have just described happens every year in one ormore parts of the province. I have described, above, the means government should use to stop this evil. But the remedy is valuable in proportion to the way in which the settlers themselves aid in its administration. T7hy do they not determine for themselves never to burn without using all possible precaution, and at a season of the year when it would not be dangerous to the lorest. "What is a month's delay, compared with the damage caused by a fire blazing away at an improper season ? So much for fires. A word, now, as to the reserve of wood I wish to see made by each settler. Can a law be necessary to secure this reserve ? Reflection alone, it seems to me, should be enough to induce every settler to keep part of his land uncleared, He, too often, comes from an old parish, where the inhabitants have been accustomed to go nine, twelve, even fifteen miles for their fire- wood, and even further for their lumber. The settler in question has himself done it. And now, right in the bush itself, he forg-ets it all, he sees only the laud he is about clearing, and reflects not that the parish he has left was once in the forest, though to day it is miles away from it. It is time to put a stop to such folly as this. Let every one who takes up a lot of land look out for the worst part of it, and keep it un- touched by axe or fire. The value of the reserve will in a few years double the value of the whole lot. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. fj CHAPTER V. THE DUTIES OP TOURISTS, HUNTERS, ANGLERS, &C., AS REGARDS THE PRESERVATION OF FORESTS. I said, just now, that the settlers themselves are the chief contributors to the forest-fires. Unfortunately, they have active assistants in hunters, anglers, tourists, and others. These stroll through the bush ; they light a fire, to dry their clothes, to cook with, or for some other reason, and when they have done with it, it may go out or not as it likes But a coal remains. The fire has been made on a bed of leaves and moss, and without the slightest precaution. Up gets the wind, all is in ablaze ! And the author of the destruction goes on his way in happy ignorance. How true is all this ! And yet, nothing could have been easier than to have lighted the fire on a site carefully cleared from inflammable matters, to have kept it at a distance from the trunks of trees, and, alter watching it carefully while burning, to have put it out completely before leaving. Simple precautions, these ; they suggest themselves, and yet how few ob- serve them ! The settler who burns his brush, &;c., is excusable up to a certain point. Burn he must, and his fire is not always manageable. But what excuse can be made for the careless hunter who ruins a whole town- ship because he will not take the trouble to extinguish a fire which he himself has lighted, and which is under his own control. No excuse for him : and if the settler deserves punishment, how much more he ! Yes, it is he who should suffer, and severely too. It is he whom the forest-police should watch, for his negligence is the worst of all. Hunters and other frequenters of the bush, be wise. 2 XIV vertigfineuse, bondit et tombe, en flots d'^cume, dans un autre vaste bassin oii il recouvre son'calme et sa limpidity. On con9oit que ces brusques interruptions de cours soient plus Tavorables h rindustrie qu'i la navig^ation. Si elles fournissent des pouvoirs d'eau sans mesure, le parcours des bateaux h vapeur y est fatale- ment limits k des bassins peu dtendus, au grand d«5triment du com- merce. Un jour, sans doute, un systiime de canaux, k biefs pro- fonds, reliant les divers bassins, rendra la riviere partout navigable et unira I'Atlantique aux Grands Lacs--. Jadis les sauvages qui remontaient le fleuve avaient coutume, au pied de chaque saut, de tirer k la rive leur li^g^re embarcation. lis la transportaient sur leurs <5paules jusqu'A la tete du rapide oil ils reprenaient le fil de I'eau. On appelait cela faire portage, et le nom en est demeur^ k beaucoup de rapides. Le premier affluent important du moyen Ottawa est la Kee- pawa. Elle lui apporte I'appoint des eaux d'une vaste region lacustre dont elle est le d^verscir, et tombe dans le fleuve par une chute magnifique. Plus bas, sur la rive droite, d«^bouche la Mat- tawan, jadis frt^querittSe par tous les voyageurs des Grands Lacs et '* des pays d'en haut," destin^e, peut-etre, k redevenir la grande route maritime de I'ouest. A son embouchure, s'^l^ve la florissante petite ville de Mattawa. A partir de ce point le sol devient cultivable (du molns dans la province d'Ontario, car dans Quebec la rive reste montagneuse jusqu'au canton de Sheen) et des fermes clairsem^es apparaissent un peu partout. Au-dessous du rapide du rocher Capitaine et presqu'en face du village de Rockcliff, d^bouche la grosse riviere du Moine qui vient du nord. Quelques millcs plus bas, I'Ottawa se pr^cipite, par la chute des Joachims, dans un chenal protond, taill6 k pic dans la montagne, et connu sous le nom de Riviere Creuse, puis il s'dtale majestueusement en un magnifique bassin, le lac des Allumettes. II y re^oit, k droite, la puissante riviere Petewawee. Sur la meme rive du fleuve s'dleve, en amphith^Atre, la belle petite ville de Pembroke, si^ge Episcopal du vicariat de Pontiac, d'ou Ton con- temple avec ravissement, couch^e au sein des eaux, la fertile et ILLUSTRATCD GUIDE. 19 SECOND PAET. RESTORATION OF THE FORESTS. CHAPTER I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. After having shown, in the preceding chapters, that it is the duty of the state and ot all our citizens to watch over the preservation of the forests, I proceed in my endeavour to prove that their restoration is a no less important work. If a large part of the public domain is still covered with forests, which are as yet almost intact, another part, hardly less extensive, presents to the gazer nothing more than a few clumps of trees half- destroyed by one cause or another; strips of wood gnawed by the flames ; whole townships of land unfit for cultivation almost entirely cleared by the axe, and which, in no long time, will become absolutely of no value to the public. The settlements in the neighbourhood of these places are threatened with a scarcity of lumber and firewood ; and the scarcity is not very distant. In a few years, they will find themselves in the same position as the entirely cleared parts of the Dominion. In fact, it is ackpowledged that a wood half cleared, and left to its own devices, is devoted to destruction. On the slopes of the mountains, the rains carry off the soil from the dealings, leaving nothing but the bare rock. The earth is washed away, and gradually borne off*, leaving the roots of the nearest trees naked, and their subsequent destniction is not long delayed. In places ravaged by the flames, the trunks of the half-burnt trees soon rot ; 20 THR HANADIAN FORESTEn'S • water collects in the cavities formed by the roots of those which the wind has thrown to the ground ; frost raises the surface, and thus loosens the roots of the yo'ung trees ; if the ill-used wood is near settled town- ships, the stock break in, devouring all the tender shoots of the young struggling plants, and stamping to death with their clumsy hoofs the naked roots of the older trees, till at last, by a concurrence of all these causes, the maltreated forest entirely disappears. Now, all this may be avoided, the evil may be cured, and we are about to see in what way each of us can do his part in the patriotic work. CHAPTER II. DUTY OF THE moVlNGIAL GOVERNMENTS AS REGARDS THB RESTORATION OF THE FORESTS. Governments can assist greatly in restoring the forests to their pristine condition. The action they are called upon to undertake is not a direct action, as in the case of the preservation of uninjured woods, seeing that those which require restoration have generally passed out of their control. Nevertheless, they can assist the work greatly. I will relate an isolated fact v/hich will serve to show how our legislators can attain the proposed end. A Horticultural Society in the Province of Quebec, with very little encouragement from government, left, in fact, almost to its own resources, offered certain prizes for the re- planting of woodlands. A farmer, a competitor for these prizes, carried off the first, after showing that he had replanted in maple 62 arpents, (1) whence the wood had (I) 13 arpents— 11 acres, nearly.— Tns. ILLUSTRATEn (.UIDE. 21 almost entirely disappeared nearly 25 years previously. Well, I want to see the provincial governments do what has been done by a simple horticultural society with very few funds at its disposal. In the province of Quebec there are eighty agricultural and five horticultural societies, aided by the govern- ment. Besides these, there are thirty-nine agricultural clubs organised, and in full operation, in the different parishes in the country. Thus, we have one hundred and twenty-four associations of husbandmen spread over the whole extent of the province. Societies of the same class, in greater or lesser numbers, exist in all parts of the confederation. Let the governments of the different provinces devote, every year, a certain sum to be distributed among these associations, which sum shall be given as prizes to encourage the restoration of the woodlands, and the fruits of this timely liberality will soon be apparent. For, if a purely local horticultural society has succeeded in inducing farmers to compete for similar prizes in a country where woodlands are still plentiful, how much more likely should we be to succeed, acting, as we should ))e doing, over the whole country, and with the govern- ments taking the initiative, in those places where there remain nothing but a few half-denuded spots, and where firewood and lumber are both on the point of absolutelv disappearing. This, if I do not deceive myself, is an excellent way of inducing farmers to take precautions against a scarcity of wood, and, in that belief, I submit it in full con- f dence to the attention of our legislators. 22 THE CANADIAN FORESTKn 9 CHAPTER III. DUTIES OF AGRlCI'LTIinAL CLUBS AND SOCIETIES AS REGARDS THE RESTORATION OF THE FORESTS. In the foregoing chapter, I quoted the example of a horticultural society (that of the county of L'Islet, in the province of Quebec) as one worthy of being" followed by the different provincial governments of the Dominion. I would propose the same thing to all the agricultural clubs and societies, of whatever sort, which exist in the confederation. Even if the governments themselves do not take the initiative, the societies ought, for the pure sake of promoting the interests of agriculture, to under- take with heartfelt earnestness the work of the restoration of the forests. Local societies, the agricultural societies of the pro- vince of Quebec, for example, might offer prizes for work of this description done in their respective neighbour- hoods ; and, then, those who had won first prizes would, doubtless, compete for the prizes offered by the county societies, and thus, a noble emulation would be excited among the faimers, not of each locality only, but also of each county. The societies would appoint a committee of judges in each count/, the members of which committee, would be charged with the duty of visiting the forest-lands which had been improved or planted by the competitors, andj after inspection, they would make their report to the societies. All those interested in these competitions would be- come, ipso facto, members of the forestry associations. They would receive advice from them, and follow out their regulations. Thus the societies would grow cod- ILLUSTRATKD OUIDK. ?3 siderably in numbers and influence, an influence which would manifest itself in the course of a few years by magnificent results. But before we get so far, it is neces- sary that the active assistance of the farmer be secured, and how to win this shall bo the subject of my next chapter. CHAPTER IV. DUTIKS OF FAHMERS AS REGARDS THE RESTORATION OF THE FORESTS. The traveller, in passing through the longer-settled parishes of our province, sees, scattered here and there, on the hill-tops, on the slopes of the mountains in the valleys, and in the low-lying marshes, clumps of trees varying in species with the quality of the soil. Here, are found sugar maples, there, poplars ; soft maples, larch, fir, tamarack, cedars ; all, more or less, useful woods. Observing all these thickets, which add amazingly to the beauty of the country, the traveller conceives that the inhabitants of the district possess all the timber necessary lor their wants. A false conclusion ! let him wait awhile, and examine these patches of woodlavid at- tentively. What does he find ? cattle gnawing the branches, and stamping the roots to death. The trees, flourishing enough to a careless eye, are drooping, weakly, half-dead for want of moisture, and on the point of perishing for lack of nourishment. In a few years, they will have entirely disappeared, and the site which they now occupy will be naked and barren. How many of these lovely groves have I seen, young as I still am, where, when children, I and my play- fellows used to wander, listening to the music of the birds, and watching the sportive habits of the nimble 24 THE CANADIAN FORESTER'S squirrels. The gi'oves are gone, though barely twenty- five years have elapsed since we took our pastime therein. The cattle, as I said above, begin the destruction ; the axe of the poor man suffering from the cold of a rough winter's day, carries on the work by felling the already half-dead trees, and the rest, rotten, and with difficulty retaining their hold on the soil, are up-rooted by the fierce blast, and a weary desert occupies the once green and smiling spot. Where the wood is still thick, though the grove may be small, the remedy is easy : enclose it with a fence. I expect to be told that this is impossible, or that the work would be costly, if done on a large scale. To which I reply that, the larger the wood, the better the enclosure would pay, considering the great value it would gain by the growth of the protected timber. The cattle would no longer browse on the shoots, the trees would shed their seed on the ground, the young plants would spring up and take the place of their predecessors, which, when arrived at maturity, or menaced with death from decay would be carried off" to the mill or to the wood-pile. To accomplish this is one of the easiest duties of the farmer. But there is more than this to do. Those who have well-wooded property do not keep it for the mere pieasure of looking at it. Each year, the o wner takes wrhat he requires for his own use. If he does this care- lessly and hap-hazard fashion, in a few years his store will have been expended, while, on the contrary, if he knows how to treat it properly, it will last for ever. Let us see how he should proceed to ensure this durability. First, as before, all cattle should be excluded ; then, no immature trees should be felled — from ten to thirty young trees will be ready to take place of each of those taken away. Indeed, the ground is covered with ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. .' 25 the seeds of the felled trees, and it is by this that the ^ forest are re-formed. A thick brushwood is soon established by the young plants, if neither the hoofs nor the teeth of cattle are allowed to injure them. But here, there is one danger : they should not be left too thick ; they would injure each other, keep off the beneficent rays of the sun, and never become fine trees. Judicious thinning, therefore, should be practised every three or four years. In spite of all precautions, certain spots will suffer; some from fire, some from sudden rushes cf water after heavy rains which carry off" the top-soil, and so on. The vacancies due to these different causes must not be neglected. It is through breaches of this sort that the enemy, sterility, finds an entrance. How shall we op- pose his attacks ? Fill the naked spots by re-planting. Of re-planting I will speak farther on. At present, I must content myself with saying that, to re-plant a bare spot in the middle of a wood, it is only needful to take from the space around it the young trees, which, being set immediately after being dug up, will infallibly take root at once. By treating it in this fashion, every farmer can keep his reserve of bush entire for an indefinite period ; not only for his own life-time, but for the generations that shall come after him, if, be it understood, they continue to observe the same precautions. And it is not only the farmers who are concerned in what I have said about the re-planting of the bare spots being one of the important points connected with the restoration of the foiests. Those lumbermen, who hold timber limits on long leases, ought, for their own sakes, to carry out the re-planting of the clearings as often a3 iociiA.y be necessary. The governments of the different 26 THE CANADIAN FOKESTER 9 provinces ought even to compel them to do it, and the foresters should be obliged, by a regulation passed to that eflfect, to re-plant all clearings which they shall find have been made on the crown-lands. People, doubtless, will exclaim against all this as im- practicable, too costly, eic, but they will be wrong. Lei us look, for our edification, at what the different European governments have done. They would have thought themselves remarkably fortunate if they had nothing but the filling up of bare spots to trouble them. Their enormous outlay was caused by the necessity of re- planting Vi^hole districts menaced with absolute depo- pulation, as well as with entire denudation of wood. Let us take care lest we find ourselves in a like peril ; the steps to avoid which should be taken before it becomes too great. Another operation which will be found advisable in the restoration of the woodlands is the pruning of the young trees, to insure their regular growth, and of the old trees, to insure them a prolonged existence, and to repair any accident of which they may have been the victims. Of this operation I shall give a special descrip- tion when I speak of the establishment of new forests, a subject which will furnish matter for the third part oi my work. iLLL'Si'llATEU (iUlDBi S7 THIRD PAET. PLANTING NEW FORESTS. CHAPT. R I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. It will, perhaps sur{)rise my readers to see that I have remitted to the third division of my book the most im- portant by far of its contents. The reason which induced me to treat first of the preservation and then of the restoration of our forests is this : We have still, fortuna- tely, a large part of our public domain remaining in woodlands lull of fine timber. Our first duty is to pre- serve these forests intact, and, where they have been damaged, to restore them to their primitive .condition. Once assured of the possibility of keeping our rich woods safe, no one will deny that it is our duty to seek to restore them where such necessity exists. When we talk of re-planting, many a one will shrug his shoulders. Those who seem to think it possible that our forests may be ruined, and that, as has already hap- pened in Europe, we may sufter from a scarcity of wood, are treated as pessimists. But in spite of this, there exists very evident proof that the fears of these pretended pessimists are well founded. This proof is, the complete denudation of wood of certain districts of the country — so complete is it, that the firewood used there has to be carried from places more than twenty leagues, and timber for building from places thirty, and even fifty leagues, off. 2i< THE CANADIAN ^ORESTER'S If it be thus in regions full formerly of the finest timber, still more must we dread to see the rest of our forests disappear by degrees. For the truth is, these forests are no better treated than those that have already vanished, and have not only to supply the local demand, but the demand of the cleared districts as well. In order that an equilibrium may be established, and our woods utilised but not destroyed, we must not only preserve and restore them, but we must create new ones, that is to say, we must re-plant. Here, I may say, that almost all that I have stated vvith regard to the preservation of forests applies equally to their creation, such as the system • of prizes for the encouragemer.t of plantincf, and the like. Re-planting is a work repugnant to certain minds. They see very little to encourage them to plant, because, as they say, they will never enjoy the fruits of their labour. They are wrong! I, who am comparatively young, have seen parts of the forest falling under the axe, and replaced by the golden sheaves of the husband- man ; and now I see the spots clothed again with wood, and that very wood onre more in process of felling. I remember well, among the sweet memories of my child- hood, a trip to the sugar-bush. It was in a grove of ancient maples that the little /e7e took place ; I was then in my seventh year. The following winter, those very maples were warming our house, and the owner of th ^ land had carried off a crop grown among the stumps. Pass by the spot in April now, and you will hear the song of the sugar-maker, still engaged in his work, in the same place — but the trees are not the same, they are new ones, shot up where the old ones stood — and all this in twenty seven years ! And yet, the maple is not one of the quickest growing ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 29 trees. The poplar, the willow, the negundo, the larch, all grow more rapidly ; and I know of soft maples that, only eight years from sowing, measure eight inches in diameter at a foot from the ground. Thus, unless he is very old, the planter is sure to enjoy the fruits of his labour. But there is more than this to be considered ; suppose it to be impossible for him to reap the crop of his own planting, there are other reasons which should induce us to re-plant our hills and our barren plains. These reasons are so well displayed in the lines I quote below, that I cannot resist the temptation of placing them b(^fore the eyes of my readers ; the original is a table of Lafontaine: An old man of eighty was planting some trees. Three lusty young neighbors drew near — «' To build would be odd, but still stranger to plant, Our friend has grown foolish, we fear!" " in the name of all conscience," said they, with a smile, " What harvest for you will these bear ? Your age of four-score has no future to boast, Why cumber it thus with more care ? 'Tis only for you to repent of the past, Throw future designs to the air !" Tho old man looked up and sagely replied : " You speak of my hopes and your own ; Life's enterprise, often, is left incomplete. Though begun on the threshold of youth. For fate unrelenting may sport with your hopes. As much as it may with my yi-ars ; The chances of life render equal its span, Though unequal to youth it appears. And which of us, think ye, the last of th > four, Will behold the bright rays of that sun ? Does this moment assure you another is yours To finish your labours begun ? THE CANADIAN FORESTEIl 3 The shade of this tree, Tho' perchance not for me, For others a blessing may spread, As under the branches they tread. Nor would you forbid The prudent provide For others who follow. Howe'er you deride. Such fruit of >mj toil, each day 1 enjoy, As daily for others my 'trenf?th 1 employ And who can explore, What Kate has in store ? For old thoupfh I bi;, with regret I may see, And mourn over, your premature graves." ^U CHAPTER IT. THE PLACES IN WHICH TO PLANT T will class under six heads the lands on which re* plantinj:^ is necessary. • . The first comprises the clearinj^s we meet with in the forests. Of these I have spoken in the second part of this work. These clearings whether caused by partial fires, by the axe, by floods, or by storms, are the open doors through which the destroyers of the forests enter. The soil of the bare spots, parched by the sun, no longer offers the protecting shade necessary to the growth of the tender plants, and it follows, that the seeds which fall from the trees sprout only to wither immediately The trees, still more exposed to the attacks of the wind, are, in addition, ravaged by mice and other rodents, which find a hospitable abode in the grass which springs in the clearings. From the two causes united they perish rapidly ; from the violent attacks of the one, or from the imperceptible operations of the other ; and, as no new (1) 1 borrow these lines from a little work on forestry, published by the flon. M. Joly. iLLUsTnATED .jrjinr:. Jl plant is ready to take the place of the old one, the void enlarges itself, and the ovil goes on increasing. A id for these reasons the clearings should be re-planted. The second description of lands under this head ifi the slopes of the hills and mountains. And this is a vital point. The timber-trees grown on these slopes retain the moisture of the soil. At their disappearance, the water formed by the melted snow of spring, by the summer thunder-storms, by the continuous rains of autumn, raise the soil, no longer kept in its place by the roots of the trees, and carry it down to the valleys below^ leaving the rock naked and despoiled of all its vege- tation Moreover, the water which, while the wood remained, filtered gently through the soil, descending so to speak, drop by drop to the lowlands, being no longer kept in check by the soil, rushes down in torrents ; hollowing out deep ravines in the sides of the mountains, and covering the valleys with its destructive inun- dations. Such is the history of the quasi-periodical floods of France, of Spain, and of other countries where the forests have perished. Enough has been said to show the necessity of re- planting the mountain-sides. Our sons and grandsons will thank us for our care, and for having guarded them from the disasters which recur almost every year in those places where the slopes of the hills and mountains have been denuded of their natural covering. The soils unfit for cultivation come under the third head of lands to be re-planted. Rural economy lays down the rule, that every part of a farm should yield its share of profit to the general stock. Now, certain soils, for divers reasons, are unfit for agriculture properly so called. To grow wood on them is the only way to make them pro- ductive. Almost all these lands are fit for planting, and 32 THE CANADIAN FORESTER'S will produce, if not wood of the first class, at least such as will serve for fuel. Really sterile lands may, with a little care, be con- verted into shrubberies (bocages). Where stone prevails so much as to make ordinary farming impossible, trees can always be planted, except where the bare rock crops out. Lastly, savannahs, bogs, where no possibility of drainage exists, may be planted : the methods to be followed in these places I will describe farther on. In the fourth category I place that part of each farm which forms the reserve of wood for the proprietor's use. Wherever wood has disappeared, each farmer should plant a few acres of trees. For the site of this plantation, he should choose that part of his farm which is least susceptible of cultivation. It is seldom that soma inferior spot cannot be found on a farm. But even where the land is all of first rate quality, it is still ad- visable to plant a piece of it, to put an end to the scarcity of wood. Do not say that this is impracticable ; the thing is done both on a large and on a small scale by our neighbours in the United States, and the results are most satisfactory. Under the fifth head, come the lands which are in- tended to furnish the railroad timber — telegraph-posts, fences, ties, &c. Do not be surprised that I make a special class of lands to be planted for the use of rail- road companies, for they are, without doubt, the main cause of the ruin of our forests. It is by the million of feet that we must reckon the quantity of wood felled each year to supply only the ties and sleepers that sup- port the rails. The sleepers last but a short time, and need, therefore, frequent renewals. The marvellous development of our network of rail- ways, forewarns us of a time not distant, when we sh ill ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 33 see the Dominion furrowed over its entire surface with iron roads. The North West esip^ially, which is rapidly filling up, thanks to the rush of immigrants which is approaching from all parts, will be covered with a vast network of roads, which will require for themselves alone a greater supply of wood than all the rest of the Dominion put together. Now, the North West has not much wood. It is to the other provinces, already in difficulties for their own consumption, that the North West must look for supplies of the necessary material. It is time, then, before scarcity and ruin arrive, to set before our capitalists the example of certain companies in the United States. There, especially on the Pacific slope, the Americans have planted millions of trees to furnish sleepers and other requisite materials. Our com- panies should do the same, and do it at once. I am ac- quainted with certain parts of our woodlands, in tha neighbourhood of our earlier lines, which cannot, even now, furnish wood of the size proper for these require- ments. And how will it be in twenty-five, in fifty, in a hundred years from this time? There will be scarcity, ruin, not only for the companies but for the whole Dominion. In a sixth category of lands for planting must be placed the prairies of the North West. Every one knows that in Manitoba and in the great North West, there are large districts without any timber. A few miles of woodland along the rivers are the sole wood-resource of the colonist ; but the quantity is very small compared with the forests of the other provinces of the Dominion. For three principal reasons, it is absolutely our duty and our interest to sow and plant trees in these regions : First, because wood is wanted for the firing and buildings of the population. If wood is already scarce 3 84 THE CANADIAN FORESTEn'S in the North West, what will it be when the present l)Oi)ulation has increased a hundred fold? It may be said with truth that, if things go on as at present, in twenty years from to-day there will not be enough wood found there to make a match-boXo Their population is increasing in an inconceivable ratio, and the demand for firewood and timber increases proportionally. In this lies the danger, and a pressing one it is, of not being able to preserve the equilibrium which should exist between the expenditure of wood, on the one side, and the capacity of production of the Canadian forests, on the other. It is, therefore, a matter of the highest importance, that the planting of the proper districts of the North West should be set about at once and on a large scale. The second reason why planting trees shouUl be prac tised is furnished by the counsels of science. Meteorolo- gists, whose occupation it is to determine the origin of tempests, and to give an account of their causes and effects, have shown that wood-denuded countries are exposed to terrible tornadoes at certain seasons, followed by hot, drying winds most injurious to Aa^getation. As regards the tornadoes, these are due to the freedom with which th3 wind sweeps over vasts tracts of land where, for hundreds of miles, not a single obstacle is presented to its course. It is for this reason, that a wind, of no very great initial pace, finds means to develop into a terrific storm, if it finds nothing to impede its progress and its swiftness. On the other hand, the absence of trees causes the soil, which is always exposed to the ardent rays of the sun, to lose the moisture which the violent storms of whiyh I have just spoken have com„ municated to it ; and it necessarily follows, that the land is exposed to the extremes of drought and wet, than which there are no two things more injurious to vegetation. i;:.ias»^- List of the principal species of forest-trees ment UOTANICAL NAMES— LATIN. Abies alba Abies Amuricnnu Abies balsnmitcra Abies excelsa Abies nigra Acer dasycarpum Acer pensyivunicum Acer rubrum Acer saccharinum Acer spicalum ilisculus hippocaslanea... Hetiila cxcelsa betuia lenta Retula nigra Betuia papyriCera Botula pendula laciniala . Betuia populiloiia Car|)inus americana ~ Carya alba Carya amara Carya glabra Carya niicrocarpa Cnrva tomnntosa Cnstauea vesca Fnpns sylvatica Fraxfmis Americnna Fraxinus pubescens Fraxinus sambucifolia Fraxiniis viridis Gymnocladus Canadensis. Juglans clnerea -i... Juglans nigra .luniperus Virginiana Larix Americana Liriodendron tulipifera.... Negundo Iraxinifolium...., Ostrya Virginica Pinus Banksiana Pinus mitis JMnus resinosa Pinus stroba. Platanus occidenlalis Populus alba Populus balsamifera Populus Canadensis Populus grandidentata .... Populus pyramidalis Populus tremuloides Qup-^-'us alba Quer:.us castanea Quercus coccinea Quercus macrocarpa yuercusprinus Querens rubra Quercus stellala Quercus tinctoria , J{ohinia pseudo-acacia .... Snlix alba Salix mproa f/entiula Salix vitellina Sorbuy Americana Thuya occirtentaiis Tilia Americana Tsuga Canadensis Ulmus Americana TJImus fnlva ENGLISH NAMES. White Spruce Boiible-balsam llr Balsam (Ir Norway spruce Black spruce Silver inupio Striped maple Red maple Sugar maple Mountain maple [iorse-chestnut Yellow birch Black birch Ued birch Canoe birch Cut-leaved weep ng birch Poplar-leaved birch Hornbeam Bitter hickory Shell-bark hickory Small fruit hickory Pignut White-heart hickory Chestnut Beech White ash lied ash Black ash Greon ash ColTee-tree Butternut Black walnut. Ited Cedar Tamarack — American larch.. Tulip-tree Ash-leaved maple [ronwood Banksian pine Yellow pine Norway pine White or Weymouth pine ... Button-wood White poplar Balsam poplar Cotton-wood Large-toothed aspen Lombardy poplar American aspen White oak Yellow chestnut-oak Scarlet oak Burr oak Swamp chestnut oak Red oak Post oak Quercitron oak Locust-tree White willow Idlmarnock weep'ing-wUlo'w Yellow willow Mountain ash Arbor vita; Bass-wood— Lime-tree Hemlock White or American elm Slippery or red elm , BOTANICAL NAMtS — FHbNCH. Epinette blancho Sapin d'Amerique , Sapin baumier Epinelte de Norvege ~ Epinette noire ,. Erable i fruits laineux Erable jaspe Erable rouge Erable a sucre Erable a 6pis Marronnier d'Inde ^ Bouleau i'lanco Bouleau merisier Bouleau noir Bouleau u papier Bouleau blanc europ^cn Bouleau a feuilles de peuplier Charme d'Amerique Garyer amer CarytT blanc Garyer glabre Garyer a petits fruits Garyer loinenteux Chauiignier d'AnivM'ique iCh Hfilre commun Ib^ P Si Si E G !•: B( l> El El M M .\I H( M Ik lie CI N( \( No Pe No frfine d'Amerique I'rfiue pubescent Frftne a feuilles de sureau... Frfine vert Ghicol du Canada Noyercendre Noyer noir Genevrier de Virginie \f61eze d'Amerique Tulipier de Virginie Vegondo a feuilles de fi-fine. Ostryer de Virginie Pin des rochers Fr HpincUc de Norv^ge. Grosse ^pinotte Eriible blanche. Bois barre. Plaino. Erablo u sucro .... lilrnblo bAlarde.... Marronnier Merisier blanc Merisier rouge .... liouleau noil' Bouleau a canoi.. Uouleau pleureur. Bouleau rouge .... Cliarme Noyer tondre Noyer dur Noyer brun Petite noix Nnix blanche eriquB ilJhatuignier. All the provinces. Ail the provinces. All the provinces. Foreign, but acclimaUsed. All the provinces. Quebec, Ontario. All the provinces. All the provinces. Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island, All the provinces. Foreign, but acclimatised. All the provinces. All the provinces. All' the provinces. Ail the provinces. Foreign, but acclimatised. All the provinces. Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island. Quebec, Ontario. Quebec, Ontario. Ontario. Ontario. Quebec, Ontario. (Jnlario. iHiHre .' jQuebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island. e sureau. Frfine blanc. Frfine rouge. Frftne noir... Fr6ne vert .. Chicot Noyer tendre pnie le lie s de frfine. ie Noyer noir Ontario. ttda da s dorits. ible. is. Gedre rouge Epinette rouge Tulipier Erabic a Giguieres Bois de fer Pin gris Pin jaune , Pin r^sineux Pin blanc Plalane do Virginie Peuplier argente Baumier Liard Peuplier F^euplior de Lombardie Tremble Ch6ne blano Ch6ne jflune (Jhfine ecarlate Gh^ne a gros fruits {^h6ne de marais All the provinces. Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island. All the provinces. Manitoba. Quebec, Ontario. . Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia. lers cid Kilmarnock. Ontario. All the provinces. ' , Ontario. Manitoba. Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island. All the provinces. Quebec, Ontario. All the provinces. All the provinces. j Quebec, Ontario. Foreign, but acclimatised. All the provinces. All the provinces. Quebec, Ontario. New Brunswicic, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island. Foreign, but acclimatised. All the provinces. . ^ Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia. Ontario. Ontario. Manitoba. > le Ontario. Ch6nerouge 'Qu''bec Ontario, New -Brunswick, Nova-Scotia. • '•• Ch6ne gris Quebec, Ontario. Ch6ne noir .Ontario. Foreign, but acclimatised. *' ■ All the provinces. Foreign, but acclimatised. All the provinces. All the provinces. Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island's, Manitoba Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Manitoba. Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island All the provinces. Quebec, Ontario. Acacia Saule Saule pieurtnir Saule jaune , Gormier— Maskouabina Gedre blanc " Bois blanc Pruche Orme blanc Orme rouge la laciniala, or European weeping birch ; Populus alba, or white poplar; popnhis pyramidalis, or Lombardy popla.s; Bobinia nseudo. 3d in the li?t because they are mentioned in the chapnT on the cultivation of ornamental trees. The Norway spruce, also an exotic. adian forester's Guide." NAMES OF THB PROVINCES WHERE THE SPECIES IS INDIGENOUS. All the provinces. All the provinces. All the provinces. Foreign, but acclimatised. All the provinces. Quebec, Ontario. AH the provinces. All the provinces. Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island. AH the provinces. Foreign, but acclimatised. All the provinces. All the provinces. All' the provinces. All the provinces. Foreign, but acclimatised. All the provinces. Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island. ' Quebec, Ontario. Quebec, Ontario. Ontario. Ontario. Quebec, Ontario. Ontario. Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island. All the provinces. Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island. All the provinces. Manitoba. Quebec, Ontario. « Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia. Ontario. Ontario. All the provinces. ' , Ontario. Manitoba. Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward's Island. All the provinces. Quebec, Ontario. All the provinces. Al' the provinces. » Quebec, Ontario. ILLUS'I RATED GUIDE. 35 The third and last reason is suggested by the fact that treeless regions are much more exposed than others to the periodic invasions of certain destructive insects, such as grasshoppers, of which the inhabitants of Manitoba have often had to complain. If to this be added the demands of hygiene — that the atmosphere should always contain a certain amount of moisture, and that trees should abound, here and there, in all countries, to serve as filters to purify the air from the quantity of putrid emanations it contains — my readers will be convinced that it is absolutely necessary to the well-being of a country abounding in prairies, that a judicious system of tree-planting in fit localities should be immediately put in practice. CHAPTER Iir. WHAT TREES TO PLANT. The necessity of re-planting the wood-lands, having been, I hope, demonstrated to your satisfaction, and the diiFerent soils and localities fit for the work described, let us now consider what kinds of trees we ought to select for the purpose. It is not advisable to go beyond the indigenous trees, that is, those which grow naturally in the country. It is true that there may be some chance of success with certain kinds of trees which, though not natives here, are indigenous in countries which enjoy almost the same climate as our own. Still, these kinds are few in number, and besides, their use would be experimental, and con- sequently, hazardous ; so that, if they are tried at all, it should be on a small scale, and purely as an experiment. But it is far otherwise with our magnificent native IMILLU 36 THE nANAHTAN FORESTER'S species ; no risk is run with them, as they are sure to sncceed in every spot where they are found to be indigenous. In order to shed more light on the next part of my work, I append a list of all the different species of forest-trees of which I intend to speak ; in this list will be seen the botanical name of each species, in French and Latin ; the common or trivial name, in French and English ; with a note pointing out the province or pro- vinces in which each is indigenous. The list has been composed with the greatest care ; and in order to avoid mistakes, and nothing is easier thiin to make mistakes m treating of so special a subject, I have trusted almost entirely, in drawing up the list, to the information furnished by a publication essentially Canadian : La Flore Canadienne, by M. I'abbe Provancher. CHAPTER IV. A SHOPT DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST-TREES COMMON TO ALL THE PROVINCES OF THE DOMINION. That the reader may the more easily form a judgment as to the value, the habits, and the characteristics of the trees of our country, I will give, here, a short account of the different species, beginning with those w^hich are common to all the provinces, proceeding, afterwards, to enter more into detail in describinsr those which belonsr more distinctively to each individual province. Two great divisions distinguish, botanically, all tbrest-trees : they are either deciduous or evergreen ; that is, their leaves are shed in the autumn, or they retain them persistently throughout the year. The latter characteristic is common to all conifers except the larch ^ which sheds its leaves in the fall. I shall, therefore ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 37 divide the chapters describing the forest-trees into two sections : the first comprising the deciduous trees, the second the conifers. « SECTION I. DECIDUOUS TREES. ' , The following varieties of deciduous forest-trees are common to all the provinces of the Dominion : Acer Pennsylvanicuin Striped-maple. Acer rubrum..., Red-maple. Acer sacchf.rmum Sugar-maple. Acer spioatum Mountain-maple, Betula excelsa Yellow-birch. Betula lerita , Black-birch. ■ Betula nigra Red-ljirch. Betula papyrifera. Canoe-birch. Betula populifolia Poplar-leaved bireh. Fraxinus Americana White-ash. Fraxinus sambucifolia Black-ash. Populus balsamifera = Balsam-poplar. Populus Canadensis Cotton-wood. Populus tremuloides American-aspen, Salix alba ....White-willow. Salix vitellina , Yellow-wilk w, Sorbus Americana Mountain-ash. TJlmus Americana White-elm. Acer Pennsylvanicum — Striped- Ma pie. "When speaking of the Mountain-maple, I say that it should be preserved in the numerous hilly districts where it is found, and allowed to shoot again from the stump ; and so with the striped maple. It servesth e same purpose as the other, namely, to prevent the earth from being washed away, and the rock from being denuded of its covering. It is never found more than twenty feet high. Engraving No. 1, p. 38, shows the leaf of this maple and engraving No. 2, same page, its seeds B8 THE CANADIAN FORESTER S Acer Rubrum — Red-3Iaj)le. After the suj]^ar-inaple, the red maple is the most valuable. It differs from the former in that it prefers a damp habitat. Seldom more than fifty feet high, 2 — Seed of striped-maple. I. — Acer Pennsylvanicum Leaf of slriped-maple. it ripens its seed in June, and the sooner after maturity this is sown the better. Rarely can good seed of this tree be bought, as if it once gets dry, it is worthless. With a sap less rich in sugar, the wood oi 3.— Acer rubrum — Red-maple. the red maple is also inferior to the wood of the suo^ar- maple, but, eii revanche, it grows much more rapidly. The colour of its flowers gives its name to the tree. The ILLUSTRATKD GUIDE. 39 seed is distinguiished from that of other maples by measuring one inch from wing to wing, while the others measure two inches ; and the colour, too, is reddish, , 5 — Seed of red maple. 4 , — I^eaf of red maple. whereas the colour of the other maples is yellow or whitish. The cut 8, represents the red-maple ; the cut 4 the leaf, and the cut 5 the seed. Acer Saccharinum — Sn gar- Maple. The most interesting tree of this part of the world. The numerous good qualities of this species, its useful- ness in joiners', cabinet-makers', and cartwrights' work, fc. — Acer sacch.-»riniim — Sugar-maple. its goodness as firewood, and the value of its sap, con- taining, as it does five per cent of sugar, together with the unrivalled beauty of its foliage, have caused its adoption, 40 THE CANADIAN FORESTEI'.'s. conjointly with the industrious beaver, as the emblem of the French-Canadian nationality. The sugar-maph- delights more especially in hilly districts, and in spotf^ where the soil is dry, stony or gravelly, rich and light. Sandy land suits it least of all. The seed ripens in autumn, and should be sown at once. It might succeed if kept in dampish sand all the winter and sown in spring. The appearance of the seed is peculiar ; it is like a double samarre with wings opposite each other. A pound contains eight thousand seeds, which should be covered 8. — Seed of sugar-maple, 7. — Leaf of sugar-map'.e. one inch deep when sown. Slow enougn is the growth of this tree, particularly at ^rst, but when mature, it arrives at a height of eighty feet, measuring three feet in diameter at the base, and sometimes even more. Fine plants from self-sown seed are often found in the under- wood ; they are easily transplanted, and take almost invariably. It is a mere waste of time to attempt to set out large tre s of this species : th«y hardly ever succeed. Engraving (>, p. 39, represents the sugar-maple, engrav- ing 7 the leaf and 8 the seed of this maple. Acer Spicatum — Mountam-MujiJe. This kind of maple, common enougn in ^^/^^S^ this country, never grows above fifteen feet high. I only mention it because it does well '■~f.hwn°pie-'" i^^ ^I'y I'oeky soils, and on the slopes of moun- '"^«"'""' tains. In these spots, it should be allowed to grow from the stump after cutting — a natural habit of ILLUSTHATED GUIDE. 41 lo — Uetiila-exceK;! — ^■c•llo\v birc 42 THK CANADIAN TonESTER S this tree. Engraving No. 9, p. 40, shows the seed of the Mountuin-maple. Betvla-excehd — YclUnr-hirch. Betula-lenta — Black-birch. Betula-nigra — Red-hirch. Betula-papyrifera — Canoe- birch. Betyla-poputifolia — Poplar-leaved-birch. Almost nil the birches having' the same characteristics as regards their cultivation, I proceed to give a 1 1 — ^Yellow-'birch, leaves, branch and catkin. description \vhi(di will serve for all the above-named ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 43 kinds, pointing out, however, where necessary, any dif- ference in their treatment. Cool, sandy soils best suit the birch. As its roots do not descend far, it does not require deep land. Its sap, which is abundant in spring, contains about one per cent of sugar. The seed ripens in autumn, and may be sown either then or in spring ; but us it is rarely ripe before November, it is generally necessary to wait till the latter season before entrust- ing it to the ground. If the seed is buried in damp sand, and kept in a cool place, it will preserve its germinating power for six months. A pound of this contains about four hundred thousand seeds, not more M. — Yellow birch — Seed magnified. 13. — Butula lenta — Black-birch — Branch, leaves and seed-uod. than twenty per cent of which will grow ; it should, therefore, be sown very thickly, on land in a roughish state, and only covered slightly by a pressure of the foot. If every thing goes well, the young plants will appear above ground in a month, and at the end of a year from sowing, they will have attained a height of 4'i THE CANADIAN FORESTERS three inches, when they may be transplanted into the nursery, to be iinally set out in their permanent resting place when they are from two to three feet high. The poplar-leaved-birch, at maturity, arrives at a height of about thirty-five feet, and the canoe-birch measures sixty feet by two feet in diameter ; while the yellow-birch attains fifty feet by one foot, the black-birch seventy leet by three feet, and the rod-birch fifty feet. I do not think these birches will pay to grow from seed, but they ought 14 — Fraxinus Americana — White-ash. to be i>reserved and cultivated in places where they grow naturally in succession to a fall of wood composed of resinous trees, a very common, if not a universal, occur- rence. It may also answer to plant birch where moist sandy lands are to be found near a wood of these trees, in v>"hich a crovv^d of young plants are grovv^ing naturally. Plants of three years old, which can be recognised by the bark beginning to whiten, should be selected for this purpose. The white birch furnishes the material of ILLUSTHATED GUIDE. 45 which the famous bar k-rn noes are built ; it is a favourite wood for making- boot and shoo-pej^s, as well as the reels 15. — Leaf of white-ash. x6 — feed of white-ash. or spindles on which thread is wound ; and it is also used for making paper-pulp. The black birch is considered excellent as fire-wood. The engraving No. 10, p. 41, represents the yellow birch ; No. 11, p. 42, shows its leaf on the branch with its catkin, or seed-pod ; No. 12, p. 43, shows the seed, enlarged ; and No. 13, same page, represents the branch and leaf of the black-birch, with its catkin. . Fraxinns Americana — White- Ash. This ash rejoices in rich, deep soils, rather damp than otherwise, and shuns soils that are dry and too hard. 18. — Seed of black-aslk 17.— Fraximv? nigra— Leaf of black-ash. At maturity, it attains a height of eighty feet by two feet, and sometimes more, in diameter. It is a quick grovfer, and, in good soil, it has been known to measure thirty feet by seven inches in diameter twenty years from sowing. Cartwrights, coopers, and common cabinet- makers, are always glad to get this wood, of which, 46 THE CANADIAN FORKSTKll S except as to these detuils, all that I have said about the black ash may bo predicated. Engravings No. 14, p. 44, and No. 15 represent the tree and leaf, and engraving- No. IG the cecd of the white-ash. Fraxinm Sambudfolia — Black- Ash . Low, damp, marshy plac(\s suit this tree. The seed ripens in autumn, and, should be sown immediately, if possible, but in this country, particularly in Quebec and Manitoba, it had better be kept in moist sand, and the sowing deferred to the spring, though, in this case, the 19. — Populus Canadensis — Cotton-wood —Leaves. seed sometimes takes a year to sprout. It w . id be better to sow where the trees are intended eventually to stand, rather than in a nursery-bed ; four or five grains should be deposited at intervals of four feet each way, and it would be as well to sow Indian corn or some other plant with the ash-seed, to check the growth of weeds and to afford shade to the young trees. A pound of ash- seed contains about twenty thousand pickles, eighty per ILLUSTHATED f.lMDR. 47 rent of which ought to grow. One inch is deep onouirh to bury it. If it must be sown in a nursory- beil, it should be two years old before transplantation. Should the seed come up sparsely, there is no need to be discour- aged, for it sometimes hapi)ens that eis'h-=°-^«''"*" cotton. ~ ' ^ ^ ~ wood, with lull ol teen months elapse before the whole g-erm- '^"«'"- inates. The black ash attains a height of about seventy- five feet, and its special characteristic is, that its leaves <'ome out very late in spring, and fall very early in autumn. Though slow in gi-owth, this tree is useful for barrel-hoops, &c., at a very early stage of its existence. One of its good qualities is, that it sprouts very rapidly from the /stumps after felling ; and, consequently, if 21.— Populus trciuuloiiles — Leaves of the aspen. stock are hindered from browsing iipon it, a good, thick underwood is soon formed, which only requires to be kept clean and trimmed to become a useful wood. The leaf of the black ash is deplete 1 in the engraving No. 17 p. 45, and its seed in No. 18, yame page. 48 THE CANADIAN FORESTER's Popiilus Balsamifera — Bahdm-Poplar. Pop /this Cdnadeii- nis — Cotton-ivood. Populus Trent u I aides — Atiterituitb Aspen. As all the poplars have pretty nearly the same characteristics as regards forestry-work, I will content myself with giving a description that will answer for all the above-named species, except where a special peculiarity may seem to demand our notice. Poplars like a cool, light soil. I do not recommend thorn for all situations ; but for some districts, and particularly for Manitoba, I cannot sufficiently press their cultivation ; •^ for, wherj wood ii—sca.rce and the d^rmand immediate, the rapidity of their growth and the facility of their villi i ^ik 1) MM I \. \.OAiW,n ,M iirt > "^mmmmmmm ?Trfii'\rT'?Tr 22. — VVi'llow-hedgc. transplantation, render the poplar a most valuaDie tree Besides, from the ease with which they are propagated from cuttings, they are found useful wherever they grow. They are planted in company with hickories, oaks, and walnuts, to protect the young plants by the shade they afford. Cuttings are made in this fashion : the wood is divided into pieces two feet long ; the end which is intended to enter the orround is bevelled, or cut en bisetui and is buried so deep that only a very little of the cutting is above ground. Wood of the year, or of tw* years old, may be used for this puri)Ose. The cuttings should be mirde after the fall of the leaf, and set, at once, where they are to remain, at a distance of four feet apart between the rows and livo feet in the rows, provided ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 49 that poplars alone are to be set out. The land must be hoed and cultivated for the first three years. These trees are often found occupying the land as a second o-rnwth, after the clearance of a forest of conifers. Where nothing better is to be had, this second growth may be cared for, as it costs nothing, and furnishes a fair fire- wood in a very short time. I cannot recommend my 23 — SaHx .nlba — \vhite- willow. readers to sow poplars ; still, for the information of amateurs who may wish to do so, I may mention that the seed ripens early, in June, and tnmt be sown at once in a damp soil. Very little covernigis needed. It sprouts quickly; and if the young shoot is not visible in a few 4 ill 60 THE CANADIAN FORESTER S days, the odds are that it lacks moisture, a want always irremediably fatal. The balsam-tree grows to sixty feet high by two and a half in diameter ; the white-poplar to eighty feet high— a very fine irt'e. it is, too— the cotton- wood, reaches forty feet by one in diameter. The only one of these valued for its wood is the white-poplar, though the cot ton- wood furnishes good pulp for the manufacture of paper. Engravings No. 19, p. 46, and No. 20, p. 47, re- present the leaf and seed of the cotton-wood, and No. 21, p. 4Y, a bough and the leaves of the American pen. «^.— Leaves of the white- willow. Salix Alba — White WiU.oir. Salix Vitellina — Yellow- wil I oio. The willows, though, according to some, they may not be indigenous in the country, have so spread them- selves throughout it, that they are able to dispute the rights of the original occupants of the soil, and on this account, I shall treat them as autochtkenes, and class them as such in my general list. The willow delights ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 51 in damp, light, alluvial soils, in valleys and on the banks of rivers ; it grows vmll in strong land, and even in clayB, and in the very worst soils it manages to get along. In fa/'t, you cannot put them out of their place. They will grow from seed, which, ripening in spring should be sown at once and slightly covered, but they are always propagated by cuttings, just like poplars. The white- willow grows to a height of sixty feet, but the yellow never exceeds forty. Their growth is mar- vellously quick, and, under good ordinarv conditions, 35.— Salix V tellina — Leaves of the yellow-willow. these trees have been known to attain a height of thirty feet by one foot and a half in diameter in ten years. As a firewood, the willow is preferable to the poplar and the fir, and has the advantage of beating both of ihcni in rapidity of growth. It is hardly right to talk of the willows as forest-trees ; their principal use is to act as nurses to the more delicate species, which, in their early days, require protection against the sun and wind. They IlK 62 THE CANADIAN FOHKSTEnS . 26.— Sorbus Americana — Mountaiu-ash with seeds. ILLl'STRATKn niJIDE. 53 are, also, very useful when planted on soils subjt^ct to be worn away by streams, which flood them in spring, and by the ice brought down by rivers. The willow is much employed to retain the earth on the naked sides of mountains, and to obstruct the rush of those des- tructive torrents which carrv off the soil from the declivities and slopes of hilly lands. 27. — Leaves and flowers of the Mour.tain-ash. When willows are cut for firewood, it should be done noHard-fdshion, an operation which I will explain when I tome to treat of tree-pruning, and which I recommend especially to the attention of the settlers on the North West prairies. Live hedges, and verv strong if not prettv ones, too, mav be made from the w^illow, and every three or four years they will lurnish a fair firewood. Cuttings are made as usual, and are inserted in the ground a foot apart. A hedge is thus formed in two years, which is doubly useful : as a l'*nce and for the V 54 THE CANADIAN FORESTEM S stove, which hedgij is shown in engraving No. 2'1, p. 48. But instead of standing two feet out of ground, as in the eng. it were better that thi> cuttings should be driven almost entirely ought of sight. Engrjwing No, 2o, p. 49, shows the white-willow, engraving No. 24, p. 50, shows a branch and leaves of the same, and No. 25 a branch and leaves of the yellow^-willow. Sorbus A fii ericnna — Mountain -Ash . This tree is of small importance to the forester. It is found mixed with a crowd of other si>ecies in cool, :2 — Tjt,«,,o Arn<'nrnna — American elm, mountainous places. Seldom more than twenty- five feet high, the mountain ash ripens its seed in autumn, seventy- five thousand of which seeds go to the pound. V xiiiisiiy pi^ScjrV'ovi ab liiio i.3, it were uettcr licpt ottuu. , i.\ji vvhvx* oiiv;c dry, it g:rmin.it:^r: witk difHciiItv. The v/God of the mountain-ash is hard and compact, ILLUSTRATED GTIIDE. 55 but as it never arrives at a large size, it is of small utility. It is grown more as an ornamental tree than anything else ; and, thanks to the lovely trusses of creamy flowers which it bears in spring, to be replaced in autumn by pretty bunches of red fruit, which hang on the tree all the winter, no more charming denizen of our shrubberies can be found. The engraving No. 25, 29 —American elm — Leaves and seed. p. 52, shows the mountain-ash and engravin<]C N^- 26, p. 53, its leaves and flowers. Ulmvs Americana — White Elm. The moist, rich, alluvial soils, which occur on the banks of rivers, are favourable to the growth of this tree. June sees the ripening of the seed, which should be sown at once, and covered very slightly. In less than a month it is up, and it reaches a foot in height the first season. Fifty thousand pickles are found in a porsid of PC» X-«T '■VI I r» *^ /^ >n 1 4-iTrrt4"/-fc#i o Inrt /%c?f like the maples. Seventy feet by three and even four il 56 THE CANADIAN FORESTER'S feet in diameter is the size of this tree at maturity. It grows very quickly, and specimens have been found twenty-five feet high by five inches in diameter twelve years from sowing. Young plants, taken up in the forests where, the soil being suitable to the elm, they grow in great numbers, may be transplanted success- fully the first year. The wood of the elm is much sought after by the cartwright, in spite of its tendency to ghrink {tro^ailier). Engraving No. 28, p. 64, shows the American elm, and engraving No. 29, p 55, its leaf and seed SECTION II. CONIFEROUS TREES. Of the varities of coniferous trees montionod in the general list, the following are those which are common to all the provinces of the JJominion : Abies alba White spruce. Abies Americana :. Double-balsam fir, Abies balsamifera. Balsam-fir. Abies excelsa Norway spruce. Abies nigra Black-spruce. Larix Americana American larch. PinusBankaiana Cypress. Pinus resinosa Norway jjitie. Pinus strobus Weymouth or white-pine. Abies Alba — White- Spruce. The white-spruce grows freely in almost every soil, and delights especially in those that are cool and gra- velly. It does not do so well in soils that are damp, and dies off soon in strong clays. The land need not be deep, for this tree has no tap-root— its roots are all laterals. Thouffh the seed, which can be kc[;t for two or even three years, ripens in autumn, otill, it is advinnble to ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 57 sow in spring the seed of the previous year, of whiijh one pound contains about fifty thousand pickles, eii^hty per cent of which g-erininate under ordinary conditions. The seed is winged, as ma}'' be seen in the engraving : this is. a common characteristic of the familv, as of all the firs. They are contained, like those of all the conifers, in cones composed of overlapping scales. Sow thicklv. 30.— A 1 hies alba — White-sprucc. and cover shallow with good mould, and then press the soil down : this is called p/omher, in techni(^al terms of the art. The seed germinates in three or four weeks, and at the end of the season the plant will measure three inches. The nursery-bed should be sheltered from the direct rays of the sun, and to this end it is covered with a trellis of laths sufficiently high to admit a man to hoe. Two years after planting out from the seed-bed, it is 58 THE CANADIAN FORESTER S filially transplanted into its permanent location, being thon throe or fonr years old. The white spruce attains a height of about fifty feet, and a diameter of two feet at the base. Forests composed . f J^ ^f.X ■"••^L^aves and cone of whitespruCi of these trees may be felled every ten or fifteen years for lumbering purposes, provided that all trees less than a foot in diameter ha left standing. AVhite spruce makes fair firewood and good building timber; but it soon rots if exposed to the air, and, viewed from this point, is inferior to pine. The quality of the wood depends entirel}" on 32.— Winged the soil in whch the tree is grown. Engrav- spruce. ing No. 3), p. 5Y, shows the white spruce. No, 81, a bough, and No. 32, its seed. Abies Americana — Donb/e-B'ihant-Fir. Abies Bahamifera — Ba(sam-Fir. The fir, a very common tree in this country, prefers a moist soil, and doos not disdain a marshy one. The seed, which matures in th3 fall, must bo sown at once, as it easily loses its germinating power, and ILLUSTHATEIJ fiUIDE. 59 even if treated thus, not more than twenty-five per cent will grow. Forty thousand pickles are found in a pound of seed ; it takes live or six weeks to come up. Fifty feet is the heii^hl of the balsam-fir, by one foot in diameter ; but the double balsam-lir grows to sixty feet, and is easily distinguished from th.^ former, since it has not, like it, vesicles tilled with resin- 33 — Abies balsamifera -Balsam-fir. ous gum, and is, in addition, loftier in growth, though the leaA^es and cones are shorter. The two varieties are often found growing together. The fir grows quickly, and is very useful in young plantations of tender trees, as a protection against the wind, especiaTly in damp places, where no other coniier would grow. The wood of the fir is almost valueless ; for fiiingilis hardly worth {')() Tf»E CANADIAN FOIiESTElt S .more than the poplar. The balsam-iir produces a gum called, ill common parlance, s^ntnine de sapin, and known in medicine aci Canada balsam. Engraving No. 33, p. 59, 34. — I e.ives and cone of balsam-fir. rc^presents the balsam-fir. No. 34 one of its boughs, and No. 35 the seed. Abies Excehd — Noncny Spruce. Here is an exotic whi<'h, in my opinion, deserves a place among the conifers litted for cultivation in all the provinces of the Dominion. This fine tree seems to be so well inclined to become acclim' atised in our country, that I have thought it right to enter it in the list of our indigenous trv'(>s. It is hardy, presents a magnificent ap- pearance, and reaches a height of one hundred 85— Winged feet. It is easv of transplantation, and of rapid seed of bal- i i ' i • • • -• sam-fii intheo-rowlh -«lthouii"h it la »aia to Start slowly; riasK ot tlie >--' _ - •'^ <=°"^- a fault which I have proved to be unjustly laid to its (^harge. Tt has been known, without special care, ILLIJLSTIIADKI) (ir^DE. 6t to attain a 'heii>-ht of thirty-four fuet by fifteen iu'-lics in diameter at the l)a.s(\ in twenty-four years. One quality of this tree is to throw out extremely strong Literal ])ranehes, which makes it hiy-hlv suitable ^,^. .iuus i-xccl-<.i iNui way spruce. for wind-oreaks round orchards, nurseries, or permanent plantations of walnuts, oaks, &c., And this is the pihi- cipal reason v/iiy I reoommoiid i'.> t/altivatioa. There Ib one Doculinritv in its \vood : it. is fit for use before it 62 THE HANADIAN FORESTEH S reaches a foot in diameter, which is not the case with the other spruces. As regards other matters, includinf^ its cultivation, all that I have said about the white 37. — Leaves and cone of Norway spruce. spruce applies to the Norway spruce. Engraving No. 36, p 61, shows the Norway spruce ; No. 37 represents one of its branches, and No. 38 its seed. Abies Nisjcra — Black-Spruce. Every thing I liaA^e 'said about the white-spruce is applicable to the black-spruce. The only marked differences between the two kinds are, thut the black-spruce, in suitable soils, attains a height 38— Seeds of of hundred feet, and is a little inferior to the Norway i • i i • p ■ spruce, other m the quality 01 its wood lor the joiner's use. With the tender shoots of the black spruce is made the -noted spruce beer, the favourite beverage of the Canadian during the summer mo' 'hs. The engraving No. 38, p. 63, represents a bough of the black spruce, with its cone and seed. ■ ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 63 Larix Americana — American Larch. The larch delights in low, damp, and even marshy places. The seed' ripens in autumn, and is preserved, like the s -ed of other conifers, in moist sand. About thirty thousand pickles go to the pound. This tree, which grows rapidly, is seventy feet high at maturity, and, twenty years from sowing, furnishes dimen ion timber from forty to fifty feet in lencrth. Sow in spring. 3S. — Leaves, cone, and seed of black-spruce. and in two years t"me, when the plant will be about a foot high, transplant it into the nursery. Its final trans- plantation should be done very early in th ' spring. This is absolutelv essential, for the tree starts into growth with the first thaw, and is then very diffimlt to trans- plant. As the ground will not be shaded for the first four years, the hoe and grubber must be kept going all the time. Larch-wood is strong and heavy ; hence, it was employed by thi farmer for fence-pegs and harrow-teeth, before iron was used for the one purpose, and wire for 64 THE CANADIAN FORESTER S the other. The property which larch possesses of re sisting- the influence of watjer, causes it to be a favourite timber with ship-builders. A great deal of it is used for railroad sleepers, for which purpose it becomes large enough in twenty four years from sowing. I strongly recommend the cultivation of the larch to all our 39. — Larix Americana — American largh. ftirme^s, and more especially to railroad-companies. The tree of the American larch is shown in engraving No. 89 and the seed in No. 40, p. 65. Pinf/s Bftn/isiaf/a — Banksian pine. Pinus Re^mosa — Red- Pine. Pinna Strobns — IV/iite or Weij mouth Pine. The pines are the most important of all the trees with which the Canadian lumberer has to deal. The Canada white-pine is the most valuable of the three species which are most frequently met with in the Dominion. Cool, damp soils suit it, but it will do well in light, ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 65 sandy soils with a clay subsoil. Plains of arid sand may be advantageoiisly planted with this tree, the seed of \<'hich takes eighteen months to ripen ; it is collected in autumn and sown in spring, placing not more than half an inch of earth upon it. Grermiiiation takes place, generally, in thirty days, but, occasionally, the plant re- mains invisible for twelve months. A pound of white-pine seed contains ten thousand pickles, and 40.— Winged seed of Ameri- can larch 41 — Pinus strobus— Weymouth, or white-pine, a pound of red-pine seed, forty thousand. They grow very quickly, and may be set out in the nursery two years from the seed. AVhen the time of final transplan- tation arrives, they should be planted at a distance of eight feet, every way from tree to tree, and the vacant THE CANADIAN FORESTEn S spaces should be filled up with two or three willows or poplars, in fact with any quick-g-rowing trees which may be cut six or seven years afterwards. In fourteen years, the white-pine may be expected to fur- nish timber thirty-five feet high by nine inch^-" in dia- 42. — T.eaves and cone of white-pine. meter, on an average ; and in twenty-six years, fifty feet by eighteen or twenty inches, may be looked for. The Canadian white-pine attains a height of from one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and forty feet, with an average diameter of seven feet. At the Centenary ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 67 Exposition, at Philadelphia, a plank of this wood was exhibited, eight feet four inches wide, by nine inches thick The red-pine does not grow to the same dimensions, hardly ever exceeding seventy-five feet, neither is its wood of so fine a quality. Dry, sandy land is its favourite. Rock-pine is only men- _^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ tioned here for the sake of recommending ""'-'" ''"^'*^°'^^°"*- its preservation and use where it grows naturally. It is worth hardly anything, from a commercial point of 44. — L,e xves and branch ( f red-pine. view, except for firing. Poor, stony soils suit it, and it rarely exceeds forty feet in height. Engraving No. 41, p. . 8 1, represents the leaf, and No. 65, same page, the seed of the tulip-tree. Osf >•//(( Virg'tmca — Iromnood. Thirty feet is the usual height of the iron wood, which rejoices in rich, high places. For information regarding 6o — Jtiglaiis cinerea — Butternut. this tree, see the remarks on the American hornbeam ; the hard, tough wood of the iron wood answers for the same purposes as that of the hornbeam. Engraving No. 66, p. 82, represents the leaf of the iron wood, and No. 6^ same page, its seed. ILLUSTHATEl) (.IMDE. 79 Platan //s Orrif/enfa/is — But ton-wood. In rich, alluvial soils, and on river-banks, this tree does well. Eighty feet is its usual height. The seed ripens in autumn, and keeps well in a dry state. Spring" is the proper season for sovsing it, and the covering of earth should be slight. A pound of the seed co .. . is about three hundred thousand pickles, of w^h^ch uuout twenty jx^r cent. grow, ^"hen young, the plants require protection, but they may be set out in the nursery at the end of a year ; and three years from sowing may occupy the place of their per- 61.— Leaf and nut of butteniut. manent abode. The button- wood is said to grow as fast as the poplar, and is equally suited to the system of propagation by cuttings. Its Avood is, in quality, &c., equal to that of the maple ; and as an ornamental tree, it is very beautiful. Engraving No. 68, p 83 displays the leaf and seed-ball of the l)utton-wood, and No. 60, p. 84, the seed-ball with a seed. * PopNlns Grandidentata — L'trg'e-toothed A sjkh . This poplar rarely exceeds a height of forty feet by fifteen inches in diameter. The details of its treatment will ho found in the chai)ter devoted to a summary of the species common to all the provinces. m 80 THE CANADIAN FORESTER S Quercus Alba — TVIiite-oak. Quercus Casfanea — Yellow- Chestnut-oak. Quercus Coccinea — Scarlet-oak. Quer- cus Prinus — Stvamp- Chest nut-oak. Quercus Rubra — Red-oak. Quercus Stellata — Post-oak. Quercus Tinct- oria — Quercitron-oak. The white-oak rejoices in deep, heavy land, not too damp. In stony soils the chestnut-oak does well. The 63. — Juglans nigra — Black-walnut, quercitron-oak loves dry land ; the scarlet-oak, rich land ; the post-oak loves an alluvial soil, and the scarlet, has the same tastes as the white-oak, only it is less afraid of moisture. The s.^ed, or acorns, of the quercitron, the scarlet, and the red sorts, takes two years to ripen ; but the others mature in the autumn of the first ILLUSTIUTED GUIDE. 81 year. The seed, one hundred to the pound, may be sown in the fall, or preseVA^ed till spring in damp sand, kept cool. Sow exactly as advised for the hickory, and cut off the tap-root in the same way : the result of this , treatment will be identi<'al in both cases. To 63, — Leaf and nuts of black-walnut. make this operation the clearer, I offer an eng-raving No. *70, p. 85, of a year-old oak with its tap-root, another, No. 71, p. 86, the same without the tap-root ; and a third, No. 72, p. 87, depicting it a year after thv*? ampu- tation. It will be seen, by the last cut, that the excision 65. — tSecil uf tttlip-trce. 64. — Liriodendmr. tuUpifenim— Leaf of tiilip-tree. of the tap-root has had the effei^t of causing the plant to throw out a great number of hairy rootlets, by means of which it has been able to assimilate a greater quantity of nourishment in a given time. In its youth, the oak, like the hickory, should be mixed with other species for B 82 THE CANADIAN FORESTER's shade mid shelter. The seedling becom(\s about a foot high the first year, and may be transplanted a year from the amputation of the tap-root. The ultimate height of the different oaks is as follows : the white-oak, seventy feet by four ; the chestnut-oak, sixty feet ; the quercitron eiu'hty feet ; the post oak, fifty feet ; the swamp-chestnut oak, one hundred feet ; and the red-oak grows as large as 66. — Ostry 1 Virginic.i — Iron wood. the white, but not so high. Slow grower as is the white oak, it is said to reach, in twenty four years, a height of twenty five feet, with a diameter of two feet at twelve inches from the ground. Thus, in these few years it be- comes of great value for building, and is worth sowing, even by those who look to reap a profit in their own life- time. The ship-builder, the ploagh-maker, the cooper, all value highly the timber of the oak, a)\d it furnishes excellent firewood. The inner bark of the quercitron sup- plies the dyer with a yellow-dye — hence its trivial nam e—Z)/yt of the scarcity of pine. Sleepers, or ties, for railroad use are derived from it ; but they are of very inferior quality In tan- neries the bark of the hemlock is much used, and this <^ nS^'^xvi .^, ^^V IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 7 /. :/ 5r «/. '"m 1.0 I.I 1.25 [riM IIM ^ ■" 112.2 ti 2.0 1.8 14 ill.6 e. VI ^ ^ :¥' c^J ^ > ^v o 7 /A ,\ iV N> ■^^\^^V^ ^S4 w^ ^^ z-^ 88 THK CANADIAN rORESTEH S is one of the principal causes of the rapid disappearance of this tree ; for, unfortunately, bark is harvested for sale to the tanners, and the unhappy tree is left to pe- rish where it lies. Eng*. 9<), p. 10;'), shows the hemlock- spruce, and No. 97, p. 107, represents a bough, with the cone, of the same tree. 73 — Quercti"! alba — White-oak. 74.— Leaves of whi:e-oak. 75.— Acorns of white-oalf. Thus, the sylvan flora of Ontario, regarded from the forester's point of view, and setting" aside, as I have done, all the tshrubs and the comparatively useless trees, is composed of the following species : Abies alba White-spruce. Abies Americana Doul)lo-ljal3am lir. Abies baisamifera Balsam fir. Abies excelsa Norway spruce. Abies nigra Black-spruce. Acer dasycarpum Silver-maple. Acer Pennsylvanicum Striped-maple. Acer ru brum Red-maple. Acer saccharinum Sugar-mapl^, Acerspicatum Mountain-maple. Belula excelsa Yellow-birch. Betula lenta Black-birch. Betula nigra Red-birch. Betu... jMpyrifera Ganoe-bin-h. Betula populifolia Poplar-leaved birch. Garpinus Americana Hornbeam. Caryu alba Shell-bark hickory. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 89 Carya amara ..Bitter-hickory. Carya microcarpa Small-fruit hickory, Carya glabra Pignut. Carya tomentosa VVhite-hearl hickory, Castane I vesca ]hesl lut. Fagus sylvalica Beecli, Fraxinus Americana White-ash. Fraxinus pubesceiis Red-ash. Fraxinus sambucifolia Black-ash. Gymnocladus Canadensis Coiree-tree. Juglans cinerea Butternut, Juglans nigra Black-walnut, Juniperus Virginiana Red-cedar. Larix Americana American larch, Liriodendron tulipiferum (1) Tulip-tree, Ostrya Virginica Ironwood, V Pinus Banksiana ». Cypress, Pinusmitis Yellow-pine, , Pinus resinosa Red-pine. Pinus slrobus Weymouth or white-pina, Platanus occidentalis Button-wood. Populus balsamifera Balsam-poplar, Populus Canadensis Cotlon-wood. Populus grandidentata Large-toothed aspen, Populus jlremuloides Amerisan aspen, Qaercus alha While-oak, Quercus castanea Chestnut-oak. Quercus coccinea Scarlet- jak. Quercus prinus Swamj-jhestnut oak, (2) Quercus rubra Red oak. Quercus stellata Post«oak. Quercus linctoriii Quercitron-oak, Salixalba .While-willow. Salix vitellina Yellow-willow, Sorbus Americana Mountain-ash. Thuya occidentalis Arbor vitae. Tsuga Canadensis Ilemlock-sj.ruce. Tilia Americana Lime-tree -Bass-wood Ulmus Americana American elm, Ulmus fulva Red- Im, (1) A droll name— literally " tulip-bearing lily-tree " I -Tas. (2) Quercus prinus is in England called the holm-oak.— Trb. 90 THK CANADIAN FORES lEU's All these species are found over almost the whole of Ontario, except the American chestnut, the black-walnut, and the Virginia tulip-tree, which are onh^ met with in in the S. W. part of the province. 76. — Quercus casianea — Yellow-chestnut-oak. Ontario might enter with prolit upon the cultivation of the green-ash and the iiegundo, or ash-leaved maple, both of which are indigenous in Manitoba, but answer perfectly in the other provinces. A de.scrijition of these two trees will be found in the chapter on the sylvan flora of \ .litoba. • ILLUSTRATED PtUIDE. 91 CHAPTER VI. FORKST TREES INDIGENOUS IN THK PROVINCE OF QV BKC. I have described in the two preceding chapters all the forest-trees belonging to the province of Quebec. All that remains is to give a distinctive list of them, and to point out the districts in which they grow naturally : Albies alba White-spruce. Abies Americana Duuble-balsam flr. Abies balsamifera Balsaratir. Abies excel?a Norway spruce, Abies nigra Black-spruce. . Acer dasycarpum Silver-maple. Acer Pennsylvanicum Striped-maple. Acer rubrum Rt^d-maple. Acer saccharinum Sugar-maple. Acer spicatum Mountain-maple, Betula excelsa Yellow birch. Betula lenla Black-birch. Betula nigra Red-birch. Betula papyrifera Canoe-bir.h. Betula populifolia Poplar-leaved birch. Carpinus Americana Hornbeam. Carya amara Biiter-hickory, Garya alba Shell-bark hickory. Carya tomentosa While-heart hickory, B'agus sylvatica Beeeh. Kraxinus Americana Wlnte-ash. Praxinus pubescons Red-ash. Fraxinus sambucifolia Black-a>h. Gymnocladus Canadensis CofTee-tree. Juglans cinerea Butternut. Larix Americana American larch. Ostrya virginica Ironwood. Pinus Banksiana Cypress. Piuus mitis Yfllow-pine. Pious resinosa..., Red-pine. • ^^ Pinus strobus Weymouth ov white-pine. Platanus occidentalis Button-wood. Populus baUamiCera Balsam-poplar. 92 THE CANADIAN FORESTER's Populus Canadensis Gotlnn-wood. Populus grnndidenUita Large-toothed aspen. Populus tromuloides American aspen. Quprcus alha Whito-oak. QutTcus rubra Red-oak. Quorciis stellata Post-oak. Salix nlba White-willow. Salix vitellina Yellow-willow. Sorhus Americana Mountain-ash. Thuya occidentalis Arbor vi tee. Tilia Americana Lime-lrce or bass-wood. Tsuga occidentalis Hemlock. Ulmus Americano American elm. Ulmus fulva Hed-elm. Some of these species are found in very part of Quebec ; success, therefore, may be looked for everywhere in 77. — l/Caf of yellow- chestnut-oak. 78 — Leaf of qiierciisJinctoria — Quercitron-o.TK. 79 — Acom of quercitron- oak. planting them, if the quality of the soil be such as is demanded by nature for their free growth. The sub- joined list contains the names of the trees in question : American larch. Aspen. Balsam-poplar. Black-spruce. Canoo-birch. Mountain-ash. Norway spruce. White- spruce. The following species are found almost everywhere in the province as far as Mingan, on the north bank of TLLUSTRATED GUIDE. 98 the St. Lawrence. The Rock-pine, howev^er, is an excep- tion : it is hardly ever met with above Quebec ; Arbor vilae or white-cedar. Balsam-fir. Black-ash. Black-birch. Double-balsam fir. Poplar-leaved birch. Red-birch. Red-.i sh. Red-pine. Rock-pine. White-pine. Yellow-birch, Yellow-pine. As far as the Saguenay, the following occur: American elm. Lar|j;e-toothed poplar. Mountain-maple. Red-maple. Striped-maple, Sugar-maple. White-willow. Yellow-willow Leaving Cap Tourmente, the following species join the others : . American ash. Hemlock. Ironwood. Limctree. Red ojrk. Ascending the river from Quebec, the following species, in addition to the above-named, are found : Beech. Butternut. Hornbeam. Post-oak. White-oak. And lastly, in the western region of the province, from Three Rivers onwards, we find the following eight additional species : Bitter-hickory. Button-wood. Coffee- tree. Cottonwood. Red-elm. Shell-bark hickory. Silver-maple. White-heart hickory. I may mention here two trees, which though not in- digenous in the province of Quebec, are proved by many experiments to be easy of cultivation in our latitude as far as ninety miles below Quebec : the black-walnut y and the negundo or ash-leaved maple. Of these two, the black 94 THE CANADIAN FORESTER'S walnut is. as every one knows, of irreat value in com- moree, and the other, the nei^undo, has the remarkable quality of great precocity, sugar being furnished by this tree at seven or eight years old. The bhuk-walnut has been described in the ('hai)ter on the species belonging 8o, — Quercus coccinea — Leaf of scarlet-oak. 8i. — Acorn of scarlet- oak. 82. — Quercus prinus — Leaf of swamp chestnut oak. to Ontario, and the negundo will be deschbod in the chapter on Manitoba, wh'*re it is indigenous. ClIAPTKR VII. FOREST TREES INDICENOUS IN NEW BRUNSWICK AND NOVA SCOTIA The species peculiar to these two provinces have btn^n already named ; the whole of them being comprised in AV 83.— Q\iercus rubra— Leat *'4 — Acorn. of red-oak. the sylvan iloru of Ontario. Below, will be found a com- plete list : Abies alba White-spruce. Abies Americana Double.bal?am fir. Abies balsamifera Balsam-fir. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 0ft Abies excolsa / Norway sprnce. Abies nigra Black-spruce. Acer Pennsylvanicurn Si ri peel-maple, Ac«T rubrum Red-maple. Acer saccharinum SiigJM-iiia|ile, Acer spicuiuin Muuntain-mapio, B<'tula e.\ct'l?a Yellow-birch. B'tulalonla Black-birch. Bflliila nigra Ked-birch. Betula paj)yrifera Canoe-birch. Botula populifolia Poplar- leaved birclw Carpinus Americana Hornbeam. Fagus sylvatica Beech. Fraxinus Americana White-ash. Fraxinus pubescens Red-ash. Fraxinus samiiucifolia Black-ash. Jiiglans cinerea Buiternut. Larix Americana American larch. Ostrya Virginica Ironwood. Pinus Baiiksiana Cypress. Pinus resinosa ~ Red-j)ine. Pinus strobus Weymouth or white-pinflb Populiis balsamifera Balsam-poplar. Populus Canadensis Cottonwood. Populusgrandidenlata Large-toothed aspeu, Populus tiemuloides Ami-rican aspen, Quercus alba Whiie-oak. Quercus rubra Hed-oak. Salix alba Whiie-willow. Salix vilellina Yellow-willow. Borbus Americana Moun'ain-ash. Thuya occidi-ntalis Arbor vitae. Tdia Americana Lime-tr e or bass-wood. Tsiiga occidentalis Hemlock. Ulnius Americana American elm. All those species are found over nearly the whole ex- tent of the two provinces, except the white-oak and the butternut, which do not grow in the southern districts, and the arbor vitoe which disappears entirely in Nova Scotia. 91 THE CANADIAN FORKSTKH's CHAPTER VIII. FOREST TREES INDIGENOUS IN PRINCE EDWARD's ISLAND. Prince Edward's Island contains the following species, all of which have been already descril)ed : Abies alba While-spruce. Abies Americana Uouhlt-liulsam fir, Abies balsamifera Balsain-lir. Abies excelsa Norway ppruce. Abies nigra Black-sprucr. Acer Pennsylvnnicum Striped-mapli'. Acer rubrum Red-raaple. Acer saccharinum « Sugar-maple. Acer spicaium Mountain-maple. Betula exct'lsa Yellow-birch. Belula lonla Black-birch. Bftula nigra Red-birch. Belula paj)yrifera Canoe-birch. Beiula popidifolia Poplar-leaved birch. On rpinus Americana Hornbeam. Fagus sylvatica Beech. Praxinus Americana While-oak. Praxinus pubescons Red-oak. Praxinus snmbucifolia Black-oak. Larix Americana American larch. Ostrya Virginica Ironwood. Pinus Banksiana Cypress. Pinus resinosa Red-pine. Pinus strobus Weymoulh or while-pin«t Populus balsamifera Balsam-poplar. Populus Canadensis Colloii-wood. Populus grandidentata Large-toolhed aspen, Populus tremuloides' American aspen. Salix alba Whle-willow. Salix vitellina Yellow-willow. Sorbus Americana Mountain-ash. Thuya occidentalis Arbor vitao. Tsuga Canadensis Hemlock. Ulmus Americana American elm. All these are common over the entire island, except ILLL'STHATED (IIIDK. y? the arbor vitcn, which only ^rows spoiitain'ously on the west side. 85.— Tilia Americana — Lime, basswood. CHAPTER TX. A SHORT nESnUPTrOV AND A LIST OF THE SPECIES INDIGENOUS IN MANITOBA. Three species, not indigenous in the other provinces, are found in Manitoba : Fraxiims viridis (irecn-ash. Negundo fraxinirolium iJox-eldcr. Quercus macrocarpa Biirr-oak. Quei'cus mdcrocdi'iHt — Ht/rr-imk. The acorn of this tree is mmh Uirger than that of the other oaks (whence its name, large-fruited — Trs.) It is its only absolutely distinguishing mark. k.\\ that I have 7 98 THE CANADIAN i; Uliiiti IKU said of the oak in tho prt^opdinir chapters applies to this oiiH. Em:rrMviiig No. 98, p. 107, shows the acorii of the burr-oak. * Frnxinua vin'dis — Green-Ash. This is smaller than th«^ white ash, hut in every other respect its qualities are the same, though its ufrowth is more rapid. ' In fact, it is said to increase in size as fast as the negundo, a dcscri])ti()n . of which tree I append. The green- ash prefers a rich, deep soil, and is perfectly suited to forest-culture 86.- Leaves of Americin lime, j^ ^he prailicS of thc Wcst. Its wood is used for the same purposes as the wood of the other kinds of ash, and its treatment will be found in the chapters on that tree. Kngraving No. 91>, p. 107, represents the seed of the green-ash. Negnndo — Ask-leared maple. The qualities which make the negundo so valuable are its rapid growth and the su^gar-yielding properties *of its sap. At thirty years from seed it arrives at maturity, measuring, usually, thirty feet in height. The seed, which it American lime, beglus to yield at three yji^ars old, ripens in autumn, and should be sown at oiice ; the following year the plant will be one foot high. Five years from sowing, trees of this species have produced sugar ! Some people, who evidently know nothing about the matter, deny that the negundo affords sugar. All that 1 have said about the red-maple (the plane), applies to this tree. I recommend the cultiv^ation of the negundo, in Quebec and Ontario, as being very profitable, and it should be. IIJ-lJSTnATEl) ftUIDE. 99 triod ill Uw other provincoK as well, whore it will pro- ]ni})ly meet with success. Eiigraviny N'a JOG, j). 108, represents the negundo, hut not as it appears in the forest. The picture is taken I'rom nature ; tho original, an ornamental tree, stood alone, and, in consequence, extended its branches much more widely llum usual. Engraving 101, p. 100, shows its seed. 88. — Ulmus fulva — Red-elm leaves. The folloAving trees are comprised in the sylvan ilora ^f Manitoba : A.bies «ll»a W}iitp.«?prur.'. Abies Arncriiiiiia I)oublt'-!i.ilsam llr. Abies lialsamiftTa Hulsam-lir. Abies excelsu Norway sj)ru(:<'. AbiRS nigra .". HlacK-spruof. Acer Pennsylvaiiif*uin Strijx'ti.niaiilp. Acerrubrum Herl-maple. Acer spicatum.. Mountaiii-niaple. netula excclsa Yi'liiiw-birnli, Betula lenta ninck-liinli. Betulanigra Hed-Jjirch. Betula j)apyrifera Canoe-birch. Betula ])opulifolia Poplar-leaved birch. Fraxinus Americana White-ash. Fraxinus viridis Green-ash. 100 THE CANADIAN FORIiSTER's Praxinus sanibucifolia Black-asli. Larix Americana Am'tican larch. Nogundo fraxinifoliuin Box-eliJer. Pinus Banksiana C.ypress. Pinusresinosa Hed-pine. Pinus strobus Wpymouth or whiU>plne. Populus balsamif<>ra Balsam-i)oplar. Populus Canadensis Cotton-wood. Populus Iremuloidos American asj)en. Quercus raacrocari)a Burr-oak. Salix alba ; White-willow. Salix vitellina Yellow-willow. Sorbus Americana Mountain-ash. Thuya ocfiidentalis Arbor vilae. Tilia Americana Lime — bass-wood. Ulmus Americana American elm. All these are found in every part of Manitoba, except the maples, the white pine, and the lime-ti^e or hast^-uiood, which are only to be met with in the south-west part of that province. CHArTER X. RECAPITULATION OF THE SEVEN LAST CHAPTERS. The reader has now attained to a full knowledge of the sylvan flora of the Dominion of Canada. He knows w^hat trees are common to all the provinces, and those which are peculiar to each province. An exact* idea of the habits of each tree, as well as of its uses, has been 89.— Seed of red- . . - . . . • -i elm. gained, and the species best suited to his own plantations are familiar to him. Before going any farther, I will state in figures the results of the preceding chapters, so that the richness of each province in forest-trees may be brought clearly before our eyes in a botanical ix>int of view. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 101 Twenty-six varieties of forest trees are common to all the provinces of the Dominion ; of these eig'hteen are deciduous, and the remaining eight coniferous. . —J uiiiperiis Virginiana— Red-cedar. In Ontario fifty-seven varieties are met with, forty- four of which are deciduous and thirteen conifers. There are forty-seven varieties in (Quebec, tliirty-seven deciduous and' ten conifers. 102 THK CANADIAN FOHESTER's New Brunswick shows thirty-eight kinds, twenty- seven deciduous and eleven conifers. AVe find in Nova Scotia thirty-seven varieties, and of these twenty-seven are deciduous and ten conifers. Prince Edward's Island presents to our view thirty- four sorts, of which twenty-three are di^ciduous and eleven conifers ; while Manitoba, the poorest of all the 91. — Leaves and seed of red-cedar. provinces, can only produce thirty-one species, twenty- three belonging to the deciduous kind, and the remain- ing eiffht to the conifers. Thus, from our point of view, the sylvan flora of the Dominion of Canada comprises sixty-one varieties, of which forty-eight shed their leaves in autumn, and the remainder, thirteen in number, are evergreens. As a useful ta])le for reference, the following list ia appended : — ILLUSTHATEI) GUIDE. 103 PROVINCES. Ontario Qiieboc New Brunswick Nova Scolia Prince Edward's Island. Manitoba Tiie whole Dominion DECIDI^OUS Sl'ECIES. CONIFERS on EVEHCREENS. TOTAL. ■ii 13 57 37 10 47 27 11 38 27 10 37 23 11 34 23 8 31 48 13 61 I have thought it right to include in my list of names every tree of any value ; it being understood that I by no means recommend the cultivation from seed of all the •92.— Pinus mitis — Leaves of yellow-pine. species ; still, I name them, because it often happens that in the neighbourhood of land entirely ^ cleared of wood, outlying parts of the " forest are found containing young plants A mk of different sorts which, though of no • 1 1 ,1 p93« — Seeds of yellow- special value, may serve the purpose 01 pine. re-planting. After a fire, or a complete clearance, has taken place, too, a species may, and often does, spring up, which, thougl. difficult of cultivation from seed, 104 THE CANADIAN FORESTER's when growing naturally, as in this case, produces ex- cellent results and deserves preservation. 94.— Thuya occidentalis— Arbor vilse. We now arrive at the general principles of forest- restoration, and of the cultivation required by the new forests which are thus produced. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE 105 CHAPTER XL NATUKAL IlESTORATION OF THE FORESTS. Extensive districts, long cleared of their forest-growth, friiquently cover themselves again with wood, if care is taken to aid nature in her operations. G-enerally speaking, plains and i damp marshes, where a few wretched stunt- ed trees show themselves here and there, 95--se«is^^ofarbo^- are susceptible of this treatment. Drainaore, by means of deej) open-ditches of sufficient frequency to admit of the 96 — Tsuga CunadensLs — Hemlock. trees growing, if not of perfectly drying the land, is the only thing necessary. The moment that this has been done, a multitude of little trees will spring up. which were only waiting for this amelioration to show them- selves ; and the new growth is usually so prolific and so 106 THE CANADIAN FORESTEU S rapid, that we should be inclined to call it spontaneous, did we not know h >w long seeds would lie dormant in the ground, until all things necessary for their growth were present. The same thing occurs on certain hill- sides, where, protection being afforded against the teeth and hoofs of cattle, their hoary heads soon become crowned with a wreath of luxuriant A^erdure. In the parish where I was born, I know of a wood of larch growing in a marshy spot which, twenty-eight 9 . — Hemlo k kaves and cone years ago, was perfectly naked. Now, song-birds of every kind meet there, sixty feet between heaven and earth — the proprietor being M. Rossignol (nightingale). So much for the natural re-wooding of marshes. As for the hill-sides, I can bring forward, in support of my statement, the glorious greenery under which the students, who have succeeded o.vr generation in the :^-\.q^ shades which surround the College of St Anne Lapoca- tiere in the Province of Quebec, amuse themselves. This hill, fifty years ago, was covered with a growth of little spruces, which, thanks to th? care they have received, have now developed into lofty trees. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 107 What has been doro by nature and care in the two cases I have just cited, may be done in many places cii a more or less extensive scale. A little study of tha aspect and soil of the land intended to be re-wooded, will show if there be any prospect of obtaining a natural new growth of wood. If the examination demonstratea 99. — Fraxinus viridis — Seed of green-ash. 99. — Quercus macrocftrpa — Acorn ot burr-oak. that art must be employed, the system of replanting, W'hich I am about to describe, must be had recourse to. (niAPTEli XII. A WOllD ABOUT SEEDS. "When once it has been determined to establish a plantation, the first thing to be done is to look out for the easiest way of getting young plants. There are three means of obtaining them : 1st, sowing the seeds in beds for su])sequent setting out in nurseries ; 2nd, buying plants from nurserymen who make a business of raising them ; 3rd, digging up the plants from the forest where they grow naturally. If you prefer sowing the seeds, you must learn where to get them, and the method of treatment required by them. 108 . THE CANADIAN FOHESTER S Seeds are of three kinds ; each of the three demanding a different sort of treatment, viz., nuts and acorns, hard seeds, and soft seeds. Nnls (wahiut.s) should be sown, if possible, as soon as they are ripe. If the sprinj^ must be waited for, the nuts will keep if laid in damp sand and kept in a cool place (a cold cellar will do) ; or, better still, kept out of doors, covered thickly with straw, leaves, etc. In this (;ase, TOO. — Negundo fraxini folium — Ash-leaved maple. though, you must look out for mice and squirrels, who are very fond of these delicacies. Hard seeds are the peach-stones, pips, etc. We need not trouble ourselves about them, as they have nothing to do with our design, and I only mention them to establish their order and classification. Tlie roft seeds comprise the seeds of all the coniferous and deciduous trees except those mentioned under the two preceding heads. •Most of these keep well enough in sand, if placed in a coot, but not a cold, place. Some, however, want sowing as soon as they are ripe, as the fir, the silver-maple, the plane, the elm, the poplar, and ILLUSTRATED GUIDK. lUli the willow, as well as most of the ash-tribe, if they are expected to show themselves the first year. The seeds of the conifers will sprout mu<'h sooner if they are steeped in hot water four or five dayy before sowing. The water must be changed every day, to avoid fermentation, and the seeds should be mixed with fine, dry sancl, to facilitate the operation of sowing. I should not advise novices to collect their own seed. Even experts do not find it an easy job. 8till, the seeds of ash and maple are not difficult to recoirnize and collect, and it would be well to try to gather in the woods for ourselves the seeds of the fir, the red- and white-maple, the elm, the i)oplar, and the willow ; for these all lose their power of germination in a very short time. Bify them of seedsmen, and you stand a good chance of their never coming up. For the rest, they may be bought with advantage from men who make a special business of collecting them, and whose x^rices are relatively moderate, running from one dollar to three dollars a pound. The latter price is rarely exceeded. I have stated, in species, the rumber of pickles in a pound of seed of each variety, and special information has been given as to the treatment of each sort of seed. -Seed of ash- leo veil ni pic. describing the CHAPTER XIII. SEED-BEDS AND NURSERIES. The cultivation of trees from seed is, comparatively, very easy. If the following hints be remembered, no one no THE CANADIAN FORKSTliR's will find any difliculty in providing himself with plants of several sorts of troos in the course of one or two seasons. The proposed methods are those practised in the United States, but modified to suit our climate. The nursery will be of no great cost, and it will furnish young trees enough to plant one or two acres of land. The system usually practised is to sow the seed in a seed- bed, and, subsequently, to set out the young plants in a nursery. But we must not forget that, as I have stated already, walnuts and acorns should, if possible, be sown in the place of their permanent abode. The seed-bed. — Choose for the seed-bed a piece of rich land, well dug and raked fine, and as Iree as possible from weeds. Over this construct a lattice-work high enough to permit of a man working underneath it. This is to serve for the protection of the young plants, during the first summer, against the rays of the sun. It may be covered in with laths, matting, etc. The young conifers are especially in need of this shade, and nature herself affords it them in the forest, where the seedlings are in- variably protected by trees of larger growth. How to sow. — Sow in drills six inches apart, and sow without regard to economy : in other words, sow thickly. To get through the work quickly as well as accurately, make a rake with teeth rather long and thick and six inches apart ; you will find this implement an excellent marker. As a rule, the seeds should be covered very slight- ly ; in fact, they should be not nearly so deeply buried as garden-seeds. It is recommended to sow very late in. autumn or early in spring ; but, as most seeds ripen very late, it is almost always necessary, in Quebec and the other provinces of the same latitude, to wait till spring. In these cases sow as early as possible, and take care that the seed is of the best quality. I have already given TLLlSTnATED r.UIDE. ill the namos of those seeds which must be sown imme- diately they are ripe, under pain of an unsuccessful issue. The ground should be well trodden after the sowing is done. If, after sowing, drought prevails, copious waterings should be given ; and frequent hoeings will be necessary as soon as weeds ap\>ear, for these are the worst enemies of the tender little plants. The hoer cannot be too care- ful in his work. Nursery. — The land intended for the nursery should be as carefully chosen as that occupied by the seed-bed. It should be deeply ploughed or dug ; all stones and rubbish should be cleared off ; cross-ploughing and grubbing, to level the ground, should follow ; and thorough harrowing should finish the cultivation. This should be done at the time chosen for planting out. In the autumn, when the seedlings are on an average from six to twelve inches high, you may set them out in the nursery, as thus : plant in rows three feet apart, with a distance of from six to twelve inches between the plants in the rows. When the ground has been pulverised and made level, stretch a cord, fastened to two pegs, in the direction of the first row you mean to plant. With a spade, open a small trench along the cord, deep and wide enough to contain the roots of the plants. Place those in the trench, holding them upright and pressing a little earth on the roots with the hand, and then fill up the trench with the spade. Lastly, tread the earth firmly, but carefully, about the plants. If the rows are not kept at a regular distance, it will add greatly to the difficulty of conducting the subse- quent cultivation necessary to keep the nursery in good order. G-reat care must be taken to prevent the roots of the il5 11U-. TANAniAN FOnKSTKIt'^ spedliiiGTs from dryincr durim; tho work : for thorn, to dry is to die. Coiiiiors, especially, perish at once after even a few minutes exposure of their roots to the air. Hoeing and horse-hoeing' must be frequently attended to aft(n' transi)lantation into the nursery. Such are the prin(ni>al rules for sowini^" the seeds of forest-trees and settins^ out the seedlings in the nursery. Exceptions to these rules occur : I havo spoken of them in the chapter specially devoted to the species in ques- tion. CIUrTER XIV. PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS. Some varieties of trees are easily propagated by means of cuttings, and the advantages of this practice, as regards those species which admit of it,'are considerable. The procedure is far qaicker and surer than seeding, and affords, very rapidly, strong, healthy plants. Poi^lars and willows are the trees best adapted to propagation by cuttings. The former should be divided into lengths of about two feet by an inch and a half or two inches in diameter, leaving one end round and the other cut into the form of a vv^edge ; taking great care not to bruise the bark. The wedge-shaped end is to be stuck in the ground. Poplar-cuttings should be made in autumn, after the fall of the leaf. "Willows may be pro- pagated in like manner, but any season will do for them. To plant these cuttings, proceed as follows : spread a good dressing of dung, and plough it in with a deep furrow. A second ploughing will mix the manure well with the earth ; the cutting is then thrust into the ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 113 ground, two or three inches only being left bare, and the soil is woU trodden round it. Cuttings should not be made from too large branches Some trees, at first, thrive well for a time ai'ter being set as cuttings, but in a few years they die without any apparent reason Can the too great thickness of the cuttings be the real cause of the tree's premature decay ? As thus: the end out of ground dries up ; the buried end has only put forth roots near the surface and the tree forms branches at the foot only ; and so exposed the one to the air and the other to the damp, the two ends perish, become decomposed, and, while the tree appears to be doing well, it, in reality, is becoming hollow through the rotting of its two extremities, and the time is near when decomposition will attack Vae vital parts, and the end of the tree's life is at hand. It is a good plan to set a cutting of poplar or willow between every other plant of walnut, oak. chesnut, or hickory, in th«^ permanent plantation. An early shade will be thus afforded to the young plants, and the inva- sion of weeds repressed. When, at the end of five or six years, the walnuts, etc., can take care of themselves, the willows and poplars, which by that time will have become serviceable as summer fuel, may be removed. CHAPTER XV. FINAL PLANTING OUT. This is the best way of preparing the land which you intend to plant : — A year before the planting is to begin, manure the site and grow a crop of grain. After harvest, give the land a deep furrow and a cross-ploughing in the spring. This is particularly necessary in breaking up those parts of 114 THE CANADIAN FORESTER's the prairies of Manitoba which are intended for planta- tions. It is important that young- trees should be set very- near together. First, because they will thus occupy the whole ground, and prevent the growth ot weeds, diminishing thereby, considerably, the cost of hoeing ; next, they, with their leaves, afford each other mutual protection against drought, so injurious to young planta- tions ; and, lastly, when there is an abundance of plants, the proprietor can the more easily repair any failure which may occur : blanks will occur in every planta- tion. In fact, there will always be sufficient trees to make the new wood regular, if a much greater number be planted than will be absolutely required to stand when they have attained a certain height. Another, and, so to speak, the chief reason for close planting is that, treated thus, trees are more likely to produce a fine, straight growth. Fewer lateral branches are put forth, and later, when the superfluous trees are cut down, the wood will consist of a mass of lofty, erect stems, furnishing excellent building timber. In plant- ing thickly, we only copy nature. ' After many experiments, the planters in the States, it seems, have come to the conclusion, that trees should be set in rows four feet apart, with a space of two feet between the trees in the rows. This would require four thousand and fifty trees to the acre. Three years after planting, every other tree is cut, and the remainder will then stand four feet apart in every direction. Five or six years having elapsed, the same proportion being observed in thinning, the trees will be eight feet one way, and four feet the other, apart. Twelve years from planting, every other row is cut, and the trees will then be eight feet distant from each other, every way. Tho ILLUSTRATED GUIDE, 115 same process is continued when deemed advisable ; at one time a whole row, at another every alternate tree is removed, until, at the end of a certain number of years, the work is done, and you have a forest or wood, with the trees all standing sixteen feet apart. Conifers should not exceed two feet in haight when set out. "Walnuts, oaks, hickories, and chesnuts, if it is thought good to transplant them, should be of the same height. Plants may be easily procured, either for setting out in the nursery, or for permanent planting, without the trouble of growing them from seed. I recommend all who are not gardeners to buy their seedlings, for the cultivation of them demands as much care as does a garden. Plants of every sort come to hand quite safely by post, now-a-days, and the charge is very moderate. Trees sent by the mails take root freely, and many mistakes, as well as great waste of pains, are avoided. Before ending this chapter, a word on the much dis puted question : what season is the best for planting ? My own opinion is, that both spring and autumn present 'so many advantages and disadvantages, that neither one nor the other can claim our preference. CHAPTER XYI. PLANTING CERTAIN SPECIAL SOILS. Certain soils are unfit for cultivation : some, because they are too stony, others, because they are too wet, These soils will pay best in wood ; in fact, planting is the only way of utilising them. I have already spoken of the necessity of re-planting the denuded faces of the Ilfi THE CANADIAN forester's slopes of our mountains, and the prairies of the North- West, which are, in many places, absolutely tree-less. We will now see how to proceed in planting the soils in question. Rocky soils. — On these soils, wherever you intend to set a tree, first raise the turf which covers the rock ; then, make a trench in the rock large enough to contain the roots of the plant, or the walnut or acorn, if you work by seed ; put the turf at the bottom of the trench, and cover it with the surrounding soil. This should be done in spring, and the plantation or sowing in these branches the following year, at the same season. The turf will become a rich mould, which will assist the growth of the young plant, and success is certain. Wet soils. — For wet soils, a perfectly opposite treat- ment is necessary ; that is to say, instead of hollowing out the land, you must raise it in this fashion : place the plant on the surface, and spread out its roots with care ; cover them with good mould, enough to keep them up- right, and lay turves, taken from round the spot where the plant is placed, on the mould, taking every pains to 80 adjust them that all the mould shall be covered, and no fissure left between the turves. This system of' mound-planting has been successfully practised in Europe for many years, and is suitable to all soils, even to the driest. A Canadian amateur has succeeded well with it (engraving 102, p. 11*7, gives a perfect idea of the method) ; hence, I can recommend the practice with confidence. Drainage should be carefully attended to when you intend to plant on mounds ; but even in places where drainage is impossible, there is a fair chance of success. Mountain-slopes. — If, as sometimes happens, the slope is covered with a good bed of vegetable mould, you ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 117 have only to make a trench in it, ihe earth taken from which you must lay on the lower lip of such trench. Place the tree in the trench, and to fill it up, instead of using the removed earth, throw down a sufficient quant- ity from the upper lip. The tree will then find itself on a sort of seat {assise), the incline of the slope will be interrupted, and the rain will be hindered in its down- ward course, to the great benefit of the tree. But, if the soil of the slope is rocky, aiid only covered with a thin layer of turf, you must proceed exactly on the same I02. — Tree planted en btttU, system I recommended for planting rocky soils. The only difference is, that the first turf must be laid on the lower lip of the trench, and the turt from the upper lip must be put at the bottom of the trench. And, finally, mould must be brought to cover uj) the roots of the young plant. Lastly, should you wish to plant in places where the naked rock appears at the surface, trenches must be sunk in the rock and filled with earth from extraneous sources ; a laborious and ungrateful task, it is true, but necessary, and one that has been practised in France on. a large scale for the last few years. In Canada, fortu- 118 . THE CANADIAN FORlSSTEn's natoly, there are very few spots fit for re-planting which are utterly deprived of vegetable mould. Prairie soils. — The great difficulty to be overcome in planting prairie-land is the want of moisture ; the soil is dry and little rain falls. As a remedy, it is proposed to cultivate the soil to be planted to its full depth, as I have already described elsewhere. The more the land is worked, the greater its power of retaining the subter- ranean moisture, and the greater the ease with which it seizes the moisture in the atmosphere. Spring must be chosen for planting, immediately after the ground is thawed, that the moistest season of the year may nourish the tender plants. If, in addition to these precautions, the most suitable trees are chosen for planting, success may be expected. Experts in the States proceed as follows in making plantations in the prairies of the West, and a like plan is perfectly applicable to Manitoba. Round each lot of two hundred acres of land, a border, eight rods wide, is planted on the north and west sides of the lot, these sides being the most exposed to the predominant winds. This border is, of course, intended to serve as a shelter, and once well- wooded, greatly aids in the cultivation of the lot, at the same time affording fuel to its occupants, and wood for the use of the farm, such as rails, posts, etc. The species recommended for the purpose are the ash, the negundo, and the indigenous conifers, which, with the negundo, are probably the trees best suited to this region. Poplars and willows, too, are of great service in that province. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 119 « CHAPTER XVII. CARE OP TREES AFTER PLANTING ; PRUNING, ETC. When once a plantation has been well established, it must be kept in g-ood order. For the first four years, at least, the land must be kept free from weeds. For this the grubber and the horse-hoe are the most suitable im- plements. In general, alter four years, the trees atlbrd sufficient shade to render any further cultivation unne- cessary ; still, the work of pruning remains to be done. In speaking of this operation, I do not mean to say that pruning is, in all cases, absolutely necessary. On the contrary ; in my opinion, if the close-planting system be followed, very little pruning will be required. When the trees are young, those branches which have a ten- dency to grow out of shape and to derange the symme- try of the tree and the balance of its growth, must be pinched off. If this is carefully done, no subsequent pruning will be wanted, unless on account of accidents caused by the winds, animals, etc. But, as these accidents happen pretty frequently, I will describe the tools used for pruning, without injuring, the trees, as well as the manner and season for using them. A common saw, a cutter (1) (see engraving 103, p. 120), for the smaller branches within reach, and pnother cutter placed at the end of a long handle, as shown in eng. 104, same page, are all that need be employed. The last is intended to cut the higher branches which, even with a ladder, would be difficult to reach. Every time the saw is used, the wound should be trimmed With a knife, to pare off the roughness left by the saw, which would retain the wet. (1) Called, I believe, by the opprobrious term of ttuerrunca/or.—Tus. 120 THE CANADIAN FORESTER S "When an unusually large branch has to be severed, it should not be done at once, but at several times, in order not to disturb too abruptly the circulation of the sap. First, cut off the branch one or two feet from the stem, and a few months afterwards take it off close. Engraving 105, p. 121, will give a good idea of the operation, the 103.— Branch pruner dotted line a a showing the first cut, and b b the second. If the large branch pruned in th.s way has been skil- fully removed, the wound, at the expiration of two years, will have the appearance shown in engraving 106, same page, where the swelling of the newly formed bark is seen around the healed wound. A well pruned tree at the end of some years only exhibits where the cut was made a part of the bark smoother than the rest, and a slight crack closed at the place where the lips of the swelling of the new bark have united (see engraving 107, p. 122). ?• To prevent thj branch you are prun- ^^ ing from splitting, by breaking with its own weight in falling, a cut is 104.- ong^ an^ie ranc |^^_,^ made ou the uudcr side, a little loweT than opposite the ux^per cut (see engraving 108, same page). . The branch must be always cut off close to the trunk of the tree. If the branch retains a stumj^ it will dry up, and a tree with many stumps presents the miserable appearance of the engraving 109, p. 123, at a b c. If we ILLUSTIUTED GUIDE. 121 wish to know what happens to a stump thus left, we have only to look at it immediately after the pruning, as in engraviug- 110, p. 123, and then four years afterwards, when it has lo?t its bark, eng. Ill, same page. Two or three years later, it will look like eng. 112, same pai^e, where it is shown half-devoured by the rot. In a few years more, it will show as in engraving 113, p. 124, where we see the stump rotted away, and surrounded by a cavity which retains the wet, and where the decay, which finally attacks the heart of the tree, first develops itself. Should you see lit to fell the tree to observe the 105. — Pruning large branches. io6,~Formation of new bark. progress of the evil, it will present the aspect seen on the right of the eng. 114, same page ; whereas, hid the prun- ing been judiciously carried out, we should see nothing" more, at that time, than the scar which appears on the left of the same engraving. I must not leave this subject of pruning, without speaking of the season in which it should be done- Opinions dilFer on the subject : mine goes in favour of winter, that is to say, from November to March. The only exception is the conifers, which should be pruned at midsummer. As I am speaking of the care to be taken of planta- tions after they are established, I may as well mentions. \n THK CANADIAN FORHSTEr's • mistake that some people commit in gatherin;^ the fdllett leaves every autumn. In many works on agriculture, a regular system of collecting the leaves is advised, for the purpose of making manure, serving as litter, or as cdttlc- food. A greater error cannot be committed. The soil which grows the trees demands, as does cultivated land, something in return for what it yields. Now the only supplies the soil of 1h(i forest receives are those giveii by nature, namely, th<3 leaves, and these, decomposing on 108. — How locutoff large bjanches. 107.— Wound healed over. its surface, furnish it with the elements of food assi- milated by the trees it bears. Do not then deprive the forest of its leaves. Conifers should absolutely never be pruned, except in case of accidents, particularly the lowi'r branches ; to cut these off spoils the symmetry of the tree, and is, besides, highly injurious to their growth. ^ yery severe system of pruning is practised ou ^willows, xt consists in cutting off all th(! larger I branches iat ten or twelve inches from the main trunk. This is done every two or three years, and the branches, when dry, furnish a by no means despicable summer JL(LW»Tr«Ar)i:n gdid*. m ftiel. This is called po/lardm^, and tht^ on^raving Jlf>, p. 125, i'-ivee an excellent idea of the process. CHAPTER XVIII. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO TRKKS. I will not attempt to give the names and de.s(5riptiQiw of all the insects which tommit depredations on forest-trees. Their name is legion, and man, in the w^oodlands, is almost imi)otent as regards these tiny but terriiic enemies. Still, there is one point I must insist on. The periodical invasion by insects of countries whore th(.»y have been, hetrtjtofore, hardly per- ceptible, is always due to a tan- gible though passing cause. Thus, for example, an excessively mild winter sutlers a host of larvie, a large proportion of which brutes .is generally destroyed by the cold, '°9.-Uadiy pruned ,re«. to ipaes the winter sj^fe and sound ; hence, iu the iia ITI. following summer, an extraordinary development of insect life. On the other hand, this unusual dovelop- iSH m THE CANADIAN FOriESTEIl S meiit (loos not ufo on for many years. In i\w ureneral economy ol" natur<»,, tlie C^reator has always placed the remedy near the evil, and so we see that all insects have one or more enemies, in the shape of other insects or birds, which prey upon them. And it is worthy of observation that, when any tribe of insects begins to in- crease in a ratio that menaces the equilibrium, so to speak, of vegetation, the enemies of that tribe almost simultaneously begin to multiply, and in a very short time, often in two years, things return to their ordinary condition Though man be almost impotent against the attacks of insects in the forest, he can defend himself rather 113. 114. — A tree well and badly pruned. more easily, and often even successfully in the nursery. I will point out concisely the remedies usually em- ployed. Every one can decide, regard being had to the sort of insects which he, in his own nursery, has to con- tend with, what means he prefers to employ. It is fully proved that by burning brushwood, etc. near the nursery, a multitude of moths injurious to the trees will commit suicide. Stretch a cloth on the ground under the trees, shake the latter well, and it is surprising what a number of insects will be caught. Sweeping the branches with a broom, will destroy many of the cocoon-spinning cater- pillars. IM-F'STHATKD (UHDF. 125 Some coYor tht> })ark of tho trunk with a coat of treacle, printer's ink, or any UTcasy, sticky, or oily stulf ; or better, they put the coat on paper or rags wrapped round the trunk. It' this i)lan be followed, tar, a very efficacious dressing, might be used ; but, in all cases, the dressing must be renewed when dry. Again, to hinder climbing inse«is from ascending the trunk, a small bason, filled with oil or tar, is placed 115.— Pollard willows. round the trunk, at the foot of the tre.js, and the trunk is washed with soft-soap, thin whitewash, et«^.. An excellent dressing is the following : mix a pound of flour of brimstone with a quarter of a bushi^l of quick-lime, pouring on a quantity of hot water sufficient to make the whole of the consistence of ordinary white- w^ash. This must be done i?i a r/osed vessel. Apply the fJB THE CANAnTAN PORRRTRR^S drossing, freshly made, with a brush, in the month of April. Sprinkle slaked-lime or hellebore, when the dew is on, over the leaves of trees attacked by caterpillars. Ill autumn, turn up the land carefully ; the larvae hidden in the soil will thus be exposed to the action of the frost. Sometimes, Indian corn is sown round the trees, pigs are turned into the nursery, and many a chrysalis is destroyed by these animated grubbers. A ploughing befare winter sets in, and another in early spring, will expose a crowd of insects to the ravages of fke frost and the voracity of birds. It is well to look over the trees in winter, for the pur* pose of destroying the nests of insects, and the strings of eggs which are often found encircling the branches. Lastly, the greatest protection should be given to in- sectivorous birds, the most useful auxiliaries to man ire the destruction of insect pests. Their breeding should be favoured, and children should be taught that birds should b the objects of their love and care, instead, as often, too often indeed, happens, the victims of their cruelty. CHAPTEE XIX. CULTIVATION OF ORNAMENTAL TREES. It appears to me, that, did I not say a word on the advantage to be gained by making use of our fine forest trees lor the ornamentation of our abodes, I should be omitting one ot the not least important divisions of my subject. I have already spoken, in the course of this work, of the reserve of wood which each settler should make on ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 127 his farm, wh«n he is clearing it ; a reserve which may assure him, ibr the future, plenty of fuel, and timber for building. To this I will add, that round the house a shrubbery should be retained, and carefully cultivated, to afford shade and coolness, as well as to add to the beauty of the surroundings of the abode. To give such advice to the settler, is to show others the necessity and the advantage of setting out trees round their houses and their appurtenances. Any pro- perty, however mean its appearance when situated on a naked spot, will, if situated in the midst of a pretty grove, planted with taste and discernment, look com- fortable and well-to-do. I will not treat this subject at length, as it might seem to be un€0)inected with this work. Still, I must bring forward one argument in favour of planting orna- mental trees in towns and villages, and round single houses. Trees, regarded from a sanitary point of view, have a salutary effect. They prevent the land shaded by their leaves from being too much heated by the sun, and thus hinder the formation of a quantity of fetid gases, whose emanations infect and vitiate the air of our towns and larger villages. They retain, too, a healthy coolness during the great heats of summer ; they preserve, in some degree, the moisture of the air and soil, and afford a shelter to the insectivorous song-birds, whose melody delights us, and who deserve on every account all the care which we can give them. I append a list of the forest-trees best suited to orna- mental purposes, among them two or three exotics (foreigners) which are among the most useful for that purpose, and the good qualities of which seem to adapt them to our ends ; — 1?8 THE CANADIAN FORESTER'S Cut-leaved weeping-birch. Yellow-birch. Black-birch. White-spruce. Norway spruce. Sugar-maple. Red-maple. Black-ash. White-ash. Beech. Horse-chestnut, American larch. Negundo or ash-leaved maple. Butternut. American elm. Balsam poplar. While-poplar. Cotton tree poplar, Lombardy poplar. Canada white-pine. Button-wood. Locust. Balsam-pine. Kilmarnock weeping-willo\/. Mountain-ash. Arbor vitro. Lime-tree or bas:i-wood. Tulip-tree. Almost all these have been described before : I will now give a description of the foreign species contained in the above list : — Betula pendula laciniata — Cnt-Ieaved weeping-birch. This variety of birch, a native of Europe, which in quality and habit of growth resembles our birch-tribe, and, like them, is perfectly hardy, is distinguished from the other birches by the pendulous growth of its branches ; hencj the name, weeping-huch.. Engraving 116, p. 129, represents this tree ; and qi\^. IIY, same page, its seed. ^sr.ulus hippocastanea — Horse-cheat nut. This foreigner attains a height of fifty feet ; and in spring is covered with the loveliest white flowers, marked with red and yellow, which have a charming effect against the dark green barkground of the leaves. The horse-chestnut forms a fine globular head, and needs no recommendation of mine. It grows freely in Quebec and Ontario. Though, in the Province of Quebec, thi-; tree suffers a little from frost when young, it always survives its attacks, and in a few years becomes perfectly hardy, and proof against all weathers. Engraving 118, p. 130, depicts the horse-chestnut ; eng. 119, p. 131, ILLUSTRATED (ilJIDE. 129 its leaf ; and eng. 120, same page the fruit, or chestnut, which is not lit for food. (1) «< « w ti6. — Betiila pendula iuuiniata — Cut-leaved weeping birclx. Populus alba — Wli it e- poplar. Better known as the silver-poplar; which name it derives from the white colour of the lower side of its leaves. In its habits, cultivation, and other qualities, it is the same as the rest of the • ••a poplars. This tree should never be planted near houses ; for the end would be, that 117.— scsdsand its long', trailing roots wojild demolish tjhie '' birch. foundations. Eng. 121, same page, represents a branch of the white-poplar. Populus pi/nt midalia — Lomhardi/-poplar. Well known in all parts of the country. From its (li For human foodthfit is, but deer ami sheep like it uncommonly. — Tr» 130 THE CANADIAN FORESTER's habit of growth, it mnkos a fair contrast totroesofan oval or globular form, and the effect is good when em- ployed as a relief to the sturdy growth of coniferous trees. Fine avenues are made of it. Some recommend the cutting off of the head at the stump every twenty years. In this case, a number of vigorous shoots are sent out, the strongest of which is reserved, and this, in a ii8.—./Esculushippocastaiiea— Horse-chestnut short time, becomes a fine, healthy tree. After twenty years, the Lombardy-poplar begins to decay, and to show many dead branches, which completely destroy its beauty. Engraving 122, p. 132, shows the Lombardy- poplar, and engraving 123, same page, its leaf. F.obinia /tseudo-acacia — Locust-tree. The locust comes to us from the States, where it grows to a height of eighty feet. Here, it never exceeds ILLUSTHATEI) (;uir)i-:. 131 twonty-iive k'et ; and, though it sometimes suffers a little from our winters, it is worth cultivating in Ontario and Quebec. T.ovely white flowers cover it in spring, 120. — Chestnut. 1 19 — Leaf of horse-chesti.ut. and its delicately traced foliage is very charming. Kns". 124, p. 183, represents a bough of the locust, with ifs flowers and leaves. " "' Salix caprea pendula — KilniurHork ireefiing-wUUnv. An exotic of great beauty. Hardy in Quebec and ( )ntario, it is well adaj^ted to the adornment of ceme- 121. — Populus alba — Leaf of white- poplar teries, etc. No other willow can be recommended as an ornament. The rest are utter nuisances near houses ; their lon<>', wandering roots travel here and there, JW.^^ 132 THE CANADIAN FORESTER's without restraint ; they will quickly undermine a wall forty feet from the stem, and in a short time take entire possession of the whole land round them within a radius of thirty feet. Eng. 125, ]>. 134, represents the Kilmarnock weeping- willow. 123. — Leaves of Lombardy poplar. 12a.— Populiis pyramidalis— l^oiubardy puplar. It must be well understood that the ornamental trees I have mentioned must only be planted in those spots which T have before pointed out as suitable to their cultivation. s One word as to ornamental hedges. Where snow is abundant in winter, and where field-mice are trouble' some, the only hedges I cui* recommend are those com- posed of Norway spruce, of firs, of willows, and of arbor ILLUSTRATED OUIHE. 133 yitse. The same trees are useful as windguards round vineyards, on^hards, etc. Thoug-h many advise planting ornamental and othei trees along the sides of the high-roads, this can only be done where the roads run over sandy or rocky soil, oi 124.- -Kobiiiia pseudo -acacia— Leaves and flowers of locust-lrec. are macadamised. Otherwise, the trees be(;ome trouble- some : they pr(^vent the road from drying after rain or thaw. l\Iu('h taste, as well as discernment, is required in l»]anting a piece of land so that it shall be really orna- mental. Thus, where the house is low, with a flat roof, trees of an oval or globular form must be rejected. An 134 THE CANADIAN FOHESTEH 8 equal error in taste would be to plant Tjombardy poplars, or tall conifers, near a house built in the Gothic style, with lofty gables and a hif^li-pitched root". The real 125. — Salix eaprea pendula — KHannamock weeping-willow. aim should be to mingle the difTerent sorts of trees together, so that one uiny serve as a ndief to the other without any confusion. ILLUS'rnATKD GUIDE. 135 TART FOUR. SPECIAL SUBJECTS BELONGING TO FORESTRY. CHAPTER I. VALUE OF WOOD AS FUEL AND FOR BUILDING, ETO. In order to guide the planter in his task, I will here point out the value of the principal spe(;ies of forest- trees mentioned in this work, whether they be intended for use as fuel, or for huilding, fences, and other purposes. By consulting the; two following tahles, the reader will see what trees, of those which suit his lo<*ality, it will be th most profitable for him to plant : — TABLE SIIOWINd TIIK KHLATIVK VALUE OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF THEES AS FUEL. . NAMKS. VALUE OF EACH SORT ; WHITE-HEART HICKOUV, Hi;i'Hi:SENTEI> AS I0(J, DEINO THE MOST VALLABLE. Ash. Am(!rican 77 Ash ffrt'en 77 Bei'cli 65 Birch, canoe 48 Birch vellow 03 (jedar, reil 66 Chi^stnul, American 68 Elm, American Hickory, she 1-bark Hickorv white-heart 68 95 too Hornbeam 65 Maple, silver Maple, sugar NeKundo — Ash-leaved m Die 64 60 54 Oak, chestnut ();ik, post Oak. red 60 71 09 Oak, while Pine, white 81 4 2 Pine, yellow Poplars Tulip-tree Walnut, black Walnut, butternut 40 52 65 61 136 THE CANADIAN FOHESTEIl S Thoui^h this table is pretty correct, we must not forg-et that wood varies very much in density, according to the land it grows on. The table having been drawn up for the middle region of the States, the figures may, doubt- less, differ a little from those which the same species grown in Canada would indicate. The next table, showing the weight of the chief sorts of fire-wood found on our markets, will give a better idea of their relative values. Indeed, considered in regard to weight, one piece of wood is as good as another as fuel, though the two may differ much in point of size. Thus, a pound of poplar is worth quite as much as a pound of hard-maple. But a piece of poplar weighing a pound is much larger than a piece of hard-maple of the same weight, and, consequently, it will take up much more room in a cord, which will, of course, weigh less than a cord of hard-maple, and be of less value, as may be seen in the next table : — 1 .N.VMKS WEIGHT PER CORD. Yellow-birch lbs. 3,250 2,360 2,3r)0 American chestnut American elm Sugar-ma Die 4,500 3,850 3,250 2 nuO While-oak Red-oak Pines Poplars 2,350 So much for the value of trees as fire -wood. Let us now see how trees rank when considered as materials lor building, etc. : — Oak. Walnuts. Hirkories. Sugar-maple, Pine. White-ash. Black-birch. Elm. Larch. Yellow-birch. Spiuce. Arbor vita). ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 137 This order will vary according to the special service to which certain woods are affected ; still, the table gives a good idea of the value of each from an ordinary point of view. CHAPTER II. FIRES IN THE FOREST. Fires occnr so frequently in the bnsh, they destroy every year such a vast quantity of timber, and lay waste such an extent of woodlands, that I have thousrht it right to devote a special chapter to this scourge, which menaces us with the rapid destruction of our forest- wealth. Causes of bush-fires. — The principal causes of bush-fires are three in number : fires lighted by colonists in clear- ing the land ; fires made by hunters, tourists, and travel- lers, for their daily wants ; and those lighted by sparks from locomotives, which traverse now-a-days every part of the country, not excluding the forests. There may be some secondary causes, difficult of detection, but I pass them over, and proceed to study with the reader how to put an end to the fires set up by the three causes I have mentioned. Means of preventing bush-fires. — Iho means of preven- tion of the first class are those that should be applied to the forest properly so called. For a fire is propagated with more or less ease, according to the state in which the district where it starts is found. Suppose, foi example, that the fire begins in a timber-limit cut over the preceding year, the ground still encumbered with chips, shavings, branches, etc. In these debris the flames find fresh support, which excites them, and quickly renders them uncontrollable. I may be told that for this 138 THE CANADIAN FORESTEr's there is no remedy. To which I reply, that this is a mis- tftken idea, for there is one, but one so radical, so energetic, and so bnrdensome, that some will cry out loudly against its practicability. The remedy is this: the lumbermen should be obliged to clear away from the forest all the rubbish caused by the operation. In order to insure the acceptance and the execution of this means of preven- tion, we must set aside the pecuniary considerations of a few hundreds of people who are interested in the exploitation of the woodlands, and we must consider the question as one of general importance from a national point of view. Lumber merchants, to-day, sell their wood at a uniform price. If every one was obliged to increase the cost of exploitation, by clearing off the remains left by the axemen, what would happen ? Only that they would be obliged to sell their wood dearef. It is all very well to say, " if we ask too high prices, we shall not be able to sell ; and we shall ruin this branch of industry ! " The teply is simple and irrefutable. We have now, thaftik Grod, the richest forests in the world. People must have our wood. This is so true, that our neighbours allow it to enter duty free into their ports, to induce us ta send it to them, and thus, they themselves are able, in a measure, to economise the resources of their own forests. Thete is no indisposition among them to buy lumber frotiot us. Even if the high prices caused by the means indicated did drive strangers from our market for a year at two, that would not last long ; they would soon rettttii. "We should only risk the loss of our sales of lumber for a couple of years, a loss which, very likely, rhight not happen after all. On the other hand, our proposed system once established, we should have ouf fotests perfectly free from rubbish and from brushwood, ILLUSTRATED ailFDE. 139 ready to feed the fires when once started, and the bush- ftres would be diminished in number by one-half. The governments of the several provinces are alone able to bring about the result, by inserting a clause enforcing the means of preventing bush-tires in the contracts foi the concession of timber-limits. And how had we best set about clearing away the Wastage of the cut from the forest ? There are two ways j both easy enough of application. As to resinous trees, it will suffice to have, in addition to the usual shanty- men, a gang of hands specially charged with the duty of piling up in heaps, in fhe clearings, the branches and chips, to be systematically burned in the winter. Resinous-wood is easily got rid of in this fashion. For other trees, the wastage can be arranged so as to be floated in spring down the rivers along the sides of which the operations are conducted. In order to avoid the block* that the wastage might produce in the river-beds, the managers of the drive should be enjoined to watch its descent at the same time and as carefully as they watch that of the logs, until deep water is reached. Proprietors of firewood- lands, too, should be careful to clear away the wastage from their woods when thoir neighbours are clearing their bush-land. The following are the means of prevention applicable to direct causes of fires : settlers, and others, should be for- bidden to burn their brush from the first June to the first Ocjtober : there is really no advantage in burning during the interval. All other fires should be strictly prohibited, except those lit by travellers of all kinds for their daily needs ; and these men should be forbidden to make fires except on carefully cleared spots ; they should be obliged to" watch the fires day and night, and to extinguish them to the last spark before leaving the place. Every head (r 140 THE CAWDIAN FORESTEn's of a party of travellers {voi/aq;eurs), too, should be made responsible lor bash-fires caused by his men, and punished by fine, as the direct author of the fire should be punished by imprisonment. We must also look after the locomo- tives, and compel railroad companies to employ wire- gauze nets, to prevent the sparks from being carried about by the wind, spreading fire far and near. The companies will, of course, be made responsible for dam- ages caused by their negligence, and this in addition to the direct punishment, by imprisonment, of the imme- diate author of the fire. Means of arresting the fire inhen once started. — Means must be found to combat the flames, when a fire has, in spite of all precautions, once started. The first is to draw a ditch, two feet deep by three or four wide, surrounding the fire, throwing out the earth on that side of the ditch which is next the fire. If water can be led into the ditch from a brook or river, the work will be perfect. Earth, too, should be thrown oA^er the leaf- strown groand at the borders of the fire ; a belt of trees cut down ; and, if possible, another opposing fire should be lighted to fight the original one. Plenty of energy, plenty of men, and, a> all, an eye decisive and sure. The forest-guardia- id be empowered to engage as many men as ma}' necessary to oppose the fire, and even to compel the neighbours to assist. This is almost all that can be done in the circumstances under consideration. ^nd, now, let us condense this important chapter into a few lines. The causes of bush-fires are : the fires lighted by men engaged in clearing the land, by voyageurs, and by loco- motives. To put a stop to them, we must begin by clearing away all the wastage of the fall of timber ; we ILLUSTItATKn filJIDE. 141 must prevent any brush-burniiiff from the first of June to the first of October ; and forbid all other tires, exrept those lighted by voi/ngeurs, and these must occupy only a cleared site ; they must be watched night and day, and utterly extinguished before being left. Heads of parties of voyageurs must be made responsible, under pain of fine, for the negligence of their men. Railroad com- panies must be compelled to put wire-gauze bonnets on their locomotives, to prevent the sparks from the chim- neys from setting fire to the bush ; and the companies, as well as the direct author of the mischief, be made answer- able for any damage done. And, lastly, to arrest a con- flagration already started, the forest-guardians must be authorised to hire, when necessary, a force equal to its suppression ; to make ditches, and to fill them with water when practicable, to extinguish the fire by throwing earth upon it, to cut down the neighbouring trees, and to start an opposing fire when it is found advantageous to do so. The employment of some or all of these remedies cannot fail to produce good results. CHAPTER III. ARBOR-DAY. For several years, a day has been set apart in the United States for planting trees all over the Union. It is called " Arbor-Day." There are years in which, at this fete^ more than a million of trees have been planted in Minnesota alone. Every body is busy. Schools, colleges, clubs of all kinds, assemble, and, combining together, set out hundreds and thousands of trees. It is a day of popular rejoicing, and has become part of the national life- 142 THE CANADIAN FORESTER's. Wp^ ino, in the Province of Quebec, have our " Arbor- Day " ; and there is no reason why the good example «Qt by the oldest of our provinces should not be followed by all her sisters of the Canadian Oniifederation. " Arbor- Day " would then be a day on which all the agricultural and horticultural associations w^ould me<^t together ; it would be a holiday for the puoils of our ccilleges and schools. Each participant in tne/e^e would do his be^t to-eo-operate in the work of replanting, and the result •would be felt from the very first year. But. to produce the best effects from this f^te, the people must be taught the utility of replanting, the pq^^i w^hich the forest plays iu the general economy of the country, and, above all, they must learn to practise intelligently the planting of trees according to the beM iknown metiioas. To anive a,l tlAz mv.ch ^'^ >^ft desired eiid, they m"Rt receive the necessary instruction, and the =best way to instruct the people is to begin wilh the child at school. There, the first steps must be taken, the first lessons in forestry inculcated ; first, that the child may appreciate iLc vvcrk carried out on " Arbor-Day,'* and then, as he increases in years, he will be fit to feceive further teaching on this most important subject CHAPTER JV. EDUCATION IN FORESTRY. That the lessons in forestry, of which I spoke at the jsnd of ili.^ Iiist chanter, may be profitable, they must be giveii in aci:o~datif'.ft with a weil-onsidercd programme. For, in my opinion, it would be absuid to try to show a jchild how to plant a tree, before showing him the part ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 148 this tree plays in hatute, aiid the reaS'oh's that 5tist ^^ planting it. * - These lessons in forestry should bear, in the first place, on the importance of our woodlands. The child should be shown that it behoves us to labour witk all our strength to preserve our forests, iiP we wish to keep up the fertility and prosperity of our cultivated lands. Describe to him the distresses of those countries that are without wood, and he will learn to regard the trees as his friends, lo gucird them from injury, and to take duo care for them. Next, he should be shown the methods to be pursued in restoring the forests where they have been injured, and v»"here ruin threat ns them. Once let him feel the importance of preserving the woodlands from damage, and of keeping them in ffood condition, and. there will be no dittioulty in convincing him of the necessity of re-plantino: the sites wh'i're weed ho loager exists. Arrived at this point, the child, thus instructed, will conceive a taste for planting, and study the prin- ciples of that art of his own accord, if the elements of the study are placed in his hands. He will desire to acquire the art of forestry as a practical gain, and in two or three years, you will have made the child a devoted ally of the forest, a model forest.T. In aft^r year , the generation to which he belongs will reap the benefil; of the ideas you have inculcated, and will regard the plant- ing, or management of a grove of trees on his land, aS one of the indispensable parts of the schema of eviivf farmer. To attain this end, the intervention of government must be secured. It should take pains to 'procure an I elementa'y work on forestry for distribution among the ^v.fil^ — our schools ; facilitating thus the dillusion of 144 THE CANADIAN FORESTER's the principles which preside over the regular practice of a good system of forest-cultivation. This is what must be done if we wish Canada, still abounding in forest-wealth, to avoid the lot of those countries of Europe which, having consumed the growth of their own woods, now send us their gold in exchange for our timber. CHAPTER y. FORESTRY ASSOCIATION. A forestry association should be founded in every pro- vince of the Dominion. These associations, one of which already exists in the Province of Quebec, would have for a task to w itch over the safety of our forests and their expicitaiion, and to develop a taste lor sylviculture. A certain amount should be granted them every year by the several provincial governments, which they might expend in provincial prizes, given to those competitors who had previously gained prizes, in the parish com- petions first, and afterwards in those of the counties When treating on the restoration of our woodlands, I spoke of tl^ese competitions, and of the prizes to be offered at them. These associations would, thus, be the withes which would bind, as in a faggot, all local interests, considered from a forestry point of view. They would impart a uni- form impulse to the general system of arboriculture, the plan of which I have endeavoured to trace in this work. The labours of these societies would be published in annual reports for public distribution under government auspices, and these would serve for the diffusion of the knowledge necessary for the practice of the forester's ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 145 art. They would form, in a few years, a precious series of documents, wliich would enable our legislators to judge of the progress made in the exploitation of the woodlands : on the one side, to put a stop to the destruction of our timber-lands, on the other, to make use of every mftans likely to favour their development. Thus, we should all benefit by the knowledge of men who have devoted themselves to the earnest study of the forest-question. The meeting together of these specialists would insure the examination and solu- tion of those complpx problems which await determina* lion before we can arrive at a perfected forest-law which shall meet ail the exigences of our present positioj*. 10 CONCLUSION. I I My task is done. Have I done it well ? The reader must be the iiidrre. All I can sav is. that I have taken every pains to make my book a sure and a safe guide. I have tried to avoid those errors which will glide into all human work, but in spite of that, I feel that some errors must have crept in. I ask, as a great service, of my readers, that if thev shall discover any errors, thcv will kindly point them out to me, with a view to their sub- sequent rectihcation ; lor I desire, above every thing, that my work may be useful, and ihaL iiubudy may be led into error by its perusal. Before laying down my pen, I have a duty to perform : to lender unto Csesar the things that are Caesar's. I will, therefore, point out the numerous sources from which I have drawn the fund of information from which my J3ook has been condensed. The following works have all been useful to me under different heads, and to them I owe almost all there is of good in this work : Course 616mentaire de botanique Moyen. Elements de botanique Biainet. Elements of Forestry .. Hougii. Forest-leaves Johnson. Forest-lree planting Manual Hodges. Illustrated Monthly Magazine Vigk. L'Art de planter ,Von Manteuffel. La Flore canadienne Provanghep. Le livre de la ferme Joigneaux. Reports of the Montreal Horticulturpl Society. Returns of Forest-tree culture Joly. Rural Alfairs Thomas. Vegetable World Fxguiek. ILLUSTRATED GUIDE. 147 For some of the engravings, I am indebted to tliA kindness of Mr -JnTvics Yick, of Eochester, who, of his own accord, most obligingly had them made for me by his engraver. Mr. Thomas Meehan, of Ph. ladi^lphia, whose specialty is the collection and sale of the seeds of trees, most liberally put at my disposal specimens of seeds, after which I have had the illustrations which accompany this volume engraved. The engraver, M. Blanc, of Philadelphia, who under- took this delicate work, is a specialist who has greatly aided me by giving an absolutely natural appearance to the reproductions of these seeds. Lastly, I am not vrithout hopes that, in publishing this work, the fruit of my rare leisure hours, hours con- secrated to it as to a labour of love, I may be of some use to my country. Let us love and venerate our forests. "Where they have perished let us bid them rise again ; and may we hear, for ever and aye, in every place throughout our beauti- ful Canada, " The diapason of our forests sighing over the mountains." (1) (1) " Soupirei' sm* les inonts, I'orgue tie nos forets,'' The Enc. n iiiii I! lit IIM VOCABULARY. A BiES — Latin name of the spruce. Acer — Latin name of the maple. iEscuLUS — Latin name of the edible chestnut. Arbor Day — F^te of tree-planting. Art of Forestry — That which concerns the planting, pruning, etc., of forest trees. AsK~Family of the oleacese — four species in Canada — all mentioned in this work. Atmospheri: — The layer of air which surrounds the earth. Autochthones — Sprung from the soil — Grreek. ' Beech — Family cupuliferae ; only one species in Canada. Birch — Family betulaceae — seven species in Canada, of which five (and an exotic) are mentioned in this book. Betula — Latin name of the birch. Box-elder— The Negundo or ash-leaved-maple. Button-wood — Family platanacese — only one species in Canada. C Canada — Herein, means all the provinces of the Dominion, except British Columbia, which is not included in the work. Carpinus — Latin name of the hornbeam. Carya — Latin name of the hickory. 150 VOCBBlU.xnM. Castaxea — Latin name of the chestnut. Coffee-tree — Family leguminosse — only one species in Canada. Conifers — Botanical name of a family which bear their set'iis in cones. Copse or Coppice — "Woodlands cut down periodically and allowed to shoot up again. Cotton-wood— Canada poplar. Ceo'vVN-lant^s — Lands not yet conceded — public pro- perty. D Drive — In forest-language, means to float timber down the rivers to the place of sale or consumption. E Elm — Family ulraac^es — two species in Canada. Exploit, exploitation — To prepare for sale — prepara- tion for sale — French words, but used in English now-a-days. Exotic— Foreign. P Fir — Family coniferse ; only two species in Canada — ^both mentioned in this book. Flora — The sylvan-flora comprises all trees, plants, etc., of the forest. Forester — One who is specially occupied in the cultiva- tion and exploitation of the forest. Fraxinus — Latin name of the ash, G t Great-West — Here designates that part of Canade which lies to the North and West of the Province of Manitoba. GrYMNOCLADUS — Latin name of the coffee-tree. VOCABULARY. 151 H Hemlock — Family con i ferae, fir tribe — only one species in Canada. Humus — Earih iorn^ ^d from decomposed vegetable matter. Hygieme — The science which relates to the p^tibcrva- tion of health. ^ I Indigenous — Native to the soil. J JuGLANS — Latin name of the walnut. JuNiPERUs — Latin name of the juniper. li Larch — Family coniferae — only one soft in Canada Larix — Latin name of the larch. LiME-TitiLii— r^m^lv tilincftflft — two species in (Janada. oi which only one is mentioned here.* Limits — Timber-limits are certain districts of woodlands let on lease to people who exploit the timber. Linden — The lime-tree or bass-wood. LiRiODENDRON — Latin name of the tulip- tree. Locust — Family leguminosae, sub-fam. pai)ilionaceye — an exotic. Lumber — Timber prepared for building*, etc. Manitoba — A province of Canada on the West of Quebec, and North of Ontario and the United States. Maple — Family acerinsB — five species in Canada, all mentioned in this work. 152 VOCABULARY. Maturity — Trees are arrived at maturity when fit for exploitation. Mountain ash — Family pomacese — only one species in Canada. Negundo — Family acerinsB— only one species in Canada. New Brunswick — A province of Canada, to the South- West of Quebec. Nova Scotia — A province of Canada, to the East of New Brunswick. North -West — In this work, means all the territory of. the Dominion between the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and the Province of British Columbia. Ostrya — Latin name of the iron- wood — a cupuliferous- tree — only one species known in Canada. Pickle — Scotch for a single j^rain of any seed. Pinching back — Stopping a young shoot with the finger and thumb. Pine — One of the coniferas — four species in Canada, all mentioned in this book. PiNUS — Latin name of the pine. Platanus — Latin name of the plane-tree — ^^family x>lata- naceae — only one species in Canada. Poplar — Family salicaceae — four species in Canada, yll mentioned, with two exotic species, in this work. PoPULUS — Latin name of thv^. poplar. Prairies — The immense tree-less plains of the North- "West-iiterally, " meadows.'* VOCABIJLAIIY. 153 Q Quebec — A province of Canada, bounded by New Brunswick, Maine, Ontario, and Manitoba. QuERCUS — Latin name of the oak. B t Uail — That part of a railroad on which the wheels of the carriages run. Reserve of wood — Part of a cultivated farm left in wood to supply the wants of the family. KoBiNiA — Latin name of the locust-tree. S Salix — Latin name of the willow. SoRBUS — Latin name of the Mountain-ash. Sugar-bush — A grove of maples, kept for sugar-making. T Thuya — Family coniferaB— one species only in Canada. TiLlA — Latin name of the lime-tree or bass-wood. Trellis — A frame- work of laths, placed at equal dis- tances apart, and tied together. TsUGA — Latin name of the hemlock. Tulip-tree — Family magnoliacesD — only one species in Canada. Ulmus — Latin name of the elm. W Wastage — The boughs, chips, rough pieces, and other stulf left by the choppers after preparing trees lor market or for use. Willow — Family salicacese — seventeen species in Canada ; two only mentioned in this work An exotic, the Kilmarnock-vvillow, is also spoken of. APPENDIX. Extracts fhom the Statutes of the Dominion of Canada, and of the different provinces of the dominion, concerning the protection of the forest against fire. The protection of the forests against fire is so important a subject that I have thought it well to extract all the legisla- tive matter appertaining to it which appears in the statutes of the Dominion and of the different provinces. These ex- tracts, placed as an appendix at the end of the Canadian Forester's Guide^ in which a special chapter is devoted to bush-fires, and to the means to combat them, will serve as its complement. Every one reading over the law on this subject, will see what is in his individual power to do to render it efficacious. Those whose mission it is to make the laws, will study those already in existence, will perceive their defects, and will thus ha in a position to work with success in their improve- ment. As the reader will see, certain provisions are practicable, while others can hardly bring about the intended results. The chief aim seems to be, the prevention of fire-raising ; but no one has kept in view the wisdom of managing the exploita tion of the fore-^ts in such a manner that as4ittle damage is possible may be aone even when a fire does take, by com- pelling the districts cut over by the lumbermen to b^ freed 156 APPENDIX. from all chips and other wastage, which are the real propa- gators of those disastrous fires which ruin our noble io rests. Let us hope that these laws will be revised and aineuded in such a fashion that they may, in the end, produce the effects which we have a right to exj^ject fiom them. DOMINION OF CANADA, 42 VICTORIA, 1870, CHAPTER XXXI. An Act to amend and consolidate the several Acts respect- ing the Public Lands of the Dominion. {AssenUd to \5th May^ XSl'd.) Section 52. Paragraph 3. To prevent all unnecessary destruction of growing timber on the part of his men, and to exercise strict and constant supervision to prevent the origin or spread of fires. PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. 34 VICTORIA, 1870, CHAPTER XIX. An Act respecting the clearing of Lands, and the protection of Forests against Fires. » {Assented to 24;/i December^ 1870.) Whereas, it is expedient to determine the periods of the year during which fires may be lighted in forests, for the purpose of clearing or improving lands ; and whereas it is further necessary to protect forests against firesj Her Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Legislature of Quebec, enacts, as follows : 1. No person shall, at any time, set fire to or cause to burn, any tree, shrub or other plant, growing or standing in any forest, or at a distance of less than one mile from any forest. 2. No person shall set fire to, or cause to burn, any pile of wood, branches or brushwood, or any tree, shrub, or other plant, which shall be situate or felled in th*^ forest, or at a distance, of less than a mile, or any turf, peat, stnmps, fallen Irjes or other timber, at any period of the year, for any cause TGO APPENDIX. or pretext whatsoever, except for the purpose of clearing lands, and in such latter case, only between the first day of September and the first day of July. 3. Notwithstanding the preceding provisions, it shall be lawful to make a Qre in or near the forest to obtain warmth, and for cooking or other necessary objects, or for all indus- trial purposes, such as the manufacture of tar, turpentine, charcoal, or making of ashes, for the manufacture of pot or pearl ash, provided that the obligations and precautions im- posed by the following section are observed. 4. Every person who shall, between the fifteenth of May and the fifteenth of October, make a fire in the forest or at a distance of less than half a mile therefrom, for the purposes mentioned in the preceding section, must : 1. Select the locality in the neighborhood in vv^hich there is the smallest quantity of vegetable matter, dead wood, branches, brushwood, dry leaves, or resinous trees ; 2. Clear the place in which he is about to light his fire, by removing all vegetable matter, dead trees, branches, brash- wood and dry leaves from the soil, within a radius of twenty- five feet, as regards fires made for the necessities of any industry, as mentioned in section three, and within a radius of four feet as regards fires made for the other necessary objects mentioned in the said section ; 3. Totally extinguish the fire before quitting the place. 5. Any person who shall throw or drop on the ground, in any place whatsoever, whether in the forests, open fields, or other place, any burning match, ashes of a pipe, cigars or part of a cigar, or any other burning substance or who shall discharge any fire arm, shall be bound, under the pains and penalties imposed by this Act for his neglect so to do, com- pletely to extinguish, before leaving the spot, the fire of such match, ashes of a pipe, cigars or part of a ciga»', or the wadding of such flre-arm. , APPENDIX. 1 61 O. Any person contravening any of the provisions of this Act, shall be liable upon conviction before any justice of the peace, to a penalty not exceeding fiftv dollars, and in default of payment of the said penalty, and costs of suit, with or without delay, to be imprisoned in the common gaol of the district wherein he shall be convicted, for a period not exceeding three calendar months, unless the said penalty and costs of suit, together with the costs of apprehension and conveyance of the said offender, to the said common gaol, be sooner paid, or to be imprisoned in the said common gaol, for a period not exceeding three calendar months; or to be con- demned for each such offence, to the said penalty and further to the imprisonment hereinabove mentioned, with costs of suit in all cases. T. Any person of full age, may prosecute for any contra- vention oC this Act, and one half of the!penalty, in case of con- viction, shall belong to the prosecutor, and the other half to the government of this province, to form part of the consoli- dated revenue fund of the same. 8. Every suit for contravention of this Act, shall be com- menced within the three calendar months, immediately following such contravention, and not afterwards. 9. Any justice of the peace who shall himself view any contravention of this Act, may impose the penalty therefor without other proof, and, for the purposes of this Act, all agents for the sale of Grown lands, all employees of the departments of Grown lands, all sworn land surveyors, and all wood-rangers employed by the Department of Grown Lands, shall be ex officio justices of the peace. 10« The Act of the Parliament of this province, thirty- third Victoria, chapter thirty-six, is hereby repealed. n PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. 46 VICTORIA, 1883, CHAPTER X, An Act to provide means for the more efFectual prevention of forest fires. (Assented to 30th March^ 1883.) Her Majesty, Dy and with the advice and consent of the Legislature of Quebec, enacts as follows : 1. The Lieutenant-Governor in Council may, by proclama- tion, declare any portion or part of the Province of Quebec, which is included in any forest region to be a " Fire-District.'| Such proclamation shall be published in the '* Quebec Oflicia Gazette," and, from and after the date of such publication, the territory therein mentioned shall become and be known as a " fire -district," within the meaning and for the purposes of this Act. Such territory shall cease to be a "fire-district," upon the pubUcation of a proclamation of the Lieutenaal-Governor in Council revoking the one creating it. 164 APPENDIX. 3. It shall not be lawful for any person to set or cause to be set or started any fire in or near the woods, within any such fire-district, between the first day of April and the first day of November in any year, except for the purpose of clear- ing land, in which case no fire shall be set, except between the first day of July and the first of September only. 3* Any person who shall set or cause to be set a fire, con- trary to the provisions of the foregoing section, shall, in addition to his liability for all damage, become liable, upon conviction, to the payment of a penalty not exceeding fifty dollars, and in default of the payment of the said fine, with or without delay, to an imprisonment in the common gaol of the district in which the conviction takes place, for a period of not more than three months, unless the said fine and costs, together with the costs of imprisonment and conveyance of the delinquent be not sooner paid. 4. It shall be lawful for the Commissioner of Grown Lands to employ, between the first day of April and the first day of November, for the purpose of enforcing the provisions of this Act, such a number of men as he may deem necessary for that end; and in each, fire-district so established he shall name an officer who shall be known and designated as " Fire Superintendent." 5. The Commissioner of Grown Lands may permit any person, holding a license in any territory, included in any such fire-district, to place at the disposal of the Fire Superin- tendent any number he may see fit of his employees for the purpose of aiding in the enforcement of this Act; which em- ployees shall be under the sole and exclusive control and direction of the said Fire Superintendent and bound to exe- cute his orders. The salaries and expenses of such employees shall be borne by the licensee. O* All locomotive engines, used on any railway which .passes through any lands comprised in any such fire-district or any part of it, shall, by the company using the same, be APPENDIX. 165 provided with and have in use all the most improved and efficient means used to prevent the escape: of fire from the furnace or ash-pan of such engines ; and the smoke-stack of each locomotive so used shall bi^ provided with a bonnet or screen of iron or steel wire netting ; the size of the wire used in making the netting to be not less than number nineteen of the Birmingham wire gnage, or three sixty-fourth parts of au inch in diameter, and shall contain, in each square inch, at least eleven wires each way at right angles to each other, tjiat is in all twenty two wires to the square inch. 7- It shall be the duty of every engine driver, in charge of a locomotive-engine, passing over any such railway, to see that all such appliances above mentioned are properly used and applied, so as to prevent the unnecessary escape of fire from any such engine as far as it is reasonably possible to do so. 8. Any railway company, running or permitting any loco- motive engine to be run in violation of the provisions of the preceding sections of this Act, shall be liable to a penalty of one hundred dollars for each offence, to be recovered with costs in any court of competent jurisdiction. 9» All railway companies, whose lines pass through any lands comprised in any such fire-distrlct or any part thereof, shall be bound, under a penalty of one hundred dollars, re- coverable in the manner provided in the preceding section and subject in addition to the liability for all damages caused by fires originating from sparks issuing from their locomo- tives, to clear off from the sides of their respective roadways all combustible materials, by carefully burning the same or otherwise. And it shall not be necessary, in any such action for penalty or damages, to prove the name or number of the locomotive or the name of the engineer or fireman in charge of the same. lO. For the purposes of this Act, all Fire Superintendents, agents for the sale of Grown lands, employees of the Depart- r^ 166 APPENnix. ment of Crown Lands, sworn land surveyors, and wood- rangers employed by the Department of Crown Lands, shall be eX'Officio justices of the peace; and any justice of the peace, before whom has been proved any contravention of the provisions of this Act, may impose the penalty above set forth. 11. This Act shall come into force on the day of its sane- tiou. PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. 41 VICTORIA, 1878, CHAPTER XXIII. An Act to preserve the forests from destruction by fire. (Assented to 1th March, 1878.) Whereas large quantities of valiiahle timber are annually destroyed by fires, wliich are in many instances th'^ result of negligence and carelessness, it is therefore necessary to pro- vide stringent regulations for the prevention of such firos. Therefore, Her Majesty, by and wuh the advice and consent of the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Oattrio, enacts as follows: — 1. The Lieutenant Governor may, by proclamation to be made by him from time to time, issued by and with the advice and consent of the Executive Council, declare any portion or part of the Province of Ontario to be ;i fire district. 2, Every proclamation un-ler this Act shall be published in the Ontario Gazette ; and such portion or part ol" the Province as is mentioned and declared to be a tire district iu 163 APPENDIX. and by Ihe said proclamation, siiall, from and nftor the said publication becomo a fire district within the meaning and for the purposes of this Act. 3* Every such portion or part of this Piovince, mentioned in such proclamation, shall cease to be a fire district upon the revocation by the Lieutenant Governor in Council of the pro- clamation by which it was created. 4. It shall not be lawful for any person to set out, or cause to be set out or started, any fire in or near the woods within any fire district, between the first day of April and the first day of November in any year, except for the purpose of clearing land, cooking, obtaining warmth, or for some indus- trial purpose ; and in case of starting fires for any of the above purposes, the obligations and precautions imposed by the following sections shall be observed. m a. Every person who shall, between the first day of April and the first day of November, make or start a fire within such fire district for the purpose of clearing land, shall exercise and observe every reasonable care and precaution in the making and starting of such fire, and in the managing of and caring for the same after it has been made and started, in order to prevent such fire from spreading and burning up the timber and forests surrounding the place where it has been so made and started. 6« Every person who shall, between the first day of April and the first day of November, make or start within such fire district a fire in the forest, or at a distance of less than half-a-mile therefrom, or upon any island for cooking, ob- taining warmth, or for any industrial purpose, shall : 1. Select a locality in the neighbourhood in whiv'^h there is the smallest quantity of vegetable matter, dead wood, branches, brushwood, dry leaves, or resinous trees ; 2. Clear the place in which he is about to light the fire by removing all vegetable matter, dead frees, branches, brush- APPENDIX. 109 wood, and dry leaves from tho soil within a radius of Un feet from the lire ; 3. Exercise and ohserve every reasonable cnre and precau- tion to prevent such flre from spreading?, and carefully ex- tinguish the same before quilting the place. 7. Any person who shall throw or drop any burnini,' match* ashes of a pipe, lighted cigar or any othor burning substnnce, or wlio shall discharge any fire-arm within such flre district, shall be subject to the pains and penalties im posed by this Act, if he neglect complejely to extinguish before leaving the spot the fire of such match, ashes of a pipe, cigai", wadding of the fire-arm or other burn ng substance. H» Every person in charge of any drive of timber, survey or exploring party, or of any other party requiring cam[)- fires, for cooking or other purposes, wilhin such flre district, shall provide himself with a copy of the Act, and shall call his men together and cause said Act to be read in their hearing and explained to them at least once in each week during the continuation of such work or service. 1>. All locomotive engines used on any railway, which passes through any such fire district, or any [lart of it, shall by the company using the same, be provided with and have in use all the most approved and efficient means used to prevent the escape of fire from the furnace or ash-pan of such engines, and (hat the smoke-stack of each locomotive engine so used shall be provided with a bonnet or screen of iron or steel wire netLing, the size of the wire used in making the netting, to be not less than number nineteen of the Birmingham wire gauge, or three sixty fourth parts of an inch in diameter, and shall contain in each inch square at least eleven wires each way at right angles to each other, that is in all twenty two wires to the inch square. lO. It shall be the duty of every engine driver in charge of a locomotive engine passing over any such railway within no APPENDIX. the limits of any such fire district, to see that all such appliances as are above mentioned are properly used and applied, so as to prevent the unnecessary escape of fire from any such (Migine as far as it is reasonably possible to do so. 11. Whosoever unlawfully neglects or refuses to comply with the requireraentiiof this A.ct in any manner whatsoever, '^hall be liable upon a conviction before any justice of the peace to a penalty not exceeding fifty dollars over and above the costs of prosecution, and in default of payment of such fine and costs, the offender shall be imprisoned in the common gaol for a period not exceeding three calendar months-; and any railway company permitting any locomotive engine to be run in violation of the provisions of the ninth section of this Act shall be liable to a penalty of one hundred dollars for each offence, to be recovered with costs in any court of com- petent jurisdiction. 12. Every suit for any contravention of this Act shall be commenced within three calendar months inmiediatelv following such contravention. 13. All fines and penalties imposed and collected ur lor this Act shall be paid one-half to the complainant or prose- cutor and the other half to Her Majesty for the public use of Ihe Province. 14. It shall bo the special duty of every known land agent, woods and forests agent, free grant agent, and bush- ranger, to enforce the provisions and requirements of this Act, and in all cases coming within the knowledge of any suca agent or bush-ranger to prosecute every person guilty of a breach of the provisions and requirements of the same. 15. Nothing in this Act contained shall be held to limit or interfere with the right of any party to bring and maintain a civil action for damages occasioned by fire, and such right shall remain and exist as though this Act has not been passed. NEW BRUNSWICK. CONSOLIDATED STATUTES. CHAPTER evil. An Act for preventing and investig^ating the causes of fires. Section 16.— Any person v^rho shall kindle a fire in any wood or open place, and leave the sanie burning without .being properly secured, whereby damage may be caused to the property of any other person, shall forfeit a sum not exceeding eighty dollars ; and be liable to an action for the damages sustained in addition thereto. .t .,■' ^ ;ndex. A ■ ■ PAGE Abies 149 Abies alba list, 56, 88, 91, 94, 9(3, 99 Abies Americanci list, 56, 58, 88, 91, 94, 96, 99 Abies balsamifera list, 56, 58, 88,91,94.96, 1)9 Abies excelsa list, 56, GO, 88, 91, 95, 96, 99 Abies nigra list, 56, 62, 88, 91, 95. 96, 99 Acacia- list Acer. 149 Acer dasycarpiim. list, 68, 88/Jl Acer Pennsylvanicum list, 37, 88, 91, 95, 96, 99 Acer riibrum list, 37, 38, 88, 91, 95, 96, 99 Acer saccharinum list. 37, 39, 88, 91, 95, 96 Acer spicatum list, 37, 40, 91, 95, 96, 99 Aconis -. 108 yEsculns 149 iEsculus hippocastanea.. list, 128 Agricultural clubs 21,22 Agricultural societies 21,22 American ash 93,135 American aspen list, 37, 48, 89. 92, 95, 96, 100 American elm list, 89, 92, 93, 95, 96, 100, 128, 135, 136 American larch list, 56, 63, 89, 91, 92, 95, 96, 100, 128 Appendix. 155 Arhfor-vitee list, 84, 86, 89, 92, 93, 95, 97, 128, 136 Art of forestry , 149 Ask 149 174 INbEX. PAGE Ash, black list Ash, green list Ash-leaved maple list, 93, 98, 128, 135 Ash, mountain list Ash, red list Ash, white list Aspen, American list Aspen, large toothed list Atmosphere... 149 Averruncator 1 19 B. nalsam tir list, 56, 58, 88, 91, 93, 94, 9(3, 99, 128 Balsam poj.lar list, 37. 48, 89, 91, 92, 95, 90, 100, 128 Baiiksian pine list, 64 Bare spots 25, 3C Baumier list Bark canoes 45 B&ss-wood list, 68, 83, 89, 92, 95, 100, 128 Beech list, 68, 73, 89, 91, 93, 95, 96, 128, 135, 149 Betula 149 Betula excelsci list, 37, 42, 88, 91, 95, 96, 99 Betula lenta.. list, 37, 42, 88, 91, 95, 96, 99 Betula nigrn list, 37, 42, 88, 91, 95, 96, 99 Betula papyrifera list, 37; 42, 88, 91, 95, 96, 91) Betula pendula laciniata list, 128 Betula populifolia list, 37, 42, 88, 91, 95, 96, 99 Birch 149 Birch, black list Birch, canoe list Birch, cut leaved weeping .• list Birch, poplar-leaved list Birch, red list Birch sugar.... 43 Birch, yellow list Bitter hickory list, 68, 70,89,91, 93 JNUEX. \T6 PAOB Black nsh list, 37, 45, 89. 01, 93, 95, 90 100, 128 Black birch list. 37, 42, 88, 91, 93,95, 90, 99, 128, 136 Black walnut list, ()8, 75,89, 93, 135 Bogs 32 Bois barr6 list Boughs 12 Bouleaii a canot list Boiileaii a feuille de penplier list Bouleaii ^papier list Bouleau blanc europeen.. list Bouleau elanco list Bouleau merisifr li.-t Bouleau uoir list Bouleau pleureur list Bouleau rouge 7 , ........ list Box-elder 97, !00. 149 British Goiuuibia 8 Broom haudles 9 Brushwood 24 Buruiugliuie 15 Burr oak hst, 97, 100 Butternut....: list, 68, 75, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, 128. 135 Button-wood list, 68. 79, 89, 91, 93, 128, 149 O Canada :...." 149 Canada white pine 128 Canoe-birch list, 37. 42, 88, 91, 92, 95, %, 99, lc5 Care of seedlings 1 1 1 Care of trees after planting 119 Carpinus .'. 149 Carpinus Americana list, 68, 69, 88, 91, 95. 96 Carya 149 Carya alba list, 68,70.88,91 Carya amara list, 68, 70, 89, 9! Carya glabra list, 68, 70, 89 170 INDEX. PAOE Carya microcarpa , list, 68, 70, 89 C.'irya tomoiitosa list, 08, 70, 89, 91 Ciryer anifr list Caryer a pelils fruits list Caryer blauc list Caryer glabre list Cirver lomenteux list Castanea 1><^ C'lstanea vesca .■ list, 68, 72,89 Causes of bush fires -. 137 Cedar.-; .23 Cedar, red , list Cedre blanc list Cedre rouge list Charme... ■ list Charme d'Amerique "... list Cliafaigiiier list Chataignier d'Amerique list Cliene a gros fruits list Clieue blanc list Chene chataignier.. list Chene des marais list Chene des teinturiers list Chene ecarlate list Chene etoile , list Chene gris list Clieiie jaune . list Chene noir list Chene prin '. list C h e n e r u g e list Chesnut list, 68,72, 89, 115,135, 136 Chesnut, horse list Chesnut-oak • 35,89 Ciiicot list Chicot du Canada list Xiiips 12 INDKX. 177 i'A(;fc: Clearings 19, 56. 30, I;H9 Coflec-tree list, 68, 74, 89, 91, 93, 150 Collecting IreB-leaves 1*22 Colonists . 137 Goiiilers 36, 103,115,150 Coniferous seeds 108, 109 Coniferous trees.... 56,84 Coppice 150 Coifse 9, 15U Contraventions 13 Cormier list Cotton-ti-ee poplar 128 Cotton-wood list, 37, 48,89, 92, 93,96, 100, 150 Couples; or shackles 84 Crown lands , 26, 150 Cultivation of ornamental trees.. 126 Cut-leaved weeping birch list, 128 Cuttings 112 Cypress 56,89, 91,95, 96 Deciduous trees 36, 37, 68, 103 Deciduous trees, seeds of 108 Denudation of wood 27 . Dominion of Canada 100. 102, 103. 157 Double balsam fir list, 56, 58, 88, 91, 93, 94, 96, 99 • Diainage 116 Drive . 139, 150 Education in forestry 142 Elm 136.150 iiilm, American list Elm, red list Elm, slippery list Elm, white list 12 173 INDEX. PAUB Fpinette blnnoho '.. .'.. '. list Epinette noire list Epiiietle do Norv^ge list Epinette rouge list Ei'able ^ epis list Erable a frnits laineux list Erable ^ Gignere list Erable a sncre list Erable bAtarde list Erable blanche list Erable jaspe list Erable ronge list Exploitations 150 Exploits 150 Extracts from the statutes of the Dominion and of the dif- ferent provinces of the Dominion 155 Evergreen trees 3i3, 103 Fagus sylvatica Hst, 68, 73, 89, oi, 95, 96 Farmers ,... 23 Fences 24,3^, 135 Fence posts 86 Final planting out 113 Fine » 13 Fir 23,150 Fir, balsam list Fir, double balsam list Fires 15, 16 Fires in Mie forest, 137 Firewood 136 Firewood lands 139 Floods 30, 31 Flora 150 Foresters 13,26, 150 Forest fires , 17 INDEX ■ 179 PAGE Forestry Associations 22, 143 Forest, guardian 14, 140, 141 Forest lines.. 22 Fraxinus 15 Fraxinus Americana list, 37, 45, 89, 91, 95, 96, 99 Fiaxinus pubescens list, 68, 74 89, 91, 95, 96 Fraxinnssambiicifolia list, 37, 46,89, 91, 95, 96, 100 Fiaxinus virirlis list, 97,98,99 Frene k feuille de sureau list Frene blanc... , i list Frene d'Amerique ". .. list Frfine noir , list Frene pubescent ;. list Frene rouge list Frene vert list Fiost 19 Fuel ; 135 Q- - G6nevrier de Virginie '. list Grasshoppers » 35 Great West 150 Green ash list, 97,98, 135 Groves 24 Gymnociadus 150 Gymnocladus Canadensis list, 68, 74, 89,9! H. Hard maples 1:16 Hard seeds 108 Hemlock 151 Hemlock bark 87, 93, 95 Hemlock spruce 84,87, 89,92,06 Hetre list H^tre commun list Hickories 4, 115, 136 180 ' INDEX. m PAOR Hickory, bitter. list Hirkory, pignut list Hickory, shell-bark list Hickory, small fruit list Hickory, white heart list Hohn-oak 89 Hop-poles 9,73 Hornbeam list, 68,-69, 88,91, 93, 95,96, 135 Horse-chf'sniit list, 1-28 Horticultural Societies 21 Humus 151 Hunters 10, 14, 17,137 Hurdles ; 9 Hygiene 35,151 I • L Imprisonment : 13 Indigenous trees 35, 151 Insects injurious to trees 123 Iron wood list, 68, 78, 89,91,93,95, 96 J. .higlans 151 Juglanscinerea list, 68, 75, 89, 91, 95 Juglans iiigra list, 68, 75, 89 Juniperus 151 .luniperus Virginiana list, 84, 89 . K. Kilmarnock weeping-willow list, 128, 131 L. Larch 23, 29, 36, 106, 136, 151 Larch, American list Large toothed aspen list, 68, 79, 89, 92, 93, 95, 96 Larix ■ 151 Larix Americana list, 56, 63, 89, 91, 95 96, 100 INDEX. 181 PAP.R Lessons in forestry 14?, 143 Liard list Liriodondron 151 Liriodendron lulipifenim list, 08. 77. 89 Lime-tieo list, 89, 92,93, 95, 100, 128, 151 Limits 14, 151 Limit-owners 10, 14 Linden.... 151 Local Societies 22 Locomotives. . ... 137, 140, 141 Locust 128, 151 Locust-lree list, 130 Lomh.iidy poplnr list, 128, 129 LimibiT 151 Lumberman 9 LumlK>rmen 14, 15,25 Lumber merchants 14 Lumber trade 14 M. Manitoba 33, 97, 102,103, 151 Maple 28, 100,151 Maple, ash-leaved list Maple, mountain list Maple, red ...: list Maple, silver list Maple, striped list Maple, sugar list, 39 Marker.... 110 Maskouabina list Marronnier.M list Marronnier d'Inde list Maturity 152 Means of arresting fires when once started 140 Means of preventing bush fires 137 Meieze d'Amerique list u ^. .^» ^^%^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // ,^ 1.0 I.I 1.25 22 U III 1.6 %j» €3 :\ \ ^, 31 Red ash list, 68, 7i, 89, 91, 93, '.15,96 Red birch list, 37, 42, 88, 91, 93, 95, 96, 99 Red cedar list, 84, 89, 135 Red elm list, 68, 83, 89,92, 93 Red oak list, 68, 80, 89, 92, 93, 95, 135, 136 •Red maple hst, 37, 38, 88, 91, 93,95, 96,99, 128 Relative value of certain species of trees as fuel 135 Remedies against insects 124, 125 Red pine list, 64, 89, 91, 93, 95, 96, 100 Reports of " Forestry Associations," 144 Re-planting 25, 27 Reserve of wood 16, 153 Restoration of the forests 19,20, 22,23 Robberies 15 Rubinia 153 Robinia pseudo-acacia list, 130 Robiiiier faux acacia list Rock pine 93 Rocky soils 116 S Salix 153 Salixalba list, 37, 50,89,92,95,96, 100 Salix caprea pendula list, 131 Salix vitellina.. list, 37, 50, 89, 92, 95, 96, 100 Samarre. 40 Sapinbaumier list IMOEZ. 187 PAOB Sapin blann ...•. list Sapiii d'Ainerique list Sapin rougo.., list Saiile list Saule blanc list Saule jaiine list Saule pleureur.. , list Saule pleureur de Kilmarnock list Savannah? 32 Scarletoak list, G8, 80, 89 Seeds 107 Seed-beds 109, 110 Seed-sowing 110 SelLler 12, 13 Settlers., -. .. . 10, 11, 15, 16, 139 Shackles 84 Shell-bark hickory list, 68, 70, 88, 91, 93, 135 Shingles 86 Silver maple list, C8, 88, 91, 93, 135 Silver poplar 129 Sleepers , 32, 87 Slippery elm list Slopes of mountains 19, 31 Small fruit hickory list, 68,70, 89 Soft maples 23, 29 Soils unfit for cultivalioa • 31 Sorbus 153 Sorbier d'Ameriqup list Sorbus Americana list, 37, 54, 89, 92, 95, 96, 100 Special soils 115 Special subjects belonging to forestry 135 Sportmen . 13 Spruces , 106,J36 Spruce, black list Spruce, hemlock list Spruce, Norway list 138 INIIRX. PAOE Spniro, white... list Sqiiirit'lb lOS Sterile lands. 32 Striped rn.iple list, 37, G8, 91, 03, 95, 9(1, 99 Sugar liush 153 Sugar maple.... list, -2.3, 37, 39, 8ft, 91, 93, 95, 96, 12>^, 135, 136 Swainp chesnut-oak list, 08, 80,89 T Table showing the relative value of certain species of trees as fnel 135 Table showing th(j woijht of the chief sorts of firewood.. 136 Taillis 9 Tamarac list, 23 Taproot cutting 81 T.;l(>graj)li posts 32 Tiiickots • 1'3 Thuya 153 Thuya d'occident list Thuya occidentalis list, 84, 86, 89, 92, 95, 90, 100 Ties . 32,87 Tilia 153 Tilia Annn-icana list, 08, 83,89, 92, 95, ,100 Tilleul d'AuHMiiiue ,. list Tourists... 10, 13, 17,137 Travellers 137, 139, 140 Trellis .57, 153 Tremble : list Tsuga 153 Tsuga Canadensis .,... list, 84, 87, 89, 92, 95, 90 Tulipier ». list Tnlipie'" d-'Virginie list Tuliihtree list, 08,77,89,128,135, 153 U Ulmus 153 ikdex. 180 PAGB Ulinns Amoricana list, 37, 55, 80, 02, 05, OC, 100 Ulrniis fiilva lisr, 68, H:^ 8'r», 02 Underwood 9 Value of wood as fuel, for building, «tc 135 Vocabulary 140 W Walnuts 43,61, 108, 115,136 Walnut black.. list Wastage 12, 138, I3'.i, 140,153 Weight of the chief sorts of firewood 136 Wet soils 1 16 Weyniouth pine list Wuyniouth oi: white pine list, 56, 64, 80, 01, 05, 06, 100 White ai^h list, 30,45, 80, 95, 96, 90, 128, 136 White cedar ; 86 White cedar cuttings 86 White elm list, 30, 55 White heart hickory list, 68, 70, 80, 91, 93, 135 White oak list, 68, 80, 80, 0-2, 03, 95, 135, 136 W^hite or silver maple 68 White pine list, 56, 64, 89, 91, 93, 95, 96, 100, 135 White poplar ,... list, 128, 120 White spruce list, 56, 88, 91, 92, 04, 06, 90, 128 White willow list, 39, 50, 80, 02, 03, 05, 06, 100 Willow 20, 118, 153 Willow cuttings 53, 112 Willow hedge? 63 Willow, Kilmarnock weeping list Willow, pruning : 122 Willow, white list Willow, vellow list Windbreaks 61 Windguard 86 190 INDEX. PARE Wire-gauze net 140, lil Wood ns fuel .- 135 Wood d«3aler8 10 Wood for building purposes 135 Woodlands 10, 11 Woodmuii 15 Woodmen 12 Y Yellow birch... list, 37, 42, 88, 01, 93, 95, 96, 99, 128, 135, 136 Yellow chesnul oak list, 68,80 Yellow pine :. list, 84, 85, 89, 91, 93, 135 Yellow willow list, 37, 50, 89, 92, 93, 95, 96, 100 TABLE OF E^GRAVlNGa p